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브라질의 로마 가톨릭 교구 목록

브라질의 로마 가톨릭 교구는 44개 관구에 44 개관구장좌 대교구 215개 일반교구( 동방전례교구 4포함) 와 12 개의 성직자치구로 구성되며 독립교구로 동방전례 교구 3개와 군종교구가 있다 교구 아파레시다 관구 (province of Aparecida) 아파레시다 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Aparecida) 카라구아타투바 교구(Diocese of Caraguatatuba) 로레나 교구( Diocese of Lorena) 상 조세 도스 캄푸스 교구( Diocese of São José dos Campos) 타우바테 교구( Diocese of Taubaté) 아라카주 관구 (province of Aracaju) 아라카주 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Aracaju) 이스탄키아 교구(Diocese of Estância) 프로프리아 교구( Diocese of Propriá) 벨렝 두 파라 관구 (province of Belém do Pará) 벨렝 두 파라 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Belém do Pará) 아바에테투바 교구( Diocese of Abaetetuba) 브라간카 두 파라 교구( Diocese of Bragança do Pará) 카스타날 교구( Diocese of Castanhal) 마카파 교구( Diocese of Macapá) 마라바 교구( Diocese of Marabá) 오비도스 교구( Diocese of Óbidos) 판타 데 페주라스( Diocese of Ponta de Pedras) 산타렝 교구( Diocese of Santarém) 카메타 성직자치구(Territorial Prelature of Cametá) 이타이투바 성직자치구(Territorial Prelature of Itaituba) 마라조 성직자치구(Territorial Prelature of Marajó) 싱구 성직자치구(Territorial Prelature of Xingu) 벨루 오리존치 관구 (province of Belo Horizonte) 벨루 오리존치 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Belo Horizonte) 디비노 폴리스 교구(Diocese of Divinópolis) 루즈 교구( Diocese of Luz) 올리베이라 교구( Diocese of Oliveira) 라고아스 교구( Diocese of Sete Lagoas) 보투카투 관구 (province of Botucatu) 보투카투 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Botucatu) 아라카투바 교구(Diocese of Araçatuba) 아시스 교구( Diocese of Assis) 바우루 교구( Diocese of Bauru) 린스 교구( Diocese of Lins) 마리리아 교구( Diocese of Marília) 오리노스 교구( Diocese of Ourinhos) 프레지덴테 프루덴테 교구( Diocese of Presidente Prudente) 브라질리아 관구 (province of Brasília) 브라질리아 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Brasília) 포르모사 교구(Diocese of Formosa) 루지아니아 교구( Diocese of Luziânia) 우루아쿠 교구( Diocese of Uruaçu) 캄피나스 관구 (province of Campinas) 캄피나스 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Campinas) 암파로 교구(Diocese of Amparo) 브라간카 파울리스타 교구( Diocese of Bragança Paulista) 리메이라 교구( Diocese of Limeira) 프라키카바 교구( Diocese of Piracicaba) 상 카를로스 교구( Diocese of São Carlos) 캄푸 그란데 관구 (province of Campo Grande) 캄푸그란데 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Campo Grande) 코룸바 교구( Diocese of Corumbá) 코심 교구( Diocese of Coxim) 도우라도스 교구( Diocese of Dourados) 나비라이 교구( Diocese of Naviraí) 자딤 교구( Diocese of Jardim) 트레스 라고아스 교구( Diocese of Três Lagoas) 카스카벨 관구 (province of Cascavel) 카스카벨 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Cascavel) 이쿠아쿠 교구(Diocese of Foz do Iguaçu) 팔마스-프란치스코 벨트라오 교구( Diocese of Palmas-Francisco Beltrão) 톨레도 교구( Diocese of Toledo) 쿠이아바 관구 (province of Cuiabá) 쿠이아바 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Cuiabá) 베라 도 가르카스 교구(Diocese of Barra do Garças) 디아만티노 교구( Diocese of Diamantino) 구이라팅가 교구( Diocese of Guiratinga) 주이나 교구( Diocese of Juína) 론도노폴리스 교구( Diocese of Rondonópolis) 상 루이스 데 카케레스 교구( Diocese of São Luíz de Cáceres) 파라나팅가 성직자치구(Territorial Prelature of Paranatinga) 펠릭스 고위성직자구(Territorial Prelature of São Félix) 쿠리치바 관구 (province of Curitiba) 쿠리치바 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Curitiba) 구아라푸아바 교구(Diocese of Guarapuava) 파라나구아 교구( Diocese of Paranaguá) 폰타 그로사 교구( Diocese of Ponta Grossa) 유니아오 다 빅토리아 교구( Diocese of União da Vitória) 상 조세 도스 피나리스 교구( Diocese of São José dos Pinhais) 우크라이나전례 상 조아오 바티스타 엠 쿠리티바 교구( Eparchy of São João Batista em Curitiba) (Ukrainian) 지아만치나 관구 (province of Diamantina) 지아만치나 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Diamantina) 알메나라 교구( Diocese of Almenara) 아라쿠아이 교구( Diocese of Araçuaí) 구아네스 교구( Diocese of Guanhães) 테오필로 오토니 교구( Diocese of Teófilo Otoni) 페이라 데 산타나 교구 (province of Feira de Santana) 페이라 데 산타나 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Feira de Santana) 바라 도 리오 그란데 교구(Diocese of Barra do Rio Grande) 바레이라스 교구( Diocese of Barreiras) 본핌 교구( Diocese of Bonfim) 이레케 교구( Diocese of Irecê) 주아제이로 교구( Diocese of Juazeiro) 파울로 아폰소 교구( Diocese of Paulo Afonso) 루이 바르보사 교구( Diocese of Ruy Barbosa) 세리나 교구( Diocese of Serrinha) 플로리아노폴리스 관구 (province of Florianópolis) 플로리아노폴리스 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Florianópolis) 불루메나우 교구(Diocese of Blumenau) 카카도르 교구( Diocese of Caçador) 차페코 교구 (Diocese of Chapecó) 크리키우마 교구( Diocese of Criciúma) 조아카바 교구( Diocese of Joaçaba) 조인빌리 교구( Diocese of Joinville) 라게스 교구( Diocese of Lages) 리로 두 술 교구( Diocese of Rio do Sul) 투바라오 교구( Diocese of Tubarão) 포르타레자 관구 (province of Fortaleza) 포르타레자 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Fortaleza) 크레테우스 교구(Diocese of Crateús) 크라토 교구( Diocese of Crato) 이구아투 교구( Diocese of Iguatú) 이타피포카 교구( Diocese of Itapipoca) 리모에이로 두 노르테 교구( Diocese of Limoeiro do Norte) 쿠이사다 교구( Diocese of Quixadá) 소부랄 교구( Diocese of Sobral) 티안구아 교구( Diocese of Tianguá) 고이아나 관구 (province of Goiânia) 고이아나 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of Goiânia) 아나폴리스 교구( Diocese of Anápolis) 고이아스 교구( diocese of Goiás) 이파메리 교구( Diocese of Ipameri) 이툼비아라 교구( Diocese of Itumbiara) 자타이 교구( Diocese of Jataí) 루비아타바-모잘란디아 교구( Diocese of Rubiataba-Mozarlândia) 상 루이스 데 몬테스 벨로스 교구( Diocese of São Luís de Montes Belos) 주이스 지포라 관구 (province of Juiz de Fora) 주이스지포라 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of Juiz de Fora) 레오폴지나 교구( Diocese of Leopoldina) 상 조이오 델 레이 교구( Diocese of São João del Rei) 론드리나 관구 (province of Londrina) 론드리나 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Londrina) 아푸카라나 교구(Diocese of Apucarana) 코르넬리오 프로코피오 교구( Diocese of Cornélio Procópio) 자카레지노 교구( Diocese of Jacarezinho) 마세이오 관구 (province of Maceió) 마세이오 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Maceió) 팔메이라 도스 인디오스 교구( Diocese of Palmeira dos Índios) 페네도 교구( Diocese of Penedo) 마나우스 관구 (province of Manaus) 마나우스 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Manaus) 알토 솔리모에스 교구( Diocese of Alto Solimões) 파린틴스 교구( Diocese of Parintins) 호라이마 교구( Diocese of Roraima) 상 가브리엘 다 카초에이라 교구( Diocese of São Gabriel da Cachoeira) 보루바 성직자치구(Territorial Prelature of Borba) 코아리 성직자치구(Territorial Prelature of Coari) 이타코아티아라 성직자치구(Territorial Prelature of Itacoatiara) 테페 성직자치구(Territorial Prelature of Tefé) 마리아나 관구 (province of Mariana) 마리아나 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of Mariana) 카라팅가 교구(Diocese of Caratinga) 고베르나도르 발라다레스 교구( Diocese of Governador Valadares) 이타비라-파브리키아노 교구( Diocese of Itabira–Fabriciano) 마링가 관구 (province of Maringá) 마링가 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Maringá) 캄포 마우라오 교구(Diocese of Campo Mourão) 파라나바이 교구( Diocese of Paranavaí) 우무아라마 교구( Diocese of Umuarama) 몬테스 클라로스 관구 (province of Montes Claros) 몬테스 클라로스 관구장좌 대교구( MetropolitanArchdiocese of Montes Claros) 자나우바 교구(Diocese of Janaúba) 자누아리아 교구( Diocese of Januária) 파라카투 교구( Diocese of Paracatu) 나타우 관구 (province of Natal) 나타우 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Natal) 카이코 교구( Diocese of Caicó) 모소로 교구( Diocese of Mossoró) 니테로이 관구 (province of Niterói) 니테로이 관구잘좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Niterói) 캄포스 교구( Diocese of Campos) 노바 프리부르고 교구( Diocese of Nova Friburgo) 페트로폴리스 교구( Diocese of Petrópolis) 올린다 에 레시피 관구 (province of Olinda e Recife) 올린다 에 레시피 관구장좌 대교구(Archdiocese of Olinda e Recife) 아포가도스 다 인가제이라 교구(Diocese of Afogados da Ingazeira) 카루아루 교구( Diocese of Caruaru) 플로레스타 교구( Diocese of Floresta) 가라눈수 교구( Diocese of Garanhuns) 나자레 교구( Diocese of Nazaré) 팔마레스 교구( Diocese of Palmares) 페스쿠에이라 교구( Diocese of Pesqueira) 페트롤리나 교구( Diocese of Petrolina) 살구에이로 교구( Diocese of Salgueiro) 팔마스 관구 (province of Palmas) 팔마스 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Palmas) 미라케마 도 토칸틴스 교구(Diocese of Miracema do Tocantins) 포르토 나키오날 교구( Diocese of Porto Nacional) 토칸티노폴리스 교구( Diocese of Tocantinópolis) 크리스탈란디아의 프렐란투레 교구( Prelature of Cristalândia) 파라이바 관구 (province of Paraíba) 파라이바 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Paraíba) 카자지에라스 교구(Diocese of Cajazieras) 캄피나 그란데 교구( Diocese of Campina Grande) 구아라비라 교구( Diocese of Guarabira) 파토스 교구( Diocese of Patos) 파소 푼도 관구 (province of Passo Fundo) 파소 푼도 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Passo Fundo) 이레심 교구( Diocese of Erexim) 프레데리코 웨스트팔렌 교구( Diocese of Frederico Westphalen) 바카리로 교구( Diocese of Vacaria) 펠로타스 관구 (province of Pelotas) 펠로타스 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of Pelotas) 바제 교구( Diocese of Bagé) 리오 그란데 교구( Diocese of Rio Grande) 포르토 알레그레 관구 (province of Porto Alegre) 포트토 알레그레 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of Porto Alegre) 카시아스 두 술 교구( Diocese of Caxias do Sul) 몬테네그로 교구( Diocese of Montenegro) 노부 암부르구 교구(Diocese of Novo Hamburgo) 오소리오 교구( Diocese of Osório) 포르투 벨류 관구 (province of Porto Velho) 포르토 벨류 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of Porto Velho) 구아자라-미림 교구(Diocese of Guajará-Mirim) 후마이타 교구( Diocese of Humaitá) 지-파라나 교구( Diocese of Ji-Paraná) 라브레이 성직자치구(Territorial Prelature of Lábrea) 포우소 알레그레 관구 (province of Pouso Alegre) 포우소 알레그레 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Pouso Alegre) 캄파나 교구(Diocese of Campanha) 구이수페 교구( Diocese of Guaxupé) 히베이랑 프레투 관구 (province of Ribeirão Preto) 히베이랑 프레투 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Ribeirão Preto) 바레토스 교구(Diocese of Barretos) 카탄두비 교구( Diocese of Catanduva) 파란카 교구( Diocese of Franca) 자보티카발 교구( Diocese of Jaboticabal) 잘레스 교구( Diocese of Jales) 상 조아오 다 보아 비스타 교구( Diocese of São João da Boa Vista) 상 조세 도 리오 프레토 교구(Diocese of São José do Rio Preto) 산타 마리아 관구 (province of Santa Maria) 산타 마리아 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Santa Maria) 카초에이라 도 술 교구( Diocese of Cachoeira do Sul) 크루즈 알타 교구( Diocese of Cruz Alta) 산타 크루즈 두 술 교구( Diocese of Santa Cruz do Sul) 산토 안젤로 교구( Diocese of Santo Ângelo) 우루그아이아나 교구(Diocese of Uruguaiana) 상 루이스 도 마라냥 관구 (province of São Luís do Maranhão) 상 루이스 도 마라냥 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of São Luís do Maranhão) 바카발 교구(Diocese of Bacabal) 발사스 교구( Diocese of Balsas) 브레조 교구( Diocese of Brejo) 카롤리나 교구( Diocese of Carolina) 카시아스 도 마라냥 교구( Diocese of Caxias do Maranhão) 코로아타 교구( Diocese of Coroatá) 그라자우 교구( Diocese of Grajaú) 임페라트리즈 교구( Diocese of Imperatriz) 피네이로 교구( Diocese of Pinheiro) 비아나 교구( Diocese of Viana) 제-도카 교구( Diocese of Zé-Doca) 상 파울로 관구 (province of São Paulo) 상 파울로 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of São Paulo) 캄포 린포 교구(Diocese of Campo Limpo) 카라구아타투바 교구( Diocese of Caraguatatuba) 구아룰루스 교구( Diocese of Guarulhos) 모지 다스 쿠르제스 교구( Diocese of Mogi das Cruzes) 오사스코 교구( Diocese of Osasco) 산투 아마로 교구( Diocese of Santo Amaro) 신투 안드레 교구( Diocese of Santo André) 산투스 교구( Diocese of Santos) 상 미구엘 파울리스타 교구( Diocese of São Miguel Paulista) 마로니테전례 노사 세노라 도 리바노 엠 상 파울로 교구( Eparchy of Nossa Senhora do Líbano em São Paulo) (Maronite) 멜키드전례 노사 세노라 도 파라이소 엠 상 파울로 교구( Eparchy of Nossa Senhora do Paraíso em São Paulo) (Melkite) 상 살바도르 다 바이아 관구 (province of São Salvador da Bahia) 상 살바도르 다 바이아 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of São Salvador da Bahia) 알라고이나스 교구(Diocese of Alagoinhas) 아마르고사 교구( Diocese of Amargosa) 에우나 폴리스 교구( Diocese of Eunápolis) 이레우스 교구( Diocese of Ilhéus) 이타부나 교구( Diocese of Itabuna) 테이세이라 데 페레이타스-카라벨라스 교구 ( Diocese of Teixeira de Freitas-Caravelas) 상 세바스띠아노 두 리오데자네이로 관구 (province of São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro) 상 세바스띠아노 두 리오데자네이로 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro) 바라 도 프라이-볼타 레돈자 교구(Diocese of Barra do Piraí-Volta Redonda) 두키지 카시아스 교구( Diocese of Duque de Caxias) 이타구아니 교구( Diocese of Itaguaí) 노바이구아수 교구( Diocese of Nova Iguaçu) 발렌사 교구( Diocese of Valença) 소로카바 관구 (province of Sorocaba) 소로카바 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Sorocaba) 이타페치닝가 교구(Diocese of Itapetininga) 이타페바 교구( Diocese of Itapeva) 준지아이 교구( Diocese of Jundiaí) 레지스트루 교구( Diocese of Registro) 테레지나 관구 (province of Teresina) 테레지나 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Teresina) 봄 제수스 도 구르구에이아 교구(Diocese of Bom Jesus do Gurguéia) 캄포 마이오르 교구( Diocese of Campo Maior) 프로리아노 교구( Diocese of Floriano) 오에이라스 교구( Diocese of Oeiras) 파르나이바 교구( Diocese of Parnaíba) 피코스 교구( Diocese of Picos) 상 라이문도 노나토 교구( Diocese of São Raimundo Nonato) 우베라바 관구 (province of Uberaba) 우베라바 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Uberaba) 이투이우타바 교구(Diocese of Ituiutaba) 파토스 데 미나스 교구( Diocese of Patos de Minas) 우베를란디아 교구( Diocese of Uberlândia) 빅토리아 관구 (province of Vitória) 빅토리아 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Vitória) 카초에이로 데 이타페미림 교구(Diocese of Cachoeiro de Itapemirim) 코라티나 교구( Diocese of Colatina) 상 마테우스 교구( Diocese of São Mateus) 빅토리아 다 콘쿠이스타 관구 (province of Vitória da Conquista) 빅토리아 다 콘쿠이스타 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Vitória da Conquista) 봄 제수스 다 라파 교구(Diocese of Bom Jesus da Lapa) 카에티테 교구( Diocese of Caetité) 제쿠이에 교구( Diocese of Jequié) 리브라멘토 데 노사 세노라 교구( Diocese of Livramento de Nossa Senhora) 독립교구 아메리카전례 라틴아메리카와 멕시코 교구(Apostolic Exarchate of Latin America and Mexico) (Armenian) 브라질 군종교구( Military Ordinariate of Brazil) 브라질 동방전례 의 파이스풀 교구( Ordinariate for the Faithful of the Eastern Rites in Brazil) 트리덴트전례 센인트 존 마리 비안네이 교구(Personal Apostolic Administration of Saint John Mary Vianney) (Tridentine Rite) 외부 링크 Catholic-Hierarchy entry. Giga-Catholic Information. 나라별 로마 가톨릭 교구 목록 it:Chiesa cattolica in Brasile

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Catholic%20dioceses%20in%20Brazil

List of Catholic dioceses in Brazil

This list of Catholic dioceses and archdioceses of Brazil which includes both the dioceses of the Latin Church, which employ the Latin liturgical rites, and various other dioceses, primarily the eparchies of the Eastern Catholic Churches, which employ various Eastern Christian rites, and which are in full communion with the Pope in Rome. The Catholic Church in Brazil has a total of 275 particular churches — consisting of 44 archdioceses (which head 44 ecclesiastical provinces), 218 dioceses (2 of which are Eastern eparchies under Latin jurisdiction), 7 territorial prelatures, the Archeparchy of São João Batista em Curitiba and the Eparchy of Imaculada Conceição in Prudentópolis under the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, the Armenian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Latin America and Mexico, the Ordinariate for the Faithful of Eastern Rites in Brazil, the Military Ordinariate of Brazil, and the Personal Apostolic Administration of Saint John Mary Vianney (the only personal apostolic administration in the world). These 275 divisions make the largest number of particular churches in any country. Sui iuris Latin Church Jurisdictions Exempt dioceses, directly subject to the Holy See Military Ordinariate of Brazil, for the armed force Personal Apostolic Administration of Saint John Mary Vianney (traditionalist Tridentine Mass variation on the Roman Rite) Latin (or mixed) Catholic Provinces in Brazil Region South I State of São Paulo. Ecclesiastical province of Aparecida Metropolitan Archdiocese of Aparecida Diocese of Caraguatatuba Diocese of Lorena Diocese of São José dos Campos Diocese of Taubaté Ecclesiastical province of Botucatu Metropolitan Archdiocese of Botucatu Diocese of Araçatuba Diocese of Assis Diocese of Bauru Diocese of Lins Diocese of Marília Diocese of Ourinhos Diocese of Presidente Prudente Ecclesiastical province of São Paulo Metropolitan Archdiocese of São Paulo Diocese of Campo Limpo Diocese of Guarulhos Diocese of Mogi das Cruzes Maronite Catholic Eparchy of Nossa Senhora do Líbano em São Paulo (Antiochian Rite) Melkite Catholic Eparchy of Nossa Senhora do Paraíso em São Paulo (Byzantine Rite) Diocese of Osasco Diocese of Santo Amaro Diocese of Santo André Diocese of Santos Diocese of São Miguel Paulista Ecclesiastical province of Sorocaba Metropolitan Archdiocese of Sorocaba Diocese of Itapetininga Diocese of Itapeva Diocese of Jundiaí Diocese of Registro Ecclesiastical province of Ribeirão Preto Metropolitan Archdiocese of Ribeirão Preto Diocese of Barretos Diocese of Catanduva Diocese of Franca Diocese of Jaboticabal Diocese of Jales Diocese of São João da Boa Vista Diocese of São José do Rio Preto Diocese of Votuporanga Ecclesiastical province of Campinas Metropolitan Archdiocese of Campinas Diocese of Amparo Diocese of Bragança Paulista Diocese of Limeira Diocese of Piracicaba Diocese of São Carlos Region South II State of Paraná. Ecclesiastical province of Curitiba Metropolitan Archdiocese of Curitiba Diocese of Guarapuava Diocese of Paranaguá Diocese of Ponta Grossa Diocese of União da Vitória Diocese of São José dos Pinhais Ecclesiastical province of Maringá Metropolitan Archdiocese of Maringá Diocese of Campo Mourão Diocese of Paranavaí Diocese of Umuarama Ecclesiastical province of Londrina Metropolitan Archdiocese of Londrina Diocese of Apucarana Diocese of Cornélio Procópio Diocese of Jacarezinho Ecclesiastical province of Cascavel Metropolitan Archdiocese of Cascavel Diocese of Foz do Iguaçu Diocese of Palmas-Francisco Beltrão Diocese of Toledo Region South III State of Rio Grande do Sul. Ecclesiastical province of Passo Fundo Metropolitan Archdiocese of Passo Fundo Diocese of Erexim Diocese of Frederico Westphalen Diocese of Vacaria Ecclesiastical province of Pelotas Metropolitan Archdiocese of Pelotas Diocese of Bagé Diocese of Rio Grande Ecclesiastical province of Porto Alegre Metropolitan Archdiocese of Porto Alegre Diocese of Caxias do Sul Diocese of Montenegro Diocese of Novo Hamburgo Diocese of Osório Ecclesiastical province of Santa Maria Metropolitan Archdiocese of Santa Maria Diocese of Cachoeira do Sul Diocese of Cruz Alta Diocese of Santa Cruz do Sul Diocese of Santo Ângelo Diocese of Uruguaiana Region South IV State of Santa Catarina. Ecclesiastical province of Florianópolis Metropolitan Archdiocese of Florianópolis Diocese of Blumenau Diocese of Caçador Diocese of Chapecó Diocese of Criciúma Diocese of Joaçaba Diocese of Joinville Diocese of Lages Diocese of Rio do Sul Diocese of Tubarão Region North I State of Amazonas. Ecclesiastical province of Manaus Metropolitan Archdiocese of Manaus Diocese of Alto Solimões Diocese of Borba Diocese of Coari Diocese of Parintins Diocese of Roraima Diocese of São Gabriel da Cachoeira Prelature of Itacoatiara Prelature of Tefé Region North II State of Pará. Ecclesiastical province of Belém do Pará Metropolitan Archdiocese of Belém do Pará Diocese of Abaetetuba Diocese of Bragança do Pará Diocese of Cametá Diocese of Castanhal Diocese of Macapá Diocese of Marabá Diocese of Ponta de Pedras Diocese of Santíssima Conceição do Araguaia Prelature of Marajó Ecclesiastical province of Santarém Archdiocese of Santarém Prelature of Itaituba Diocese of Óbidos Diocese of Xingu-Altamira Territorial Prelature of Alto Xingu-Tecumã Region North III State of Tocantins. Ecclesiastical province of Palmas Metropolitan Archdiocese of Palmas Diocese of Araguaína Diocese of Cristalândia Diocese of Miracema do Tocantins Diocese of Porto Nacional Diocese of Tocantinópolis Region East I State of Rio de Janeiro. Ecclesiastical province of São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro Metropolitan Archdiocese of São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro Diocese of Barra do Piraí-Volta Redonda Diocese of Duque de Caxias Diocese of Itaguaí Diocese of Nova Iguaçu Diocese of Valença Ecclesiastical province of Niterói Metropolitan Archdiocese of Niterói Diocese of Campos Diocese of Nova Friburgo Diocese of Petrópolis Region East II State of Minas Gerais. Ecclesiastical province of Belo Horizonte Metropolitan Archdiocese of Belo Horizonte Diocese of Divinópolis Diocese of Luz Diocese of Oliveira Diocese of Sete Lagoas Ecclesiastical province of Juiz de Fora Metropolitan Archdiocese of Juiz de Fora Diocese of Leopoldina Diocese of São João del Rei Ecclesiastical province of Diamantina Metropolitan Archdiocese of Diamantina Diocese of Almenara Diocese of Araçuaí Diocese of Guanhães Diocese of Teófilo Otoni Ecclesiastical province of Uberaba Metropolitan Archdiocese of Uberaba Diocese of Ituiutaba Diocese of Patos de Minas Diocese of Uberlândia Ecclesiastical province of Mariana Metropolitan Archdiocese of Mariana Diocese of Caratinga Diocese of Governador Valadares Diocese of Itabira–Fabriciano Ecclesiastical province of Montes Claros Metropolitan Archdiocese of Montes Claros Diocese of Janaúba Diocese of Januária Diocese of Paracatu Ecclesiastical province of Pouso Alegre Metropolitan Archdiocese of Pouso Alegre Diocese of Campanha Diocese of Guaxupé Region East III Ecclesiastical province of Vitória Metropolitan Archdiocese of Vitória Diocese of Cachoeiro de Itapemirim Diocese of Colatina Diocese of São Mateus Region Center-West State of Goiás and the Federal District. Ecclesiastical province of Brasília Metropolitan Archdiocese of Brasília Diocese of Formosa Diocese of Luziânia Diocese of Uruaçu Ecclesiastical province of Goiânia Metropolitan Archdiocese of Goiânia Diocese of Anápolis diocese of Goiás Diocese of Ipameri Diocese of Itumbiara Diocese of Jataí Diocese of Rubiataba-Mozarlândia Diocese of São Luís de Montes Belos Region West I State of Mato Grosso do Sul. Ecclesiastical province of Campo Grande Metropolitan Archdiocese of Campo Grande Diocese of Corumbá Diocese of Coxim Diocese of Dourados Diocese of Naviraí Diocese of Jardim Diocese of Três Lagoas Region West II State of Mato Grosso. Ecclesiastical province of Cuiabá Metropolitan Archdiocese of Cuiabá Diocese of Barra do Garças Diocese of Diamantino Diocese of Guiratinga Diocese of Juína Diocese of Paranatinga Diocese of Rondonópolis Diocese of São Luíz de Cáceres Prelature of São Félix Region Northwest States of Rondônia, Acre and Amazonas. Ecclesiastical province of Porto Velho Metropolitan Archdiocese of Porto Velho Diocese of Cruzeiro do Sul Diocese of Guajará-Mirim Diocese of Humaitá Diocese of Ji-Paraná Diocese of Rio Branco Prelature of Lábrea Region Northeast I State of Ceará. Ecclesiastical province of Fortaleza Metropolitan Archdiocese of Fortaleza Diocese of Crateús Diocese of Crato Diocese of Iguatu Diocese of Itapipoca Diocese of Limoeiro do Norte Diocese of Quixadá Diocese of Sobral Diocese of Tianguá Region Northeast II States of Pernambuco, Alagoas, Paraíba and Rio Grande do Norte. Ecclesiastical province of Natal Metropolitan Archdiocese of Natal Diocese of Caicó Diocese of Mossoró Ecclesiastical province of Olinda e Recife Metropolitan Archdiocese of Olinda e Recife Diocese of Afogados da Ingazeira Diocese of Caruaru Diocese of Floresta Diocese of Garanhuns Diocese of Nazaré Diocese of Palmares Diocese of Pesqueira Diocese of Petrolina Diocese of Salgueiro Ecclesiastical province of Maceió Metropolitan Archdiocese of Maceió Diocese of Palmeira dos Índios Diocese of Penedo Ecclesiastical province of Paraíba Metropolitan Archdiocese of Paraíba Diocese of Cajazieras Diocese of Campina Grande Diocese of Guarabira Diocese of Patos Region Northeast III States of Bahia and Sergipe. Ecclesiastical province of São Salvador da Bahia Metropolitan and Primatial Archdiocese of São Salvador da Bahia Diocese of Alagoinhas Diocese of Amargosa Diocese of Camaçari Diocese of Cruz das Almas Diocese of Eunápolis Diocese of Ilhéus Diocese of Itabuna Diocese of Teixeira de Freitas-Caravelas Ecclesiastical province of Feira de Santana Metropolitan Archdiocese of Feira de Santana Diocese of Barra do Rio Grande Diocese of Barreiras Diocese of Bonfim Diocese of Irecê Diocese of Juazeiro Diocese of Paulo Afonso Diocese of Ruy Barbosa Diocese of Serrinha Ecclesiastical province of Vitória da Conquista Metropolitan Archdiocese of Vitória da Conquista Diocese of Bom Jesus da Lapa Diocese of Caetité Diocese of Jequié Diocese of Livramento de Nossa Senhora Ecclesiastical province of Aracaju Metropolitan Archdiocese of Aracaju Diocese of Estância Diocese of Propriá Region Northeast IV State of Piauí. Ecclesiastical province of Teresina Metropolitan Archdiocese of Teresina Diocese of Bom Jesus do Gurguéia Diocese of Campo Maior Diocese of Floriano Diocese of Oeiras Diocese of Parnaíba Diocese of Picos Diocese of São Raimundo Nonato Region Northeast V State of Maranhão. Ecclesiastical province of São Luís do Maranhão Metropolitan Archdiocese of São Luís do Maranhão Diocese of Bacabal Diocese of Balsas Diocese of Brejo Diocese of Carolina Diocese of Caxias do Maranhão Diocese of Coroatá Diocese of Grajaú Diocese of Imperatriz Diocese of Pinheiro Diocese of Viana Diocese of Zé-Doca Eastern Catholic proper and exempt jurisdictions Ordinariate for the Faithful of Eastern Rites in Brazil Armenian Catholic Church part of the Armenian Catholic Church (Armenian Rite) but exempt, directly subject to the Holy See Armenian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Latin America and Mexico Ukrainian Greek Catholic (Byzantine Rite) Ecclesiastical province of São João Batista em Curitiba part of the Eastern particular Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, using its Ukrainian language Byzantine rite Metropolitan Archeparchy of São João Batista em Curitiba Eparchy of Imaculada Conceição in Prudentópolis (Ukrainian) Defunct jurisdictions excluding those which were simply promoted to existing ones above Territorial Prelature of Bananal Territorial Abbacy of Claraval Diocese of Guiratinga (originally Territorial Prelature) Abbacy nullius of Nossa Senhora do Monserrate do Rio de Janeiro Territorial Prelate of Paranatinga Territorial Prelature of Registro do Araguaia Territorial Prelature of São José de Alto Tocantins Gallery of Brazilian Archdioceses References and external links Catholic-Hierarchy entry. GCatholic.org. Citations Brazil Catholic dioceses it:Chiesa cattolica in Brasile

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EB%A5%B4%ED%97%A8%ED%8B%B0%EB%82%98%EC%9D%98%20%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88%20%EA%B0%80%ED%86%A8%EB%A6%AD%20%EA%B5%90%EA%B5%AC%20%EB%AA%A9%EB%A1%9D

아르헨티나의 로마 가톨릭 교구 목록

아르헨티나의 로마 가톨릭 교구는 13개 관구에 13개 관구장좌 대교구 와 48개 일반교구와 2개 동방전례교구 4개 성직자치구 와 독립교구로 1개 대교구 3개동방전례교구 1개군종교구로 구성된다 교구(Dioceses) 바이아블랑카 관구(province of Bahía Blanca) 바이아블랑카관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of Bahía Blanca) 알토 발레 델 리오네그로 교구(Diocese of Alto Valle del Río Negro) 코모도로 리바다비아교구( Diocese of Comodoro Rivadavia) 리오 갈레고스 교구( Diocese of Río Gallegos) 산카를로스데바리로체 교구( Diocese of San Carlos de Bariloche) 산타로사 교구( Diocese of Santa Rosa) 비에드마 교구( Diocese of Viedma) 에스쿠엘 성직자치구( Territorial Prelature of Esquel) 부웨이노스 아이레스 관구(province of Buenos Aires) 부웨이노스아이레스 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of Buenos Aires) 아벨라네다-라누스 교구( Diocese of Avellaneda-Lanús) 그레고리오 데 라페레레 교구( Diocese of Gregorio de Laferrère) 로마스데자모라 교구( Diocese of Lomas de Zamora) 멜로-모레노 교구( Diocese of Merlo-Moreno) 모런 교구( Diocese of Morón) 산 이스이드로 교구( Diocese of San Isidro) 산 후스토 교구( Diocese of San Justo) 산마르틴 교구( Diocese of San Martín) 산미구엘교구( Diocese of San Miguel) 산차르벨 엔 부웨이노스아이레스 교구( Eparchy of San Charbel en Buenos Aires) 산타마리아 델 파트로키니오 엔 부웨이노스 아이레스교구(Eparchy of Santa María del Patrocinio en Buenos Aires) 코르도바 관구(province of Córdoba) 코르도바 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of Córdoba) 크루즈 델 에헤 교구( Diocese of Cruz del Eje) 빌라 델 라 콘셉션 델 리로쿠아르토 교구( Diocese of Villa de la Concepción del Río Cuarto) 산프란치스코 교구( Diocese of San Francisco) 빌라마리아 교구( Diocese of Villa María) 딘 푸네스 성직자치구( Territorial Prelature of Deán Funes) 코리엔테스 관구(province of Corrientes) 코리엔테스 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of Corrientes) 고야 교구( Diocese of Goya) 오베라 교구( Diocese of Oberá) 포사다스 교구( Diocese of Posadas) 푸에르토 이쿠아주 교구( Diocese of Puerto Iguazú) 산토 토메 교구( Diocese of Santo Tomé) 라플라타 관구(province of La Plata) 라플라타 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of La Plata) 아줄 교구( Diocese of Azul) 차스코무스 교구( Diocese of Chascomús) 마델플라타 교구( Diocese of Mar del Plata) 누에베 데 줄리오 교구( Diocese of Nueve de Julio) 쿠일메스 교구( Diocese of Quilmes) 자라테-캄파나 교구( Diocese of Zárate-Campana) 멘도사 관구( province of Mendoza) 멘도사 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of Mendoza) 네우쿠엔 교구( Diocese of Neuquén) 산 라파엘 교구( Diocese of San Rafael) 파라나 관구(province of Paraná) 파라나 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of Paraná) 콘코르디아 교구( Diocese of Concordia) 구아레구아이츄 교구( Diocese of Gualeguaychú) 레시스텐시아 관구(province of Resistencia) 레시스텐시아 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of Resistencia) 포르모사 교구( Diocese of Formosa) 산 로쿠에 데 프레시덴시아 로쿠에 사엔즈 페나 교구( Diocese of San Roque de Presidencia Roque Sáenz Peña) 로사리오 관구(province of Rosario) 로사리오 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of Rosario ) 산 니콜라스데로스아로요스 교구(Diocese of San Nicolás de los Arroyos) 베나도 투에르토 교구( Diocese of Venado Tuerto) 살타관구(province of Salta) 살타 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of Salta) 카타마르카 교구( Diocese of Catamarca) 후후이 교구( Diocese of Jujuy) 오란 교구( Diocese of Oran) 카파야테 성직자치구( Territorial Prelature of Cafayate) 우마우아카 성직자치구( Territorial Prelature of Humahuaca) 산 후안 델 쿠요 관구(province of San Juan de Cuyo) 산후안 델 쿠요 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of San Juan de Cuyo) 라리오하 교구( Diocese of La Rioja) 루이스 교구( Diocese of San Luis) 산타 페 데라 베라크루즈 관구(province of Santa Fe de la Vera Cruz) 산타 페 데라 베라크루즈 관구장좌 대교구(Archdiocese of Santa Fe de la Vera Cruz) ** 라파엘라 교구(Diocese of Rafaela) 레콘 구이스타 교구( Diocese of Reconquista) 투쿠만 관구(province of Tucumán) 투구만 관구장좌 대교구( Archdiocese of Tucumán) 아나투야 교구(Diocese of Añatuya) 콘셉숀 교구( Diocese of Concepción) 산티아고 델 에스페로 교구( Diocese of Santiago del Estero) 독립교구 메르세데스 루한 대교구(Archdiocese of Mercedes–Luján) 산그레고리오 데 나레크 엔 부웨이노스아이레스 교구( Eparchy of San Gregorio de Narek en Buenos Aires) 메키드전례 아르헨티나 교구( Apostolic Exarchate in Argentina for the Melkites) 아르헨티나 동방전례 파이스풀 교구( Ordinariate for the Faithful of the Eastern Rites in Argentina) 아르헨티나 군종교구(Military Bishopric of Argentina) 외부 링크 나라별 로마 가톨릭 교구 목록

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Catholic%20dioceses%20in%20Argentina

List of Catholic dioceses in Argentina

The Catholic Church in Argentina comprises fourteen ecclesiastical provinces each headed by a Metropolitan archbishop. The provinces are in turn subdivided into 48 dioceses and 14 archdioceses each headed by a bishop or an archbishop. Latin/rite-mixed Provinces and (Arch)Dioceses Latin Exempt Jurisdictions Military Bishopric of Argentina Ecclesiastical province of Bahía Blanca Metropolitan Archdiocese of Bahía Blanca Diocese of Alto Valle del Río Negro Diocese of Comodoro Rivadavia Diocese of Río Gallegos Diocese of San Carlos de Bariloche Diocese of Santa Rosa Diocese of Viedma Territorial Prelature of Esquel Ecclesiastical province of Buenos Aires Metropolitan Archdiocese of Buenos Aires Diocese of Avellaneda-Lanús Diocese of Gregorio de Laferrère Diocese of Lomas de Zamora Diocese of Morón Diocese of Quilmes Maronite Eparchy of San Charbel en Buenos Aires Diocese of San Isidro Diocese of San Justo Diocese of San Martín Diocese of San Miguel Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Santa María del Patrocinio en Buenos Aires Ecclesiastical province of Córdoba Metropolitan Archdiocese of Córdoba Diocese of Cruz del Eje Diocese of Villa de la Concepción del Río Cuarto Diocese of San Francisco Diocese of Villa María Territorial Prelature of Deán Funes Ecclesiastical province of Corrientes Metropolitan Archdiocese of Corrientes Diocese of Goya Diocese of Oberá Diocese of Posadas Diocese of Puerto Iguazú Diocese of Santo Tomé Ecclesiastical province of La Plata Metropolitan Archdiocese of La Plata Diocese of Azul Diocese of Chascomús Diocese of Mar del Plata Ecclesiastical province of Mercedes–Luján Archdiocese of Mercedes–Luján Diocese of Merlo-Moreno Diocese of Nueve de Julio Diocese of Zárate-Campana Ecclesiastical province of Mendoza Metropolitan Archdiocese of Mendoza Diocese of Neuquén Diocese of San Rafael Ecclesiastical province of Paraná Metropolitan Archdiocese of Paraná Diocese of Concordia Diocese of Gualeguaychú Ecclesiastical province of Resistencia Metropolitan Archdiocese of Resistencia Diocese of Formosa Diocese of San Roque de Presidencia Roque Sáenz Peña Ecclesiastical province of Rosario Metropolitan Archdiocese of Rosario Diocese of San Nicolás de los Arroyos Diocese of Venado Tuerto Ecclesiastical province of Salta Metropolitan Archdiocese of Salta Diocese of Catamarca Diocese of Jujuy Diocese of Orán Territorial Prelature of Cafayate Territorial Prelature of Humahuaca Ecclesiastical province of San Juan de Cuyo Metropolitan Archdiocese of San Juan de Cuyo Diocese of La Rioja Diocese of San Luis Ecclesiastical province of Santa Fe de la Vera Cruz Metropolitan Archdiocese of Santa Fe de la Vera Cruz Diocese of Rafaela Diocese of Reconquista Ecclesiastical province of Tucumán Metropolitan Archdiocese of Tucumán Diocese of Añatuya Diocese of Concepción Diocese of Santiago del Estero Eastern Catholic Sui iuris Jurisdictions Eparchy of San Gregorio de Narek en Buenos Aires Melkite Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Argentina Ordinariate for Eastern Catholics in Argentina (other Eastern Catholic rites) Gallery of Archdioceses See also Catholicism in Argentina. List of Catholic dioceses (structured view) List of Catholic dioceses (alphabetical) References Argentine Episcopal Conference Catholic Hierarchy Argentine Catholic Informative Agency Dioceses and map. External links GCatholic.org. Catholic-Hierarchy Argentina Argentina religion-related lists

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EC%9E%89%20%EB%A7%88%EC%9D%B4%20%ED%99%88

고잉 마이 홈

《고잉 마이 홈》()은 2012년 10월 9일부터 동년 12월 18일까지 화요일 22:00 ~ 22:54(JST)에 후지 TV 계열에서 방송된 칸사이 TV·TV맨 유니온이 공동 제작한 텔레비전 드라마이다. 아베 히로시는 《하얀 봄》 (2009년 2분기) 이후 약 3년 만에 칸사이 TV가 제작 화요일 10시 시간대 주연을 맡았다. 또 야마구치 토모코는 《롱 베케이션》 (1996년 2분기) 이후 약 16년만에 연속 드라마 출연하였으며, 미야자키 아오이는 《행복의 꼬리》 (2002년 2분기, TBS) 이후 약 10년만에 민영 방송의 텔레비전 드라마에 출연하는 것이다. 고레에다 히로카즈는 이 작품이 민영 방송 드라마 및 연속 드라마 첫 감독·각본 작품이다. 줄거리 신통치 않은 샐러리맨이 사이가 소원했던 아버지가 쓰러진 것을 계기로 고향인 나가노로 돌아간다. 거기서 그는 아버지가 전설의 작은 생물 “쿠나”를 찾고 있던 것을 알게 된다. 당초 의문을 가지고 있던 그였지만, 현지의 사람들과 접촉하면서 그의 마음에도 변화가 일어난다…. 캐스트 주요 인물 츠보이 료타 (45) - 아베 히로시 (어린 시절:마츠다 호쿠토) CM 이그제큐티브 프로듀서. 주로 CM 제작의 예산 관리나 전체의 조정을 담당하고 있다. 무슨 일이나 〈まあまあ(마-마-)〉라고 통과시키는 것이 많은 것으로부터, 부하에게서 뒤로는 〈マー君(마-쿤)〉이라고 불리고 있다. 마요네즈를 좋아하며 육상부에서 장대높이뛰기 선수로 활동했던 적이 있다. 최근, 학교에서 이상한 행동이 눈에 띄는 딸에 대해서도, 무조건 설교를 못하고 있다. 츠보이 사에 (43) - 야마구치 토모코 료타의 아내. 푸드 스타일리스트. 현재, 저서가 출판되어 일이 순조롭고 궤도에 오르고 있다. 자택의 키친을 직장으로도 이용하고 있기 때문에, 누가 마음대로 사용하는 것을 싫어한다. 딸의 태도가 걱정으로 부·료타에게 엄하게 꾸짖어 주라고 하지만 언제나 실패하는 남편에게 점점 더 안달하고 있다. 시모지마 나호 (30) - 미야자키 아오이 토리이의 딸. 동사무소 주민생활과 직원. 토리이 나오루 (72) - 니시다 토시유키 (어린 시절：우메자와 타이치) 치과 의사. 나호의 부친. 다이치의 조부. 에이스케의 소꿉 친구. 료타의 가족 츠보이 모에 (10) - 마키타 아쥬 료타·사에의 딸. 초등학교 4학년. 이토 타키코 (47) - YOU 료타의 누나. 이토 켄지 (38) - 야스다 켄 타키코의 남편. 츠지 토키코 - 릴리 사에의 모친. 일로 바쁜 딸을 대신해, 모에를 돌본다. 츠보이 토시코 (73) - 요시유키 카즈코 료타·타키코의 모친. 츠보이 에이스케 (72) - 나츠야기 이사오 (어린 시절：야마시타 텟페이) 료타·타키코의 부친. 대기업 제약회사의 상담역. 전 이사. 늘 가는 사우나에서 넘어지고 병원에 옮겨져 의식 불명에 빠진다. 료타의 일 관계자 사나다 준 - 아라이 히로후미 타쿠 프로모션 영업. 료타의 부하. 히나타 - 이토 요자부로 타쿠 프로모션의 료타의 상사. 야마오카 - 모리오카 류 / 사나다 - 아다치 토모미 타쿠 프로모션 영업. 료타의 부하. 아사이 - 타츠미 아오이 광고 대리점. 노지마 - 이케다 나루시 CM 감독. 사에의 일 관계자 준 - 칸노 리오 사에의 어시스턴트. 이토다 - 오사다 나오 편집 담당자. 타치바나 - 무라오카 노조미 야마나카 켄타로 - 타쿠마 타카유키 (제2 ~ 3화) 영화 감독. 통칭: 야마켄. 료타에게 라이벌시 되고 있다. 코데라 - 키무라 미도리코 (제6화) 나가노의 사람들 일부는 료타의 꿈 속에서, 쿠나 일가의 일원으로서 등장. 시모지마 다이치 (6) - 오오니시 리쿠 나호의 아들. 조부가 어린 시절에 목격했다고 말한 미지의 생물 〈쿠나〉가 현대에도 생존하고 있는 것이라고 믿고 있다. 토쿠나가 타로 / 쿠나 아들 - 아베 사다오 택시 운전기사. 료타에게 매회 나가노로 이사하지 않겠느냐고 권한다. 츠츠미 치에코 / 쿠나 아내 - 에구치 노리코 나나오 종합병원 간호사. 미야우치 아코 / 쿠나 딸 - 이시이 아코 미야우치 리코 / 쿠나 딸 - 이시이 리코 나호가 이야기하는 〈쿠나〉 전설을 들으러 와있던 아이들. 모모세 / 쿠나 아버지 - 토키타 후지오 토리이 치과 의원의 환자. 후미오 / 쿠나 어머니 - 세리카와 아이 잡화상·히데키가게 점주. 하타나카 / 쿠나 숙부 1 - 나카무라 야스히 나가노 일보사 사회부 캡. 카지 / 쿠나 숙부 2 - 야마나카 타카시 경찰관. 료타를 잠복중인 활동가로 잘못 안다. 나카츠 - 마시마 히데카즈 나나오 종합병원 의사. 에이스케의 담당 의사. 첸 - 테이 류신 일을 요구해 사야 사무소를 찾아와 직원 나호에게 소개받은 중국풍 음식점에서 일하기 시작한다. 슈토 - 스가와라 다이키치 중국풍 음식점 주인. 토리이 쿠미 - 마츠바라 마이 (사진) (소녀 시절：마츠바라 마이) 고인. 나오루의 아내. 에이스케의 소꿉 친구. 나오루와 에이스케와 함께 쿠나의 숲에서 쿠나를 보았다. 니시코리 - 후루타치 칸지 (제6화) 자칭 쿠나 연구가. 야노 료코 - 안도 세이 (제6화) 나가노 신용 금고 직원. 쿠나에 대한 료타 등의 취재에 대답한다. 야마노베 - 코시무라 코이치 / 노마 - 노조에 세이지 / 시라이시 - 호타루 유키지로 / 카와시마 - 와타나베 켄키치 (제6화) 그 외 코바야시 고 - 바카리즈무 츠보이가의 근처에 사는 회사원. 통근시에 료타와 함께인 때가 많다. 코바야시 루카 - 카와구치 하루나 (최종화) 소노다 - 치바 마사코 모에의 담임 교사. 코시노 키라리 - 하마 나오미 / 카토 쥬리아 - 이시이 카호 / 사카가미 시온 - 마츠모토 유스케 모에의 클래스메이트. 야마시타 - 시미즈 쇼고 에이스케의 비서. 나호와 은밀하게 연락을 하고 있다. 게스트 池堀 케이지 - 마루야마 토모미 (제1화) 치보리 제과 사장. 마노 - 사츠카와 아이미 (제1화) 인기 여배우. 세토 - 사사노 타카시 (제1·5화) 양과자점 사장. 히토미 - 나카무라 유리 (제3화) 사에의 의뢰를 받아 조모와의 추억이 있는 낡은 찬합을 빌려주기 시작한다. 타카다 쥰지 (본인 역〔특별 출연〕/제5·9화) 〈아몬드 페론 쵸코〉의 CM에 출연. 히라코 에이키 - 니시야마 사토시 / 히라코 후미코 - 사토 미유키 / 히라코 키요타카 - 에노모토 陽心 (제3·5화) 후미코의 고향에서 살기 위해, 일가로 나가노로부터 이사한다. 출발전, 나호로부터 할로윈의 사진을 건네받는다. 모리야 린 - 오오타니 에이코 (제8화) 메구무가 일하는 목장주의 딸. 모리야 논 - 나가시마 논 (제8화) 린의 딸. 시모지마 메구무 - 카세 료 (제8화) 나호의 남편. 다이치의 부친. 댐 건설에 반대하고 있는 가운데 나호에게 말을 안하고 사라진 뒤, 목장에서 일하고 있다. 스태프 감독·각본·편집: 고레에다 히로카즈 음악: GONTITI 쿠나 디자인: 오오츠카 이치오, 카와무라 안나 푸드 스타일리스트: 이이지마 나미 협력 프로듀서: 안도 카즈히사(칸사이 TV) 프로듀서: 도요후쿠 요코(칸사이 TV), 쿠마가이 키이치(TV MAN UNION) 제작: 칸사이 TV, TV MAN UNION 주제가 마키하라 노리유키 〈四つ葉のクローバー 네잎 클로버〉 (WORDS&MUSIC) 부제 10월 16일은, 축구 국제 친선 시합 일본 대표×브라질 대표전 중계때문에 휴지. 관련 상품 서적 쿠나 (작·코레에다 히로카즈, 그림·오오츠카 이치오, 이스트 프레스, 2012년 10월 15일 발매, ) 각주 외부 링크 칸사이 TV 일본의 텔레비전 드라마 간사이 TV 화요일 밤 10시 드라마 2012년 드라마 가족 드라마 일본의 판타지 드라마 요정을 소재로 한 작품 나가노현을 배경으로 한 작품 나가노현을 배경으로 한 텔레비전 드라마

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Going%20My%20Home

Going My Home

Going My Home () is a 2012 Japanese television series, directed by Hirokazu Kore-eda and featuring Abe Hiroshi. The elderly father of a family collapses and lies in a coma. While waiting for him to recover, the family learns and investigates about his life, in particular his romantic affairs. Cast Hiroshi Abe: as Tsuboi Ryota Tomoko Yamaguchi: Tsuboi Sae YOU: as Ito Takiko Aoi Miyazaki: Shimojima Naho Hirofumi Arai: Sanada Shun Ken Yasuda: Ito Kenji Bakarhythm: Kobayashi Satoru Isao Natsuyagi: Tsuboi Eisuke Sadao Abe: Tokunaga Taro Kazuko Yoshiyuki: Tsuboi Toshiko Toshiyuki Nishida: Torii Osamu Aju Makita: Tsuboi Moe Lily as Tsuji Tokiko Noriko Eguchi as Tsutsumi Yasuhi Nakamura as Hatakenaka Takashi Yamanaka as Kai Plot After his father's collapse and admission to hospital in a coma in a small country town, Tsuboi Ryota (Abe Hiroshi) and his family gather around the stricken father in the hospital, travelling there regularly from Tokyo. Following their discovery of an unknown woman visiting him, the family begins their own investigation into their father's life. Ryota is a successful advertising agency executive and married to "food stylist" Sae (Yamaguchi Tomoko), who has her own cooking TV show. Their daughter has issues at school, imagining friends and causing trouble. Ryota finds himself investigating his father's life in the tiny country town where his father collapsed. Ryota, while investigating his father, Eisuke's (Isao Natsuyagi) past, also has to deal with his own issues at the agency where he works, and with his wife and problems with his daughter. After some investigation, Ryota discovers the mysterious woman Naho (Aoi Miyazaki) to be the daughter of the best friend of her father (the town dentist Tori, (Nishida Toshiyuki), who grew up together. The two shared the love of a girl who they grew up, the mother of Naho. While staying at the town, Ryota and his daughter begins to find out about its odd ways, in particular, with the town's belief in the local legendary Kuna creatures. After finding a tiny hat apparently belonging to one of the creatures, Ryota becomes fascinated with them, and gets his work involved in a hunt for them. Ryota and the townspeople finally organise an event based around hunting for the creatures, and Ryota appears to see one. Eisuke dies, and Ryota comes to terms with his problematic relationship with his father. References External links 2012 Japanese television series debuts Television shows set in Nagano Prefecture

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9B%84%EC%95%88%20%EC%B9%B4%EB%B0%80%EB%A1%9C%20%EC%88%98%EB%8B%88%EA%B0%80

후안 카밀로 수니가

후안 카밀로 수니가 모스케라(, 1985년 12월 14일 ~ )는 콜롬비아의 전 축구 선수로 포지션은 윙백이다. 클럽 경력 아틀레티코 나시오날 안티오키아 주 치고로도 출신인 수니가는 콜롬비아의 축구 클럽 아틀레티코 나시오날에서 프로로 데뷔하였다. 클럽에서 일곱 시즌을 뛰는 동안, 그는 세 개의 타이틀을 얻었다. 종합적으로 그는 리그 121 경기에 출장했고, 9 골을 넣었다. 시에나 2008년 여름에 수니가는 아틀레티코 나시오날에서 이탈리아쪽의 시에나로 이적했다. 그의 이적료는 300만 유로였다. 시에나에서 뛸 동안, 수니가는 여러 클럽에게 주목받을 만한 인상적인 성과를 보여주었다. 종합적으로 그는 리그 28 경기에 출장했고, 골을 넣진 못했다. 나폴리 2009년 7월 9일 나폴리는 시에나에게 850만 유로를 주고 수니가와 5년 계약했다. 3-5-2 전술에서, 크리스티안 마지오가 우측을 맡을 동안 수니가는 레프트 윙백으로써 보통 좌측에서 활약했다. 2010년 1월 안드레아 도세나의 영입 이후에, 2010-11 세리에 A 시즌에서 수니가는 그 자리를 잃고 측면 모두를 전담하는 백업 윙백이 되었다. 2011년 2월 20일, 수니가는 카타니아를 상대로 세리에 A에서 처음으로 골을 넣었다. 그의 두번째 골은 2011년 3월 15일 인테르나치오날레를 상대로 46분에 터졌다. 그의 화려한 세번째 골은 2011년 12월 21일 제노아를 상대로 터졌다. 2013년 8월 말, 수니가는 부상으로 시달렸다. 수주일 후, 그는 장기부상으로 무릎 수술을 받은 것이 확인되었고, 남은 시즌을 놓칠 뻔했다. 무릎 부상을 완치한 2014년 4월, 수니가는 나폴리에서 정기적으로 계속할 것을 발표했다. 국가대표팀 경력 수니가는 2005년에 성인 국가대표팀으로 들어가기 전에 U-20 청소년 월드컵에서 콜롬비아 선수로 뛰었다. U-20에서 뛰는 동안에 그는 이탈리아 언론에게 카푸와 호베르투 카를로스와 같은 유명한 풀백 선수와 비슷하다고 여겨졌다. 수니가는 2014년 브라질 월드컵 지역 예선 경기에서 두 경기만 불참하고 모두 출장했다. 베네수엘라전은 아들의 출산 때문에, 페루전은 부상 때문에 출장하지 못했다. 그는 2014년 브라질 월드컵에서 다섯 경기 중 네 경기에 출장했다. 2014년 7월 4일, 브라질과 맞붙는 8강전에서 네이마르의 등 아래를 오른쪽 무릎으로 가격하고 착지했다. 결과로 네이마르는 이송용 침대에 실려서 퇴장했다. 나중에 검사에 따르면 네이마르는 척추골의 3번 요추가 골절되어 월드컵의 나머지 경기를 뛸 수 없다는 판정을 받았다고 한다. 콜롬비아가 2-1로 패한 후에 수니가는 자신이 네이마르를 부상 입힐 의도로 그런 것이 아니었다고 말했다.하지만 브라질이 독일한테 7대1대패를 당하자 이에 분노한 브라질 마피아들이 수니가의 현상금을 거는등 암살을 예고했다. 네이마르의 동료 치아구 시우바는 수니가가 다른 선수를 고의로 부상입히게 할 유형의 선수가 아니라고 그를 옹호했다. 7월 5일, 수니가는 네이마르에게 부상 입힌 것은 고의가 아니고 "깊이 사죄하고 슬퍼한다"(deeply sorry and sad)는 내용을 담은 사과의 편지를 보냈다. 또한 2014년 9월 미국에서 열린 브라질과 콜롬비아의 축구국가대표팀 평가전에서 킥오프 전 수니가와 네이마르는 화해의 포옹을 나눈 바 있다. 2015 코파 아메리카 C조 2차전이에서 전반 44분 경 네이마르의 오른쪽 눈을 실명시킬 뻔했다. 수상 클럽 아틀레티코 나시오날 카테고리아 프리메라 아페르투라 : 2005, 2007 카테고리아 프리메라 피날리사시온 : 2007 나폴리 코파 이탈리아 : 2011-12, 2013-14 각주 외부 링크 SSC 나폴리 선수 프로필 1985년 출생 살아있는 사람 콜롬비아의 남자 축구 선수 콜롬비아 남자 축구 국가대표팀 선수 아틀레티코 나시오날의 축구 선수 이탈리아의 외국인 남자 축구 선수 ACR 시에나 1904의 축구 선수 SSC 나폴리의 축구 선수 볼로냐 FC 1909의 축구 선수 왓퍼드 FC의 축구 선수 잉글랜드의 외국인 남자 축구 선수 2007년 코파 아메리카 참가 선수 2011년 코파 아메리카 참가 선수 2014년 FIFA 월드컵 참가 선수 2015년 코파 아메리카 참가 선수 콜롬비아의 해외 진출 남자 축구 선수 프리미어리그의 축구 선수 세리에 A의 축구 선수 이탈리아에 거주한 콜롬비아인 카테고리아 프리메라 A의 축구 선수 콜롬비아 남자 U-20 축구 국가대표팀 선수 잉글랜드에 거주한 콜롬비아인

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20Camilo%20Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga

Juan Camilo Zúñiga

Juan Camilo Zúñiga Mosquera (; born 14 December 1985) is a Colombian former professional footballer who played as a wing-back. Zúñiga has previously played for Italian clubs Siena and Napoli, having won two Coppa Italia titles with the latter; he was also sent on loan by Napoli to Bologna and Watford in 2016. At international level, Zúñiga was part of the Colombia national football team that played in the 2014 FIFA World Cup, and has also represented his nation in three Copa América tournaments. Club career Atlético Nacional Born in Chigorodó, Antioquia, Zúñiga made his professional debut with Colombian giant Atlético Nacional. With Nacional, he gained three titles while being at the club for seven seasons. In total, he made 129 league appearances and scored 9 goals. Siena Zúñiga left Atlético Nacional in the summer of 2008 and was contracted by Italian side Siena. The transfer fee was €2.32 million. While at Siena, Zúñiga gave impressive performances, which attracted several clubs. In total, he made 28 leagues appearances, failing to score a goal. Napoli On 9 July 2009, Napoli signed the Colombian from Siena on a five-year deal for €8.5 million. Zúñiga then usually featured on the left-hand side of the 3–5–2 formation, as the left wingback, since Christian Maggio often occupies the right-hand side. After the arrival of Andrea Dossena in January 2010, he lost his starting place and became a backup wingback on both flanks in the 2010–11 Serie A season. Zúñiga scored his first Serie A goal for Napoli against Catania on 20 February 2011. His second goal was on 15 May 2011 against Internazionale in the 46th minute. His third, spectacular goal occurred against Genoa on 21 December 2011. In late August 2013, Zúñiga suffered an injury. Weeks later, it was confirmed that he would be forced to have knee surgery and be out for a month, likely causing him to miss the rest of the season for 2013. Nevertheless, Zúñiga signed a new contract in October 2013. In April 2014, it was announced after five months that Zúñiga had finally recovered from his knee injury and would continue regularly for Napoli. In the first half of the 2015–16 Serie A season, he was left out of the squad. Bologna (Loan) On 13 January 2016, Zúñiga signed for Bologna on loan until the end of the season. He made his league debut for the club on 17 January 2016, in a 2–2 draw with Lazio. He replaced Emanuele Giaccherini in the 71st minute. Watford (Loan) On 13 July 2016, it was announced that Zúñiga would join Watford on a season-long loan, with an option to buy, reuniting with former Napoli teammates Miguel Britos and Valon Behrami, as well as manager Walter Mazzarri. On 18 September 2016, Zúñiga came on in the 83rd minute for Étienne Capoue and scored against Manchester United in his side's 3–1 win. In what was only his third appearance for Watford in the Premier League, he subsequently won a penalty, converted by Troy Deeney, for Watford's third goal. It was reported that Zúñiga returned to Naples after the loan, for his final year of contract. Return to Atlético Nacional After spending the first half of the 2017–18 season out of Napoli's squad, Zúñiga joined his first club Atlético Nacional on a free transfer on 30 January 2018. Retirement In 2018, Zúñiga announced his retirement from football. International career Zúñiga played for Colombia in the 2005 World Youth Cup before progressing to the senior national team in 2005. He was regarded as being similar to other famous adventurous full-backs such as Cafu and Roberto Carlos by the Italian press during the under-20 World Youth Cup, because of his attacking nature. Zúñiga started most of Colombia 2014 World Cup qualifiers, only missing two games: against Venezuela after being given permission to leave the team for the birth of his son, and against Peru due to injury. He scored his first international goal during the qualifying campaign, which came in stoppage time in a 4–0 home win over Uruguay; he also assisted Radamel Falcao's opening goal during the match. He was called up for the 2014 World Cup and appeared in four of the five matches that Colombia played in the tournament. On 4 July 2014, while Colombia's quarter-final match against hosts Brazil was nearing its end, Zúñiga landed his right knee into Neymar's lower back while challenging for the ball. Neymar was stretchered off and further examinations showed that Neymar suffered a fractured vertebra, ruling him out of the rest of the World Cup. After the match, which Colombia lost 2–1, Zúñiga insisted that he had not meant to injure Neymar. Neymar's teammate Thiago Silva defended Zúñiga, stating that he was not the type of player who would purposely cause an injury to any player. Conversely, Brazilian legend Ronaldo said that he believed that Zúñiga's violent challenge was a foul committed with the intention of causing harm. The day after the match, it was revealed that Zúñiga had sent a letter of apology to Neymar, saying that he was "deeply sorry and sad" for unintentionally causing the injury. Neymar later accepted the apology. Though Zúñiga publicly apologized to Neymar, his Instagram and Twitter accounts were flooded with racial insults and death threats addressed to him and his family by some Brazilian fans. The following year, in the 2015 Copa América, Zúñiga participated in his team's second group match against Brazil, during which an on-pitch brawl broke out following Colombia's 1–0 victory. Style of play A quick, energetic, versatile, and hard-working player, Zúñiga was capable of playing in several positions along the left flank, and was deployed as an attacking full-back, as a wing-back, and as a winger; a right-footed player, he was also capable of playing on the right, but from a tactical standpoint, he favoured the left flank, as it allowed him to take on and beat opponents in one on one situations, and subsequently cut inside and shoot on goal with his stronger foot. Once regarded as a possible heir of Cafu, he was mainly known for his pace, strength, technique, and dribbling skills, as well as his powerful striking ability from outside the area; these attributes made him a dangerous offensive threat, and enabled him both to score and create goals for teammates. Career statistics Club International Scores and results list Colombia's goal tally first, score column indicates score after Zúñiga goal. Honours Atletico Nacional Categoría Primera A: 2005-I, 2007-I, 2007-II Napoli Coppa Italia: 2011–12, 2013–14 Notes References External links 1985 births Living people Colombian men's footballers Colombia men's under-20 international footballers Colombia men's international footballers Atlético Nacional footballers ACR Siena 1904 players SSC Napoli players Bologna FC 1909 players Watford F.C. players Categoría Primera A players Serie A players Premier League players Colombian expatriate men's footballers Expatriate men's footballers in Italy Expatriate men's footballers in England 2007 Copa América players 2011 Copa América players 2014 FIFA World Cup players 2015 Copa América players Colombian expatriate sportspeople in Italy Colombian expatriate sportspeople in England Men's association football fullbacks Footballers from Antioquia Department Colombian people of African descent

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B9%8C%EB%A6%AC%20%EC%97%98%EB%A6%AC%EC%96%B4%ED%8A%B8

빌리 엘리어트

빌리 엘리어트()는 해외에서는 2000년, 대한민국에서는 2001년 2월에 개봉하였고 2017년 1월 18일에 재개봉한 영국의 드라마 영화이다. 1984년부터 1985년까지 광부 파업 기간 동안 잉글랜드 북동부 더럼 주를 배경으로 한 이영화는 워킹셋 댄서들에 관한 이야기이다. 이 영화에는 제이미 벨이 11살 빌리로, 게리 루이스가 그의 아버지 재키 엘리엇으로, 제이미 드레이븐이 빌리의 형 토니 엘리엇으로, 줄리 윌터스가 발레 선생님으로 출연한다. 이 영화는 2000년 칸 영화제에 초연되었으며, 2000년 9월 29일 유니버설 픽처스에 의해 극장 개봉이 시작되었다. 빌리 엘리어트는 500만 달러 예산으로 전 세계적으로 1억 930만 달러의 수익을 올리며 긍정적인 평과 상업적 성공을 거두었다. 제이미 벨은 남우주연상 최연소 수상자가 되었다. 이 영화는 또한 아카데미 감독상, 각본상, 여우조연상 등 3개 부문에 후보로 올랐다. 2001년, 이 영화는 멜빈 버지스에 의해 소설로 각색되었다. 줄거리 1984년, 영국 더럼 카운티에 있는 가상의 에버링턴 출신의 11세 소년 빌리 엘리엇은 춤을 좋아하고 전문 발레 댄서가 되려는 희망을 품고 있다. 빌리는 미망인 아버지 재키와 형 토니와 함께 살고 있으며 둘 다 파업중인 석탄 광부이다. (후자는 노조 대표임) 그의 외할머니는 그들과 함께 살고 있다. 그녀는 알츠하이머 병을 앓고 있으며 한때 전문 댄서가되기를 열망했다. 빌리의 아버지는 권투를 배우기 위해 그를 체육관으로 보냈지만 빌리는 스포츠를 싫어한다. 그는 평소 지하실 스튜디오가 파업 광부들의 급식소로 일시적으로 사용되는 동안 체육관을 사용하는 발레 수업을 보게된다. 재키에게 알려지지 않은 빌리는 발레 수업에 참여한다. 재키는 이것을 발견했을 때 빌리가 더 이상 발레 수업을 듣는 것을 금지한다. 그러나 춤에 대한 열정이 있는 그는 댄스 선생님인 산드라 윌킨슨의 도움으로 몰래 수업을 계속한다. 산드라는 빌리가 런던의 왕립 발레학교(Royal Ballet School)에서 공부할만큼 재능이 있다고 믿지만 토니가 경찰과 파업 광부 사이의 충돌로 체포되어 빌리는 오디션을 놓쳤다. 산드라는 재키에게 놓친 기회에 대해 이야기하지만 빌리가 동성애자로 간주 될까봐 두려워 재키와 토니는 그가 전문 발레 댄서가 될 것이라는 전망에 분노한다. 크리스마스에 빌리는 그의 가장 친한 친구인 마이클이 게이라는 사실을 알게 된다. 빌리는 그의 친구를 지원한다. 나중에 재키는 빌리와 마이클이 체육관에서 춤추는 것을 보고 그의 아들이 진정으로 재능이 있는 것을 보고 빌리가 꿈을 이루도록 돕기 위해 필요한 모든 것을 하기로 결심한다. 산드라는 재키에게 오디션 비용을 지불하도록 설득하려고 하지만 빌리는 그의 아들이며 자선 단체가 필요하지 않다고 대답한다. 재키는 런던 여행 비용을 지불하기 위해 피켓 라인을 건너려고 시도하지만 토니는 그를 막는다. 대신 그의 동료 광부들과 동네 사람들이 돈을 모으고 재키는 비용을 충당하기 위해 빌리의 어머니의 보석을 전당포하고 재키는 오디션을 위해 그를 런던으로 데려간다. 매우 긴장했지만 빌리는 잘 수행한다. 그는 오디션에서 좌절감에 다른 소년을 때리고 자신의 기회를 망칠 까봐 두려워한다. 심사위원들의 질책을 받고 춤을 추면 어떤 기분이냐는 질문에 말을 잇지 못한다. 그는 그것이 "전기와 같다"고 말한다. 거부당한 듯 빌리는 아버지와 함께 집으로 돌아간다. 얼마 후 왕립 발레학교는 광부 파업이 끝나는 시점에 그에게 입학 허가서를 보내고 빌리는 런던에서 공부하기 위해 집을 떠난다. 1998년, 25세의 빌리는 매튜 본의 스완레이크에서 재키, 토니, 마이클이 관중석에서 지켜보는 가운데 백조 역으로 공연한다. 빌리가 무대에 오르자 그의 아버지는 감정에 휩싸이고 다른 댄서들은 날개에서 지켜본다. 출연 제이미 벨 - 빌리 엘리엇 줄리 월터스 - 샌드라 윌킨슨 게리 루이스 - 재키 엘리엇 제이미 드레이븐 - 토니 엘리엇 진 헤이우드 - 할머니 한국판 성우진(KBS) 소연 - 빌리(제이미 벨) 임수아 - 윌킨슨 선생(줄리 월터스) 이봉준 - 아버지(게리 루이스) 이원준 - 토니(제이미 드레이븐) 이선영 - 할머니(진 헤이우드) 정옥주 - 마이클(스튜어트 웰즈) 구민선 - 데비(니콜라 블랙웰) 송두석 송연희 장승길 문관일 전인배 임진응 안용욱 외부 링크 영어 영화 작품 2000년 영화 발레 영화 댄스 영화 성장 영화 영국의 드라마 영화 노동 운동을 소재로 한 영화 잉글랜드를 배경으로 한 영화 1984년을 배경으로 한 영화 1985년을 배경으로 한 영화 1999년을 배경으로 한 영화 유니버설 픽처스 영화 스튜디오카날 영화 감독 데뷔 영화 잉글랜드에서 촬영한 영화 스티븐 돌드리 감독 영화 영국의 댄스 영화 영국 아카데미 작품상(영국 영화) 수상작 부자관계를 소재로 한 영화

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy%20Elliot

Billy Elliot

Billy Elliot is a 2000 British coming-of-age comedy-drama film directed by Stephen Daldry and written by Lee Hall. Set in County Durham in North East England during the 1984–1985 miners' strike, the film is about a working-class boy who discovers a passion for ballet. His father objects, based on negative stereotypes of male ballet dancers. The film stars Jamie Bell as 11-year-old Billy, Gary Lewis as his father, Jamie Draven as Billy's older brother, and Julie Walters as his ballet teacher. Adapted from a play called Dancer by Lee Hall, development on the film began in 1999. Around 2,000 boys were considered for the role of Billy before Bell was chosen for the role. Filming began in the North East of England in August 1999. Greg Brenman and Jon Finn served as producers, while Stephen Warbeck composed the film's score. Billy Elliot is a co-production among BBC Films, Tiger Aspect Pictures and Working Title Films. The film premiered at the 2000 Cannes Film Festival, and began a wider theatrical release on 29 September 2000 by Universal Pictures. Billy Elliot received positive critical response and commercial success, earning $109.3 million worldwide on a $5 million budget. At the 54th British Academy Film Awards, the film won three of thirteen award nominations. Jamie Bell became the youngest winner of Best Actor in a Leading Role. The film also earned three Academy Award nominations, including for Best Director, Best Original Screenplay and Best Actress in a Supporting Role. In 2001, the film was adapted as a novel by Melvin Burgess. The story was also adapted for the West End stage as Billy Elliot the Musical, first produced in 2005. It opened in Australia in 2007 and on Broadway in New York City in 2008. Plot In 1984, Billy Elliot, an 11-year-old from the fictional Everington in County Durham, England, loves to dance and has hopes of becoming a professional ballet dancer. Billy lives with his widowed father, Jackie, and older brother, Tony, both coal miners out on strike (the latter being the union delegate). His maternal grandmother lives with them; she has Alzheimer's disease and had once aspired to be a professional dancer. Billy's father sends him to the gym to learn boxing, but Billy dislikes the sport. He happens to see a ballet class that is using the gym while their usual basement studio is being used temporarily as a soup kitchen for the striking miners. Unbeknownst to Jackie, Billy joins the ballet class. When Jackie discovers this, he forbids Billy to take any more ballet classes. But, passionate about dancing, he secretly continues his lessons with the help of his dance teacher, Sandra Wilkinson. Sandra believes that Billy is talented enough to study at the Royal Ballet School in London, but due to Tony's arrest during a clash between police and striking miners, Billy misses the audition. Sandra tells Jackie about the missed opportunity but, fearing that Billy will be considered to be gay, both Jackie and Tony are outraged at the prospect of him becoming a professional ballet dancer. Over Christmas, Billy learns his best friend, Michael, is gay. Billy is supportive of his friend. Later, Jackie catches Billy and Michael dancing in the gym and, seeing his son is truly gifted, he resolves to do whatever it takes to help Billy attain his dream. Sandra tries to persuade Jackie to let her pay for the audition, but he replies that Billy is his son and he does not need charity. Jackie attempts to cross the picket line to pay for the trip to London, but Tony stops him. Instead, his fellow miners and the neighbourhood raise some money, and Jackie pawns Billy's mother's jewellery to cover the cost, and Jackie takes him to London to audition. Although very nervous, Billy performs well. He punches another boy in frustration at the audition, and fears that he has ruined his chances. He is rebuked by the review board and, when asked what it feels like when he is dancing, struggles for words. He says that it is "like electricity". Seemingly rejected, Billy returns home with his father. Sometime later, the Royal Ballet School sends him a letter of acceptance, coinciding with the end of the miners' strike, and Billy leaves home to study in London. In 1998, 25-year-old Billy performs as the Swan in Matthew Bourne's Swan Lake with Jackie, Tony, and Michael watching from the audience. As Billy takes the stage, his father is overcome with emotion while the other dancers watch from the wings. Cast Production Development Lee Hall developed Billy Elliot from his play Dancer, which premiered as a rehearsed reading in 1998 at the Live Theatre in Newcastle upon Tyne. He was heavily influenced by photographer Sirkka-Liisa Konttinen's book Step by Step, about a dancing school in nearby North Shields. Writing in 2009, Hall said that "almost every frame of Billy Elliot was influenced by Step by Step [...] as every member of the design team carried around their own copy." Hall met with director Stephen Daldry, who was working at the Royal Court Theatre at the time. At first, Daldry was not convinced with the script, but said, "I liked the emotional honesty of Billy Elliot. Also Lee writes brilliant kids. And there's a series of themes in it I rather enjoyed: Grief; finding means of self-identification through some sort of creative act, in this case dance; and the miner's strike itself." Working Title Films approached Daldry to become director and he accepted the offer. The BBC financed the project. Casting Thousands of boys were considered for the lead role. The producers were looking for a boy in a specific geographical area with a dance background. Jamie Bell had about seven auditions in total before eventually in mid-1999, it was announced that he would play the lead role in the film. Peter Darling, the film's choreographer, worked with Bell for "eight hours a day for three months, finding out what drove him as a dancer." Julie Walters accepted the role of Sandra Wilkinson. Walters called the script "moving", explaining, "It was a diamond in the sand [...] I loved the character, and the fact that she was disappointed on every level possible. She was so grim and jaded. Her relationship with the boy was so unusual". In preparation for filming, Gary Lewis met with miners which he said was beneficial. Lewis stated that his own personal experience of the miners' strike made the role enjoyable. "My family and I were very active in supporting the miners: I stood in picket lines, I raised money for the miners and I was involved in the whole campaign to stop [...] closing the pits. Basically, it was the state that launched a complete attack on a section of the work force, a section of the working class. Lots of people responded with solidarity and that was a key element in the script: solidarity working at different levels, the collective solidarity, the economic solidarity." Filming Principal photography lasted seven weeks, beginning in August 1999. Most of the film, including the interior of the Elliot home at 5 Alnwick Street, was shot on location in the Easington Colliery area, with the producers using over 400 locals as extras. The mining scenes were filmed at the Ellington and Lynemouth Colliery in Northumberland, with some filming in Dawdon, Middlesbrough and Newcastle upon Tyne. Andrew Street and Alnwick Street, where the characters live, were two of several streets demolished in 2003 after becoming derelict. The cemetery scene was filmed at Lynemouth Cemetery. School scenes were filmed in Langley Park Primary School. Other filming locations include the Green Drive Railway Viaduct in Seaham, Tees Transporter Bridge, New Wardour Castle and Theatre Royal in Haymarket. Daldry remarked in an interview: "The shooting schedule was a nightmare; we only had seven weeks. Kids can only work nine to five and you can't work Saturdays. And the kid had to dance the whole time. So it was tight." Producer Jon Finn spoke of the difficulties of seeking filming locations: "We didn't realise how hard it would be to find working pits." Music Stephen Warbeck scored the incidental music for the film. Polydor Records released the soundtrack on 11 March 2002, which includes several well-known glam rock and punk songs from T. Rex and The Clash. The soundtrack also contains pieces of dialogue from the film. Reception and legacy Box office Billy Elliot premiered on 19 May at the 2000 Cannes Film Festival under the title Dancer. It was later decided to re-title the film Billy Elliot to avoid confusion with Dancer in the Dark, another film at Cannes that year. Billy Elliot was theatrically released on 29 September 2000 in the United Kingdom by Universal Pictures and Focus Features. In the United States, the film was released on 13 October 2000. Against expectations, the film earned a worldwide $109,280,263. Universal Home Entertainment released Billy Elliot on VHS on 20 April 2001, and on Blu-ray on 10 January 2012. The Blu-ray includes a short documentary of the film's production. Critical response On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 85% based on 119 critic reviews, with an average rating of 7.30/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Billy Elliot is a charming movie that can evoke both laughter and tears." At Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 74 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favourable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale. Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars, calling the film "as much parable and fantasy as it is realistic". He said Bell's performance was "engaging", Lewis was "convincing" and Walters was "spirited and colourful". Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian praised the film saying, "This is a film with a lot of charm, a lot of humour and a lot of heart. Daldry's direction and the screenplay by Lee Hall distinguish themselves further in the discreet, intelligent way ... Billy Elliot has a freshness that makes it a pleasure to watch; it's a very emphatic success". David Rooney of Variety also praised the cast, writing, "Relationships between all the characters are well observed—the father and his sons, the two brothers, and Billy and his grandmother, his friend Michael and jaded Mrs. Wilkinson—all of them yielding sweet, unforced feel-good moments". Rooney also praised the cinematography, visuals and soundtrack in showing Billy's rebelliousness. Charlotte O'Sullivan of The Independent wrote the cast are "near perfect", adding the film is "as raw a slice of escapism as you could wish for". William Gallagher from the BBC gave the film five out of five stars, writing, "It's a simple tale but one that is extremely well told and acted. Fittingly for a story about dance, it doesn't put a foot wrong and is engrossing, funny, very sad, very moving and very uplifting." Some critics gave a mixed response. Timeout magazine believes that "Daldry overuses the dance as a metaphor for escape and frustration, and choreographer Peter Darling's grandstanding ballet numbers sit a little uneasily, given the realist comedy pitch". A. O. Scott of The New York Times notes that there were "patches of thinness and predictability", and that "the first half seems to acknowledge its own triteness". However, he compliments the pacing of the scenes and the actors who "inhabit their roles like second-hand suits". Mark Holcomb, writing for IndieWire, took issue with the "odd, unsuccessful mix of theatrical whimsy and social realism", and a dance scene which he describes as a "cringe-inducing '80s-style music video routine". Themes Poverty and social class have been seen as major themes of the film. Author Rebecca Mahon observed the film has a realistic setting; the early scenes emphasising the miners' strike, the death of Billy's mother and the family's financial situation. Daldry adds, "It doesn't matter where you are in the world, people understand the idea that you're part of an industrial, working class group that is being discarded. And its question—of what happens to communities devastated by de-industrialisation and privatisation". In addition to social class, Daldry states that the film is about finding a voice—"someone trying to express himself or herself". Koller-Alonso writes that gender differences are expressed by showing girls attending ballet classes, while their male counterparts are having boxing lessons. Homosexuality, a taboo subject in the 1980s, as well as police brutality are depicted and explored in the film. Accolades Stage musical After the film's release, English singer-songwriter Elton John collaborated with the film's screenwriter Lee Hall to produce a musical adaptation of the film, which premiered 31 March 2005 at the Victoria Palace Theatre on the West End. Many of the film's crew took part in the stage production, including director Stephen Daldry and choreographer Peter Darling. The musical received positive reviews and ran for over 4,000 performances before closing in April 2016. The musical ran on Broadway from November 2008 to January 2012, and won ten Tony Awards in 2009, including Best Musical. See also Brassed Off The Stars Look Down Yeh Ballet Hula Girls The Full Monty Pride References Further reading External links 2000 films 2000 directorial debut films 2000s coming-of-age comedy-drama films 2000s dance films 2000 independent films BAFTA winners (films) BBC Film films Best British Film BAFTA Award winners British coming-of-age comedy-drama films British dance films 2000s English-language films Films about ballet Films about the labor movement Films adapted into plays Films directed by Stephen Daldry Films scored by Stephen Warbeck Films set in 1984 Films set in 1985 Films set in 1999 Films set in County Durham Films shot in England Films shot in Northumberland Films shot in Yorkshire Films shot in North Yorkshire Films shot in Middlesbrough Films with screenplays by Lee Hall (playwright) Films set in mining communities StudioCanal films UK miners' strike (1984–1985) Working Title Films films Films about father–son relationships 2000s British films

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%84%EC%A7%88%20%ED%8C%90%20%EB%8D%B0%EC%9D%B4%ED%81%AC

버질 판 데이크

버질 판 데이크(, ; 1991년 7월 8일 ~ )는 네덜란드의 축구 선수로 포지션은 센터백이다. 현재 리버풀 FC와 네덜란드 축구 국가대표팀에서 뛰고 있으며 리버풀과 대표팀의 주장을 맡고 있다. 대한민국에서는 버질 반 데이크, 성 'van Dijk'를 영어식으로 읽은 버질 반 다이크로도 알려져 있다. 네덜란드인 아버지와 수리남인 어머니 사이에서 태어난 판 데이크는 2011년 흐로닝언에서 프로 축구 선수 경력을 시작한 후 2013년 셀틱으로 이적했다. 셀틱에서 그는 스코티시 프리미어십 2회 우승, 스코티시 리그컵 1회 우승과 PFA 스코틀랜드 올해의 팀 2관왕을 달성했다. 2015년 그는 1500만 유로로 사우샘프턴 FC로 이적한 후 2018년 1월, 당시 역대 최고 수비수 이적료인 7,500만 파운드(약 8,500만 유로)로 사우샘프턴에서 리버풀로 이적했다. 그는 리버풀로 이적한 2017-18시즌 2017-18 UEFA 챔피언스리그 결승전에 진출해 준우승을 차지했고 2018-19 UEFA 챔피언스리그에서 다시 결승전에 진출해 우승을 달성했다. 2019-20 시즌 판 데이크는 리버풀의 30년만의 리그 우승을 이끌었고 2019년 FIFA 클럽 월드컵, 2019년 UEFA 슈퍼컵 우승을 달성했다. 클럽에서 얻은 우승들 외에 그는 개인적으로 2018-19 시즌 PFA 올해의 선수와 프리미어리그 시즌의 선수에 선정되었고 2019년 UEFA 올해의 선수에 선정된 첫 수비수, 발롱도르와 2019년 남성 베스트 플레이어 부문에서 모두 2등을 획득했다. 그는 2019, 2020, 2022년 국제 축구 선수 협회가 선정한 남자 축구 선수 베스트 11에 포함되었다. 판 데이크는 네덜란드 U-19 축구 국가대표팀과 U-21 축구 국가대표팀을 거친 후 2015년 네덜란드 축구 국가대표팀에 데뷔했다. 그는 2018년 3월 22일, 네덜란드 대표팀의 감독 로날트 쿠만에 의해 대표팀의 주장으로 임명되었고 2019년 UEFA 네이션스리그 결선 토너먼트에 출전해 대회에서 준우승을 달성했다. 그는 2022년 FIFA 월드컵에도 주장의 자격으로 출전했다. 초기 생애 버질 판 데이크는 1991년 7월 8일 네덜란드의 브레다에서 네덜란드인 아버지 론 판 데이크()와 할아버지가 중국인인 아프리카계 수리남인 어머니 헬런 힌 포 시우() 사이에서 태어났다. 그는 브레다의 케스테런()에서 어린 시절을 보냈으며 2살 어린 남동생, 10살 어린 여동생이 있다. 버질이 11살이 되었을 때 부모님이 별거하게 되면서 그는 아버지와 함께 생활하게 되었다. 그는 이후 어머니 헬런과 그의 동생들과 함께 살기로 결정했고 론은 버질을 포함한 가족들과 연락을 끊어버렸다. 어렸을 때부터 축구 선수가 되는 것을 꿈꿨던 버질은 길거리, 콘크리트로 만든 경기장, 그리고 토요일 아침에 있는 경기들 등 장소를 가리지 않고 축구를 했다. 그는 1997년 WDS'19 유소년팀에 입단하며 축구 선수 경력을 시작했고 8살에 빌럼 II 틸뷔르흐 유소년팀에 입단했다. 15살 무렵 그는 빌럼 II 틸뷔르흐와 프로 계약을 맺지 않은 상황이었기 때문에 돈을 벌기 위해 빌럼 II 틸뷔르흐 유소년팀에서 뛰면서 브레다의 한 음식점에서 설거지 아르바이트를 병행했다. 버질은 처음에 라이트백으로 뛰었으나 라이트백에 적합하지 않다는 평가를 받은 후 2008년 17살이 되었을 때 키가 약 18cm 증가하면서 센터백으로 포지션을 변경했다. 신체 성장과 포지션 전환에도 불구하고 빌럼 II 2군의 감독 에드빈 헤르만스는 그가 1군에서 활동하기에는 제약점이 너무 많다고 판단했다. 빌럼 II 1군의 감독 폰스 흐루넨데이크() 또한 버질을 1군에 기용하는 것에 회의적이었고 구단은 그에게 프로 계약을 제시하지 않았다. 버질은 빌럼 II를 떠났고 FC 흐로닝언에서 일하면서 그를 주시하고 있었던 마르틴 쿠만의 도움으로 2010년 19살의 나이에 자유계약으로 흐로닝언에 합류했다. 구단 경력 흐로닝언 2011년 5월 1일 ADO 덴하흐와의 경기에서 후반 72분 페테르 안데르손과 교체 출전해 호르닝언 1군 경기에 첫 출전한다. 호르닝언은 ADO 덴하흐를 상대로 4-2 승리를 거둔다. 2011-12 네덜란드 1부 리그 에레디비시에서 23경기 출전했고, 2011년 10월 30일 페예노르트와의 경기에서 후반 89분 첫 골을 기록했다. 이 경기에서 당시 호르닝언 소속인 석현준도 후반 90분 쐐기골을 넣었다. 호르닝언은 페예노르트 상대로 6-0 대승을 거뒀다. 이후 꾸준히 출전해 총 62경기 7골을 기록했다. 셀틱 2013-14 시즌 2013년 6월 21일, 약 260만 파운드의 이적료로 스코틀랜드의 셀틱 FC로 이적했다. 8월 17일 피토드리 스타디움에서 열린 애버딘과의 스코티시 프리미어십 원정 경기에서 후반 77분 에페 암브로스와 교체 출전해 데뷔했다. 셀틱은 애버딘을 상대로 2-0 승리를 거뒀다. 7일 뒤인, 8월 24일 인버네스 캘리도니언 시슬과의 홈 경기에서 첫 선발 출전했고, 76분 미카엘 루스티와 교체되어 그라운드를 빠져나왔다. 샐틱은 인버네스 캘리도니언 시슬을 상대로 2-2 무승부를 거뒀다. 11월 9일, 로스 카운티와의 원정 경기에서 선발 출전해 후반 41분, 53분 멀티골을 기록해 셀틱 소속으로 첫 골을 넣었고, 셀틱은 4-1 승리를 거뒀다. 12월 26일에는 세인트 존스톤 FC와의 원정 경기에서 경기가 시작한지 5분만에 골을 넣어 셀틱이 1-0으로 승리하는데 기여했다. 줄곧 좋은 경기력을 보인 판 데이크는 2013-14 PFA 스코틀랜드 올해의 팀(PFA Scotland Team of the Year)에 이름을 올렸다. 2014-15 시즌 2014년 7월 22일, UEFA 챔피언스리그 예선 2라운드 KR 레이캬비크와의 홈경기에서 판 데이크와 테무 푸키가 각각 2골씩 기록해 4-0으로 대승을 거둬, 셀틱은 합산 스코어 5-0으로 다음 라운드에 진출했다. 14-15 시즌 판 데이크의 첫 골은 11월 9일에 열린 애버딘과의 원정 경기에서 나왔다. 스테판 요한센이 전반 38분, 판 데이크가 후반 90분에 골을 넣어 애버딘을 상대로 2-1 승리를 거뒀다. 3주 뒤인, 2014-15 스코티시컵 4라운드 하트 오브 미들로디언과의 원정 경기에서 전반 29분, 후반 61분에 멀티골을 넣어 4-0으로 승리하는데 기여했다. 나흘 뒤, 파틱 시슬과의 홈경기에서 후반 60분 골을 기록하면서 이번 시즌 6호골을 기록했다. 2015년 1월 21일, 머더웰과의 홈경기에서 선발 출전해 전반 26분 선제골을 넣어 4-0 승리에 기여했고, 판 데이크는 시즌 7호골을 기록했다. 2월 26일, UEFA 유로파리그 32강 인터 밀란과의 2차전에서 선발 출전했지만, 전반 36분만에 경고 누적으로 퇴장받았다. 하지만, 셀틱은 잘 버텨냈지만 경기 끝나기 2분 전인 후반 88분에 프레디 과린에게 골을 먹혀 1차전 3-3, 2차전 1-0, 합산 스코어 4-3으로 8강 진출이 좌절되었다. 3월 8일, 2014-15 스코티시컵 8강전 던디 유나이티드와의 경기에서 전반 11분 폴 페이튼과의 충돌로 두 선수가 함께 퇴장당했다. 3월 18일, 스코티시컵 8강전 재경기에 선발 출전해 후반 91분에 쐐기골을 넣어 4-0 승리에 기여했다. 셀틱은 이 경기를 이김으로써 4강에 올라간다. 4월 19일, 햄던 파크에서 열린 스코티시컵 4강전 인버네스 캘리도니언 시슬과의 경기에서 전반 18분 판 데이크는 직접 프리킥으로 선제골을 넣었지만, 후반 58분 페널티킥으로 선제골을 먹혀 1-1로 전후반전이 끝나 연장전에 돌입했다. 연장전에서 96분 골을 먹혔지만, 103분에 욘 구이데티가 만회골을 넣었다. 하지만, 117분 다시 골을 먹혀 3-2로 경기는 끝나 셀틱은 트레블 도전은 결국 실패했다. 3일 뒤, 던디 유나이티드와의 원정 경기에서 후반 63분 직접 프리킥을 차 골을 넣어 2-1 승리에 기여했다. 사우샘프턴 2015년 9월 1일, 당시 사우샘프턴 감독 로날트 쿠만의 부름을 받아 프리미어리그의 사우샘프턴 FC과 약 1300만 파운드의 이적료와 함께 5년 계약을 맺었다. 2015-16 시즌 2015년 9월 12일 웨스트브로미치 앨비언과의 원정 경기에서 사우샘프턴 소속으로 첫 출전을 했고, 0-0 무승부를 거뒀다. 2주 뒤, 자신의 3번 째 프리미어리그 출전 경기인 스완지 시티와의 홈경기에서 선발 출전해 전반 11분 헤더로 첫 골을 넣었고, 사우샘프턴은 스완지를 3-1로 격파했다. 2016년 5월 7일, 판 데이크는 사우샘프턴과 6년 재계약을 맺었다. 2016-17 시즌 2017년 1월 22일, 사우샘프턴의 주장으로 임명되었다. 같은 날, 레스터 전에서 후반전 제이미 바디와 충돌해 발목 부상을 당해 시즌 아웃됐다. 2016-17 시즌을 성공적으로 보낸 후, 판 데이크는 리버풀 감독인 위르겐 클로프의 관심을 끌게 되었고, 판 데이크 역시 리버풀 이적을 호의적으로 생각해 이적이 성사될 것처럼 보였다. 하지만, 사우샘프턴 측은 공식 협상없이 리버풀이 불법적으로 접근했다면서 제소까지 하려고 하자 리버풀은 공개 사과를 하며 영입포기 의사를 밝혔다. 2017-18 시즌 2017년 9월 26일, 크리스털 팰리스과의 원정 경기에서 후반 87분 교체 출전했고, 1-0의 점수로 승리를 거뒀다. 2017년 12월 3일 레스터 전에서 선발 출전했지만, 태업이 의심될 정도의 경기력을 보여줬고, 사우샘프턴은 1-4로 대패했다. 리버풀 2017년 12월 27일, 리버풀은 구단 홈페이지를 통해 판 데이크의 영입 사실과 2018년 1월 1일부터 리버풀에 공식적으로 합류함을 알렸다. 이적료는 약 7500만 파운드로 수비수 사상 최고액 선수다. 2017-18 시즌 1월 5일 FA컵 3라운드 지역 라이벌 에버턴 전 선발 명단에 이름을 올려 데뷔전을 치렀다. 1-1로 팽팽히 맞서던 84분 헤딩으로 데뷔골이자 결승골을 넣으면서 팀의 다음 라운드 진출을 이끌었다. 판 데이크가 데뷔골을 넣음으로써 1901년에 빌 화이트(Bill White) 이후, 머지사이드 더비에서 데뷔골을 넣은 선수가 되었다. 2018년 5월 26일 2018 UEFA 챔피언스리그 결승전 레알 마드리드와의 경기에서 선발 출전해 좋은 수비력을 보여줬지만, 골키퍼 로리스 카리우스의 어이없는 실책 2차례로 리버풀은 1-3으로 패배해 준우승에 그치게 되었다. 2018-19 시즌 2018년 8월 20일, 크리스털 팰리스와의 원정 경기에서 센터백 조 고메스와 함께 호흡을 맞추며 2-0 승리를 이끌며 BBC 스포츠 스카이 스포츠 선정 MOM이 되었다. 얼마 후, 팬들이 선정한 리버풀 8월의 선수상을 받았다. 12월 2일, 라이벌 에버턴과의 경기에서 96분 판 데이크의 발리 슛팅이 골대를 맞고 나온 것을 디보크 오리기가 밀어 넣어 득점해 어시스트를 기록했고, 결국 1-0 승리를 거뒀다. 2018년 PFA 11월의 선수에 등극했다. 2019년 2월 27일, 왓퍼드와의 홈경기에서 헤더로만 멀티골을 넣어 5-0 대승에 기여했다. 다음 달, 챔피언스리그 16강 2차전 바이에른 뮌헨과의 경기에서 1골 1도움을 기록해 리버풀이 3-1로 승리하는데 기여했다. 리버풀은 합산 스코어 3-1(1차전 0-0)로 8강에 진출했다. 4월 20일, PFA 올해의 선수 후보 6명 중 한 명으로 선정됐으며, 리버풀 소속 사디오 마네도 후보 명단에 올랐다. 사흘 뒤, 리버풀 소속인 트렌트 알렉산더아널드, 사디오 마네, 앤드루 로버트슨과 함께 PFA 올해의 팀에 선정되었다. 2019년 4월 28일, 이번 시즌 세계 최고의 수비수로 극찬받았던 판 데이크가 PFA 올해의 선수상을 수상했다. 6월 1일, 2019 UEFA 챔피언스리그 결승전에 선발 출전해 손흥민의 빠른 드리블을 차단하는 등 좋은 활약을 펼쳐 리버풀의 2-0 승리에 기여했고, 리버풀은 2018-19 시즌 UEFA 챔피언스리그에서 우승을 차지하였다. UEFA는 챔스 결승전 MOM을 판 데이크로 선정했다. 2019-20 시즌 판 데이크는 2019년 8월 30일(한국시간) 새벽 모나코 그리말디 포럼에서 열린 2019-20 유럽축구연맹(UEFA) 챔피언스리그(UCL) 본선 조별리그 조추첨 겸한 시상식에 2018-19 시즌 UEFA 올해의 선수와 올해의 수비수를 수상하며 수비수 최초로 2관왕을 차지했다. 그리고 2019년 9월 24일, 2019 월드베스트 11 수비수 부문에 선정되었다. UEFA 챔피언스리그 우승 자격으로 참가한 2019년 UEFA 슈퍼컵과 FIFA 클럽 월드컵에서도 연달아 우승을 차지하였으며, 이후 2019-20 시즌 프리미어리그 우승까지 이뤄내었다. 2021-22 시즌 2021-22 시즌에는 잉글랜드 자국 컵 대회인 풋볼 리그 컵과 FA 컵 우승을 차례로 달성하였고, 이후 2022년 FA 커뮤니티 실드 우승까지 차지하면서 리버풀에서 좋은 활약을 보이고 있다. 2023-24 시즌 2023년 8월 1일, 판 데이크는 리버풀을 떠난 주장 조던 헨더슨의 뒤를 이어 리버풀의 새로운 주장으로 선임되었다. 국가대표 경력 2015년 10월 10일 UEFA 유로 2016 예선전 카자흐스탄과의 홈경기에 처음으로 네덜란드 국가대표 선수로 데뷔해 2-1 승리에 기여했다. 2018년 3월 22일 네덜란드의 감독 로날트 쿠만에 의해 네덜란드 대표팀의 새 주장이 되었고, 다음 날 잉글랜드와의 친선경기에서 주장으로서 첫 경기로 선발 출전했지만 0-1로 패배했다. 3월 26일, 스위스 스타드 드 주네브에서 열린 포르투갈과의 경기에서 발리 슛으로 국제전 첫 골을 넣어 3-0 승리에 기여했다. 10월 13일, 2018-19년 UEFA 네이션스리그 A 독일과의 경기에서 전반 30분에 헤더로 선제골을 넣어 3-0 승리에 기여했다. 개인사 판 데이크는 유니폼에 주로 성을 표기하는 다른 선수들과는 달리 프로 경력에 데뷔한 이후 성 '판 데이크()'가 아닌 이름 '버질()'을 유니폼에 사용하고 있다. 그의 외삼촌 스테번 힌 포 시우()는 이러한 이유가 판 데이크가 12살이었을 당시에 가족들을 완전히 떠난 아버지 론을 판 데이크가 용서하지 않았기 때문이라고 밝혔다. 판 데이크는 자신이 유니폼에 성 대신 이름을 사용하는 것에 관해 사적인 문제여서 자세한 것은 밝힐 수 없지만 아버지는 자신의 삶에 더 이상 존재하지 않는다라고 인터뷰했으며 아버지의 부재 이후 가정에 헌신한 어머니가 50세가 되었을 때 생일 선물로 브레다에 새로운 집을 구매해 주었다. 판 데이크는 20살 때 리커 노이트헤다흐트()를 만나 2017년 여름에 그녀와 결혼했다. 첫 아이가 2014년에 태어났고 현재 둘 사이에 4명의 아이들이 있다. 판 데이크의 어머니가 중국계 혈통을 가진 수리남인이어서 판 데이크는 수리남계 외에 중국계 혈통도 가지고 있다. 어머니가 가지고 있는 중국어식 성 '힌 포 시우()'는 1920년대에 중화민국 광둥성에서 네덜란드령 기아나로 이주한 판 데이크의 외증조부의 이름 '천훠슈()'에서 유래했다. 통산 기록 클럽 국가대표 국가대표 득점 기록 수상 내역 셀틱 (2013~2015) 스코티시 프리미어십 : 2013-14, 2014-15 스코티시 리그컵 : 2014-15 리버풀 (2018~ ) 프리미어리그 : 2019-20 FA컵 : 2021-22 EFL컵 : 2021-22 커뮤니티 쉴드 : 2022 UEFA 챔피언스리그 : 2018-19 UEFA 슈퍼컵 : 2019 FIFA 클럽 월드컵 : 2019 개인 발롱도르 : 2위 (2019) FIFA 올해의 선수 : 2위 (2019) UEFA 올해의 선수 : 2018-19 UEFA 올해의 팀 : 2018, 2019, 2020 PFA 올해의 선수 : 2019 PFA 올해의 팀 : 2018-19, 2019-20, 2021-22 프리미어리그 올해의 선수 : 2018-19 프리미어리그 이 달의 선수 : 18년 12월 UEFA 챔피언스리그 시즌의 스쿼드 : 2017-18, 2018-19, 2019-20, 2021-22 UEFA 챔피언스리그 최우수 수비수 : 2018-19 UEFA 네이션스리그 파이널 베스트 : 2019 PFA 스코틀랜드 올해의 팀: 2013-14, 2014-15 셀틱 올해의 선수 : 2013-14 소튼 올해의 선수 : 2015-16 리버풀 올해의 선수 : 2018-19 FIFPro 월드 11 : 2019, 2020, 2022 ESM 올해의 팀 : 2018-19, 2019-20, 2021-22 FSF 올해의 선수 : 2019 Alan Hardaker 트로피 : 2022 각주 외부 링크 프로필 - 리버풀 FC 공식 웹사이트 1991년 출생 살아있는 사람 수리남계 네덜란드인 중국계 네덜란드인 네덜란드의 남자 축구 선수 남자 축구 센터백 빌럼 II 틸뷔르흐의 축구 선수 FC 흐로닝언의 축구 선수 셀틱 FC의 축구 선수 사우샘프턴 FC의 축구 선수 리버풀 FC의 축구 선수 스코틀랜드의 외국인 남자 축구 선수 잉글랜드의 외국인 남자 축구 선수 네덜란드의 해외 진출 남자 축구 선수 네덜란드 남자 축구 국가대표팀 선수 네덜란드 남자 U-21 축구 국가대표팀 선수 프리미어리그의 축구 선수 에레디비시의 축구 선수 잉글랜드에 거주한 네덜란드인 스코틀랜드에 거주한 네덜란드인 2022년 FIFA 월드컵 참가 선수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil%20van%20Dijk

Virgil van Dijk

Virgil van Dijk (; born 8 July 1991) is a Dutch professional footballer who plays as a centre back and captains both Premier League club Liverpool and the Netherlands national team. Regarded as one of the best defenders in the world, he is known for his strength, leadership, speed and aerial ability. After beginning his professional career with Groningen, Van Dijk moved to Celtic in 2013. With Celtic he won the Scottish Premiership and was named in the PFA Scotland Team of the Year in both of his seasons with the club, and won the Scottish League Cup in the second. In 2015, he joined Southampton before signing for Liverpool in January 2018 for £75 million, a then-world-record transfer fee for a defender. With Liverpool, Van Dijk reached back-to-back UEFA Champions League finals in 2018 and 2019, winning the latter. He was also named PFA Players' Player of the Year and the Premier League Player of the Season in his first full season. Van Dijk later won the FIFA Club World Cup and UEFA Super Cup, and helped end the club's 30-year league title drought by winning the 2019–20 Premier League. He is the only defender to win the UEFA Men's Player of the Year Award, and has finished runner-up for both the Ballon d'Or and Best FIFA Men's Player, all in 2019. Van Dijk has also been selected in the FIFPRO Men's World 11 in three different years. Van Dijk represented the Netherlands at under-19 and under-21 levels. He made his senior international debut for the Netherlands in 2015 and assumed full captaincy of the national team in March 2018. The following year, Van Dijk captained the Netherlands to the final of the inaugural UEFA Nations League, where they finished runners-up. He also represented the side at the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Early life Virgil van Dijk was born on 8 July 1991 in Breda to a Dutch father, Ron Van Dijk, and a Afro-Surinamese mother, Hellen Chin Fo Sieeuw. He has a younger brother and sister, who are two and ten years younger than him respectively. He grew up in Kesteren, in the Haagse Beemden district of Breda. His father left the family when he was 11 years old. Van Dijk first lived with his father for a while before making the choice to go back to live with his mother. After which his father broke off contact. Growing up he would play football wherever he could – on the streets, in concrete cages, and eventually Saturday morning matches. He started playing football in the youth team at WDS'19 before joining Willem II at the age of 8. He combined his time playing at the Willem II academy with a part-time job as a dishwasher as a teenager. He said "I didn't have a contract at that time. I wasn't thinking I had no future in the game, but I also knew I had to work, to try to make money." Having previously and unsuccessfully featured as a right back, Van Dijk was shifted into a central defensive position in 2008, aged 17, after he grew in height by around 18 centimetres. Despite the positional shift and Van Dijk's physical growth, Willem II's reserve manager at the time Edwin Hermans believed he had "too many limitations" which prevented him from breaking into the first team. The club therefore did not want to offer him a contract. He left for FC Groningen at the age of 19 in 2010, on a free transfer, after being scouted by former Dutch international Martin Koeman, who was working for FC Groningen at the time. Club career Groningen Van Dijk initially struggled to break into Groningen's first team with club staff believing he was "overtired" after extensive playing time with Willem II's academy and reserve sides. He made his professional debut for the club on 1 May 2011, coming on as a 72nd-minute substitute for Petter Andersson during a 4–2 victory against ADO Den Haag. On 29 May, and against the same opposition, he made his first start for Groningen and scored his first professional goals, netting twice in a 5–1 win in a UEFA Europa League play-off match. During the 2011–12 Eredivisie season, Van Dijk made 23 league appearances for the Eredivisie team, and scored his first regular-season goal during the club's 6–0 victory over Feyenoord on 30 October 2011. He suffered a personal setback during the campaign, however, as soon after his 20th birthday he was admitted to hospital with advanced appendicitis, peritonitis and kidney poisoning. The ailments were previously not recognized by the medical staff of FC Groningen and the local hospital. He had an urgent life saving operation. He spent 13 days in hospital, lost nearly two stone a half stone and could not walk for 10 days. As he had been close to dying as a result of the medical emergency the hospital had even gone so far as to ask him to sign a "sort of will" in the event of his passing. It took Van Dijk a few months to fully recover. In the summer of 2012 he returned and joined the selection again. Despite the fact that the club had a changeable season, Van Dijk, who played in the center of defense together with veteran Kees Kwakman, excelled. In the summer of 2013, Van Dijk was a candidate to strengthen PSV's defense, but the club ultimately opted for Jeffrey Bruma as the new central defender. A transfer to Brighton & Hove Albion FC or FK Krasnodar, both of which wanted to meet the asking price of FC Groningen director Hans Nijland, were rejected by Van Dijk himself. Van Dijk, who actually preferred a transfer to a Dutch top club, contacted Marc Overmars himself via director Nijland and his agent to discuss a possible transfer to AFC Ajax. However, the club, which was on the market for a new central defender at the time, decided not to accept Van Dijk's advances and eventually signed Mike van der Hoorn from FC Utrecht. Celtic 2013–14 season On 21 June 2013, Van Dijk signed with Celtic for a fee of around £2.6 million, on a four-year deal including a 10% selling-on fee for Groningen. He made his debut on 17 August, replacing Efe Ambrose for the final 13 minutes of a 2–0 Scottish Premiership win over Aberdeen at Pittodrie Stadium. A week later, he made his first start, in a 2–2 draw with Inverness Caledonian Thistle at Celtic Park. On 9 November, Van Dijk scored his first Celtic goals, heading one in each half of a 4–1 win against Ross County. After a solo run, he scored the only goal of a victory over St Johnstone on 26 December. Van Dijk scored again on 26 January 2014, in a 4–0 win versus Hibernian for Celtic's 11th consecutive league win. On 25 February, he was sent off after 13 minutes of an eventual 2–1 loss at Aberdeen, for a professional foul on Peter Pawlett; it was Celtic's first defeat of the season. With Celtic having already won the league, Van Dijk netted again on 7 May to put his team 3–1 up away to St Johnstone, in an eventual 3–3 draw. He was one of three Celtic players named in the PFA Scotland Team of the Year. Van Dijk was nominated for the PFA Scotland Players' Player of the Year award, but lost out to fellow Celtic player Kris Commons. 2014–15 season On 22 July 2014, Van Dijk and Teemu Pukki each scored twice in a 4–0 home win over KR in a UEFA Champions League qualifier, putting their team into the next round 5–0 on aggregate. His first goal of the Premiership season came on 9 November, finishing from Stefan Johansen's last-minute corner for a 2–1 win at Aberdeen. Three weeks later, Van Dijk scored the first and last goals of Celtic's 4–0 win versus Heart of Midlothian in the fourth round of the Scottish Cup. Four days after that, his sixth goal of the season was enough for victory in a home match against Glasgow neighbours Partick Thistle. Van Dijk was again on target on 21 January 2015, opening a 4–0 home win over Motherwell. On 26 February, he was sent off in the 36th minute against Inter Milan for a foul on Mauro Icardi, as Celtic lost 1–0 on the night, 4–3 on aggregate in the last 32 of the UEFA Europa League. He was again sent off on 8 March in the Cup quarter-final away to Dundee United at Tannadice Park, receiving a red card after eleven minutes for a confrontation with Calum Butcher. His suspension for the following week's Scottish League Cup Final was overturned on appeal, as was that of Paul Paton, who was sent off when mistaken for Butcher. Van Dijk played the full 90 minutes of the final at Hampden Park, which Celtic won 2–0. On 18 March, Celtic's third consecutive match against Dundee United, Van Dijk scored in the last minute to confirm a 4–0 win in a Cup replay. On 19 April, Celtic contested the Cup semi-final against Inverness at Hampden, and Van Dijk opened the scoring with a free kick. After the dismissal of goalkeeper Craig Gordon, Celtic fell 3–2, ending their chance of a treble. Three days later, again from a free kick, he confirmed a 2–1 win away to Dundee. His team again won the league, and Van Dijk was included in the league's Team of the Season for the second consecutive campaign. He was again shortlisted for the PFA Scotland Players' Player award, but lost out to another teammate, this time Stefan Johansen. Van Dijk was reportedly "considering his future" in Glasgow after Celtic were knocked out of the 2015–16 UEFA Champions League in the qualifying rounds to Malmö of Sweden. Southampton 2015–16 season On 1 September 2015, the last day of the transfer window, Van Dijk signed a five-year contract with Premier League club Southampton, managed by Ronald Koeman, for a reported £13 million transfer fee. Fellow Premier League clubs Sunderland, Newcastle and Arsenal were also reportedly interested in the last hours of the transfer window. The transfer made him the most expensive Dutch defender since Jaap Stam, who went from Manchester United to Lazio in 2001 for more than €25 million. He made his debut for Southampton on 12 September in a 0–0 draw against West Bromwich Albion at The Hawthorns. Two weeks later, Van Dijk marked his third Premier League appearance with his first goal for the club, which came in the form of a header in the 11th minute to put Southampton in front, following a set-piece from James Ward-Prowse in a 3–1 home win over Swansea City. He was named player of the year by both his teammates and Southampton fans, for his first season. On 7 May 2016, Van Dijk signed a new six-year contract with the Saints. 2016–17 season On 22 January 2017, he was named team captain of Southampton, after the departure of José Fonte. On the same day, he suffered an ankle injury against Leicester City. This ruled him out of the 2017 EFL Cup Final, which Southampton lost to Manchester United at Wembley Stadium. After a successful 2016–17 season at Southampton, Van Dijk was subject to interest from top English clubs with Chelsea, Manchester City and Liverpool, reportedly interested. The latter of which apologised to Southampton for an illegal approach for the player after he had reportedly made clear his interest in a move to Liverpool. On 7 August 2017, Van Dijk handed in a transfer request to Southampton and released a statement along with it, emphasising his wish to join a different club in the transfer window. 2017–18 season Van Dijk remained with Southampton for the start of the 2017–18 season and made his first appearance since being injured in January, coming on as a late substitute in a 1–0 victory at Crystal Palace on 26 September. He made what turned out to be his final appearance for Southampton on 13 December 2017, in a 4–1 home defeat to Leicester. It was also his last appearance in any of Southampton's matchday squads, as he was omitted from the squad for the rest of his tenure at the club in light of speculation surrounding his future. Liverpool 2017–18 season On 27 December 2017, it was announced that Van Dijk would join Liverpool when the winter transfer window opened on 1 January 2018 for a reported fee of £75 million. Former club Celtic would receive 10% of Van Dijk's transfer fee, due to a sell-on clause placed in his Southampton contract. Southampton claimed the undisclosed transfer fee would constitute a world record fee in football for a defender. He made his debut for Liverpool on 5 January in the third round of the FA Cup and scored the winning goal with a late header in a 2–1 victory against local rivals Everton. In doing so, he became the first player since Bill White in 1901 to score on his debut in the Merseyside derby. Van Dijk and Dejan Lovren built a strong partnership at the heart of Liverpool's defence, with the Dutchman being credited for improving Liverpool's previous defensive issues. Van Dijk was included in the UEFA Champions League Squad of the Season, despite playing just half of the season in the Champions League, with the UEFA Technical Observers saying: "Van Dijk arrived at Anfield and provided composure and stability in the competition's knockout stages." Van Dijk played the full 90 minutes in the 2018 UEFA Champions League final against Real Madrid, which Liverpool lost 3–1. Van Dijk played 22 games in all competitions in his first season with the club, scoring once. 2018–19 season Van Dijk received the Liverpool Player of the Month award for his performances in August. On 2 December, Van Dijk was awarded an assist for the winning goal in a derby match against city rivals Everton. Liverpool won 1–0 thanks to Divock Origi's 96th-minute goal, set up by a Van Dijk volley and a subsequent error from Everton goalkeeper Jordan Pickford. The Dutchman was ultimately awarded the PFA Player of the Month for November 2018. On 21 December, Van Dijk scored his first goal in the Premier League for Liverpool in a 2–0 away win against Wolverhampton Wanderers. The Dutchman continued his impressive form in the 2018–19 season by winning the Premier League Player of the Month prize for December 2018. On 27 February 2019, Van Dijk scored twice in a 5–0 win against Watford. The following month, he scored once - his first goal in the Champions League for the club - and assisted another in a 3–1 win over Bayern Munich. On 20 April, he was one of six players nominated for the PFA Players' Player of the Year award alongside teammate Sadio Mané. Four days later, he was named in the PFA Team of the Year alongside Liverpool teammates, Trent Alexander-Arnold, Mané and Andrew Robertson. On 28 April 2019, he was named the PFA Players' Player of the Year. Following Liverpool's 2–0 victory over Tottenham in the 2019 UEFA Champions League final on 1 June, Van Dijk was named UEFA's man of the match. 2019–20 season In August 2019, Van Dijk won the UEFA Men's Player of the Year Award. On 2 September 2019, he was shortlisted in the final three of the best FIFA football awards. On 23 September 2019, he was voted runner-up in The Best FIFA Men's Player and into the FIFA FIFpro Men's World 11. In October 2019, Van Dijk was shortlisted as one in 30 football players for the Ballon d'Or. At the event in December, he finished runner-up behind Lionel Messi. On 21 December 2019, after missing the semi-final of the 2019 FIFA Club World Cup with illness, Van Dijk played in the final against Flamengo with Liverpool winning the trophy for the first time in the club's history. Van Dijk received further recognition following the turn of the year, when he was named in the 2019 UEFA Team of the Year. On 19 January 2020, Van Dijk scored his first North-West Derby goal against Manchester United in Liverpool's 2–0 win at Anfield in the Premier League. Over the course of the 2019–20 domestic campaign, Van Dijk started and completed every minute for Liverpool. Liverpool won the Premier League title in the 2019–20 season, their first top-flight title in 30 years. 2020–21 season On 12 September 2020, Van Dijk scored a headed goal against Leeds United on the opening day of the new season. On 17 October, he was substituted in the sixth minute of the Merseyside derby after a challenge from Everton goalkeeper Jordan Pickford. On the following day, it was announced that he had suffered an ACL injury in his right knee and would undergo surgery. Van Dijk was expected to be out from six to twelve months. On 30 October it was announced that the surgery on his injuries had been successful. Dutch national team coach Frank de Boer had hoped that Van Dijk would be able to make his return before UEFA Euro 2020, Van Dijk however decided that he should continue his rehabilitation so he could start the next season fully fit. 2021–22 season Van Dijk made his first appearance in over nine months on 29 July 2021, coming on as a second-half substitute in a pre-season friendly against Hertha BSC. On 13 August 2021, Van Dijk signed a new four-year contract, keeping him at the club until 2025. His first goal for Liverpool in over 14 months came against his former club Southampton, when he hit a volley from a corner. On 27 February 2022, Van Dijk helped Liverpool win the 2021–22 EFL Cup, scoring his penalty in the shoot-out over Chelsea after a goalless draw in normal time. His performances during the 2021–22 season earned him a place in the Premier League PFA Team of the Year. Van Dijk earned a runners-up medal in the 2021–22 UEFA Champions League, losing the final to Real Madrid, and was selected as part of the Team of the Season. Liverpool narrowly missed out on the chance to achieve a historic quadruple, coming second in the Premier League and the 2021–22 UEFA Champions League but winning both the EFL Cup and the FA Cup. 2022–23 season On 29 October 2022, Liverpool lost 2–1 at home to Leeds United which was Van Dijk's first home defeat at Anfield in the Premier League after 70 games since joining the club in January 2018. Van Dijk was criticised for a number of performances in the 2022–23 season but soon regained his authoritative defensive traits with a performance against Brentford which led to him being voted Man of the Match by users of BBC Sport. At the end of the 2022–23 season, Liverpool narrowly missed out on UEFA Champions League qualification. 2023–24 season On 31 July 2023, following the departure of Jordan Henderson, Van Dijk was named as Liverpool's new captain. On 27 August 2023, Van Dijk was given his first Liverpool red card following a foul on Newcastle United's Alexander Isak. Initially, Van Dijk refused to leave the pitch and swore at referee John Brooks. Van Dijk was handed a one-match ban for the contentious red card, but was given an additional game ban after he admitted to acting in an 'improper manner' towards a match official. He was also fined £100,000 for his use of abusive words. International career On 12 May 2010, Van Dijk made his debut for the Netherlands U19 in a friendly against South Korea U19. Then on 14 November 2011, Van Dijk made his debut for the Netherlands U21 in a qualifying match against Scotland U21 and played a further two friendlies for the team. Van Dijk was selected for the senior team three times in 2014, but did not make his debut that year. Van Dijk made his full international debut for Netherlands on 10 October 2015, in a 2–1 victory away from home against Kazakhstan in a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifier. Three days later, Van Dijk also played in the lost home game against the Czech Republic (2-3) and he and the Dutch national team missed out on final qualification for the 2016 European Championship in France. Due to an injury, he missed half of the qualifying matches played in 2016 and 2017 for the 2018 World Cup. The Netherlands failed to qualify for the World Cup. He was awarded the captaincy of his country by manager Ronald Koeman on 22 March 2018, and his first match as captain was a 1–0 home friendly defeat by England the next day. On 26 March, he scored his first international goal to conclude a 3–0 win over European champions Portugal at the Stade de Genève. On 13 October, he scored in a 3–0 win over 2014 World Cup champions Germany in the UEFA Nations League. More importantly, he scored the equaliser in the next match with Germany, after assistant coach Dwight Lodeweges sent him a small paper note during a break, with the request to play forward in the last minutes of the game. The goal enabled the Netherlands to win the group phase of the Nations League. He later captained his country to the final which they lost 1–0 against Portugal. In May 2021, Van Dijk ruled himself out of playing in the postponed UEFA Euro 2020 to have enough time to recover after a long-term injury since October 2020. In November 2022, Van Dijk was announced as the Dutch captain for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. He led his team to the top of the group stage with wins over Senegal and hosts Qatar. Van Dijk then led his team to the quarter finals where they lost on penalties to Argentina who later won the tournament. Style of play Van Dijk is a physically strong, right-footed centre back, who usually features on the left-hand side of central defence, although he can also play as a right-sided centre back. He is gifted with pace, good technique, and an eye for goal, and is an effective set-piece taker. Regarding his ability, former Celtic teammate Kris Commons commented that Van Dijk was "comfortable on the ball", also noting that "He had good technique and a wonderful right foot. He was good on set-pieces, some of the free-kicks he scored for Celtic are absolute wonders. He could read the game well. He had an aura about him, a confidence, because I think he knew he was good." Neil McGuinness, senior scout at Celtic when Van Dijk was signed, called him "everything you would want if you could create a profile of the ideal central defender", praising him as a "very smooth ball-playing defender" who possesses aerial prowess, skills from dead ball situations, and "strong leadership qualities", while commenting that since his move to England, he is "more tactically aware now [...] his anticipation and timing has improved and he is a lot more of an all-rounder". McGuinness believes Van Dijk's "biggest problem" is that he "can switch off when the game is comfortable". In 2018, Steve Douglas of The Globe and Mail described Van Dijk with the following words: "Powerful in the air, measured with the ball at his feet, quick, and with superb positional sense, van Dijk [sic] has it all." Dario Pergolizzi also described Van Dijk as a good marker in 2019. In a 2019 interview with Marca, when Lionel Messi was asked why Van Dijk was so difficult to beat, the Argentine responded: "He is a defender who knows how to judge his timing and wait for the right moment to challenge or jockey [the attacker]. He is very fast and big, but he has a lot of agility for his height. He is fast because of its [sic] great stride, and he is impressive both in defence and attack because he scores lots of goals." That same year, Paul Merson described Van Dijk as "the best in the world, and I think by a long way, as a defensive centre-half." In 2020, Vincent Kompany called Van Dijk the best centre back to ever appear in the Premier League, claiming the Liverpool "before Van Dijk and the other after him, it's a completely different setup". In 2022, Erling Haaland named Van Dijk the best defender he has played against, calling him "fast, strong and 'bad' smart", as well as praising his timing. In 2023, Ben Foster claimed that Van Dijk was the "best defender that has ever lived" during his pre-injury run with Liverpool. Sponsorship Van Dijk features as the cover star of the champions edition of EA Sports' FIFA video game FIFA 20. He is endorsed by sportswear company Nike. Personal life Van Dijk commonly uses only his first name on the kit. According to his uncle Steven, this is because of a family feud with his father who abandoned his family during Virgil's childhood. Van Dijk has said on the matter that "Nobody really knows the reason. What exactly happened is private and I won't tell the media. It's nobody's business. But my father is no longer in my life." Virgil met his wife Rike Nooitgedagt when he was 20 and they have been married since the summer of 2017. The couple's first child was born 2014, they now have four children. Van Dijk has Chinese ancestry. Hellen Chin Fo Sieeuw, his mother, is of part-Chinese descent. The Chinese surname 'Chin Fo Sieeuw' derives from the given name of his maternal great-grandfather, Chin Fo Sieeuw (陈火秀), who emigrated from Guangdong to Suriname around 1920. Career statistics Club International Netherlands score listed first, score column indicates score after each Van Dijk goal. Honours Celtic Scottish Premiership: 2013–14, 2014–15 Scottish League Cup: 2014–15 Liverpool Premier League: 2019–20 FA Cup: 2021–22 EFL Cup: 2021–22 FA Community Shield: 2022 UEFA Champions League: 2018–19 UEFA Super Cup: 2019 FIFA Club World Cup: 2019 Individual PFA Players' Player of the Year: 2018–19 PFA Team of the Year: 2018–19 Premier League, 2019–20 Premier League, 2021–22 Premier League PFA Player of the Month: November 2018 Premier League Player of the Season: 2018–19 Premier League Player of the Month: December 2018 Premier League Player of the Year by Northwest Football Awards: 2019 Alan Hardaker Trophy: 2022 UEFA Men's Player of the Year Award: 2018–19 UEFA Champions League Defender of the Season: 2018–19 UEFA Team of the Year: 2018, 2019, 2020 UEFA Champions League Squad of the Season: 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20 UEFA Champions League Team of the Season: 2021–22 UEFA Nations League Finals Team of the Tournament: 2019 Liverpool Fans' Player of the Season Award: 2018–19 Liverpool Players' Player of the Season Award: 2018–19 Southampton Player of the Season: 2015–16 PFA Scotland Team of the Year: 2013–14, 2014–15 Celtic Players' Player of the Year: 2013–14 FIFA FIFPRO World 11: 2019, 2020, 2022 IFFHS Men's World Team: 2019, 2020, 2022 IFFHS World Team of the Decade: 2011–2020 IFFHS UEFA Team of the Decade: 2011–2020 ESM Team of the Year: 2018–19, 2019–20, 2021–22 Football Supporters' Federation Player of the Year: 2019 References External links Profile at the Liverpool F.C. website Profile at the Royal Dutch Football Association website (in Dutch) 1991 births Living people Footballers from Breda Dutch men's footballers Men's association football defenders Willem II (football club) players FC Groningen players Celtic F.C. players Southampton F.C. players Liverpool F.C. players Eredivisie players Scottish Professional Football League players Premier League players UEFA Champions League winning players UEFA Men's Player of the Year Award winners Netherlands men's youth international footballers Netherlands men's under-21 international footballers Netherlands men's international footballers 2022 FIFA World Cup players Dutch expatriate men's footballers Expatriate men's footballers in England Expatriate men's footballers in Scotland Dutch expatriate sportspeople in England Dutch expatriate sportspeople in Scotland Dutch people of Chinese descent Dutch sportspeople of Surinamese descent

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%89%B4%EC%BA%90%EC%8A%AC%20%EC%9C%A0%EB%82%98%EC%9D%B4%ED%8B%B0%EB%93%9C%20FC%EC%9D%98%20%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC

뉴캐슬 유나이티드 FC의 역사

뉴캐슬 유나이티드 축구 클럽(, NUFC)은 잉글랜드 타인 위어 주 뉴캐슬어폰타인을 연고로 하는 프로 축구 클럽이다. 1892년 뉴캐슬 이스트 엔드가 뉴캐슬 웨스트 엔드를 인수·합병하면서 창단 되었으며, 창단 이후 계속해서 사용해오고 있는 홈구장인 세인트 제임스 파크(스포츠 다이렉트 아레나)는 52,404명을 수용할 수 있는데, 이는 잉글랜드 내에서 네 번째로 큰 규모이다. 현재 프리미어리그 소속으로, ‘맥파이스’(The Magpies)라는 별칭으로도 불린다. 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 잉글랜드 1부 리그(프리미어리그의 전신) 4회, 2부 리그(풋볼 리그 챔피언십 포함) 3회, FA 컵 6회의 우승 경력이 있으며, 1부 리그에서 마지막으로 우승한 때는 1927년이다. 유럽 대회에서 뉴캐슬 유나이티드가 보여준 가장 큰 성적은 1969년 인터시티스 페어스컵(현 UEFA 유로파리그)에서 우승한 것이다. 이 문서에서는 뉴캐슬 유나이티드의 역사에 대한 세부적인 내용을 설명하고 있다. 역사 창단과 전성기 (1881년~1914년) 1881년 11월 사우스 바이커의 스탠리 크리켓 클럽은 축구 클럽을 창단하기로 결정하고, 그들의 첫 경기를 당시 뉴캐슬 지역의 최초의 축구 클럽이었던 엘스위크 가죽 공장 축구 클럽과 가지며 5-0으로 승리한다. 1882년 10월 그들은 클럽 명칭을 이스트 엔드(East End FC)로 변경하였는데, 그러는동안 1882년 8월 도시 반대편에서도 다른 크리켓 클럽이 축구에 흥미를 보이며 웨스트 엔드(West End FC)라는 명칭으로 클럽을 창단을 하였고, 처음에는 크리켓 경기장에서 경기를 하다가 세인트 제임스 파크로 옮겨서 경기를 하였다. 웨스트 엔드는 곧 도시 최고의 클럽이 되었으며, 이에 위기를 느낀 이스트 엔드는 톰 왓슨을 감독으로 영입하면서 특히 스코틀랜드에서 좋은 선수를 영입하여 클럽을 강하게 만들기 시작한다. 그러면서 반대로웨스트 엔드는 점차 하향곡선을 그리게 된다. 1889년 노던 리그가 출범하고, FA컵이 인기를 끌기 시작하였다. 야망이 있었던 이스트 엔드는 1889년 프로로 전향하며 지역의 큰 클럽으로 도약하기 위해 1890년 유한 회사로 등록하는 등 인상적인 행보를 이어나간다. 이 와중에 웨스트 엔드는 심각한 위기에 빠져있었고, 단장은 더 이상 클럽을 유지하는 것이 힘들다고 결론을 내리게 된다. 결국 이스트 엔드는 웨스트 엔드를 인수하기로 하고, 몇몇 선수들과 대부분의 스태프들이 이스트 엔드로 옮겨가게 된다. 이스트 엔드는 세인트 제임스 파크 또한 인수하게 되는데, 1892년 새로운 클럽 명칭을 정하기로 하고 공식 회의를 통해 뉴캐슬 레인저스, 뉴캐슬 시티 등 여러 이름이 제시되었으나, 최종적으로 클럽 명칭은 뉴캐슬 유나이티드로 확정되었고, 12월 22일 잉글랜드 축구 협회는 이를 공식 승인하였다. 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 재능있는 선수들을 영입하기 시작하였는데, 특히 스코틀랜드 선수들을 많이 영입하면서 곧 잉글랜드 내에서 경쟁적인 스쿼드를 갖추게 되었고, 1900년대 들어와 1905년, 1907년, 1909년에 리그 우승을 3회 경험하였다. 이러한 전성기는 7년 간 5번 FA컵 결승전에 진출하면서 컵 대회에서도 계속되었다. 1905년, 1906년, 1908년, 1910년, 1911년에 FA컵 결승에 진출했는데, 하지만 정작 우승한 것은 1910년 구디슨 파크에서 반즐리를 상대했을 때 뿐이었다. 이 기간에 좋지 않은 기억이 있는데 바로 1908-09 시즌 지역 라이벌인 선덜랜드에게 1-9로 졌던 것이다. 선덜랜드는 아직도 최다 점수차 승리 기록을 이 기록으로 가지고 있다. 세계 대전 기간 (1919년~1946년) 제1차 세계 대전 이후 파란 많은 20세기의 와중에 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 1924년 FA컵 결승에 진출하였다. 이 경기는 역사상 두 번째로 웸블리 스타디움에서 열리는 결승전이었는데, 애스턴 빌라와 격돌하여 역사상 두 번째 FA컵 우승 트로피를 들어올렸다. 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 1927년에 네 번째로 리그 우승을 했는데 이것이 가장 최근의 리그 우승 기록이기도 하다. 이 때의 대표적인 선수들로, 주장이었던 휴이 갤러처(뉴캐슬 유나이티드 역사상 출장당 득점 비율이 가장 높은 선수), 닐 해리스, 스탠 시모어, 프랭크 허즈페스 등이 있는데, 이들은 이후 40년 간 선수로서, 감독으로서, 단장으로서 클럽에 기여를 하였다. 1932년 FA컵에서는 아스널을 상대로 2-1로 승리하여 우승하였다. 당시 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 새미 위버, 잭 앨른 그리고 사상 첫 선수겸 감독이었던 스코틀랜드 국가대표 선수 앤디 커닝엄과 같은 뛰어난 선수들을 보유하고 있었다. 하지만 웸블리에서 들어올린 두 개의 FA컵 우승 트로피에도 불구하고 뉴캐슬 유나이티드의 경기력은 곤두박질 쳤고, 결국 1934년 팀 역사상 첫 번째 강등을 겪게 된다. 2부 리그로 강등된 시즌, 놀랍게도 리버풀을 만나 9-2로, 에버턴을 만나 7-3으로 이기기도 하였다. 스탠 시모어가 단장을 맡아 제2차 세계 대전으로 인한 빈자리를 메꾸면서 클럽은 리빌딩 작업에 들어갔고, 뉴캐슬 유나이티드의 다음 전성기의 초석을 마련하였다. 제2차 세계 대전 이후 (1946년~1978년) 1945년 제2차 세계 대전이 끝나고, 스탠 시모어는 감독으로서 전면에 서서 클럽을 지휘하며 재키 밀번, 보비 코웰 그리고 조 하비, 보비 미첼 등 스타 선수들로 구성된 선수단을 꾸렸다. 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 전(戰) 후 2년을 2부 리그에서 보냈는데, 1946년 뉴포트 카운티에 13-0으로 승리하면서 클럽 최다 점수 차 승리 기록을 세웠고, 이 경기에서 데뷔전을 치렀던 렌 섀클턴은 6골을 넣으며 단일 경기 최다 득점 기록을 세웠다. 1948년 다시 1부 리그로 승격되었는데, 이 시즌 홈 경기 내내 평균 관중 57,000명이 입장하여 잉글랜드 연간 최다 관중 입장 기록을 세웠다. 1950년대에 들어와 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 5년 간 3번 FA컵을 우승하였다. 1951년 블랙풀을 2-0으로 이기고 우승하였고, 다음 해 아스널을 1-0으로 이기고 우승, 1955년 맨체스터 시티를 3-1로 이기고 우승하였다. 이에 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 전국적으로 유명한 클럽이 되었고, 재키 밀번을 포함하여 보비 미첼, 프랭크 브레넌, 아이버 브로디스, 렌 화이트, 웨일스 선수인 아이버 앨처치 등이 유명세를 탔다. 그러나 이러한 스타 선수들을 보유하고 있었음에도 불구하고, 1950년대 후반 클럽은 삐걱대기 시작하며, 논란이 많았던 맨체스터 유나이티드 출신의 찰리 미튼 감독을 선임하였다가 결국 2부 리그로 강등된다. 1965년, 제2차 세계 대전 이후 오랜 기간 주장을 맡았던 조 하비가 감독이 되어 뉴캐슬 유나이티드를 부활시키기 위하여 돌아왔고, 스탠 시모어와 협력하여 클럽을 재정비한 후 2부 리그 우승 트로피를 들어올렸다. 이후의 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 대승을 하거나 대패를 하거나 예측하기 어렵고 일정하지 않은 모습을 보여주었는데, 그럼에도 늘 잠재력을 가지고 있었다. 조 하비가 이끄는 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 1968년 클럽 역사상 처음으로 유럽 대회에 진출했고, 모두를 놀라게 하며 다음 해 인터시티스 페어스컵(1971년 폐지)에서 스포르팅 리스본, 페예노르트, 레알 사라고사, 레인저스를 차례로 격파하며 결승에 올랐고, 결승에서는 헝가리의 뉴 페스트를 1, 2차전에서 모두 이기며 우승 트로피를 들어올렸다. 이 우승이 뉴캐슬의 첫 유럽타이틀이고 웨일스 출신이었던 윈 데이비스처럼 특급 스트라이커가 등번호 9번을 물려 받는 전통도 시작되었다. 성공적인 유럽 대회의 여세를 몰아 다음 해 하비는 팬들을 흥분시킬만한 여러 계약을 마무리 지었다. 지미 스미스, 토니 그린, 테리 히비트 등이 바로 그들이었고, 그 중 특히 말콤 맥도널드가 팬들에게 가장 인기가 많았다 . ‘슈퍼맥’(Supermac)이라는 별명을 갖고 있던 말콤 맥도널드는 아직까지도 뉴캐슬 유나이티드 팬들에게 많은 사랑을 받고 있는 선수 중 한명이다. 그가 공격을 이끌던 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 1974년 리그 컵 결승에 진출했으나, 리버풀에 막혀 타인사이드로 우승 트로피를 가져오는 데에는 실패하였고, 결국 1975년 중반 조 하비는 팬들의 압박에 사임하였다. 작은 위안이 있다면 1974년과 1975년 연속으로 텍사코 컵에서 우승하였던 것이다 . 1975-76 시즌 블랙번 로버스의 감독이었던 고든 리가 조 하비를 대신하여 감독으로 취임했으나 보통 수준의 경기력을 보여줬고, 1976년 리그 컵 결승에 진출하였지만 맨체스터 시티에 패배하여 우승에는 실패하였다. 1976-77 시즌 말콤 맥도널드를 아스널에 파는 등의 논란이 있었지만, 시즌 초반부터 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 좋은 경기력을 보이며 크리스마스 즈음 우승도 넘볼 수준에 이른다. 하지만, 고든 리가 1977년 초 에버튼으로 불쑥 떠나버렸고, 고든 리의 자리에는 감독 경험이 전무했던 코치 리처드 디니스가 선수들의 요청에 의해 감독을 맡는다. 디니스의 아래에서 선수들은 꾸준한 실력을 보이며 5위로 시즌을 마감, UEFA컵 진출권을 획득한다. 그러나 다음 시즌 디니스는 리그에서 10연패를 하고, UEFA컵에서도 좋지 않은 성적을 보였고, 결국 디니스의 후임으로 빌 맥개리가 감독으로 선임되었지만, 심각하게 하강기를 겪었고 급기야 2부 리그로 강등 되기에 이른다. 양 리그 사이에서의 분투 (1978년~1992년) 빌 맥개리는 계속해서 감독직을 맡았으나 클럽 성적은 중위권에 맴돌았고, 결국 1980-81 시즌 해임되었다. 이후 1982년 아서 콕스가 감독을 맡아 잉글랜드 국가 대표 주장이었던 케빈 키건을 영입하는 등 돌풍을 일으키며 1부 리그로 승격시켰다. 케빈 키건은 타인사이드 팬들의 마음을 사로잡으며 뉴캐슬 유나이티드가 리그 순위 상위권을 차지하는 데 큰 영향을 끼친다. 이 때 키건과 함께 피터 비어슬리, 크리스 워들과 같은 젊은 선수들 뿐만 아니라 테리 맥더못과 같은 경험 많은 선수들이 클럽의 주축이 되었다. 이러한 성공적인 행보에도 불구하고 재계약과 관련하여 클럽 운영진과 입장 차이를 좁히지 못한 아서 콕스 감독은 감독직에서 물러나게 된다. 이 시기에 잉글랜드 축구 최고 유망주였던 폴 개스코인이 입단하였고, 감독에는 잭 찰턴이 임명 된다. 그러나 찰턴의 감독 수행 기간은 얼마 가지 못하였고, 1년 후 윌리 맥폴 감독이 선임된다. 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 1부 리그에서 입지를 다지기는 했지만, 클럽 내 간판 선수인 피터 비어슬리를 리버풀에, 폴 개스코인을 토트넘 홋스퍼에 팔면서 클럽 운영진과 감독의 불화설이 나돌았고, 팬들 또한 불안감에 휩싸이게 된다. 이는 곧 1988-89 시즌 초 윌리 맥폴이 해고 되면서 확실한 증거로 나타났고, 새로 선임된 감독 짐 스미스는 클럽을 잘 추스리려 했지만, 리그 최하위로 시즌을 마감하고 2부 리그로 강등 된다. 1989-90 시즌 다시 회복세를 보이기는 하였으나, 시즌 내내 분투했음에도 불구하고 바로 승격되지 못하고, 한 순위가 부족하여 플레이 오프를 치렀는데 라이벌 선덜랜드에 패배하여 결국 승격에 실패한다. 다음 시즌 초 결국 짐 스미스는 사임하였고, 클럽은 2부 리그 중위권에 맴돌게 된다. 아르헨티나 출신의 오스발도 아르딜레스가 감독에 선임되었지만, 2년 동안 끔찍한 성적을 보여주며 1992년 해임되었고, 클럽은 3부 리그로 강등 될 위기에 처한다. 강등을 피하기 위해 뉴캐슬 유나이티드에는 구원자가 필요했고, 그 구원자는 바로 존 홀 경과 케빈 키건이었다. 1992년 케빈 키건이 오스발도 아르딜레스를 대신하기 위해 단기 계약으로 뉴캐슬 유나이티드 감독으로 선임되었고, 존 홀 경이 클럽을 인수하였다. 강등을 피하기 위해서는 포츠머스와의 홈 경기와 레스터 시티와의 원정 경기를 둘 다 이겨야 했는데, 다행히도 레스터 시티의 자책골 덕분에 레스터 시티전에서 지더라도 잔류할 수 있게 되었다. 프리미어리그 초창기 (1992년~1999년) 존 홀 경은 클럽을 유럽 최고의 클럽으로 만들기 위해 노력하였는데, 케빈 키건을 감독으로 계속 신임함과 동시에 롭 리, 앤드류 콜과 같은 선수들을 영입하였다. 1992-93 시즌이 개막하고, 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 그림스비 타운에게 0-1로 지기 전까지 11경기 연속 승리를 거두었는데, 이 기록은 잉글랜드 리그 기록인 13경기 연속 승리에 두 경기에 모자란 기록이었다. 흥미진진한 공격 축구를 구사하며 그림스비 타운 원정에서 2-0 승리를 거두어 우승을 확정지었고, 프리미어리그로 승격되었다. 키건의 지휘 아래 그들은 감각적인 공격 능력으로 성공적인 시즌을 이어갔으며 프리미어리그로 복귀한 시즌인 1993-94 시즌 리그 3위를 기록하였다. 스카이 스포츠는 키건의 공격 축구를 보고 뉴캐슬 유나이티드에 ‘엔터테이너’란 별명을 붙이기도 하였다. 다음 시즌, 클럽의 최다 득점자였던 앤드류 콜을 맨체스터 유나이티드에 팔았고, 6위로 그 시즌을 마쳤다. 1995-96 시즌 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 유명 선수들을 영입하며 선수단 보강에 힘썼는데 파우스티노 아스프리야, 다비드 지놀라, 레스 퍼디낸드, 앨런 시어러를 영입하였고, 앨런 시어러의 이적료는 당시 클럽 사상 최고 이적료였던 1,500만 파운드였다. 이 시즌 리버풀에 3-4로 졌던 경기는 프리미어리그 역사상 가장 재미있는 경기로 꼽히기도 한다. 시즌 내내 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 프리미어리그 우승에 아주 근접해있었고, 한 때 맨체스터 유나이티드에 승점 12점을 앞서기도 했으나 결국 맨체스터 유나이티드에게 우승을 빼앗기고 만다. 이를 이유로 케빈 키건 감독은 사임하였다. 뉴캐슬 유나이티드의 다음 감독 자리는 케니 달글리시와 네덜란드 출신의 뤼트 휠릿 두 감독이 짧은 기간 동안 맡았는데, 1998년과 1999년 2년 연속 FA컵 결승에 올라갔지만, 두번 모두 우승에는 실패하였다. 케니 달글리시는 클럽 역사상 최초로 UEFA 챔피언스리그에 진출하여 바르셀로나를 3-2로 꺾는 등 좋은 모습을 보였으나, 조별 리그에서 다음 단계로 올라가는 데는 실패했고, 이로 인해 리그 경기력도 쇠퇴하여 13위로 시즌을 마무리 하게 된다. 달글리시는 곧장 해임되었고, 이를 이어 뤼트 휠릿이 지휘봉을 잡았으나 앨런 시어러 그리고 주장 롭 리와 원만한 관계를 유지하지 못한 채 금방 해임되었다. 롭슨에서 뢰더까지 (1999년~2007년) 1999년 9월 뤼트 휠릿을 대신하여 전 잉글랜드 국가대표팀 감독이었던 보비 롭슨 경이 감독으로 임명되었다. 롭슨은 첫 번째 홈 경기를 셰필드 웬즈데이를 8-0으로 꺾으며 좋은 시작을 보였는데, 이는 아직도 뉴캐슬 유나이티드의 홈 경기 최다 점수차 승리 기록으로 남아 있다. 좋은 경기력을 펼친 롭슨의 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 프리미어리그에 잔류할 수 있었고, 여세를 몰아 2001-02 시즌에는 4위를 차지하면서 오랜만에 UEFA 챔피언스리그에 진출할 수 있게 되었다. 다음 시즌인 2002-03 시즌에도 3위를 기록하였지만, 다음 시즌 UEFA 챔피언스리그 예선에서 패배하여 UEFA 컵 준결승에 올랐고, 2002-03 시즌 5위를 기록하며 UEFA 챔피언스리그 진출권 획득에 실패하는 등 실망스러운 시즌을 보낸다. 결국 2004-05 시즌에도 좋지 않은 시작을 보이며 보비 롭슨 경은 경질되었다. 보비 롭슨 경은 2009년 사망하였는데, 클럽에서는 추모 경기를 가지는 한편 뉴캐슬 유나이티드 팬들에게는 존경의 대상이며 최고의 감독으로 꼽히고 있다. 그 이후 블랙번 로버스의 감독이었던 그레엄 수네스가 롭슨을 대신하여 감독으로 취임하였지만, 많은 문제를 일으키며 14위에 머문다. 14위는 그 당시 뉴캐슬 유나이티드가 프리미어리그에서 기록한 가장 낮은 순위였다. 다음 시즌인 2005-06 시즌 알베르 루케를 1,000만 파운드에, 마이클 오언을 클럽 최다 이적료인 1,600백만 파운드에 영입하였다. 마이클 오언과 앨런 시어러는 좋은 호흡력으로 득점을 만들어냈지만, 오언은 다음 2시즌 대부분을 부상으로 보냈고, 루케 또한 부상으로 이렇다한 활약을 보이지 못하였다. 결국 그 해 성적은 강등권에 머물렀고, 수네스는 자신의 무능력함을 여실히 증명하며 2006년 2월 2일 전격 경질되었다. 수네스를 이어 글렌 뢰더가 감독 대행을 맡았다. 뢰더는 2005-06 시즌이 끝날 때쯤 클럽 순위를 15위에서 6위까지 올려놓으며 이를 인정받아 2년 정식 계약을 체결하였고, 앨런 시어러는 이 시즌에 재키 밀번의 최다 득점 기록인 200골을 넘기며 클럽 최고 득점 기록을 경신하였다. 시즌이 끝나고 시어러는 은퇴하였는데, 그때의 골 수는 206골이었다. 2006년 UEFA 인터토토컵을 우승하였지만, 2006-07 시즌 선수들의 잦은 부상 등 악재가 겹쳐 좋은 성적을 보이지 못하자 뢰더는 2007년 5월 6일 상호 협의 아래 감독 자리에서 내려왔다. 5월 15일 볼턴 원더러스의 감독이었던 샘 앨러다이스를 선임하였는데, 이것은 프레디 셰퍼드가 단장으로서 한 마지막 행보였다. 그리고 그 해 6월 7일에 마이클 애슐리에게 그의 마지막 주식을 모두 팔고 크리스 모트에게 단장 자리를 넘겨주었다. 마이클 애슐리, 그리고 강등 (2007년~2010년) 마이클 애슐리는 존 홀 경 시절보다 더욱 강력한 클럽을 만들기를 원했다. 2007-08 시즌 샘 앨러다이스는 자신의 친정팀인 볼턴 원더러스와의 경기에서 3-1로 승리하는 등 출발은 좋았으나, 약체 더비 카운티에게 패하는 등 부진을 거듭하였고, 팬들의 압박 속에 2008년 1월 9일 경질 되었다. 1월 16일, 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 케빈 키건을 다시 감독직으로 불러들인다는 놀라운 결정을 한다. 키건이 1997년 1월 8일 클럽을 떠난 지 11년 8일만이었다. 이 결정은 팬들에게 큰 희망을 가져다 주었다. 나아가 2008년 1월 데니스 와이즈를 풋볼 디렉터로, 토니 히메네즈를 부단장(선수 영입 담당)으로, 제프 베테레를 기술직으로 영입하는데, 이는 키건을 보조하기 위해 대륙의 축구 운영 방식을 접목시킨다는 계획으로, 감독이 선수 영입을 요청하기 전에 이들에게 초본을 작성한다는 방식이었다. 같은 해 7월 마이클 애슐리의 오랜 파트너였던 데릭 램바이어스가 크리스 모트를 대신하여 단장 자리를 맡았다. 2007-08 시즌의 여름 이적 시장이 막을 내린 후 9월 4일 키건은 클럽 운영진과 3일 간의 회담 끝에 “새로 취임한 운영진의 관리 아래에선 감독을 제대로 맡을 수 없다”며 감독직을 사임한다 이 때 키건을 사임하게 만든 클럽 운영진, 특히 데니스 와이즈와 마이클 애슐리에 대한 비판이 팽배하여 키건이 사임하던날 세인트 제임스 파크 밖에서는 대규모 시위가 열렸고 이것은 다음 홈 경기인 헐 시티와의 경기에서 더 심해졌다. 또한 알렉스 퍼거슨 경과 아르센 벵거 같은 다른 프리미어리그의 감독들도 키건의 사임과 관련하여 클럽 운영진들을 비판하였다. 결국 마이클 애슐리는 계속된 팬들의 압박에 구단을 매각하기로 결정한다. 2008년 9월 26일부터 조 키니어가 임시 감독을 맡게 되었는데, 이 계약은 마이클 애슐리가 구단을 매각할 때까지만 감독을 맡는다는 것이었지만, 10월 한 달 계약 연장을 하였고, 곧 시즌 종료까지 지휘를 맡게 되었다. 그리고 그 해 12월 마이클 애슐리는 적절한 새 구단주를 찾지 못했다는 성명서를 발표하였고 구단을 팔기로 한 결정은 폐기되었다. 애슐리는 성명서를 통해 자신은 아직도 뉴캐슬 유나이티드에 대해 큰 애정을 갖고 있으며 클럽이 더 나은 길을 찾아가기 위해 무엇이든 할 것이라고 밝혔다. 조 키니어와 정식 계약을 체결하려 했지만 2009년 2월 키니어는 자신이 항상 갖고 있던 심장 문제로 심장 수술을 받게 되었고, 요양을 위하여 감독직을 사임한다. 2009년 4월 1일 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 당시 BBC의 《매치 오브 더 데이》 고정 패널을 맡고 있던 앨런 시어러를 클럽을 강등에서 구해내기 위하여 임시 감독으로 임명하였는데, 이는 모두를 깜짝 놀라게 하는 감독 선임이었다. 시어러가 감독직을 맡음과 동시에 논란의 중심에 있었던 데니스 와이즈는 클럽을 떠났고, 클럽 운영진은 풋볼 디렉터라는 직책은 다시 생기지 않을 것이라고 발표하였다. 북동부의 프리미어리그 세 클럽인 뉴캐슬 유나이티드, 선덜랜드, 미들즈브러는 강등권 사투를 벌이고 있었고, 시어러의 임명에도 불구하고 뉴캐슬 유나이티드 리그 마지막 경기에서 애스턴 빌라에 0-1로 지며 그들의 프리미어리그 역사상 첫 강등을 확정짓게 된다. 강등 이후 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 많은 선수들이 떠났고, 마이클 애슐리 구단주는 클럽을 매각하겠다는 발표를 하였으며, 감독인 시어러의 거취 문제 등으로 인해 조용할 날이 없었다. 거기에 프리시즌 경기에서의 1-6 대패와 보비 롭슨 경의 사망은 분위기를 더욱 악화시켰다. 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 풋볼 리그 챔피언십에서 2009-10 시즌을 시작한다. 앨런 시어러는 결국 정식 감독이 되지 못하였고, 코치였던 크리스 휴턴이 임시로 지휘봉을 잡는다. 여러 언론들은 뉴캐슬 유나이티드의 전망을 비관적으로 바라봤고, 프리미어리그로의 승격은 힘들어 보였다. 그러나 크리스 휴턴은 뛰어난 지도력으로 리그 초반 뉴캐슬 유나이티드를 1위에 올려 놓았고, 그 공을 인정받아 정식 감독으로 임명되었고, 동시에 마이클 애슐리 구단주는 클럽 매각 계획도 철회한다. 그리고 2009년 4월 5일 시즌 종료 5경기를 남겨두고 승격을 확정 지었으며, 우승을 차지, 1시즌 만에 프리미어리그로 승격에 성공한다. 승격 이후 (2010년~ ) 2010-11 시즌 1라운드 맨체스터 유나이티드와의 경기를 통해 프리미어리그 복귀전을 치른 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 그 이후 홈에서 애스턴 빌라에 6-0 대승을 거두며 돌풍을 예고했고, 지역 라이벌인 선덜랜드, 강호 아스널 등에 승리를 거두며 한시적으로 5위에 올라서기도 했다. 하지만 이러한 성과에도 불구하고 2010년 11월 6일 웨스트 브로미치 앨비언과의 경기 후 크리스 휴턴 감독은 경험이 많지 않다는 이유로 해고된다. 이후 새 감독으로 앨런 파듀가 선임되었고, 얼마 지나지 않아 겨울 이적 시장에서 공격수 앤디 캐럴을 리버풀에 3,500만 파운드에 팔아버리자 팬들의 분노는 극에 달한다. 이런 안좋은 분위기에 경기력까지 저하된 뉴캐슬 유나이티드의 미래는 상당히 암울해 보였다. 하지만 앨런 파듀 감독은 클럽을 잘 추스렸고, 그 시즌을 12위로 마감하였다. 한편, 이 시즌 최고의 경기로 아스널과 4-4로 비긴 경기가 뽑히기도 하였다. 2011-12 시즌 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 주장인 케빈 놀런과 호세 엔리케, 조이 바턴 등 전 시즌의 주력 선수들을 내보내고 아템 벤 아르파, 요앙 카바예, 실뱅 마르보, 가브리엘 오베르탕을 영입하여 이른바 ‘프렌치 커넥션’(French Connection)을 형성한다. 또한 전 시즌 웨스트 햄 유나이티드에서 좋은 활약을 펼쳤던 공격수 뎀바 바를 자유 계약으로 영입하였음에도 언론은 주력 선수들이 빠져나간 뉴캐슬 유나이티드의 전망을 밝게 보지 않았다. 그러나 그런 전망을 비웃기라도 하듯, 이적생들의 활약에 힘입어 12 라운드 맨체스터 시티 전에서 패하기까지 11경기 무패를 기록한다. 이후 주력 선수들의 부상으로 잠시 주춤했지만, 숙적이였던 맨체스터 유나이티드를 상대로 11년만에 승리를 거두었고, 겨울 이적 시장에서 SC 프라이부르크의 파피스 시세를 데려오며 공격력을 보강한다. 새로운 9번 파피스 시세는 득점 행진을 이어가며 클럽의 상승세를 이끌었고, 이에 힘입어 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 시즌 막판까지 아스널, 토트넘 홋스퍼와 UEFA 챔피언스리그 진출권을 따내기 위해 경쟁하였지만, 5위를 기록하여 UEFA 유로파 리그 진출권을 획득하며 2006-07 시즌 이후 오랜만에 유럽 대회에 출전하게 되었다. 2012-13 시즌 9월 뉴캐슬 유나이티드는 앨런 파듀 감독과 8년 계약을 체결하였다. 역대 단장 각주 같이 보기 뉴캐슬 유나이티드 FC의 기록과 통계 목록 뉴캐슬 유나이티드 FC의 유럽 대회 기록 외부 링크 뉴캐슬 유나이티드 공식 웹사이트 뉴캐슬 유나이티드 FC

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Newcastle%20United%20F.C.

History of Newcastle United F.C.

The history of Newcastle United Football Club, an English professional association football club based in Newcastle upon Tyne, North East England, covers the club's entire history from its formation to the present day. Formed by a merger between Newcastle East End and Newcastle West End to become 'United' in 1892, the club was elected to the Football League, which they entered in 1893. Newcastle are England's 9th most successful club of all time. They have been English champions four times (in 1905, 1907, 1909, 1927) and FA Cup winners six times (in 1910, 1924, 1932, 1951, 1952, 1955). The club have also won the 1909 Charity Shield, the 1968–69 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, and the 2006 Intertoto Cup. Newcastle have reached the League Cup final twice, finishing runners-up in both years ( 1976 and 2023). They have played in England's top league from 1898–1934, 1948–61, 1965–78, 1984–89, 1993–2009, 2010–2016, and 2017–present, playing in the second tier at all other times. The creation (1881–1895) The first record of football being played on Tyneside dates from 3 March 1877 at Elswick Rugby Club. Later that year, Newcastle's first association football club, Tyne Association, was formed. The origins of Newcastle United Football Club itself can be traced back to the formation of a football club by the Stanley Cricket Club of Byker in November 1881. They won their first match 5–0 against Elswick Leather Works 2nd XI. The team was renamed Newcastle East End F.C. in October 1882, to avoid confusion with the cricket club in Stanley, County Durham. Shortly after this, another Byker side, Rosewood FC, merged with East End to form an even stronger side. Meanwhile, across the city, West End Cricket Club began to take an interest in football and in August 1882, they formed Newcastle West End F.C. West End played their early football on their cricket pitch, but in May 1886, the club moved into St James' Park. The two clubs became rivals in the Northern League. In 1889, Newcastle East End became a professional team, before becoming a limited company the following March. West End soon became the city's premier club. East End were anxious not to be left behind and lured Tom Watson into becoming the club secretary/manager in the close season of 1888 and from that point, never looked back; Watson made several good signings, especially from Scotland, and the Heaton club went from strength to strength, while West End's fortunes slipped dramatically. The region's first league competition was formed in 1889 and the FA Cup began to cause interest. Ambitious East End turned professional in 1889, a huge step for a local club, and in March 1890, they made an even more adventurous move by becoming a limited company with capital of 1,000 pounds in ten shilling notes. During the spring of 1892, in a season during which their results were at an all-time low, and in which they had lost to their bitter rivals, East End, five times, West End found themselves in serious trouble. They approached East End with a view to a take over, the directors having decided that the club could no longer continue. What actually happened was that West End wound up, while some of its players and most of its backroom staff joined East End. East End also took over the lease on St. James' Park in May 1892. With only one senior club in the city for fans to support, development of the club was much more rapid. Despite being refused entry to the Football League's First Division at the start of the 1892–93 season, they were invited to play in their new Second Division. However, with no big names playing in the Second Division, they turned down the offer and remained in the Northern League, stating "gates would not meet the heavy expenses incurred for travelling". In a bid to start drawing larger crowds, Newcastle East End decided to adopt a new name in recognition of the merger. Suggested names included Newcastle F.C., Newcastle Rangers, Newcastle City and City of Newcastle, but Newcastle United was decided upon on 9 December 1892, to signify the unification of the two teams. The name change was accepted by the Football Association on 22 December, but the club was not legally constituted as Newcastle United Football Club Co. Ltd. until 6 September 1895. At the start of the 1893–94 season, Newcastle United were once again refused entry to the First Division and so joined the Second Division, along with Liverpool and Woolwich Arsenal. They played their first competitive match in the division that September against Woolwich Arsenal, with a score of 2–2. The first glory era (1895–1914) Turnstile numbers were still low, and the incensed club published a statement claiming "The Newcastle public do not deserve to be catered for as far as professional football is concerned". However, eventually figures picked up by 1895–96, when 14,000 fans watched the team play Bury. That season Frank Watt became secretary of the club, and he was instrumental in promotion to the First Division for the 1898–99 season. However, they lost their first game 4–2 at home to Wolves and finished their first season in thirteenth place. In 1903–04, the club built up a promising squad of players, and went on to dominate English football for almost a decade, the team known for their "artistic play, combining team-work and quick, short passing". Newcastle started to purchase talented players, especially from Scotland, and soon had a squad to rival all of England. With players like Colin Veitch, Jackie Rutherford, Jimmy Lawrence and Albert Shepherd, Newcastle had a team of international talent. Bill McCracken, Jimmy Howie, Peter McWilliam and Andy Aitken were also household names in their day. Long after his retirement, defender Peter McWilliam said "The Newcastle team of the 1900s would give any modern side a two goal start and beat them, and further more, beat them at a trot". Newcastle United went on to win the League on three occasions during the 1900s: in 1904–05, 1906–07 and 1908–09. Newcastle reached five FA Cup finals in the years leading up to World War I. In 1904–05, they nearly did the double, losing to Aston Villa in the 1905 FA Cup Final. They were beaten again the following year by Everton in the 1906 FA Cup Final. They reached the final again in 1908 where they lost to Wolves. In 1908 the team suffered a record 9–1 home defeat to local rivals Sunderland in the league but still won that season's league title. They finally won the FA Cup in 1910 when they beat Barnsley in the final. They lost again the following year in the final against Bradford City. Interwar success (1919–1939) The team returned to the FA Cup final in 1924, in the second final held at the then new Wembley Stadium. They defeated Aston Villa, winning the club's second FA Cup. Three years later they won the First Division championship a fourth time in 1926–27. Record signing & Scottish international centre-forward Hughie Gallacher, one of the most prolific goal scorers in the club's history, captained the championship-winning team. Other key players in this period were Neil Harris, Stan Seymour and Frank Hudspeth. Seymour was to become an influential figure for the next 40 years as player, manager and director. In 1930, Newcastle United came close to relegation, and at the end of the season Gallacher left the club for Chelsea, and at the same time Andy Cunningham became the club's first team manager. In 1931–32, the club won the FA Cup a third time in the infamous 'Over the Line' final. United won the game 2–1 after scoring a goal following a cross from Jimmy Richardson which appeared to be hit from out of play - over the line. There were no action replays then and the referee allowed the goal, a controversial talking point in FA Cup history. Newcastle boasted master players like Sam Weaver and Jack Allen, as well as the first player-manager in the top division in Scottish international Andy Cunningham. But at the end of the 1933–34 season, the team were relegated to the Second Division after 32 seasons in the First. Cunningham left as manager and Tom Mather took over. Amazingly in the same season as they fell into the Second Division, United defeated Liverpool 9–2 and Everton 7–3 within the space of a week. The club found it difficult to adjust to the Second Division and were nearly further relegated in the 1937–38 season, when they were spared on goal averages. The Wartime League (1939–1946) When World War II broke in 1939, Newcastle had a chance to regroup, and in the War period, they brought in Jackie Milburn, Tommy Walker and Bobby Cowell. Newcastle United won no Wartime League trophies, but Jackie Milburn made his debut in 1943 in a "Stripes vs Blues" match. Milburn's side was losing at half-time 3–0, but following a switch from midfielder to centre forward, he scored 6 goals to help them win the match 9–3. Jackie went on to score 38 goals in the next 3 years of the league's life. Postwar cup-winners (1946–1978) By the time peace was restored in 1945, Seymour was at the forefront of Newcastle's affairs, manager in all but name. He ensured that the Magpies possessed an entertaining eleven full of stars, a mix of home-grown talent like Jackie Milburn, Bobby Cowell and Ernie Taylor, as well as big signings in the shape of George Robledo, Bobby Mitchell, Joe Harvey, Len Shackleton and Frank Brennan. Newcastle spent the first couple of years post-war in the Second Division. Crowds were extremely high after the return to football, and in 1946 Newcastle recorded the joint-highest victory in English League Football history, defeating Newport County 13–0. Len Shackleton, playing his debut in that match, scored 6 goals in the match, another record for Newcastle United. Newcastle returned to the First Division in double of the time. Promotion was achieved in 1948 in front of vast crowds. An average of almost 57,000 at every home game saw United's fixtures that year, a national record for years to come. That was just the start of another period of success. During the Fifties decade United lifted the FA Cup trophy on three occasions within a five-year period. In 1951 they defeated Blackpool 2–0, a year later Arsenal were beaten 1–0 and in 1955 United crushed Manchester City 3–1. The Magpies were known in every corner of the country, and so were their players; 'Wor Jackie' Milburn and Bobby 'Dazzler' Mitchell the pick of a side that was renowned the nation over. Other players of this time were Frank Brennan (like Mitchell a Scot), Ivor Broadis, Len White and Welshman Ivor Allchurch. Despite having quality players throughout the era, stars like Allchurch, White and George Eastham during the latter years of the decade, United slipped from the First Division in 1961 under the controversial management of ex-Manchester United star, Charlie Mitten. It was a huge blow to the club. An old war-horse returned to revitalise the Magpies in the shape of Joe Harvey, who had skippered the club to much of their post-war success. He teamed up with Stan Seymour to rebuild United and the Black'n'Whites returned to the elite as Second Division Champions in 1965. United then became very much an unpredictable side, always capable of defeating the best, but never quite realising their huge potential until very recently. Joe Harvey's side qualified for Europe for the first time in 1968 and stunned everyone the following year by lifting the Inter Cities Fairs Cup; the forerunner of the UEFA Cup. United possessed a solid eleven and Newcastle's tradition of fielding a famous Number 9 at centre-forward since earliest years continued as big Welshman Wyn Davies was prominent along with the likes of Pop Robson, Bobby Moncur and Frank Clark. In the years that followed European success, manager Harvey brought in a string of talented entertainers who thrilled the Gallowgate crowd. Pleasers like Jimmy Smith, Tony Green and Terry Hibbitt. And especially a new centre-forward by the name of Malcolm Macdonald. Nicknamed 'Supermac', Macdonald was one of United's greatest hero figures. Brash, arrogant and devastating in front of goal, he led United's attack to Wembley in 1974, against Liverpool in the FA Cup. But the Magpies failed to bring the trophy back to Tyneside, and a complete lack of success in any of the competitions the next season resulted in Joe Harvey being sacked in mid-1975. Blackburn manager Gordon Lee was appointed to replace Harvey, and despite a mediocre league campaign in 1975–76, led the club to its only ever League Cup final, which ended in defeat by Manchester City. Despite Macdonald controversially being sold to Arsenal for a cut price deal, the following season saw United's best League campaign for years, and by Christmas the club looked to have an outside chance of winning the title. However, Lee walked out on the club to take over at Everton at the start of 1977, and inexperienced coach Richard Dinnis was put in charge of the team after the players demanded that he be given the job. United's form initially remained quite consistent under Dinnis, and they secured 5th place and a UEFA Cup spot at the end of the season. However, the team totally fell apart the following season, and Dinnis was sacked after a run of ten straight League defeats and a thumping UEFA Cup exit at the hands of French team SC Bastia. Bill McGarry took over as manager, but was powerless to prevent United from being relegated in statistically their worst season ever. The only mercy they had was Leicester City's terrible goal difference preventing United from finishing bottom of the table. Bouncing between divisions (1978–1992) McGarry remained in charge of the club, but only managed two midtable finishes before being sacked in the wake of an uninspiring start to the 1980–81 season, and it was his successor Arthur Cox who steered United back again to the First Division with ex England captain Kevin Keegan leading the attack, having joined the Magpies in a sensational deal in 1982. The football inspired by Keegan captivated Tyneside and United stormed into the top division in a style only bettered by Kevin's own brand of football when he returned to the club as manager a decade later. Cox had also signed young winger Chris Waddle out of non-league football, as well as young striker Peter Beardsley, Liverpool midfielder Terry McDermott and former Manchester United midfielder David McCreery. The club was rocked however when Cox resigned after the board refused to offer him an improved contract in the aftermath of promotion, and, surprisingly, accepted an offer to take charge of Derby County - who had been relegated from the Second Division. One of English footballs greatest talents, Paul Gascoigne or 'Gazza', emerged as an exciting 18-year-old midfielder in 1985-86, under Newcastle's next manager Jack Charlton, who left after only one season despite Newcastle achieving a secure mid-table finish on their return to the First Division. His successor was former player Willie McFaul. Newcastle consolidated their place in Division One but then a period of selling their best players (Beardsley to Liverpool, and Waddle and eventually Gascoigne both to Tottenham), rocked the club and led to supporter unrest, as did a share-war for control of the boardroom. The effect of this on the pitch soon proved evident, as McFaul was sacked after a dismal start to the 1988–89 season, and new boss Jim Smith was unable to turn Newcastle around, resulting in them finishing at the foot of the First Division in 1989 and dropping back into the Second Division. Smith then signed Portsmouth striker Mick Quinn and Newcastle began the 1989-90 season on a high note, beating promotion favourites Leeds United 5-2 on the opening day with Quinn scoring four goals, and Newcastle appeared to be on the path to a revival. However, they missed out on automatic promotion by one place, before enduring a humiliating play-off exit at the hands of local rivals Sunderland. The intensifying boardroom battle soon took its toll on the club, and Smith resigned early in the following season with the side stuck in mid-table. Ossie Ardiles became the club's new manager, and despite being initially being the club's most popular manager since Joe Harvey, Newcastle dropped to the bottom of the Second Division in October 1991. Results failed to improve, despite the acquisition of a new striker in David Kelly and the efforts of promising young players including Steve Howey, Steve Watson and Gavin Peacock, and in February 1992 Ardiles was sacked. Despite being the best-supported side in the division and frequently still managing to pull in crowds of more than 20,000, Newcastle were also millions of pounds in debt and faced with the real prospect of third tier football for the first time ever. A saviour was needed, and in came new chairman John Hall, who offered the manager's job to Kevin Keegan. Despite having vowed never to enter management following his retirement as a player, Keegan accepted the offer to manage Newcastle. His first task was to deliver Second Division survival. Into the Premier League (1992–2007) Kevin Keegan returned as manager in the 1991–92 season, and survived relegation from the Second Division. The club's finances were transformed, with Hall aiming to put Newcastle among Europe's biggest clubs, and signings like Rob Lee and Andy Cole helped Newcastle to promotion the following season, 1992–93, as champions of the new First Division. The finish also secured qualification for the 1993–94 UEFA Cup upon return to the top flight in the 1993–94 Premier League season. St James' Park was redeveloped during this time into an all-seated stadium with a capacity of 36,000. This increased to 52,000 in the late 1990s, after the rejection of Hall's proposal to build a larger stadium at Castle Leazes. Keegan stunned fans and critics alike in 1995 when prolific striker Andy Cole was sold to Manchester United in exchange for £6 million and midfielder Keith Gillespie, leaving many to blame the sale to have affected Newcastle's title chances for the 1994–95 season, in which they finished sixth. The club, however, continued to build up a reputation for playing attacking football under Keegan. In the 1995–96 season, high-profile foreign stars David Ginola and Faustino Asprilla, in addition to British players Peter Beardsley and striker Les Ferdinand, guided the team to a second-place finish. During the 1996–97 season, Keegan made one signing, securing the services of England striker Alan Shearer for a then-world record transfer fee of £15 million to produce a shrewd partnership with Les Ferdinand, and claim a 5–0 victory over title rivals Manchester United. whilst remaining in contention to win the league. With the team having failed to win any trophies under his reign, Keegan resigned as manager on 8 January 1997, saying, "I feel that I have taken the club as far as I can." Kenny Dalglish replaced Keegan as manager, and maintained the club's good form through to the end of the season, finishing second. In the 1997–98 season, Les Ferdinand and David Ginola both left the club, whilst Alan Shearer broke his ankle in a pre-season friendly, keeping him out for the first half of the season. Dalglish signed Ian Rush, John Barnes, Duncan Ferguson and Stuart Pearce to bolster the squad, and achieved a 3–2 victory over Barcelona in the UEFA Champions League through a Faustino Asprilla hat-trick, but Dalglish's cautious brand of football, as opposed to the attacking style played under Keegan, did not prove successful—the club failed to progress beyond the Champions League group stage, finished 13th in the Premier League, and lost the FA Cup final to Arsenal. Dalglish began the 1998–99 season signing Nolberto Solano and Dietmar Hamann, but was soon dismissed following the club's declining form. Ruud Gullit replaced him, however the club again finished the league in 13th place and again lost in the FA Cup final, this time to Manchester United F.C. Gullit resigned early in the 1999–2000 season, having fallen out with several senior players, including Alan Shearer and captain Rob Lee. Keith Gillespie later blamed Gullit's arrogance for his failure as manager of the club. Ex-England manager Bobby Robson was brought in to replace Gullit in September 1999. He ensured Newcastle's survival in the Premiership, but the club remained in the bottom half of the table, finishing 11th in 1999–2000 and 2000–01. Robson, however, built up an exciting young squad, and an unlikely top four challenge emerged in 2001–02 season—Newcastle finished in fourth place. Playing in the Champions League in 2002–03, Newcastle progressed to the second group stage in unlikely circumstances, beating Italian squad Juventus 1–0 along the way. United finished the 2002–03 season third in the Premier League, but lost their Champions League qualifier and played in the 2003–04 UEFA Cup instead, reaching the semi-final. In 2003–04, Newcastle finished fifth in the Premiership, lower than in previous seasons, and outside of Champions League contention. Robson was then sacked following a poor start to the 2004–05 season and alleged discontent in the dressing room. In his autobiography, Robson was critical of Shepherd, claiming that while manager he was denied information regarding the players' contracts and transfer negotiations. He had previously publicly criticised the club's highly financed offer for Wayne Rooney, which the club later claimed they could not afford, stating young players were making excessive demands without first proving themselves on the pitch. He also criticised Shepherd and the club's deputy chairman Douglas Hall for their focus on the first team and St James' Park, causing them to neglect less glamorous issues, such as the training ground, youth development and talent scouts. Graeme Souness replaced Robson and finished the season 14th in the league. Souness' arrival, however, was met with mixed reactions, with many expecting Robson being a hard task to improve upon, despite insisting he was aware of Sir Bobby's admiration and was ready for the role. In the January transfer window, Souness caused controversy in securing an £8 million bid for France international Jean-Alain Boumsong, who had joined Rangers for free just months before, prior to which Sir Bobby had travelled to France to review Boumsong but declined to sign him. The Stevens inquiry in 2007 documented that in this purchase Souness was accused of lack of consistency and was reviewed over the large media speculation the transfer received, but was eventually exonerated from any illegal participations. Going into 2005–06 season, despite signing several new players, including the return of Nolberto Solano from Aston Villa as well as Albert Luque from Deportivo de La Coruña for £10 million, Souness struggled with the opening games. He later blamed the state of the club's training ground for injuries suffered to players. The signing of Michael Owen (for a club record £17 million from Real Madrid) and his strike partnership with Alan Shearer produced goals at the end of 2005, but an injury caused Owen to miss the rest of the season and following a poor start to the new year, Souness was sacked in February 2006. Robbie Elliiot and Shay Given announced regret over his exit in the club's Season Review DVD but acknowledged his seeming favouritism of players and the amounting pressure on him damaged morale, whilst Alan Shearer blamed the injury crisis to first-team players. Caretaker manager Glenn Roeder was issued the role of temporary first-team manager, seeing his first game against Portsmouth secure Alan Shearer's 201st goal for Newcastle United, becoming the club's all-time highest-scoring player. Roeder guided Newcastle from 15th to seventh place securing 32 league points from a possible 45 by the end of 2005–06, as well as securing a place in the UEFA Intertoto Cup and was given a two-year contract by chairman Freddy Shepherd. His appointment caused controversy, as at the time he did not hold the necessary UEFA Pro Licence to manage in the UEFA leagues and cup tournaments His role, however, was approved by UEFA who acknowledged that Roeder's diagnosis with a brain tumour in 2003 prevented him from developing his career, whilst Chairman Freddy Shepherd also fulfilled UEFA's request that he gain backing from all 19 other Premier League clubs to appoint him as manager. Alan Shearer retired at the end of the 2005–06 season scoring a record 206 goals. Roeder encountered a difficult 2006–07 season, losing many players to injury, in particular Michael Owen, who had severely damaged his ligaments during the 2006 FIFA World Cup seeing him only play the final two games of the season. Newcastle won the 2006 Intertoto Cup, but a 5–1 exit to Birmingham City in the FA Cup, a round of 16 exit in the UEFA Cup and poor league results seeing a 13th-place finish led Roeder to resign in May 2007. New ownership and relegation (2007–2010) As the 2007 season drew to a close, St James Holdings Limited, the bid vehicle of billionaire businessman Mike Ashley, was reported to be in the process of buying the club. Ashley successfully acquired Sir John Hall's majority stake in the club in May 2007, leaving many to believe chairman Freddie Shepherd was set to depart after stepping down as chairman, should Ashley acquire more than 50 percent, which would see Shepherd no longer in control of the club and Ashley able to replace the board. Shepherd dismissed all speculation and proceeded to appoint ex-Bolton Wanderers boss Sam Allardyce as Newcastle manager, but eventually met with Mike Ashley and the board on 29 May. On 7 June 2007, Shepherd ended his 11 years with the club after Mike Ashley accepted his bid to buy his shares and in his role as chairman of the board, also having Shepherd advise the remaining shareholders to sell to Ashley. Ashley then announced he would be delisting the club from the London Stock Exchange upon completion of the takeover. The club officially ceased trading on the Stock Exchange as of 8am on 18 July 2007 at 5p a share. Ashley brought in lawyer Chris Mort as the new club "deputy chairman". Despite signing and building a seemingly strong squad, Sam Allardyce soon became widely unpopular with fans and players alike, and was surprisingly sacked by Ashley halfway through his first season after underwhelming results and pressure from the fans. Ashley, however, defended his decision to sack Allardyce, stating he made a mistake in not appointing his own choice of manager before the season started. Kevin Keegan then made a sensational surprise return as manager. His return had an instant impact on club ticket sales as he sat with the fans, Mike Ashley and Chris Mort for the FA Cup replay 4–1 win against Stoke City. Following his return, Keegan had a disappointing first ten games back, with the club not winning a single game until his decision to include strikers Obafemi Martins, Michael Owen and Mark Viduka into a 4–3–3 formation, which saw the club back on goal-scoring and winning form and eventually finishing 12th in 2007–08. In May Keegan met with Mike Ashley and Director of Football Dennis Wise after he had suggested Champions League qualification was out of Newcastle United's reach and expressed dissatisfaction with the board's financial backing. Ashley was battling reports that he had lost hundreds of millions of pounds in a disastrous attempt to rescue bank HBOS. The morning following, after the club's 3–0 defeat to Arsenal, rumours were circulating that Keegan had either been sacked or resigned as Newcastle boss, citing board interference and his lack of control over transfers. Keegan confirmed the reports the same week, and reportedly held unsuccessful resolution talks with Mike Ashley the following week, leading to fan fury and protests around St James' Park, and marring the club's home defeat to Hull City, with fans accusing Ashley and club executives Dennis Wise, Tony Jimenez and Derek Llambias of forcing Keegan out. Following mass media coverage of Keegan's departure, the club struggled to find a replacement, with the majority of managers showing no interest in the role. Ashley released a statement to the club's fans that in fear of his and his families reputation and safety, he was placing the club for sale. It was then announced that former Nottingham Forest manager Joe Kinnear was appointed temporary manager His appointment, however, saw a backlash from fans, prompting a verbal tirade from Kinnear at the media, who questioned his decision to take the job at such a time. By the end of the year, Ashley took the club off the market claiming he was unable to find a suitable buyer. In the remainder of 2008–09, Kinnear won four out of 18 matches before stepping down due to reported heart problems. Chris Hughton then took temporary charge before Alan Shearer returned to Newcastle United as manager in April with Iain Dowie as his assistant. After winning only one out of eight games, the club was relegated to the Championship for the first time since 1992. Mike Ashley then re-issued his desire to sell the club once again and issued a £100 million sale price tag. Prior to the start of the 2009–10 season, Keegan's dispute with the club was resolved after a Premier League Arbitration Panel ruled that he had been misled to believe he had the final word on the club's transfer policy when in fact Director of Football Dennis Wise had been handed such control. The signings of Xisco and Nacho González were ruled to have been made without the manager's approval; with González, Dennis Wise signed him only after viewing him off of YouTube. Wise and Derek Llambias were ruled to have deliberately misled the media to believe Keegan had the final say, which amounted to constructive dismissal. Keegan was awarded £2 million in compensation and re-offered his job as Newcastle United manager under fresh new terms, though in response to the offer, he stated the fans had "had enough" for the time being and declined. He stated in 2013 he would consider a return should Mike Ashley leave the club. Return to Premier League and second relegation (2010–2016) Chris Hughton was appointed full-time manager early in the 2009–10 season. The club dominated the Championship, winning 30 games, drawing 12 and losing only four, scoring a total of 90 goals and finishing top of the league with 102 points, thus re-gaining Premier League status at the first attempt. Beginning 2010–11, Hughton remained on course to secure survival from relegation with the club's first win at the Emirates over Arsenal, and a memorable 5–1 defeat over Sunderland. However, fury once again was caused by the board, as the club controversially sacked Chris Hughton after a 3–1 defeat to West Bromwich Albion on 6 December 2010. Critics players and fans alike were shocked by Hughton's dismissal, leading to protests prior to the club's game against Liverpool in a bid to thank him for his work and support. Alan Pardew was then announced as being appointed manager on a five-and-a-half-year contract, with the club announcing they wanted a manager with more experience. Pardew stated he had nothing but respect for Chris Hughton and acknowledged the fact that other managers questioned his appointment. He secured his first win on his debut as manager with a 3–1 win over Liverpool On 31 January 2011, Newcastle sold striker Andy Carroll to Liverpool for a club record of £35 million. The sale of a young player at a high value proved controversial for Liverpool, with Alan Shearer ridiculing the price Liverpool paid as well as expressing sorrow at Newcastle for losing Carroll. Carroll himself stated that he did not want to leave the club but was forced out by the club's directors after Liverpool's final offer of £35 million; the board responded that Carroll had previously handed in a transfer request. Pardew said he was disappointed to lose Carroll, but pledged to invest in the club's summer transfer window. The remainder of the season saw Leon Best score a hat-trick on his debut in a 5–0 defeat of West Ham United, a memorable 4–4 comeback against Arsenal, and a 4–1 defeat of Wolverhampton Wanderers, eventually finishing 12th in the league. Entering 2011–12, Pardew was reportedly denied the £35 million from the sale of Andy Carroll for transfers and told to sell players to raise funds, having claimed he had been assured the finances upon Carroll's departure. Kevin Keegan had previously stated Alan Pardew should not have expected the money following his issues with the board in 2008. The club signed many French-speaking players in the transfer window, including Yohan Cabaye, Mathieu Debuchy, Sylvain Marveaux and Demba Ba. and with impressive results throughout the season, Newcastle finished fifth. In the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League, Newcastle reached the quarter-finals, and in the January transfer window, the French revolution continued into the new year, with Moussa Sissoko and Yoan Gouffran joining the squad. The team, however, had a poor 2012–13 Premier League and finished 16th in the Premier League. Beginning the 2013–14 season, in a surprise move Joe Kinnear returned to the club as Director of Football, instantly causing fan fury following his outburst that he was "more intelligent" than the fans and critics, as well as mispronouncing various players names during a radio interview. However, he resigned after just eight months on the job following further critique for managing to sign only two players on loan—Loïc Rémy and Luuk de Jong—throughout the season's summer and January transfer windows, as well selling Yohan Cabaye to Paris Saint-Germain for £20 million, considered to be one of the most influential players at the time. Following the lack of transfer activity, Mike Ashley once again faced a fan revolt, with protests being launched at him to sell the club, and entered a dispute with several media titles whom the club banned from Newcastle United media facilities, press conferences and player interviews, declaring stories reported were intensely exaggerated and aimed only to damage Ashley's image further. Throughout the season, the club remained on course to ensure a top half finish, notably defeating Manchester United at Old Trafford for the first time since 1972. Nonetheless, the team struggled for goals following the sale of Cabaye. Further dismay upon the season was caused when Pardew was banned for seven matches and fined £100,000 for an assault on Hull City midfielder David Meyler. The club then encountered a poor run of form, losing eight out of ten games and finishing the season tenth in the league, though the club confirmed Alan Pardew would stay on. The opening eight games of the 2014–15 season proved disappointing, with the club failing to secure a win. After the dip in form, however, the club had an emphatic resurgence, seeing a five-game unbeaten run whilst also surprising League Cup holders Manchester City with a 2–0 win and progressing to the quarter-finals of the tournament. Pardew, however, resigned from the club on 30 December 2014 following immense pressure from fans calling for his departure, with many posters at games designed with the Sports Direct logo advertising a website demanding his resignation. Pardew admitted in the months leading up to his departure that protests from the fans were affecting his family and was subsequently feeling unhappy at the club. He was replaced by his assistant manager John Carver, though the team subsequently earned just 13 points out of a possible 50, surviving relegation on the final day of the season with a victory over West Ham, Carver was dismissed before the club's pre-season for 2016 began. The club paid tribute to player Jonás Gutiérrez following his successful recovery from testicular cancer to resume his playing career. Beginning the 2015–16 season, former England F.C. Manager Steve McClaren was appointed manager, signing Georginio Wijnaldum, Aleksandar Mitrovic, Chancel Mbemba, Florian Thauvin, Henri Saivet, Jonjo Shelvey, Andros Townsend and Ivan Toney. McClaren however struggled to produce results winning 6 and drawing 6 out of 28 games, whilst exiting both the FA Cup and League Cup in the Third Round. McClaren was subsequently sacked on 11 March 2016 with critics and former players voicing their favour of the decision. Rafael Benítez was announced as McClaren's successor the same day, signing a three-year deal. Benítez recorded his first victory in 3–0 defeat of Swansea City in the Premier League on 17 April 2016 after 5 games in charge, and maintained an emphatic 5-game unbeaten streak to the end of the season. Newcastle were however relegated from the Premier League along with Aston Villa and Norwich finishing 18th place, 2 points below safety. Betting websites confirmed after the final game that the club's 5–1 defeat of Tottenham Hotspur matched the initial odds of Leicester City's 5000/1 win of the 2015–16 Premier League season. Championship win, return to Premier League (2016–2021) Starting the 2016-17 season, Rafa Benítez signed 12 new players full-time and also acquired 5 players on loan, whilst 8 players left the club and another 12 on loan. New signings Dwight Gayle and Matt Ritchie proved popular scoring a combined total of 39 goals, finishing among the top goalscorers that season. Despite failing to improve on their dominant success in the 2009/10 championship season, the club remained in contention for the trophy throughout; threatened only by Brighton & Hove Albion Newcastle enjoyed a 3-game winning streak to the final day of the season and lifted the Football League Championship trophy on 8 May 2017 following a 3–0 win over Barnsley. Rafa Benítez denied speculation that he would leave the club following promotion to the Premier League and confirmed his commitment to the club for the foreseeable future. Shortly prior to the season's finish, the club was subject to raids by HMRC following suspicions of tax evasion. Managing Director Lee Charnley was arrested during the raid, but was later released without charge. Ending the 2017-18 season, the club finished 10th in the Premier League defeating the current champions Chelsea on the final day of the season, the highest finish achieved within 4 years. Beginning the 2018–19 season, Mike Ashley again came under scrutiny following lack of major signings in the summer transfer window, with many fans accusing him of lacking interest in the club following his purchase of troubled retail chain House of Fraser for £90m. Despite the January signing of Miguel Almirón from Atlanta United FC for £21 million surpassing the club's transfer record fee of £16.8 million for Michael Owen in 2005, the club struggled throughout the season with 12 wins, 9 draws and 17 losses seeing a 13th place league table finish, whilst exiting the League Cup at the 2nd round in a 3–1 defeat of Nottingham Forest F.C and a 4th round exit of the FA Cup in a 2–0 defeat to Watford F.C. The season also saw heavy speculation regarding Rafa Benítez remaining at the club following reports he was still in negotiations following the end of the season. Following fresh reports of Ashley's intention to sell the club, Sheikh Khaled Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Founder and Chairman of The Bin Zayed Group of Companies, a member of the Al Nahyan royal family of Abu Dhabi, confirmed he had agreed terms to purchase the club for £350 million. On 5 June 2019 a company named Monochrome Acquisitions Limited was registered in Nahyan's name, whilst managing director Lee Charnley applied to have four companies linked to Ashley's company St James Holdings Ltd struck off, leaving many to believe the club was on course to be sold. Talks of a takeover however stalled throughout the summer transfer window, whilst Ashley confirmed he had not received an official bid from any prospective buyer. Benítez rejected a new contract offer and departed the club on 30 June 2019, accepting a move to Chinese Super League side Dalian Yifang in a £12 million deal. Ashley criticised Benítez stating unfair demands were made making it impossible for him to remain as manager. Notable player departures saw Salomón Rondón join Benitez at Dalian Yifang after returning to West Bromwich Albion F.C. from loan, whilst Ayoze Perez joined Leicester City for £30 million and Mohamed Diamé was released by Newcastle upon the expiry of his contract at the end of the 2018–19 season. BBC Sport reported in July 2019 that Steve Bruce had resigned from his managerial position at Sheffield Wednesday after he earlier admitted that he had held talks with Newcastle United over their managerial vacancy. His appointment was confirmed on 17 July. Sheffield Wednesday however stated there were still outstanding legal issues with Bruce having resigned just 48 hours before, leading a report being filed to the Premier League alleging misconduct in his appointment. Newcastle United denied any wrongdoing and stated they were confident no case could be escalated. Reaction from the fans was mixed, with some feeling Bruce would not achieve the standard set by Benítez, whilst his recent lack of Premier League football and management of rival club Sunderland proved controversial. Bruce later acknowledged Benítez's popularity and stated he hoped the fans would not rush to judgement and give him time to prove himself and manager of Newcastle. Due to visa problems in China, Bruce watched his first match as manager from the stands which saw Newcastle achieve a third-place finish in the pre-season 2019 Premier League Asia Trophy following a 1–0 victory over West Ham United F.C. Bruce quickly made his first transfer, signing Joelinton from TSG 1899 Hoffenheim for £40 million, breaking the club's transfer fee record previously held by Miguel Almirón at £21 million just 6 months before, before signing French international winger Allan Saint-Maximin from OGC Nice on a permanent deal for £16.5 million, Sweden international defender Emil Krafth for £5 million, central midfielder Kyle Scott on a free signing following his departure from Chelsea, and Netherlands international defender Jetro Willems on loan from Frankfurt F.C until the end of the 2019–20 season. Bruce made his final transfer of the pre-season on deadline day by re-signing striker Andy Carroll, who had left the club over 7 years earlier. On 4 February 2020, Steve Bruce's side ended a 14-year drought by reaching the 5th round of the FA Cup they beat League One side Oxford United 2–3 in a replay thanks to a late winner from Allan Saint-Maximin in extra time. From March 2020, the season was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. On 13 March, following an emergency meeting between the Premier League, The Football Association (FA), the English Football League and the FA Women's Super League, it was unanimously decided to suspend professional football in England. On 19 March, the suspension was extended indefinitely, with a restart date of 17 June announced in late May with all remaining games to be played without crowd attendance. Newcastle finished the season in 13th place. Defender Danny Rose was an outspoken critic of the decision to continue the season, citing the virus was still in major circulation and accused the FA of having no concern for footballer’s healths. Karl Darlow has since urged players at the club to get vaccinated following his hospitalisation from complications of Covid, whilst manager Steve Bruce admitted some players had voluntarily declined the vaccination. The 2020-21 season saw all matches played without crowd attendance until May 2021, in light of the COVID-19 pandemic. Newcastle failed to improve on the previous season, finishing 12th in the premier league and were knocked out of the FA Cup in the third round added time to Arsenal and exited the EFL Cup in the quarter-finals losing 1-0 to Brentford. New ownership (2021–present) In April 2020, it was widely reported that a consortium consisting of Public Investment Fund of Saudi Arabia, PCP Capital Partners, and the Reuben brothers, was finalising an offer to acquire Newcastle United. The proposed sale prompted concerns and criticism, such as arguments considering it sportwashing of the country's human rights record, as well as ongoing large-scale piracy of sports broadcasts in the region. However the consortium announced its withdrawal from the Newcastle deal on July 30, 2020, after multiple media reports highlighted realm as the staunch violator of human rights, and the WTO ruled that it was behind the piracy campaign using pirate-pay-service beoutQ. "With a deep appreciation for the Newcastle community and the significance of its football club, we have come to the decision to withdraw our interest in acquiring Newcastle United Football Club," the group said in its statement upon withdrawal. The group also stated that the "prolonged process" was a major factor in them pulling out. The collapse of the takeover was met with widespread criticism from Newcastle fans, with Newcastle MP Chi Onwurah accusing the Premier League of treating fans of the club with "contempt" and subsequently wrote to Masters for an explanation. Despite the consortium's withdrawal, disputes over the takeover continued. On 9 September 2020, Newcastle United released a statement claiming that the Premier League had officially rejected the takeover by the consortium and accused Masters and the Premier League board of "[not] acting appropriately in relation to [the takeover]", while stating that the club would be considering any relevant legal action. The Premier League strongly denied this in a statement released the next day, expressing "surprise" and "disappointment" at Newcastle's statement. On October 7, 2021, the Public Investment Fund, PCP Capital Partners and RB Sports & Media confirmed that they had officially completed the acquisition of Newcastle United. Governor of the investment fund Yasir bin Othman Al-Rumayyan was appointed non-executive chairman, whilst Amanda Staveley and Jamie Reuben were both appointed as directors and each held a 10% shareholding in the club. The takeover led to widespread speculation that manager Steve Bruce was expected to leave the club. Although not denying the speculation that the club was keen to appoint a new manager, Staveley stated Bruce was to remain for the new owners first game against Tottenham Hotspur; his 1000th match as a football manager. However following Newcastle losing the game 3-2 and alleged discontent among the players, Bruce left the club by mutual consent. Bruce stated his sadness at leaving the club and felt Newcastle fans launched unnecessary verbal abuse at him during his time there. Interim manager Graeme Jones as well as Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta supported Bruce's claims stating the abuse he received was off putting for other managers to take the role. Eddie Howe was appointed as manager on 8 November 2021. The announcement was made following reports that the club had discussed the role with him the previous week and confirmed following his attendance at the away draw to Brighton & Hove Albion. On 19 November 2021, Newcastle announced that Howe had tested positive for COVID-19 and would miss his first game in charge, which instead forced him to watch his first game as manager from a hotel room as Newcastle drew 3–3 with Brentford on 20 November. Lee Charnley, who acted as Managing Director under Ashley's ownership, left the club on 19 November 2021 following a six week handover period. His departure was the final of Mike Ashley's hierarchy, with Staveley stating the club was undergoing a "formal process" to appoint a new figure to replace the role. Eddie Howe had to wait until 4 December 2021 for his first win as Newcastle manager in a 1–0 win against Burnley, which was also the first win since the takeover happened. Howe then made five signings in the first January transfer window under the new ownership which included a marquee singing in Brazilian midfielder Bruno Guimarães from Olympique Lyonnais. The transfer window and the players that were already there that Howe improved helped Newcastle to go on a 9 game unbeaten run in the Premier League to get them 10 points clear from the relegation zone and increasing the chance of guaranteeing survival. After Newcastle's 1–0 win against Crystal Palace, this was the first time the club had managed to win 6 home games in a row since 2004 when Sir Bobby Robson was in charge. Newcastle finished in 11th place after a run of 12 wins in their final 18 games, and became the first team in Premier League history to avoid relegation after not winning any of the first 14 games they played. On 30 May 2022, the club announced they had reached an agreement of a compensation fee with Brighton & Hove Albion to appoint Dan Ashworth as the new Sporting Director, the appointment was confirmed on 6 June 2022. On 15 July 2022, the club brought in Darren Eales, from MLS side Atlanta United, as the club's new Chief Executive Officer - acting as a "key member of the club's leadership structure". Chairman history As of 2021 Owners history Newcastle United was set up as a private company limited by shares on 6 September 1895. However, by the 1930s, ownership of the company was dominated by a small number of individuals: Alderman William McKeag, George and Robert Rutherford, and William Westwood, 1st Baron Westwood. George Stanley Seymour was allocated some shares when he joined the board in 1938. By the second half of the 20th century, these shareholdings had passed to the next generation: Gordon McKeag, Robert James Rutherford, Stan Seymour Jr. and William Westwood, 2nd Baron Westwood. The Magpie Group led by Sir John Hall built up a large shareholding in the club and then took control in 1992. In 2007, St James Holdings Limited, the bid vehicle of billionaire businessman Mike Ashley, secured control of the club, and in 2021, the Public Investment Fund of Saudi Arabia, PCP Capital Partners and RB Sports & Media confirmed that they had acquired ownership of the club. See also Newcastle United F.C. in Europe References Newcastle United F.C. Newcastle

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%ED%92%8D%EC%88%98

대풍수

《대풍수》(大風水)는 2012년 10월 10일부터 2013년 2월 7일까지 SBS에서 방송된 대기획 드라마이다. 줄거리 극 중 자미원국(紫微垣局)은 왕실의 번영을 가져올 최고의 명당으로, 모든 사건의 시작이자 중심이다. 자미원국의 존재와 위치는 등장인물간의 극심한 갈등을 만든다. 고려의 국무는 자미원국이 나타나리란 신탁을 받고 반드시 이를 찾아 고려왕실의 번영을 도모하여야 한다고 주장한다. 그러나 자미원국은 고려의 희망이자 두려움이기도 하다. 원나라의 지배를 받는 입장에서 고려왕실이 이를 찾는다는 사실만으로도 원나라의 노여움을 살 수 있기 때문이다. 결국 고려시대 풍수를 관장하는 서운관(書雲觀)의 일관 동륜이 비밀리에 자미원국을 찾아 떠난다. '풍수를 보는 신안을 가졌으면서도 입이 무거운 자'로서 동륜이 선발된 것이다. 동륜은 천신만고 끝에 자미원국을 발견하고 환호한다. 그런데 그가 공민왕을 위한 표지석을 묻기 위해 땅을 파다 발견한 것은 '이 땅은 50년 뒤에야 임자가 나타나니 절대 훼손하지 말라'는 예언과도 같은 석표(石標)였다. 결국 동륜은 끝까지 자미원국의 위치를 숨겼고, 이에 모진 고문을 당하며 10년이나 감옥에 갇히는 고초를 겪는다. 목동륜, 왕영지의 아들 목지상과 윤효명의 딸 윤해인 그리고 이인임 아들 이정근의 삼각관계를 극중 중심 판도로 이끌면서 동륜과 영지 그리고 이인임과 수련개의 극중 초반의 연적관계의 갈등으로 시작하여 왕영지를 두고 이정근과 목지상의 모자관계의 사랑과 반야와 목지상, 윤해인과 이정근 그리고 목지상 등의 사랑을 엮어냈다. 그리고 자미원국은 줄거리를 이끄는 등장인물의 구동력으로 작용할 뿐이었다. 그러나 목동륜의 인생을 수렁으로 몰아넣은 자미원국은 동륜을 연모한 왕족 왕영지의 삶까지 송두리째 바꿨다. 나아가 자미원국은 국무 수련개, 이인임 세력과 이성계 세력간 충돌의 이유가 돼 극 전체를 이끌어 가는 중심 줄거리가 된다. 결국 자미원국의 신탁에 의해 이성계는 무학대사, 이지란, 정도전 그리고 아들 이방원과 함께 조선이라는 새로운 나라를 건설하게 된다는 내용이다. 공민왕, 노국공주, 명덕태후, 신돈, 우왕, 반야를 비롯하여 최영, 이인임, 조민수, 정도전, 이색, 정몽주 등 역사에 나오는 인물로 이야기를 이끌어가는 극중의 갈등을 조명하면서 목지상, 윤해인, 이정근, 목동륜, 왕영지, 윤효명, 수련개, 홍종대, 봉춘, 우야숙 등 가공인물들을 내세워 이야기를 엮어내었다. 대풍수는 이같이 국운이 쇠한 고려 말기 권력의 주변에 있던 도사들이 난세의 영웅인 이성계를 내세워 조선을 건국하며 벌어지는 이야기를 다룬 팩션 사극이다. 등장 인물 주요 인물 지성 : 지상 역 (아역 : 최로운, 이다윗) 동륜과 영지의 아들 / 홍종대의 양자(홍대복) 송창의 : 이정근 역 (아역 : 노영학) 이인임과 수련개의 아들 지진희 : 이성계 역 김소연 : 해인 역 (아역 : 손나은) 효명의 딸 이윤지 : 반야 역 (아역 : 박민지) (34회 하차) 그 외 주요 인물 故 조민기 : 이인임 역 : 이정근의 아버지 (25회 하차) 오현경 : 국무 수련개 역 (30회 하차) 이승연 : 영지 역 (아역 : 이진) (29회 하차) 반민정 : 박씨 부인 역 (특별출연 10회) 이인임의 처 주성환 : 왕안덕 역 이석준 : 조민수 역 (특별출연 27회 ~ 30회) 조선건국파 조선 왕실 인물 윤주희 : 강씨 부인 역 이성계의 처 변동준 : 이방과 역 조선 2대 왕 최태준 : 이방원 역 조선 3대 왕 이성계 수하들 김구택 : 이지란 역 도기석 : 우야숙 역 (32회 하차) 이영범 : 효명 역 (22회 하차) 지상의 스승, 해인의 아버지 최재웅 : 동륜 역 (5회 하차 / 14회, 33회는 출연) 지상의 아버지 백승현 : 정도전 역 이성계 관련인 강경헌 : 봉춘 역 김태희 : 단위 역 (17회 하차) 안길강 : 무학대사 역 정동규 : 한충 역 설유진 : 한충의 하인 역 박민정 : 기생집 주인 역 (5회 하차) 이문식 : 홍종대 역 지상의 양부 고려파 고려 왕실 인물 류태준 : 공민왕 역 (19회 하차) 고려 31대 왕 배민희 : 노국공주 역 (17회 하차) 김청 : 명덕태후 역 (22회 하차) 이민호 : 우왕 역 (아역 : 정준원) (31회 하차) 고려 32대 왕 김병춘 : 공양왕 역 고려 34대 왕 고려의 신하 유하준 : 신돈 역 (18회 하차) 손병호 : 최영 역 (29회 하차) 조한철 : 무영 역 (32회 하차) 이원재 : 노영수 역 이유성 : 홍륜 역 (19회 하차) 박준혁 : 정몽주 역 (33회 하차) 장은풍 : 김저 역 (31회 하차) 천민희 : 재신 역 최용민 : 이색 그 외 이도엽 : 이강달 역 김민혁 : 원개 역 김세현 : 성복 역 (아역 : 주민수) 문희경 : 대무려 역 (특별출연 1,2회) 정수인 : 기생녀 역 (5회 하차) 류아벨 : 기생 역 한그림 : 기생녀 역 홍이주 : 월향 역 차현우 : 원해 역 천보근 : 자미원국을 지키는 수호신 역 (특별출연 1,34,35회) 김범석 : 고려 왕실의 호위무사 역 류성훈 : 망나니 역 이현배 : 상중 역 김혜윤 : 묶인 소녀 역 진선규 : 이한백 역 강석철 : 충용위 역 명나라 인물 김익태 : 왕득명 역 원나라 인물 이용직 : 이가노 역 (13회 하차) 조화영 : 유선 역 (특별출연 9회 ~ 12회) 결방 사유 및 횟수 축소 SBS 대풍수-짝-가족의탄생 ‘드라마 예능 대거 결방’. SBS 개표방송 집중…'가족의 탄생'·'대풍수'·'짝' 결방 . 당초 36부작으로 기획되었다고 하였으나 1회 축소되어 35부작으로 종영되었다. 시청률 사운드 트랙 Part.1 Part.2 Part.3 Special Part.1 Special Part.2 같이 보기 세상 어디에도 없는 착한 남자 (KBS2, 2012년 9월 12일 ~ 2012년 11월 15일) 전우치 (KBS2, 2012년 11월 21일 ~ 2013년 2월 7일) 아랑 사또전 (MBC, 2012년 8월 15일 ~ 2012년 10월 18일) 못난이 송편 (MBC, 2012년 10월 24일 ~ 2012년 10월 25일) 보고싶다 (MBC, 2012년 11월 7일 ~ 2013년 1월 17일) 7급 공무원 (MBC, 2013년 1월 23일 ~ 2013년 3월 28일) 수상 경력 2012년 SBS 연기대상 드라마스페셜 특별연기상 : 이진 각주 외부 링크 <대풍수> 공식 홈페이지 <대풍수> 전회차 무료보기 2012년 드라마 2013년 드라마 SBS 드라마 스페셜 SBS의 역사 드라마 조선 역사 드라마 조선 태조 시기를 배경으로 한 작품 고려를 배경으로 한 텔레비전 드라마 2010년대 대한민국의 텔레비전 프로그램 2012년에 시작한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 2013년에 종료한 대한민국 TV 프로그램

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Great%20Seer

The Great Seer

The Great Seer (, also known as The Great Geomancer) is a 2012 South Korean historical television series, starring Ji Sung, Ji Jin-hee, Song Chang-eui, Kim So-yeon and Lee Yoon-ji. Set during the turbulent decline of Goryeo, it is about practicers of divination and the power that they hold over the fate of the country. It aired on SBS from October 10, 2012 to February 7, 2013 on for 35 episodes. Plot The Great Seer begins during the reign of King Gongmin (Ryu Tae-joon). But despite being about seers, geomancers, divinators and the like, this drama is less about the fantasy and more about the political movers and shakers — people who had the power to advise, and therefore control, kings. Yi Seong-gye (Ji Jin-hee) is the general who led the overthrow of Goryeo and established the Joseon Dynasty, becoming its first king. Mok Ji-sang (Ji Sung) is a gifted seer/geomancer, born with the ability to see into people's pasts and futures. There are those who believe falsely that he has dark supernatural powers, thinking him possessed by ghosts. When he comes of age in the late Goryeo era, he becomes a scholar of divination, and a reader of geography, faces, and the like to tell fortunes — an area with much influence at the time. He eventually becomes a "king-maker," who holds the key to a major political shift in the overthrow of Goryeo and the rise of Joseon when he backs General Yi and effectively shapes the future of Korea as we know it. Lee Jung-geun (Song Chang-eui) is General Yi's other advisor and Ji-sang's rival. Hae-in (Kim So-yeon) is a healer whose destiny is tied to General Yi, but she falls in love with the seer. Ban-ya (Lee Yoon-ji) is a woman who was sold off as a gisaeng at a young age, but becomes a concubine to King Gongmin's advisor, and bears a son. King Gongmin takes in that son as his, and the boy becomes Woo of Goryeo (Lee Tae-ri) — the king that General Yi dethrones in a coup d'état. Cast Ji Sung as Mok Ji-sang Lee David as young Ji-sang Choi Ro-woon as child Ji-sang Ji Jin-hee as Yi Seong-gye Kim So-yeon as Hae-in Son Na-eun as young Hae-in Song Chang-eui as Lee Jung-geun Noh Young-hak as young Jung-geun Lee Yoon-ji as Ban-ya Park Min-ji as young Ban-ya Jo Min-ki as Lee In-im Oh Hyun-kyung as Soo Ryun-gae Lee Seung-yeon as Young-ji Lee Jin as young Young-ji Lee Young-beom as Hyo-myung Choi Jae-woong as Dong-ryoon Ahn Gil-kang as Monk Muhak Kim Gu-taek as Lee Ji-ran Do Ki-seok as Woo Ya-sook Baek Seung-hyeon as Jeong Do-jeon Kang Kyung-hun as Bong-choon Yoon Joo-hee as Lady Kang, Seong-gye's wife Oh Hee-joon as Yi Bang-gwa Choi Tae-joon as Yi Bang-won Kim Tae-hee as Dan-wi Jung Dong-kyu as Han Choong Seol Yoo-jin as Han Choong's servant Park Min-jung as In-yeong, owner of gisaeng house Ryu Tae-joon as King Gongmin Bae Min-hee as Princess Noguk Kim Chung as Queen Dowager Myeongdeok Lee Tae-ri as King Woo Jung Joon-won as young Woo Kim Byung-choon as King Gongyang Lee Moon-sik as Hong Jong-dae Jo Han-chul as Moo-young Lee Won-jae as Noh Young-soo Cha Hyun-woo as Won-hae Son Byong-ho as Choe Yeong Yoo Ha-joon as Shin Don Lee Yoo-sung as Hong Ryun Park Joon-hyuk as Jeong Mong-ju Lee Do-yeop as Yi Kang-dal Kim Min-hyuk as Won-gae Kim Da-hyun as Sung-bok Joo Min-soo as young Sung-bok Moon Hee-kyung as Daemuryeo Jung Soo-in as gisaeng Hong Yi-joo as Wol-hyang Lee Yong-jin as Yi Ga-noh Jo Hwa-young as Yoo Sun Chun Bo-geun as patron saint Kim Ik-tae as viceroy for the Ming Dynasty Kim Beom-seok as royal escort warrior Lee Seok-joon as Jo Min-soo Ban Min-jung as Lady Park Kim Sung-hoon as executioner Jin Seon-kyu as Lee Han-baek Jeon Jin-seo Original soundtrack "Breaking Fate" - Park Gyu-ri of Kara "Flower" (kids version) - Shin Ye-rim "Flower" (adult version) - Yo Ar "Tears Flow" - Min Kyu "Just Once" - Kyuhyun of Super Junior "The Path to the Sky" - Chi Yeol "With You Being the Only Reason" - Ock Joo-hyun Promotions To promote the series cast members Ji Jin-hee, Ji Sung and Song Chang-eui guest starred on the SBS Good Sunday variety show Running Man on episodes 116 and 117, which aired on October 21 and 28, 2012, along with Suzy of miss A and Yubin of Wonder Girls. Ratings Notes References External links 2012 South Korean television series debuts 2013 South Korean television series endings Seoul Broadcasting System television dramas Korean-language television shows Television series set in the Joseon dynasty Television series set in Goryeo South Korean historical television series Television series set in the 14th century

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EC%96%B4%ED%85%8D%EC%8A%A4

고어텍스

고어텍스()는 미국의 W. L. 고어 & 어소시에이션의 등록 상표이자 방수/방풍/투습 섬유이다. 역사 빌 고어와 비브 고어 부부는 1958년 자택 지하실에서 W. L. Gore & Associates(이하 고어사)를 창립했다. 이후 1969년 빌 고어 부부의 아들인 밥 고어는 폴리테트라플루오로에틸렌(polytetrafluoroethylene, PTFE)을 변형해 강력한 다공성 물질을 구성하는 방법을 발견했다. 이는 확장형 PTFE(expanded polytetrafluoroethylene, ePTFE) 탄생이었고, 고어사의 방수(防水), 방풍(防風), 투습(透濕) 기능의 고어텍스® 소재 개발을 포함하여 다양한 산업 분야에서의 혁신의 길을 여는 시발점이 되었다. 고어사는 ePTFE 첫 발명 기업으로, 초기 아웃도어 의류업계에 고어텍스® 제품으로 혁신을 일으켰을 뿐만 아니라 의료, 섬유, 제약 및 생명공학, 석유 및 가스, 항공 우주, 자동차, 전자 제품, 음악 및 반도체 산업 등 수많은 적용 분야에 진출했고, 여전히 플루오로폴리머(fluoropolymer; 불소수지) 분야의 선구자로 남아있다. 또한 한층 발전된 소재를 바탕으로 전 세계 고객과 최종 사용자들의 삶을 개선하기 위한 노력을 지속하고 있다. 디자인 고어텍스 제품은 대부분 열기계적인 확장 폴리테트라플루오로에틸렌과 기타 불소수지를 기반으로 하고 있다. 고어텍스의 원리는 다양한 제품에 적용되는데, 고기능성 섬유, 의료용 임플란트, 필터 미디어, 전선/케이블, 개스킷, 실란트를 위한 단열재 등이 그것이다. 그러나 무엇보다도 보호/투습/방수 의류에 사용되는, 고어텍스 섬유가 가장 많이 알려져 있다. 가장 단순한 종류의 방수 의류는 두겹의 형태다. 바깥쪽은 나일론이나 폴리에스테르와 같은 강한 재질로 되어 있다. 안쪽은 폴리우레탄으로 되어 있고, 통기성과 투습력을 희생하는 대신 방수 효과를 지닌다. 초기 고어텍스 섬유는 우레탄으로 된 안감을, 섬유에 접착된 얇은 다공성의 불소수지 멤브레인 코팅으로 교체했다. 이 멤브레인은 1제곱 인치당 90억개 이상의 기공을 가지고 있다. 각 기공은 대략 물방울의 2만 분의 1 크기로서 액체가 침투하기 어렵게 하는 반면, 수증기 형태의 분자는 통과가 가능하다. 특징 방수 야외활동 시 강한 비바람에도 무릎을 꿇은 자세의 무릎과 배낭을 맨 어깨로 수분이 스며들지 않는 것을 말한다. 고어텍스는 높은 압력의 물도 통과를 막는 기능을 가지고 있다. 방풍 고어텍스는 완전 방풍기능이 있어 바람이 들어오는 것을 막아준다. 그러나 홑겹의 고어텍스 의류 한 가지로는 겨울의 외부 추위를 막을 수 없다. 투습 옷 입은 상태와 운동의 강도 등에 따라 달라지긴 하지만, 일반적으로 휴식 중일 경우 인체에서는 시간당 0.06리터의 땀과 증기가 배출되며, 가벼운 운동시에는 시간당 0.5리터가, 격렬한 운동시에는 시간당 1리터 이상이 배출된다. 쾌적함을 유지하기 위해서는 이러한 땀과 증기가 외부로 배출되어야 하는데, 고어텍스는 투습성이 뛰어나 착용자에게 쾌적함을 제공한다. 고어텍스 섬유 관리 세탁 고어텍스 의류는 40℃의 온수에 세제를 잘 푼 다음 물세탁을 해야 한다. 세탁기 사용이 가능하며, 다른 옷과 함께 세탁을 금한다. 세탁 과정에서 의류에 부착된 지퍼,단추 등에 의해 고어텍스 멤브레인이 손상되어 고어텍스 고유의 기능이 떨어질 수 있기 때문에 지퍼와 벨크로, 단추 등을 모두 잠근 상태에서 세탁한다. 세제 찌꺼기가 남아있을 경우 탈색이나 멤브레인 손상의 원인이 될 수 있으므로, 깨끗이 여러 번 헹군다. 표백제나 섬유 유연제는 사용을 절대 금한다. 세탁 전 의류 안에 부착된 제품 손질 관리 라벨을 반드시 확인한다. 건조 가정에서: 세탁 후 옷걸이에 걸어서 직사광선을 피해 그늘에서 말린다. 드럼 세탁기 사용이 가능할 시: 드럼 세탁기에서 가장 낮은 온풍으로 건조하면, 고어텍스 원단 자체의 발수 기능을 회복시키는 데에 도움이 된다. 다림질 다림질은 반드시 의류 안에 부착된 제품 손질 관리 라벨을 확인하고 한다. 스팀 다리미일 경우 옷 위에 얇은 천을 덮고 가장 낮은 온도에서 다림질을 한다. 따뜻한 열이 고어텍스 원단 자체의 발수 기능을 회복시키는 데에 도움이 된다. 발수성 회복 발수성이란 겉감이 물에 젖지 않고 잘 튕겨져 나가도록하여, 전체적인 착용감과 쾌적함을 높여주는 것을 말한다. 그러나 이러한 발수성은 영구적이지 않다. 먼지, 세제의 계면활성제, 기름, 먼지, 드라이 크리닝의 불순물 등이 표면에 남아 일시적으로 기능이 저하될 수 있다. 또한 정상적인 경우에도 잦은 착용이나 마찰에 의해서 점점 발수성이 약해진다. 발수력이 약하거나 없으면, 겉감이 물에 젖어서 원단 표면에 수막을 형성하기 때문에 내부에서 발생한 땀으로 인해 옷이 눅눅하게 느껴지거나, 옷 안쪽에 닿는 면이 차갑게 느껴지고, 옷이 무겁게 늘어지는 등 전체적인 쾌적함이 떨어진다. 발수성을 유지하기 위해서는 가장 먼저 고어텍스 의류를 깨끗하게 유지하는 것이 중요하다. 옷은 깨끗한데 원단 표면에 물방울이 튕겨나가지 않을 경우에는 세제 없이 따뜻한 물로 세탁한 다음 회전식 건조기에서 중간 온도로 30분 정도 건조 시켜주면 된다. 회전식 건조기 사용이 어렵다면 낮은 온도에서 스팀 다림질을 해주어도 된다. 옷이 더러워진 상태라면 세제로 깨끗이 세탁 후 세제 찌꺼기가 남지 않도록 여러 번 헹군 후 온풍 건조시킨다. 또는 시중에서 판매하는 발수 처리제를 구입해, 깨끗이 세탁 한 후 옷에 골고루 뿌려주면 된다. 그 밖의 사용 고어는 누수를 제거하기 위해 고어의 재료로 만드는 모든 의류의 이음새 위를 테이핑한다. 고어의 자매품인 윈드스타퍼는 바람을 막아주고 투습성과 통기성을 갖추고 있다는 점에서 고어텍스와 유사하지만, 신축성이 있다는 점에서 다르며 생활 방수 기능 또한 제공한다. 고어텍스는 파열된 앞쪽 십자인대와 뒤쪽 십자인대를 교체하기 위한 의료용 인공삽입/보형물로도 사용된다. 또한 채색 사본의 보존에 있어서도 그 활용도가 높아지고 있다. 니트로아로마틱 화합물의 감각적인 전기 전압을 표현하는 번개 모양의 마크가 고어텍스 의류에 프린트되어 있다. 고어의 네이밍 시스템은 특정한 기술이나 물질을 지칭하지 않고, 대신 특정한 기능적 특성을 지칭한다. 특허 만료 물질 특허와 방법 특허가 혼합된 고어텍스 특허는 1973년 6월 14일 출원되었다. 특허의 존속 기간이 출원일로부터 20년이기 때문에 고어텍스 특허는 1993년 6월 14일 만료되었다. 따라서 현재 유사한 기술이 사용된, 유사한 특성의 다른 많은 제품들이 시장에 선보이고 있다. 각주 외부 링크 공식 웹사이트 베트남 방수재 섬유

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gore-Tex

Gore-Tex

Gore-Tex is a waterproof, breathable fabric membrane and registered trademark of W. L. Gore & Associates. Invented in 1969, Gore-Tex can repel liquid water while allowing water vapor to pass through and is designed to be a lightweight, waterproof fabric for all-weather use. It is composed of stretched polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), which is more commonly known by the generic trademark Teflon. The material is formally known by the generic term expanded PTFE (ePTFE). History Gore-Tex was co-invented by Wilbert L. Gore and Gore's son, Robert W. Gore. In 1969, Bob Gore stretched heated rods of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and created expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE). His discovery of the right conditions for stretching PTFE was a happy accident, born partly of frustration. Instead of slowly stretching the heated material, he applied a sudden, accelerating yank. The solid PTFE unexpectedly stretched about 800%, forming a microporous structure that was about 70% air. It was introduced to the public under the trademark Gore-Tex. Gore promptly applied for and obtained the following patents: , issued April 27, 1976, for a porous form of polytetrafluoroethylene with a micro-structure characterized by nodes interconnected by fibrils , issued February 5, 1980 on March 18, 1980 for a "waterproof laminate", together with Samuel Allen Another form of stretched PTFE tape was produced prior to Gore-Tex in 1966, by John W. Cropper of New Zealand. Cropper had developed and constructed a machine for this use. However, Cropper chose to keep the process of creating expanded PTFE as a closely held trade secret and as such, it had remained unpublished. In the 1970s Garlock, Inc. allegedly infringed Gore's patents by using Cropper's machine and was sued by Gore in the Federal District Court of Ohio. The District Court held Gore's product and process patents to be invalid after a "bitterly contested case" that "involved over two years of discovery, five weeks of trial, the testimony of 35 witnesses (19 live, 16 by deposition), and over 300 exhibits" (quoting the Federal Circuit). On appeal, however, the Federal Circuit disagreed in the famous case of Gore v. Garlock, reversing the lower court's decision on the ground, as well as others, that Cropper forfeited any superior claim to the invention by virtue of having concealed the process for making ePTFE from the public. As a public patent had not been filed, the new form of the material could not be legally recognised. Gore was thereby established as the legal inventor of ePTFE. Following the Gore v. Garlock decision, Gore sued C. R. Bard for allegedly infringing its patent by making ePTFE vascular grafts. Bard promptly settled and agreed to exit the market. Gore next sued IMPRA, Inc., a smaller maker of ePTFE vascular grafts, in the federal district court in Arizona. IMPRA had a competing patent application for the ePTFE vascular graft. In a nearly decade-long patent/antitrust battle (1984–1993), IMPRA proved that Gore-Tex was identical to prior art disclosed in a Japanese process patent by duplicating the prior art process and through statistical analysis, and also proved that Gore had withheld the best mode for using its patent, and the main claim of Gore's product patent was declared invalid in 1990. In 1996, IMPRA was purchased by Bard and Bard was thereby able to reenter the market. After IMPRA's vascular graft patent was issued, Bard sued Gore for infringing it. Gore-Tex is used in products manufactured by many different companies. Other products have come to market exploiting similar technologies following the expiry of the main Gore-Tex patent. For his invention, Robert W. Gore was inducted into the U.S. National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2006. In 2015, Gore was ordered by the Federal Circuit Court of Appeals to pay Bard $1 billion in damages. The U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the Federal Circuit's decision. Structure ePTFE has a porous microstructure composed of long, narrow fibrils that intersect at nodes. Increasing the processing temperature or increasing the strain rate leads to more homogenous expansion with more spherically symmetric pores and more intersections between fibrils. The formation of ePTFE is enabled by the unwinding of PTFE molecules to create large pores within the structure. This favors highly ordered, crystalline PTFE that allows the molecules to disentangle more easily and uniformly when stretched. The porosity is largely determined by the stretching temperature and rate. Changing the stretching rate from 4.8 m/min to 8m/min can increase the porosity from 60.4% to 70.8%. Properties Due to the high work hardening rate of PTFE, ePTFE is significantly stronger than the unstretched material. On a microscopic level, this work hardening corresponds to the increasing crystallinity of PTFE as the fibrils untangle and orient upon the application of an external stress. ePTFE has a strikingly high ultimate tensile strength (50-800 MPa) relative to its full-density counterpart (20-30 MPa) as a result of its high crystallinity. This behavior also yields a negative Poisson's ratio due to the expansion of ePTFE along all directions, contrasting the more expected reduction in the directions perpendicular to the stress in cases with volume conservation. ePTFE has tunable porosity based on the processing conditions and can be made permeable to certain vapors and gases. However, it is impermeable to most liquids, including water, a property that is exploited in certain applications such as raincoats. These additional properties in combination with the inherent properties of PTFE-based materials more generally (chemical inertness, thermal stability) make ePTFE a versatile material for a range of applications. Processing The most common process used to produce large sheets of ePTFE at scale is a tape stretching process through the following steps: A lubricating agent (often an oil) is added to fine ePTFE powder until a paste is formed. The paste is extruded into a sheet that is calendered to obtain a specific, uniform thickness. The PTFE sheet passes through an oven set to an elevated temperature (often around 300C) while simultaneously undergoing an applied stress that dramatically stretches the material. While heating during this step is not necessary for expansion, it improves the uniformity of expansion. The ePTFE is sintered to increase its strength. This typically involves heating it to a temperature just above the melting temperature of unexpanded PTFE (340C) so that molecules can diffuse across the boundaries between grains in the material. This reduces the gaps in the ePTFE that might have formed during the stretching step. Factors such as strain rate, oven temperature, sintering time, and sintering duration can affect the specific properties of the resulting ePTFE sheet which can be tailored to match particular applications. Environmental concerns PTFE is a fluoropolymer made using an emulsion polymerization process that utilizes the fluorosurfactant PFOA, a persistent environmental contaminant. In 2013, Gore eliminated the use of PFOAs in the manufacture of its weatherproof functional fabrics. Gore has published a plan for phasing out the most harmful perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) by 2025 but has defended the use of PTFE. Applications Gore-Tex materials are typically based on thermo-mechanically expanded PTFE and other fluoropolymer products. They are used in a wide variety of applications such as high-performance fabrics, medical implants, filter media, insulation for wires and cables, gaskets, and sealants. However, Gore-Tex fabric is best known for its use in protective, yet breathable, rainwear. Use in rainwear Before the introduction of Gore-Tex, the simplest sort of rainwear would consist of a two-layer sandwich, where the outer layer would typically be woven nylon or polyester to provide strength. The inner one would be polyurethane (abbreviated: PU) to provide water resistance, at the cost of breathability. Early Gore-Tex fabric replaced the inner layer of non-breathable PU with a thin, porous fluoropolymer membrane (Teflon) coating that is bonded to a fabric. This membrane had about 9 billion pores per square inch (around 1.4 billion pores per square centimeter). Each pore is approximately the size of a water droplet, making it impenetrable to liquid water while still allowing the more volatile water vapor molecules to pass through. The outer layer of Gore-Tex fabric is coated on the outside with a Durable Water Repellent (DWR) treatment. The DWR prevents the main outer layer from becoming wet, which would reduce the breathability of the whole fabric. However, the DWR is not responsible for the jacket being waterproof. Without the DWR, the outer layer would become soaked, there would be no breathability, and the wearer's sweat being produced on the inside would fail to evaporate, leading to dampness there. This might give the appearance that the fabric is leaking when it is not. Wear and cleaning will reduce the performance of Gore-Tex fabric by wearing away this Durable Water Repellent (DWR) treatment. The DWR can be reinvigorated by tumble drying the garment or ironing on a low setting. Gore requires that all garments made from their material have taping over the seams, to eliminate leaks. Gore's sister product, Windstopper, is similar to Gore-Tex in being windproof and breathable, and it can stretch, but it is not waterproof. The Gore naming system does not imply any specific technology or material but instead implies a specific set of performance characteristics. Use in other clothing Expanded polytetrafluoroethylene is used in clothing due to its breathability and water protection capabilities. Besides use in rainwear ePTFE can now be found in space suits. Other uses Gore-Tex is also used internally in medical applications, because it is nearly inert inside the body. Specifically, expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (E-PTFE) can take the form of a fabric-like mesh. Implementing and applying the mesh form in the medical field is a promising type of technological material feature. In addition, the porosity of Gore-Tex permits the body's own tissue to grow through the material, integrating grafted material into the circulation system. Gore-Tex is used in a wide variety of medical applications, including sutures, vascular grafts, heart patches, and synthetic knee ligaments, which have saved thousands of lives. In the form of expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (E-PTFE), Gore-Tex has been shown to be a reliable synthetic, medical material in treating patients with nasal dorsal interruptions. In more recent observations, expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (E-PTFE) has recently been used as membrane implants for glaucoma surgery. Gore-Tex has been used for many years in the conservation of illuminated manuscripts. Explosive sensors have been printed on Gore-Tex clothing leading to the sensitive voltametric detection of nitroaromatic compounds. The "Gore-Tex" brand name was formerly used for industrial and medical products. Alternative technologies For applications in textiles and garments, there are a number of competing semipermeable membranes on the market that attempt to reproduce the "breathability" (water vapor transport) of ePTFE while effectively repelling water. Materials like Sympatex, Futurelight (marketed by The North Face) can be used in textile laminates much like ePTFE, but often perform less well in terms of water vapor transport and durability. Active textile pumping technology, namely textile-based electroosmotic pumps, are being developed and commercialized by companies such as LunaMicro AB. These solutions can eliminate the use of halogenated polymers like PTFE, minimizing the associated negative health and environmental hazards. See also Extended Cold Weather Clothing System Hipora SympaTex PrimaLoft "The Dinner Party" (Seinfeld) Gorpcore References External links Gore website American inventions Brand name materials Fluoropolymers Products introduced in 1976 Technical fabrics

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B9%88%EC%91%A4%EC%9D%B4%20%EC%B2%A0%EB%A1%9C

빈쑤이 철로

빈쑤이 철로()는 하얼빈시의 하얼빈 역과 쑤이펀허 시를 잇는 철도 노선이다. 이 노선은 원래 시베리아 횡단철도였던 동청 철도로 개통되었으며 빈저우 철로 구간과 이어져 러시아에서 블라디보스토크까지 바로 잇는 철도였다. 쑤이펀허에서는 지금도 러시아로 가는 국제 열차가 통행한다. 노선정보 구간과 거리: 하얼삔역―쑤이펀허역 544.5km 역수(驛數): 62개(양단역 포함) 궤도간격: 1,435mm(표준궤) 복선구간: 하얼삔역~무단장역 최소곡률반지름: 320m 지리 하얼빈은 해발 127.95m, 쑤이펀허(绥芬河)는 해발 455.01m이며, 두 곳의 고도 차이는 327.06m이다. 가오링쯔역(高岭子站)은 638.73m의 해발 고도를 가지고 있으며, 빈쑤이 철도의 가장 높은 지점이다. 철도는 숭넨 평원에서 헤이룽장성 남동부의 산악 지대까지 이어지며, 러시아의 철도 건설에 첨단 터널 기술이 없기 때문에, 따라서 선로는 산 위에 지어진 것이 대부분이고 터널은 적다. 두차오(杜草) 터널 상행선은 1937년에 공사를 시작하여, 1942년에 완공되었으며, 총 길이는 3,849m로, 1949년 이전에는 중국에서 가장 긴 철도 터널이었다. 1949년 이후 빈쑤이선의 용량을 확장하기 위해 철도부는 두차오 터널을 건설하기로 결정했다. 건설은 1961년 4월에 시작되어, 1962년에 중단되었다. 1975년 5월 1일에 공사가 제게되어, 1978년 말에 완공되었으며, 총 길이는 3,900m이다. 이 터널은 빈쑤이 철도의 가장 긴 터널이다. 일제 점령시기에 지어진 두차오 하행 터널은, 단순한 시설로 인해 대형 기관차의 운행을 방해하였기 때문에, 1985년 9월에 재건되었고, 1988년 12월 21일에 운영을 재개했다. 삼림지선 러시아는 도로 건설의 권리 외에도, 벌목 권리와 철도를 따라 도로를 수리할 권리를 얻었다. 1906년 이래로 러시아의 상인들은 상지, 이몐포, 웨이허, 주장파오, 야부리 등의 삼림 철도 지선을 총 146 킬로미터에 5개로 건설했다. 스터우허쯔, 미펑에서와 야부리에서 처우숭(臭松) 도랑 및 기타 장소도 복구되었다. 웨이허 삼림철로는 총 길이가 193km인 가장 보존이 잘 된 선로 중 하나로, 중화인민공화국 설립 후, 웨이허 삼림철도는 웨이허 임구(苇河林区) 지역의 중요한 교통 통로가 되었다. 2003년까지 지역 산림 생태 환경을 보호하기 위해, 중국은 벌목 금지와, 웨이허 삼림 철도의 철거를 발표했으며,8km 미만의 구간 만이 관광 사업 개발을 위해 유보되었다.철도가 철거되기 전에는 국내외의 철도 동호인들에게 종종 매력을 느꼈다. 교차 철도 하얼빈역 : 빈저우 철로, 빈베이 철로, 하다 철로, 라빈 철로 미펑역 : 미펑 철로 상지역 : 상린 철로 이몐푸역 : 이린 철로 주장파오역 : 주린 철로 웨이허역 : 웨이야 철로, 웨이린 철로 신싱역 : 위츠 철로 스터우허쯔역 : 스터우허쯔 철로 1야부리역 : 야린 철로 (러우산), 야린 철로 (린산 임장), 야린 철로 (수광 임장), 야린 철로 (바오싱 임장), 처우쑹거우 철로 아오터우역 : 훠룽거우 철로 무단장역 : 무자 철로, 무투 철로, 다무 철로 샤청쯔역 : 청지 철로 쑤이양역 : 쑤이둥 철로 쑤이펀허역 : 중국을 나간후 러시아의 블라디보스토크에서 시베리아 횡단철도와 연결됨. 연혁 1897년 8월 28일: 본선의 건설은 현재의 둥닝 현에서 시작됨. 건설당시 궤도간격은 1524mm였음. 1900년 3월과 10월 사이 의화단운동으로 철로가 파괴되고 건설이 중단됨. 1901년 본선전체가 개통됨. 11월 14일 임시영업이 개시됨. 1903년 7월 14일 동청철도가 전체가 개통됨. 1935년 3월 만주국이 소비에트 연방으로부터 동청철도를 구입함. 1936년 6월 17일 궤도간격을 표준궤로 변경함. 1939년 남만주철도에 의하여 뚱먼역(東門驛)과 이미엔포역(一面坡驛) 구간의 복선화공사가 진행되고 1942년에 완성됨. 1940년 남만주철도에 의하여 까오링쯔역(高嶺子驛) 부근에서 선로이설공사가 실시되어 이듬해 완성됨. 이 결과 구노선은 까오링쯔선(高嶺子線)으로 분리됨. 1945년 8월부터 소련군에 의하여 궤도간격변경공사가 개시됨. 1946년 4월 '동북민주연합군'에 의하여 궤도간격변경공사가 중단됨. 같은 해에 동북행정위원회의 결정에 의하여 시앙팡역(香坊驛)과 야뿌리역(亞布力驛) 구간이 단선으로 되어 철거된 궤도는 다른 철도의 노선의 복구에 활용됨. 1958년부터 하얼삔역과 무단장역 구간의 복선화가 추진됨. 2004년 제5차 운행도표의 개정에 의하여 서리툰역(舍利屯驛), 빠이마오쯔역(白帽子驛) 등의 역이 폐지됨. 안중근의사 블라디보스톡역 및 우수리스크역 그리고 포그라니치니역을 지나 빈쑤이 철도선의 쑤이펀허 ~ 하얼빈 역은 이토 히로부미를 사살한 안중근의사의 행적으로도 잘 알려져있다. 같이 보기 만주횡단철도 시베리아횡단철도 각주 중화인민공화국의 철도 노선 하얼빈시의 교통 무단장시의 교통

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbin%E2%80%93Suifenhe%20railway

Harbin–Suifenhe railway

The Trans-Siberian Harbin–Suifenhe railway, named the Binsui Railway (), is a double-track electrified trunk railway in Northeast China between Harbin and Suifenhe on the Russian border. The line was originally built by Russia as the eastern branch of the Chinese Eastern Railway, which linked Chita with Vladivostok. Today, the railway is administered by Harbin Railway Bureau. History Initial construction of the Binsui Railway as a Russian gauge line of the Sino-Russian Chinese Eastern Railway started on 9 June 1898 at the two termini of the line, Harbin in China and Ussuriysk in Russia. The partially built line was destroyed during the Boxer Rebellion between March and July 1900, causing the project to be suspended. Construction resumed in October, and on 14 November 1901 operation on a temporary basis was started. Official opening of the line took place on 14 July 1903. After the creation of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932, the CER became a Soviet-Manchukuo joint enterprise, and was renamed the "North Manchuria Railway". In March 1935, the government of Manchukuo purchased the Soviet share of the NMR, and merged it into the Manchukuo National Railway, and on 17 June 1936, work to convert the line, known during that time as the Binsui Line (Hinsui Line in Japanese), from Russian broad gauge to standard gauge was completed. The MNR double tracked the line as far as Yimianpo in 1939, and relaid the line with heavier rail in 1942. The MNR began construction of the original Ducao Tunnel in July 1937, opening the new, shorter line on 31 July 1942. At , it was China's longest railway tunnel. To expand the capacity of the line, China Railway decided to build a second tunnel, in length, in 1961, but construction was suspended a year later. Work resumed on 1 May 1975, and was completed by the end of 1978. Refurbishment of the original tunnel began in September 1985 and was completed on 21 December 1988. After the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in 1945, the Soviet Army converted the line back to Russian broad gauge. In 1946, it was converted back to standard gauge once again, and the double tracking was removed; the rails taken up were used to repair other lines. Between 1945 and 1955, the railways in the territory of the former Manchukuo were controlled by the Sino-Soviet China Changchun Railway, after which the railways of the region were taken over by China Railways; the Binsui Line then reverted to its original name, Binsui Railway. The double tracking of the section from Harbin to Mudanjiang was rebuilt by China Railways in 1958. Electrification of the line began in 2010, and the first section, from Mudanjiang to Suifenhe, was completed on 28 December 2015. Wiring of the Harbin–Mudanjiang section began in April 2016. Passenger traffic on the line has increased to 2.3 million passengers annually. Route References Railway lines in China Rail transport in Heilongjiang Railway lines opened in 1901

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%88%ED%86%A0%EB%8B%88%EC%98%A4%20%EC%BD%98%ED%85%8C

안토니오 콘테

안토니오 콘테(, 1969년 7월 31일, 이탈리아 레체 ~ )는 은퇴한 이탈리아의 축구 선수이자 현 축구 지도자이다. 선수 경력 콘테는 그의 고향을 연고로 하는 레체의 유소년팀에 입단하며 축구계에 입문하였고, 이후 1985년에 같은 팀의 1군에서 세리에 A 데뷔전을 치렀다. 1991년 그는 유벤투스로 이적하였고 (1991년 11월 17일 토리노전에서 데뷔), 훗날 주장직을 맡아 알레산드로 델 피에로에게 넘기기 전까지 이 자리를 맡았다. 1998-99 시즌, 델 피에로가 끔찍한 다리 부상을 당하자, 콘테는 다시 주장완장을 차고 팀의 UEFA 챔피언스리그 준결승행을 이끌었다. 그는 2001-02 시즌까지 주장직을 유지하였다. 2002-03 시즌, 그는 유벤투스의 UEFA 챔피언스리그 결승행의 주역이었는데 이 결승전에서 유벤투스는 AC 밀란에게 승부차기 끝에 패하였다. 이 경기에서 콘테는 팀의 세 번째 빅이어를 가져다 줄 수 있었으나, 후반전 초반에 헤딩슛을 크로스바에 날리며 기회를 무산하였다. 콘테는 유벤투스 역사상 가장 화려하며 영향력 있는 선수였다. 그는 이탈리아 축구 국가대표팀 일원으로 1994년 FIFA 월드컵과 UEFA 유로 2000에 참가하여 두 대회 모두 준우승에 일조했다. 감독 경력 USD 아레초 현역 은퇴 이후, 콘테는 2005-06 시즌동안 AC 시에나에서 루이지 데 카뇨의 수석코치로 부임하였다.2006년 7월, 그는 세리에 B에 속한 USD 아레초의 감독이 되었다. 그러나, 여러 차례 실망스러운 결과를 보인 그는 2006년 10월 31일에 해고당하였다. 2007년 3월 13일, 그는 후임감독의 성적부진에 따라 다시 USD 아레초의 감독이 되었다. 그가 아레초에 재임하였을 때, 팀은 5연승을 거두었고, 7경기에서 19점의 승점을 따내며, 토스카나의 클럽이 잔류할 수 있는 가장 아래 순위와의 승점차를 최소화시켰다. 그러나 그의 소속팀은 결국 최종적으로 리그 잔류에 실패하였고, 아레초는 리그 최종일이 종료된 후 스페차 칼초와 1점차로 아깝게 세리에 C1으로 강등되었다. AS 바리 2007년 12월 27일, 그는 2007-08 시즌의 세리에 B를 위해 주세페 마테라치의 바통을 이어받아 AS 바리의 감독이 되었다. 그는 2007-08 시즌 초반에 강등권에 위치했던 바리를 중위권에 안착시키며 훌륭한 성과를 냈다. 그 다음시즌인 2008-09 시즌, 바리는 세리에 B에서 우승을 거두어 2009-10 시즌에 세리에 A에 합류하였다. 2009년 6월, 공석인 유벤투스 FC 감독직과 링크되었으나, 바리와의 계약을 연장하여 그 다음시즌에도 같은 클럽에서 활약할 것임을 밝혔다. 그러나 6월 23일, 바리는 안토니오 콘테와의 상호계약 해지를 발표하였다. 유벤투스가 클라우디오 라니에리를 경질한 뒤, 콘테는 후임감독 후보에 올랐다. 그러나, "비안코네리"는 치로 페라라를 감독으로 내정하였다. 콘테는 그 전에 그는 유벤투스 FC의 감독을 맡을 준비가 되어 있어, 제의가 오거든 수락할 것임을 밝혔다. 아탈란타 BC 2009년 9월 21일, 그는 안젤로 그레구치를 대신하여 아탈란타 BC의 사령탑 자리에 올랐다. 콘테는 오로비치의 지도자로써 초반에 인상적인 활약을 하였으나, 11월을 기점으로 현지팬들의 시위와 콘테의 보드진, 극단 서포터와의 마찰로 문제가 터졌다. 2010년 1월 6일, 콘테는 SSC 나폴리와의 홈경기에서 팬들의 시위대상이 되었고, 이 경기에서 아탈란타는 0-2로 패하였다. 이 경기 이후 경찰이 아탈란타 울트라 팬들과 콘테 사이를 막아 폭력사태를 방지하였다. 그 다음날 콘테는 팀이 19위에 랭크된 상황에서 사임하였다. AC 시에나 2010년 5월 9일, 그는 2009-10 시즌에 강등되어 세리에 A 재승격을 노리는 AC 시에나의 감독이 되었다. 그는 팀을 성공적으로 승격시키며, 시에나를 세리에 A에 다시 올려놓았다. 유벤투스 FC 2011년 5월 22일, 유벤투스의 스포르팅 디렉터 주세페 마로타는 루이지 델네리의 뒤를 이어 콘테가 유벤투스 FC의 신임 감독이 되었음을 발표하였다. 보드진들은 콘테의 지도하에 유벤투스의 이탈리아 및 유럽무대 정상 복귀를 목표로 하였다. 2012년 5월 6일, 콘테는 칼리아리 칼초전 2-0 승리로 팀의 28번째 스쿠데토 (30번째라고 주장하는 사람들도 있다.)를 일구어냈다. 리그 최종일, 유벤투스는 아탈란타 BC를 3-1로 꺾으며, 세리에 A 역사상 두 번째 무패우승 (20팀 리그로 변환된 이후로는 처음) 을 일구어냈다. 그러나 이어진 코파 이탈리아 결승전에서 SSC 나폴리에 2-0으로 완패하며 시즌 전경기 무패 달성에는 실패하였다. 비안코네리는 많은 무승부를 거둠에도 불구하고, 콘테는 조제 모리뉴 감독 못지않은 평론가들의 찬사를 받았다. 후자의 경우처럼, 콘테는 그의 전술과 선수들간의 신뢰로 승리를 거두었다. 그러나, 조심스러운 포르투갈인과는 다르게, 콘테는 토리노 지역에서 흔한 4-3-3 혹은 3-5-2 포메이션을 활용한 공격축구를 지향하였다. 유벤투스 벤치에서의 첫 10개월동안, 선수시절 클럽의 가장 인기있는 미드필더였던 그는 여러 기록들을 세웠다. 2012년 3월 17일, ACF 피오렌티나전에서의 5-0 대승 이후, 2005년 11월과 2006년 5월까지 파비오 카펠로의 무패기록과 동률을 이루었다. 2012년 3월 20일, 그는 2004년에 마르첼로 리피가 코파 이탈리아 결승전으로 이끈 뒤 같은 자리에 팀을 올린 첫 유벤투스 감독이 되었다. 3월 25일, 유벤투스 스타디움에서의 2-0 승리로 2005-06 시즌의 파비오 카펠로 이후로는 처음으로 데르비 디탈리아 더블을 기록한 감독이 되었다. 승부조작 혐의 UEFA 유로 2012를 앞두고, 콘테는 최근 승부조작 스캔들에 연루된 필리포 카로뵤, AC 시에나 선수의 범죄를 숨긴 혐의로 법정에 출두하였다. 그의 변호사이자 유벤투스 회장인 안드레아 아넬리는 그가 스캔들에 연루된 것에 대해 부인하였다. 2012년 8월 1일, 콘테는 형량을 3개월로 감량하기를 청탁했으나 거절되었다. 2012년 8월 10일, FIGC는 안토니오 콘테 유벤투스 감독이 노바라 칼초-AC 시에나 경기와 알비노레페-AC 시에나 경기에서 승부조작을 방조한 혐의로 10개월 감독직 정지의 중징계가 내려졌다. 그는 승부조작 사실을 몰랐다고 증언하며 무죄를 주장하였다.. 8월 22일 이탈리아 법원은 노바라-시에나 건의 무죄를 선언하였으나, 알비노레페-시에나 건에서 유죄가 선언되었고 10개월 징계는 철회되지 않았다. 알비노레페 관련건의 배심은 크리스티안 스텔리니의 형량 감량 요구로 시작되었고, 그 요인은 콘테가 스텔리니의 거동을 알 방법이 없었기 때문이다. 노바라 건에서 법원의 피에트로 산둘리는 "...경험많은 감독이 라커룸 안의 25명의 선수들 앞에서 '우리는 이 경기를 비긴다'라고 말한 것이 모순인데"라고 발언하였다. 콘테는 아무런 행동 없이, 무명의 펜티토로 고소된 것에 분노하였다. 8월 23일, 유벤투스는 이탈리아 스포츠 법정에 징계 철회에 대해 항소를 제출하였다.. 유벤투스 코칭스태프들과 선수들은 2012년 수페르코파 이탈리아나 타이틀을 콘테에게 바쳤다. 이탈리아 축구 국가대표팀 첼시 FC 16-17 시즌을 앞두고 지난 시즌 중 경질된 조제 무리뉴 감독과 대체 감독으로 온 거스 히딩크 감독의 뒤를 이어 첼시의 새로운 감독으로 안토니오 콘테가 낙점 되었다. 부임 후 시즌 초반 리그에서 웨스트 햄, 왓포드, 번리를 상대로 3연승을 달리며 순조로운 출발을 보였으나 이후 우승 경쟁팀이였던 리버풀과 아스날과의 2연전에서 연달아 패하면서 위기를 맞이한다. 아스날전 패배 이후 콘테는 시즌 초반부터 사용해온 기존의 4백 시스템 대신 유벤투스와 이탈리아 대표팀에서 즐겨 사용한 3백을 주 포메이션으로 변경한다. 아스필리쿠에타 - 다비드 루이스 - 케이힐로 이어지는 탄탄한 3백 수비 라인에 새롭게 팀에 합류한 은골로 캉테, 마르코스 알론소 등의 활약과 더불어 임대생활을 전전하다 윙백으로 변신한 빅터 모지스의 성공과 지난 시즌 부진에서 벗어난 에덴 아자르와 디에고 코스타, 페드로가 이끄는 공격진 부활에 힘입은 콘테의 첼시는 리그에서 13연승을 달성했고, 같은 기간 동안 무리뉴의 맨체스터 유나이티드를 4:0으로 과르디올라의 맨체스터 시티를 3:1로 꺾는 등 리그 내 우승 후보들을 상대로도 무적의 모습을 보이면서 승승장구 하였다. 콘테와 첼시 선수들의 활약으로 첼시는 프리미어리그 출범 이후 단일시즌 최다승(30승) 기록을 경신하며 16-17시즌 프리미어리그 우승을 차지하였으며 1시즌 만에 챔피언스리그에도 복귀하였다. 지난 시즌 리그 우승을 차지했음에도 불구하고, 지난 시즌과 마찬가지로 지지 부진한 팀의 이적 시장에 콘테와 보드진 간의 마찰이 심해졌으며, 지난 시즌 후반기부터 마찰을 빚어 왔던 공격수 디에고 코스타와의 갈등이 최고조에 달하는 등 어수선한 분위기에서 여름을 보낸 콘테의 첼시는 결국 시즌 전초전이였던 커뮤니티 실드에서 아스날에 패하면서 우승컵을 내주게 된다. 리그에서도 지난 시즌의 압도적인 모습을 보여주지 못하면서 5위로 리그를 마감하였으며, 1년 만에 복귀한 챔피언스리그에서도 FC 바르셀로나에 밀려 16강에서 마감하게 된다. FA컵을 우승으로 이끌며 무관은 면하였지만, 2018년 7월 13일, 감독직에서 경질되었다. 인테르나치오날레 2019년 5월 31일 인터 밀란의 새로운 감독으로 선임되었다. 부임 첫해 세비야와의 2020 UEFA 유로파리그 결승전에서 패배해 준우승을 달성했다. 부임 두 번째 해에는 유벤투스 FC의 10연패를 저지하고 리그 우승을 달성하였다. 2021년 5월 26일 이사회와 이견으로 계약 해지하였다. 토트넘 홋스퍼 2021년 11월 2일 토트넘 홋스퍼 FC 감독으로 부임하여 3년 만에 프리미어리그에 복귀하였다. 기록 국가대표팀 기록 감독 기록 대회 기록 선수 유벤투스 FC (1991~2004) 세리에 A : 1994-95, 1996-97, 1997-98, 2001-02, 2002-03 코파 이탈리아 : 1994-95 수페르코파 이탈리아나 : 1995, 1997, 2002, 2003 UEFA 챔피언스리그 : 1995-96, 준우승 (1996-97, 1997-98, 2002-03) UEFA 컵 : 1992-93 UEFA 슈퍼컵 : 1996 UEFA 인터토토컵 : 1999 인터콘티넨털컵 : 1996 축구 국가대표팀 (1994~2000) 1994년 FIFA 월드컵 준우승 UEFA 유로 2000 준우승 감독 AS 바리 1908 (2007~2009) 세리에 B 우승 : 2008-09 AC 시에나 (2010~2011) 세리에 B 준우승 : 2010-11 유벤투스 FC (2011~2014) 세리에 A 우승 : 2011-12, 2012-13, 2013-14 수페르코파 이탈리아나 우승 : 2012, 2013 첼시 FC (2016~2018) 프리미어리그 우승 : 2016-17 FA 커뮤니티 실드 준우승 : 2017 FA컵 : 2017-18, 준우승 : 2016-17 FC 인테르나치오날레 밀라노 (2019~2021) 세리에 A : 2020-21, 준우승 : 2019-20 UEFA 유로파리그 준우승 : 2019-20 개인 유벤투스 명예의 거리 50인 FIFA 올해의 감독 2위: 2017 세리에 A 올해의 감독상 : 2011-12, 2012-13 프리미어리그 올해의 감독상 : 2016-17 프리미어리그 올해의 감독: 2016-17 프리미어리그 이달의 감독: 2016년 10월ㆍ11월ㆍ12월 가제타 스포츠 어워드 올해의 감독: 2015 런던 풋볼 어워드 올해의 감독: 2016-17 글로브 사커 어워드 올해의 감독: 2013 팔로네 디 아르젠토: 2008-09 LMA 올해의 감독: 2016-17 서훈 이탈리아 공화국 공로훈장 5등급: 2000 각주 외부 링크 1969년 출생 살아있는 사람 레체 출신 이탈리아의 남자 축구 선수 이탈리아 남자 축구 국가대표팀 선수 이탈리아의 축구 감독 US 레체의 축구 선수 유벤투스 FC의 축구 선수 SS 아레초의 축구 감독 SSC 바리의 축구 감독 아탈란타 BC의 축구 감독 ACR 시에나 1904의 축구 감독 유벤투스 FC의 축구 감독 이탈리아 축구 국가대표팀 감독 첼시 FC의 축구 감독 FC 인테르나치오날레 밀라노의 축구 감독 세리에 A의 축구 감독 프리미어리그의 축구 감독 잉글랜드의 외국인 축구 감독 1994년 FIFA 월드컵 참가 선수 UEFA 유로 2000 참가 선수 UEFA 유로 2016 참가 감독 세리에 A의 축구 선수 세리에 B의 축구 선수 이탈리아의 로마 가톨릭교도 이탈리아의 해외 진출 축구 감독 토트넘 홋스퍼 FC의 축구 감독 잉글랜드에 거주한 이탈리아인 세리에 B의 축구 감독

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio%20Conte

Antonio Conte

Antonio Conte (; born 31 July 1969) is an Italian professional football manager and former player who was most recently the head coach of Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur. Playing as a midfielder, Conte began his career at local club Lecce and later became one of the most decorated and influential players in the history of Juventus having won, among others, five Serie A titles, one Coppa Italia, one UEFA Champions League and one UEFA Cup, becoming also the team's captain from 1996 until 2001. He also played for the Italy national team and was a participant at the 1994 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 2000, where, on both occasions, Italy finished runners-up. His managerial career started in 2006, leading Bari to a Serie B title, and Siena to promotion from the same division two years later. He took over at Juventus in 2011 and won three consecutive Serie A titles before taking charge of the Italy national team in 2014 until UEFA Euro 2016 where he led them to the quarter-finals. He then became Chelsea manager and led them to the Premier League title in his first season in charge, then winning the FA Cup in his second season but being dismissed as they finished fifth in the league. Conte joined Inter Milan a year later, leading the team to the UEFA Europa League final in his first season, then winning the 2020–21 Serie A title in his second season before stepping down in mutual consent. He joined Tottenham Hotspur in November 2021, but left in March 2023, by mutual consent. Conte is credited with the repopularisation of the 3–5–2 formation after it had seen very limited use since its heyday at the 1990 World Cup. Playing career Club career Lecce Conte began his career with the youth team of his hometown club Lecce and made his Serie A debut with the first team on 6 April 1986, aged 16, in a 1–1 draw against Pisa. Under manager Carlo Mazzone, he became a fundamental player for the squad. In 1987, he fractured his tibia, running the risk of a career-ending injury. During the 1988–89 season, he was back on the pitch, and scored his first Serie A goal on 11 November 1989 in 3–2 loss to Napoli. He amassed a total of 99 appearances and 1 goal for Lecce. Juventus Conte was signed by Juventus manager Giovanni Trapattoni in 1991 (Conte refers to Trapattoni as being his "second father"), debuting on 17 November 1991 against cross-city rivals Torino. Due to his consistent performances, work-rate, leadership and tenacious playing style, he became an important figure with the club's fans, and was later named the team's captain under Marcello Lippi in 1996, following the departure of the club's previous captain Gianluca Vialli, and before the promotion of Alessandro Del Piero to the role. During the 1998–99 season, when Del Piero suffered a severe knee injury, Conte returned to the captaincy, a position which he maintained until the 2001–02 season. During his Juventus playing career, Conte won five Serie A titles, the 1994–95 Coppa Italia, the 1992–93 UEFA Cup and the 1995–96 UEFA Champions League, as well as four Supercoppa Italiana titles, the 1996 UEFA Super Cup, the 1996 Intercontinental Cup (which he missed due to injury) and the 1999 UEFA Intertoto Cup, winning all possible top tier club titles, aside from the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup. Along with his team, Conte also finished as runner-up in the Champions League on three other occasions, as Juventus lost the Champions League finals of 1997, 1998 and 2003. In the latter final, against A.C. Milan, he came on as a substitute in the second half and produced Juventus's best chance of the match, hitting the crossbar with a header, although Juventus eventually lost the match on penalties following a 0–0 draw after extra time. Conte also finished runner-up in the 1995 UEFA Cup Final with the club. He remained with the Turin-based club until his retirement in 2004. During his 13 seasons with Juventus, he made a total of 295 appearances and 29 goals in Serie A, and 418 appearances and 43 goals in all competitions. International career Conte also played for the Italy national team, making his debut on 27 May 1994, in a 2–0 friendly win over Finland at age 24, under Arrigo Sacchi. He was a member of the Italian squads for both the 1994 FIFA World Cup under Sacchi, and UEFA Euro 2000 under Dino Zoff, achieving runners-up medals in both tournaments. He missed out on the Euro 1996 squad after sustaining an injury in the 1996 Champions League final. Conte scored a bicycle kick in Italy's opening match of Euro 2000, which ended in a 2–1 win against Turkey, although he later suffered an injury in a 2–0 win against Romania in the quarter-finals of the competition, following a challenge from Gheorghe Hagi, which ruled him out for the remainder of the competition. In total, he made 20 international appearances for Italy between 1994 and 2000, scoring twice. Style of play Conte was regarded as a quick, combative, energetic, and tactically versatile footballer throughout his career who could play anywhere in midfield but was usually deployed as a central, box-to-box, or defensive midfielder, and occasionally on the right flank, due to his crossing ability. Although he was not the most naturally talented or skilful footballer from a technical standpoint (although he was able to improve in this area with time), Conte was a hard-working, consistent and intelligent player, with an innate ability to read the game, who was mainly known for his leadership, strong mentality, accurate tackling, stamina, and vision; these attributes, coupled with his solid first touch, work-rate, tenacity, and a tendency to make offensive runs into the area, enabled him to aid his team effectively both defensively and offensively, and gave him the ability to distribute the ball and start attacking moves after retrieving possession, as well as the capacity to turn defence into an attack. Due to his ball-striking from distance and ability to get forward, he also scored some spectacular and decisive goals, often from volleys and strikes from outside the area. He was also considered to be physically strong, good in the air and accurate with his head, despite not being particularly tall. Despite his ability as a footballer, his career was often affected by injuries. Coaching career Arezzo After retiring from playing, Conte worked as an assistant manager for Siena alongside Luigi De Canio in the 2005–06 season. In July 2006, he was appointed coach of Serie B side Arezzo. After a series of disappointing results, he was sacked on 31 October 2006. On 13 March 2007, Conte was reinstated as Arezzo head coach as his predecessor Maurizio Sarri failed to gain any significant improvement with the club mired in a relegation struggle. He subsequently led the team to five consecutive wins, securing 19 points from 7 matches, which allowed the Tuscan side to close the points gap between them and safety. Despite this turnaround in form, Arezzo was relegated to Serie C1 on the final day of the league season, finishing one point behind Spezia. Bari On 27 December 2007, Conte was appointed by Bari to replace Giuseppe Materazzi for the second half of their 2007–08 Serie B campaign. He oversaw a considerable upturn in form, leading the team out of the relegation battle and placing them comfortably mid-table. The following season, 2008–09, Bari were crowned Serie B champions, being promoted to Serie A for the 2009–10 season, Conte's first major honour as a manager. In June 2009, after weeks of rumours linking Conte to the vacant managerial role at Juventus, he agreed in principle for a contract extension to keep him at Bari for the new season. On 23 June, Bari announced they had rescinded the contract with Conte by mutual consent. After Claudio Ranieri was sacked by Juventus, Conte was again reported to be a potential replacement. Shortly prior to Ranieri's termination, Conte had made public his ambition to be Juventus coach at some stage and was confident he was ready for the demands of the role. Again, Juventus declined to hire their former midfielder and appointed Ciro Ferrara instead. Atalanta On 21 September 2009, Conte replaced Angelo Gregucci as manager of Atalanta. Despite a good start at the helm of the Orobici, the club found itself struggling by November, leading to protests from local supporters and friction between Conte and the club's ultra supporters. On 6 January 2010, Conte was repeatedly confronted by Atalanta fans during a home game against Napoli which ended in a 0–2 defeat for the Nerazzurri. The match ended with Conte receiving police protection to avoid an altercation with the Atalanta ultras. The next day, Conte tendered his resignation to the club, leaving them in 19th place. Siena On 9 May 2010, Conte was announced as new head coach of Siena, with the aim of leading the Tuscan side back to the top flight after relegation to the 2010–11 Serie B. Conte successfully secured promotion for Siena, which would be competing in the 2011–12 Serie A season. Juventus On 22 May 2011, Juventus sporting director Giuseppe Marotta announced Juventus had appointed Conte as its new head coach, replacing Luigi Delneri. Conte arrived amid high expectations that he, a former fan favourite as a midfielder for the club, would lead them back to the summit of the Italian and European game. His first ten months as manager saw the club reach a number of landmarks such as, following a 5–0 win over rivals Fiorentina, equalling Fabio Capello's run of 28 unbeaten matches between November 2005 and May 2006. On 20 March 2012, Conte became the first coach to lead Juventus to a Coppa Italia final since Marcello Lippi in the 2004 Coppa Italia Final. On 25 March, following a 2–0 victory at the Juventus Stadium, he became the first coach to complete the league double in the Derby d'Italia against rivals Inter Milan since Capello in 2005–06. In November 2012, Conte was awarded the Trofeo Maestrelli, an award honouring the three best Italian coaches working in the professional league, the country's youth coaching system and outside Italy, respectively. Despite drawing a large number of matches during the season, on 6 May 2012 Conte led Juventus to their 28th league title with one match remaining by beating Cagliari 2–0. After beating Atalanta 3–1, Juventus finished the league unbeaten, the first team to do so since Serie A expanded to 20 teams and 38 rounds. Conte's innovative 3–5–2 formation, which featured wingbacks and two box-to-box midfielders in a three-man midfield, gave more creative freedom to the newly acquired deep-lying playmaker Andrea Pirlo, who was key to the club's success that season. The club's strong and highly organised three-man back-line, which was predominantly composed of Giorgio Chiellini, Leonardo Bonucci, and Andrea Barzagli, was regarded to have played a large part in the title triumph, and only conceded 20 goals, finishing the league with the best defence in Italy. Juventus lost the 2012 Coppa Italia final to Napoli 2–0, their only defeat in domestic competitions that season. Conte's Juventus won the 2012–13 Serie A title as they accumulated 87 points, three more than the previous season, nine more than second-placed Napoli and 15 more than third-placed Milan. Despite their dominance, Juventus's top goalscorers in the league were midfielder Arturo Vidal and forward Mirko Vučinić, both with just ten goals, making them joint 23rd in the goal-scoring chart. In his first Champions League campaign, Juventus was eliminated by eventual winners Bayern Munich in the quarter-finals, losing 4–0 on aggregate. After winning a second consecutive Supercoppa Italiana in 2013, Juventus won their third consecutive Serie A title under Conte during the 2013–14 season, winning the league with a Serie A record of 102 points. This was also the club's 30th league title. Juventus were eliminated from the group stage of the Champions League that season, although they subsequently managed to reach the semi-finals of the UEFA Europa League. On 15 July 2014, Conte resigned as manager. During his three seasons as Juventus manager, he won the Panchina d'Oro for each one, for best Serie A coach of the season. Italy national team On 14 August 2014, following Italy national team manager Cesare Prandelli's resignation, the Italian Football Federation (FIGC) announced to have agreed a two-year deal with Conte as new head coach of the national team until Euro 2016. With the national side, Conte continued to field formations which he had employed during his successful spell with Juventus, varying between the 4–3–3, 4–2–4, 3–3–4, and the 3–5–2 in particular, with the latter being the tactical choice that ultimately replaced Prandelli's 4–3–1–2 midfield diamond formation. His first match as Italy manager was a 2–0 win over Netherlands, during which Ciro Immobile and Daniele De Rossi scored the goals for Gli Azzurri. Conte won his first competitive match on 9 September 2014, defeating Norway 2–0 in their opening Euro 2016 qualifying match in Oslo, with goals by Simone Zaza and Leonardo Bonucci. This was the first time Italy had managed to defeat the Norwegians in Norway since 1937. After ten matches as Italy manager, Conte suffered his first defeat on 16 June 2015, in a 1–0 international friendly loss against Portugal. He sealed Euro 2016 qualification for Italy on 10 October 2015, as Italy defeated Azerbaijan 3–1 in Baku. The result meant Italy had managed to go 50 matches unbeaten in European qualifiers. On 15 March 2016, the FIGC confirmed Conte would step down as manager after Euro 2016. Although many fans and members of the media were initially critical of Conte's tactics and the level of the Italian squad chosen for the competition, Italy opened the tournament with a promising 2–0 victory over the number-one ranked European team Belgium on 13 June. Following the win, Conte drew praise from the media for the team's unity, defensive strength, and for his tactical approach to the match, which impeded Belgium from creating many goalscoring opportunities. Conte led Italy out of the group to the Round of 16 with one match to spare on 17 June after a 1–0 victory against Sweden. Italy had not won the second group match in a major international tournament since Euro 2000, in which Conte had coincidentally appeared as a player. Conte also led Italy to the top of the group, the first time in a major tournament since the 2006 World Cup. After the 2–0 round of 16 win over defending champions Spain, Conte's Italy then faced off against rivals and reigning world champions Germany in the quarter-final, which ended 1–1 after extra time and 6–5 in favour of Germany after the resulting penalty shoot-out, ending his time as Italy manager. Speaking after the match, Conte said, "[T]he decision to leave the national team after two years was taken early," and that the reason for leaving was because he "wanted to return to the cut and thrust of club football". Chelsea On 4 April 2016, it was confirmed Conte would officially become the new first-team head coach of English side Chelsea from the 2016–17 season after signing a three-year contract, which would keep him at the club until 2019. On 15 August, Chelsea started off the season with a 2–1 win over West Ham United. On 17 December, Conte set a new club record with 11 consecutive league victories in a single season, following a 1–0 away triumph over Crystal Palace. After securing a 4–2 home win over Stoke City on 31 December, Chelsea recorded a 13th consecutive league victory, equalling Arsenal's 2002 record for most consecutive league wins in a single season. The team's league winning streak came to an end in the following match, on 4 January 2017, in a 2–0 away loss to Tottenham Hotspur. On 13 January 2017, Conte became the first manager in history to win three consecutive Premier League Manager of the Month awards (October, November and December). On 12 May 2017, Conte's Chelsea side defeated West Bromwich Albion 1–0 away, with a late goal from substitute Michy Batshuayi, and secured the points required to win the 2016–17 Premier League title with two matches to spare. Following a 5–1 home win over Sunderland on 21 May, Chelsea also set a new Premier League record for the most wins in a single season, with 30 league victories out of 38 league matches. On 18 July 2017, Conte signed a new two-year contract with Chelsea. Conte was sent to the stands for the first time in his Chelsea career during the first half of a home match against Swansea City on 29 November 2017. He argued with fourth official Lee Mason over referee Neil Swarbrick’s decision to award a goal kick rather than a corner for Chelsea, after which the referee dismissed him. Conte apologised afterwards but was nonetheless charged with misconduct by the FA. On 19 May 2018, Conte led Chelsea to a 1–0 victory over Manchester United in the 2018 FA Cup Final. Chelsea finished fifth in the league at the end of the season, missing out on Champions League qualification. Conte was sacked as Chelsea manager on 13 July 2018 and was replaced by Maurizio Sarri. During this period, the club is said to have lost £26.6m in paying off compensation to Conte, his team, and legal fees, as per Chelsea's accounts. Inter Milan On 31 May 2019, Conte was appointed head coach of Serie A club Inter Milan on a three-year contract. On 26 August 2019, Inter won their first league match of the season by 4–0 against Lecce. Inter finished second behind Juventus by just one point in the Serie A title race. Inter also reached the final of the Europa League, but suffered a 3–2 defeat to Sevilla in Cologne on 21 August 2020. Following Atalanta's draw against Sassuolo on 2 May 2021, Inter were confirmed as Serie A champions for the first time in eleven years, ending Juventus's run of nine consecutive titles. Despite achieving Serie A glory, it was announced by Inter on 26 May 2021 that Conte had left the club by mutual consent. The departure was reportedly due to disagreements Conte had with the club's board over transfers for the following season. Tottenham Hotspur Conte was appointed as head coach of Tottenham Hotspur on 2 November 2021 following the sacking of Nuno Espírito Santo the previous day. He signed an 18-month contract with the option of a further year. His first match in-charge of Tottenham was a 3–2 win against Eredivisie side Vitesse. His first Premier League game was a 0–0 draw away to Everton on 7 November 2021. On 1 January 2022, following a late win against Watford, Conte became the first Tottenham manager to go unbeaten in their first eight league games. Conte helped Tottenham qualify for the Champions League for the first time since 2019–20, after winning 5–0 away against Norwich City and finishing fourth in the 2021–22 Premier League season. After a 2–0 victory against Everton, Conte had secured Tottenham their best ever start to a Premier League season; however, Tottenham's form dipped following this, with the defense in particular struggling. In February 2023, Conte underwent surgery, and management responsibilities were temporarily handed over to assistant Cristian Stellini, who managed to earn a well-deserved 1–0 win against Manchester City. Conte returned to the Tottenham dugout for the club's following games, a 4–1 defeat to Leicester City and a 1–0 defeat to AC Milan. Following a check-up on 16 February, it was announced that Conte would be returning to Italy to further his recovery, with Stellini once again taking over his duties. On 18 March 2023, Conte gave a press conference following a 3–3 draw away to bottom of the league Southampton, after Tottenham conceded a 3–1 lead. Conte said that he sees "selfish players" that "don't put their heart [into it]", and intending to explain Spurs' current situation, he said: "Tottenham's story is this. Twenty years there is the owner and they never won something, but why? The fault is only for the club, or for every manager that stay[s] here?" Club captain Harry Kane and former midfielder Jamie O'Hara agreed with Conte that the club was in disarray. On 26 March 2023, following exits in the Champions League as well as the FA Cup, it was announced by Tottenham that Conte had left the club by mutual consent. At the time of his departure, Tottenham were fourth in the Premier League, two points ahead of Newcastle United who had two games in hand. Style of management As a manager, Conte is known for using the 3–5–2 formation (or in certain cases, its more defensive variant, 5–3–2), fielding two wingbacks in lieu of wingers, with two out-and-out strikers backed by an attacking box-to-box midfielder in a three-man midfield, in front of a three-man defensive line. During his time as head coach of Juventus, he won three consecutive Serie A titles using the 3–5–2 formation, which also soon began to be employed by several other Serie A clubs. In his time at Bari, he was noted for his unorthodox 4–2–4 formation, a modification of the classic 4–4–2, in which the outside midfielders act as attacking wingers. Some commentators have also observed that, although Conte's teams are capable of playing a short passing possession game, in which the ball is played out from the back on the ground, they are mainly known for their direct style of attacking play, as well as their ability to utilise long balls and score from counter-attacks with few touches; however, Conte has rejected claims that his teams prefer to sit back and play on the counter-attack. Defensive solidity has been highlighted as a hallmark of his sides, as well as the effective use of high and aggressive pressing in order to put pressure on opponents and win back the ball quickly. Conte's teams have also been described as possessing notable virtues such as pace, athleticism, high work-rates, versatility and tactical intelligence. Conte's work in restoring Juventus to the top of Italian football won critical acclaim and earned him comparisons with José Mourinho, Marcello Lippi and Arrigo Sacchi, primarily due to his obsession with tactics, his winning mentality and ability to foster great team spirit among his players. He also demonstrated a notable tactical versatility and meticulousness as a coach, adopting several different formations in an attempt to find the most suitable system to match his players' skills. The formations he adopted included 4–2–4, 4–1–4–1, 3–3–4, and 4–3–3, before he finally settled on his now trademark 3–5–2 or 5–3–2 formation while also using a 3–5–1–1 formation on occasion, as a variation upon this system. The resulting system was key to the club's success as the three-man midfield line-up, flanked by wingbacks, allowed veteran star Andrea Pirlo to function creatively as a deep-lying playmaker, with the younger and more dynamic Arturo Vidal and Claudio Marchisio either supporting him defensively or contributing offensively by making attacking runs into the area. Conte's use of heavy pressing high up on the pitch allowed his players to win back the ball quickly after losing it, and enabled Juventus to dominate possession during matches, which gave Pirlo more time to orchestrate the team's attacking moves. The organised back-line at Juventus formed by Chiellini, Bonucci, and Andrea Barzagli proved to be a strong defensive line-up, as Juventus finished the 2011–12 Serie A season with the best defence in the league; the three-man defence also allowed the central defender, Bonucci, to operate in a free role, and advance into midfield as a ball-playing centre-back, providing an additional creative outlet whenever Pirlo was heavily marked. Luca Marrone commented on Conte's demanding and meticulous approach as a coach, stating, "It takes time to accept the sheer amount of work he is asking of you. Everything he does, in preparation or tactical organisation, is done with maniacal precision and attention to detail. It can be overwhelming at first. But when you realise by buying into it you can win things, you follow." In 2014, Trapattoni attributed Conte's success and tactical intelligence as a manager to his time playing in midfield throughout his playing career, which allowed him to understand both the offensive and defensive phases of the game. Conte's teams are also known for their versatility and ability to adopt different formations during a match, depending on whether his team are in possession or playing off the ball. At Euro 2016, Italy adopted a fluid 3–5–2 formation under Conte, in which the wide midfielders or wingbacks effectively functioned as wingers in a 3–3–4 formation when attacking, and as fullbacks in a 5–3–2 formation when defending behind the ball. Although the level of talent in the Italian squad was initially criticised in the media, Conte's tactics and Italy's solidity and organisation, from both a defensive and offensive standpoint, drew praise from pundits. In his first season as Chelsea manager, Conte started with a 4–1–4–1 formation, but after two comprehensive defeats to Arsenal and Liverpool early in the season, he changed the system to a fluid 3–4–2–1, with his trademark three-man defence consisting of David Luiz, César Azpilicueta, and Gary Cahill, two defensive-minded midfielders in N'Golo Kante and Nemanja Matić, two wing-backs equally capable at also playing as wingers (Victor Moses and Marcos Alonso), and a three-man attack spearheaded by striker Diego Costa and crucially assisted by outside forwards Eden Hazard and Pedro or Willian. This system depends on the constant positional movement of attacking players, with the two wide forwards moving inside when the full-backs make overlapping forward runs, thus effectively forming a 3–4–3 and at times a 3–4–1–2. When losing the ball, players' quick defensive transitions make the system easily transform into a compact 5–4–1. Chelsea's performances improved dramatically after the tactical change, with 13 consecutive wins in the Premier League, and the club eventually went on to win the league title that season. Conte drew praise for his role in revitalising the team in the media, with BBC pundit John Motson describing Chelsea's 5–0 home win against Everton on 5 November 2016 as the best 90-minute performance he had ever seen in the Premier League. Although Conte's decision to reacquire David Luiz was initially met with criticism in the media, due to some poor defensive performances for Chelsea in the past, Conte's switch to a three-man back-line saw the Brazilian excel in a new role as a ball playing centre-back, due to his technique and range of passing. Conte described David Luiz as being "crucial" to the team's success, and praised him for working to improve his composure and concentration. In addition to their tactical discipline and organisation, Chelsea also drew praise for their fitness, effective use of high pressing, and their ability to win the ball back quickly, as well as their work-rate under Conte, which was attributed to the team's highly rigorous preseason training, which Cahill described as one of the "hardest" he has ever experienced. Italy defender Leonardo Bonucci singled out Conte for his role in motivating the players and creating a unified team environment at Euro 2016, commenting that the players had given their coach the nickname The Godfather, for the way he made them want to listen when he spoke. Pirlo has also remarked approvingly of Conte's man-management and motivational skills. In his autobiography he recalled how Conte's introductory speech to the Juventus squad left a significant impression on him: "He needed only one speech, with many simple words, to conquer both me and Juventus. He had fire running through his veins and he moved like a viper. 'This squad, dear boys, is coming off two consecutive seventh-place finishes. It's crazy. It's shocking. I am not here for this, so it's time to stop being so crap.'... When Conte speaks, his words assault you. They crash through the doors of your mind. I've lost count of the number of times I've said: 'Hell, Conte said something really spot-on again today.'" In addition to his comparisons to José Mourinho, some commentators have also remarked on his managerial similarities to Sir Alex Ferguson, using an anecdote from his final season as Juventus manager to illustrate his formidable temper. Prior to the team talk ahead of the final game of the 2013–14 season, Juventus goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon arrived with the club's chief executive who Buffon said wanted to speak to the players over how much they were due in win bonuses having won the title. "The suggestion sent Conte into a fury. He chased every player out of the room as he tore into Buffon. 'I don't want to hear another word,' Conte is said to have screamed. 'From you, of all people, I would never have expected such a thing. Bonuses … You’re a disappointment, a defeat from the moment you open your mouth. Just like all the rest of these half-wits.'" Juventus won the game 3–0 and set a new record for the most points and wins in a single Serie A season. Conte is also known for adopting a very strict approach when it comes to his players' diets and curfew before matches. Marcello Lippi has also praised Conte for his leadership qualities as a manager. Controversy Prior to Euro 2012, Conte was accused of failure to report attempted match-fixing during his time as manager of Siena by ex-Siena player Filippo Carobbio, connected with the betting scandal of 2011–12. Carobbio, after himself being charged with extensive involvement in the scandal, said that during the technical meeting prior to a match between Siena and Novara, Siena owner Massimo Mezzaroma indirectly sent a message to the players asking them to ensure the match finished in a draw in order to help Mezzaroma turn a large profit on a bet he had made. The match finished 2–2 and Carobbio testified Conte was present when the message was relayed to the players in advance of the match. Carrobio also asserted the result of the final match of the season, in which Siena lost 1–0 to AlbinoLeffe, was prearranged after Siena's assistant manager asked he and another player "contact someone at AlbinoLeffe to reach an agreement over the return match". Further accusations were also leveled at Conte over Siena's 5–0 victory over Varese that season, specifically that he knew they had been asked to lose the game and did not report it. Conte's lawyer, Antonio De Rencis, reported his client strenuously denied the accusations, and maintained he had no knowledge of any attempts to fix the matches in which he was involved. To date, none of the 23 other Siena players have supported Carobbio's accusations. Conte took the advice of his lawyers and attempted to strike a plea bargain, which would have seen him served with a three-month ban and fine of €200,000, under Article 23 of Italian law without admission of guilt. On 1 August 2012, this plea bargain was rejected. On 10 August, the FIGC suspended him from football for the following ten months for failing to report match-fixing in the Novara–Siena and AlbinoLeffe–Siena fixtures. Conte again maintained his innocence and appealed the verdict. On 22 August 2012, the Federal Court of Justice dropped the accusation about the Novara–Siena fixture. Federal Court member Pietro Sandulli commented, "[I]t seemed illogical that such a senior and experienced coach would say in the locker room 'we're drawing this one' in front of 25 players." The Court confirmed the ten-month ban for the AlbinoLeffe match would be upheld as there was no way he could not have known of the actions of his assistant manager Cristian Stellini, with the presiding judge adding that Conte was lucky not to have been handed a longer sentence. On 23 August 2012, Juventus announced an appeal to Italy's sports arbitration panel against the ban. Following the appeal, Conte's touchline ban was reduced to four months. Juventus's management and players dedicated their Supercoppa Italiana win to Conte. In May 2016, the preliminary hearing judge of the court of Cremona acquitted Conte of all charges in regard to his alleged involvement in the match-fixing scandal from the 2010–11 season, during his time with Siena in Serie B. Despite Conte's success at Juventus, there were indications that his departure from the club in May 2014 was not as amicable as had been portrayed, with observers pointing to a comment he made in the immediate aftermath of the club's 2014 title success. When asked what plans were in place for the following season Conte responded, "Well, you cannot go to eat at a €100 restaurant with just €10 in your pocket, can you?", which was interpreted as a veiled criticism of the lack of funds made available for transfers by the Juventus executive. In addition to this remark, Conte had chosen to resign on the second day of pre-season training, something that took fans by surprise. There was much controversy surrounding Italy's Euro 2016 qualifying match on 28 March 2015 against Bulgaria, as Conte called up Brazilian-born Éder and Argentine-born Franco Vázquez. Both players hold an Italian citizenship as they have relatives that are Italian, allowing them to be eligible to play for Italy. Speaking at a Serie A meeting on 23 March 2015, Roberto Mancini said, "The Italian national team should be Italian. An Italian player deserves to play for the national team while someone who wasn't born in Italy, even if they have relatives, I don't think they deserve to." In late May 2016, Conte was criticised in the North American media for his omission of Andrea Pirlo and Sebastian Giovinco from Italy's 30-player shortlist for its Euro 2016 squad, and for his comments regarding the quality of their league, Major League Soccer. Conte had stated in a press conference, "When you make a certain choice and go to play in certain leagues, you do so taking it into account that they could pay the consequences from a footballing viewpoint." On 23 October 2016, while his team were leading 4–0 against José Mourinho's Manchester United, Conte waved up the home crowd, asking them to make more noise to support Chelsea. Media reports claimed his actions were meant to antagonise Mourinho and humiliate the visiting team. Conte refuted these claims, saying, "I've been a player too and I know how to behave. I always show great respect for everyone, including Manchester United. There was no incident, it was just a normal thing to do. I wasn't mocking anyone, I wouldn't do that. Today it was right to call our fans in a moment when I was listening to only the supporters of Manchester United at 4–0. The players, after a 4–0 win, deserved a great clap. It's very normal. If we want to cut the emotion we can go home and change our job." Although Conte was criticised for his behaviour by Mourinho, Chelsea winger Pedro supported Conte's actions. Personal life Conte and his wife Elisabetta have a daughter, Vittoria. The couple had been together for 15 years before marrying in June 2013. Conte has expressed his gratitude to his family for their support during the Scommessopoli match-fixing scandal investigations in 2011–12: "I have a great woman by my side, one who always tries to understand me. As for my daughter, she is the other woman in my life. She is beginning to understand that her dad gets nervous when he does not win [a match]." In addition to his native Italian, Conte can speak English. Conte is Catholic. On 1 February 2023, Spurs announced Conte would be having surgery that day to remove his gallbladder. Career statistics Club International Scores and results list Italy's goal tally first. Managerial statistics Honours Player Juventus Serie A: 1994–95, 1996–97, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2002–03 Coppa Italia: 1994–95 Supercoppa Italiana: 1995, 1997, 2003 UEFA Champions League: 1995–96, runner-up: 2002–03 UEFA Cup: 1992–93 UEFA Intertoto Cup: 1999 Italy FIFA World Cup runner-up: 1994 UEFA European Championship runner-up: 2000 Manager Bari Serie B: 2008–09 Juventus Serie A: 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14 Supercoppa Italiana: 2012, 2013 Coppa Italia runner-up: 2011–12 Chelsea Premier League: 2016–17 FA Cup: 2017–18 runner-up: 2016–17 Inter Milan Serie A: 2020–21 UEFA Europa League runner-up: 2019–20 Individual Panchina d'Argento: 2008–09 Panchina d'Oro: 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2020–21 Serie A Coach of the Year: 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2020–21 Trofeo Tommaso Maestrelli for the Best Italian Manager: 2011–12 Globe Soccer Award for the Best Coach of the Year: 2013 IFFHS Best Club Coach of the Year Nominee: 2013 (7th) Gazzetta Sports Awards Coach of the Year: 2015 Premier League Manager of the Month: October 2016, November 2016, December 2016 London Football Awards for Manager of the Year: 2017 Premier League Manager of the Season: 2016–17 LMA Manager of the Year: 2016–17 Special Achievement GQ Men of the Year Award: 2017 The Best FIFA Men's Coach (2nd Place): 2017 Italian Football Hall of Fame: 2021 Orders Knight of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic: 2000 References External links Official page on Facebook 1969 births 1994 FIFA World Cup players Men's association football midfielders Atalanta BC managers Chelsea F.C. managers Expatriate football managers in England Inter Milan managers Italian expatriate football managers Italian expatriate sportspeople in England Italian men's footballers Italian football managers Italian Roman Catholics Italy men's international footballers Italy national football team managers Juventus FC managers Juventus FC players Knights of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic Living people Sportspeople from Lecce Footballers from the Province of Lecce Premier League managers ACR Siena 1904 managers Serie A managers Serie A players Serie B managers Serie B players SS Arezzo managers SSC Bari managers Tottenham Hotspur F.C. managers UEFA Champions League winning players UEFA Cup winning players UEFA Euro 2000 players UEFA Euro 2016 managers US Lecce players

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%80%EB%94%94%EC%96%B8%EC%A6%88%20%28%EC%98%81%ED%99%94%29

가디언즈 (영화)

《가디언즈》()는 2012년에 공개된 미국의 애니메이션 영화로, 윌리엄 조이스의 책 시리즈 《The Guardians of Childhood》를 원작으로 한다. 줄거리 어느날, 놀스의 지구본에 검은모래가 휩쓸고 지나가고 이것이 피치의 짓이라고 생각한 놀스는 모든 가디언들을 총 집합시켜 피치가 돌아왔다는 사실을 알린다. 처음에는 다들 믿지 않았지만 '달의 그분'이 피치가 왔다는 사실을 다시한번 얘기해주고 새로운 가디언을 뽑는다. 그 가디언은 잭 프로스트. 하지만 잭은 가디언이 되기를 거부한다. 갑자기 투스의 궁전에 문제가 생기고 가디언들은 모두 이빨요정의 궁전으로 갔지만, 이미 투스의 궁전에서는 모든것이 사라져 있었다. 중간에 잭이 구한 베이비투스 한마리만 빼고. 그들은 이 모든것은 피치가 꾸민 일임을알고 피치를 추격하지만 곧 피치는 사라진다. 투스와 예기하던중 잭은 이빨이 기억을 살려준다는 예기를 듣고 자신의 기억을 찾으러 가자고 하지만, 갑자기 투스의 궁전에 변화가 생기면서 무너져내린다. 이빨과 동전을 교체해주는 베이비투스가 모두 잡혀갔기 때문에 아이들은 투스를 믿지 않아가고 있었다. 가디언들은 투스를 도와 아이들의 이빨을 모으기로하고 이빨을 모으며 여러 선물도 남기고 간다. 모으고 주던 중, 가디언들은 어쩌다 제이미의 방에 모이게되고 소란스러운탓에 깬 제이미에게 들키고 만다. 제이미를 잠에들게 하려고 한 샌드맨은 잘못해서 가디언들을 모두 재워버리고, 밖에서 감시하고있던 피치의 흑마를 쫓아 잭과함께 나간다. 그때 제이미의 동생 소피가 방안으로 들어와 놀스의 이동수단인 스노글로브를 발견하고 버니의 소굴로 가게된다. 잭과 샌디는 흑마를 잡은후 피치와 대면하고 싸운다. 잠에서 깬 가디언들은 그들을 돕기 위해 함께 싸운다. 그러나 싸우는 도중 궁지에 몰린 샌드맨이 죽게 되었고 그로인해 잭은 심한 죄책감을 느낀다. 샌드맨의 추모식이 끝난후 가디언들을 믿는 아이들은 빠른속도로 사라져 간다. 하지만 마지막 희망이 있었으니. 바로 부활절이었다. 땅굴을 통해 버니의 소굴로 들어간 가디언들은 이상한 낌새를 알아채고 공격준비를 하지만 알고보니 소피였다. 잠시후 잭은 베이비투스와 함께 잠든 소피를 집까지 데려다주고 오는데, 어디선가 잭을부르는 소리가들려 소리가 들리는 쪽으로 갔다. 그곳에는 깊은 구멍이 있었는데 그 안으로 들어가보니 그안에는 잡혀간 수많은 베이비투스들과 이빨들이 있었다. 그안에서 잭은 피치에게 잭의 이빨을 얻고 베이비투스를 잃어 돌아왔지만 이미 터널은 공격당해 모든 달걀이 깨져있었다. 또 잭은 가디언들의 신뢰를 잃어 떠났다. 남극에서 내적갈등으로 고통스러웠던 잭은 피치를 보자 폭발하여 공격한다. 그러자 피치는 잭에게 합류하자고 말하지만 잭은 이내 거절한다. 그러자 피치는 베이비투스를 내세우며 잭과 늘 함께한 지팡이를 달라고 하지만 잭이 피치에게 지팡이를 주자 피치는 말을 바꿔 베이비투스를 돌려주지 않으려 했다. 그러나 베이비투스가 손을 찌르자 절벽으로 던져버리고 잭도 공격당해 절벽 아래로 떨어진다. 지팡이는 피치의손에 의해 두동강나서 버려진다. 베이비투스는 잭의 주머니에 있는 이빨을 꺼내 잭의 기억을 볼 수 있게했다. 자신에게 가족과 여동생이 있었고 위험했던 동생을 살려주고 희생했다는 사실을 본 잭은 다시끔 새 용기를 얻고 동생을 구했던 지팡이를 이어 붙인다. 절벽에서 탈출한 잭은 다시 구멍으로 들어가 잡혀간 베이비투스들을 탈출시켜주려고 하지만, 지구본의 불빛이 약해, 즉 가디언을 믿는아이가 거의 없어져서 베이비투스들은 날수있는 힘조차 사라져 탈출하지 못한다. 지구본의 불빛이 다 없어지고 단 하나만 남게 됐는데, 그 불빛은 제이미였다. 제이미는 그시각 토끼인형을 앞에 두고 버니의 존재 여부를 확인하려 했다. 그러나 제이미는 곧포기하지만, 잭은 창문에 부활절 달걀과 토끼를 그려 띄워주었다. 순간 토끼형상이 터지면서 눈이되어 내렸는데, 그눈이 베이미의 코에 닿자 제이미는 잭 프로스트의 존재를 알게 된다. 제이미가 잭과 함께 밖에 나가자 노약해진 산타와 날지 못하게 된 투스, 그냥토끼와 다를것 없이된 버니를 본다. 이때 피치가 나타나고 궁지에 몰리지만 잭은 피치가 방심한 틈을타 도망친다. 제이미는 친구들에게 잭의 존재를 알려주고 모인다. 얼마후 검은모래가 해일처럼 몰려오며 그들을 공격하지만 검은 모래는 아이들의 손에 닿자마자 황금색모래로 바뀐다. 그러자 가디언들은 다시 힘이 생기고, 남은 피치의 부하들을 처치한다. 황금 모래를보자 샌드맨이 떠올랐는지 아이들은 샌드맨을 부활시키고 피치를 한번에 처리한다. 피치가 다시 깨어나 아이들을 겁주려 하지만 아이들은 부기맨을(피치) 믿지 않게 되고, 피치에게서 공포의 냄새를 맡은 피치의 부하들은 피치들 잡아 가둔다. 마지막으로 잭은 가디언이 되는 선서식을 마치고, 아이들과 작별인사를 나눈후 떠난다. 출연 크리스 파인 - 잭 프로스트 역 앨릭 볼드윈 - 노스 (산타클로스) 역 휴 잭맨 - 버니 (부활절 토끼) 역 아일라 피셔 - 투스 (이의 요정) 역 주드 로 - 피치 (부기맨) 역 다코타 고요 - 제이미 역 외부 링크 드림웍스 애니메이션 가디언즈 소개 영어 영화 작품 2012년 애니메이션 영화 미국의 3D 영화 미국의 애니메이션 영화 미국의 판타지 모험 영화 부활절 영화 크리스마스 애니메이션 영화 산타클로스를 소재로 한 영화 어린이를 소재로 한 영화 파라마운트 픽처스 애니메이션 영화 드림웍스 애니메이션 영화 감독 데뷔 영화 달을 배경으로 한 영화 2012년 컴퓨터 애니메이션 영화 CJ 엔터테인먼트 애니메이션 영화 토끼를 소재로 한 애니메이션 영화 미국의 크리스마스 영화 알렉상드르 데스플라 영화 음악 잭 프로스트

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise%20of%20the%20Guardians

Rise of the Guardians

Rise of the Guardians is a 2012 American animated fantasy action-adventure film produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Paramount Pictures. The film was directed by Peter Ramsey (in his feature directorial debut) from a screenplay by David Lindsay-Abaire, based on the book series The Guardians of Childhood and the short film The Man in the Moon by William Joyce. It stars the voices of Chris Pine, Alec Baldwin, Jude Law, Isla Fisher, and Hugh Jackman. The film tells a story about Guardians Santa Claus, the Tooth Fairy, the Easter Bunny, and the Sandman, who enlist Jack Frost to stop the evil Pitch Black from engulfing the world in darkness in a fight of dreams. Rise of the Guardians was released in the United States on November 21, 2012. The film received generally positive reviews from critics and audiences, but despite grossing $306.9 million worldwide against a budget of $145 million, it was a disappointment at the box-office and lost the studio an estimated $87 million due to marketing and distribution costs. It was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film and the Annie Award for Best Animated Feature. It was the last DreamWorks Animation film to be distributed by Paramount Pictures. Starting with The Croods (2013), 20th Century Fox would distribute DreamWorks' films until Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie (2017). This was DreamWorks Animation's biggest box-office bombs until Ruby Gillman, Teenage Kraken (2023) became the studio's biggest box-office bomb. Plot Jack Frost awakens from a frozen pond with amnesia and realizes that no one can see or hear him. 300 years later, the Man in the Moon warns Nicholas St. North that Pitch Black is threatening children with his nightmares. North calls E. Aster Bunnymund, the Sandman, and the Tooth Fairy to arms, and they are told that Jack Frost has been chosen to join them as a new Guardian. Bunny is sent by North to bring Jack to the North Pole and North explains to Jack that every Guardian has a center which they are the Guardian of. Visiting Tooth's palace, Jack learns that every baby tooth contains the childhood memories of the children who lost it, Jack's teeth included. Jack wishes to find his lost tooth to recover his memories; however, Pitch raids Tooth's home, kidnapping her subordinate tooth fairies except Baby Tooth and stealing all the teeth. This prevents Tooth from sharing Jack's memories and weakens children's belief in her. To thwart Pitch's plan, the group decides to collect children's teeth themselves in place of the fairies. One of the children they visit includes Jamie, who wakes up. Since he still believes, he can see everybody except for Jack. Pitch's Nightmares attack and Pitch overwhelms Sandy, killing him. As Easter approaches, the Guardians travel to Bunny's home next and paint eggs, determined not to let Pitch ruin Easter. Jack is lured to Pitch's lair. He finds his teeth there but is distracted long enough for the Nightmares to destroy Bunny's eggs, ruining Easter and causing children to stop believing in Bunny. With the Guardians' trust in him lost, Jack flees to Antarctica and battles Pitch, who breaks Jack's magic staff and throws him down a chasm. Unlocking the memories inside his teeth, Jack learns that he was a human teenager who drowned trying to save his younger sister. Inspired, he repairs his staff and rescues the kidnapped fairies. Due to Pitch, every child in the world except Jamie disbelieves, drastically weakening the Guardians. Finding Jamie's belief wavering, Jack makes it snow in his room, renewing Jamie's belief and making him the first person to believe in Jack. Jack realizes that his center is fun and uses it to gather Jamie's friends and play, leading to renewed belief that bolsters their fight against Pitch and resurrects Sandy. The children's dreams prove stronger than the Nightmares, who turn on Pitch and drag him to the underworld. Jack finally accepts his place as the Guardian of Fun. Cast and characters Chris Pine as Jack Frost, the Spirit of Winter. Jack is a teenage hellion who enjoys creating mischief and has no interest in being bound by rules or obligations; he just wants to use his staff to spread his winter magic for the sake of fun, but also wants to be believed in. Via his staff, he possesses potent cryokinesis. At the end of the film, Jack became the Guardian of Fun. Alec Baldwin as Nicholas St. North/Santa Claus, the leader of the Guardians, and the Guardian of Wonder. He lives at the North Pole in the Ice Castle and is served by loyal North Pole natives, the Yetis (who built the castle and workshop) and the Christmas Elves. He has a Russian accent/culture persona, resembling Ded Moroz. Jude Law as Pitch Black/The Boogeyman, the essence of fear and the Nightmare King. He has dark hair and wears a black robe/cloak. Despite being the literal embodiment of terror, ironically, at the resolution, he's scared of his own nightmares after being forgotten. Isla Fisher as Toothiana/ The Tooth Fairy, called Tooth for short, the Guardian of Memories. Tooth is part human and part hummingbird, loosely resembling a Kinnari. Assisted by mini fairies that are split-off extensions of herself, she collects the children's teeth, which hold their most precious memories. Tooth stores them in her palace and returns memories when they are needed the most. Hugh Jackman as E. Aster Bunnymund/The Easter Bunny, called Bunny for short, the keeper and bringer of Easter eggs and Guardian of Hope. He shares Jackman's Australian accent. Sandy/ The Sandman is the Guardian of Dreams and the oldest of the Guardians, being the first Guardian chosen by the Man in the Moon. He doesn't/can't speak, but communicates through sand images that he conjures above his head. Dakota Goyo as Jamie Bennett, a child who has not given up on believing in the Guardians. Georgie Grieve as Sophie Bennett, Jamie's little sister Jacob Bertrand as Monty Dominique Grund as Cupcake Olivia Mattingly as Mary, Jack's sister Ryan Crego as Burgess Dog Walker Peter Ramsey and April Lawrence as Burgess Pedestrians Production In 2005, William Joyce and Reel FX launched a joint venture, Aimesworth Amusements, to produce CG-animated feature films, one of which was set to be The Guardians of Childhood, based on Joyce's idea. The film was not realized, but they did create a short animated film, The Man in the Moon, directed by Joyce, which introduced the Guardians idea, and served as an inspiration for the film. Early in 2008, Joyce sold the film rights to DreamWorks Animation, after the studio assured him it would respect his vision for the characters and that he would be involved with the creative process. In November 2009, it was revealed that DreamWorks had hired Peter Ramsey to make his feature debut as director of what was then titled The Guardians, and playwright David Lindsay-Abaire to write the script, Lindsay-Abaire had previously worked with Joyce by co-writing the screenplay for Robots. Joyce acted as a co-director for the first few years, but left this position after the death of his daughter Mary Katherine, who died from complications relating to her brain cancer positive diagnosis in May 2010. Joyce continued to work on the film only as an executive producer, while Ramsey took the helm solo as a full-time director, making him the first African American to direct a big-budget CG animated film as well as making it one of the first DreamWorks films to have only one director instead of two and not have a co-director. As with some previous DreamWorks films, Guillermo del Toro came on board to join Joyce as an executive producer. Present almost from the beginning, he was able to help shape the story, character design, theme and structure of the film. He said he was proud that the filmmakers were making parts of the film "dark and moody and poetic," and expressed hope this might "set a different tone for family movies, for entertainment movies." The final title, Rise of the Guardians was announced in early 2011, along with the first cast. Roger Deakins, the cinematographer who had already worked on the previous DreamWorks' film, How to Train Your Dragon, advised on the lighting to achieve its real look. He selected photographic references for color keys, and during the production gave notes on contrast, saturation, depth of field and light intensity. The film contains a lot of special effects, particularly the volumetric particles for depicting Sandman and Pitch. For this, DreamWorks Animation developed OpenVDB, a more efficient tool and format for manipulating and storing volume data, like smoke and other amorphous materials. OpenVDB had been already used on Puss in Boots and Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted, and was released in August 2012 for free as an open-source project with a hope to become an industry standard. Although the film is based on Joyce's book series, it contains differences from the books. The book series, begun in 2011, explains the origins of the characters, while the film takes place about 300 years after the books, and shows how the characters function in present time. Joyce explained, "Because I don't want people to read the book and then go see the movie and go, 'Oh, I like the book better,' and I also didn't want them to know what happens in the movie. And I also knew that during the progress of film production, a lot of things can change. So I wanted to have a sort of distance, so we were able to invoke the books and use them to help us figure out the world of the movie, but I didn't want them to be openly competitive to each other." The idea for the Guardians came from Joyce's daughter, who asked him "if he thought Santa Claus had ever met the Easter Bunny." The film includes a dedication to her, as well a song, "Still Dream," sung over the end credits. Originally, the film was set to be released on November 2, 2012, but DreamWorks Animation pushed the film to November 21, 2012, to avoid competition with Pixar's upcoming film Monsters University, which in turn had been pushed to November 2, 2012, to avoid competition with The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2. Monsters University was then pushed to June 21, 2013, with Disney's Wreck-It Ralph taking its place. Music French composer Alexandre Desplat composed the original music for the film, which was released on November 13, 2012, by Varèse Sarabande. The score was recorded in London at Abbey Road Studios and Air Studios, and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra, with a choral contribution by London Voices. David Lindsay-Abaire wrote the lyrics for the end-credit song, "Still Dream", which was performed by soprano Renée Fleming. Stravinsky's "Firebird Suite" can also be heard during the scene where North first appears. This film marks the first time that a DreamWorks Animation film has not been composed or have any involvement from Hans Zimmer or a member of his Remote Control Productions family of composers (mainly John Powell, Henry Jackman, Lorne Balfe, Harry Gregson-Williams or his brother Rupert Gregson-Williams). Release Rise of the Guardians had its premiere on October 10, 2012, at The Mill Valley Film Festival in Mill Valley, California, followed by the international premiere at The International Rome Film Festival on November 13, 2012. Under distribution by Paramount Pictures, the film was released on November 21, 2012, in American theaters. Digitally re-mastered into IMAX 3D, it was shown in limited international and domestic IMAX theaters. It was the second film released in the firm Barco's Auro 11.1 3D audio format, after Red Tails. The film was also shown in Dolby Atmos, a surround sound technology introduced in 2012. Rise of the Guardians was the last DreamWorks Animation film distributed by Paramount, as DreamWorks has signed a five-year distribution deal with 20th Century Fox, which started in 2013 with The Croods. Home media Rise of the Guardians was released on Blu-ray Disc (2D and 3D) and DVD on March 12, 2013. That was the last DreamWorks Animation home media release to be distributed by Paramount Home Entertainment, since 20th Century Fox announced its distribution agreement with DreamWorks Animation a few months before the theatrical release. The film was more successful at home media sales than at the box office, having at the end of the second quarter of 2013 "the highest box office to DVD conversion ratio among major releases." In the first quarter of 2013, it sold 3.2 million home entertainment units worldwide, and in the second quarter 0.9 million units, for a total of 4.1 million units. It was re-released on DVD on November 5, 2013, and comes with a wind-up marching elf toy. As of October 2014, 5.8 million home entertainment units were sold worldwide. In July 2014, the film's distribution rights were purchased by DreamWorks Animation from Paramount Pictures and transferred to 20th Century Fox. The rights were moved to Universal Pictures in 2018 after the buyout of DreamWorks Animation by Comcast/NBCUniversal. It was re-released on DVD and Blu-ray on June 5, 2018, by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment. Reception Critical response On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 74% based on 160 reviews, with an average rating of 6.60/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "A sort of Avengers for the elementary school set, Rise of the Guardians is wonderfully animated and briskly paced, but it's only so-so in the storytelling department." Metacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics, calculated a score of 58 based on 37 reviews, which indicates "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale. Carrie Rickey of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film three and a half stars out of four and found that the film's characters have "a primal familiarity, as though they were developed by a tag team of Maurice Sendak and Walt Disney." Olly Richards of Empire wrote, "It's gorgeously designed, deftly written and frequently laugh-out-loud funny. For child or adult, this is a fantasy to get lost in." The Washington Posts Michael O'Sullivan also gave the film a positive review and said, "Thoughts become things. That's the message of Rise of the Guardians, a charming if slightly dark and cobwebbed animated feature about how believing in something makes it real, or real enough." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three stars out of four and wrote in his review, "There's an audience for this film. It's not me. I gather younger children will like the breakneck action, the magical ability to fly and the young hero who has tired of only being a name." Though he did say, "Their parents and older siblings may find the 89-minute running time quite long enough." Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter called the film "a lively but derivative 3D storybook spree for some unlikely action heroes." Conversely, Justin Chang in Variety said, "Even tots may emerge feeling slightly browbeaten by this colorful, strenuous and hyperactive fantasy, which has moments of charm and beauty but often resembles an exploding toy factory rather than a work of honest enchantment." Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal found that the film "lacks a resonant center," and that the script, "seems to have been written by committee, with members lobbying for each major character, and the action, set in vast environments all over the map, spreads itself so thin that a surfeit of motion vitiates emotion." Box office Rise of the Guardians grossed $103.4 million in the United States and Canada, and $203.5 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $306.9 million. In North America, the film opened to $32.3 million over its extended five-day weekend, and with $23.8 million over the three-day weekend, it reached fourth place behind The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2, Skyfall, and Lincoln. The film's opening was the lowest debut for a DreamWorks Animation film since Flushed Away. While the film did gross more than double of its $145 million budget, it still did not turn a profit for DreamWorks Animation due to its high production and marketing costs, forcing the studio to take an $87 million write-down. This marked the first time that the studio had lost money on an animated film since Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas. As a result of this combined with other factors, in February 2013, the studio announced it was laying off 350 employees as part of a company-wide restructuring. Additionally, the studio was heavily dependent on the success of Rise of the Guardians to fund other studio projects, most notably, the ill-fated Me and My Shadow project. But due to the failure to gain a stable box office response, it heavily affected the studio's ability to release original movies. Accolades Video game A video game based on the film was released by D3 Publisher on November 20, 2012, in North America, and released on November 23, 2012, in Europe. It allows gamers to lead the Guardians in their battle against Pitch. The game is a 3D beat-em-up, where the player travels through each of the worlds: Burgess, North Pole, Bunnymund Valley, Tooth Palace, and Sandman's Ship, to fight Pitch's army of Nightmares. The player can switch between all five guardians at any time, and freely customize their powers, and they learn new special abilities as they level up. All the game versions support up to 4-player gameplay. It is available on the Wii, Wii U, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Nintendo DS, and Nintendo 3DS. Possible sequel After the release of the film, the creators of Rise of the Guardians expressed hope that the strong average grade of "A" given to the film by audiences surveyed by CinemaScore and an enthusiastic word-of-mouth would gather support for the "chance to make a sequel or two." Author and co-producer of the series, William Joyce, also mentioned in March 2013 that he was still in talks about a sequel with DreamWorks Animation: "There is something that we are proposing that we hope they will want to do." As of September 2023, no future films have been produced or developed. See also List of Christmas films List of Easter films Santa Claus in film Notes References External links 2012 films 2012 3D films 2012 animated films 2012 computer-animated films 2010s fantasy adventure films 2010s action adventure films 2010s Christmas films Fiction set in 1712 Films set in the 1710s American 3D films American children's animated adventure films American children's animated fantasy films American Christmas films American computer-animated films American fantasy adventure films 2010s children's fantasy films Animated Christmas films Animated films based on children's books Animated films about rabbits and hares Animated films about magic Animated crossover films DreamWorks Animation animated films Easter Bunny in film 2010s English-language films Features based on short films Films directed by Peter Ramsey Films about tooth fairies Films scored by Alexandre Desplat Films about amnesia Animated films about children Animated films about elves Animated films set in Antarctica Animated films set in the Arctic Films with screenplays by David Lindsay-Abaire IMAX films Paramount Pictures films Paramount Pictures animated films Jack Frost Moon in film Films about Yeti Santa Claus in film Sandman in film 3D animated films 2012 directorial debut films Animated films about Easter 2010s American films Animated films set in the 18th century

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B7%A8%20%28%EB%B6%88%EA%B5%90%29

취 (불교)

취(取, , )는 다음의 분류, 그룹 또는 체계의 한 요소이다. 초기불교의 연기설인 12연기의 제9지분[支]이다. 번뇌의 여러 다른 이름 가운데 하나이다. 번뇌성의 마음작용인 애(愛)의 다른 이름이다. 즉, 근본번뇌 가운데 하나인 탐(貪)애착(愛着)집착(執著) 또는 갈애(渴愛)에 해당한다. 대지법 또는 변행심소에 속한 마음작용인 수(受)의 구역(舊譯)이다. 반대로, 5수음(五受陰)의 경우처럼, 구역에서는 수(受)가 번뇌를 뜻하는 취(取)의 뜻으로 사용되기도 한다. 기타 일반적인 뜻으로 '취한다, 가진다, 획득한다'를 뜻한다. 예를 들어, 인식대상의 '모양 또는 형상(形狀)을 취한다'는 뜻의 취상(取像)과 인식대상의 '차별상을 취한다'는 뜻의 취차별상(取差別相)은 상(想)의 마음작용의 본질적 성질이다. 다른 예로는, 집취(執取) 또는 집취상(執取相)에서의 취(取)는 '취한다, 가진다, 획득한다'의 뜻인데 집(執)과 결합되어 취함' 또는 '집착'의 뜻으로 사용된다. 이 문서의 이하의 내용에서는 12연기의 제9지분[支]으로서의 취(取) 또는 번뇌의 여러 다른 이름 가운데 하나로서의 취(取)에 대해 주로 다루며, 일반적인 뜻인 '취한다, 가진다, 라는 뜻에서의 취(取)에 대해서는 "2취: 능취·소취" 문단에서 다룬다. 12연기의 제9지분[支]으로서의 취(取)에 대한 《잡아함경》《연기경》 등의 초기불교 경전의 설명과 번뇌의 다른 이름으로서의 취(取)에 대한 부파불교와 대승불교의 논서들의 설명에 따르면, 취(取)는 욕취(欲取)견취(見取)계금취(戒禁取)아어취(我語取)의 4취(四取)를 말한다. 이들 가운데 계금취는 계취(戒取)라고도 하고 아어취는 아취(我取)라고도 한다. 그리고 4취(四取)는 모든 번뇌를 4종으로 분류한 것으로, 초기불교 이래로 사용되고 있는, 모든 번뇌에 대한 번뇌 분류법 가운데 하나이다. 따라서, 초기불교 경전 등에서의 '12연기의 제9지분[支]'으로서의 취(取)와 부파불교와 대승불교의 논서들에서의 '번뇌의 다른 이름으로서의 취(取)'는 그 실체와 뜻이 모두 동일하다. 취의 뜻 취(取)의 한자어 문자 그대로의 뜻은 가짐 또는 취함인데, 모니어 모니어윌리엄스(Monier Monier-Williams)의 《산스크리트어-영어 사전》에 따르면 산스크리트어 원어 우파다나(upādāna)의 일반적인 의미는 자신을 위해 무언가를 취하는 행위(the act of taking for one's self), 자신을 위해 무언가를 전용(轉用: 쓸 곳에 쓰지 않고 다른 곳으로 돌려서 씀)하는 행위(appropriating to one's self), 받아들임(accepting), 허용함(allowing), 취함(taking), 획득함(acquiring) 등이 있고, 불교 용어로서는 '갈애 즉 탐욕이 원인이 되어 존재를 꽉 붙잡는 것 또는 집착하는 것으로 유 즉 새로운 태어남들의 원인이 되는 것(grasping at or clinging to existence caused by tṛṣṇā, desire, and causing bhava, new births)'이라고 정의되어 있다. 이 후자의 불교 용어로서의 정의는 애연취(愛緣取)와 취연유(取緣有)의 의미를 합쳐서 취(取, upādāna)를 정의한 것이다. 현대의 불교 사전들에 따르면, 취(取)라는 낱말의 일반적인 의미는 집지(執持: 잡아서 가짐, 잡아서 지님, 잡은 후 버팀, 잡은 후 유지함)집취(執取: 잡아서 가짐, 잡아서 취함, 잡은 후 받아들임, 잡은 후 의지함)인데, 좁은 뜻으로는 집착(執著: 꽉 붙잡은 후 들러붙음, 들러붙어서 떠나지 못함)이라는 번뇌를 뜻하고, 넓은 뜻으로는 모든 번뇌(煩惱)를 뜻한다. 즉, 후자의 넓은 뜻으로는 취(取)는 번뇌의 다른 말인데, 욕취(欲取)견취(見取)계금취(戒禁取)아어취(我語取)의 4취(四取)라고 할 때의 취(取)는 이 후자의 뜻이다. 그리고 어떤 번뇌 또는 번뇌들의 그룹을 취(取)라고 할 때는 마음이 해당 번뇌의 대상을 그릇되이 좋아하여[惡欲] 취한 후 그것에 들러붙어서 떠나지 못한다는 의미를 부각시키는 표현이다. 4취(四取)는 모든 번뇌를 취(取)의 뜻에 초점을 맞추어 4그룹으로 분류한 것이다. 즉 대상을 그릇되이 좋아하여[惡欲] 취한 후 그것에 들러붙어서 떠나지 못한다는 측면에 초점을 맞추어 모든 번뇌를 4그룹으로 분류한 것이다. 설명하기 좋은 순서대로 말하면, 대체로 견취(見取)는 그릇된 견해에 들러붙어 떠나지 못하는 성격의 번뇌들이고, 계금취(戒禁取) 또는 계취(戒取)는 그릇된 계율과 그릇된 금지조항에 들러붙어 떠나지 못하는 성격의 번뇌들이고, 욕취(欲取)는 욕계의 사물, 특히, 외적인 대상 즉 5욕의 대상에 들러붙어 떠나지 못하는 성격의 번뇌들이고, 아어취(我語取) 또는 아취(我取)는 색계무색계의 사물, 특히 자기 자신, 즉 자기 존재에 대해 들러붙어 떠나지 못하는 성격의 번뇌들이다. 즉, 자내아(自內我: 내적 자아)에 대해 집착하는 성질의 번뇌들이다. 경론별 설명 잡아함경 12연기의 취 취(取)는 애연취(愛緣取)와 취연유(取緣有)의 연기관계에서 한 지분을 이루고 있다. 애연취는 애(愛)가 있으므로 취(取)가 있다는 뜻이고, 취연유 또는 연취유는 취(取)가 있으므로 유(有)가 있다는 뜻이며, 또한 이들은 모두 이러한 연기관계를 통해 최종적으로 순대고취(純大苦聚) 즉 5취온이 형성[集]되어 생사윤회가 반복되는 것을 뜻한다. 《잡아함경》 제12권 제298경 〈법설의설경(法說義說經)〉의 고타마 붓다의 설명에 따르면, 취(取)는 욕취(欲取)견취(見取)계취(戒取)아취(我取)의 4취(四取)를 말한다. 5취온의 취 《잡아함경》 제12권 제298경 〈법설의설경(法說義說經)〉에서 고타마 붓다는 취연유(緣取有) 또는 연취유(緣取有) 즉 '취함을 인연하여 존재가 있다는 것'에 대한 설명에서, 유(有)는 욕유(欲有)색유(色有)무색유(無色有)의 3유(三有)를 뜻한다고 설하고 있다. 3유(三有)는 세계라는 측면에서는 3계를 뜻하고, 유정이라는 존재의 측면에서는 욕계의 유정색계의 유정무색계의 유정을 뜻한다. 유정이란 명색의 화합체 즉 5온의 화합체를 말하는 것으로, 유전연기의 관점에서는 취(取) 즉 온갖 번뇌에 물들어 있는 5온, 즉 5취온을 말한다. 따라서, 유전연기의 관점에서는 유(有)는 5취온을 말하며, 달리 말하면, 번뇌로 인해 생사윤회를 피할 수 없는 상태 즉 윤회할 수 밖에 없는 상태의 삶을 말한다. 《잡아함경》 제2권 제58경 〈음근경(陰根經)〉에서 고타마 붓다는 5온으로 하여금 5취온이 되게 하는 근본 요인이 욕탐(欲貪)이라고 설하고 있다. 여기서 욕탐이 구체적으로 무엇을 뜻하가는 가에 대해서는, 탐욕 또는 집착으로 대표되는 온갖 번뇌를 뜻한다고 보는 《아비달마구사론》 등의 견해도 있고, 희구(希求)한 후 염착(染著)하는 것을 뜻한다고 보는 《대승아비달마집론》과 《대승아비달마잡집론》 등의 견해도 있다. 연기경 초기불교 경전인 《연기경》에 따르면, 취(取)는 욕취(欲取)견취(見取)계금취(戒禁取)아어취(我語取)의 4취(四取)를 말한다. 구사론 부파불교의 설일체유부의 논서 《아비달마구사론》 제20권과 제21권에 따르면, 취(取)는 번뇌의 다른 이름인 누(漏)폭류(瀑流)액(軛)취(取)결(結)박(縛)수면(隨眠)수번뇌(隨煩惱)전(纏) 가운데 하나이다. 수면(隨眠) 즉 근본번뇌에는 미세(微細)2수증(二隨增)수축(隨逐: 따라 다님)수박(隨縛)주(住: 머묾)유(流: 유전)표(漂: 표류)합(合: 화합)집(執: 집취)의 뜻이 있는데, 이들 가운데 집(執: 집취)이 취(取)에 해당한다. 즉, 취(取)는 수면 즉 근본번뇌가 지닌 '집(執: 집취)'의 성질 또는 작용을 강조하는 '수면의 다른 명칭' 즉 '번뇌의 다른 명칭'이다. 취(取)는 온갖 존재[有]에 집착하여 취하는 것을 뜻한다. 또한, 취(取)는 의집(依執) 즉 집착의 발동근거를 뜻한다. 즉, 수면(隨眠) 즉 근본번뇌가 유정으로 하여금 존재에 대한 집착을 일으키게 하는 의지처 즉 발동근거가 된다는 것을 뜻한다. 달리 말하면, 취(取)는 집욕(執欲) 즉 욕경에 대한 집착을 뜻한다. 즉, 수면(隨眠)은 유정으로 하여금 욕경(欲境) 즉 5욕(五欲)의 경계와 같은 것들에 집착하게 한다. 취(取)는 특히 욕취(欲取)견취(見取)계금취(戒禁取)아어취(我語取)의 4취(四取)를 말한다. 《구사론》 제1권에 따르면, 취온(取蘊)은 유루(有漏)의 다른 이름들인 취온(取蘊)유쟁(有諍)고(苦)집(集)세간(世間)견처(見處)3유(三有) 가운데 하나인데, 취온(取蘊)에서 취(取)는 번뇌를 뜻한다. 그리고 이 문맥에서 취온(取蘊)에는, 5무루온을 성취한 상태가 아닌 한 유정의 모든 온은 곧 유루의 온인데, 온이 취 즉 번뇌로부터 생겨난다[蘊從取生]는 뜻, 온이 취 즉 번뇌에 종속된다[蘊屬取]는 뜻, 온이 취 즉 번뇌를 낳는다[蘊生取]의 뜻의 3가지 뜻이 있다. 유가사지론 대승불교의 유식유가행파의 논서 《유가사지론》 제8권과 제89권에 따르면, 취(取)는 번뇌의 다른 이름인 결(結)박(縛)수면(隨眠)수번뇌(隨煩惱)전(纏)폭류(暴流)액(軛)취(取)계(繫)개(蓋)주올(株杌)구(垢)상해(常害)전(箭)소유(所有)근(根)악행(惡行)누(漏)궤(匱)소(燒)뇌(惱)유쟁(有諍)화(火)치연(熾然)조림(稠林)구애(拘礙) 가운데 하나이다. 취(取)는 번뇌가 능히 유정으로 하여금 자신(自身), 즉 소의신, 즉 5온, 특히 번뇌에 오염된 상태의 5취온을 취하게 함으로써 5취온의 상속(相續)이 끊임이 없게 한다는 것을 뜻한다. 취(取)는 특히 욕취(欲取)견취(見取)계금취(戒禁取)아어취(我語取)의 4취(四取)를 말한다. 집론·잡집론 대승불교의 유식유가행파의 논서 《집론》 제4권과 《잡집론》 제6권과 제7권에 따르면, 취(取)는 번뇌의 다른 이름인 결(結)박(縛)수면(隨眠)수번뇌(隨煩惱)전(纏)폭류(暴流)액(軛)취(取)계(繫)개(蓋)주올(柱杌)구(垢)소해(燒害)전(箭)소유(所有)악행(惡行)누(漏)궤(匱)열(熱)뇌(惱)쟁(諍)치연(熾然)조림(稠林)구애(拘礙) 가운데 하나이다. 취(取)는 집취쟁근(執取諍根)과 집취후유(執取後有)를 뜻한다. 번뇌가 능히 유정으로 하여금 다툼[鬥諍]과 쟁론(諍論)의 뿌리를 집취하게 하고 후유(後有)라는 괴로운 이숙(異熟)을 인기하여 집취하게 한다는 것을 뜻한다. 취(取)는 특히 욕취(欲取)견취(見取)계금취(戒禁取)아어취(我語取)의 4취(四取)를 말한다. 분류 2취: 능취·소취 대승불교의 유식유가행파의 논서 《변중변론》 중권, 《집론》 제2권, 《잡집론》 제3권, 《성유식론》 제8권 등에 따르면, 2취(二取)는 능취(能取)와 소취(所取)를 말한다. 2취가 모두 소멸된 것을 2취멸(二取滅)이라고 하는데, 이것은 2취가 생겨나지 않는 상태를 말하는 것으로 곧 택멸(擇滅) 즉 열반이다. 능취 《집론》 제2권과 《잡집론》 제3권에 따르면, 능취(能取)는 모든 색근(色根)과 심(心)심소(心所)를 말한다. 즉, 안근이근비근설근신근의 5색근과 마음(8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)과 마음작용(심소법)을 통칭한다. 소취 《집론》 제2권과 《잡집론》 제3권에 따르면, 소취(所取)는 능취에 의해 취해지는 법을 말하는 것으로 곧 일체(一切)를 말한다. 즉, 일체법을 달리 말하여 소취라고 한다. 또한 소연경(所緣境) 즉 인식대상이라고도 한다. 2취: 견취·계금취 부파불교의 설일체유부의 논서 《아비달마품류족론》 제1권과 제3권과 《성실론》 제10권 등에 따르면, 2취(二取)는 유신견(有身見, 薩迦耶見, 我見, 我所見)변집견(邊執見)사견(邪見)견취(見取)계금취(戒禁取)의 5견 가운데 견취와 계금취를 통칭한다. 그리고, 2취는 초기불교부파불교대승불교의 여러 번뇌 분류법 가운데 하나인 9결(九結)의 취결(取結)에 해당한다. 견취 부파불교의 설일체유부의 논서 《아비달마품류족론》 제1권과 제3권 등에 따르면, 견취(見取, , , view of attachment to views)는 염오견에 대한 집착을 말하는 것으로, 5취온(五取蘊)을 등수관(等隨觀)하여 최(最: 최고의 것)승(勝: 뛰어난 것)상(上: 으뜸인 것) 혹은 극(極: 지극한 것)이라고 집착하는 마음작용들과, 또한 이러한 마음작용들로 인해 일으켜진 인(忍)낙(樂)혜(慧)관(觀)견(見)을 통칭한다. 계금취 부파불교의 설일체유부의 논서 《아비달마품류족론》 제1권과 제3권 등에 따르면, 계금취(戒禁取, , , view of rigid attachment to the precepts)는 그릇된 계금(戒禁: 계율과 금지사항)에 대한 집착을 말하는 것으로, 5취온(五取蘊)을 등수관(等隨觀)하여 능청정(能清淨: 청정해지게 하는 것, 즉 청정의 방편)능해탈(能解脫: 해탈할 수 있게 하는 것, 즉 해탈의 방편)능출리(能出離: 출리할 수 있게 하는 것, 즉 출리의 방편)라고 집착하는 마음작용들과, 또한 이러한 마음작용들로 인해 일으켜진 인(忍)낙(樂)혜(慧)관(觀)견(見)을 통칭한다. 4취 욕취 견취 계금취 아어취 같이 보기 참고 문헌 각주 불교 용어 심소법 번뇌의 동의어 번뇌 분류법

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up%C4%81d%C4%81na

Upādāna

Upādāna is a Sanskrit and Pali word that means "fuel, material cause, substrate that is the source and means for keeping an active process energized". It is also an important Buddhist concept referring to "attachment, clinging, grasping". It is considered to be the result of taṇhā (craving), and is part of the dukkha (dissatisfaction, suffering, pain) doctrine in Buddhism. Buddhism Upādāna is the Sanskrit and Pāli word for "clinging", "attachment" or "grasping", although the literal meaning is "fuel". Upādāna and taṇhā (Skt. tṛṣṇā) are seen as the two primary causes of dukkha ('suffering', unease, "standing unstable"). The cessation of clinging is nirvana, the coming to rest of the grasping mind. Types of clinging In the Sutta Pitaka, the Buddha states that there are four types of clinging: sense-pleasure clinging (kamupadana) all views clinging (ditthupadana) rites-and-rituals clinging (silabbatupadana) self-doctrine clinging (attavadupadana). The Buddha once stated that, while other sects might provide an appropriate analysis of the first three types of clinging, he alone fully elucidated clinging to the "self" and its resultant unease. The Abhidhamma and its commentaries provide the following definitions for these four clinging types: sense-pleasure clinging: repeated craving of worldly things. view clinging: such as eternalism (e.g., "The world and self are eternal") or nihilism. rites-and-rituals clinging: believing that rites alone could directly lead to liberation, typified in the texts by the rites and rituals of "ox practice" and "dog practice." self-doctrine clinging: self-identification with self-less entities (e.g., illustrated by MN 44, and further discussed in the skandha and anatta articles). According to Buddhaghosa, the above ordering of the four types of clinging is in terms of decreasing grossness, that is, from the most obvious (grossest) type of clinging (sense-pleasure clinging) to the subtlest (self-doctrine clinging). Interdependence of clinging types Buddhaghosa further identifies that these four clinging types are causally interconnected as follows: This hierarchy of clinging types is represented diagrammatically to the right. Thus, based on Buddhaghosa's analysis, clinging is more fundamentally an erroneous core belief (self-doctrine clinging) than a habitualized affective experience (sense-pleasure clinging). Manifestations of clinging In terms of consciously knowable mental experiences, the Abhidhamma identifies sense-pleasure clinging with the mental factor of "greed" (lobha) and the other three types of clinging (self-doctrine, wrong-view and rites-and-rituals clinging) with the mental factor of "wrong view" (ditthi). Thus, experientially, clinging can be known through the Abhidhamma's fourfold definitions of these mental factors as indicated in the following table: To distinguish craving from clinging, Buddhaghosa uses the following metaphor: "Craving is the aspiring to an object that one has not yet reached, like a thief's stretching out his hand in the dark; clinging is the grasping of an object that one has reached, like the thief's grasping his objective.... [T]hey are the roots of the suffering due to seeking and guarding." Thus, for instance, when the Buddha talks about the "aggregates of clinging," he is referring to our grasping and guarding physical, mental and conscious experiences that we falsely believe we are or possess. As part of the causal chain of suffering In the Four Noble Truths, the First Noble Truth identifies clinging (upādāna, in terms of "the aggregates of clinging") as one of the core experiences of suffering. The Second Noble Truth identifies craving (tanha) as the basis for being at unease. In this manner a causal relationship between craving and clinging is found in the Buddha's most fundamental teaching. In the twelve-linked chain of Dependent Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda, also see Twelve Nidanas), clinging (upādāna) is the ninth causal link: Upādāna (Clinging) is dependent on (Craving) as a condition before it can exist. "With Craving as condition, Clinging arises". Upādāna (Clinging) is also the prevailing condition for the next condition in the chain, Becoming (Bhava). "With Clinging as condition, Becoming arises." According to Buddhaghosa, it is sense-pleasure clinging that arises from craving and that conditions becoming. Upādāna as fuel Professor Richard F. Gombrich has pointed out in several publications, and in his recent Numata Visiting Professor Lectures at the University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), that the literal meaning of upādāna is "fuel". He uses this to link the term to the Buddha's use of fire as a metaphor. In the so-called Fire Sermon (Āditta-pariyāya) (Vin I, 34-5; SN 35.28) the Buddha tells the bhikkhus that everything is on fire. By everything he tells them he means the five senses plus the mind, their objects, and the operations and feelings they give rise to — i.e. everything means the totality of experience. All these are burning with the fires of greed, hatred and delusion. In the nidana chain, then, craving creates fuel for continued burning or becoming (bhava). The mind like fire, seeks out more fuel to sustain it, in the case of the mind this is sense experience, hence the emphasis the Buddha places on "guarding the gates of the senses". By not being caught up in the senses (appamāda) we can be liberated from greed, hatred and delusion. This liberation is also expressed using the fire metaphor when it is termed nibbāna (Sanskrit: ) which means to "go out", or literally to "blow out the flames of defilement". (Regarding the word , the verb vā is intransitive so no agent is required.) Probably by the time the canon was written down (1st Century BCE), and certainly when Buddhaghosa was writing his commentaries (4th Century CE) the sense of the metaphor appears to have been lost, and upādāna comes to mean simply "clinging" as above. By the time of the Mahayana the term fire was dropped altogether and greed, hatred and delusion are known as the "three poisons". Hinduism The term Upādāna appears in the sense of "material cause" in ancient Vedic and medieval Hindu texts. For medieval era Vaishnavism scholar Ramanuja, the metaphysical Hindu concept of Brahman (as Vishnu) is the upadana-karana (material cause) of the universe. However, other Hindu traditions such as the Advaita Vedanta disagree and assert alternate theories on the nature of metaphysical Brahman and the universe while using the term upadana in the sense of "substrate, fuel". More generally, the realist Hindu philosophies such as Samkhya and Nyaya have asserted that Brahman is the Upādāna of the phenomenal world. The philosophies within the Buddhist schools have denied Brahman, asserted impermanence and that the notion of anything real is untenable from a metaphysical sense. The Hindu traditions such as those influenced by Advaita Vedanta have asserted the position that everything (Atman, Brahman, Prakriti) is ultimately one identical reality. The concept Upādāna also appears with other sense of meanings, in Vedanta philosophies, such as "taking in". See also Anatta Five Skandhas Detachment (philosophy) Nekkhamma MacGuffin Pratitya-samutpada Twelve Nidanas Notes Bibliography Bodhi, Bhikku (2000a). A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma: The Abhidhammattha Sangaha of Acariya Anuruddha. Seattle, WA: BPS Pariyatti Editions. . Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000b). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. . Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed.) (2005). In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pāli Canon.Boston: Wisdom Pubs. . Buddhaghosa, Bhadantācariya (trans. from Pāli by Bhikkhu ) (1999). The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga. Seattle, WA: BPS Pariyatti Editions. . Gombrich, Richard F. (2005). How Buddhism Began: The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings. Routledge. . , Bhikkhu (trans.) Anatta-lakkhana Sutta: The Discourse on the Not-self Characteristic (SN 22.59). Retrieved from "Access to Insight" at Anatta-lakkhana Sutta: The Discourse on the Not-self Characteristic. , Bhikkhu (trans.) & Bhikkhu Khantipalo (ed.) (1993). Kukkuravatika Sutta: The Dog-duty Ascetic (MN 57). Retrieved from "Access to Insight" at Kukkuravatika Sutta: The Dog-duty Ascetic. , Bhikkhu (trans.) & Bhikkhu Bodhi (trans.) (1993). Cula-sihanada Sutta: The Shorter Discourse on the Lion's Roar (MN 11). Retrieved 2007-11-19 from "Access to Insight" (1994) at Cula-sihanada Sutta: The Shorter Discourse on the Lion's Roar. , Bhikkhu (trans.) & Bhikkhu Bodhi (ed.) (2001). The Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. . Olendzki, Andrew (trans.) (2005). The Healing Medicine of the Dhamma (excerpt) (Miln 5 [verse 335]). Retrieved from "Access to Insight" at The Healing Medicine of the Dhamma. Rhys Davids, Caroline A.F. ([1900], 2003). Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics, of the Fourth Century B.C., Being a Translation, now made for the First Time, from the Original Pāli, of the First Book of the Abhidhamma-Piaka, entitled Dhamma-Sagai (Compendium of States or Phenomena). Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing. . Rhys Davids, T.W. & William Stede (eds.) (1921-5). The Pali Text Society’s Pali–English Dictionary. Chipstead: Pali Text Society. A general on-line search engine for the PED is available from "U. of Chicago" at http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997a). Paticca-samuppada-vibhanga Sutta: Analysis of Dependent Co-arising (SN 12.2). Retrieved from "Access to Insight" at Paticca-samuppada-vibhanga Sutta: Analysis of Dependent Co-arising. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997). Samaññaphala Sutta: The Fruits of the Contemplative Life (DN 2). Retrieved from "Access to Insight" at Samaññaphala Sutta: The Fruits of the Contemplative Life. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998a). Culavedalla Sutta: The Shorter Set of Questions-and-Answers (MN 44). Retrieved from "Access to Insight" at Culavedalla Sutta: The Shorter Set of Questions-and-Answers. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998b). Upadana Sutta: Clinging (SN 12.52). Retrieved from "Access to Insight" at Upadana Sutta: Clinging. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1999). Ratha-vinita Sutta: Relay Chariots (MN 24). Retrieved from "Access to Insight" at Ratha-vinita Sutta: Relay Chariots. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (2000). Life isn't just Suffering. Retrieved from "Access to Insight" at Life Isn't Just Suffering. Walshe, Maurice O'Connell (trans.) (1995). The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya. Somerville: Wisdom Publications. . External links Economics in Buddhism Hindu philosophical concepts Twelve nidānas Sanskrit words and phrases

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콜롬비아의 로마 가톨릭 교구 목록

콜롬비아의 로마 가톨릭 교구는 13개 관구에 13개관구장좌 대교구와 52개 일반교구가 있으며 교황소속에 10개 대목구와 1개 군종교구가 있다 교구(Dioceses) 바랑키야 관구(province of Barranquilla) 바랑키야 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Barranquilla) 엘방코 교구( Diocese of El Banco) 리오아차 교구( Diocese of Riohacha) 산타 마르타 교구( Diocese of Santa Marta) 발레두파 교구( Diocese of Valledupar) 보고타 관구(province of Bogotá) 보고타 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Bogotá) 엥가티바 교구( Diocese of Engativá) 파카타티바 교구( Diocese of Facatativá) 폰티본 교구( Diocese of Fontibón) 기라르도트 교구( Diocese of Girardot) 소아차 교구( Diocese of Soacha) 지파구이라 교구( Diocese of Zipaquirá) 부카라망가 관구( province of Bucaramanga) 부카라망가 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Bucaramanga) 바란카베르메하 교구( Diocese of Barrancabermeja) 말라가-소아타 교구( Diocese of Málaga-Soatá) 소코로 이 산길 교구( Diocese of Socorro y San Gil) 벨레즈 교구( Diocese of Vélez) 칼리 관구(province of Cali) 칼리 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Cali) 부에나벤투라 교구( Diocese of Buenaventura) 부가 교구( Diocese of Buga) 카르타고 교구( Diocese of Cartago) 팔미라 교구( Diocese of Palmira) 카르타헤나 관구(province of Cartagena) 카르타헤나 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Cartagena) 마강구에 교구( Diocese of Magangué) 몬테리바노 교구( Diocese of Montelibano) 몬테리아 교구( Diocese of Monteria) 신셀레호 교구( Diocese of Sincelejo) 이바게 관구(province of Ibagué) 이바게 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Ibagué) 에스피날 교구(Diocese of Espinal) 플로렌시아 교구( Diocese of Florencia) 가르존 교구( Diocese of Garzón) 리바노-온다 교구( Diocese of Líbano–Honda) 네이바 교구( Diocese of Neiva) 마니살레스 관구(province of Manizales) 마니살레스 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Manizales) 아르메니아 교구( Diocese of Armenia) 라도라다-과두아스 교구( Diocese of La Dorada-Guaduas) 페레이라 교구( Diocese of Pereira) 메데인 관구(province of Medellín) 메데인 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Medellín) 칼다스 교구( Diocese of Caldas) 기라르 도타 교구( Diocese of Girardota) 예리코 교구( Diocese of Jericó) 손손-니오네그로 교구( Diocese of Sonsón-Rionegro) 누에바 팜플로나 관구(province of Nueva Pamplona) 누에바 팜플로나 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Nueva Pamplona) 아라우카 교구(Diocese of Arauca) 쿠쿠타 교구( Diocese of Cúcuta) 오카나 교구( Diocese of Ocaña) 티부 교구( Diocese of Tibú) 포파얀 관구(province of Popayán) 포파얀 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Popayán) 이피알레스 교구( Diocese of Ipiales) 모코아-시분도이 교구( Diocese of Mocoa-Sibundoy) 파스토 교구( Diocese of Pasto) 투마코 교구( Diocese of Tumaco) 산타페 데 안티오키아 관구(province of Santa Fe de Antioquia) 산타페 데 안티오키아 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Santa Fe de Antioquia) 아파르타도 교구(Diocese of Apartadó) 이스미나-타도 교구(Diocese of Ismina-Tadó) 킵도 교구 (Diocese of Quibdó) 산타로사 데 오소스 교구( Diocese of Santa Rosa de Osos) 툰하 관구(province of Tunja) 툰하 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Tunja) 치긴기라 교구(Diocese of Chiquinquirá) 두이타마-소가모소 교구( Diocese of Duitama-Sogamoso) 가라고아 교구( Diocese of Garagoa) 요팔 교구( Diocese of Yopal) 비야 비센시오 관구(province of Villavicencio) 비야 비센시오 관구장좌 대교구(Metropolitan Archdiocese of Villavicencio) 그라나다 언 콜롬비아 교구( Diocese of Granada en Colombia) 산호세 델 구아비아레 교구( Diocese of San José del Guaviare) 교황 직속 교구 구아피 대목구(Apostolic Vicariate of Guapi) 이니리다 대목구(Apostolic Vicariate of Inírida) 레티시아 대목구( Apostolic Vicariate ofLeticia) 미투 대목구(Apostolic Vicariate of Mitú) 푸에르토 카레노 대목구(Apostolic Vicariate ofPuerto Carreño) 푸에르토 가이탄 대목구(Apostolic Vicariate of Puerto Gaitán) 산안드레스 이 프로비덴시아 대목구(Apostolic Vicariate of San Andrés y Providencia) 산빈센테-푸에르토 레기자모 대목구(Apostolic Vicariate of San Vicente-Puerto Leguízamo) 티에라덴트로 대목구(Apostolic Vicariate of Tierradentro) 트리니다드 대목구(Apostolic Vicariate of Trinidad) 콜롬비아 군종교구(Military Ordinariate of Colombia) 외부 링크 나라별 로마 가톨릭 교구 목록

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Catholic%20dioceses%20in%20Colombia

List of Catholic dioceses in Colombia

The diocesan system of Roman Catholic church government in Colombia comprises thirteen ecclesiastical provinces each headed by an archbishop. The provinces are in turn subdivided into 52 dioceses and 13 archdioceses each headed by a bishop or an archbishop. List of Dioceses Ecclesiastical province of Barranquilla Archdiocese of Barranquilla Diocese of El Banco Diocese of Riohacha Diocese of Santa Marta Diocese of Valledupar Ecclesiastical province of Bogotá Archdiocese of Bogotá Diocese of Engativá Diocese of Facatativá Diocese of Fontibón Diocese of Girardot Diocese of Soacha Diocese of Zipaquirá Ecclesiastical province of Bucaramanga Archdiocese of Bucaramanga Diocese of Barrancabermeja Diocese of Málaga-Soatá Diocese of Socorro y San Gil Diocese of Vélez Ecclesiastical province of Cali Archdiocese of Cali Diocese of Buenaventura Diocese of Buga Diocese of Cartago Diocese of Palmira Ecclesiastical province of Cartagena Archdiocese of Cartagena Diocese of Magangué Diocese of Montelibano Diocese of Monteria Diocese of Sincelejo Ecclesiastical province of Florencia Archdiocese of Florencia Diocese of Mocoa–Sibundoy Diocese of San Vicente del Caguán Ecclesiastical province of Ibagué Archdiocese of Ibagué Diocese of Espinal Diocese of Garzón Diocese of Líbano–Honda Diocese of Neiva Ecclesiastical province of Manizales Archdiocese of Manizales Diocese of Armenia Diocese of La Dorada-Guaduas Diocese of Pereira Ecclesiastical province of Medellín Archdiocese of Medellín Diocese of Caldas Diocese of Girardota Diocese of Jericó Diocese of Sonsón-Rionegro Ecclesiastical province of Nueva Pamplona Archdiocese of Nueva Pamplona Diocese of Arauca Diocese of Cúcuta Diocese of Ocaña Diocese of Tibú Ecclesiastical province of Popayán Archdiocese of Popayán Diocese of Ipiales Diocese of Pasto Diocese of Tumaco Ecclesiastical province of Santa Fe de Antioquia Archdiocese of Santa Fe de Antioquia Diocese of Apartadó Diocese of Ismina-Tadó Diocese of Quibdó Diocese of Santa Rosa de Osos Ecclesiastical province of Tunja Archdiocese of Tunja Diocese of Chiquinquirá Diocese of Duitama-Sogamoso Diocese of Garagoa Diocese of Yopal Ecclesiastical province of Villavicencio Archdiocese of Villavicencio Diocese of Granada en Colombia Diocese of San José del Guaviare Apostolic Vicariates Apostolic Vicariate of Guapi Apostolic Vicariate of Inírida Apostolic Vicariate of Leticia Apostolic Vicariate of Mitú Apostolic Vicariate of Puerto Carreño Apostolic Vicariate of Puerto Gaitán Apostolic Vicariate of Puerto Leguízamo-Solano Apostolic Vicariate of San Andrés y Providencia Apostolic Vicariate of Tierradentro Apostolic Vicariate of Trinidad Military Ordinariate of Colombia Defunct Circumscriptions Roman Catholic Diocese of Jericó (first creation) Roman Catholic Diocese of Tolima Apostolic Vicariate of Caquetá Apostolic Vicariate of Casanare Apostolic Vicariate of Goajira Apostolic Vicariate of San Vicente del Caguán (now diocese) Apostolic Prefecture of Chocó Apostolic Prefecture of Labateca Apostolic Prefecture of Vichada Intendencia Oriental y Llanos de San Martín Gallery of Archdioceses See also Roman Catholicism in Colombia External links GCatholic.org. Colombia Catholic dioceses

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%89%98%EB%A5%B8%EB%B2%A0%EB%A5%B4%ED%81%AC%EB%B2%95

뉘른베르크법

뉘른베르크법()은 1935년 9월 15일 뉘른베르크 전당대회에서 발표된 나치 독일의 반유대주의 법이다. 국가사회주의 독일 노동자당(약칭 나치당 또는 NSDAP) 정권 하에서 제정된 2개의 법률 《독일인의 피와 명예를 지키기 위한 법률》(Gesetz zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre)과 《국가시민법》()의 총칭이다. 유대인의 권리를 박탈한 법률로 악명이 높다. 이 법들이 《뉘른베르크법》이라고 총칭된 것은 제정 당시 뉘른베르크에서 나치당의 전당대회가 열리고 있었으며, 특례로 그곳에서 의회가 소집되어 제정된 법률이었기 때문에 별칭으로 붙은 것이다. 배경 히틀러가 집권한 직후부터 나치당은 인종에 기반한 민족공동사회 건설을 꿈꾸며 인종주의 정책을 도입하기 시작하였고, 1933년 4월 7일 이미 유대인 등 외국계 인구를 법조, 공무, 교직 등에서 추방하는 법률을 통과시켰다. 1933년 7월 통과된 유전병 자손 방지법에 따라 유전병을 비롯한 장애를 가진 사람을 비롯하여 상습적 범죄자, 부랑자, 롬인, 흑인 등에 대해 불임수술과 격리수용이 강제되기 시작했다. 그럼에도 독일 사회에서 유대인이 완전히 배제되지 않은 것에 대해 돌격대 등 당내 급진파는 불만을 가지고 있었고, 한때 잦아들었던 유대인에 대한 폭력 행위가 1935년 다시 빈발하기 시작했다. 이로 인한 사회 혼란과 외교적 이미지 손상을 우려한 나치당 지도부는 평당원들에게 이러한 사적 제재를 자제해줄 것을 당부하는 한편 확실한 입법 조치를 통해 이들의 불만을 수용하기로 하였다. 1935년 뉘른베르크에서 9월 10일부터 일주일 간 나치당의 연례 전당회의가 열렸고, 이곳에 의회가 소집되어 유대인과 비유대인의 혼인을 제한하는 법률과 새 국적법 초안의 작성을 마무리짓기 시작했다. 여러 초안 중 히틀러는 가장 관대한 제안을 채택하였는데, 이는 누가 유대인인지에 대한 정의를 다소 모호히 하고 있었다. 뉘른베르크 법으로 불리는 2개의 법률은 1935년 9월 15일 국가의회에서 만장일치로 통과되었다. 동년 11월에는 롬인, 흑인 등에 대해서도 규정이 확대되었다. 다만 외교 정책의 우려로 인해 법률의 실질적 시행은 베를린 1936년 하계 올림픽 이후부터 본격화되었다. 내용과 원문 《독일인 혈통 명예 보호법》은 유대인과 독일인 간의 혼인, 성적 관계를 금지하는 내용이 골자이고, 《국가 시민법》은 오직 독일인의 혈통을 가진 자만이 온전한 시민권을 가질 수 있도록 명시했다. 국가 시민법에 의하면 비-아리아인으로 간주되는 인종의 사람들은 국민의 일원임에도 시민권에 관한 여러 권리가 인정되지 않으며, 특히 "사회적으로 행동이 국가에 충성스러운 자"라는 조건을 추가하며 정치범들의 시민 권리도 박탈할 기준을 마련하였다. 또한 두 법안에 대해 상세한 조례들이 만들어져 유대인, 독일인, 그리고 미슐링(Mischling, 혼혈인) 간의 명확한 구분의 정의와 제국 시민의 정치적 권한 등이 규정되었다. 이후로도 몇년 간 13개에 달하는 추가 법률이 제정되어 정부 보조금의 수령이나 아리아인 대상의 사업도 금지하는 등 유대인의 사회적 지위를 크게 박탈해나갔다. 독일인 혈통 명예 보호법 독일 혈통의 순수성이 독일 민족의 계속적인 존속을 위한 필수 조건임이라는 인지 하에, 독일 민족의 무궁한 항구적 존속을 보호하고자 하는 불굴의 의지에 감화하여, 국가의회는 다음과 같은 법률을 만장일치로 채택하여 이에 공포한다: 1조 1. 유대인과 독일인 및 연관 혈통 간의 혼인은 금지된다. 이에 불구하고 성립한 혼인은 무효이며, 해당 법을 피하여 국외에서 성립한 경우에도 이와 같다. 2. 혼인 무효 소송은 오직 국가 검사에 의하여서만 제기될 수 있다. 2조 유대인과 독일인 및 연관 혈통 간의 혼외 관계는 금지된다. 3조 유대인은 45세 이하의 독일 국민 및 연관 혈통의 여성을 가정의 고용인으로 둘 수 없다. 4조 1. 유대인은 제국의 국기나 상징을 게양하거나 전시할 수 없다. 2. 유대인은 유대인의 상징을 전시할 수 있다. 이 권리의 행사는 국가에 의해 보호된다. 5조 1. 제1조의 금지를 위반한 자는 징역에 처한다. 2. 제2조의 금지를 위반한 남성은 징역 또는 금고에 처한다. 3. 제3조 또는 제4조의 조항들을 위반한 자는 1년 이하의 징역형과 벌금, 혹은 둘 중 하나의 형벌에 처한다. 6조 내무부 장관은 부총통 및 법무부 장관과 협의하여 이 법의 시행 및 보완을 위한 법률적·행정적 규칙을 발할 수 있다. 7조 이 법은 공포 다음날부터 효력을 발하되, 제3조는 1936년 1월 1일부터 발효된다. 국가 시민법 국가의회는 다음과 같은 법률을 만장일치로 채택하여 공포한다: 1조 1. 국민은 독일국의 보호를 향유하고 결과로서 이를 위한 특수한 의무를 지게 되는 사람을 말한다. 2. 국민의 지위는 국가의 법률들과 국가 시민법이 정하는 바에 따라 취득된다. 2조 1. 제국시민은 독일 민족 또는 연관 혈통을 가진 국민으로서, 독일 민족과 제국에 충성할 의지와 능력을 그 품행으로서 증명하는 자를 가리킨다. 2. 제국시민권은 제국시민증의 수여를 통해 취득된다. 3. 오직 제국시민만이 법률이 정하는 바에 따른 온전한 정치적 권리를 가진다. 3조 내무부 장관은 부총통과 협동하여 이 법을 시행하고 완성하기 위하여 필요한 법률적·행정적 명령을 발할 수 있다. 인종 구분 이후 독일인 혈통 명예 보호법에 대해 제정된 조례들을 통해 인종 구분과 이들의 관계 규제를 위한 상세한 규칙이 마련되었다. 가계도에서 증조부대의 조상 중 몇 명이 독일인 혹은 유대인으로 분류될 수 있는지를 기준으로 한다. 다음은 1935년 기준의 구분인데, 시간이 흐름에 따라 규정이 더욱 엄격해져 갔다. 독일혈통: 증조부모 8명 중 7~8명이 독일혈통인 경우. 독일 인종과 독일 국민에 속하거나 속하는 것으로 간주하며, 시민권을 부여할 수 있다. 2급 혼혈: 혈통의 3/4가 독일혈통인 경우. 부분적으로만 독일 인종과 독일 국민에 속하며, 시민권을 부여할 수 있다. 1급 혼혈: 혈통의 1/2가 독일혈통인 경우 (추가 규정 있음). 부분적으로만 독일 인종과 독일 국민에 속하며, 시민권을 부여할 수 있다. 유대인: 유대인 혈통이 절반을 넘는 경우. 유대 인종과 유대 공동체에 속하며, 시민권을 부여할 수 없다. 영향 뉘른베르크법은 본래부터 탄압받던 유대인 공동체에 치명적인 경제적, 사회적 타격을 가했다. 독일인과 결혼한 유대인들은 법 위반으로 감옥으로 보내졌고, 형기를 마치고도 다시 게슈타포에 의해 강제수용소로 보내어지기도 했다. 독일인들은 유대인과 관계되기를 꺼리게 되었고 유대인이 소유한 상점은 이용객이 없어져 대부분 문을 닫아야 했다. 그러나 앞서 입법된 법률로 인해 유대인은 공무원이나 전문직에 종사하는 것이 금지되었기 때문에 중산층이던 이들도 천한 직업을 가질 수 밖에 없게 되었다. 이민을 하고자 해도 유대인은 출국 시에 재산의 최대 90%를 세금으로 내야 했으며, 행선지도 마땅치 않아 쉬운 결정이 아니었다. 여기에도 만족하지 않은 독일 정부는 마다가스카르 계획 등 이들을 추방할 계획이 실패하자 끝내 1941년부터 최종 해결책으로 불리는 대량 학살 정책을 시작한다. 외부 링크 나치의 등장과 박해의 시작 - 야드바솀 웹사이트에서 1938년 독일의 "J" 유대인 여권 사진 1935년 독일 1935년 법 반유대주의 나치 독일의 법 나치 우생학 1935년 9월

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg%20Laws

Nuremberg Laws

The Nuremberg Laws (, ) were antisemitic and racist laws that were enacted in Nazi Germany on 15 September 1935, at a special meeting of the Reichstag convened during the annual Nuremberg Rally of the Nazi Party. The two laws were the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour, which forbade marriages and extramarital intercourse between Jews and Germans and the employment of German females under 45 in Jewish households; and the Reich Citizenship Law, which declared that only those of German or related blood were eligible to be Reich citizens. The remainder were classed as state subjects without any citizenship rights. A supplementary decree outlining the definition of who was Jewish was passed on 14 November, and the Reich Citizenship Law officially came into force on that date. The laws were expanded on 26 November 1935 to include Romani and Black people. This supplementary decree defined Romanis as "enemies of the race-based state", the same category as Jews. Out of foreign policy concerns, prosecutions under the two laws did not commence until after the 1936 Summer Olympics, held in Berlin. After Hitler rose to power in 1933, the Nazis began to implement antisemitic policies, which included the formation of a Volksgemeinschaft (people's community) based on race. Chancellor and Führer (leader) of the Nazi Party Adolf Hitler declared a national boycott of Jewish businesses on 1 April 1933, and the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, passed on 7 April, excluded the so-called non-Aryans from the legal profession, the civil service, and from teaching in secondary schools and universities. Books considered un-German, including those by Jewish authors, were destroyed in a nationwide book burning on 10 May. Jewish citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks. They were actively suppressed, stripped of their citizenship and civil rights, and eventually completely removed from German society. The Nuremberg Laws had a crippling economic and social impact on the Jewish community. Persons convicted of violating the marriage laws were imprisoned, and (subsequent to 8 March 1938) upon completing their sentences were re-arrested by the Gestapo and sent to Nazi concentration camps. Non-Jews gradually stopped socialising with Jews or shopping in Jewish-owned stores, many of which closed due to a lack of customers. As Jews were no longer permitted to work in the civil service or government-regulated professions such as medicine and education, many middle-class business owners and professionals were forced to take menial employment. Emigration was problematic, as Jews were required to remit up to 90% of their wealth as a tax upon leaving the country. By 1938 it was almost impossible for potential Jewish emigrants to find a country willing to take them. Mass deportation schemes such as the Madagascar Plan proved to be impossible for the Nazis to carry out, and starting in mid-1941, the German government started mass exterminations of the Jews of Europe. Background The Nazi Party was one of several far-right political parties active in Germany after the end of the First World War. The party platform included removal of the Weimar Republic, rejection of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, radical antisemitism, and anti-Bolshevism. They promised a strong central government, increased Lebensraum (living space) for Germanic peoples, formation of a Volksgemeinschaft (people's community) based on race, and racial cleansing via the active suppression of Jews, who would be stripped of their citizenship and civil rights. While imprisoned in 1924 after the failed Beer Hall Putsch, Hitler dictated Mein Kampf to his deputy, Rudolf Hess. The book is an autobiography and exposition of Hitler's ideology in which he laid out his plans for transforming German society into one based on race. In it, he outlined his belief in Jewish Bolshevism, a conspiracy theory that posited the existence of an international Jewish conspiracy for world domination in which the Jews were the mortal enemy of the German people. Throughout his life, Hitler never wavered in his world view as expounded in Mein Kampf. The Nazi Party advocated the concept of a Volksgemeinschaft ("people's community") with the aim of uniting all Germans as national comrades, whilst excluding those deemed either to be community aliens or of a foreign race (Fremdvölkische). Nazi Germany Discrimination against Jews intensified after the Nazis came into power; a month-long series of attacks by members of the Sturmabteilung (SA; paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party) on Jewish businesses, synagogues, and members of the legal profession followed. On 21 March 1933, former US congressman William W. Cohen, at a meeting of the executive advisory committee of the Jewish War Veterans of the United States, urged a strict boycott against all German goods. On 24 March, a worldwide Jewish boycott of German goods was declared, with the support of several international Jewish organisations. In response, Hitler declared a national boycott of Jewish businesses on 1 April 1933. By that time, many people who were not Nazi Party members were advocating for segregating Jews from the rest of German society. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, passed on 7 April 1933, forced all non-Aryans to retire from the legal profession and civil service. Similar legislation soon deprived Jewish members of other professions of their right to practice. It also barred Jews from teaching at universities. In 1934, the Nazi Party published a pamphlet titled "Warum Arierparagraph?" ("Why the Aryan Law?"), which summarised the perceived need for the law. As part of the drive to remove what the Nazis called "Jewish influence" from cultural life, members of the National Socialist Student League removed from libraries any books considered un-German, and a nationwide book burning was held on 10 May. Violence and economic pressure were used by the regime to encourage Jews to voluntarily leave the country. Legislation passed in July 1933 stripped naturalised German Jews of their citizenship, creating a legal basis for recent immigrants (particularly Eastern European Jews) to be deported. Many towns posted signs forbidding entry to Jews. Throughout 1933 and 1934, Jewish businesses were denied access to markets, forbidden to advertise in newspapers, and deprived of access to government contracts. Citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks. Other laws promulgated in this period included the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring (passed on 14 July 1933), which called for the compulsory sterilisation of people with a range of hereditary, physical, and mental illnesses. Under the Law against Dangerous Habitual Criminals (passed 24 November 1933), habitual criminals were forced to undergo sterilisation as well. This law was also used to force the incarceration in prison or Nazi concentration camps of "social misfits" such as the chronically unemployed, prostitutes, beggars, alcoholics, homeless vagrants, black people and Romani (referred to as "Gypsies"). Reich Gypsy Law The Central Office for Combatting Gypsies was established in 1929, under the Weimar Republic. In December 1938 Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler issued an order for "combatting the Gypsy plague". Romanis were to be categorised in terms of their Roma ancestry as a racial characteristic, rather than in terms of their previous characterisation as an 'anti-social' element of society. This work was advanced by Robert Ritter of the Racial Hygiene and Population unit of the Ministry of Health, who by 1942, had produced a scale of ZM+, ZM of the first and second degree, and ZM- to reflect an individual's decreasing level of Romani ancestry. This classification meant that one could be classified as Roma and subject to anti-Roma legislation based on having two Roma great-great-grandparents. According to the Ministry of the Interior, the "Gypsy problem" could not be dealt with by forced resettlement or imprisonment within Germany, so they prepared a draft of a Reich "Gypsy Law" intended to supplement and accompany the Nuremberg Laws. The draft recommended identification and registration of all Roma, followed by sterilisation and deportation. In 1938, public health authorities were ordered to register all Roma and Roma Mischlinge. Despite Himmler's interest in enacting such legislation, which he said would prevent "further intermingling of blood, and which regulates all the most pressing questions which go together with the existences of Gypsies in the living space of the German nation", the regime never promulgated the "Gypsy Law". In December 1942, Himmler ordered that all Roma were to be sent to Nazi concentration camps. "The Jewish problem" Disenchanted with the unfulfilled promise of Nazi Party leaders to eliminate Jews from German society, SA members were eager to lash out against the Jewish minority as a way of expressing their frustrations. A Gestapo report from early 1935 stated that the rank and file of the Nazi Party would set in motion a solution to the "Jewish problem ... from below that the government would then have to follow". Assaults, vandalism, and boycotts against Jews, which the Nazi government had temporarily curbed in 1934, increased again in 1935 amidst a propaganda campaign authorised at the highest levels of government. Most non-party members ignored the boycotts and objected to the violence out of concern for their own safety. The Israeli historian Otto Dov Kulka argues that there was a disparity between the views of the Alte Kämpfer (longtime party members) and the general public, but that even those Germans who were not politically active favoured bringing in tougher new antisemitic laws in 1935. The matter was raised to the forefront of the state agenda as a result of this antisemitic agitation. The Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick announced on 25 July that a law forbidding marriages between Jews and non-Jews would shortly be promulgated, and recommended that registrars should avoid issuing licences for such marriages for the time being. The draft law also called for a ban on marriage for persons with hereditary illnesses. Hjalmar Schacht, the Economics Minister and Reichsbank president, criticised the violent behaviour of the Alte Kämpfer and SA because of its negative impact on the economy. The violence also had a negative impact on Germany's reputation in the international community. For these reasons, Hitler ordered a stop to "individual actions" against German Jews on 8 August 1935, and the Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick threatened to take legal action against Nazi Party members who ignored the order. From Hitler's perspective, it was imperative to quickly bring in new antisemitic laws to appease the radical elements in the party who persisted in attempting to remove the Jews from German society by violent means. A conference of ministers was held on 20 August 1935 to discuss the question. Hitler argued against violent methods because of the damage being done to the economy and insisted the matter must be settled through legislation. The focus of the new laws would be marriage laws to prevent "racial defilement", stripping Jews of their German citizenship, and laws to prevent Jews from participating freely in the economy. Events in Nuremberg The seventh annual Nazi Party Rally, held in Nuremberg from 10 to 16 September 1935, featured the only Reichstag session held outside Berlin during the Nazi regime. Hitler decided that the rally would be a good opportunity to introduce the long-awaited anti-Jewish laws. In a speech on 12 September, leading Nazi physician Gerhard Wagner announced that the government would soon introduce a "law for the protection of German blood". The next day, Hitler summoned the Reichstag to meet in session at Nuremberg on 15 September, the last day of the rally. He then spoke with Hans Pfundtner, State Secretary in the Reich Interior Ministry, and Wilhelm Stuckart, a Ministerial Counselor, instructing them to draft a law forbidding sexual relations or marriages between Jews and non-Jews. They, in turn, summoned and Bernhard Lösener of the Interior Ministry to Nuremberg to assist with the hurried drafting of the legislation. The two men arrived on 14 September. That evening, Hitler ordered them to also have ready by morning a draft of the Reich citizenship law. Hitler found the initial drafts of the Blood Law to be too lenient, so at around midnight Interior Minister Frick brought him four new drafts that differed mainly in the severity of the penalties they imposed. Hitler chose the most lenient version but left vague the definition of who was a Jew. Hitler stated at the rally that the laws were "an attempt at the legal settlement of a problem, which, if this proved a failure, would have to be entrusted by law to the National Socialist Party for a definitive solution". Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels had the radio broadcast of the passing of the laws cut short, and ordered the German media to not mention them until a decision was made as to how they would be implemented. Text of the laws The two Nuremberg Laws were unanimously passed by the Reichstag on 15 September 1935. The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour prohibited marriages and extramarital intercourse between Jews and Germans, and forbade the employment of German females under 45 in Jewish households. The Reich Citizenship Law declared that only those of German or related blood were eligible to be Reich citizens; the remainder were classed as state subjects, without citizenship rights. The wording in the Citizenship Law that a person must prove "by his conduct that he is willing and fit to faithfully serve the German people and Reich" meant that political opponents could also be stripped of their German citizenship. This law was effectively a means of stripping Jews, Roma, and other "undesirables" of their legal rights, and their citizenship. Over the coming years, an additional 13 supplementary laws were promulgated that further marginalised the Jewish community in Germany. For example, Jewish families were not permitted to submit claims for subsidies for large families and were forbidden to transact business with Aryans. Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour Moved by the understanding that purity of German blood is the essential condition for the continued existence of the German people, and inspired by the inflexible determination to ensure the existence of the German nation for all time, the Reichstag has unanimously adopted the following law, which is promulgated herewith: Article 1 Marriages between Jews and citizens of German or related blood are forbidden. Marriages nevertheless concluded are invalid, even if concluded abroad to circumvent this law. Annulment proceedings can be initiated only by the state prosecutor. Article 2 Extramarital relations between Jews and citizens of German or related blood are forbidden. Article 3 Jews may not employ in their households female citizens of German or related blood who are under 45 years old. Article 4 Jews are forbidden to fly the Reich or national flag or display Reich colours. They are, on the other hand, permitted to display the Jewish colours. The exercise of this right is protected by the state. Article 5 Any person who violates the prohibition under Article 1 will be punished with prison with hard labour [Zuchthaus]. A male who violates the prohibition under Article 2 will be punished with prison [Gefängnis] or prison with hard labour. Any person violating the provisions under Articles 3 or 4 will be punished with prison with hard labour for up to one year and a fine, or with one or the other of these penalties. Article 6 The Reich Minister of the Interior, in co-ordination with the Deputy of the Führer and the Reich Minister of Justice, will issue the legal and administrative regulations required to implement and complete this law. Article 7 The law takes effect on the day following promulgation, except for Article 3, which goes into force on 1 January 1936. Reich Citizenship Law The Reichstag has unanimously enacted the following law, which is promulgated herewith: Article 1 A subject of the state is a person who enjoys the protection of the German Reich and who in consequence has specific obligations toward it. The status of subject of the state is acquired in accordance with the provisions of the Reich and the Reich Citizenship Law. Article 2 A Reich citizen is a subject of the state who is of German or related blood, and proves by his conduct that he is willing and fit to faithfully serve the German people and Reich. Reich citizenship is acquired through the granting of a Reich citizenship certificate. The Reich citizen is the sole bearer of full political rights in accordance with the law. Article 3 The Reich Minister of the Interior, in co-ordination with the Deputy of the Führer, will issue the legal and administrative orders required to implement and complete this law. Classifications under the laws Impact While both the Interior Ministry and the Nazi Party agreed that persons with three or more Jewish grandparents would be classed as being Jewish and those with only one (Mischlinge of the second degree) would not, a debate arose as to the status of persons with two Jewish grandparents (Mischlinge of the first degree). The Nazi Party, especially its more radical elements, wanted the laws to apply to Mischlinge of both the first and second degree. For this reason Hitler continued to stall, and did not make a decision until early November 1935. His final ruling was that persons with three Jewish grandparents were classed as Jewish; those with two Jewish grandparents would be considered Jewish only if they practised the faith or had a Jewish spouse. The supplementary decree outlining the definition of who was Jewish was passed on 14 November, and the Reich Citizenship Law came into force on that date. Jews were no longer German citizens and did not have the right to vote. Jews and Gypsies were not allowed to vote in Reichstag elections or the 1938 Austrian Anschluss referendum. Civil servants who had been granted an exemption to the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service because of their status as war veterans were forced out of their jobs on this date. A supplementary decree issued on 21 December ordered the dismissal of Jewish veterans from other state-regulated professions such as medicine and education. While Interior Minister Frick's suggestion that a citizenship tribunal before which every German would have to prove that they were Aryan was not acted upon, proving one's racial heritage became a necessary part of daily life. Non-government employers were authorised to include in their statutes an Aryan paragraph excluding both Mischlinge and Jews from employment. Proof of Aryan descent was achieved by obtaining an Aryan certificate. One form was to acquire an Ahnenpass, which could be obtained by providing birth or baptismal certificates that all four grandparents were of Aryan descent. The Ahnenpass could also be acquired by citizens of other countries, as long as they were of "German or related blood". Under the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour (15 September 1935), marriages were forbidden between Jews and Germans; between Mischlinge of the first degree and Germans; between Jews and Mischlinge of the second degree; and between two Mischlinge of the second degree. Mischlinge of the first degree were permitted to marry Jews, but they would henceforth be classed as Jewish themselves. All marriages undertaken between half-Jews and Germans required the approval of a Committee for the Protection of German Blood. Few such permissions were granted. A supplementary decree issued on 26 November 1935 extended the law to "Gypsies, Negroes, and their bastards". Persons suspected of having sexual relations with non-Aryans were charged with Rassenschande (racial defilement) and tried in the regular courts. Evidence provided to the Gestapo for such cases was largely provided by ordinary citizens such as neighbours, co-workers, or other informants. Persons accused of race defilement were publicly humiliated by being paraded through the streets with a placard around their necks detailing their crime. Those convicted were typically sentenced to prison terms, and (subsequent to 8 March 1938) upon completing their sentences were re-arrested by the Gestapo and sent to Nazi concentration camps. As the law did not permit capital punishment for racial defilement, special courts were convened to allow the death penalty for some cases. From the end of 1935 through 1940, 1,911 people were convicted of Rassenschande. Over time, the law was extended to include non-sexual forms of physical contact such as greeting someone with a kiss or an embrace. For the most part, Germans accepted the Nuremberg Laws, partly because Nazi propaganda had successfully swayed public opinion towards the general belief that Jews were a separate race, but also because to oppose the regime meant leaving oneself open to harassment or arrest by the Gestapo. Citizens were relieved that the antisemitic violence ceased after the laws were passed. Non-Jews gradually stopped socialising with Jews or shopping in Jewish-owned stores. Wholesalers who continued to serve Jewish merchants were marched through the streets with placards around their necks proclaiming them as traitors. The Communist party and some elements of the Catholic Church were critical of the laws. Concerned that international opinion would be adversely swayed by the new laws, the Interior Ministry did not actively enforce them until after the 1936 Summer Olympics, held in Berlin that August. The Interior Ministry estimated there were 750,000 Mischlinge as of April 1935 (studies done after the war put the number of Mischlinge at around 200,000). As Jews became more and more excluded from German society, they organised social events, schools, and activities of their own. Economic problems were not so easily solved, however; many Jewish firms went out of business due to lack of customers. This was part of the ongoing Aryanization process (the transfer of Jewish firms to non-Jewish owners, usually at prices far below market value) that the regime had initiated in 1933, which intensified after the Nuremberg Laws were passed. Former middle-class or wealthy business owners were forced to take employment in menial jobs to support their families, and many were unable to find work at all. Although a stated goal of the Nazis was that all Jews should leave the country, emigration was problematic, as Jews were required to remit up to 90 per cent of their wealth as a tax upon leaving the country. Anyone caught transferring their money overseas was sentenced to lengthy terms in prison as "economic saboteurs". An exception was money sent to Palestine under the terms of the Haavara Agreement, whereby Jews could transfer some of their assets and emigrate to that country. Around 52,000 Jews emigrated to Palestine under the terms of this agreement between 1933 and 1939. By the start of the Second World War in 1939, around 250,000 of Germany's 437,000 Jews had emigrated to the United States, Palestine, Great Britain, and other countries. By 1938 it was becoming almost impossible for potential Jewish emigrants to find a country that would take them. After the 1936–39 Arab revolt, the British were disinclined to accept any more Jews into Palestine for fear it would further destabilise the region. Nationalistic and xenophobic people in other countries pressured their governments not to accept waves of Jewish immigrants, especially poverty-stricken ones. The Madagascar Plan, a proposed mass deportation of European Jews to Madagascar, proved to be impossible to carry out. Starting in mid-1941, the German government started mass exterminations of the Jews of Europe. The total number of Jews murdered during the resulting Holocaust is estimated at 5.5 to 6 million people. Estimates of the death toll of Romanis in the Porajmos range from 150,000 to 1,500,000. Legislation in other countries Some of the other Axis powers passed their own versions of the Nuremberg Laws. In 1938, Fascist Italy passed the Italian racial laws and Manifesto of Race which stripped Jews of their citizenship and forbade sexual relations and marriages between Jewish and non-Jewish Italians. Hungary passed laws on 28 May 1938 and 5 May 1939 banning Jews from various professions. A third law, added in August 1941, defined Jews as anyone with at least two Jewish grandparents, and forbade sexual relations or marriages between Jews and non-Jews. In 1940 the ruling Iron Guard in Romania passed the Law Defining the Legal Status of Romanian Jews. In 1941 the Codex Judaicus was enacted in Slovakia. In 1941 Bulgaria passed the Law for Protection of the Nation. In 1941, the Ustaše in Croatia passed legislation defining who was a Jew and restricting contact with them. While the Empire of Japan did not draft or pass any legislation, they implemented policies targeting Jews in some occupied countries, like Indonesia and Singapore. Existing copies An original typescript of the laws signed by Hitler was found by the US Army's Counterintelligence Corps in 1945. It ended up in the possession of General George S. Patton, who kept it, in violation of orders that such finds should be turned over to the government. During a visit to Los Angeles in 1945, he handed it over to the Huntington Library, where it was stored in a bomb-proof vault. The library revealed the existence of the document in 1999, and sent it on permanent loan to the Skirball Cultural Center, which placed it on public display. The document was transferred to the National Archives and Records Administration in Washington in August 2010. See also Nazism and race Wannsee Conference References Bibliography Further reading External links Rise of the Nazis and Beginning of Persecution on the Yad Vashem website 1930s in Bavaria 1935 in Germany 1935 in law 20th century in Nuremberg Holocaust racial laws Jewish German history Disabilities (Jewish) in Europe Law of Nazi Germany Nazi eugenics Race and law Religion and race Repealed German legislation

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EB%8F%99%20%EC%B9%AB%EC%86%94

전동 칫솔

전동 칫솔(電動齒―, )은 배터리 또는 충전하여 자동으로 칫솔질을 해주는 칫솔이다. 아주 빠르게 상하좌우 돌아가기 때문에 잘 닦인다. 본체와 칫솔모 사이에 장착이 제대로 안 되면 작동이 잘 되지 않으므로 칫솔모와 잘 결합하는 것이 좋다. 전동칫솔은 치아를 닦기 위해 앞뒤 진동 또는 회전 진동(칫솔 헤드가 시계 방향과 반시계 방향으로 회전)의 빠른 자동 강모 동작을 수행한다. 음속 이하의 움직임은 모터에 의해 만들어진다. 초음파 칫솔의 경우 압전 결정에 의해 초음파 운동이 생성된다. 최신 전동칫솔은 일반적으로 사용 사이에 브러시가 충전대에 있을 때 유도 충전을 통해 충전되는 충전식 배터리로 전원을 공급받는다. 전동칫솔은 움직임의 주파수(속도)에 따라 가청 범위(분당 20~20,000Hz 또는 2400~2,400,000회 움직임)보다 낮거나, 가청 범위 이상으로 움직이는지 전동 칫솔, 음파 칫솔, 초음파 칫솔로 분류할 수 있다. 역사 전동칫솔의 최초 사례는 톰린슨 모슬리(Tomlinson Moseley)에 의해 처음 생산되었다. 모토덴트(Motodent)라는 이름으로 판매된 이 특허는 1937년 12월 13일 그의 회사인 모토덴트사(Motodent Inc.)에 의해 제출되었다. 이후 전동칫솔 브록스덴트(Broxodent)는 1954년 스위스에서 필립 가이 우그 박사(Dr. Philippe Guy Woog)가 발명하였다. 최초의 전동칫솔은 1954년 스위스에서 개발되었으며 1961년에는 재충전이 가능한 무선 전동칫솔이 등장했다. 초기 전동칫솔은 손의 운동 기능이 불편한 환자 혹은 교정환자를 위해 개발되었다. 브록소(Broxo) 전동 칫솔은 1960년 E. R. 스퀴브 앤 선즈 제약(E. R. Squibb and Sons Pharmaceuticals)에 의해 미국에 출시되었다. 출시 후 스퀴브에 의해 브록소덴트(Broxo-Dent 또는 Broxodent)라는 이름으로 미국에서 판매되었다. 1980년대에 Squibb은 브록소덴트 라인의 유통을 브리스톨마이어스 스퀴브(Bristol-Myers Squibb)의 서머셋 랩스(Somerset Labs) 사업부로 이전했다. GE의 자동 칫솔은 1960년대 초에 출시되었다. 충전식 니켈-카드뮴 전지가 포함된 무선 제품으로 휴대하기는 쉽지만 2D 셀 손전등 손잡이 정도의 크기로 다소 부피가 컸다. 이 기간의 니켈-카드뮴 배터리는 메모리 효과로 인해 어려움을 겪었다. GE 자동 칫솔에는 핸드피스를 수직으로 고정하는 충전 스탠드가 함께 제공된다. 대부분의 장치는 충전기에 보관되어 있었는데 이는 니켈-카드뮴 전지의 최대 서비스 수명을 얻는 가장 좋은 방법은 아니다. 또한 초기 니켈-카드뮴 배터리는 수명이 짧은 경향이 있었다. 배터리는 GE 장치 내부에 밀봉되어 있었고 배터리가 고장 나면 장치 전체를 폐기해야 했다. 욕실 환경에서 AC 라인 전압 기기를 사용하는 것은 문제가 있었다. 1990년대 초 UL(Underwriter Laboratories) 및 CSA(Canadian Standards Association)는 더 이상 욕실용 선전압 기기 인증을 받지 않았다. 최신 기기는 저전압(일반적으로 12, 16 또는 24V)에서 작동하기 위해 강압 변압기를 사용해야 했다. 많은 국가의 배선 표준에서는 욕실 콘센트를 RCD/GFCI 장치로 보호해야 한다고 요구한다(예: 미국에서는 1970년대 이후 신축 욕실 콘센트에 대해 요구됨). 1990년대에는 브록소의 최초 설계에 대한 안전 인증에 문제가 있었다. 더욱이, 개선된 배터리로 작동되는 칫솔은 엄청난 경쟁을 불러일으켰다. 최초의 초음파 칫솔은 처음에는 울티마(Ultima)로, 나중에는 울트라소넥스(Ultrasonex)로 불렸으며 1992년 미국에서 특허를 얻었고, 같은 해 FDA는 매일 가정용으로 사용할 수 있도록 승인했다. 처음에 울티마는 초음파로만 작동했지만 몇 년 후 울트라소넥스 브러시에 추가 음파 진동을 제공하기 위해 모터가 추가되었다. 오늘날 여러 개의 초음파 칫솔은 초음파와 음파 진동을 동시에 제공한다. 현대에는 부끄러움을 피하고 싶은 사람들을 위해 진동기 대신 전동 칫솔이 사용되었다. 수동 칫솔과 비교할 때 전동 칫솔이 환경에 부정적인 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 효과 2014년 코크란 (단체) 리뷰에서는 전동 칫솔이 수동 칫솔보다 더 많은 플라그를 제거하고 치은 염증을 더 많이 감소시키는 것으로 나타났다. 이 리뷰에서는 전동 칫솔이 수동 칫솔보다 더 효과적인 것으로 나타났다. 예를 들어, 사용 1~3개월 후에 플라크 축적과 치은 염증이 각각 11%와 6% 감소했다. 3개월 사용 후 관찰된 감소는 훨씬 더 컸는다. 즉, 플라크가 21% 감소하고 치은 염증이 11% 감소했다. 임상 환경에서 이러한 차이의 규모는 여전히 의문의 여지가 있지만 다른 리뷰에서도 비슷한 결론에 도달했다. 또 다른 대규모 연구 검토에서는 전동 칫솔이 어린이용 수동 칫솔보다 플라그 제거에 더 효과적이라는 결론을 내렸다. 손재주가 제한적이거나 뒷니에 접근하기 어려운 환자의 경우 전동 칫솔이 특히 도움이 될 수 있다. 다양한 전동 칫솔의 효율성과 관련하여 진동 회전 모델은 수동 칫솔보다 더 많은 플라그를 제거하는 것으로 나타났다. 교정 치료를 받는 환자를 위한 진동 회전 칫솔의 효과가 수동 칫솔보다 우수하다는 것을 입증하는 보다 구체적인 연구도 수행되었다. 특히 2014년 코크란 리뷰(Cochrane Review)에서는 진동 회전 전동 칫솔만이 수동 칫솔에 비해 통계적으로 유의미한 이점을 지속적으로 제공할 수 있었다. 이는 진동 회전 전동 칫솔이 다른 전동 칫솔보다 더 효과적일 수 있음을 시사한다. 진동 회전 칫솔이 고주파 음파 전동 칫솔보다 더 효과적이라는 새로운 연구 결과가 나오면서 더 최근의 증거도 이를 뒷받침한다. 전반적으로 진동 회전 칫솔은 치은 염증과 플라크를 줄이는 데 효과적이다. 전동칫솔의 효과에 영향을 미치는 다른 요인으로는 칫솔질에 소요되는 시간, 칫솔모 상태 등이 있다. 제조업체에서는 3개월마다 또는 칫솔모의 성능이 눈에 띄게 저하되는 즉시 헤드를 교체할 것을 권장한다. 각주 이 (몸) 가전제품 20세기 발명품

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric%20toothbrush

Electric toothbrush

An electric toothbrush is a toothbrush that makes rapid automatic bristle motions, either back-and-forth oscillation or rotation-oscillation (where the brush head alternates clockwise and counterclockwise rotation), in order to clean teeth. Motions at sonic speeds or below are made by a motor. In the case of ultrasonic toothbrushes, ultrasonic motions are produced by a piezoelectric crystal. A modern electric toothbrush is usually powered by a rechargeable battery charged through inductive charging when the brush sits in the charging base between uses. Electric toothbrushes can be classified according to the frequency (speed) of their movements as power, sonic or ultrasonic toothbrushes, depending on whether they make movements that are below, in or above the audible range (20–20,000 Hz or 2400–2,400,000 movements per minute), respectively. History The earliest example of an electric toothbrush was first produced by Tomlinson Moseley. Sold as the Motodent, a patent was filed by his company, Motodent Inc. on December 13, 1937. In Switzerland in 1954 Dr. Philippe Guy Woog invented the Broxodent. Woog's electric toothbrushes were originally manufactured in Switzerland (later in France) for Broxo S.A. The device plugged into a standard wall outlet and ran on line voltage. Electric toothbrushes were initially created for patients with limited motor skills and for orthodontic patients (such as those with braces). The Broxo Electric Toothbrush was introduced in the US by E. R. Squibb and Sons Pharmaceuticals in 1960. After introduction, it was marketed in the US by Squibb under the names Broxo-Dent or Broxodent. In the 1980s Squibb transferred distribution of the Broxodent line to the Somerset Labs division of Bristol-Myers Squibb. The General Electric automatic toothbrush was introduced in the early 1960s; it was cordless, with rechargeable NiCad batteries and although portable, was rather bulky, about the size of a two-D-cell flashlight handle. NiCad batteries of this period suffered from the memory effect. The GE automatic toothbrush came with a charging stand that held the hand piece upright; most units were kept in the charger, which is not the best way to get maximum service life from a NiCad battery. Also, early NiCad batteries tended to have a short lifespan. The batteries were sealed inside the GE device, and the whole unit had to be discarded when the batteries failed. The use of an AC line voltage appliance in a bathroom environment was problematic. By the early 1990s Underwriter Laboratories (UL) and Canadian Standards Association (CSA) no longer certified line-voltage appliances for bathroom use. Newer appliances had to use a step-down transformer to operate at low voltage (typically 12, 16 or 24 volts). Wiring standards in many countries require that outlets in bath areas must be protected by a RCD/GFCI device (e.g., required in the US since the 1970s on bathroom outlets in new construction). By the 1990s there were problems with safety certification of Broxo's original design. Further, improved battery-operated toothbrushes were providing formidable competition. The first ultrasonic toothbrush, first called the Ultima and later the Ultrasonex, was patented in the US in 1992, the same year the FDA gave it approval for daily home use. Initially, the Ultima worked only on ultrasound, but a few years later, a motor was added to give the Ultrasonex brush additional sonic vibration. Today, several ultrasonic toothbrushes simultaneously provide both ultrasound and sonic vibration. In more modern times, electric toothbrushes have been used as a substitute for vibrators for those who wish to avoid embarrassment. The negative environmental impact of electric toothbrushes when compared with manual toothbrushes has been established. Types Electric toothbrushes can be classified according to their type of action: Side to side vibration, which has a brush head action that moves laterally from side to side. Counter oscillation, which has a brush action in which adjacent tufts of bristles (usually six to 10 in number) rotate in one direction and then the other, independently, with each tuft rotating in the opposite direction to that adjacent to it. Rotation oscillation, which has a brush action in which the brush head rotates in one direction and then the other. Circular, which has a brush action in which the brush head rotates in one direction only. Ultrasonic, which has a brush action where the bristles vibrate at ultrasonic frequencies (> 20 kHz). Ionic, which has a brush that aims to impart an electrical charge to the tooth surface with the intent of disrupting the attachment of dental plaque. For some vibrating toothbrush designs, a brushing technique similar to that used with a manual toothbrush is recommended, whereas with brushes with a spinning head the recommended cleaning technique is to simply move the brush slowly from tooth to tooth. Electric toothbrushes can also be classified according to the speed of their movements as standard power toothbrushes, sonic toothbrushes or ultrasonic toothbrushes. If the motion of the toothbrush is sufficiently rapid to produce a hum in the audible frequency of human range (20 Hz to 20,000 Hz), it can be classified as a sonic toothbrush. Any electric toothbrush with movement faster than this limit can be classified as an ultrasonic toothbrush. Certain ultrasonic toothbrushes, such as the Megasonex and the Ultreo, have both sonic and ultrasonic movements. Oscillating rotating The oscillating rotating toothbrush is a type of electric toothbrush which was introduced by Oral-B in the 1990s. This type of toothbrush is not shaped like a conventional manual toothbrush. Instead, it is made of a small round brush head that oscillates and rotates to remove plaque. The shape of the brush head is very similar to the prophylaxis hand piece used by dental professionals to remove plaque in the dental office. This design enables the bristles to reach further into the hard-to-reach areas between the teeth to remove plaque. Some versions of the oscillating rotating toothbrush also involve a pulsating motion which enables a more three dimensional clean. The Oral-B iO toothbrush has a linear magnetic drive system. This system allows the concentration of energy to be at the tip of the brush bristles while using the oscillating rotating motion. The brush also allows for 3D tracking using artificial intelligence that connects the toothbrush with an app. This technology enables to the user to have instant feedback on their brushing efficacy and can track the data if the user wishes to bring the information to their dental professional for more personalized oral health instruction and education. Furthermore, the Oral-B iO toothbrush also has a smart pressure sensor which is electronically calibrated to let the user know if they are brushing with too much pressure, or not enough, and automatically adapts the oscillation speed to protect the teeth and gums when excess pressure is applied. The safety of oscillating rotating toothbrushes has also been studied. Oscillating rotating toothbrushes are proven to be safe as compared to manual toothbrushes and are safe for both the hard and soft tissues of the oral cavity. Sonic Sonic toothbrushes are a subset of electric toothbrushes with movement that is fast enough to produce vibration in the audible range. Most modern rechargeable electric toothbrushes from brands such as Sonicare, FOREO, and Oral-B fall into this category and typically have frequencies that range from 200 to 400 Hz, that is 12,000–24,000 oscillations or 24,000–48,000 movements per minute. Because sonic toothbrushes rely on sweeping motion alone to clean the teeth, the movement that they provide is often high in amplitude, meaning that the length of the sweeping movements that they make is large. One study found that using sonic toothbrush causes less abrasion to the gum when compared to the manual toothbrush. Ultrasonic The newest developments in this field are ultrasonic toothbrushes, which use ultrasonic waves to clean the teeth. In order for a toothbrush to be considered "ultrasonic" it has to emit a wave at a minimum frequency of 20,000 Hz or 2.4 million movements per minute. Typically, ultrasonic toothbrushes approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) operate at a frequency of 1.6 MHz, which translates to 192 million movements per minute. Ultrasonic toothbrushes emit vibrations that are very high in frequency but low in amplitude. These vibrations break up bacterial chains that make up dental plaque and remove their methods of attachment to the tooth surface up to 5 mm below the gum line. Some ultrasonic toothbrushes, such as the Emmi-Dent, provide only ultrasonic motion. Other ultrasonic toothbrushes, such as the Ultreo and the Megasonex, provide additional sonic vibration ranging from 9,000 to 40,000 movements per minute, comparable to a sonic toothbrush, in order to provide additional sweeping motion which facilitates removal of food particles and bacterial chain remnants. The sonic vibration in these ultrasonic toothbrushes may be lower in amplitude than that found in a comparable sonic toothbrush because the bacterial chains do not need to be removed through sonic vibration, simply swept away, as they have already been broken up by the ultrasound. Because of the similarity of the terms "ultrasonic" and "sonic", there is some confusion in the marketplace and sonic toothbrushes are frequently mislabeled as ultrasonic ones. A toothbrush operating at a frequency or vibration of less than 20,000 Hz is a "sonic" toothbrush. It is called "sonic" because its operating frequency, for example 31,000 movements per minute, is within the human hearing range of between roughly 20 Hz to about 20,000 Hz. Only a toothbrush that emits ultrasound, or vibration at a frequency greater than the upper limit of human hearing, can be called an "ultrasonic" toothbrush. Effectiveness In 2014, a Cochrane review demonstrated that power toothbrushes remove more plaque and reduce gingival inflammation more than manual toothbrushes. This review showed electric toothbrushes had greater effectiveness over manual ones. For example, plaque build-up and gingival inflammation were reduced by 11% and 6% respectively after one to three months of use. After three months of use, the reduction observed was even greater – 21% reduction in plaque and 11% reduction in gingival inflammation. Although the scale of these differences in a clinical setting remains questionable, other reviews have reached similar conclusions. Another large review of studies also concluded that power toothbrushes were more effective in removing plaque than manual brushes for children. For patients with limited manual dexterity or where difficulty exists in reaching rear teeth, electric toothbrushes may be especially beneficial. With regards to the effectiveness of different electric toothbrushes, the oscillation rotation models have been found to remove more plaque than manual toothbrushes. More specific studies have also been conducted demonstrating oscillating rotating toothbrush effectiveness to be superior to manual toothbrushes for patients undergoing orthodontic treatment. Notably, only the oscillating rotating power toothbrush was able to consistently provide statistically significant benefit over manual toothbrushes in the 2014 Cochrane Review. This suggests that oscillating rotating power toothbrushes may be more effective than other electric toothbrushes. More recent evidence also supports this as new studies suggest that oscillating rotating toothbrushes are more effective than high frequency sonic power toothbrushes. Overall, oscillating rotating toothbrushes are effective in reducing gingival inflammation and plaque. Other factors that influence effectiveness amongst electric toothbrushes involve factors such as the amount of time spent brushing and the condition of the brush head. Manufacturers recommend that heads be changed every three months or as soon as the brush head has visibly deteriorated. Power source and charging Modern electric toothbrushes run on low voltage, 12 V or less. A few units use a step-down transformer to power the brush, but most use a battery, usually but not always rechargeable and non-replaceable, fitted inside the handle, which is hermetically sealed to prevent water damage. While early NiCd battery toothbrushes used metal tabs to connect with the charging base, some toothbrushes use inductive charging. Environmental concerns According to Friends of the Earth, "Disposable electric toothbrushes are one example of a terrible product ... it's virtually impossible to separate out the tech from the batteries and plastic casing which means valuable and often toxic materials are dumped in landfill or burnt in incinerators." A study published in British Dental Journal found climate change potential of the electric toothbrush was 11 times greater than the bamboo toothbrush. The bamboo toothbrush was, however, not the most environmentally sustainable toothbrush, contrary to popular belief because using them just stops land from being put to better use such as helping biodiversity, or in growing forests to offset carbon emissions. A plastic manual replaceable head toothbrush was probably the best, according to the study. Optional features Timer Many modern electric toothbrushes have a timer that buzzes, or briefly interrupts power, typically after two minutes, and sometimes every 30 seconds. This is associated with a customary recommendation to brush for two minutes, 30 seconds for each of the four quadrants of the mouth. Display Some electric toothbrushes have LCD screens that show brushing time and sometimes smiley face icons or other images to encourage optimal brushing. These features could encourage people to brush more accurately. Pressure sensor Brushing teeth too hard causes enamel and gum damage. Most modern top-end sonic toothbrushes come with a pressure sensor, which prevents users from brushing too aggressively. There are two types of pressure sensors. Some sensors produce a sound warning and some immediately stop movements of the sonic toothbrush when it is used too aggressively. Some electric brushes, such as the Oral B oscillating rotating brush, simultaneously coach the user to brush with optimal pressure during the brushing experience itself using AI and Bluetooth technology. Ultrasound indicator Because ultrasonic frequencies are beyond the audible range and the amplitude of movement emitted by an ultrasonic toothbrush is typically too small to be perceived, the ultrasound is imperceptible to humans and it may not be apparent that a brush running if pure ultrasound is turned on. Ultrasonic toothbrushes may include an indicator to notify the user that ultrasound is being emitted. Bluetooth Bluetooth connectivity enables data to be transmitted from an electric toothbrush to another Bluetooth device, such as a smartphone. The brush can send data to a mobile app such as how long it has been brushing for and if too much pressure has been applied when brushing. The app can in turn send data back to the brush such as changing the cleaning modes available, and cleaning time. The sharing of data between toothbrush and smartphone is intended to assist the user in creating better brushing technique and habits. This technology enables coaching for the user as it tracks where the user brushes, how long in each area, and consequently, can identify areas where the user commonly misses. Electric toothbrush models that currently utilise Bluetooth include the Oral-B Pro 6000, Pro 6500, Pro 7000 and Genius 9000, Oral-B iO as well as Phillips Sonicare Diamond Clean Smart. Cleaning modes Most sonic toothbrushes come with different cleaning modes and intensity levels. Cleaning modes are designed for special types of cleaning efficiency. Some of the most well known are Sensitive, Daily care, Whitening and Tongue cleaning. Certain toothbrushes that offer both ultrasonic and sonic motion allow for the intensity of the sonic motion to be reduced, or even for the sonic motion to be turned off entirely so that only ultrasound is emitted. Since ultrasound movements are very low in amplitude, this setting may be indicated for patients who may not be suitable candidates for typical sonic or power toothbrush vibration but need the additional cleaning power of an ultrasonic toothbrush, such as patients who have recently undergone periodontal surgery. References Dental equipment American inventions 20th-century inventions

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스탠드업 코미디

스탠드업 코미디(Stand-up comedy)는 희극 배우(또는 코미디언)가 관객을 마주하는 실시간 희극 형식이다. 스탠드업 코미디 공연자를 스탠드업 코미디언, 혹은 줄여서 스탠드업이라고 부른다. 스탠드업 코미디에서 코미디언은 주로 웃긴 이야기, “비츠”라 불리는 짧은 농담, “독백” 형식의 짤막한 농담, 공연에서 정한 형식의 농담이나 행동을 빠른 속도로 말한다. 일부 스탠드업 코미디언은 소품, 음악, 마술을 사용하여 공연을 더욱 빛나게 한다. 스탠드업 코미디는 코미디 클럽, 술집, 현대식 벌레스크, 대학, 극장에서 주로 공연한다. 실시간 공연 외에도 텔레비전, DVD, 인터넷을 통해 상업적 용도로 스탠드업 코미디를 배포하기도 한다. 스탠드업 코미디에서 관객의 반응은 즉각적이라서 코미디언의 연기를 크게 좌우한다. 관객은 계속 우스갯소리가 나오길 바라기 때문에 코미디언은 항상 압박감에 시달린다. 이런 압박감은 짜릿하면서도 위협적이다. 코미디언 윌 페럴은 스탠드업 코미디를 “어렵고 외롭고 잔인하다”고 표현했다. 스탠드업 코미디는 단독 공연인 경우도 있지만, 대부분의 쇼는 “헤드라인” 형식이나 “쇼케이스” 형식을 택한다. 헤드라인 형식에는 주로 호스트 또는 사회자가 나와 분위기를 돋우고 공연자를 소개한다. 사회자가 물러나면 무명 혹은 우정 출연자 한두 명이 각각 15~20분 이내의 꼭지를 선보이고, 마지막으로 대표 코미디언이 단독으로 대개 45분 이상 익살을 펼친다. “쇼케이스” 형식에서는 여러 명의 공연자가 균등한 시간을 받는다. 주로 코미디 셀라, 종글뢰르와 같은 작은 클럽이나 더 넓은 공간에서 여러 명이 공연할 수 있는 대규모 행사장에서 공연한다. 쇼케이스 형식에서도 사회자가 끼기도 한다. 비교적 소규모 장소에서는 주로 “오픈 마이크” 행사가 열리며 누구나 무대에 올라 공연할 수 있다. 이 행사를 통해 아마추어 코미디언은 경력을 쌓아 코미디계에 입문하며 유명 코미디언도 소재 개발 삼아 참여한다. 역사 영국 스탠드업 코미디는 18~19세기에 영국에서 음악적 오락을 제공하는 극장인 뮤직홀에서 생겨났으며 긴 역사를 자랑한다. 20세기 뮤직홀 순회공연에서 유명해진 공연가로는 대표적인 뮤직홀 코미디언인 모어캠블 앤 와이즈, 아서 애스키, 켄 도드, 막스 밀러가 있다. 체임벌린 사무국은 강력한 검열을 했으며 모든 코미디언의 공연을 검열했다. 부적합한 공연은 파란색 연필로 밑줄을 그어 보냈다 (외설적이거나 상스러운 공연을 한 코미디언을 ‘파랗다’고 부르는 것 또한 여기서 유래된 것으로 보인다). 코미디언은 수정된 공연 내용에 따라 공연을 해야 했다. 제2차 세계대전이 끝난 후 많은 군인이 장병 위문 공연에서 코미디(스탠드업 또는 다른 형식)에 관심을 두고 전문적인 코미디언의 길로 들어섰다. 에릭 사이크스, 피터 셀러스, 군즈, 토미 쿠퍼는 이러한 방식으로 코미디언으로서 첫발을 내디뎠다. 텔레비전 및 라디오의 등장과 함께 전후 코미디언들이 나타났으며 이 때문에 뮤직홀 순회공연은 침체기를 맞았다. 뮤직홀 공연자가 수년간 한 가지 공연만을 진행하는 데 반해 텔레비전은 새로운 소재에 대한 지속적인 수요를 발생시켰다. 이는 1968년 극장 검열의 중단에도 영향을 미쳤다. 1970년 말, 뮤직홀 분야는 사실상 사라졌다. 그 후 워킹 멘스 클럽과 같이 뮤직홀 순회공연을 대체하는 새로운 형태의 순회공연이 생겨났다. 워킹 멘스 클럽 순회공연에서 버나드 매닝, 보비 톰슨, 프랭크 카슨, 스탠 보드맨과 같은 유명 코미디언은 “윌태퍼스 앤 션터스 소셜 클럽”과 같은 쇼를 통해 텔레비전 방송에 진출했다. “대안적” 코미디 또한 생겨났다. 초기 성공작들 중 일부는 포크 클럽에서 나타났다. 이 곳에서 빌리 코널리, 마이크 하딩, 재스퍼 캐롯과 같은 공연자들이 비교적 연속적인 뮤지컬 공연을 시작했다. 이 뮤지컬에서 공연자는 음악이 흐르는 도중에 농담을 주고받는다. 1960년대에는 풍자 형식이 엄청난 인기를 끌었다. 풍자 클럽인 “이스타블리쉬먼트”가 생겨났으며 이곳에서 영국 관객은 레니 브루스의 극적인 미국 스탠드업 코미디를 처음으로 관람했다. 빅토리아 우드는 1980년 초 스탠드업 코미디언으로서 첫발을 내딛었고 코미디 음악과 관찰적인 대화를 결합한 코미디를 선보였다. 우드는 2011년 영국의 가장 성공적인 코미디언으로 선정되었으며 로열 앨버트 홀에서 열린 공연은 15일간 연속으로 매진되었다. 1979년 피터 로젠가드는 런던 최초의 미국 스타일 스탠드업 코미디 클럽인 코미디 스토어를 런던에 개장했다. 이 곳에서 돈 프렌치, 제니퍼 손더스, 알렉세이 세일, 크레이그 퍼거슨, 릭 메이올, 에이드 에드먼드슨과 같은 1980년대의 대안적 코미디 스타들이 코미디언으로서의 경력을 쌓기 시작했다. 스탠드업 코미디 순회공연은 런던을 시작으로 영국 전역으로 빠르게 퍼져 나갔다. 현대 영국 스탠드업 코미디 순회공연은 1980년도 ‘대안적’ 코미디 혁명에서 생겨났으며 정치적이고 관찰적인 유머가 주요 스타일이다. 1983년 젊은 드라마 선생님이었던 마리아 켐핀스카가 창설한 종글뢰르 코미디 클럽은 현재 유럽에서 가장 거대한 스탠드업 코미디 체인이다... 스탠드업 코미디는 전통적으로 한 사람이 단독으로 진행하는 형식의 공연이었다. 오늘날 젊은 코미디언은 기존의 방식에서 벗어나 집단으로 공연하며 특히 유럽에서 이러한 경향이 주로 나타난다. 미국 북미 스탠드업 코미디는 19세기 말 마크 트웨인, 노르만 윌커슨, 서커스 광대들이 보여준 전통적 유희형식인 보드빌, 영국 뮤직홀, 민스트럴 쇼, 유머 작가의 독백에 뿌리를 두고 있다. 이 시기의 코미디언들은 아프리카인, 스코틀랜드인, 독일인, 유대인과 같은 인종의 모습으로 변장하고 선입견을 바탕으로 공연을 진행했다. 이들은 다양한 주제의 농담을 선보이고 소재는 다른 코미디언들과 공유했다. 이 과정에서 소재 표절 문제가 발생하기도 했다. 현대 미국 스탠드업 코미디의 창조자로는 잭 베니, 밥 호프, 조지 번스, 프레드 앨런, 밀턴 벌리, 프랭크 페이가 있으며 모두 보드빌 출신이다. 이들은 커튼 앞에서 관객들과 직접 대화를 나누며 공연을 “동시에” 진행했다. 프랭크 페이는 뉴욕 팰리스 극장의 칭송받는 “진행자(MC)”였으며 20세기 스탠드업 스타일을 창조한 것으로 유명하다. 나이트클럽과 리조트는 스탠드업 코미디가 행해지는 주요 공간이었다. 앨런 킹, 다니 토마스, 돈 리클스, 조운 리버스, 마틴 앤 루이스, 잭 E. 레너드와 같은 공연자들은 새롭게 부상한 이곳에서 명성을 쌓았다. 1950년도에서 1960년도 사이 모 살과 같은 스탠드업 코미디언은 샌프란시스코의 헝그리 아이나 뉴욕의 비터 엔드 같은 포크 클럽에서 공연을 제작했다. 이들은 사회 풍자를 코미디 요소로 이용하여 스탠드업 코미디의 표현방식과 범위를 정치, 인종 관계, 성적 유머로 넓혔다. 레니 브루스는 외설적인 코미디언으로 유명해졌으며 외설적인 코미디 내용 탓에 자주 구속되었다. 레니 브루스 이후 무대 위에서 외설적인 언어를 사용해 구속되는 코미디언은 거의 없었다. 그 후 1972년 7월 21일 조지 칼린이 밀워키 써머페스트에서 “텔레비전에서 절대 말하면 안 되는 일곱가지 단어”를 공연한 후 구속되었다. (칼린에게 적용된 혐의는 결국 기각되었다.) 이 시기 유명했던 다른 코미디언으로는 우디 앨런, 셸리 버먼, 필리스 딜러, 밥 뉴하트가 있다. 또한, 레드 폭스, 조지 커비, 빌 코스비, 딕 그레고리와 같은 흑인 미국인 코미디언들은 이 시기 동안 백인 관객을 대상으로 공연을 선보였다. 1970년도에는 여러 예능인이 스탠드업 코미디 공연을 통해 대스타로 떠올랐다. 리처드 프라이어, 조지 칼린은 레니 브루스의 신랄한 스타일을 이어받아 유명인사로 거듭났다. 스탠드업 코미디는 클럽, 리조트, 커피 하우스뿐만 아니라 스포츠 경기장과 원형극장의 대형 공연장까지 활동 범위를 넓혀갔다. 스티브 마틴과 빌 코스비는 점잖은 코미디 내용으로 유명해졌다. 스탠드업 코미디의 이전 스타일(사회 풍자 부재)은 로드니 데인저필드와 버디 해켓이 계승하여 은퇴할 때까지 해당 스타일을 고수했다. “새터데이 나이트 라이브”와 “투나잇 쇼”와 같은 텔레비전 프로그램들을 통해 빌 마허, 제이 레노를 포함한 여러 스탠드업 코미디언들이 명성을 쌓기 시작했다. 1970년대부터 1990년대 사이에 난센스 스타일의 코미디가 생겨났으며 로빈 윌리엄스의 무모한 스타일, 제리 사인펠트와 엘런 드제너러스의 독특한 관찰, 스티븐 라이트의 반어적 사색과 함께 발전했다. 이들은 에디 머피, 빌 힉스, 데이비드 크로스, 루이스 C.K., 밋치 헤드버그, 데이브 폴리, 토드 글라스, 조 로간, 사라 실버먼을 포함한 후대 코미디언들에게 영향을 미쳤다. 대한민국 대한민국의 스탠드업 코미디언은 대니 조, 손동훈, 박철현, 김동하, 이제규, 등이 있으며, 오픈마이크를 통해 꾸준히 신입 코미디언이 배출되고 있다. 2023년 서울코미디 클럽, 펀치라인스(IG:punch_line_s), 고학력 농담(IG:goodschooljoke) 등의 정기적인 공연이 열리고 있으며, 삼각지(IG:comedy_samgakjidae), 압구정 로데오거리 근처에서 오픈마이크도 매주 열리고 있다. 기타 미디어 초기 보드빌 시기의 스탠드업 코미디언들은 라디오를 통해 명성을 쌓았다. 주로 시사적 독백과 함께 프로그램을 진행하였으며 최신 영화부터 지난 생일까지 다양한 주제의 애드립과 토론을 선보였다. 개별 프로그램은 도입 독백, 뮤지컬 음악, 촌극, 이야기로 나뉜다. 프레드 앨런과 잭 베니 사이의 “불화”는 코미디 소재로 약 십 년간 사용되었다. HBO는 1975년 로버트 클라인을 시작으로 최초로 검열 없이 코미디언들을 방송했으며 이를 통해 더 많은 관객을 확보했다. 조지 칼린은 지속적인 사랑을 받는 코미디언으로서 HBO 코미디 스페셜 방송 14개에 참여하였다. 대다수의 현대 스탠드업 코미디언들은 전통을 이어가면서도 텔레비전이나 영화를 통해 코미디 클럽 순회공연만으로는 얻을 수 없는 성공과 명성을 쌓고 있다. 2000년 중반 이후 유튜브와 같은 온라인 비디오 공유 사이트는 스탠드업 코미디언에게 새로운 활동 영역을 제공하였으며 많은 코미디언의 공연을 온라인으로 시청할 수 있다. 같이 보기 알파고 시나씨 코미디 페스티벌 즉흥극 뮤지컬 코미디언 목록 스탠드업 코미디언 목록 만자이 – 일본 스탠드업 코미디 스타일 오픈 마이크 – 관객이 마이크를 사용해 공연하는 라이브 쇼 라쿠고 – 일본 언어 유희 시트콤 시앙쉥 – 중국 전통 스탠드업 코미디 새터데이 나이트 라이브 SNL 코리아 - 대한민국의 생방송 코미디 쇼 각주 희극 장르 공연 예술 장소에 대한 비유

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stand-up%20comedy

Stand-up comedy

Stand-up comedy is a comedic performance to a live audience in which the performer addresses the audience directly from the stage. The performer is known as a comedian, comic, or stand-up. It is usually a rhetorical performance but many comics employ crowd interaction as part of their set or routine. Stand-up comedy consists of one-liners, stories, observations or a shtick that may incorporate props, music, magic tricks, impressions or ventriloquism. It can be performed almost anywhere including comedy clubs, comedy festivals, bars, nightclubs, colleges or theatres however it is best suited to the controlled environment of a purpose built comedy club. History Stand-up as a Western art form has its roots in the stump speech of American minstrel shows, which featured an actor in blackface delivering nonsensical monologue to the audience. While the intention of stump speeches was to mock African-Americans, they also occasionally contained political and social satire. The minstrel show would later influence theatrical traditions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, such as vaudeville and burlesque. Charles Farrar Browne (April 26, 1834 – March 6, 1867) was an American humor writer, better known under his nom de plume, Artemus Ward. This character is portrayed as an illiterate rube with "Yankee common sense", also played by Brown in public performances. He is considered to be America's first stand-up comedian. The first documented use of "stand-up" as a term was in The Stage in 1911, detailing a woman named Nellie Perrier delivering 'stand-up comic ditties in a chic and charming manner', though this was used to describe a performance of comedy songs rather than stand-up comedy in its true modern form. In The Yorkshire Evening Post on November 10, 1917, the "Stage Gossip" column described the career of a comedian named Finlay Dunn. The article stated that Dunn was "what he calls 'a stand-up comedian'" during the latter part of the 19th century, although the term may have been used retrospectively. Genres Stand-up has multiple genres and styles with their own formats. Common ones include: Alternative: Intended to counter the established figures of mainstream comedy. Anecdotal Comedy: Storytelling using exaggeration and humor Character: A fictional persona created by the performer. Deadpan: AKA dry humor, or dry-wit humor is the deliberate display of emotional neutrality or no emotion, commonly as a form of comedic delivery to contrast with the ridiculousness or absurdity of the subject matter. Insult: Consists mainly of offensive insults, usually directed at the audience or other performers. Musical: Humorous songs or musical parody sometimes without lyrics. Observational: Conversation on the absurdities of everyday life. Satire: Ridicule of celebrity, political figures, the establishment, religion or ideology Topical: Framed around a specific topic related to current events or dealing with issues that are important or popular at the current time Wordplay Comedy: tends to involve the use of tactics like puns, double entendre, and rhymes to entertain audiences. Thus, delivery tends to be filled with many one-liners. Stand up performances Opener, feature and headliner The host, compere or emcee "warms up" the audience and introduces the other performers. This is followed by the opener, the feature, then the headliner. The host may also double as an opener for smaller shows. Proven comics can get regular bookings for club chains and comedy venues. Jobbing stand-ups may perform sets at two or more venues on the same day. Open mic Club and small venues often run open mic events; these slots may be booked in advance or left for walk-ins. Comedians use open mics to work on material or to show off their skills to get an opener slot. "Bringer shows" are shows that require amateur performers to bring a specified number of paying guests with them in order to receive stage time. Festivals As well as being a mainstay of the comedy circuit, festivals often also showcase up and coming acts, with promoters and agents using the festivals to seek out new talent. Specials Experienced comics with a popular following may produce a special. Typically lasting between one and two hours, a special may be recorded on tour or at a show advertised and performed specifically for the purpose. It may be released as a comedy album, video, or on television and streaming services. Comedy set Routine A stand-up defines their craft through the development of the routine or set. These are designed through the construction and revision of jokes and "bits" (linked jokes). The routine emerges from the arrangement of bits to build an interlinked narrative or overarching theme leading to the closer (the final joke that ties the themes of the show together in a satisfying or meaningful conclusion). Most jokes are the juxtaposition of two incongruous things and are made up of the premise, set-up, and punchline, often adding a twist, topper or tagline for an intensified or extra laugh. Delivery relies on the use of intonation, inflection, attitude and timing or other stylistic devices such as the rule of three, idioms, archetypes or wordplay. Another popular joke structure is the paraprosdokian, a surprising punchline that changes the context or meaning of the setup. In order to falsely frame their stories as true or to free themselves of responsibility for breaking social conventions, comedians can use the jester's privilege, the right to discuss and mock anything freely without being punished. Social commentators have referred to the concepts of "punching up" and "punching down" in attempting to describe who should be the "butt of the joke". This carries the assumption that, relative to the comedian's own socio-political identity, comedy should "punch up" at the rich and powerful without "punching down" at those who are marginalized and less fortunate. Many comedians have criticized the cultural rhetoric concerning "punching up" and "punching down", including Colin Quinn, who described the terms as a product of activism and "not created by humorous people." Joke theft Appropriation and plagiarism are considered "social crimes" by most stand-ups. There have been several high-profile accusations of joke theft, some ending in lawsuits for copyright infringement. Those accused will sometimes claim cryptomnesia or parallel thinking, but it is difficult to successfully sue for joke theft regardless due to the idea–expression distinction. Audiences According to Anna Spagnolli, stand-up comedy audiences "are both 'co-constructors of the situation' and 'co-responsible for it'". Audiences enter into an unspoken contract with the comedian in which they temporarily disregard normal social rules and accept the discussion of unexpected, controversial or scandalous subjects. The ability to understand the premise and appreciate the associated punchline determines whether a joke results in laughter or scathing disapproval. Stand-up comedy differs from most other performing arts as the comedian is usually the only thing on stage and addresses the audience directly. The material should be perceived as spontaneous and only fully succeeds when the comic creates a sense of intimacy, while also discouraging heckling. Part of the appeal of stand up is in appreciation of the skill of the performer, most people find the idea of standing on stage extremely daunting; research on the subject has consistently found that the fear of public speaking is more intense than the fear of dying. The audience is integral to live comedy, both as a foil to the comedian and as a contributing factor to the overall experience. The use of canned laughter in television comedy reveals this, with shows often seeming "dry" or dull without it. Shows may be filmed in front of a live audience for the same reason. Terms Beat: A pause specifically to create comic timing. Bit: A section within a comedy show or routine. Bombing: Failing to get laughs. Callback: A reference to a joke earlier in the set. Chewing the scenery: Being overly theatrical or "trying too hard" to get a laugh, especially when failing. Chi-chi room: The ritzy room of a nightclub or a comedy club with niche performances. Clapter: When the audience cheers or applauds an opinion that they agree with, but which is not funny enough for them to laugh at. Coined by Seth Meyers. Corpsing or breaking: When the comedian laughs unintentionally during a portion of the show in which they are supposed to keep a straight face. Crowd work: Talking directly with audience members through prewritten bits, improvisation or both. Hack: A clichéd or unskilled comic. Killing and dying: When a stand-up does well, they are killing. If they are doing poorly, they are dying. Mugging: Pulling silly faces to get a cheap laugh. Punter: A member of the audience. Primarily a British term. The room: The space where the performance takes place. Stand-ups can "read the room" to interpret signs from the audience or "work the room" by interacting with the audience directly. Smelling the road: Claiming that one can "smell the road" on a comedian suggests they have compromised their originality or pandered to get laughs while touring. Tight five: A five-minute routine that is well-rehearsed and consists of a comedian's best material that reliably gets laughs. It is often used for auditions and is a stepping stone to getting a paid spot. Warm up: To warm up a "cold" audience during the opening act before the main show. Often used at the filming of television comedies in front of studio audiences. Work out: The process in which brand new jokes are introduced and polished over time. Records Phyllis Diller holds the Guinness World Record for most laughs per minute, with 12. Taylor Goodwin holds the Guinness World Record for most jokes told in an hour with 550. Lee Evans sold £7 million worth of tickets for his 2011 tour in a day, the biggest first-day sale of a British comedy tour. Peter Kay British comedian Peter Kay currently holds multiple records for his 2010-2011 show The Tour That Doesn't Tour Tour...Now On Tour on a 112 date UK & Ireland arena tour. Longest individual run at the Manchester Arena performing 20 nights. First ever stand-up comedian to play 15 sold out nights at The O2, London. The only British artist to ever play 20 consecutive nights at an arena. Over 1.2 million tickets sold in arenas across the UK and Ireland, making it the biggest stand-up comedy tour of all time. See also Comedy Women in comedy Theories of humor Macchietta, 19th-century Italian comedy Rakugo, Japanese one-man comedy Manzai, Japanese double act comedy Owarai, Japanese stand-up comedy The Clown's Prayer, a poem or prayer that comedians use for inspiration Xiangsheng, Chinese stand-up comedy References Stand-up comedy Comedy genres Comedy theatre Humour Live stand-up comedy shows Show business terms Stage terminology Narrative techniques Narratology Comedy

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8A%A4%EC%BF%A0%ED%84%B0%20%EB%B8%8C%EB%A1%A0

스쿠터 브론

스쿠터 브론(Scooter "Scott Samuel" Braun, 1981년 6월 18일 ~ )은 미국의 연예 기획자이다. 저스틴 비버, 칼리 레이 젭슨 등을 발굴한 것으로 잘 알려져 있다. 엔터테인먼트 및 미디어 회사 SB 프로젝트 창업자, Braun은 특히 Justin Bieber 저스틴 비버, Demi Lovato 데미 로바토, Ariana Grande 아리아나 그란데, Martin Garrix 마틴 게릭스, Psy 싸이, Carly Rae Jepsen 칼리 레이 젭슨, [[Dan + Shay (댄 앤 셰이), Zac Brown Band 잭 브라운 밴드, Kanye West 카니예 웨스트, 및 Tori Kelly 토리 켈리의 전속대표이다. 그는 2016년 (Grammy award)그래미 상 후보자로 선정되었다. Braun은 할리우드 제작자 David Maisel (데이비드 메이젤) 과 더불어 코믹 필름 스튜디오인 Mythos Studios(미소스 스튜디오)의 공동 창업자이기도 하다. Braun은 Time(타임) 매거진 선정 2013년도에 "세계에서 가장 영향력 있는 인물 100인"이라는 타임 (Time 100) 리스트에 선정되었다. 2018년에 Braun은 투데이가 워싱턴 DC 역사상 단 하루의 시위 중 가장 대규모로 집계된 학생 주도의 시위 (March for Our Lives) 우리 생명을 위한 행진을공동 조직하여 보다 강력한 총기규제법을 촉구했다. 어린 시절 Braun은 뉴욕시에서 보수적인 유태인 부모인 Ervin Braun(어빈 브라운)과 Susan(née Schlussel) Braun(수잔 브라운) 사이에 태어났다. Ervin의 부모는 홀로코스트를 "간신히 피한" 다음, 1956년까지 헝가리에 살았다. 소비에트 연방]]이 헝가리 혁명 을 진압하려고 개입하기 직전, 부부는 미국으로 탈출했다. Ervin은 (Queens) 퀸즈에서 자란 후, 치과 의사가 되었고, Susan Schlussel Braun은 치과 교정 의사 가 되었다. 부부는 결혼 후, (Greenwich, Connecticut) 코네티컷주 그리니치에 자리를 잡았다. Braun은 형제 자매가 4남매이다: Liza(리사), Cornelio(코르넬리오), Sam(샘), 및 아담. (Adam Braun) 은 개발도상국의 학교 건립에 중점을 둔 자선단체인 (Pencils of Promise) 약속의 연필 창립자이다. Braun은 (Cos Cob, Connecticut) 코네티컷주 코스 콥에서 성장하고 그리니치 고교에 다니며 반장에 선출되었다. 그는 Connecticut Flame(코네티컷 플레임)의 아마츄어 경기연맹에서 13-18세 팀 농구 선수로 활약했다. Braun이 17세일 때, 부모는 전 Mozambique(모잠비크) 주니어 국가대표 팀의 멤버였던 Sam Mahanga(샘 마항가)와 Cornelio Giubunda(코르넬리오 기우분다)를 입양했다. 당시에는 틀어진 경기-농구 프로그램으로 인해 팀이 없어서 Ervin Braun은 올스타 토너먼트를 위해 그들을 뽑았다. Mahanga와 Giubunda는 팬들의 (Heckler) 야유에도 불구하고 Greenwich 고교 농구 팀의 스타가 되었고, 이는 Brauns가에 엄청난 영향을 끼친 경험이었다. Greenwich High School 재학 중, Braun은 역사 경시대회 내셔널 히스토리 데이 의 비디오 다큐멘터리 대회에 홀로코스트 이전, 도중, 그리고 그 이후의 유태인들에 관한 The Hungarian Conflict(헝가리의 갈등)이라는 타이틀의 10분짜리 작품으로 응모하였다. 본 필름은 지역 및 주 대회를 석권하고 전체 성적 3위를 차지했다. Braun의 가족이 이 필름을 (Steven Spielberg) 스티븐 스필버그 감독의 사무실로 보냈는데, 이번에는 그가 Braun의 비디오를 (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) 미국 홀로코스트 기념 박물관에 제출하였다. Braun은 Spielberg의 확인이 자신의 인생에서 가장 큰 격려의 순간 중 하나였다고 밝혔다. Braun은 소재 (Emory University) 에모리대학교에 진학하여 2학년까지 대학 농구 팀에서 뛰기도 했다. Dupri(듀프리)가 자신의 음반사 So So Def(소 소 데프)의 마케팅 책임자가 되어 줄 것을 요청하자, 전하는 바에 따르면, Braun은 학위를 취득하지 않고 대학을 중도에 그만두었다고 한다. 경력 Braun의 경력은 소재 에모리대학교 재학 중에 행사 준비로부터 시작되었다. 2002년에 Braun은 (Ludacris) 루다크리스와 에미넴이 출연하는 (Anger Management Tour) 앵거 매니지먼트 투어 로 5개 도시 각각에서 애프터 파티를 기획하도록 영입되었다. 힙합의 세계 속으로 진출하자, Braun을 소 소 데프 레코드사 의 책임자인 제작자 (Jermaine Dupri) 저메인 듀프리에게로 이끌어갔다. Dupri가 So So Def에 마케팅 직책으로 합류해 줄 것을 요청할 때는 Braun이 19세였으며, Dupri가 그를 So So Def의 마케팅 전무 자리에 앉혔을 때는 20세였다. 그가 아직 Emory대 2학년이던 시절, Braun은 So So Def에서 근무하며 자신의 행사 홍보사업을 운영하고 있었다. 자신의 대형 이벤트에는 2003 NBA 올스타 게임 행사와 (Britney Spears) 브리트니 스피어스' 오닉스 호텔 투어에 애프터 파티들이 있다. Braun이 So So Def를 떠나 마케팅 비즈니스, 음반사, 및 아티스트 전속대표를 비롯한 개인 벤처사업을 개시하였다. 그는 Ludacris(루다크리스)와 폰티액 간에 $1,200만 캠페인 거래를 중개하여 자신의 마케팅 비즈니스를 시작하였고, Pontiac의 광고에는 노래가 나오는 한편, Ludacris의 1시간에 2마일 뮤직 비디오에는 Pontiac이 나오게 된다. Braun은 (Ne-Yo) 니-요 노래로 무대에 오른 (유튜브 방송에서 12살짜리 Bieber의 비디오를 보며 Justin Bieber와 처음으로 마주쳤다. Braun은 Bieber의 어머니 Pattie Mallette) 패티 말레트 에게 연락을 취했는데,그녀는 조건 없는 시험기간을 가지기 위해 아이를 Atlanta로 데려오는 데 합의했다. 결국 Braun은 그들을 캐나다에서 미국으로 영구 이주하도록 설득하기에 이르렀다. 보다 나아가 온라인에서 성공한 후, Braun은 Bieber를 어셔 및 (Justin Timberlake) 저스틴 팀버레이크라는 2명의 성공한 아티스트들을 목표로 삼았는데, 모두가 관심을 보였다. 결국은 Usher의 멘토인 음악 감독(음반 제작자) L. A. 리드가 RBMG Records 와의 Island Def Jam 파트너십 체결을 위해 Bieber와 계약했다. 영화 및 TV Braun은 팝스타 Justin Bieber에 관한 다큐멘터리인 Never Say Never(네버 세이 네버)를 제작했고, 이는 2011년 MTV에 "국내 박스오피스 역사상 최고 수익을 올린 음악 다큐멘터리"로서 보고되었다. 본 영화의 예산은 $1,300 만이며, 현재 누계로 최고 수익을 올린 다큐멘터리로서 전 세계에서 $100억의 수익을 기록했다. Braun은 Scorpion (TV series 전갈이라는 CBS TV 시리즈의 제작 책임자이기도 하다. TV 쇼에 올린 그의 첫 시도인 Scorpion은 4계절을 촬영했는데, 2014년 개봉과 동시에 2,600만 뷰를 기록해 선두를 달렸다. 2018년에 Variety(버라이어티)에서 TV 스튜디오 FX는 배우 Kevin Hart(케빈 하트)와 래퍼 (Lil Dicky) 릴 디키가 들어가고 Braun이 제작한 타이틀 없는 코미디의 시험방송용 프로그램을 주문한 사실을 보고했다. SB 프로젝트 2007년에 Braun이 SB 프로젝트, 풀서비스 엔터테인먼트 및 마케팅 회사응 확립했는데, 이는 Schoolboy Records(스쿨보이 레코드), SB Management(SB 매니지먼트), 및 Sheba Publishing(시바 퍼블리싱), 송라이팅 회사를 비롯한 다수의 벤처들을 망라한다. 본 그룹은 또한 Braun과 Usher의 합작투자사, RBMG도 포함된다. School Boy Records는 유니버설 뮤직 그룹과 음악 배급에 관한 합의를 이루었다. 2013년 초, 아리아나 그란데는 Scooter Braun의 매니지먼트사와 계약하고, 2016년에는 Grande의 레이블 리퍼블릭 레코드가 확인하기를 Braun이 그녀의 경력 전반을 다루는 주 매니저 역을 담당한다는 것이었다. SB Ventures(SB 벤처스) 또한 Justin Bieber의 2016-2017 퍼포스 월드 투어를 위한 [{캘빈 클라인]] 공개 홍보를 비롯해 TV 캠페인, 브랜딩, 뮤직 라이선스 거래, 및 투어 후원을 취급한다. 당사는 Kanye West(카니예 웨스트)와 스니커 브랜드, 아디다스 간의 파트너십을 중개하기도 했다. Ithaca Ventures(이타카 벤처스)는 SB Projects를 포함하는 Braun의 지주회사로서 Uber(우버), 스포티파이 및 Editorialist(에디터리얼리스트)에의 투자를 비롯한 벤처 자본용으로 2010년에 $120억의 기록을 올렸다. Fortune (포춘)지의 보고는 Ithaca Ventures는 국내 최대 규모의 음악 매니지먼트사들 가운데 7개사에 지분이 있다고 했다. Media outlets(미디어 아울렛)의 보고는 Ithaca가 2018년도 현재 운용하는 $5억 규모로 Braun과 엔터테인먼트사 경영자 (J.D. Roth) 간의 협업체제로서 대본 없는 라이브 이벤트이며 다큐멘터리 영화를 인수하기 위해 GoodStory Entertainment(굿스토리 엔터테인먼트)를 지원할 것이라는 것이었다. Mythos Studios(미소스 스튜디오) 2018년에는 나온 New York Times(뉴욕 타임즈)의 보고는 Braun이 Marvel Studios(마블 스튜디오)의 창립 회장인 데이비드 메이슬과 합류해 Mythos Studios를 세우고 코믹북 영화 프랜차이즈를 실제 연기 및 애니메이션 형식으로 제작한다는 것이었다. 수상 경력 Braun은 "떠오르는 Scooter Braun과 기타 파워 플레이어들"이라는 타이틀이 붙은 2012년 8월 11일자 "Forty Under Forty(포티 언더 포티)" 특별호인 빌보드의 표지를 장식하였다. Braun은 2013년 {Time 100) 리스트에 특별히 올라 이채를 띠었다. 그는 또한 2013년 4월 20일자 (Billboard'') 커버에 가이 오시어리 및 트로이 카터와 함께 두 번째로 올랐다. 2016년에 Scooter는 LA에서 열린 제12회 연례 MUSEXPO에서 Shazam(샤잠)이 수여하는 “International Music Industry Awards(국제음악산업상)” 시상식에서 “Best Talent Manager(최고의 탤런트 매니저)”상을 획득했다. 2017년에는 Braun이 버라이어티 매거진 히트메이커호와 Success magazine(석세스 매거진)의 감사호의 표지에 모두 등장했다. 2018년, Braun은 그의 박애정신에 입각한 2017년의 노력을 치하하는 Music Biz 2018 Harry Chapin Memorial Humanitarian Award(음악 비즈니스 2018 해리 차핀 기념 인도주의상)의 영광을 누렸다. 박애주의 Braun은 Braun Family Foundation(브라운 가족재단)을 비롯하여 다양한 자선사업에 참여하고 있다. Braun이 계약하는 다수의 아티스트들도 다양한 박애주의 구상에 동참하고 있다. Braun은 동생 Adam Braun이 세운 Pencils of Promise(약속의 연필)를 지원하는 것으로 가장 유명하다. 동생은 인도에서 아이에게 바라는 바에 대한 질문의 경험에 영감을 얻었는데, 그 질문에 대한 답은 “연필”이었기에 Adam Braun은 Pencils of Promise를 세워 개발도상국에 학교를 건립하는 활동으로 이어졌다. Braun과 Bieber는 본 기구를 지원하는 일에 함께 하였다. 자선활동을 통해 아시아, 아프리카 및 남미에 200개가 넘는 학교를 세우는 데 힘을 기울여 왔다.. Billboard의 보고는 2017년 현재 Scooter Braun이 고객 및 자신의 회사들과 더불어 본 재단의 역사상 어느 다른 기구보다 메이크어위시 재단의 바라는 바를 더 들어주어 왔다. Scooter Braun은 2016 Billboard Touring Awards(빌보드 투어링 상) 시상식에서 Pencils of Promise, (Make-A-Wish Foundation) 메이크어위시 재단, 및 Fuck Cancer(척 캔서)를 인도주의적으로 지원함 공로를 인정받아 인도주의상을 수상하는 영예를 누렸다. 2017년 Billboard 매거진에서는 Scooter Braun이 차례로 돌아가며 몇 개월 동안 원 러브 맨체스터 자선 콘서트 및 손에 손 잡고 허리케인 구호 자선 장시간 TV 방송을 조직 및 제작하던 때에 그를 일러 음악산업 "first-responder(최초의 대응자)"라 불렀다. 2018년 3월에는 조지 클루니, Braun 그리고 그의 팀은 학생들이 주도하여 워싱턴 DC에서 일으키고 더욱 강력한 총기규제법을 요구하는 시위인 [March for Our Lives]]를 조직하였다. Vox(복스)에서는 그 행진이 Vietnam War(베트남전) 이후로 수도의 역사상에서 가장 큰 규모로 일어난 시위였다고 보고하였다. 개인사 2013년 Braun은 캐나다인 보건활동가, 자선가이며 Fuck Cancer의 창립자인, (Yael Cohen) 야엘 코헨 과의 교제를 시작했다. 이 커플은 2014년 7월 6일 (Whistler, British Columbia) 브리티시 컬롬비아주 휘슬러에서 결혼하였다. 2015년 2월 6일, 첫 아이 Jagger Joseph Braun(재거 조셉 브라운)을 로스앤젤레스에서 맞이했다. 둘째 아이 Levi Magnus Braun(레비 매그너스 브라운)은 2016년 11월 29일에 낳았다. CNBC는 Braun이 Uber(우버), Lyft(리프트), Spotify(스포티파이), DropBox(드롭박스), Grab(그랩), 및 Casper(캐스퍼)를 비롯한 다수의 스타트업 기업에 투자한 사실을 전했다. 참고 자료 외부 링크 Scooter Braun이 CBS의 Gayle King(게일 킹)과 가진 인터뷰 Braun이 Complex(컴플렉스) 매거진과 가진 인터뷰 1981년 출생 살아있는 사람 미국의 음악인 미국의 기업인 뉴욕 출신 유대계 미국인 헝가리계 미국인 에모리 대학교 동문

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scooter%20Braun

Scooter Braun

Scott Samuel "Scooter" Braun ( ; born June 18, 1981) is an American entrepreneur, music executive, and business magnate. Braun is known for building and managing the careers of Justin Bieber, Kanye West, Ariana Grande, Demi Lovato, J Balvin, Ozuna, Dan + Shay, The Kid Laroi, and other artists. He is the founder of SB Projects, Schoolboy Records, and Ithaca Ventures; co-founder of TQ Ventures, Mythos Studios, and RBMG Records; and co-owner of esports team 100 Thieves. Braun is the CEO of media company HYBE-America. Early life Braun was born in New York City to Conservative Jewish parents, Ervin and Susan () Braun. Ervin's parents lived in Hungary until 1956, when they immigrated to the United States. Ervin grew up in Queens, and became a dentist and high-school basketball coach; Susan Schlussel Braun was an orthodontist. After the couple married, they settled in Cos Cob, Connecticut. Braun has four siblings. He attended Greenwich High School, where he was elected class president. Braun attended Emory University in Atlanta, where he played college basketball until his sophomore year. After Jermaine Dupri asked him to become the head of marketing at his So So Def label, Braun accepted the offer and dropped out of college before completing his degree. Career Braun began organizing parties while studying at Emory University. In 2002, Braun was hired to plan after-parties in each of the five cities on the Anger Management Tour, featuring Ludacris and Eminem. This foray into the world of hip-hop led Braun to meet Jermaine Dupri, the director of So So Def Records. Braun was 19 years old when Dupri asked him to join So So Def in a marketing position, and 20 when Dupri named him So So Def's executive director for marketing. Events organized by Braun in this era included parties for the 2003 NBA All-Star Game and after-parties for Britney Spears' 2004 Onyx Hotel Tour. Braun left So So Def in 2005, and a few weeks later brokered a $12 million campaign deal between Ludacris and Pontiac. After the Pontiac deal, Braun was hired as an entertainment consultant for the Atlanta Hawks. In 2008, Braun scouted 13 year-old Canadian singer Justin Bieber, whom he discovered by accidentally clicking on a YouTube video of Bieber singing. Braun pursued Bieber and his mother Pattie Mallette, eventually convincing Mallette to bring her son to Atlanta, to record demos and to meet Usher. Eventually, Braun convinced them to move permanently from Canada to the United States. Both Usher and Justin Timberlake expressed interest, and Bieber signed with Island Def Jam in partnership with Raymond-Braun Media Group (RBMG). Braun signed Ariana Grande to his record label in 2013. Braun has also managed the careers of Psy, Tori Kelly, Carly Rae Jepsen, Martin Garrix, Kanye West, Black Eyed Peas, David Guetta, Lil Dicky, and others. Braun assembled the biggest music-management company by acquiring half of the management companies of Jason Owens’ Sandbox Entertainment, Morris Higham, Brandon Creed, Troy Carter, and a partnership with Future and Drake. Film and television Braun produced Never Say Never, a documentary about Bieber that MTV reported in 2011 as "one of the highest grossing music documentaries in domestic box-office history". The film's budget was $13 million and earned over $100 million worldwide. Braun was the executive producer of Burden, Demi Lovato: Dancing with the Devil, The Giver, The Boy from Medellin, and Project Runway among others. Braun was also an executive producer for the CBS drama Scorpion, which aired from 2014 until 2018. In 2018, Variety reported that FX had ordered a pilot of Dave, a comedy executive-produced by Braun that included actor Kevin Hart and rapper Lil Dicky. In its first season, Dave was the most-watched show in FX history. In July 2019, his company SB Projects agreed to a first-look deal with Amazon Studios that included television and film scripts. Braun’s SB Projects has film and television projects at Amazon, Netflix, Hulu, and Fox. SB Projects In 2007 Braun established SB Projects, an entertainment and marketing company encompassing a range of ventures including Schoolboy Records, SB Management, and Sheba Publishing, a songwriting firm. The group also included RBMG, a joint venture between Braun and Usher. School Boy Records had a music distribution arrangement with Universal Music Group. In early 2013 Ariana Grande was signed to Braun's management and in 2016, Grande's label, Republic Records confirmed that Braun served as her main manager handling all aspects of her career. SB Ventures also handled television campaigns, branding, music-licensing deals, and tour sponsorships—including Bieber's Calvin Klein endorsement for the 2016-2017 Purpose World Tour. The company also brokered a partnership between Kanye West and sneaker brand, Adidas. In August 2023, mainstream media reported that Braun stepped away from managing many of his well-known acts as he assumed the role as CEO of Hybe-America. Ithaca Holdings Ithaca Holdings, Braun's holding company that includes SB Projects, raised $120 million in 2010 for venture capital. Media outlets reported that Ithaca, with $500 million under management as of 2018, would back GoodStory Entertainment, a collaboration between Braun and entertainment executive J. D. Roth, in acquisitions for unscripted, live event, and documentary films. In June 2019, Ithaca acquired Big Machine Label Group in a purchase that included the masters to the first six albums of singer-songwriter Taylor Swift. Its founder Scott Borchetta remained with the company as CEO as a minority shareholder in Ithaca. In 2020, Ithaca Holdings sold the six-album masters to Shamrock Holdings for a reported $405 million, making Ithaca a $265-million profit after buying at a $140 million valuation as part of the $330-million Big Machine Label Group. The deal netted Braun close to $400 million in profit on the rest of Big Machine. In April 2021, South Korean company Hybe announced that it would acquire Ithaca Holdings from Braun and Carlyle via the subsidiary Hybe America in a deal estimated to be around $1.05 billion. As part of the sale, Braun would become Hybe America's CEO and join Hybe's board of directors. On May 31, 2022, Braun met with BTS and US President Joe Biden at the White House to discuss the recent rise in anti-Asian hate crimes. In 2023, Hybe acquired Quality Control Music for $300 million, with Kevin “Coach K” Lee and Pierre “P” Thomas maintaining control of the label under Braun. Dispute with Taylor Swift In June 2019, as part of its purchase of Big Machine Records, Ithaca acquired the masters for the first six albums by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift. Swift condemned Ithaca's purchase, and denied the claims by Big Machine's former president, Scott Borchetta, who said that Swift declined an opportunity to buy the masters. Mythos Studios In 2018, The New York Times reported that Braun had joined David Maisel, founding chairman of Marvel Studios to form Mythos Studios to produce comic book movie franchises in live-action and animated formats. Investments A prolific investor, Braun is a partner in TQ Ventures. Braun was an early investor in Uber, Spotify, Waze, DropBox, Pinterest, Lyft, Ro, Noom, Liquid I.V., among others. The acquisition of holdings company, Ithaca, pushed Braun's net worth above $1 billion in 2021. Awards In 2012, Braun was awarded an ACLU Bill of Rights award. In 2013, Braun was included in the annual Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world. He also appeared a second time on the cover of Billboard in its April 20, 2013, issue, alongside Guy Oseary and Troy Carter. In 2016 Scooter won the award for "Best Talent Manager" at the 3rd annual "International Music Industry Awards" presented by Shazam at the 12th annual MUSEXPO in Los Angeles. Braun was nominated as a producer and writer for two Grammy Awards, in 2017 and 2022. In 2017, Braun appeared on the covers of both Variety magazine's Hitmakers issue and Success magazine's Gratitude issue. One Love Manchester was a benefit concert and British television special on 4 June 2017, organized by American singer Ariana Grande, Simon Moran, Melvin Benn and Braun in response to the Manchester Arena bombing after Grande's concert two weeks earlier. In 2018, Braun was honored with the Music Biz 2018 Harry Chapin Memorial Humanitarian Award for his philanthropic efforts in 2017. He also received the Save the Children's Humanitarian Award that year. ln 2019 he was inducted to the Midem Hall of Fame. In 2020, Fortune named him in its "40 Under 40" list in media and entertainment. In 2021, Braun was named Variety magazine's "Music Mogul of the Year." Politics Braun hosted a fundraiser for Hillary Clinton at his home in 2015. In 2019, he hosted a fundraiser for the Kamala Harris 2020 presidential campaign. He supported developer Rick Caruso in the 2022 Los Angeles mayoral election. Philanthropy Braun is involved in various charities including the Braun Family Foundation. He also assists with his brother Adam's charity, Pencils of Promise. Billboard reported that as of 2017, Scooter Braun—along with clients and his companies—have granted more wishes for the Make-A-Wish Foundation than any other organization in the history of the foundation. Braun was honored with the Humanitarian Award at the 2016 Billboard Touring Awards for his philanthropic support of Pencils of Promise, the Make-A-Wish Foundation, and Fuck Cancer. Braun and actor George Clooney were major forces behind March for Our Lives and aided in fundraising efforts behind the scenes. In 2017, Braun was an organizer behind “Hand in Hand” a telethon that raised $55 million for relief from Hurricane Harvey and Irma. Braun coordinated a charity single, "Stuck with U", by Justin Bieber and Ariana Grande to raise money to mitigate the COVID-19 pandemic. All net proceeds from the song went to the First Responders Children's Foundation to fund grants and scholarships for children of first responders and health care workers who worked on the front lines during the pandemic. In 2023, Braun joined the board of the Make-A-Wish Foundation. Personal life In 2013, Braun began dating Yael Cohen. The couple wed on July 6, 2014, in Whistler, British Columbia, Canada, at Cohen's parents' house. They had a son in 2015, another son in 2016, and a daughter in 2018. Braun filed for divorce in July 2021, which was finalized in September 2022. Filmography References External links Braun interview with Complex magazine 1981 births Living people 21st-century American businesspeople American chairpersons of corporations American chief executives American consulting businesspeople American marketing businesspeople American mass media company founders American media executives American music industry executives American music managers American music publishers (people) American nonprofit businesspeople American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent American talent agents Businesspeople from Greenwich, Connecticut Businesspeople from New York City Emory Eagles men's basketball players American philanthropists People from Cos Cob, Connecticut Schoolboy Records Philanthropists from New York (state) Greenwich High School alumni 21st-century American Jews

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EC%A0%95%ED%9A%A8

이정효

이정효(李正孝, 1975년 7월 23일 ~ )는 대한민국의 축구 선수 출신 축구 감독으로 현재 광주 FC의 감독을 맡고 있다. 현역 시절 풀백으로 활동했으며 프로 선수 경력을 시작한 1999년부터 2008년 은퇴할 때까지 10시즌 동안 부산 아이파크의 원클럽맨으로 활동했다. 구단 경력 부산 아이파크 아주대학교의 전국추계대학축구연맹전 우승과 함께 대회 MVP까지 선정되는 등 큰 기대를 안고 1998년 부산 아이파크에 입단하였지만 첫 시즌에는 부상으로 인해 단 1경기의 공식전에도 출전하지 못하며 힘든 시기를 보내야만 했다. 그리고 1999 시즌부터 부상에서 복귀하여 공식전 20경기를 소화하며 팀의 리그 준우승, 1999 대한화재컵 준우승에 기여하는 등 부산의 주전 풀백으로 활약했으나 그 이듬해인 2000 시즌에 또 다시 부상에 발목이 잡히면서 리그 4경기 출전에 그치고 말았다. 그러다가 2001 시즌에서 리그 22경기에 출전하며 날개를 본격적으로 펼치기 시작했고 이듬해 7월 10일에 열린 성남 FC와의 2002년 K리그 2라운드 홈 경기에서는 프로 데뷔골을 터뜨리며 팀의 2-0 완승에 일조했다. 이후 2008 시즌을 끝으로 은퇴할 때까지 스리백과 포백에서의 풀백 및 윙백을 오가며 활약을 펼쳤고 특히 2005년 AFC 챔피언스리그에서는 5골을 터뜨려 대회 중반 득점 랭킹 1위에 오르기도 하는 등 맹활약을 펼치며 부산 구단 역사상 첫 아시아 챔피언스리그 4강 진출에 기여했으며 전남 드래곤즈와의 2009년 K리그 홈 개막전에서 은퇴식이 거행되었다. 지도자 경력 아주대학교 2008 시즌을 끝으로 10년간의 프로 선수 커리어를 마감한 후 2011년 모교인 아주대학교의 코치로 부임하며 본격적인 지도자의 길을 걷기 시작한 뒤 수석 코치로 하석주 감독을 보좌하다가 이듬해인 2012년 8월 하석주 감독이 친정팀인 전남 드래곤즈의 사령탑으로 부임하면서 다이렉트로 아주대학교의 사령탑으로 승격되었다. 그리고 아주대학교 감독으로 승격한 이후 2년동안 팀을 역임하는 동안 수많은 우승 트로피를 거머쥐면서 U리그 내 유능한 지도자로 인정받기 시작했다. 전남 드래곤즈 2015 시즌을 앞두고 전남 드래곤즈의 코치로 부임한 이후 1시즌동안 팀의 코치로 활동하면서 전남의 5년만의 FA컵 통산 8번째 4강 진출을 이끌었지만 리그에서는 9위의 성적에 머물렀다. 광주 FC 1기 2016 시즌을 앞두고 당시 남기일 감독이 이끌던 광주 FC의 코치로 합류하며 광주의 2시즌간 K리그1 잔류와 구단 역사상 첫 FA컵 8강 진출 등에 큰 공을 세웠고 더불어 당시 광주 선수단이 남기일 감독보다 더 많이 따랐을 정도로 인성은 물론 팀 장악력, 전술 실력까지 고루고루 갖춘 지도자라는 평가를 받았다. 성남 FC 2017 시즌 종료 후 남기일 감독의 현역 시절 3번째 친정팀인 성남 FC의 코치로 이적한 후 2018년 K리그2 준우승 및 차기 시즌 K리그1 승격, K리그1 잔류를 이끄는 성과를 거두었다. 제주 유나이티드 2019 시즌을 마친 후 남기일 감독의 프로 첫 친정팀인 제주 유나이티드의 코치로 이적한 뒤 2020년 K리그2 우승, 2021년 K리그1 4위의 성적을 이끌어내며 수석 코치로서의 지도력을 점점 더 쌓아나가기 시작했으며 앞서 2020 시즌 종료 후 P급 지도자 강습회에 참가하고 있던 와중에 광주 FC 신임 감독 후보에 이름을 올리기도 했으나 김호영 현 한국프로축구연맹 기술위원을 광주 신임 사령탑으로 선임하면서 2021 시즌까지 제주에 잔류했다. 광주 FC 2기 2021 시즌 종료 후 K리그2 강등을 막지 못하며 경질된 김호영 감독을 대신해 2022 시즌을 앞둔 2021년 12월 28일 광주 FC의 신임 사령탑으로 선임되면서 약 5년만에 광주로 복귀했다. 광주로 복귀한 이후 2022년 K리그2 우승과 함께 1시즌만의 K리그1 승격을 이끌어낸 것은 물론 이 해에 열린 K리그2 시상식에서 감독상을 수상하며 광주 사령탑으로서 첫 시즌을 순조롭게 마무리지었다. 수상 내역 선수 부산 아이파크 K리그1 준우승: 1999 리그컵: 준우승: 1999 대한화재컵, 2001 FA컵: 2004 슈퍼컵 준우승: 2005 지도자 성남 FC K리그2 준우승: 2018 제주 유나이티드 K리그2: 2020 광주 FC K리그2: 2022 개인 K리그2 시상식 감독상: 2022 외부 링크 1975년 출생 군산시 출신 살아있는 사람 대한민국의 남자 축구 선수 K리그1의 축구 선수 부산 아이파크의 축구 선수 대한민국의 축구 감독 아주대학교 축구부의 축구 코치 아주대학교 축구부의 축구 감독 전남 드래곤즈의 축구 코치 광주 FC의 축구 코치 성남 FC의 수석 코치 제주 유나이티드 FC의 수석 코치 광주 FC의 축구 감독 군산구암초등학교 동문 군산제일중학교 동문 군산제일고등학교 동문 아주대학교 동문 20세기 대한민국 사람 21세기 대한민국 사람

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee%20Jung-hyo

Lee Jung-hyo

Lee Jung-Hyo (born July 23, 1975) is a South Korean former football player and current manager. He played for one club, Busan I'Park. In March 2009, he announced his retirement. Club career statistics External links 1975 births Living people Men's association football defenders South Korean men's footballers Busan IPark players K League 1 players

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%98%EC%B9%B4%EB%AC%B4%EB%9D%BC%20%EB%8B%A4%EC%BC%80%EC%95%BC

나카무라 다케야

나카무라 다케야(, 1983년 8월 15일 ~ )는 일본의 프로 야구 선수이며, 현재 퍼시픽 리그인 사이타마 세이부 라이온스의 소속 선수(내야수)이다. 별명은 ‘오카와리 군’(). 인물 프로 입단 전 오사카도인 고등학교 시절에는 4번 타자로서 활약했는데 진학한 이유는 자택에서 고등학교까지 도보 5분이라고 하는 입지 조건이었다고 말한다. 고교 시절에 기록한 통산 홈런 83개는 오시마 히로유키에 뒤를 이어 스즈키 겐과 대등한 당시 역사상 2위 타이 기록이다(현재는 4위 타이). 3학년 때 하계 시즌에서는 역대 2위가 되는 오사카부 지역 예선 6개의 홈런을 때려냈다. ‘나니와의 카브레라’라고 불릴 정도로 주목을 받아 2001년 프로 야구 드래프트 회의에서 세이부 라이온스로부터 지명을 받고 입단했다. 이와타 미노루와는 오사카도인 고등학교 시절의 동기였으며 니시오카 쓰요시는 1년 후배에 해당한다. 프로 입단 후 2003년 ~ 2006년 1군 데뷔전인 2003년 9월 28일의 닛폰햄 파이터스전에서는 4번 타자로서 출전하여 첫 타석에서 첫 안타가 되는 2루타를 때려냄과 동시에 타점도 기록했다. 2005년부터 호세 페르난데스를 대신해서 주전 3루수가 되었고 같은 해 센트럴·퍼시픽 교류전에서는 12개 구단 최다인 12개의 홈런을 때려내는 등 우수 선수상(닛폰 생명상)을 수상했다. 80경기에 출전해 개인 최다인 22개의 홈런을 기록했고 장타율은 6할 대를 넘었다. 2006년에 호세 페르난데스가 도호쿠 라쿠텐 골든이글스로 이적하면서 주전 3루수의 자리를 놓고 이시이 요시히토, 히라오 히로시 등과 함께 경쟁했고 특히 좌완 투수가 선발 등판할 때 3루수의 선발은 히라오가 출전하는 경우도 있었다. 개인 최다인 100경기에 출전했지만 홈런은 작년보다 절반 이하로 떨어진 9개에 그쳤고 찬스가 있는 상황에서 때려낼 수는 없었다(득점권 타율은 2할 5리). 2007년 8번·3루수로서 2년 연속이 되는 개막전에 선발로 출전했고 극심한 타격 부진으로 5월에는 2군으로 떨어졌지만 6월에 다시 복귀했다. 3루수의 주전으로 계속 기용되었지만 타격은 좀처럼 향상되지 않았고 주전으로 정착한 이후 가장 낮은 성적을 남겼다. 알렉스 카브레라가 수비난에 시달리고 있는 와중에 1루수로서 10경기에 선발로 기용되었다. 2008년 수비에서는 주로 공을 잡을 때 불안정한 플레이가 계속되면서 리그 최다인 22차례의 실책을 기록했다. 타격에서는 타율이 작년부터 조금 올라가면서 리그에서 가장 저조한 3위를 기록했고 득점권 타율도 2할 3푼 1리를 남기는 등 승부에서의 약점을 드러냈다. 삼진은 162개는 리그 최다 기록이며 시즌 기록으로서는 역대 7위이자 일본인 우타자로서는 최다 기록이다. 그러나 2008년부터 타격 코치로 부임한 오쿠보 히로모토 코치로부터 조언을 받아 홈런을 양산하는 등 ‘세이부’일본인 선수의 홈런 기록(43개, 아키야마 고지, 다부치 고이치)과 25세 나이의 홈런 기록(44개, 오스기 가쓰오, 이와무라 아키노리)을 경신하는 46개의 홈런을 남겼다. 그리고 자신으로서는 처음으로 규정 타석을 채운 것을 비롯해 홈런왕, 100타점(101타점, 리그 3위), 끝내기 홈런 등을 기록했고 올스타전 출장(3루수 부문에서 팬 투표 1위)까지 경험했다. 세이부의 일본인 선수로서 연간 40개 이상의 홈런을 때린 것은 1987년의 아키야마 고지 이래 21년 만의 일이고 세이부 구단에서 달성한 경험자로서는 다부치, 아키야마에 이은 3번째이다. 또, 일본 프로 야구에서는 최초로 규정 타석을 채우면서 연간 40개 이상의 홈런을 기록한 것은 1985년의 아키야마 고지, 2004년의 다무라 히토시에 이어 역대 3번째가 되었다. 7월 8일에는 배우이자 탤런트인 무라카미 마리에와 결혼했다. 요미우리 자이언츠와 상대한 일본 시리즈에서는 3안타 3홈런 7타점을 기록했고 같은 해 아시아 시리즈에서는 예선전인 톈진 라이온스와의 맞대결에서 도쿄 돔의 3층 관중석까지 날리는 대형 홈런을 때려냈다. 5월에 있은 오릭스 버펄로스전에서 상대 투수 가네코 지히로로부터 얼굴 부분에 사구를 받아 광대뼈가 골절되는 부상을 입었는데도 경기 출전을 강행했고 다음날 후쿠오카 소프트뱅크 호크스전에서 홈런을 기록하는 등 부상에 강한 선수였다. 2009년 5월 13일의 오릭스전에서 개인 통산 100호 홈런을 달성했고 9월 20일의 소프트뱅크전에서는 40호 홈런을 때려내는 등 세이부의 일본인 선수로서는 아키야마 고지가 기록한 이후 2년 연속 40홈런을 달성했다. 시즌 장타 86개(홈런 48개, 3루타 1개, 2루타 37개)는 마쓰이 가즈오가 88개를 기록한 이후 역대 2위였고 그 해에는 부상 때문에 전력 이탈도 있었지만 48홈런, 122타점을 기록해 2년 연속 홈런왕을 타이틀을 차지했고 타율도 2할 8푼 5리를 남기면서 작년에 비해 크게 올랐다. 타점왕은 처음으로 차지했고 2년 연속 홈런왕은 라이온스의 일본인 타자로서 1953년 ~ 1956년의 나카니시 후토시 이래 53년 만의 일이며 타점은 구단 최다 기록을 경신했다. 한편으론 154개의 삼진과 15차례의 실책으로 2년 연속 최다 삼진, 최다 실책을 남겼다. 또, OPS는 양대 리그에서 유일한 10할 대(1.010)를 넘었다. 26세에 시즌 48개의 홈런은 오 사다하루와 대등한 최다 기록이다. 2010년 시즌 개막을 앞둔 시범 경기에서 자신이 친 타구가 얼굴에 맞아 광대뼈부분이 골절되는 부상을 당했고 그 영향때문에 개막 이후부터 10경기 연속으로 홈런이 나오지는 않았고 타율도 저조하게 나오는 등 극심한 부진에 시달렸다. 간신히 때려낸 시즌 1호 홈런은 4월 7일의 오릭스전에서 기록했다. 6월 10일에는 5월 중순부터 계속된 오른쪽 팔꿈치 통증이 악화되면서 등록이 말소되었고 6월에는 오른쪽 팔꿈치의 유리 연골 제거 수술을 받아 그 때문에 팬 투표·선수간 투표 1위로 선정된 올스타전에도 출전을 포기했다. 8월 27일에는 1군에 복귀했다. 9월에는 타격감을 끌어 올리면서 85경기에 출전해 25개의 홈런을 때려냈지만 타율은 2할 3푼 4리를 기록하여 저조했다. 규정 타석을 채우지는 못했는데도 불구하고 111개의 삼진을 기록했고, 득점권 타율도 가장 낮은 성적(.170)을 남기는 등 부상에 의한 시즌을 암울하게 보냈다. 2011년 그 해에 새로 도입된 공인구(일명 통일구)로 인해 홈런 개수가 감소된 선수가 많은 가운데에서도 홈런을 많이 때려냈다. 7월 23일에 QVC 마린필드에서 열린 올스타전 제2차전에서는 2개의 홈런을 때려내며 MVP로 선정되었다. 2009년과 대등한 개인 최다 기록인 48개의 홈런을 때려내며 타격 부문 2관왕에 해당되는 홈런왕과 타점왕을 연달아 달성했다. 홈런 개수는 지바 롯데 마린스의 팀 홈런 개수(46개)를 2개 웃돌고 있어 개인 홈런수가 팀의 홈런 개수를 넘은 것은 1954년에 니시테쓰(세이부의 전신)의 나카니시 후토시(31개)와 마이니치(지바 롯데의 전신)의 야마우치 가즈히로(28개)가 긴테쓰의 27개를 웃돈 이래 57년만의 일이자 역대 3번째의 기록이 되었다. 또, 25개의 홈런을 기록하면서 홈런 부문 2위로 랭크된 소프트뱅크의 마쓰다 노부히로와는 23개 차이를 내고 있어 이것은 1966년에 오 사다하루가 기록한 22개 차이를 넘은 신기록이 되었다. 게다가 마쓰다의 홈런 개수와 홈런 부문 3위인 오릭스의 아롬 발디리스(18개)와 합친 개수(43개)보다 많다. 퍼시픽 리그 전체 홈런 개수는 454개이며 나카무라 혼자서 10.57%의 홈런을 친 것에 해당된다. 이것은 1953년 나카니시 후토시가 기록한 9.33%를 웃돌고 있어 10% 이상이 된 것은 양대 리그 출범 이후 최초의 기록이다. 10월 21일에 방송된 TV 애니메이션 《짱구는 못말려》에 직접 출연했다. 2012년 개막 초부터 극심한 타격 부진에 시달려 팀의 주전으로 차지한 이후 최장 기록이 되는 129타석 연속 무홈런이라는 불명예스런 기록도 남겼지만 교류전 이후는 컨디션을 되찾아 교류전에서의 통산 12개의 홈런 신기록도 수립했다. 그러나 6월 14일의 한신 타이거스전에서 수비 도중 부상을 당해 1군 등록이 말소되었다. 1군에 복귀한 이후에는 오른쪽 무릎에도 부상을 당하는 등 선발 엔트리에서 제외되는 경우도 많았지만 최종적으로는 27개의 홈런을 기록, 2년 연속 통산 4번째의 홈런왕 타이틀을 획득했다. 5년 동안 4차례 이상의 홈런왕을 차지한 것은 나카니시 후토시, 노무라 가쓰야, 오 사다하루 다음으로 역대 네 번째이다. 플레이 스타일 상세 정보 출신 학교 오사카도인 고등학교 선수 경력 세이부 라이온스·사이타마 세이부 라이온스(2002년 ~ ) 수상·타이틀 경력 타이틀 홈런왕: 6회(2008년, 2009년, 2011년, 2012년, 2014년,2015년) 타점왕: 3회(2009년, 2011년,2015년) 수상 베스트 나인: 4회(2008년, 2009년, 2011년, 2012년, 2014년) JA 전농 Go·Go상: 1회(매직 글러브상: 2005년 7월) 올스타전 MVP: 1회(2011년 2차전) 센트럴·퍼시픽 교류전 우수 선수상(닛폰 생명상): 1회(2005년) 개인 기록 첫 기록 첫 출장·첫 선발 출장: 2003년 9월 28일, 대 닛폰햄 파이터스 28차전(도쿄 돔), 4번·1루수로서 출장 첫 타석·첫 안타·첫 타점: 상동, 1회초에 카를로스 미라발로부터 중월 선제 적시 2루타 첫 도루: 2003년 10월 1일, 대 오릭스 블루웨이브 28차전(Yahoo! BB 스타디움), 8회초에 2루 안착(투수: 구보타 아쓰시, 포수: 히다카 다케시) 첫 홈런: 2004년 7월 24일, 대 오사카 긴테쓰 버펄로스 18차전(세이부 돔), 7회말에 야마무라 히로키로부터 좌월 2점 홈런 기록 달성 경력 통산 100홈런: 2009년 5월 13일, 대 오릭스 버펄로스 8차전(스카이마크 스타디움), 3회초에 야마모토 쇼고로부터 우월 2점 홈런 ※역대 254번째. 통산 150홈런: 2010년 9월 4일, 대 도호쿠 라쿠텐 골든이글스 20차전(클리넥스 스타디움 미야기), 4회초에 가와이 다카시로부터 중월 솔로 홈런 ※역대 154번째. 통산 200홈런: 2011년 9월 19일, 대 홋카이도 닛폰햄 파이터스 18차전(세이부 돔), 5회말에 브라이언 울프로부터 좌월 솔로 홈런 ※역대 96번째. 센트럴·퍼시픽 교류전 50호 홈런: 2012년 6월 10일, 대 도쿄 야쿠르트 스왈로스 3차전(메이지 진구 야구장), 10회초에 토니 바넷으로부터 좌월 2점 홈런 ※사상 최초 기타 올스타전 출장: 5회(2008년 ~ 2012년) 3개 홈런 연속으로 만루 홈런 2010년 5월 25일(13호) 2010년 6월 4일(14호) 2010년 9월 3일(15호) 홈런왕으로서 2위와의 개수 차이: 23개(2011년, 일본 기록) 등번호 60(2002년 ~ ) 연도별 타격 성적 2015년 기준, 굵은 글씨는 시즌 최고 성적. 2002년은 1군 출장 없음. 연도별 수비 성적 2011년 기준, 굵은 글씨는 시즌 최고 성적. 각주 1983년 출생 살아있는 사람 일본의 야구 선수 세이부 라이온스 선수 사이타마 세이부 라이온스 선수 일본 프로 야구 3루수 일본 프로 야구 1루수 오사카부 출신 2015년 WBSC 프리미어 12 참가 선수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeya%20Nakamura

Takeya Nakamura

(born August 15, 1983, in Daitō, Osaka) is Japanese baseball infielder for the Saitama Seibu Lions of Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB). Nicknamed "" (roughly translating to second helpings) for his large overweight frame, Nakamura is one of Japan's premier power hitters. Career Nakamura joined the Seibu Lions of Nippon Professional Baseball in 2002, and spent the year with the team's farm team (minor leagues), and also began the 2003 season at the farm. On September 28, 2003, Nakamura made his NPB debut. In 2004, Nakamura played in 28 games with the team and hit .273. Nakamura collected the most playing time he had had in a season in 2005 and slashed .262/.320/.603 with 22 home runs and 57 RBI in 80 games. In 2006, Nakamura played in 100 games with Seibu and slashed .276/.359/.428. In 2007, Nakamura played in 98 games with the team and registered a 230/.316/.394 slash line. Playing his first full season in 2008, Nakamura belted a league-high 46 home runs and drove in 101 runs despite a .244 batting average. He raised his average to .285 in the 2009 season and set a career high with 48 home runs to lead the league for the second straight year. He also increased his RBI output to 122 in just 128 games. After playing only 85 games in 2010 (still managing 25 home runs), Nakamura played all 144 games in 2011 and tied his own career high with 48 home runs. After a slight decline in production (due in part to missed time) from 2012 to 2014 (.231 with 27 home runs in 2012, .208 with 4 home run in 2013, and .257 with 34 home runs in 2014), Nakamura had another extremely productive season in 2015 with 37 home runs and a career-high 124 RBI, both of which led the Pacific League. He set a career high in hits (145) and his .278 average and 35 doubles were his best since 2009. By the end of 2015 at age 31, Nakamura has recorded more than 300 career home runs and 500 extra-base hits, and is climbing up the ranks of NPB's all-time home runs list. He had also be named an All-Star in 2011, In 2016, Nakamura played in 108 games with Seibu and slashed .238/.313/.447 with 21 home runs and 61 RBI. The following year, he posted a .217/.319/.446 slash with 27 home runs and 79 RBI. In 2018 with the team, Nakamura played in 97 games and recorded a .265/.329/.526 batting line with 28 home runs and 74 RBI. For the 2019 season, Nakamura logged a .286/.359/.528 batting line with 30 home runs and 123 RBI, one RBI short of his career-high. In the COVID-19 pandemic delayed 2020 season, Nakamura hit .213/.310/.372 with 9 home runs and 31 RBI in 79 games. After hitting .277/.335/.424 with 9 home runs and 38 RBI in the first half of the 2021 season, Nakamura was named an All-Star for the eighth time in his career. On July 6, 2022, Nakamura set the all-time record for strikeouts by a batter with 1,956, passing Kazuhiro Kiyohara. References External links 1983 births Japanese baseball players Living people Nippon Professional Baseball designated hitters Nippon Professional Baseball first basemen Nippon Professional Baseball third basemen People from Daitō, Osaka Saitama Seibu Lions players Seibu Lions players 2015 WBSC Premier12 players

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%BC%EC%84%B1%20%EA%B0%A4%EB%9F%AD%EC%8B%9C%20%EB%85%B8%ED%8A%B8%20II

삼성 갤럭시 노트 II

{{휴대 전화 정보 | 제목 = 삼성 갤럭시 노트IIGT-N7100 (표준 3G 모델)GT-N7105 (표준 4G 모델) | 로고 = Galaxy Note II logo.svg | 로고크기 = 270px | 그림 = Samsung Galaxy Note II.png | 그림크기 = 270px | 설명 = 갤럭시 노트II 마블 화이트 | 제조사 = 삼성전자 | 슬로건 = 창의적으로! 다르게!Be Creative! Be Different! | 형태 = 바(bar) | 시리즈 = 삼성 갤럭시 노트 시리즈 | 발매일 = 2012년 9월 26일N7100/7105 2012년 9월 27일 | 운영체제 = 안드로이드 4.1.1 젤리빈4.1.24.3 4.4.2 킷캣| UI = 터치위즈 네이처 UX (4.1.1 ~ 4.1.2)네이처 UX 2.0 부분 적용 (4.3 ~ 4.4.2) | 전원 = 착탈식 리튬 이온 배터리3,100 mAh3.8 V11.78 Wh | 통신방식 = N7100 및 공통사항와이파이 IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n (주파수 대역 : 2.4/5 GHz채널 대역폭 : 20 MHz전송 속도 : 72.2 Mbps 다운로드)A-GPSNFCDLNA블루투스 4.03G4중 대역 GSM (8대역 850/10대역 900 MHz/13대역 1.8/14대역 1.9 GHz)3G 진화형GPRS 114 Kbps 다운로드EDGE 384 Kbps 다운로드4G4중 대역 UMTS (WCDMA) 1.9 Mbps 다운로드/384 Kbps 업로드 (5대역 850/8대역 900 MHz/2대역 1.9/1대역 2.1 GHz)3G 진화형HSDPA 14.4 Mbps 다운로드/384 Kbps 업로드HSUPA 14.4 Mbps 다운로드/5.76 Mbps 업로드HSPA+ 21.1 Mbps 다운로드/5.76 Mbps 업로드N71053G 진화형DC-HSDPA 42.2 Mbps 다운로드/21.1 Mbps 업로드4중 대역 LTE-FDD 100 Mbps 다운로드/50 Mbpps 업로드 (20대역 800/8대역 900 MHz/3대역 1.8/7대역 2.6 GHz) | 연결방식 = USB 2.0USB 온더고MHLHDMI(마이크로 USB B타입/HDMI D타입 통합 단자)3.5 mm 미국식 TRRS (4극) 폰 커넥터 | AP = 삼성전자 엑시노스 4 쿼드 (4412)(기본 모델)퀄컴 스냅드래곤600 APQ8064T(차이나모바일 LTE 버전) | CPU = ARM 홀딩스 코텍스-A9 아키텍처 1.6 GHz 쿼드 코어(기본 모델)퀄컴 크레이트 300 아키텍처(차이나모바일 LTE 버전) | GPU = ARM 홀딩스 말리-400 MP4 533 MHz(기본 모델)퀄컴 아드레노 320 400 MHz(차이나모바일 LTE 버전) | 사운드 = 사운드 칩셋 울프슨 WM1811음원 재생 능력 16 비트44.1 kHz음장 사운드 얼라이브 | 센서 = 지자기 센서가속도 센서자이로스코프 센서근접 센서조도 센서 기압 센서 | 화면 = 약 5.55" (14.1 cm) HD 슈퍼 AMOLED (AM OLED)S 스트라이프 RGB 매트릭스 픽셀 구조해상도 720 x 1,280 (720p HD/WXGA, 화소 밀도 약 264.6 ppi)최대 휘도 243 nit (cd/m²)16777216 (224(24 비트)) 색상와콤 입력 모듈고릴라 글래스 2 | 입력 방식 = 정전식 감응 터치 스크린S 펜 | RAM = 2 GBDDR2 SDRAM6.4 GB/s (32 비트 듀얼 채널 400 MHz) | 내장메모리 = 종류 eMMC 4.5용량 16 GB32 GB64 GB | 외장메모리 = 마이크로SD/SDHC/SDXC (최대 64 GB 지원) | SIM = 마이크로SIM 카드 | 전면카메라 = 센서 정보센서 종류삼성전자 S5K6A3 BSI CMOS 이미지 센서화소1.75 µm190만개판형1/6"촬영성능최대 720p HD급 동영상 촬영최대 1,392 x 1,392급 사진 촬영고정 초점 | 후면카메라 = 센서 정보센서 종류삼성전자 S5K3H5 BSI CMOS 이미지 센서화소1.4 µm800만개판형1/3.2"촬영성능조리개 f/2.6최대 1080p HD급 동영상 촬영최대 30 fps급 동영상 촬영최대 3,264 x 2,448급 사진 촬영자동 초점/수동 초점플래시LED | 크기 = 가로 80.5 mm세로 151.1 mm두께 9.4 mm | 무게 = 180 g | 이전 기종 = 갤럭시 노트 | 후속 기종 = 갤럭시 노트3 }}삼성 갤럭시 노트II(Samsung Galaxy Note II)는 삼성전자에서 제조/판매하는 안드로이드 패블릿 스마트폰으로, 갤럭시 노트의 후속제품이다. 2012년 8월 29일 영국 런던에서 개최된 삼성 모바일 언팩에서 발표하여, 대한민국에서 변종모델을 2012년 9월 26일, 표준모델을 2012년 9월 27일http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-09-27/gadgets-special/34126803_1_phablet-19mp-galaxy-s-iii}} 출시하였다. 연혁 2012년 8월 29일 : 삼성 모바일 언팩에서 공개 2012년 9월 26일 : 대한민국에서 SHV-E250S/K/L 모델 출시 2012년 9월 27일 : N7100 모델과 N7105 모델 출시 2012년 11월 26일 : 판매량 500만대 돌파 2013년 11월 19일 : N7100 모델과 N7105 모델에 대한 4.3 젤리빈 업그레이드 2014년 4월 25일 : N7100 모델에 대한 4.4 킷캣 업그레이드 출시 및 반응 2012년 9월 26일 대한민국에 처음 출시되었으며, 2012년 4분기 기준 128개국, 260개 거래선에 순차적으로 출시되었으며, 인도에서도 2012년 9월 27일 조기 출시되었다. 2012년 9월 30일 영국에서 공식 출시되었으며 10월 1일 모든 주요 스토어에 출시되었다. 2012년 9월 29일 인도네시아에서 선주문을 받기 시작했다. 폰아레나닷컴의 대니얼 P.는 갤럭시 노트II에 대해 "삼성이 생산한 최고의 전화 화면"을 갖추었다며 긍정적으로 평가하였다. 또, 그는 S 펜의 성능이 향상되었다고 언급하였다. 스터프 매거진은 이 스마트폰에 5/5 별을 주며 "최고의 10대 스마트폰" 섹션에서 넘버 4로 순위를 올렸다. 화면 기존의 HD 슈퍼 AMOLED 디스플레이에 RGBG 펜타일 매트릭스의 구조 대신, 삼성디스플레이에서 개발한 공법인 S-스트라이프''' RGB 매트릭스 구조를 적용함으로써, RGBG 펜타일 매트릭스 구조를 채택한 제품들에 비해 가독성 및 해상도 문제를 해결하였다. S 펜 S 펜은 전작인 갤럭시 노트의 S 펜보다 개선된 인체공학적인 디자인을 갖추고 있으며, 1,024단계로 필압을 감지하여 보다 섬세한 사용이 가능하다. 색상 티타늄 그레이 마블 화이트 루비 와인 엠버 브라운 마샨 핑크 토파즈 블루(국내 미출시) 운영 체제/소프트웨어 안드로이드 4.1 젤리빈 안드로이드 OS 4.1.1 젤리빈을 탑재하여 출시했다(보안 문제가 존재). 2012년 12월 11일 N7100 모델과 N7105 모델의 안드로이드 4.1.2 젤리빈으로의 업그레이드가 시작되었다. 그 외에도 다음 사항이 적용되었다. 알림창의 패널위치를 사용자가 커스텀할 수 있게됨 그룹 캐스트 애플리케이션 추가 특수 기능 S 노트 : S 펜을 통한 다양한 노트 필기를 비롯하여, 디자인, 수식인식, 문자인식, 도형인식 등을 할 수 있다. S 펜 키퍼 : S 펜을 분리한 상태에서 일정 거리 이상 움직이면 진동과 함께 팝업으로 S 펜의 분리여부를 띄워준다. 에어 뷰 : S 펜으로 항목을 디스플레이 근처에 대면 콘텐츠를 보여준다. 퀵 커멘드 : S 펜을 이용하여 여러 기능을 빠르게 실행한다. 이지 클립 : S 펜을 이용하여 사진을 오려낸다. 팝업 노트 : 어느 애플리케이션을 이용하든 S 펜을 뽑으면 S 노트 팝업창이 뜬다. 포토 노트 아이디어 스케치 스마트 스테이 : 앞면 카메라를 통해 사용자의 눈동자와 얼굴을 인식하여 사용 중일 때에는 디스플레이가 꺼지지 않도록 유지한다. 스마트 로테이션 : 중력방향에 의해서 자동회전을 하지 않고 앞면 카메라를 통해 사용자의 얼굴을 인식하여 자동회전여부를 결정한다. 버스트 샷 :최대 20장의 사진을 연속으로 촬영한다. 점프하는 장면을 찍을 때 유용하다. 베스트 포토 : 버스트 샷으로 찍은 사진에서 가장 잘 찍힌 사진을 선별한다. 베스트 페이스 : 최대 5장의 사진을 찍어서 가장 좋은 표정을 선택한다. S 빔 올쉐어 캐스트 : 별도로 판매하는 올쉐어 캐스트 동글을 이용해 스마트폰 내 동영상, 게임 등의 화면을 스마트 TV나 PC에서 사용할 수 있다. 멀티 윈도우 : 이전 버튼을 오래 누르면 2개의 프로그램을 동시에 작동시켜준다. 페이지 버디 : 도킹, 로밍, 이어폰 삽입등의 특별한 상황에 따라 그에 필요한 기능을 홈화면에 자동적으로 추가한다. S 보이스 : 대화형 음성제어 시스템으로, 소프트웨어와 자연어 대화를 통해 특정 기능을 작동하여 각종 기능을 실행한다. 애플의 시리, LG전자의 Q보이스, 구글의 구글 어시스턴트와 비슷하다. 애 플리케이션 음성제어 : 음성인식을 통하여 애플리케이션을 실행하거나 종료한다. 다이렉트 콜 : 문자 전송할때, 부재중 전화시, 전화번호 검색 등 전화번호가 화면에 보일 때 휴대전화를 귀에 대면 바로 전화가 걸린다. 팝업 플레이 : 동영상을 작은 팝업창 형태로 재생하는 기능으로, 동영상이 팝업창 형태로 떠 있는 동안에는 화면의 일부분만 점유하며, 다른 애플리케이션을 사용할 수 있다. 안드로이드 4.3 젤리빈 N7100 모델과 N7105 모델이 2013년 11월 19일에 4.3 젤리빈으로 업그레이드 되었다. 그외에도 다음 사항이 같이 적용되었다. 터치위즈 Nature UX 2 일부 적용 (터치위즈 런처는 Nature UX 1 버전 유지) 갤럭시 기어와의 연동 지원 ANT+ 지원 삼성 녹스, 삼성 월렛 추가 애플리케이션을 SD카드로의 이동 지원 어댑트 디스플레이 추가 설정, S 보이스, 키보드, 연락처, 카메라(사운드앤샷 추가), 갤러리, 음악, 시계, 계산기 개선 디스플레이 색재현력 개선 특수 기능 사운드 앤 샷 : 사진 촬영 당시의 소리(최대8초)를 사진에 함께 담아 저장한다. 안드로이드 4.4 킷캣 2014년 5월 24일에 N7100 5월 중순엔 N7105, 국내는 6월 2일에 4.4.2 킷캣 업데이트가 되었다. 변종 SHV-E250S/K/L SK텔레콤, KT, LG유플러스를 통해 출시된 LTE모델로, FM 라디오 대신 지상파 DMB가 탑재되어 있다. GT-N7102 차이나 유니콤 겸용으로 출시된 모델로, 듀얼심을 지원한다. (대륙의 실수로 인해 듀얼심을 지원한다는 것이다.) GT-N7108 차이나 모바일을 통해 출시된 모델이다. SCH-N719 차이나 텔레콤을 통해 출시된 모델로, 듀얼심을 지원한다. (대륙의 실수로 인해 듀얼심을 지원한다는 것이다.) GT-N7108D 차이나홍콩 모바일을 통해 출시된 TD-SCDMA, TD-LTE 동시 지원모델로, 애플리케이션 프로세서가 삼성전자 엑시노스 4 쿼드 (4412) 대신 퀄컴 스냅드래곤 600 APQ8064T (퀄컴 크래이트 300 아키텍처 CPU + 퀄컴 아드레노 320 400 MHz 그래픽 처리 장치)가 장착되었다. / SGH-I317 AT&T를 통해 출시된 LTE모델이다. SGH-I317M 벨 모빌리티, 로저스, 텔루스, SaskTel, 버진 모바일 캐나다를 통해 출시된 LTE모델이다. SGH-T889 T-모바일을 통해 출시된 모델이다. SGH-T889V 윈드 모바일, 모빌리시티, 비디오트론을 통해 출시된 제품이다. SCH-i605 버라이즌을 통해 출시된 모델이며, 홈 버튼에 버라이즌 통신사 로고가 각인되어서 판매된다. SCH-R950 U.S. 셀룰러를 통해 출시된 모델이다. SPH-L900 스프린트 넥스텔을 통해 출시된 모델이며, 심 카드 슬롯이 없다. (SGH-N025(SC-02E)) NTT 도코모를 통해 출시된 모델이며, 원세그 TV가 탑재되어있다. 같이 보기 삼성 갤럭시 S III 삼성 갤럭시 노트 10.1 삼성 갤럭시 노트 8.0 각주 안드로이드 스마트폰 2012년 출시 안드로이드 장치 삼성 갤럭시 노트 스마트폰 패블릿 삼성전자의 스마트폰 삼성 갤럭시 삼성 휴대 전화기 스마트폰 삼성전자의 하드웨어

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung%20Galaxy%20Note%20II

Samsung Galaxy Note II

The Samsung Galaxy Note II (or Galaxy Note 2) is an Android phablet smartphone. Unveiled on August 29, 2012 and released in October 2012, the Galaxy Note II is a successor to the original Galaxy Note, incorporating improved stylus functionality, a larger screen, and an updated hardware and casing design based on that of the Galaxy S III. The Note II was released to positive critical reception for its improvements over the original Galaxy Note, and sold over 5 million units within only its first two months of availability. Samsung announced a successor to the Galaxy Note II, the Galaxy Note 3, on September 4, 2013. History The Galaxy Note II was unveiled at IFA Berlin on August 29, 2012, and released in multiple markets at the beginning of October 2012. Samsung sold more than 3 million units within the first 37 days and it crossed 5 million in two months of its release. Software versions In December 2012, Samsung began rolling out an update to Android 4.1.2 "Jelly Bean" for the device. In April 2014, Samsung began rolling out an update to Android 4.4.2 ''KitKat'' for the device. Samsung Nordic has stated several times, including on their official page that both the 3G and 4G versions of the phone will get the Lollipop update. Features Split-screen The Galaxy Note 2 is able to show two applications at the same time with flexible width on the screen with its split-screen feature. However, support of this feature varies per app. Specifications General The Galaxy Note II features a 5.5-inch HD Super AMOLED S-Stripe RGB (3 subpixels/pixel) (non-PenTile) screen with 1280 × 720 resolution, a 1.6 GHz quad-core Cortex-A9 CPU, 2 GB RAM, an 8 MP rear camera and 1.9 MP front camera, and a 3,100 mAh battery. It is slightly thinner than its predecessor at , albeit also being slightly heavier by . Depending on the specific model, the phone features HSPA+ 21 Mbit/s along with 4G LTE (42.2 Mbit/s DC-HSPA+ for LTE Version). The Galaxy Note II is equipped with Broadcom BCM4334 chipset for the IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n Wi-Fi connectivity in 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz dual-band with maximum rate up to 150 Mbit/s, FM radio tuner and Bluetooth 4.0 + HS support. Storage The Galaxy Note II was supposed to be available in 16 GB, 32 GB and 64 GB storage capacity variants, each expandable by up to an additional 64 GB with a microSD card. However, as of 8 January 2013, only the 16 GB and 32 GB versions are available and there has been no release date for or any indication of a 64 GB version of the Note II to be offered. S Pen The smartphone's pressure-sensitive S Pen is slightly thicker than in the original Galaxy Note, and a feature marketed as Air View allows a user to preview content by hovering the pen over the content, similar to the hoverbox feature of a mouse in some desktop computers, such as thumbnails in the gallery and a preview tooltip on the video player's time seek bar, and zooming in the Internet browser (Samsung S Browser) and for scrolling. Another feature marketed as Quick Command reveals a list of available commands at the swipe of the S Pen. The S Pen's 1,024 levels of pen-pressure sensitivity give it significantly more accuracy and precision than the original Note's 256. Camera Both front and rear camera use the same hardware as used in the Galaxy S3, with eight megapixels (3264×2448) rear facing camera and 1.9 Megapixels on the front facing camera. The video resolution of the rear camera is 1080p at 30 frames per second while the front camera films 720p at 30 frames per second. The Galaxy Note 2 is able to capture 6 megapixel (3264×1836) images during 1080p@30fps video recording, which is the highest 16:9 aspect ratio resolution supported by the 4:3 image sensor, matching the aspect ratio of the video. While the camera interface resembles that of the Galaxy S3, slow motion mode (720×480 at 120 frames per second) has been added. The slow motion videos lack audio. The burst shot mode is able to capture up to twenty full-resolution photos per row at around six frames per second. Variants The Galaxy Note II is available in Titanium Grey, Marble White, Martian Pink, Amber Brown and Ruby Wine case colors. Some features were removed, which vary as customized by carrier, include FM/TV tuner, charging pins, and Multiple-SIM card support. To prevent grey market reselling, models of the Galaxy Note II, and other models (Galaxy S4, Galaxy S4 mini, Galaxy Note III and Galaxy S III) manufactured after July 2013 implement a regional lockout system in certain regions; requiring that the first SIM card used on a European and North American model be from a carrier in that region. Samsung stated that the lock would be removed once a valid SIM card is used. Communication processor The baseband chipset of GT-N7100 is Intel Wireless PMB9811X Gold Baseband processor. The baseband chipset of SGH-T889, SHV-E250K, and SHV-E250S is Qualcomm Gobi MDM9215. SHV-E250L has Qualcomm Gobi MDM9615M for the EVDO revision B connectivity. Network connectivity Most of the variants support GSM/GPRS/EDGE in the 850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1.8 GHz, and 1.9 GHz bands; and UMTS/HSPA+21 in 850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1.9 GHz, and 2.1 GHz. AWS phones SGH-T889 and SGH-T889V are devices that support AWS-1 for HSPA networks capable of transferring data over Advanced Wireless Services band in HSPA mode on carriers such as T-Mobile US, and in Canada, Wind Mobile, Mobilicity, and Vidéotron. CDMA/EV-DO phones SCH-R950, SHV-E250L, SCH-i605, SPH-L900, and SCH-N719 are to connect to cdmaOne, CDMA 1xRTT, and EV-DO rev 0/A/B. All models are additionally GSM capable with the exception of the SCH-R950. SPH-L900 can only use WCDMA/GSM services while roaming internationally due to it having an embedded SIM. TD-SCDMA phone GT-N7108 is to support TD-SCDMA networks in the 1.9 GHz and 2.0 GHz bands, and connect to the GSM/GPRS/EDGE 1.9 GHz band. Dual-cell HSPA phone SGH-T889 is known to support dual-cell HSPA+ up to 42.2 Mbit/s. LTE phones GT-N7105 is a LTE phone of the Philippine version, that can connect to LTE band 3, 7, 8, and 20 and has 42.2 Mbit/s DC-HSPA+. SCH-i605 can connect to the LTE band 13, Verizon Wireless operates. SCH-R950, SGH-i317[M], SGH-T889[V], SPH-L900, SC-02E (SGH-N025), and SHV-E250[K,L,S] can connect to the LTE bands of each locked carrier as well as the LTE bands of the other network operators as a roaming service. GT-N7108D is a version similar to GT-N7108 but with LTE-TDD support. Also the Qualcomm Snapdragon SoC was used in this version. FM radio, digital TV tuner Only some Galaxy Note II variants have a built-in FM radio tuner. For example, some US and Canadian variants (SGH-i317, SGH-i317M) and the LTE International version (N7105) lack the FM radio tuner support. SC-02E for Japan market has 1seg digital-TV tuner and antenna. Korean variants have the T-DMB tuner as well as the T-DMB antenna that can be concealed in the phone body. Dimension and weight Korean variants with the T-DMB tuner and the T-DMB antenna are heavier than other variants. SC-02E for NTT DoCoMo with 1seg TV tuner is heavier and thicker. Wireless charging Depending on the model, some Galaxy Note II (GT-N7100) units have the two optional charging pins on the back side of the device, just right of the battery holder, that can be used for wireless charging with the dedicated wireless charging back cover variant. Galaxy Note II displays the notification message built in the firmware when it is charged wirelessly. SCH-L900 does not have the pins. SGH-T889 has the pins, but they are disabled. Table of variants Notes The bolded frequencies in connectivities, are to support the released carriers' networks. All frequencies listed are in MHz. "GSM: quad-band" denotes "GSM/GPRS/EDGE: 850, 900, 1800, and 1900 Mhz bands". "UMTS: quad-band" denotes "UMTS/HSDPA/HSUPA/HSPA+: 850, 900, 1900, and 2100 Mhz bands". "CDMA: dual-band" denotes "CDMA 1xRTT/CDMA EV-DO Rev A/CDMA EV-DO Rev B: 800 and 1900 Mhz bands" Release and reception Commercial reception The Note II launched on September 26, 2012, in South Korea on three carriers and it was expected to ultimately arrive on 2760 carriers in 128 countries. It is now widely available in the market after its official launch on September 27, 2012, in Hyderabad, India. The Note II was officially launched in the UK on September 30, 2012, available to purchase exclusively from the Samsung flagship stores in Stratford and White City. It was then released to all major stores in the UK on October 1 on ThreeUK, Vodafone and O2 and at retailers such as Carphone Warehouse and Phones4U. It was made available for pre-order in Indonesia on September 29, 2012, on Erafone, Telkomsel, and Indosat. Samsung's mobile chief Shin Jong-kyun expected to sell 3 million Galaxy Note IIs during the first three months of availability. Samsung announced that 8.5 million Galaxy Note II devices had been sold worldwide, based on supply as of November 25, 2012. By September 2013, approximately 30 million units had been sold. Critical reception In September 2012, PhoneArena.com said the device uses "the best phone screen Samsung has ever produced", noting the phone offers improved S Pen performance. Stuff awarded the smartphone 5/5 stars and ranked it number 1 in its "Top 10 Smartphones" section. The Verge awarded the smartphone an 8.5/10 rating and stated that "the Note II is an unambiguous upgrade over its predecessor and can even challenge the Galaxy S III for the title of best Android device". They praised the device's performance and its improved handwriting recognition while criticizing the dearth of S Pen apps. In September 2016, India's aviation regulator said a Samsung Galaxy Note 2 device sparked and smoked in an IndiGo airplane, which was on its way to Chennai from Singapore. Indian Directorate General of Civil Aviation will send an advisory to airlines warning passengers to keep all Samsung Note smartphones switched off during flights or avoid carrying the phones on commercial jets altogether. See also Samsung Galaxy Note series Samsung Galaxy Mega References External links 2 Samsung smartphones Galaxy Note II Galaxy Note II Mobile phones introduced in 2012 Discontinued smartphones Mobile phones with stylus Mobile phones with user-replaceable battery

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/LG%20%EC%98%B5%ED%8B%B0%EB%A8%B8%EC%8A%A4%20G

LG 옵티머스 G

LG 옵티머스 G(LG Optimus G)는 LG전자에서 제조/판매하는 안드로이드 스마트폰으로, 옵티머스 LTE2, 옵티머스 4X HD의 후속 제품이다. 2012년 9월 28일에 대한민국에서 출시했으며, 표준 모델은 2013년 2월 22일에 출시하였다. 연혁 2012년 8월 28일 : 제품 공개 2012년 9월 28일 : 제품 출시 2012년 12월 : 판매량 100만대 돌파 2013년 2월 22일 : 스웨덴에서 글로벌 모델 출시 화면 ITO 터치필름 대신 커버 유리 위에 ITO를 코팅한 G2 TSP 터치패널을 적용하여 공기층을 없애고 두께 및 무게를 줄였다. 그로 인해 터치감이 좋아지고 무엇보다 그림이 화면에 붙어 있다고 할 만큼 좋은 점은 많다.단, 화면이 깨지면 터치가 불가능하다는 단점이 있다. 심지어 상단 1-2cm만 깨져도 터치가 안 되는 경우가 발생한다.그러나 액정 값도 비싸기 때문에 당시 비난을 받기도 하였다. 외형 유니바디 형태이며, 뒷면은 크리스탈 리플렉션(Crystal Reflection) 공법으로 가공하여 빛이 들어오는 각도에 따라 뒷면의 문양이 다르게 보인다. 색상 오닉스 블랙 플래티넘 화이트 코도반 레드 운영 체제 / 소프트웨어 안드로이드 4.0 아이스크림 샌드위치 대한민국, 일본, 캐나다, 미국 변종은 4.0.4 아이스크림 샌드위치를 탑재하여 출시했다. 안드로이드 4.1.2 젤리빈 표준 모델은 4.1.2 젤리빈을 탑재하여 출시했다. 대한민국 모델은 2013년 1월 10일에 젤리빈 업그레이드를 하였다. 안드로이드 4.4.2 킷캣 5월 11일 SK텔레콤용 모델에서 랜덤으로 배포하기 시작하였다. 2014년 5월 20일 SK텔레콤·KT용 모델에서 정식으로 4.4.2 킷캣 업데이트를 완료하였다.LG U+용 모델은 5월 24일에 킷캣 테스트 버전 F180L30b 펌웨어가 유출되었고, 2014년 6월 2일 정식으로 킷캣 업그레이드를 완료하였다. 특수 기능 동영상 기능 라이브 줌 동영상을 보다가 더 자세히 보고싶은 장면이 나오면 라이브 줌으로 원하는 부분을 최대 5배까지 확대하여 감상할 수 있다. 와이즈 스크린 화면을 바라보는 동안에는 얼굴을 감지하여 화면이 꺼지지 않는다. 카메라 기능 Q 트랜스레이터 43개의 언어를 카메라 스캔으로 인식해 최대 64개의 언어로 빠르게 번역해주는 기능이다. 단어 번역, 문장 번역, 문단 번역으로 선택할 수 있다. 기타 기능 Q 슬라이드 기존의 화면에 최대 2개의 다른 작업창을 열어 최대 3개의 작업을 동시에 처리할 수 있게 하는 기능이며, 작업창의 투명도 조절, 위치 이동, 사이드 조절을 이용하여 원하는대로 배치하여 볼 수 있다. 비디오, 인터넷, 메모 등이 있다. 3개의 작업을 동시에 처리하는 기능은 2013년 2월 22일에 출시된 글로벌 모델에서 업그레이드 되어 적용되었으며, 한국 모델(LG-F180S,LG-F180L,LG-F180K)은 펌웨어 업그레이드로 3개의 작업을 동시에 처리하는 기능(Q슬라이드 2.0)이 탑재되었다. 이전에 출시된 모델은 서로 다른 두개의 화면을 겹치듯 동시에 실행하는 것만 가능하다. Q 보이스 LG전자의 독자기술인 베르니케기술을 이용한 음성시스템으로, 말을 해서 각종 기능을 실행하거나 원하는 것을 찾을 수 있다. 애플의 시리, 팬택의 스마트 보이스, 삼성전자의 S 보이스와 유사하다. 그러나 스마트 보이스나 S보이스보다 인식률이 좋고 다양한 대화 DB가 있다.또 성우 목소리와 대화가 더 자연스럽고,대화 인식 속도도 빠르다. 킷캣 업그레이드 이후에는 키보드로 대화 기능이 추가되었음에 따라 성우가 바뀌고,대화가 더 자연스러워졌으며 DB도 늘어나고 인식 속도가 더 빨라졌다. 또한, 끝말잇기 등의 여러 재미적인 요소가 추가되었다. Q 메모 Q 메모를 어느화면에서나 보며 이중플레이 할 수 있는 겹쳐사용하기 모드를 사용하면 Q 메모를 보면서 다른 애플리케이션을 동시에 사용할 수 있다. 단 겹쳐쓰기 모드에서는 메모를 작성할 수 없다. 안드로이드 빔 구글 나우 4.1.2 젤리빈 업그레이드로 추가된 기능이다. 출시 국가 : 2012년 9월 28일 : 2012년 10월 : 2012년 11월 : 2012년 11월 : 2013년 2월 22일 : 2013년 2월 변종 LS970 1300만 화소의 후면 카메라가 장착되었다. LG-E970 마이크로SD/SDHC/SDXC 외장메모리를 지원하며, 800만 화소의 후면 카메라가 장착되었다. LG-E971 1300만 화소의 후면 카메라가 장착되었다. LG-E973 1300만 화소의 후면 카메라가 장착되었다. (L-01E) NTT도코모(NTT docomo),AU로 출시되었으며 배터리가 내장형 2100mAh가아닌 착탈식 2210mAh를 장착했고 방수기능이추가,내장메모리가 16GB로 줄어든 대신 외장메모리를 추가로 지원한다. 기타 성능은 대한민국 등 다른 국가 옵티머스G와 동일하다. 문제,불편점 (본 부분에선 주석을 따로 표기하지 않습니다.) 옵티머스 G는 (국내)2100mAh의 일체형 배터리가 장착되었는데,이 배터리가 갤럭시 S3보다도 효율이 좋지 못하다는 실험 결과로 인해 비난을 받기도 하였다.다만 개인이 정밀히 테스트한 결과 비슷하다고 한다.이는 당시 실험이 옵티머스 G 400nit/갤럭시 S3 240nit로 100%로(밝기) 했으니 옵티머스 G가 질 수 밖에 없는 것이다.옵티머스 G의 60%는 갤럭시 S3에서 70%가량 되므로 이렇게 공정히 실험한결과 효율은 비슷하다는 결론이 나왔기에 사실상 옵티머스 G의 배터리가 안 좋다고만 말할 수는 없으나 일단 일체형 자체가 한국에서 부정적으로 인식하기 때문에 항상 단점이다. 일체형이라 발열이 심해 밝기제한이 걸리고(스로틀링)심지어 열때문에 뒷면 유리가 깨지는 현상도 있다. 그러나 통화에서 3845#*180#을 눌러 히든메뉴에서 스로틀링 제한을 해제할 수는 있다. ICS와 JB 일부펌웨어에서는 파란색 등의 색이 제대로 표현되지 않는 색맹(색약)현상이 있기도 하였다.현재는 펌웨어업데이트로 해결되었다.그러나 색맹현상 해결 이후 물 빠진 색감이라는 비평도 있다. 위에도 서술했듯이 터치패널이 일체형이라 액정이 깨지면 다른 핸드폰과 달리 터치가 되지 않으며 간혹 뒷면 유리가 깨져도 터치가 안되는 경우가 있다.그리고 액정 값도 비싸기 때문에 이 부분이 배터리 문제와 같이 옵티머스 G의 최대 단점으로 꼽힌다. 같이 보기 구글 넥서스 4 LG 옵티머스 G 프로 LG 옵티머스 뷰2 각주 LG전자의 스마트폰 안드로이드 장치 2012년 도입 LG 휴대 전화기 스마트폰

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LG%20Optimus%20G

LG Optimus G

The LG Optimus G (retrospectively referred to unofficially as the LG Optimus G1, or LG G1) is a smartphone designed and manufactured by LG Electronics. It was announced on September 19, 2012; On January 18, 2013, LG announced that the device reached 1 million in sales four months after its release in Korea, Japan, Canada, and the U.S. The LG Optimus G is also closely related to the Nexus 4 with similar specifications and a similar design. Availability North America In the United States, the Optimus G was available through AT&T and Sprint. AT&T carried the 8-megapixel camera E970 model while Sprint offered the LS970 model, equipped with a 13-megapixel camera. The AT&T model was the only Optimus G model to feature a microSD-card memory expansion slot. These models were released on November 2 (AT&T) and November 11 (Sprint). In Canada, the LG Optimus G was available from the country's three major mobile providers: Rogers Wireless, Bell Mobility and Telus Mobility, offering the E971 and E973 models respectively. Rogers was that country's only provider to sell the Optimus G with LTE band 7 2600 MHz support, as opposed to the more common AWS (band 4) and band 17 700 MHz LTE frequencies used by other North American carriers. This extra spectrum enables theoretical download speeds of up to 100 Mbit/s where available. Japan In Japan, the LG Optimus G is currently available from NTT DoCoMo as the LG L-01E. This Optimus G variant is similar to the E973 model with additional Japan-exclusive features such as FeliCa wallet support, a removable battery, a waterproof hydrophobic coating on all components and support for band 1 2100mhz LTE. The phone is also available in a currently-exclusive Red color. South Korea In Korea, the Optimus G is currently available from SK Telecom & KT & LG U+ As The LG F-180S/K/L. This Optimus G variant is Korean model with additional Korea-exclusive features such as T-DMB support Taiwan In Taiwan, it is sold as E975, but with minor differences. India In India, the LG Optimus G model is E975. Europe In February 2013, the E975 was launched in Sweden, France, Germany, Italy, Denmark, and other unspecified countries in March. South America The version that has been released to the public in Brazil and Chile is the E977 model. Hardware Dimensions The E973, E975, E977 and the LS970 models have an overall dimension of 131.9 mm x 68.9 mm x 8.5 mm, whereas the E970 model has 130.8 mm x 71.6 mm x 8.4 mm dimensions. The E973, E977 and the LS970 model weigh 144.9 grams whereas the E970 model weighs 147.1 grams. Processor The LG Optimus G is the first widely released device to feature the Qualcomm Snapdragon S4 Pro SoC. The Qualcomm Snapdragon S4 APQ8064 SoC features a Quad-core Krait processor clocked at 1.5 GHz. The processor is based on 28 nm semiconductor technology with Adreno 320 graphics processor running at 400 MHz. Memory The LG Optimus G has 2 GB of RAM and 32 GB of non-expandable internal storage in the LS970 and E973 models. However, AT&T offers the E970 model which has 16 GB of Internal Storage which may further be expanded via a microSD card up to 64 GB. A 16 GB card is also included in the AT&T & Japan & Taiwan model. The E975 model has 32 GB of internal storage of which 25 GB is available to the end user. Screen The phone features a 4.7" True HD IPS LCD of 768x1280 resolution and displaying 16,777,216 colors at 318 ppi pixel density. The screen is protected by Corning Gorilla Glass 2. There is Gorilla Glass on the back of the phone as well. The screen brightness is measured to be about 470 nits(cd/m^2). The screen also features a screen technology called zerogap touch. Cameras Depending on the market and the carrier, the LG Optimus G may have an 8 MP or a 13 MP back-illuminated camera sensor and a single LED flash. In the US, the AT&T model features the 8 MP camera and the Sprint version features the 13 MP camera. The phone is also capable of recording FullHD 1080p video at 30 FPS. The phone also features a front-facing 1.3 MP camera, capable of recording HD 720p video at 30 FPS. The Indian LG Optimus G features a 13 MP camera. The camera supports digital zoom of up to 8X magnification. The Canadian Rogers (E971) and Telus/Bell (E973) models also have 8 MP camera. Battery The LG Optimus G is powered by a standard Lithium-Polymer battery of 2100 mAh. The official standby time is quoted at 13.5 days and the 3G talk time is quoted at 10 hours. Software features and services The LG Optimus G runs on Google's Android 4.0 Ice Cream Sandwich operating system skinned with LG Optimus UI 3.0. The LG Optimus G comes with many preloaded Android apps, including Google Chrome, Gmail, YouTube, Google+, and the Play Store. Most variants of the phone have since then been updated to Android 4.1 Jelly Bean, including the US models, Canadian model, European models, and the E975 model. Android 4.4.2 KitKat update is available now for Optimus G in South Korea (May 2014) and in India (July 2014) and is expected to hit other parts of the world in August–September 2014. Critical reception LG Optimus G has received a generally favorable reception. CNET reviewed the LG Optimus G as being "Undoubtedly the best phone LG has ever offered" with a score of 8.3/10. Mobile Reviewer GSMArena.com has reviewed it as "Designed to a flagship standard and powered by the latest in handheld computing". See also Smartphone LG Optimus series Notes and references Android (operating system) devices LG Electronics mobile phones LG Electronics smartphones Mobile phones introduced in 2012 Discontinued smartphones

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%95%ED%95%B4%EB%AF%BC

박해민

박해민(朴海旻, 1990년 2월 24일 ~ )은 KBO 리그 LG 트윈스의 외야수, 내야수이다. 아마추어 시절 2008년 신인 드래프트에서 지명받지 못해 한양대학교 생활체육학과 에 진학했다. 한양대 생활체육학과 2학년 때까지는 평범한 성적을 기록했지만, 3학년 때 고종욱과 함께 빠른 야구를 주도하며 타율을 0.299까지 끌어올렸다. 4학년 때인 2011년에는 고종욱이 졸업해 공석이 된 리드오프 자리에서 활약했고, 대학야구 하계리그에서는 타율 0.452(31타수 14안타)를 기록하며 타격상을 수상했다. 대학 리그 전체 1위인 타율 0.429, 11타점, 7도루를 기록하며 대학 마지막 시즌을 마쳤다. 수위 타자 성적을 인정받아 한양대 생활체육학과 졸업을 앞두고 생애 첫 대한민국 야구 국가대표팀에 선발돼 2011년 야구 월드컵에 출전했다. 첫 경기인 베네수엘라전에서 4타수 3안타를 쳐 내며 프로 선수들 사이에서 주전 중견수로 낙점됐고, 도미니카전에서는 경기 후반에 동점 3점 홈런을 쳐 냈다. 삼성 라이온즈 시절 2012년 신인 드래프트에서 지명받지 못했고, 입단 테스트를 거쳐 신고선수로 입단하였다. 2013년에 데뷔 첫 경기를 치렀고, 단 한 경기에 대주자로 출장 후 타석에는 서 보지 못한 채 시즌을 마감했다. 2013년 시즌 후 상무에 지원해 서류 전형에서는 합격했지만 실기에서 탈락했다. 하지만 이것이 오히려 전화위복이 돼 붙박이 중견수였던 배영섭의 입대와 함께 1군에서 기회를 잡았다. 2014년 시즌 입단 후 줄곧 1군에서 대주자, 대수비로만 투입돼 스프링캠프 당시에도 전력 외로 분류됐다. 2013년 시즌 후 입대한 중견수 배영섭의 대체 후보 정형식, 이영욱이 동반 부진에 빠진 틈을 타 대타로서 빠른 발을 이용한 기습 번트 안타를 연이어 쳐 내며 주목받았다. 5월 9일 두산전에서 첫 선발 출장해 4타수 2안타로 가능성을 보였으며, 6월 7일 한화전에서 기습 번트 안타에 이은 2루 진루, 6월 14일 두산전에서 5타수 5안타 등 빼어난 기량을 연이어 펼쳐 당시 감독이었던 류중일에 의해 주전 중견수로 낙점됐다. 7월 6일 두산전에서 노경은을 상대로 데뷔 첫 홈런을 쳐 내는 등 시즌 내내 발군의 활약을 이어가 팀의 정규 시즌 우승에 기여했다. 시즌 후 박민우, 조상우와 함께 신인왕 후보에 올랐으나 수상에는 실패했다. 2014년 한국시리즈 주전 중견수로 낙점됐고, 넥센과 1차전에서 첫 타석부터 밴헤켄을 상대로 안타를 쳐 냈다. 그러나 2루 도루 과정에서 왼손 약지가 베이스에 부딪혀 인대 부상을 입었고, 이지영의 적시타 때 득점 후 김헌곤으로 교체됐다. 부상에도 불구하고 손가락을 묶은 다음 타격 연습을 했고, 3차전에 벙어리 장갑을 끼고 대주자로 출전해 이승엽의 안타 때 동점이 되는 득점을 기록했으며 수비할 때 유한준의 안타성 타구를 다이빙 캐치했다. 5차전부터는 선발 명단에 포함돼 타격까지 소화했고, 6차전에서는 최형우의 대수비로 출전했다. 8타수 1안타, 0.125로 타격은 부진했지만 3차전 동점 득점을 포함, 3득점을 기록해 팀의 통합 4연패에 공헌했다. 2015년 시즌 2년차 풀 타임 징크스 없이 시즌 전 경기에 출전했다. 2할대 후반 타율, 47타점, 96득점을 기록했다. 또한 팀 최초 시즌 60도루를 기록하며 첫 도루왕 타이틀을 획득했다. 2016년 시즌 시즌 3할 타율, 109득점, 4홈런, 61타점, 52도루를 기록했고, 2년 연속 도루왕을 수상했다. 생애 첫 골든글러브 후보에 이름을 올렸다. 2017년 시즌 40도루를 기록하며 3년 연속 도루왕을 수상했다. 그러나 타율은 데뷔 후 가장 낮았고 규정 타석을 채운 47명의 타자 중 41위로 멘도사 라인에 가까웠다. 리드오프의 기량을 평가하는 척도인 출루율도 커리어 최저인 0.338을 기록하는 등 대부분의 공격 지표에서 부진했다. 2018년 시즌 9월 12일 한화전에서 KBO 역대 5번째 5년 연속 30도루를 기록했다. 9월 19일 KIA전에서 역대 5번째 4년 연속 150안타를 기록했다. 2할대 타율로 시즌을 마감했다. 그러나 9홈런으로 향상된 장타 능력을 보여줬으며, 36도루를 기록해 KBO 역대 3번째 4년 연속 도루왕에 등극했다. 2019년 시즌 전 경기에 출전했지만 2할대 타율, 120안타, 64득점, 48타점으로 부진했다. 2020년 시즌 시즌 초반 1할대 타율로 부진에 빠지며 2군으로 내려갔다. 2군 감독인 오치아이 에이지의 조언을 받고 1군에 올라와 반등하며 시즌 2할대 후반 타율을 기록했다. 시즌 도루 2위를 기록했다. 2021년 시즌 5월 23일 KIA 타이거즈전에서 장민기를 상대로 데뷔 첫 만루 홈런을 기록했다. LG 트윈스 시절 2021년 시즌 후 FA 자격을 얻었고, 2021년 12월 14일에 총액 4년 60억원에 이적하였다. 별명 수비나 주루에서 차종 중 하나인 람보르기니만큼 재빠르고 민첩한 속도를 내서 '기' 대신 이름의 '민'자를 넣어 '람보르미니'라고 불린다. 응원가 삼성 라이온즈 시절 삼성의 박해민 워어어어어 안타를 날려라 워 워어어 (x2) 안타 쳐 볼까~(안! 타! 안! 타) 도루를 해 볼까~(다다다다다다다) 라이온즈 수비의 심장 (두근 두근 두근) 최!강!삼!성! 박!해!민!(×2) 소리쳐봐 박해민 최강 삼성 박해민 라이온즈 수비의 심장 박해민!!(X2) LG 트윈스 시절 날려버려 안타 박해민~ 오오오오오~ 박해민 무!적!L!G!박!해!민!(X2) 출신 학교 서울영중초등학교 양천중학교 신일고등학교 한양대학교 통산 기록 굵은 글씨는 해당 시즌 최고 기록 각주 외부 링크 박해민 - 스탯티즈 1990년 출생 살아있는 사람 대한민국의 야구 선수 서울특별시 출신 서울특별시 출신 야구 선수 KBO 리그 외야수 KBO 리그 중견수 KBO 리그 내야수 KBO 리그 1루수 삼성 라이온즈 선수 LG 트윈스 선수 대한민국 야구 국가대표팀 선수 대한민국의 올림픽 야구 참가 선수 2020년 하계 올림픽 야구 참가 선수 대한민국의 아시안 게임 야구 참가 선수 2018년 아시안 게임 야구 참가 선수 2023년 월드 베이스볼 클래식 참가 선수 서울영중초등학교 동문 양천중학교 동문 신일고등학교 동문 한양대학교 동문 대한민국의 개신교도 20세기 대한민국 사람 21세기 대한민국 사람

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park%20Hae-min

Park Hae-min

Park Hae-min (Hangul: 박해민, born February 24, 1990, in Seoul) is a South Korean outfielder for the LG Twins in the Korea Baseball Organization. He bats left-handed and throws right-handed. Amateur career Upon graduation from Shinil High School in Seoul, Park was eligible for the KBO Draft but went undrafted. Instead, he entered Hanyang University to continue to play baseball. Park had mediocre freshman and sophomore seasons, but finally showed signs of promise in his junior year in , when he led the team attack alongside Ko Jong-wook, posting a .299 batting average. In , Park was moved to the lead-off role right after the team's four-year lead-off hitter Ko Jong-wook graduated. In July 2011, Park won the batting title with a .452 batting average at the 2011 National Summer League Championship, going 14-for-31 as the team's lead-off hitter. Park finished his last collegiate season with a career-best .429 batting average (which was ranked first in the 2011 national collegiate season), 11 RBIs, and 7 stolen bases. Professional career 2012 KBO Draft When Park, the 2011 college batting champion, made himself eligible for the KBO draft after his senior season at Hanyang University, many expected him to be an early-round pick. However, some scouting reports highlighted his lack of prototypical height and inability to hit home runs and questioned his defensive abilities, and Park was not called in the KBO Draft. A week later, he signed with the Samsung Lions as an undrafted free agent. Samsung Lions In 2012, Park played his professional rookie season with the Lions' farm-league affiliate. In the 2012 KBO Futures League for the reserve teams, he batted .254 with 20 RBIs and 3 stolen bases. Park made his first KBO League appearance on September 13, 2013, as a pinch runner for Choi Hyoung-woo, who had singled, but did not score. In 2014 Park had a breakout season, making 119 appearances as a starting center fielder for the Lions, and batting .297 with 31 RBIs and 36 stolen bases. He was ranked fifth overall in stolen bases and third in the 2014 KBO Rookie of the Year Award. International career In September 2011, Park was called up to the South Korea national baseball team for the 2011 Baseball World Cup held in Panama. Park went 3-for-4 in the Team Korea's first game against Venezuela. He hit a game-tying three-run homer off Darío Veras in the ninth inning of the Team Korea's last Round 1 game against Dominican Republic, which ended with a Korea's 5-4 victory. In 2018, he represented South Korea at the 2018 Asian Games. References External links Career statistics and player information from the KBO League 1990 births Living people Baseball players at the 2018 Asian Games Baseball players at the 2020 Summer Olympics Asian Games gold medalists for South Korea Medalists at the 2018 Asian Games Asian Games medalists in baseball KBO League outfielders LG Twins players Samsung Lions players South Korean baseball players Baseball players from Seoul Olympic baseball players for South Korea 2023 World Baseball Classic players

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%80%EC%82%B0%EC%A7%84%EC%84%B1

부산진성

부산진성(釜山鎭城)은 부산광역시 동구 범일동에 있는 조선시대의 성이다. 넓이는 24,198m2이고, 1972년 6월 26일 부산광역시 기념물 제7호로 지정되었다. 유래 자성대 이름은 부산진성의 역사를 잘못 이해하여 붙여진 이름이다. 임진왜란 당시 만들어진 일본성 증산왜성을 본성 또는 모성(母城)으로 삼고 자성대왜성을 지성 또는 자성(子城)으로 삼으면서 만들어진 이름이다. 1407년 태종 7년 조선은 부산포(釜山浦)를 개항하면서 왜인(倭人)을 감시하기 위해 부산진(釜山鎭)에 군사를 주둔했다. 1490년 성종 21년 부산진을 보호하기 위해 지금의 증산공원 아래에 성을 쌓았다. 이 성을 '전기 부산진성'이라 부른다. 1592년 임진왜란 당시 부산진첨사 정발 장군은 부산진성을 지키다 순국하고 1593년 왜군은 부산진성을 허물고 증산 정상부에 증산왜성을 쌓고 해안가에 자성대 왜성(倭城)을 쌓았다. 임진왜란 이후 1607년 조선 수군은 자성대 왜성을 수리하여 '후기 부산진성'으로 삼았다. 부산광역시 기념물로 등록된 '부산진성'은 '후기 부산진성'을 말한다. 현지 안내문 한국문물연구원 해설 부산진성 이름찾기 100인 릴레이 역사 임진왜란 때 부산진성의 전투 장면을 자세하게 그려 놓은 「부산진성 순절도」에 보면 임진왜란이 일어나기 전에 부산포(釜山浦)에는 내성(內城)과 외성(外城)이 있었다. 내성은 오늘날 동구 좌천동에 있는, 현재 정공단이 있는 일대를 중심으로 뒷산에 해당하는 증산(甑山)을 둘러싼 본성이고, 자성대는 그 외성(外城)으로 쌓은 것인데, 외성은 현재 자성대라고 부르는 곳이다. 임진왜란 때 일본군이 부산에 주둔하면서 선조 26년에 왜장 모리(毛利輝元) 부자가 부산성을 헐고 왜성(倭城)으로 다시 쌓았다. 소서성·환산성이라고도 불리었으며, 일본에서는 당시 부산진성이 부산왜성 이였을 당시 마루야마 성(丸山城), 고니시성(少西城)이라고 불렀다. 현재 부산진성은 일본명의 '마루야마 성'으로 알려져 있다. 일본군의 지휘소로 이용되었다. 일본군을 몰아낸 뒤에는 임진왜란 때 지원군으로 온 명나라 장수 만세덕(萬世德) 군대가 머물러 주둔한 적이 있었기 때문에 만공대(萬公臺)라고도 한다. 임진왜란이 끝난 후에는 성과 사대문을 쌓고 관아를 고쳐 부산진첨사영(釜山鎭僉使營)으로, 좌도수군첨절제사의 숙소로 쓰였다. 이 성은 오늘날의 증산에 있었던 부산진성의 내성인 본성과 함께 1593년(선조 26) 경상도 군정의 책임자였던 모리 히데모토(毛利輝元) 부자(父子)도 쌓은 것으로 알려져 있다. 한편 왜장 아사노 나가요시(淺野長慶)가 정유재란 때인 1598년(선조 31)에 수축 또는 증축한 것으로 보기도 한다. 임진왜란 때 증산에 있었던 본래의 부산진성이 일본군에 의해 허물어져 사용하기 어려웠기 때문에 조선 수군은 1607년(선조 40)부터 부산왜성의 지성인 자성대왜성을 부산진성으로 사용하면서 새롭게 수축하였다. 『충렬사지(忠烈祠志)』에 의하면 임진왜란 때 일본군이 부산 첨사진으로 사용하던 성 안의 우뚝 솟은 산 정상에 다시 자성을 쌓고 장대로 삼았다고 한다. 그러므로 조선 후기에 부산진성을 수축할 때 부산진성의 장대로 사용하였다고 보인다. 또 본성인 부산일본성(부산왜성)을 모성으로 보면, 지성으로서 모성에 대한 자성을 지칭하는 것으로도 볼 수 있다. 한편 『영남진지(嶺南鎭誌)』에는 임인년에 자성 위에 육우정(六友亭)을 세우고, 승가(勝嘉)라는 이름을 내렸다고 한다. 이에 자성은 한 진(鎭)의 장대가 되고, 승가정은 자성의 장대가 되었다고 기록하였다. 동서의 산을 따라 성벽으로 성곽을 두르고 바닷물을 끌여들여 참호를 20m 너비로 만들어 배가 바로 성벽에 닿도록 되어 있었다고 하는데, 일제강점기에 시가지 정비라는 명목으로 성을 철거하고 자성대 일대 해면은 매축되어 옛모습이 없어졌다. 현재 남아있는 성지(城址)는 2단이며, 성벽의 높이는 최고 10 미터에 최저 1.5 미터이다. 복원 1974년 7월 8일부터 1975년 2월 25일까지 부산시에서 정화 복원공사를 하여 동문, 서문, 장대를 신축하여 동문을 건춘문(建春門), 원래는 진동문(進東門), 서문을 금루관(金壘關), 자성대 정상부에 장대는 진남대(鎭南臺)라고 각각 이름 붙이고 편액을 달았다. 1975년 9월 동문 주변 성곽을 신축하였으며, 서문의 금루관은 높은 다락으로 좌우에는 남요인후, 서문쇄약이라 새긴 돌기둥(우주석)이 각각 서있다. 영가대 1614년 광해군 때 경상도 순찰사 권반이 부산진성 근처 해안가에 선착장을 만들고 그 위에 나무를 심고 정자를 만들었다. 1617년 회답겸쇄환사(回答兼刷還使)였던 오윤겸(吳允謙)이 이 정자에서 일본으로 출발한 다음부터 통신사행은 이곳에서 해신제를 올리고 일본으로 갔다. 1624년(인조 2) 선위사 이민구(李敏求)가 일본 사절을 접대하기 위해 부산에 파견되었다가 이 정자를 보고 권반의 고향 안동의 옛 이름인 영가(永嘉)를 따서‘영가대’(永嘉臺)라고 이름지었다. 원래 동구 범일동 성남초등학교 서쪽 경부선 철로변에 있었던 영가대는 1905년 경부선의 개통으로 철거되어 일제강점기 때 일본상인 오이카와(及川民次郞)의 별장인 능풍장으로 옮겨졌다가 사라졌는데, 2000년 부산광역시의 역사유적지 표석 설치계획에 따라 동구 좌천동 지하철역 부근의 도로공원에 “부산포왜관·영가대터” 표석을 세웠고, 2003년 9월 25일 동구청에서 자성대에 복원했다. 기타 조선시대에는 성 안에 객사, 동헌 등 많은 관공서와 창고 건물이 있었던 것으로 보인다. 현재는 임진왜란에 참전했다가 귀화한 명나라 장군 천만리(千萬里)의 후손이 세운 천장군기념비와 동쪽 산 중턱에는 남해안 일대를 노략질한 왜구를 소탕한 최영장군 비각이 보존되어 있다. 명칭 변경 당초 문화재 지정명칭은 부산진지성(釜山鎭支城)이었으나, 2020년 1월 15일 부산진성(釜山鎭城)으로 변경되었다. 부산진성 이름 찾기 100인 릴레이 2021년 1월 29일 ~ 7월 6일 래추고 현장지원센터(주민협의체)는 부산진성 이름바꾸기 100회차 릴레이 캠페인을 진행했다. (1회차 래추고 도시재생뉴딜사업 박승지 회장, 2회차 래추고 마을관리 사회적협동조합 정순태 이사장, 100회차 박형준 부산시장 참여) 2021년 7월 7일 부산시는 "부산진성 이름찾기 100일 릴레이"에 호응하여 자성대공원 명칭변경을 추진한다고 보도자료를 배부했다. 2022년 동문 현판은 진동문으로, 진남대 현판은 승가정으로 변경됐다. 2023년 1월 4일 국가지명위원회는 자성대에서 유래된 자성대공원을 부산진성공원으로 개정 고시했다. 같이 보기 부산진성 서문 성곽우주석 - 부산광역시 기념물 제19호 부산진 전투 각주 외부 링크 부산진성 부산진성 부산광역시의 성

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busanjinseong

Busanjinseong

The Branch Wall-fortress in Busanjin (), also known as Maruyama Castle (, ) and Konishi Castle (), is located at Beomil-dong, Dong-gu, Busan, South Korea. The existing wall-fortress remains were constructed by the Japanese military during the Imjin War. There are two assertions on the name of Jaseong (Subordinate Castle). One is the wall-fortress on Jeungsan Mountain with Jwacheon-dong as the mother castle and accordingly called Jaseong. The other is that Jaseong was constructed on the mountain top as the General's terrace. The Busanjinjiseong Fortress was also called Mangongdae in memory of Ming-dynasty General Wan Shide who stayed at Jaseongdae to reinforce the Korean soldiers defending against the Imjin War. The wall-fortress was repaired after General Wan Shide returned home. Origin The origin of Jaseongdae was originated from the fact that Busanjinseong Fortress was called Jiseong or Jaseong Fortress, and that Jaseongdae Fortress was made of Jiseong Fortress to form a pole. It was used as Gyeongsangjwado Headquarters which later moved into its present location in Suyeong. It was also used as the Busanjin Naval Headquarters. The wall-fortress was removed by the Japanese during their forced occupation. Around this time the sea encircling Jaseongdae was filled with land, reducing Jaseongdae to a smaller site, however it was later repaired. History In Busanpo, there were inner and outer fortresses, which surrounded Jeungsan, a mountain behind the main industrial complex, and Jaseungdae was built as an open fortress. During the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592, Japanese troops stationed in Busan, and the father and son of Mori rebuilt Busan as a Japanese fortress. It was also called Soseoseong and Hwansanseong Fortress, and in Japan, it was called Maruyama Castle (丸山城, まるやまじょう) and Konishi Castle (少西城) when Busanjinseong was Busan Japanese Fortress. Even now, Busanjinseong is called 'Maruyama Castle' in Japan. It was used as a command post for the Japanese military. After the Japanese army was driven out, the troops under the command of Mansedeok of the Ming Dynasty stayed, so it was called Mangongdae. After the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592, the fortress and Sadaemun Gate were built and the government office were repaired, and it was used as the lodging for the Jwa Do-su Military Preceptor. The castle is known to have been built in 1593 (the 26th year of King Seonjo's reign), along with the main character of Busanjinseong Fortress, which was located in today's Jeungsan Mountain, as well as the father and son of Mōri Hidemoto, who was in charge of the county government of Gyeongsang Province. Meanwhile, Japanese leader Asano Nagayoshi is believed to have contracted or expanded in 1598 (the 31st year of King Seonjo's reign) during the Japanese invasion of Korea. Since the original Busan Fortress, which was originally built during the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592, was destroyed by the Japanese army, the Joseon Navy started using Jaseongdaeweseong Fortress, the intellectual fortress of Busan, as the Busanjinseong Fortress in 1607 (the 40th year of King Seonjo's reign). According to the Chungnyeolsa Temple Site, the Japanese army built a fortress on the top of the towering mountain in the fortress, which was used as a memorial stone for Busan during the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592. Therefore, it is believed that Busanjinseong Fortress was used as a base for Busanjinseong Fortress during the late Joseon Dynasty. In addition, if one looks at Busan Japanese Fortress (Busan Japanese Fortress) as a mother, it can be seen as referring to self-reflection on motherhood as an intellectual. Meanwhile, "Yeongnamjinji" is said to have established Yukwoojeong on top of Jagseong in the year of Imin, and named it Seungga. Therefore, it is recorded that Jagseong became the first generation of Jin and Seunggajeong became the first generation of Jagseong. Rename Originally, the name of the cultural property was Busanjinjiseong, but it was changed to Busanjinseong on 15 January 2020. Buildings and structures in Busan Japanese-style castles in Korea Castles in South Korea

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%84%EB%A6%BD%20%EC%85%B0%EB%A6%AC%EB%93%A0

필립 셰리든

필립 헨리 셰리든(Philip Henry Sheridan, 1831년 3월 6일 ~ 1888년 8월 5일)은 경력 미국 육군 사관이자 미국 남북 전쟁에서 북군의 장군이었다. 그의 경력은 소장으로 그의 급격한 상승과 동부에서 포토맥군의 기마대를 지도하는 데 서부 전선에서 보병 사단의 명령으로부터 셰리든을 옮긴 율리시스 S. 그랜트 중령과 자신의 가까운 협력으로 유명했다. 1864년 그는 셰넌도어 계곡 전역에서 남군을 물리쳤고 거주민들에 의하여 "화재"로 불렸던 셰리든의 계곡의 경제 기반 시설의 파괴는 전쟁에서 초토화 전술의 첫 사용들 중의 하나였다. 1865년 그의 기마대는 로버트 E. 리 장군을 추적하였고 애퍼매턱스 코트 하우스에서 그의 항복을 강요한 것에 수단이었다. 셰리든은 그레이트플레인스의 미국 인디언 전쟁의 후반기를 기소하여 자신을 인종 차별과 인종 말살로 비난한 어떤 역사가과 함께 그의 명성을 더럽혔다. 군인과 민간인 둘다로서 그는 옐로스톤 국립공원의 개발과 보호에서 수단이었다. 생애 셰리든은 아일랜드 캐번주 킬린커 사목구에서 온 이민자들 존과 메리 미너그 셰리든의 6명의 자녀들 중 3번째로 뉴욕주 올버니에서 태어나 오하이오주 소머셋에서 자라왔다. 완전히 자란 그는 5 피트 5 인치 (1.65m) 만의 키에 도달하여 "Little Phil"이란 별명이 붙였다. 에이브러햄 링컨은 유명한 일화에서 그의 나타남을 이렇게 묘사하였다. - "긴 몸에 짧은 다리와 갈색의 두툼한 녀석, 그를 매다는 데 목이 부족하고 만약 발목이 가렵다면 그가 구부리지 않고 긁을 수 있는 그런 긴 팔." 셰리든은 소년으로서 촌의 잡화점들에서 일을 하였으며 결국적으로 건조물 가게를 위하여 사무원과 부기 계원이 되었다. 1848년 그는 자신의 고객들 중의 하나였던 토머스 리치 의원으로부터 미국 육군사관학교로 임명을 잡았으며, 임명을 위하여 리치의 첫 후보는 수학 실력이 떨어지고 "부족한 태도"에 의하여 불합격을 했다. 웨스트포인트에서 자신의 3년째에 셰리든은 급우 윌리엄 R. 테릴과 싸운 것으로 1년간 정학을 당했다. 이전의 날 셰리든은 퍼레이드 그라운드에서 인지된 모욕에 대한 반응으로 총검으로 그를 통과시키겠다고 위협하였다. 그는 52명의 생도들의 자신의 클래스에서 34번째로 1853년에 졸업하였다. 셰리든은 명예 진급 소위로 위임을 받았고 자신의 임무들이 리오그란데강을 따라 인디언들을 싸우는 것에 주로 구성되었던 텍사스주 덩컨 요새에서 제1 보병 연대로, 그러고나서 캘리포니아주 리딩 요새에서 제4 보병 연대로 배정되었다. 제4 연대와 그의 복무의 대부분은 태평양 북서부에서 있었으며 야키마 전쟁과 로그강 전쟁과 연루되었던 동안 1855년 윌래미트 밸리로 지형 조사 임무와 시작되어 작은 전투 팀을 지도하는 것에 경험을 얻어 상처를 입고 (오리건 준주 미들캐스케이드에서 1857년 3월 28일 총알이 그의 코를 스쳤다) 인디언 종족들과 협상을 위하여 필요했던 어떤 외교 실력들을 얻었다. 자신의 복무 기간의 일부 동안 그는 여주인과 살았는 데 인디언 여성이며 클리키타트족 추장의 딸 시드나요 (그녀의 백인 친구에 의하여 "프란세스"로 불림)였다. 1875년 6월 3일 셰리든은 육군 병참장교 대니얼 R. 러커 장군의 딸 아이린 러커에게 결혼하였다. 그들은 4명의 자녀들 - 메리 (1876년생), 쌍둥이 딸 아이린과 루이즈 (1877년생)와 아들 필립 2세 (1880년)를 두었다. 결혼식 후에 셰리든과 그의 부인은 워싱턴 D. C.로 이주하였다. 그들은 1871년 시카고 대화재가 일어난 후 셰리든의 도시의 보호를 위한 감사에 시카고 시민들에 의하여 자신들에게 주어진 집에 살았다. 셰리든은 자신의 회고록을 출판업자에게 보낸지 2개월 후에 일련의 대규모 심근경색을 겪었다. 57세 만의 나이에도 힘든 생활과 힘든 캠페인과 좋은 음식과 음료의 평생 사랑은 그들의 대가를 치루었다. 자신의 청년 시절에 날씬했던 그는 200 파운드 이상을 도달하였다. 자신의 첫 심근경색에 미국 의회는 그를 육군 원수로 승진시키는 데 입법을 빠르게 통과시켰고 그는 자신의 고통에 불구하고 기쁨과 함께 의원들로부터 소식을 받았다. 그의 가족은 워싱턴의 열기로부터 그를 옮겼고 그는 매사추세츠주 브리스틀군에 있는 자신의 휴양 별장에서 사망하였다. 그의 시신은 워싱턴으로 돌아와 알링턴 국립묘지에 있는 알링턴 하우스 근처에 수도 도시를 향하는 언덕에 안장되었다. 그의 부인 아이린 여사는 전혀 재혼하지 않았으며 "난 살아있는 아무 남자의 부인이기 보다는 차라리 필 셰리든의 미망인이 되겠다."고 말했다. 필립 셰리든 2세는 자신의 부친의 발자취를 따라가 1902년 웨스트포인트 클래스의 거의 마지막으로 졸업하였다. 그는 시어도어 루스벨트 대통령에 군사 보좌관 기마대 중위로 복무하였다. 그도 또한 1918년 37세의 나이에 심근경색에 의하여 쓰러졌다. 미국 남북 전쟁 서부 전선 1861년 가을 셰리든은 제13 보병 연대로 배정을 위하여 미주리주 제퍼슨 병영으로 여행을 떠나는 명령을 받았다. 그는 오리건주 얌힐의 자신의 명령으로부터 출발하여 샌프란시스코를 거쳐 파나마 지협을 건너 뉴욕을 지나 잠시의 휴가 동안 소머셋의 고향으로 갔다. 자신의 새로운 직책에 그는 미주리 주무국의 행정이 1천 2백만 달러의 빚의 상태로 놓은 쓸데없는 지출과 사기의 혐의로 더럽혀진 자신의 직계 전임자 존 C. 프리몬트의 재정 기록들을 감사하는 데 그의 복무를 징발했던 헨리 W. 핼렉 소장에게 세인트루이스에서 예의상의 전화를 걸었다. 12월 셰리든은 미주리주 남서부 육군의 최고 대리 사관으로 임명되었으나 자신에게 병참장교의 직위도 주는 데 핼렉 소장을 확신시켰다. 1862년 2월 그는 새뮤얼 커티스 소장의 동료에 의하여 자신의 참모 직위에 대체되기 전에 커티스에게 임무를 위하여 보고하고 피리지 전투에서 그의 아래 복무하였다. 핼렉의 본부로 돌아온 그는 코린스 공방전에 군대를 동행하였고 핼렉의 지형 기사에게 보조인으로 지냈으나 자신에게 오하이오 보병 연대의 대령직을 제공한 윌리엄 테쿰세 셔먼 여단 장군을 알게 되었다. 이 임명은 실패로 끝났으나 셰리든은 이후에 미시간주지사 오스틴 블레어를 대표하여 그를 청원한 친구들 (훗날의 전쟁장관 러셀 A. 앨저를 포함)에게 도움을 받았다. 셰리든은 장착된 팔의 경험이 없음에 불구하고 그해 5월 27일 미시간 제2 기마대의 대령으로 임명되었다. 한달 후에 셰리든은 전투에서 자신의 첫 군단들을 지휘하여 자신의 연대를 포함한 작은 여단을 지도하였다. 7월 1일 분빌 전투에서 그는 제임스 R. 차머스 여단 장군의 남군 기마대의 몇몇 연대들을 저지하였고, 시끄러운 전환으로 대규모 측면 공격을 비끼게 하였으며 적의 배치들에 관하여 중요 정보를 보고하였다. 그의 활동들은 그들이 셰리든의 여단 장군의 진급을 추천한 윌리엄 S. 로즈크랜스 장군을 포함한 사단장들을 매우 감동시켰다. 그들은 핼렉에게 "부족한 준장; 좋은 것들이 부족하다 ... 당신이 셰리든의 진급을 얻을 것을 아래 서명자는 정중하게 구걸합니다. 그의 무게는 그에게 가치가 있습니다."라고 썼다. 승진은 9월에 찬성되었으나 분빌 전투에서 그의 작전들로 보상으로 7월 1일로 발효되었다. 그 일은 그에게 준 그의 동료 장교들 중의 하나가 전쟁을 통하여 셰리든을 탈 "리엔지" (미시시피주 리엔지의 작은 접전의 이름을 딴)라 불리는 말을 주어진지 전투의 겨우 이후였다. 셰리든은 돈 칼로스 뷰얼 소장의 오하이오 군대에서 제11사단 3군단를 명령하는 데 지정되었다. 10월 8일 셰리든은 페리빌 전투에서 자신의 사단을 지도하였다. 완전한 군대가 나타날 때까지 일반적인 교전을 유발하지 않을 것을 명령 받은 셰리든은 그럼에 불구하고 닥터스 크리크에서 논쟁의 여지가 있는 물 공급을 점유하는 데 자신의 부하들을 북군의 전선을 넘어 멀리 보냈다. 자신이 3군단 사령관 찰스 길버트 소장에 의하여 다시 명령을 받았어도 남군은 양군이 많은 사상자를 낸 피비린내 나는 교착 상태인 전투를 여는 데 셰리든의 성급한 운동에 자극을 받았다. 12월 31일 스톤스 리버 전투의 첫날 셰리든은 남군의 공격을 예상하여 전투를 위한 준비에서 자신의 사단을 배치시켰다. 그의 사단은 남군의 탄약이 다 나가고 철수하는 데 강요되었을 때까지 자신의 앞에서 그들의 맹공격을 저지하였다. 이 작전은 강력한 수비 위치에서 집결하는 데 북군에게 시간을 주는 것에 수단이었다. 자신의 활동들로 그는 1863년 4월 10일 소장 (1862년 12월 31일 계급의 날짜와 함께)으로 진급되었고 컴벌랜드 군대의 제2사단 4군단의 사령이 주어졌다. 6개월에 그는 대위에서 소장으로 올라갔다. 컴벌랜드 군대는 스톤스 리버 전투의 충격으로부터 회복하였고 남군의 장군 브랙스턴 브래그를 상대로 여름 공세를 위하여 준비하였다. 셰리든의 군대는 로즈크랜스의 눈부신 털라호마 캠페인에서 브래그를 상대로 전진한 지도적인 사단이었다. 9월 20일 치커모가 전투의 이틀날에 셰리든의 사단은 제임스 롱스트리트 중장의 남군에 의한 공격에 대항한 라이틀힐에 당당한 입장을 취하였으나 압도당했다. 군사령관 로즈크랜스는 자신의 부하들을 위하여 명령들을 남가지 않고 채터누가로 달아났고 무엇을 할지 확실하지 않던 셰리든은 군대의 나머지와 후퇴하는 데 자신의 사단을 명령하였다. 조지 H. 토머스 소장의 사단 만이 굳게 섰다. 토머스 소장으로부터 전장에서 그의 부하들이 홀로 만들고 있는 필사적인 입장에 관한 전갈을 받은 셰리든은 자신의 사단을 전투로 되돌리라고 명령했으나 그들은 우회로를 택하고 북군이 꺾이기 전까지 도착하지 않았다. 그럼에 불구하고, 로즈크랜스와 셰리든의 동료 일부와 달리 셰리든의 복귀하는 시도는 아마 그의 경력을 구했을 것이다. 채터누가 전투가 일어난 동안 11월 25일 미셔너리 리지에서 셰리든의 사단과 토머스의 군대에서 다른 사단들은 토머스와 그랜트의 명령과 기대들을 넘은 거친 혐의로 남군의 전선들을 돌파하였다. 자신의 부하들이 물러서기 바로 전에 셰리든은 그들에게 "치커모가를 기억하라"고 말하고 많은이들은 그들이 자신의 전선에서 소총의 구덩이의 전선으로 명령을 받으면서 전진하면서 그 이름을 소리쳤다. 위에서 적군의 사격에 직면한 그들은 능선을 계속했다. 셰리든은 능선의 볏에 대한 개요를 한 남군 장교들의 단체를 발견하고 "여기 당신이 있습니다!"라고 소리쳤다. 폭발하는 껍질이 흙과 함께 그를 뿌렸고 그는 "그것은 존나 비관적이다! 나는 그것을 위하여 총들을 가져갈 것이다!"고 답하였다. 북군은 능선에 남군의 전선들을 통하여 전격 돌파하였고 브래그의 군대는 후퇴로 떨어졌다. 셰리든은 치커모가 역에 있는 남군의 공급물 창고로 브래그를 쫓는 데 충동적으로 자신의 부하들을 명령하였으나 자신이 자신의 명령이 지금까지 유일한 것이었다는 것을 알아차릴 때 그들을 도로 불렀다. 그랜트 장군은 전투 후에 "셰리든의 빠른 움직임에 컴벌랜드 군대와 국가는 그날 포로, 포병과 작은 무기들의 포획의 대량으로 빚을 졌다. 그의 빠른 추격을 제외하고 이런 식으로 너무 이루어지지 않았을 것이다." 라고 보고하였다. 그랜트는 셰리든에 제외적인 군인을 찾아 동부 전선에서 그의 도움을 다시 요청하였다. 오벌랜드 캠페인 전체 북군의 총사령관으로 새롭게 승진된 율리시스 S. 그랜트 중장은 포토맥군의 기마대를 명령하는 데 동부 전선으로 셰리든을 소환하였다. 셰리든에게 알려지지 않은 것으로 그는 사실 윌리엄 B. 프랭클린 소장 후에 그랜트의 두번째 선택이었으나 그랜트는 헨리 W. 핼렉 참모로부터 셰리든에 관한 제안에 동의하였다. 전쟁 후에 그리고 자신의 회고록에 그랜트는 셰리든이 직업을 위하여 자신이 원했던 바로 그 사람이었던 것을 주장하였다. 셰리든은 그랜트의 로버트 E. 리 장군에 대항하는 대규모 오벌랜드 캠페인의 시작이 있끼 한달 적게 전에 1864년 4월 5일 포토맥군의 본부에 도착하였다. 캠페인의 초기 전투들에서 셰리든의 기마대는 그 전통적 역할 - 상영, 정찰 그리고 열차와 후방 지역들을 경비하는 것으로 군사령관 조지 미드 소장에 의하여 셰리든의 좌절감으로 많이 강등되었다. 광야 전투 (1864년 5월 5일 ~ 5월 6일)에서 숲이 우거진 지형은 기마대의 중요한 역할을 방지하였다. 군대가 스코칠베이니아 코트 하우스의 방향으로 남군의 오른쪽 측면을 돌면서 셰리든의 군인들은 광야로부터 도로를 비우지 못하여 5월 5일 플랭크 로드를 따라, 그리고 5월 6일부터 5월 8일을 거쳐 토드스 태번을 따라 교전들을 잃어 북군의 보병이 도착할 수 있기 전에 남군이 중요한 교차로들을 점령할 수 있도록 허용되었다. 미드가 명령대로 셰리든이 상영과 정찰의 임무들을 수행하지 않은 것으로 그를 견책했을 때 셰리든은 미드의 상관 그랜트 장군에게 직접 가서 그의 군단들은 전략적 습격 임무들로 배정될 것을 추천하였다. 그랜트는 동의하였고 5월 9일부터 5월 24일을 통하여 리치먼드를 향하여 습격에 그를 보내 곧장 남군 기마대를 도전하였다. 습격은 희망했던 것보다 덜 성공적이었으며 5월 11일 그의 군인들이 옐로 태번에서 남군 기마대 사령관 젭 스튜어트 소장을 죽일 수 있었어도 습격은 전혀 심각하게 리치먼드를 위협하지 않았고 그것은 스포칠베이니아와 노스앤나를 위하여 그랜트를 기마대의 정보 없이 놓고 말았다. 역사가 고든 C. 리아는 "스코칠베이니아 코트 하우스로부터 그의 기마대를 데리고 셰리든은 리를 상대로 그의 전투들에서 그랜트를 심하게 장애시켰다. 북군은 캠페인에서 결정적인 시기에 북군은 그의 눈과 귀를 빼앗겼다. 그리고 리치먼드의 방어들로 대담하게 전진하는 데 셰리든의 결정은 그의 명령을 위태롭게 한 불필요한 쇼보팅에 시달렸다."고 썼다. 포토맥군이 재입대한 셰리든의 기마대는 호즈숍 전투 (5월 28일)에서 기술적인 승리로 싸웠으나 사상자가 많았고 남군 기마대가 북군의 처분에 관하여 귀중한 정보를 얻도록 하였다. 그 일은 콜드하버 전투 (6월 1일 ~ 6월 12일)를 촉발한 중요한 교차로를 점령하였고 강화될 때까지 수많은 공격들을 견디어 냈다. 셰리든은 그러고나서 버지니아 세트럴 철도를 끊고 데이비드 헌터 소장의 셰넌도어 계곡 군대와 연결하는 데 북서부로 습격을 진행하였다. 그는 웨이드 햄프턴 소장 아래의 남군 기마대에 의하여 차단되고 트레빌리언 스테이션 전투에서 꺾여 습격의 모든 목표에 실패하였다. 역사는 오버랜드 캠페인에서 셰리든의 성공에 확실히 엇깔린 의견을 이끌어내며 옐로태번 전투에서 북군의 승리가 매우 분명하기 때문에 적지 않은 부분이 있고, 젭 스튜어트의 사망에 의하여 강조되었고 다른 활동과 전투를 가리는 경향이 있다. 캠페인에서 기마대의 활동들에 관한 셰리든의 보고에서 그는 "결과는 끊임없는 성공이었고 반군 기병의 거의 완전 전멸이었다. 우리는 우리가 원하는 시간과 장소에서 행진하였고, 우리는 항상 공격측이었으며 항상 성공적이었다."고 썼다. 상방된 견해는 4개의 전술적 습격들 (리치먼드, 트레빌리언, 윌슨-카우츠와 퍼스트딥 보텀)과 캠페인의 13개 주요 기병 교전에 관하여 셰리든의 어떤 군대들이 간신히 파괴를 피했던 호즈숍, 트레빌리언, 미도우 브리지, 사마리아 처치와 윌슨-카우츠 습격 패배들과 함께 옐로우 태번 만이 북군의 승리였다는 것을 적어둔 역사가 에릭 J. 위턴버그에 의하여 출판되었다. 셰넌도어군 전쟁을 통하여 남부는 메릴랜드주와 펜실베이니아주를 침입하고 워싱턴 D. C.를 위협하는 데 셰넌도어 계곡을 통하여 군대들을 버지니아주의 외부로 파견하였다. 1864년의 셰넌도어 계곡 전역 캠페인에서 같은 양식을 따르고 피터스버그 공방전으로부터 그랜트를 산만하게 하기를 바란 주벌 얼리 중장은 워싱턴 근처에서 북군을 공격하고 펜실베이니아주에서 몇몇의 타운들을 습격하였다. 침입에 의하여 일으켜진 정치적 소동에 반응한 그랜트는 셰넌도어군으로 알려진 야전 부대인 중앙 군사 중앙 군사 사단을 결성하였다. 셰리든이 군대를 지휘하려고 한 동안 군사 사단을 위하여 후자의 2명과 함께 그는 조지 미드, 윌리엄 B. 프랭클린과 데이비드 헌터를 포함한 다양한 사령관 후보자들을 숙고하였다. 이 전체의 선택들은 그랜트 혹은 전쟁부, 그리고 그런 높은 직위를 위하여 그가 너무 어린 것으로 믿은 전쟁 장관 에드윈 M. 스탠턴의 반대에 의하여 거절되었고 셰리든이 1864년 8월 7일 하퍼즈페리에서 둘다의 역할에 사령직을 택하였다. 그의 특명은 얼리의 군대를 꺾고 북부의 침입로를 봉쇄하는 목적 뿐만 아니라 남부에게 생산적인 농업 지역으로서 셰넌도어 계곡을 부인하는 것이었다. 그랜트는 셰리든에게 이렇게 말했다. - "이런 습격들을 예상해야 할 군대는 그들 사이에서 살아남을 수 있는 한 사람들은 알려져야 하고 우리는 모든 위험에서 그들을 중지하기로 결정했습니다 ... 적군에게 휴식을 주지 않습니다 ... 당신이 할 수 있는 철도와 곡식에 피해를 입혀요. 추가 심기를 방지하는 것에 관하여 모든 설명 중의 재고와 니그로들을 반출해요. 만약 전쟁이 1년 더 지속된다면 우리는 셰넌도어 계곡이 척박한 황무지로 남아있기를 원합니다." 느린 출발을 한 셰리든은 얼리에 도달하는 강화로 결성하고 반응하는 데 시간이 필요했으며 그랜트는 "당신에 대한 이점으로" 공격을 발포하지 않도록 명령을 내렸다. 그리고 아직 그랜트는 셰리든의 발전 부족으로 좌절감을 표했다. 군대들은 한달 동안 교전하지 않은 상태로 남아있었으며 1864년 미국 대통령 선거가 가까워지면서 북부에서 정치적 충격을 일으켰다. 2명의 장군은 찰스타운에서 9월 16일 회담을 가지고 셰리든이 4일 안에 그의 공격들을 시작할 것을 동의하였다. 9월 19일 셰리든은 제3차 윈체스터 전투에서 얼리의 더욱 작은 군대를 꺾고 피셔스힐 전투에서 승리와 함께 9월 22일에 따라졌다. 얼리가 재편성을 시도하면서 셰리든은 자신의 특명의 징벌적 작전들을 시작하여 가축과 조항들을 포위하거나 공격하고, 헛간, 제재소, 공장, 철도들을 불태우는 데 웨인스보로 만큼 멀리 남부로 자신의 기마대를 보냈다. 셰리든의 부하들은 자신들의 업무를 가차 없이 했고 완전히 1036km² 이상 거주 불가를 세웠다. 필수 자원들은 과정에서 남부로부터 효과적으로 지켜졌다. 파괴는 셔먼 장군의 조지아주를 통하여 바다로 행렬 - 그것을 지지하는 대중들에게 전쟁의 효과를 운영하고 가져오는 것으로부터 군대에게 기지를 부인하는 것의 초토화 전술을 예고하였다. 거주민들은 이 넓게 퍼진 파괴를 "불타는" 것으로 추천하였다. 남군은 이 시기 동안 게으르지 않았고 셰리든의 부하들은 빨찌산 유격병 대령 존 S. 모스비에 의한 게릴라 습격에 시달렸다. 셰리든이 얼리가 효과적으로 활동하지 않는 것을 추정하고 피터스버그에서 그랜트에게 재가입하는 데 자신의 군대를 철수시키는 것을 숙고했어도 얼리는 강화를 받고 10월 19일 셰리든이 윈체스터에서 10 마일 떨어져 그의 군대에서 결석했던 동안 세다크리크에서 잘 수행된 공격을 발포하였다. 포병의 먼 소리를 들은 그는 공격적으로 그의 명령에 말을 탔다. 그는 오전 10시 30분 경에 전장에 도달하였고 자신의 부하들을 집결하기 시작했다. 셰리든을 위하여 다행이도 얼리의 부하들은 주의를 기울이기에 너무나 바빴으며 그들은 배가 고프고 지쳤으며 북군의 막사를 약탈하는 데 떨어졌다. 셰리든의 제4군단을 지휘한 호레이쇼 G. 라이트 소장이 이미 자신의 부하를 집결하고 그들의 후퇴를 막았어도 셰리든의 활동들은 정통적으로 하루를 구한 것으로 인정을 받았다. 얼리는 자신의 가장 의미적인 패배를 다루어 오면서 자신의 군대를 이후의 공격 활동의 거의 무능하게 만들었다. 북군은 이제 셰넌도어 계곡을 확고히 통제하고 리치먼드에서 남부의 수도를 공격할 수 있는 더 큰 기회를 가질 것이었다. 셰리든은 에이브러햄 링컨 대통령으로부터 개인적인 감사의 편지를 받았고 11월 8일로 봐서 정규군에서 소장의 계급으로 올라가 그랜트, 셔먼과 미드에 이어 그를 미국 육군에서 4번째 순위 장군으로 만들었다. 유명한 시 〈셔먼의 승마〉는 장군의 전투로 복귀를 기념하는 데 토머스 뷰캐넌 리드에 의하여 작성되었다. 셰리든은 리드의 시가 자신을 데려온 유명세를 탔으며 자신의 말 리엔지를 시의 후렴 "윈체스터, 20 마일 떨어진 곳"에 기초를 둔 윈체스터로 다시 이름을 지었다. 시는 공화당의 선거 운동에서 넓게 사용되었고 어떤이들은 그것으로 링컨의 승리를 인정하였다. 셰리든은 가벼운 접전과 게릴라들을 싸우면서 영유된 다음 몇달을 보냈다. 남부로 이동하여 피터스버그를 공급하는 버지니아 센트럴 철도를 끊는 데 셰리든을 위하여 그랜트가 자신의 권고를 지속하였어도 셰리든은 저항하였다. 라이트의 제4군단은 11월 그랜트에게 가입하러 돌아왔다. 셰리든의 남은 부하들, 주로 기마대와 포병은 결국 1865년 2월 27일 자신들의 겨울 본부로부터 나가 동부로 향했다. 그랜트 장군으로부터 명령들은 대체로 재량적이었으며 그들은 버지니아 센트럴 철도와 제임스강 운하를 파괴하고, 만약 실행할 수 있다면 린치버그를 포위하고 그러고나서 노스캐롤라이나주에서 셔먼에 가입하거나 윈체스터로 돌아가는 것이었다. 애퍼매턱스 캠페인 셰리든은 그랜트의 명령들을 자유롭게 해석하였고 1865년 3월 노스캐롤라이나주로 향하는 대신 그는 피터스버그에서 포토맥군에 재가입하러 이동하였다. 그는 자신의 회고록에 "전쟁이 거의 끝나가고 있었다는 것을 느낀 나는 나의 기마대가 죽음이기를 바랬다."라고 썼다. 남북 전쟁에서 그의 가장 좋은 복무는 로버트 E. 리의 군대에 대한 끊임 없는 추격이 있던 동안 시연되어 그랜트를 위하여 효과적으로 애퍼매턱스 캠페인의 가장 중요한 측면을 관리하였다. 피터스버그로 가는 길에 3월 2일 웨인스보로 전투에서 그는 얼리의 군대의 나머지를 가두고 1500명의 군인들이 항복하였다. 셰리든은 드윈들 코트하우스에서 3월 31일 조지 피켓에 맞섰으나 4월 1일 그는 파이브 포크스 전투에서 리 장군의 지지선을 끊어 피터스버그에서 철수하도록 리를 강요하였다. 이 전투가 일어난 동안 그는 이후에 조사 법원이 정당하지 않다고 결정된 상황에 따라 제4군단의 명령으로부터 거버누어 K. 워런 소장을 제거함으로서 셰리든은 그의 군사 경력을 망쳤다. 4월 6일 세일러스 크리크 전투에서 셰리든의 공격적이고 잘 수행된 활약은 효과적으로 리의 군대의 운명을 봉인하여 그의 남은 부하들의 20 퍼센트 이상을 포로로 잡고 리치먼드의 방어를 버리도록 그를 강요하였다. 다음날 링컨 대통령은 그랜트에게 전보를 보냈다. - "셰리든 장군은 '내가 리가 항복할 것을 생각하는 것이 발행된다면' 기사가 발행되도록 하시오." 4월 9일 애퍼매턱스 코트 하우스에서 현장으로 치열하게 달려간지 3일 후에 셰리든은 리의 탈출을 막아 그날 늦게 북부 버지니아 군대의 항복을 강요하였다. 이 최종의 날들에 그랜트는 리틀 필의 활약을 다음과 같이 요약하였다. - "난 셰리든 장군이 장군으로서 우월한 사람이 없고, 살던 죽던 그리고 아마도 동등하지 않을 것이라고 믿는다." 재건 리와 노스캐롤라이나주에서 조지프 E. 존스턴 장군의 항복 후, 남아있던 단 하나의 상당한 남군의 현장력은 에드먼드 커비 스미스 장군 아래 텍사스주에 있었다. 1865년 5월 17일 지체 없이 스미스를 꺾고 텍사스주와 루이지애나주를 합중국의 통치로 복구하는 목적으로 그랜트는 셰리든을 남서부의 군사 구역의 사령관으로 임명하였다. 하지만 스미스는 셰리든이 뉴올리언스에 도달하기 전에 항복하였다. 그랜트는 또한 40,000명의 프랑스 군인들이 막시밀리아노 1세의 꼭두각시 체제를 지탱하고 있었던 이웃하는 멕시코에서 상황에 관하여 걱정이 되어 큰 텍사스주 점령군을 위하여 셰리든을 허락하였다. 셰리든은 3개의 군단에 50,000명의 남성들을 집합시켜 빠르게 텍사스주의 해안 도시들을 점령하고 내륙으로 퍼져 미국-멕시코 국경을 순찰하기 시작하였다. 군대의 존재, 미국의 정치적 압력과 베니토 후아레스의 커져가는 저항은 프랑스군을 멕시코에 자신들의 주장들을 버리고 1866년 나폴레옹 3세가 자신의 군대를 철수시키도록 권유하였다. 셰리든은 이후에 자신의 회고록에 그는 후아레스의 군대들에게 무기들을 공급했다는 것을 인정하였다. 1866년 7월 30일 셰리든이 텍사스주에 있었던 동안 뉴올리언스에서 백인 폭도가 주의 헌법 제정회의를 깨뜨렸다. 34명의 흑인들이 살해되었다. 셰리든이 돌아온지 짧은 후에 그는 그랜트에게 "이 도시에서 30일 사건에 대해 더 많은 정보를 얻을수록 더욱 역겹습니다. 그것은 폭동이 아닌 순수한 학살입니다."라고 유선하였다. 1867년 3월 재건이 간신히 시작되면서 셰리든은 제5 군사 구역 (텍사스주와 루이지애나주)의 군사 총재로 임명되었다. 그는 전직 남군들을 위하여 심하게 투표 등록을 제한시켰고, 그러고나서 흑인 남성들을 포함한 등록된 투표인들 만이 배심원으로 봉사하는 데 자격을 갖추도록 요구하였다. 1866년의 죽음의 폭동으로 들어간 문의는 다수의 지방 공무원들을 연루시키고 셰리든은 뉴올리언스 시장, 루이지애나주 법무 장관과 지방 판사를 해고시켰다. 그는 이후에 루이지애나주지사 제임스 M. 웰스를 해고시켜 그를 "정치 사기꾼이자 부정직한 사람"으로 지내온 것으로 고발하였다. 그는 또한 전직 남군인 텍사스주지사 제임스 W. 스록모턴을 "주의 재건으로 장애물"인 것으로 해고시켜 이전 선거에서 그에게 패한 공화당원과 함께 그를 대체하였다. 셰리든은 군사 재건 법령와 투표권 문제들의 해석들에 몇달간 앤드루 존슨 대통령과 불화해 왔으며 두번째 해고의 한달 안에 대통령은 셰리든을 해고시켜 분노한 그랜트 장군에게 "사실 그의 지배는 우리 정부의 원칙들 혹은 우리의 무료 기관들의 특성으로 참조 없이 절대 폭정 중의 하나로 지내왔다."고 언급하였다. 셰리든이 텍사스주에서 인기가 없었다면 홀로 별의 주를 위하여 그는 그다지 감사하지도 않았다. 1866년 신문들은 다양한 형성들에 이후의 세월에 그가 되풀이한 성명으로 "만약 내가 텍사스주와 지옥 둘다를 소유했다면 난 텍사스주를 빌리고 지옥에서 살 것이었다."로 말하면서 그를 인용하였다. 셰리든이 서부에서 임무로 할당된 동안 그랜트 행정부 동안 그는 재건에서 머뭇거리던 문제들과 다루는 데 2개의 추가적 차례에 걸쳐 루이지애나주로 보내졌다. 1875년 1월 불법적인 의미들에 의하여 통제권을 장악하는 데 공화당원과 민주당원들 둘다에 의하여 시도들에 이어 루이지애나주 입법부에 연방군이 개입하였다. 셰리든은 논쟁의 여지가 있던 1872년 주 선거의 승자인 공화당 카펫배거 윌리엄 P. 켈로그를 지지하였고 그의 정권 반대자들은 전부 군사 재판과 자신들의 인신 보호 권리의 상실을 복종해야 할 "산적"이었다는 것을 선언하였다. 그랜트 행정부는 엄청난 대중의 항의 끝에 포기하였다. 뉴욕 월드 신문의 표제는 "포학! 죽임을 당한 주권 국가!"였다. 1876년 셰리든은 논쟁의 여지가 있던 대통령 선거의 여파로 평화를 지키는 군인들을 지휘하는 데 뉴올리언스로 보내졌다. 인디언 전쟁 그레이트플레인스에 인디언들은 남북 전쟁이 일어난 동안 정통적으로 평화롭게 지내왔다. 1864년 콜로라도의 민병대 장교 존 코빙턴 소령은 샌드크리크에서 아라파호족과 남부 샤이엔족의 평화로운 마을을 공격하여 150명 이상의 인디언들을 살해하였다. 그 공격은 인디언들과 총력전에 불을 붙였다. 2,590,000km² 이상의 행정적 지역으로 미시시피강과 로키산맥 사이에 전체의 대지를 에워싼 그레이트플레인스의 보호는 미주리 주무국 아래 떨어졌다. 윈필드 스콧 핸콕 소장은 1866년 주무국으로 할당되었으나 자신의 캠페인을 잘못 처리하여 샤이엔족과 수족의 앙갚음의 습격들에 결과를 가져왔다. 인디언들은 지속적으로 우편 마차들을 공격하고, 역들을 불태우고 피고용인들을 살해하였다. 그들은 또한 국경에서 숙고적인 다수의 정착자들을 강간하고, 살해하고 납치하였다. 그레이트플레인스에서 당양한 지사들로부터 압박 아래 그랜트 장군은 필 셰리든에게 향했다. 1867년 8월 그랜트는 미주리 주무국의 우두머리를 맡고 평원을 평정하는 데 셰리든을 임명하였다. 심지어 주의 민병대와 함께 보충된 그의 군대는 실제 효과를 내기에는 너무 얇게 퍼졌다. 그는 셰넌도어 계곡에서 자신이 이용했던 것과 비슷한 전략을 구상하였다. 1868년 ~ 69년의 겨울 캠페인에서 그는 샤이엔족, 카이오와족과 코만치족을 공격하여 그들의 공급물과 가축을 가져가고, 저항한 자들을 살해하고 나머지를 보호 구역들로 되돌려 보냈다. 의회 증언에서 홍보하면서 그레이트플레인스에서 들소의 방대한 무리의 도살과 다른 의미들에 의하여 셰리든은 인디언들이 그들의 주요 식량 공급원의 박탈하는 것을 도왔다. 1875년 셰리든은 의회로 다음과 같은 진술을 만들었다. - "항구적 평화를 위하여 들소들이 멸종할 때까지 그들이 죽이고, 가죽을 벗기고 팔도록 하자." 이 전략은 인디언들이 자신들의 조약들을 존중했을 때까지 지속되었다. 셰리든의 주무부는 레드리버 전쟁, 유트 전쟁과 신임하던 부하 조지 암스트롱 커스터 중령의 사망에 결과를 가져온 블랙힐스 전쟁을 지휘하였다. 인디언 습격들은 1870년대 동안 가라 앉았고 셰리든이 미국 육군의 총사령관이 되면서 1880년대 초순까지 거의 끝났다. 다른 배정들 1869년 3월 4일 셰리든은 중장으로 진급되었다. 1870년 그랜트 대통령은 셰리든의 요청에 프로이센-프랑스 전쟁에 관찰하고 보고하는 데 그를 보냈다. 프로이센 국왕의 손님으로서 그는 멕시코에서 프랑스군과 자신의 경험들을 따른 자신에게 만족스러웠던 나폴레옹 3세가 프로이센군에게 항복했을 때 출석하였다. 그는 후에 유럽의 대부분을 수낭하였고 프로이센인들은 "승리하는 데 결심과 함께 각각의 전투로 들어간 매우 좋은 용감한 사나이들이었어도 ... 여기서는 전문적으로 배울 것이 없습니다."라는 것을 그랜트에게 보고하는 데 미국으로 돌아왔다. 그는 그들의 기마대를 다루는 것을 비판하였고 미드가 자신을 감독하려고 시도했던 것에 그들의 관행을 매너에 비유하였다. 1871년 시카고 대화재가 일어난 동안 시카고에 있었고, 군사 구호 활동을 조정하였다. 공황을 진정시키는 데 시장은 도시를 계엄령 아래 놓고 그에게 책임을 묻는 포고령을 내렸다. 광범한 소동은 없었으면서 계엄령은 며칠 만에 풀렸다. 셰리든의 거주지는 구해졌어도 그의 전문적과 개인적 서류들은 전부 파괴되었다. 1886년부터 1888년까지 미국 재향군인회 군사 훈장 보훈 기구에서 총사령관으로 지냈다. 1878년 셰리든은 네즈 퍼스족의 추장 조지프의 포획에 보조하는 시간에 그레이트플레인스로 돌아오려고 했다. 1883년 11월 1일 셰리든은 미국 육군의 지휘 장군으로서 셔먼을 승계하였고 제로니모가 포획될 때까지 그 직위를 보유하였다. 1888년 6월 1일 자신의 사망하기 조금 전에 정규군의 장군의 계급으로 승진되었다. 옐로스톤 옐로스톤 지역의 보호는 셰리든의 개인적 십자군이었다. 그는 워시번산 원정 (1870년)을 동행하는 데 구스타버스 도언 중위를, 헤이든산 원정 (1871년)을 동행하는 데 존 W. 발로 대위를 승인하였다. 1875년 만큼 일찍이 셰리든은 자연 형성 및 야생 동물의 파괴를 방지하는 데 지역의 군사 통제를 흥행하였다. 1882년 미국 내무부는 공원에서 4000 에이커 (16km²)를 개발하는 데 옐로스톤 공원 개선 회사에게 권리를 부여하였다. 그들의 계획은 공원으로 들어가는 철도를 건설하고 개발업자들에게 대지를 파는 것이었다. 셰리든은 개인적으로 공원의 보호를 위하여 반대를 조직하고 의회에 압력을 가했으며 확장, 군사 통제, 10 에이커 (40,000m²)로 개발을 줄이고 공원 주변 관광지들에 임대를 금지하는 것을 포함하였다. 그의 가한 압력은 곧 성과를 거두었다. 1883년의 선드라이 민사 법안에 조항이 추가되어 셰리든과 그의 지지자들에게 그들이 의문한 거의 모든것을 주었다. 1886년 일련의 비효율적인 후와 어쩌다 형사 감독관들로 셰리든은 공원으로 제1 미국 기마대를 명령하였다. 군사는 국립 공원 서비스가 1916년에 차지했을 때까지 공원을 운영하였다. 유산 셰리든은 자신의 공격적인 군사 전술과 빠르게 반응하는 능력으로 자신의 일생을 통하여 잘 알려졌다. 자신의 전쟁터 시절을 통하여 그랜트 장군과 링컨 대통령 같은 북부에서 중요한 인물들에 의하여 칭송을 얻었다. 그는 승리를 위하여 헌신했고 그 목표를 실현하기 위하여 어떤 적과도 맞설 준비가 되어 있었다. 재건은 그를 가혹한 사람으로 보기 위하여 남부를 자극하였다. 그는 직접 남부를 혐오하였고 그것을 인정하는 것을 부끄러워하지 않았다. 그는 전쟁터에서 높이 성공적이었고 북군의 가장 좋은 장교들 중의 하나로 여겨졌다. 일리노이주에 있는 포트셰리든은 셰리든 장군의 시카고로 많은 서비스들을 영예하는 데 이름이 붙었다. M551 셰리든 탱크는 셰리든 장군의 이름을 땄다. 옐로스톤 국립공원에 있는 셰리든산은 존 W. 발로 대위에 의하여 셰리든을 위하여 이름이 지어졌다. 1890년부터 1891년까지 10 달러 지폐에 셰리든이 나왔다. 그의 흉상은 그러고나서 1896년 5 달러 실버 인증서에 다시 나타났다. 이 드문 지폐들은 오늘날 수집자들에 의하여 큰 수요가 있었다. 몬태나주, 와이오밍주와 캔자스주에 있는 셰리든군들은 그의 이름을 땄다. 뉴욕의 웨스트빌리지에 있는 셰리든 스퀘어는 장군의 이름을 따고 그의 동상은 크리스토퍼 스트리트 공원 가까이 전시되었다. 워싱턴 D. C.에 있는 셰리든 서클과 셰리든 스트리트도 또한 그의 이름을 땄다. 오하이오주에 있는 단 하나의 승마 남북 전쟁 동상은 셰리든을 영예한다. 그것은 셰리든이 자라온 집으로부터 멀지 않은 오하이오주 소머셋에 있는 US 루트 22에 중앙 로터리에 있다. 제2차 세계 대전에서 미국의 리버티 군함 SS "Philip H. Sheridan" 호는 그의 영예에 이름이 붙었다. 알링턴 국립묘지에 있는 셰리든 드라이브는 장군의 묘비를 담은 지역을 부분적으로 둘러쌌다. 각주 외부 링크 PBS on Sheridan PBS National parks on Sheridan, including rare images Sheridan's Ride poem Pictures of US Treasury Notes featuring Philip Sheridan, provided by the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco. Commentary on Sheridan's role at Chickamauga 1888년 사망 1831년 출생 미국 육군 군인 19세기 미국의 정치인 뉴욕주의 활동가 미국 남북 전쟁 관련자 미국 육군사관학교 동문 아일랜드계 미국인 미국의 로마 가톨릭교도 알링턴 국립묘지의 매장자 올버니 (뉴욕주) 출신 루이지애나주의 공화당 당원 텍사스주의 공화당 당원

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip%20Sheridan

Philip Sheridan

General of the Army Philip Henry Sheridan (March 6, 1831 – August 5, 1888) was a career United States Army officer and a Union general in the American Civil War. His career was noted for his rapid rise to major general and his close association with General-in-chief Ulysses S. Grant, who transferred Sheridan from command of an infantry division in the Western Theater to lead the Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Potomac in the East. In 1864, he defeated Confederate forces under General Jubal Early in the Shenandoah Valley and his destruction of the economic infrastructure of the Valley, called "The Burning" by residents, was one of the first uses of scorched-earth tactics in the war. In 1865, his cavalry pursued Gen. Robert E. Lee and was instrumental in forcing his surrender at Appomattox Courthouse. Sheridan waged war on the Native Americans during the Indian Wars of the Great Plains. He was instrumental in the development and protection of Yellowstone National Park, both as a soldier and a private citizen. In 1883, Sheridan was appointed general-in-chief of the U.S. Army, and in 1888 he was promoted to the rank of General of the Army during the term of President Grover Cleveland. Early life and education Sheridan was born in Albany, New York, the third child of six of John and Mary Meenagh Sheridan, Irish Catholic immigrants from the parish of Killinkere in County Cavan, Ireland. He grew up in Somerset, Ohio. Small in stature, he reached only 5 feet 5 inches (165 cm) tall, earning him the nickname, "Little Phil." Abraham Lincoln described his appearance in a famous anecdote: "A brown, chunky little chap, with a long body, short legs, not enough neck to hang him, and such long arms that if his ankles itch he can scratch them without stooping." As a boy, Sheridan worked in a general store and later as head clerk and bookkeeper at a dry goods store. In 1848, he obtained an appointment to the United States Military Academy from a nomination from one of his customers, Congressman Thomas Ritchey, whose first candidate was disqualified by failing a mathematics examination and a "poor attitude." In his fourth year at West Point, Sheridan was suspended for a year for fighting with classmate, William R. Terrill. The previous day, Sheridan had threatened to run him through with a fixed bayonet in reaction to a perceived insult on the parade ground. He graduated in 1853, 34th in his class of 52 cadets. Sheridan was commissioned as a brevet second lieutenant and was assigned to the 1st U.S. Infantry Regiment at Fort Duncan, Texas, then to the 4th U.S. Infantry Regiment at Fort Reading, California. Most of his service with the 4th Infantry was in the Pacific Northwest, starting with a topographical survey mission to the Willamette Valley in 1855, during which he became involved with the Yakima War and Rogue River Wars, gaining experience in leading small combat teams, being wounded (a bullet grazed his nose on March 28, 1857, at Middle Cascade, Oregon Territory), and some of the diplomatic skills needed for negotiating with Indian tribes. He and an Indian woman from Rogue River (Oregon) lived together during part of his tour of duty. Named Frances by her white friends, she was the daughter of Takelma Chief Harney. Sheridan was promoted to first lieutenant in March 1861, just before the Civil War, and to captain in May, just weeks after the attack on Fort Sumter. Civil War Western Theater In the fall of 1861, Sheridan was ordered to travel to Jefferson Barracks, near St. Louis, Missouri, for assignment to the 13th U.S. Infantry. He departed from his command of Fort Yamhill, Oregon, by way of San Francisco, across the Isthmus of Panama, and through New York City to home in Somerset for a brief leave. On the way to his new post, he made a courtesy call to Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck in St. Louis, who commandeered his services to audit the financial records of his immediate predecessor, Maj. Gen. John C. Frémont, whose administration of the Department of the Missouri was tainted by charges of wasteful expenditures and fraud that left the status of $12 million in debt. Sheridan sorted out the mess, impressing Halleck in the process. Much to Sheridan's dismay, Halleck's vision for Sheridan consisted of a continuing role as a staff officer. Nevertheless, Sheridan performed the task assigned to him and entrenched himself as an excellent staff officer in Halleck's view. In December, Sheridan was appointed chief commissary officer of the Army of Southwest Missouri, but convinced the department commander, Halleck, to give him the position of quartermaster general as well. In January 1862, he reported for duty to Maj. Gen. Samuel Curtis and served under him at the Battle of Pea Ridge. Sheridan soon discovered that officers were engaged in profiteering. They stole horses from civilians and demanded payment from Sheridan. He refused to pay for the stolen property and confiscated the horses for the use of Curtis's army. When Curtis ordered him to pay the officers, Sheridan brusquely retorted, "No authority can compel me to jayhawk or steal." Curtis had Sheridan arrested for insubordination but Halleck's influence appears to have ended any formal proceedings. Sheridan performed aptly in his role under Curtis and, now returned to Halleck's headquarters, he accompanied the army on the Siege of Corinth and served as an assistant to the department's topographical engineer, but also made the acquaintance of Brig. Gen. William T. Sherman, who offered him the colonelcy of an Ohio infantry regiment. This appointment fell through, but Sheridan was subsequently aided by friends (including future Secretary of War Russell A. Alger), who petitioned Michigan Governor Austin Blair on his behalf. Sheridan was appointed colonel of the 2nd Michigan Cavalry on May 27, 1862, despite having no experience in the mounted arm. A month later, Sheridan commanded his first forces in combat, leading a small brigade that included his regiment. At the Battle of Booneville, Mississippi, July 1, 1862, he held back several regiments of Brig. Gen. James R. Chalmers's Confederate cavalry, deflected a large flanking attack with a noisy diversion, and reported critical intelligence about enemy dispositions. His actions so impressed the division commanders, including Brig. Gen. William S. Rosecrans, that they recommended Sheridan's promotion to brigadier general. They wrote to Halleck, "Brigadiers scarce; good ones scarce. ... The undersigned respectfully beg that you will obtain the promotion of Sheridan. He is worth his weight in gold." The promotion was approved in September, but dated effective July 1 as a reward for his actions at Booneville. It was just after Booneville that one of his fellow officers gave him the horse that he named Rienzi (after the skirmish of Rienzi, Mississippi), which he would ride throughout the war. Sheridan was assigned to command the 11th Division, III Corps, in Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell's Army of the Ohio. On October 8, 1862, Sheridan led his division in the Battle of Perryville. Under orders from Buell and his corps commander, Maj. Gen. Charles Gilbert, Sheridan sent Col. Daniel McCook's brigade to secure a water supply for the army. McCook drove off the Confederates and secured water for the parched Union troops at Doctor's Creek. Gilbert ordered McCook not to advance any further and then rode to consult with Buell. Along the way, Gilbert ordered his cavalry to attack the Confederates in Dan McCook's front. Sheridan heard the gunfire and came to the front with another brigade. Although the cavalry failed to secure the heights in front of McCook, Sheridan's reinforcements drove off the Southerners. Gilbert returned and ordered Sheridan to return to McCook's original position. Sheridan's aggressiveness convinced the opposing Confederates under Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk, that they should remain on the defensive. His troops repelled Confederate attacks later that day, but did not participate in the heaviest fighting of the day, which occurred on the Union left. On December 31, 1862, the first day of the Battle of Stones River, Sheridan anticipated a Confederate assault and positioned his division in preparation for it. His division held back the Confederate onslaught on his front until their ammunition ran out and they were forced to withdraw. This action was instrumental in giving the Union army time to rally at a strong defensive position. For his actions, he was promoted to major general on April 10, 1863 (with date of rank December 31, 1862). In six months, he had risen from captain to major general. The Army of the Cumberland recovered from the shock of Stones River and prepared for its summer offensive against Confederate General Braxton Bragg. Sheridan's division participated in the advance against Bragg in Rosecrans's brilliant Tullahoma Campaign, and was the lead division to enter the town of Tullahoma. On the second day of the Battle of Chickamauga, September 20, 1863, Rosecrans was shifting Sheridan's division behind the Union battle line when Bragg launched an attack into a gap in the Union line. Sheridan's division made a gallant stand on Lytle Hill against an attack by the Confederate corps of Lt. Gen. James Longstreet, but was swamped by retreating Union soldiers. The Confederates drove Sheridan's division from the field in confusion. He gathered as many men as he could and withdrew toward Chattanooga, rallying troops along the way. Learning of Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas's XIV Corps stand on Snodgrass Hill, Sheridan ordered his division back to the fighting, but they took a circuitous route and did not participate in the fighting as some histories claim. His return to the battlefield ensured that he did not suffer the fate of Rosecrans who was falsely accused of riding off to Chattanooga leaving the army to its fate, and was soon relieved of command. During the Battle of Chattanooga, at Missionary Ridge on November 25, 1863, Sheridan's division and others in George Thomas's army broke through the Confederate lines in a wild charge that exceeded the orders and expectations of Thomas and Ulysses S. Grant. Just before his men stepped off, Sheridan told them, "Remember Chickamauga," and many shouted its name as they advanced as ordered to a line of rifle pits in their front. Faced with enemy fire from above, however, they continued up the ridge. Sheridan spotted a group of Confederate officers outlined against the crest of the ridge and shouted, "Here's at you!" An exploding shell sprayed him with dirt and he responded, "That's damn ungenerous! I shall take those guns for that!" The Union charge broke through the Confederate lines on the ridge and Bragg's army fell into retreat. Sheridan impulsively ordered his men to pursue Bragg to the Confederate supply depot at Chickamauga Station, but called them back when he realized that his was the only command so far forward. General Grant reported after the battle, "To Sheridan's prompt movement, the Army of the Cumberland and the nation are indebted for the bulk of the capture of prisoners, artillery, and small arms that day. Except for his prompt pursuit, so much in this way would not have been accomplished." Overland Campaign Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, newly promoted to be general-in-chief of all the Union armies, summoned Sheridan to the Eastern Theater to command the Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Potomac. Unbeknownst to Sheridan, he was actually Grant's second choice, after Maj. Gen. William B. Franklin, but Grant agreed to a suggestion about Sheridan from Chief of Staff Henry W. Halleck. After the war, and in his memoirs, Grant claimed that Sheridan was the very man he wanted for the job. Sheridan arrived at the headquarters of the Army of the Potomac on April 5, 1864, less than a month before the start of Grant's massive Overland Campaign against Robert E. Lee. In the early battles of the campaign, Sheridan's cavalry was relegated by army commander Maj. Gen. George Meade to its traditional role—screening, reconnaissance, and guarding trains and rear areas—much to Sheridan's frustration. In the Battle of the Wilderness (May 5–6, 1864), the dense forested terrain prevented any significant cavalry role. As the army swung around the Confederate right flank in the direction of Spotsylvania Court House, Sheridan's troopers failed to clear the road from the Wilderness, losing engagements along the Plank Road on May 5 and Todd's Tavern on May 6 through May 8, allowing the Confederates to seize the critical crossroads before the Union infantry could arrive. When Meade quarreled with Sheridan for not performing his duties of screening and reconnaissance as ordered, Sheridan told Meade that he could "whip Stuart" if Meade let him. Meade reported the conversation to Grant, who replied, "Well, he generally knows what he is talking about. Let him start right out and do it." Meade deferred to Grant's judgment and issued orders to Sheridan to "proceed against the enemy's cavalry" and from May 9 through May 24, sent him on a raid toward Richmond, directly challenging the Confederate cavalry. The raid was less successful than hoped; although his raid managed to mortally wound Confederate cavalry commander Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart at Yellow Tavern on May 11 and beat Maj. Gen. Fitzhugh Lee at Meadow Bridge on May 12, the raid never seriously threatened Richmond and it left Grant without cavalry intelligence for Spotsylvania and North Anna. Historian Gordon C. Rhea wrote, "By taking his cavalry from Spotsylvania Court House, Sheridan severely handicapped Grant in his battles against Lee. The Union Army was deprived of his eyes and ears during a critical juncture in the campaign. And Sheridan's decision to advance boldly to the Richmond defenses smacked of unnecessary showboating that jeopardized his command." Rejoining the Army of the Potomac, Sheridan's cavalry fought inconclusively at Haw's Shop (May 28), a battle with heavy casualties that allowed the Confederate cavalry to obtain valuable intelligence about Union dispositions. They seized the critical crossroads that triggered the Battle of Cold Harbor (June 1 to 12) and withstood a number of assaults until reinforced. Grant then ordered Sheridan on a raid to the northwest to break the Virginia Central Railroad and to link up with the Shenandoah Valley army of Maj. Gen. David Hunter. He was intercepted by the Confederate cavalry under Maj. Gen. Wade Hampton at the Battle of Trevilian Station (June 11–12), where in the largest all-cavalry battle of the war, he achieved tactical success on the first day, but suffered heavy casualties during multiple assaults on the second. He withdrew without achieving his assigned objectives. On his return march, he once again encountered the Confederate cavalry at Samaria (St. Mary's) Church on June 24, where his men suffered significant casualties, but successfully protected the Union supply wagons they were escorting. History draws decidedly mixed opinions on the success of Sheridan in the Overland Campaign, in no small part because the very clear Union victory at Yellow Tavern, highlighted by the death of Jeb Stuart, tends to overshadow other actions and battles. In Sheridan's report of the Cavalry Corps' actions in the campaign, discussing the strategy of cavalry fighting cavalry, he wrote, "The result was constant success and the almost total annihilation of the rebel cavalry. We marched when and where we pleased; we were always the attacking party, and always successful." A contrary view has been published by historian Eric J. Wittenberg, who notes that of four major strategic raids (Richmond, Trevilian, Wilson-Kautz, and First Deep Bottom) and thirteen major cavalry engagements of the Overland and Richmond–Petersburg campaigns, only Yellow Tavern can be considered a Union victory, with Haw's Shop, Trevilian Station, Meadow Bridge, Samaria Church, and Wilson-Kautz defeats in which some of Sheridan's forces barely avoided destruction. Army of the Shenandoah Throughout the war, the Confederacy sent armies out of Virginia through the Shenandoah Valley to invade Maryland and Pennsylvania and threaten Washington, D.C. Lt. Gen. Jubal Early, following the same pattern in the Valley Campaigns of 1864, and hoping to distract Grant from the Siege of Petersburg, attacked Union forces near Washington and raided several towns in Pennsylvania. Grant, reacting to the political commotion caused by the invasion, organized the Middle Military Division, whose field troops were known as the Army of the Shenandoah. He considered various candidates for command, including George Meade, William B. Franklin, and David Hunter, with the latter two intended for the military division while Sheridan would command the army. All of these choices were rejected by either Grant or the War Department and, over the objection of Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, who believed him to be too young for such a high post, Sheridan took command in both roles at Harpers Ferry on August 7, 1864. His mission was not only to defeat Early's army and to close off the Northern invasion route, but to deny the Shenandoah Valley as a productive agricultural region to the Confederacy. Grant told Sheridan, "The people should be informed that so long as an army can subsist among them recurrences of these raids must be expected, and we are determined to stop them at all hazards. ... Give the enemy no rest ... Do all the damage to railroads and crops you can. Carry off stock of all descriptions, and negroes, so as to prevent further planting. If the war is to last another year, we want the Shenandoah Valley to remain a barren waste." Sheridan got off to a slow start, needing time to organize and to react to reinforcements reaching Early; Grant ordered him not to launch an offensive "with the advantage against you." And yet Grant expressed frustration with Sheridan's lack of progress. The armies remained unengaged for over a month, causing political consternation in the North as the 1864 election drew near. The two generals conferred on September 16 at Charles Town and agreed that Sheridan would begin his attacks within four days. On September 19, armed with intelligence about the dispositions and strength of Early's forces around Winchester provided by unionist sympathizer and Quaker teacher Rebecca Wright, Sheridan beat Early's much smaller army at Third Winchester and followed up on September 22 with a victory at Fisher's Hill. As Early attempted to regroup, Sheridan began the punitive operations of his mission, sending his cavalry as far south as Waynesboro to seize or destroy livestock and provisions, and to burn barns, mills, factories, and railroads. Sheridan's men did their work relentlessly and thoroughly, rendering over 400 square miles uninhabitable. The destruction presaged the scorched-earth tactics of Sherman's March to the Sea through Georgia—deny an army a base from which to operate and bring the effects of war home to the population supporting it. The residents referred to this widespread destruction as "The Burning." There has been much controversy over the scorched-earth tactics. Sheridan's troops told of the wanton attack in their letters home, calling themselves "barn burners" and "destroyers of homes." One soldier wrote to his family that he had personally set 60 private homes on fire and believed that "it was a hard looking sight to see the women and children turned out of doors at this season of the year" (winter). A Sergeant William T. Patterson wrote that "the whole country around is wrapped in flames, the heavens are aglow with the light thereof ... such mourning, such lamentations, such crying and pleading for mercy [by defenseless women] ... I never saw or want to see again." The Confederates were not idle during this period and Sheridan's men were plagued by guerrilla raids by partisan ranger Col. John S. Mosby. Although Sheridan assumed that Jubal Early was effectively out of action and he considered withdrawing his army to rejoin Grant at Petersburg, Early received reinforcements and, on October 19 at Cedar Creek, launched a well-executed surprise attack while Sheridan was absent from his army, ten miles away at Winchester. Hearing the distant sounds of artillery, he rode aggressively to his command. He reached the battlefield about 10:30 a.m. and began to rally his men. Fortunately for Sheridan, Early's men were too occupied to take notice; they were hungry and exhausted and fell out to pillage the Union camps. Sheridan's actions are generally credited with saving the day (although Maj. Gen. Horatio G. Wright, commanding Sheridan's VI Corps, had already rallied his men and stopped their retreat). Early had been dealt his most significant defeat, rendering his army almost incapable of future offensive action. Sheridan received a personal letter of thanks from Abraham Lincoln and a promotion to major general in the regular army as of November 8, 1864, making him the fourth ranking general in the Army, after Grant, Sherman, and Meade. Grant wrote to Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton after he ordered a 100-gun salute to celebrate Sheridan's victory at Cedar Creek, "Turning what bid fair to be a disaster into glorious victory stamps Sheridan, what I have always thought him, one of the ablest of generals." A famous poem, Sheridan's Ride, was written by Thomas Buchanan Read to commemorate the general's return to the battle. Sheridan reveled in the fame that Read's poem brought him, renaming his horse Rienzi to "Winchester," based on the poem's refrain, "Winchester, twenty miles away." The poem was widely used in Republican campaign efforts and some have credited Abraham Lincoln's margin of victory to it.> As for Lincoln himself, the President, pleased at Sheridan's performance as a commander, wrote to Sheridan and playfully confessed his reassessment of the relatively short officer, "When this peculiar war began, I thought a cavalryman should be six feet four inches, but I have changed my mind. Five foot four will do in a pinch." Sheridan spent the next several months occupying Winchester, being the next national military governor of the city after the previous 6-month long occupation headed by national general Robert H. Milroy. He was occupied with light skirmishing and fighting guerrillas. Although Grant continued his exhortations for Sheridan to move south and break the Virginia Central Railroad supplying Petersburg, Sheridan resisted. Wright's VI Corps returned to join Grant in November. Sheridan's remaining men, primarily cavalry and artillery, finally moved out of their winter quarters on February 27, 1865, and headed east. Of Sheridan's occupation of Winchester, a resident wrote; The orders from Gen. Grant were largely discretionary: they were to destroy the Virginia Central Railroad and the James River Canal, capture Lynchburg if practicable, then either join William T. Sherman in North Carolina or return to Winchester. Appomattox Campaign Sheridan interpreted Grant's orders liberally and instead of heading to North Carolina in March 1865, he moved to rejoin the Army of the Potomac at Petersburg. He wrote in his memoirs, "Feeling that the war was nearing its end, I desired my cavalry to be in at the death." His finest service of the Civil War was demonstrated during his relentless pursuit of Robert E. Lee's Army, effectively managing the most crucial aspects of the Appomattox Campaign for Grant. On the way to Petersburg, at the Battle of Waynesboro, March 2, he trapped the remainder of Early's army and 1,500 soldiers surrendered. On April 1, he cut off Gen. Lee's lines of support at Five Forks, forcing Lee to evacuate Petersburg. During this battle he ruined the military career of Maj. Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren by removing him from command of the V Corps under circumstances that a court of inquiry later determined were unjustified. President Rutherford B. Hayes ordered a court of inquiry that convened in 1879 and, after hearing testimony from dozens of witnesses over 100 days, found that Sheridan's relief of Warren had been unjustified. Unfortunately for Warren, these results were not published until after his death. Sheridan's aggressive and well-executed performance at the Battle of Sayler's Creek on April 6 effectively sealed the fate of Lee's army, capturing over 20% of his remaining men. President Lincoln sent Grant a telegram on April 7: "Gen. Sheridan says 'If the thing is pressed I think that Lee will surrender.' Let the thing be pressed." At Appomattox Court House, April 9, 1865, Sheridan blocked Lee's escape, forcing the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia later that day. Grant summed up Little Phil's performance in these final days: "I believe General Sheridan has no superior as a general, either living or dead, and perhaps not an equal." Reconstruction After Gen. Lee's surrender, and that of Gen. Joseph E. Johnston in North Carolina, the only significant Confederate field force remaining was in Texas under Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith. Sheridan was supposed to lead troops in the Grand Review of the Armies in Washington, D.C., but Grant appointed him commander of the Military District of the Southwest on May 17, 1865 six days before the parade, with orders to defeat Smith without delay and restore Texas and Louisiana to Union control. However, Smith surrendered before Sheridan reached New Orleans. Grant was also concerned about the situation in neighboring Mexico, where 40,000 French soldiers propped up the puppet regime of Austrian Archduke Maximilian. He gave Sheridan permission to gather a large Texas occupation force. Sheridan assembled 50,000 men in three corps, quickly occupied Texas coastal cities, spread inland, and began to patrol the Mexico–United States border. The Army's presence, U.S. political pressure, and the growing resistance of Benito Juárez induced the French to abandon their claims against Mexico. Napoleon III announced a staged withdrawal of French troops to be completed in November 1867. In light of growing opposition at home and concern with the rise of German military prowess, Napoleon III stepped up the French withdrawal, which was completed by March 12, 1867. By June 19 of that year, Mexico's republican army had captured, tried, and executed Maximilian. Sheridan later admitted in his memoirs that he had supplied arms and ammunition to Juárez's forces: "... which we left at convenient places on our side of the river to fall into their hands". On July 30, 1866, while Sheridan was in Texas, a white mob broke up the state constitutional convention in New Orleans. Thirty-four blacks were killed. Shortly after Sheridan returned, he wired Grant, "The more information I obtain of the affair of the 30th in this city the more revolting it becomes. It was no riot; it was an absolute massacre." In March 1867, with Reconstruction barely started, Sheridan was appointed military governor of the Fifth Military District (Texas and Louisiana). He severely limited voter registration for former Confederates and ruled that only registered voters (including black men) were eligible to serve on juries. Furthermore, an inquiry into the deadly New Orleans riot of 1866 implicated numerous local officials; Sheridan dismissed the mayor of New Orleans, the Louisiana attorney general, and a district judge. He later removed Louisiana Governor James M. Wells, accusing him of being "a political trickster and a dishonest man". He also dismissed Texas Governor James W. Throckmorton, a former Confederate, for being an "impediment to the reconstruction of the State", replacing him with the Republican who had lost to him in the previous election Elisha M. Pease. Sheridan had been feuding with President Andrew Johnson for months over interpretations of the Military Reconstruction Acts and voting rights issues, and within a month of the second firing, the president removed Sheridan, stating to an outraged Gen. Grant that, "His rule has, in fact, been one of absolute tyranny, without references to the principles of our government or the nature of our free institutions." If Sheridan was unpopular in Texas, neither did he have much appreciation for the Lone Star State. In 1866 his quip was widely reported: "If I owned Texas and Hell, I would rent Texas and live in Hell." During the Grant administration, while Sheridan was assigned to duty in the West, he was sent to Louisiana on two additional occasions to deal with problems that lingered in Reconstruction. In January 1875, federal troops intervened in the Louisiana Legislature following attempts by the Democrats to seize control of disputed seats. Sheridan supported Republican Governor William P. Kellogg, winner of the 1872 state election, and declared that the Democratic opponents of the Republican regime who used violence to overcome legitimate electoral results were "banditti" who should be subjected to military tribunals and loss of their habeas corpus rights. The Grant administration backed down after an enormous public outcry. A headline in the New York World newspaper shrieked "Tyranny! A Sovereign State Murdered!" In 1876, Sheridan was also sent to New Orleans to command troops keeping the peace in the aftermath of the disputed presidential election in 1876. Indian Wars In September 1866, Sheridan was assigned to Fort Martin Scott near Fredericksburg, Texas, to administer the formerly Confederate area. While there, he spent three months subduing marauding Indians in the Texas Hill Country. At this time, President Johnson was dissatisfied with the way Republican Army Generals were administering Reconstruction in the post-war Southern states and sought to replace them with Democratic ones more in tune with the (formerly Confederate) White populations committed to instituting Jim Crow laws. Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock had been assigned to the Department of the Missouri, an administrative area of over 1,000,000 square miles, encompassing land between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains, and from Kansas north, but had mishandled his campaign mistreating the Plains Indians, primarily Sioux and Cheyenne, resulting in retaliatorily raids that attacked mail coaches, burned stations, and killed employees. The Indians also killed and kidnapped a considerable number of settlers on the frontier. In response to state and territorial governors wanting both more competent Army administration and the Indian uprisings suppressed, coupled with pressures from President Johnson to replace Southern Republican administrators, General Grant swapped Hancock and Sheridan, sending the Democratic Hancock to the Texas post-Confederate area, where he immediately ingratiated himself with the local white population by instituting repressive policies favored by President Johnson's administration and other Democratic politicians throughout the Southern territory.< At the same time, Sheridan took up his responsibilities in the Department of the Missouri. According to the Kansas Historical Society: President Ulysses S. Grant wanted Sheridan to pacify the Plains Indians, primarily [in response to] the mishandling of the white/Indian conflict by such notables as Major John Chivington and General Winfield Scott Hancock. ... Sheridan's ultimate goal was to make the Indians give up their traditional way of life and settle on reservations.  His tactic, though bordering on the barbaric, worked. While Sheridan moved into the Planes area, his troops, supplemented with state militias, were spread too thin to have any real effect on the Indian raids so he conceived a strategy of forced depravation, similar to the one he used in the Shenandoah Valley. In the Winter Campaign of 1868–69 (of which the Battle of Washita River was part) he attacked the Cheyenne, Kiowa, and Comanche tribes in their winter quarters, taking their supplies and livestock, driving the Indians back on to their reservations, and killing those who resisted. When Sherman was promoted to General of the Army following Grant's election as President of the United States, Sheridan was appointed to senior command of the Military Division of the Missouri, with all the Great Plains under his command. Professional hunters, trespassing on Indian reservations, killed over 4 million bison by 1874. As historian Dan Flores has shown, any quotations attributed to Sheridan that celebrate buffalo hunting or that he ever appeared before the Texas legislature about this matter, are almost certainly apocryphal. As Flores notes, "there is no evidence the nineteenth-century Texas legislature ever considered a bill to outlaw or regulate the hide hunt." These erroneous charges against Sheridan first surfaced in the 1907 memoir of buffalo hunter John Cook. Eventually the Indians returned to their designated reservations. Sheridan's department conducted the Red River War, the Ute War, and the Great Sioux War of 1876–77, which resulted in the death of Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer. The Indian raids subsided during the 1870s and were almost over by the early 1880s, as Sheridan became the commanding general of the entire U.S. Army. In a story that is almost certainly fictitious, Comanche Chief Tosawi was said to have told Sheridan in 1869, "Tosawi, good Indian," to which Sheridan is said to have replied, "The only good Indians I ever saw were dead." In the first printed reference to this exchange, more than 100 years later in 1970, in Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, author Dee Brown attributes the quote to Sheridan, claiming that "Lieutenant Charles Nordstrom, who was present, remembered the words and passed them on, until in time they were honed into an American aphorism: The only good Indian is a dead Indian. Sheridan denied he had ever made the statement. Biographer Roy Morris Jr. states that, nevertheless, popular history credits Sheridan with saying "The only good Indian is a dead Indian." This variation "has been used by friends and enemies ever since to characterize and castigate his Indian-fighting career." According to the Kansas Historical Society: Sheridan has been accused of being unnecessarily cruel; bent on exterminating the Indian. Although he did regard the Indians as "savages" whose one profession was "that of arms," he felt that it would take more than just confining them to reservations to settle the west. It would also be necessary to "exercise some strong authority over him." Although not as sympathetic to the Indians' plight as some other army officers, he did say that, "We took away their country and their means of support…and against this they made war. Could anyone expect less?" He did agree, however, with most soldiers when he blamed the government for the failure of the reservation system. He said it was up to Congress, "to furnish the poor people from whom this country has been taken with sufficient food to enable them to live without suffering the pangs of hunger." This is hardly the attitude one would expect from someone who was purported to say, "The only good Indian is a dead Indian," ... He was above all else, a soldier and in response to some of his critics he stated, "My duties are to protect these people. I have nothing to do with Indians but in this connection…The wife of a man at the center of wealth and civilization and refinement is not more dear to him than is the wife of the pioneer of the frontier. I have no hesitation in making my choice. I am going to stand by the people over whom I am placed and give them what protection I can." Postbellum career Sheridan was promoted to lieutenant general on March 4, 1869. In 1870, President Grant, at Sheridan's request, sent him to observe and report on the Franco-Prussian War. As a guest of King Wilhelm I of Prussia, he was present when Emperor Napoléon III surrendered to the Germans, which was gratifying to Sheridan following his experiences with the French in Mexico. He later toured most of Europe and returned to the U.S. to report to Grant that although the Prussians were "very good brave fellows [who] had gone into each battle with the determination to win, ... there is nothing to be learned here professionally." He criticized their handling of cavalry and likened their practices to the manner in which Meade had attempted to supervise him. However, he referred to theirs as a "perfect military system" and had a high opinion of the officer corps. His words on the French were much more harsh; he criticized the French army for not taking numerous opportunities to halt the German advance, for advancing slowly and clumsily themselves, for not taking any of the numerous good opportunities to cut the enemy's unguarded lines of communication, and for being routed frequently. He remarked: "I am disgusted; all my boyhood's fancies of the soldiers of the great Napoleon have been dissipated, or else the soldiers of the "Little Corporal" have lost their elan in the pampered parade soldiers of the 'Man of Destiny'." In 1871, Sheridan was present in Chicago during the Great Chicago Fire and coordinated military relief efforts. The mayor, Roswell B. Mason, to calm the panic, placed the city under martial law, and issued a proclamation putting Sheridan in charge. As there were no widespread disturbances, martial law was lifted within a few days. Although Sheridan's personal residence was spared, all of his professional and personal papers were destroyed. When Chicago's Washington Park Race Track organized the American Derby in 1883 he served as its first president. On November 1, 1883, Sheridan succeeded General William T. Sherman as Commanding General of the U.S. Army, and held that position until his death. He was promoted on June 1, 1888, shortly before his death, to the rank of General in the Regular Army (the rank was titled "General of the Army of the United States", by Act of Congress June 1, 1888, the same rank held earlier by Grant and Sherman, which is equivalent to a five-star general, O-11, in the modern U.S. Army). Sheridan served as commander in chief of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States (MOLLUS), a military society of officers who served in the Union armed forces and their descendants, from 1886 until his death in 1888. He was also the first president of the Society of the Army of the Potomac when it was founded in 1869 and as the ninth president of the National Rifle Association of America in 1885. Yellowstone The protection of the Yellowstone area was Sheridan's personal crusade. He authorized Lieutenant Gustavus Doane to escort the Washburn Expedition in 1870 and for Major John W. Barlow to escort the Hayden Expedition in 1871. Barlow named Mount Sheridan, a peak overlooking Heart Lake in Yellowstone, for the general in 1871. As early as 1875, Sheridan promoted military control of the area to prevent the destruction of natural formations and wildlife. In 1882, the Department of the Interior granted rights to the Yellowstone Park Improvement Company to develop in the park. Their plan was to build a railroad into the park and sell the land to developers. Sheridan personally organized opposition to the plan and lobbied Congress for protection of the park; including expansion, military control, reducing the development to , and prohibiting leases near park attractions. In addition, he arranged an expedition to the park for President Chester A. Arthur and other influential men. His lobbying soon paid off. A rider was added to the Sundry Civil Bill of 1883, giving Sheridan and his supporters almost everything for which they had asked. In 1886, after a string of ineffectual and sometimes criminal superintendents, Sheridan ordered the 1st U.S. Cavalry into the park. The military operated the park until the National Park Service took it over in 1916. Sheridan is mentioned favorably in The National Parks: America's Best Idea, Episode I, for his work saving Yellowstone National Park: Personal life On June 3, 1875, Sheridan married Irene Rucker, a daughter of Army Quartermaster General Daniel H. Rucker. She was 22, and he was 44. They had four children: Mary, born in 1876; twin daughters, Irene and Louise, in 1877; and Philip Jr., in 1880. After the wedding, Sheridan and his wife moved to Washington, D.C. They lived in a house given to them by Chicago citizens in appreciation for Sheridan's protection of the city after the Great Chicago Fire in 1871. Philip Sheridan Jr. was an army officer who attained the rank of major and was the husband of Isabel McGunnegle. Isabel McGunnegle was the daughter of army officer George K. McGunnegle. Death and burial In 1888 Sheridan suffered a series of massive heart attacks two months after sending his memoirs to the publisher. Although thin in his youth, by 57 years of age he had reached a weight of over 200 pounds. After his first heart attack, the U.S. Congress quickly passed legislation to promote him to general of the army on June 1, 1888, and he received the news from a congressional delegation with joy, despite his pain. His family moved him from the heat of Washington to his summer cottage in the Nonquitt enclave of Dartmouth, Massachusetts, where he died of heart failure on August 5, 1888. His body was returned to Washington and he was buried on a hillside facing the capital city near Arlington House in Arlington National Cemetery. The sculpture on the marker was executed by English sculptor Samuel James Kitson. The burial helped elevate Arlington to national prominence. His wife Irene never remarried, saying, "I would rather be the widow of Phil Sheridan than the wife of any man living." Honors Sheridan is the only person to be featured on a U.S. ten-dollar bill who was strictly associated with the military and not politics. He is featured on $5 and $10 bills. Sheridan appeared on $10 U.S. Treasury notes issued in 1890 and 1891. His bust then reappeared on the $5 silver certificate in 1896. These rare notes are in great demand by collectors today. Fort Sheridan in Illinois was named to honor General Sheridan's many services to Chicago An equestrian statue of Sheridan by Gutzon Borglum (sculptor of the figures on Mount Rushmore) at Belmont Avenue and Sheridan Road in Chicago depicts the general on his horse, Rienzi. Sheridan Road begins in Chicago, continues mostly along the shoreline of Lake Michigan for about 60 miles (96 km) through the North Shore suburbs, and leads to the Town of Fort Sheridan and ultimately Racine, Wisconsin. The landmark former U.S. Army base named for the general is now a reserve post and upscale residential community. The M551 Sheridan tank is named after Sheridan. Mount Sheridan in Yellowstone National Park was named for Sheridan by Captain John W. Barlow in 1871. Mount Sheridan in Colorado is also named for him. The Sheridan Prize is a yacht-racing perpetual trophy awarded to the winner of an annual race on Geneva Lake. It was begun on the occasion of the general's visit to Lake Geneva (then, Geneva) in 1874. In 1937, the U.S. Post Office issued a series of commemorative stamp issues honoring various Army and Navy heroes. Among them was an issue commemorating Generals Ulysses S. Grant, William T. Sherman and Philip H. Sheridan. Sheridan County, North Dakota; Sheridan County, Nebraska; Sheridan County, Montana; Sheridan County, Wyoming; and Sheridan County, Kansas, are named for him, as are the communities of Sheridan, California; Sheridan, Colorado; Sheridan, Montana (in Madison County); Sheridan, Wyoming; Sheridan, Arkansas; Sheridan, Oregon; Sheridan, Indiana; and Sheridan, Illinois (LaSalle County). Sheridan Square in the West Village of New York City is named for the general and his statue is displayed nearby in Christopher Street Park. Sheridan Circle, Sheridan Street, and the neighborhood of Sheridan-Kalorama in Washington, D.C., are also named after him. Sheridan Avenue in the Bronx is one block east of Sherman Avenue. Sheridan Boulevard is a major north–south thoroughfare in Denver, Colorado. The only equestrian Civil War statue in Ohio honors Sheridan. It is in the center traffic circle on US Route 22 in Somerset, Ohio, not far from the house where Sheridan grew up. Sheridan High School is located 5 miles (8 km) north of General Sheridan's home town of Somerset. The athletic team is nicknamed "The Generals". Sheridan Glacier, located 15 miles (25 km) outside of Cordova, Alaska was named in his honor. In Albany, New York, there is an equestrian statue of Sheridan in front of the New York State Capitol, near Sheridan Avenue. In World War II, the United States liberty ship, SS Philip H. Sheridan, was named in his honor. Sheridan Road in Lawton, Oklahoma, leads to Fort Sill, where Sheridan supposedly uttered the words "The only good Indians I ever saw were dead." Sheridan Drive in Arlington National Cemetery partially encircles the area that contains the general's gravesite. The Sheridan Gate, constructed in 1879 and dismantled and placed in storage in 1971, was once the Cemetery's main entrance. A statue of Sheridan by Allen George Newman is sited in Scranton, Pennsylvania. New York State Route 324 ("Sheridan Drive") in the northern suburbs of Buffalo, New York, is named for Sheridan Road in Chicago, and thus indirectly after Philip Sheridan. An equestrian statue of the general was planned to be built there in 1925 John Philip Sousa wrote a descriptive piece for band memorializing Sheridan. Describing "Sheridan's Ride", published in 1891, as a "Scenes Historical", Sousa musically characterized Sheridan's famous ride back to his army in the Battle of Cedar Creek. The composition has six sections: Waiting for the Bugle, The Attack, The Death of Thoburn, The Coming of Sheridan, and The Apotheosis. Sheridan Hall on the Fort Hays State University campus in Hays, Kansas, is named in honor of Sheridan. The building commemorates Sheridan's time stationed at the Fort Hays military post. The original site of the Phil Sheridan Elementary School in Chicago, which opened in 1888, was in the South Chicago neighborhood. In 1998, the school was renamed the Arnold Mireles Academy in memory of a murdered South Side community activist. The present-day Sheridan Elementary School in Chicago is a magnet school located at 533 W. 27th Street, in the city's Bridgeport neighborhood. In Broward County, in southern Florida, there is another road named after Sheridan, Florida State Road 822, also known as "Sheridan Street", which runs on an east–west configuration, between State Road A1A at Hollywood Beach and U.S. Route 27, which borders the Everglades. In popular culture In literature In the novel series The Brotherhood of War, the Parker family males are named after Philip Sheridan; the two most prominent are Philip Sheridan Parker III and Philip Sheridan Parker IV. The latter's great-great-grandfather supposedly fought with General Sheridan in the Indian Wars as a Master Sergeant in the 10th U.S. Cavalry Regiment, known as the Buffalo Soldiers. In Sherman Alexie's novel Reservation Blues, Sheridan is portrayed as a head hunter for a record label responsible for the downfall of the novel's protagonist's band Coyote Springs. The link between the real Sheridan and the character in the book is made explicit in a brutal dream experienced by one of the characters. Sheridan is featured, and interacts with the characters, in Michael Crichton's novel Dragon Teeth (2017). Onscreen Sheridan has been portrayed in films and television over the years: Abraham Lincoln (1930), portrayed by Frank Campeau. In Old Chicago (1938), portrayed by Sidney Blackmer. Santa Fe Trail (1940), portrayed by David Bruce. They Died with Their Boots On (1941), portrayed by John Litel. The movie inaccurately portrays Sheridan as a colonel and the commandant of the U.S. Military Academy before the start of the Civil War. Rio Grande (1950), portrayed by J. Carrol Naish. Tales of Wells Fargo (1957) in the episode "The General" Paul Fix appears as an irascible General Philip Sheridan. Amazingly he appears much like the real General Sheridan right down to the handlebar mustache. The usually squimish Whit Bissell also appears in this episode and plays a hero, shooting down definitely 5(maybe more) bad guys, more than Sheridan or Hardy put together, and lives through to the end of the show! The Rifleman (1958) features Lawrence Dobkin as Sheridan in an episode "The Sheridan Story", wherein he befriends a wounded Confederate veteran who was severely wounded in the war (Royal Dano), who is staying temporarily on Lucas McCain's ranch n the New Mexico Territory. It is revealed that McCain, played by Chuck Connors, served under Sheridan during the war. The Rebel (1960) features Andrew J. Fenady in the role of Sheridan in the episode "Johnny Yuma at Appomattox". Death Valley Days (1961) features H. M. Wynant as Sheridan in the episode, "The Red Petticoat". In the story line, Sheridan's friendship with Indian scout Kahlu (Allen Jaffe) (1928-1989) is questioned after a number of ambushes result in dead troopers. Sheridan sticks to his instincts and defends his ally against the enraged residents of the fort. Stanley Andrews was the host. Branded (TV series) (1966) featured John Pickard (American actor) as Sheridan in six episodes, including a three-part episode in which Jason McCord (Chuck Connors) assists President Grant in heading off a heedless attack on Indians by General Custer. How the West Was Won (1978), Season 2, Episode 2 and (1979), Season 3, Episode 6, portrayed by Ramon Bieri. North and South, Book II (1986), Episode 6, portrayed by Clu Gulager. J. Michael Straczynski has stated that the character of Captain John Sheridan in the Babylon 5 television series is intended to be a direct descendant of General Sheridan. Sheridan is described in the PBS documentary The West (1996) as "a ruthless warrior" who "played a decisive role in the army's long campaign against the native peoples of the plains". And "at Petersburg he won an important victory that halted Robert E. Lee's retreat from Richmond and helped bring the war to an end. Dates of rank See also List of American Civil War generals (Union) Notes/References Footnotes Citations References Sources }} Further reading Biographies Davies, Eugene. General Sheridan. New York, D. Appleton and Company, 1895. . Forsyth, George A. Thrilling Days in Army Life. New York and London, Harper & Bros., 1900. . Suppiger, Joseph E. "Sheridan, The Life of a General." Lincoln Herald (Sept 1984), 86#3 pp. 157–70 on prewar; 87#1 pp. 18–26 on 1862–63; 87#2 pp. 49–57, on 1863–64. Wheelan, Joseph. Terrible Swift Sword: The Life of General Philip H. Sheridan. New York: Da Capo Press, 2012. . Civil War Bissland, James. Blood, Tears, and Glory: How Ohioans Won the Civil War. Wilmington, OH: Orange Frazer Press, 2007. . Coffey, David. Sheridan's Lieutenants: Phil Sheridan, His Generals, and the Final Year of the Civil War. Wilmington, DE: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005. . Drake, William F. Little Phil: The Story of General Philip Henry Sheridan. Prospect, CT: Biographical Publishing Company, 2005. . Feis, William B. "Neutralizing the Valley: The Role of Military Intelligence in the Defeat of Jubal Early's Army of the Valley, 1864–1865." Civil War History 39#3 (September 1993): 199–215. Gallagher, Gary W., ed. The Shenandoah Valley Campaign of 1864. Military Campaigns of the Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006. . Gallagher, Gary W., ed. Struggle for the Shenandoah: Essays on the 1864 Valley Campaign. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1991. . Miller, Samuel H. "Yellow Tavern." Civil War History 2#1 (March 1956): 57–81. Naroll, Raoul S. "Sheridan and Cedar Creek—A Reappraisal." Military Affairs 16#4 (Winter, 1952): 153–68. Stackpole, Edward J. Sheridan in the Shenandoah: Jubal Early's Nemesis Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1992. . Wert, Jeffry D. From Winchester to Cedar Creek: The Shenandoah Campaign of 1864. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987. . Postwar Dawson, Joseph G. III. "General Phil Sheridan and Military Reconstruction in Louisiana," Civil War History 24#2 (June 1978): 133–51. Richter, William L. "General Phil Sheridan, The Historians, and Reconstruction, Civil War History 33#2 (June 1987): 131–54. Taylor, Morris F. "The Carr–Penrose Expedition: General Sheridan's Winter Campaign, 1868–1869." Chronicles of Oklahoma 51#2 (June 1973): 159–76. External links PBS on Sheridan PBS National parks on Sheridan, including rare images Sheridan's Ride poem Pictures of US Treasury Notes featuring Philip Sheridan, provided by the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco. Commentary on Sheridan's role at Chickamauga 1831 births 1888 deaths 19th-century American politicians Activists from New York (state) Activists from Ohio American military personnel of the Indian Wars American people of Irish descent Apache Wars Burials at Arlington National Cemetery Catholics from Massachusetts Catholics from Ohio Cavalry commanders Commanding Generals of the United States Army Louisiana Republicans Military personnel from Albany, New York People from Dartmouth, Massachusetts People from Somerset, Ohio People of the Reconstruction Era People of Ohio in the American Civil War People of the Great Sioux War of 1876 Presidents of the National Rifle Association Rogue River Wars Texas Republicans Union Army generals United States Military Academy alumni United States military governors

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%84%EC%A7%80%ED%98%84%20%28%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC%ED%95%99%EC%9E%90%29

임지현 (역사학자)

임지현(1959년 1월 24일 ~ )은 대한민국의 역사학자, 대학 교수, 작가, 언론인이다. 폴란드의 바르샤바 대학, 크라쿠프 사범대학 등의 연구원으로 연구하고 강의하였다. 한양대학교 역사전공 교수가 되고 한양대학교 부교수와 교수, 2004년 비교역사문화연구소 소장 등을 역임했다. 그밖에 외국 대학의 연구원으로도 초빙되어 포츠머스 대학 소속 연구모임 ‘유럽의 민족주의와 민족적 정체성’의 특별연구원, 하버드 대학 옌칭 연구소 초청연구원, 글러모건 대학교 외래교수, 국제일본문화연구센터의 초청교수를 지냈다. 저서 중 하나인 민족주의는 반역이다 등으로 유명해졌다. 생애 서강대학교 역사학과를 졸업한 후 동 대학의 대학원에서 서양사학 석사를 받은 뒤 역사학과 철학을 공부하고 논문 '마르크스, 엥겔스와 민족문제'로 박사학위를 받았다. 1991년 한양대학교 역사학전공 교수에 초빙된 뒤, 1995년 2월부터 1995년 9월까지 폴란드 바르샤바 대학교 역사학부 초청연구원으로 활동했다. 1995년 3월 한양대 인문과학대학 사학과 부교수가 되고, 1995년 8월부터 1997년 2월까지는 동 대학의 역사·정치과학학부 초청교수를 겸하기도 했다. 그해 폴란드의 크라쿠프 사범대학과 야길조니언대학의 초청교수로도 초빙되었다. 또한 영국 포츠머스 대학 소속 연구모임인 「유럽의 민족주의와 민족적 정체성」의 연구 펠로우, 하버드 옌칭연구소 초청연구원, 영국 글래모건 대학 외부교수, 일본 국제일본문화연구센터 초청연구원 등으로 초빙되어 연구활동을 하기도 했다. 이후 강의와 언론, 저술 활동 등을 하였으며 한양대학교 사학과 교수가 되었다. 그는 1990년대부터 한국사와 역사 문제와 대중독재 문제에 대한 비평을 하였으며, 98년 출간한 저서인 민족주의는 반역이다를 비롯한 저서 적대적 공범자들, 국사의 신화를 넘어서 등을 통해 미화, 왜곡, 과장된 한국사 등에 대한 분석과 비판을 가하여 논란, 화제가 되기도 했다. 2002년 9월부터 2003년 8월까지는 하버트 옌칭연구소 초청연구원, 2009년 9월부터 2010년 8월까지는 국제일본문화연구센터 초청연구원, 2011년 8월부터 2012년 6월까지는 독일 베를린지식연구소 연구원 등으로 활동하였다. 2010년에는 영국 Palgrave 출판사에서 ‘대중독재 총서(Mass Dictatorship Series)’의 책임편집을 맡기도 했다. 한양대학교 사학과 교수로 재직 중 2004년 비교역사문화연구소 소장으로도 초빙되었다. 언론 활동으로는 서양사론, 역사학보, 역사비평지, 역사와 문화지, 당대비평지 등의 편집위원을 역임하였다. 현재 Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions(Routledge) 편집위원을 지내기도 했다. 학력 1977년 서강대학교 역사학 학사 1984년 서강대학교 대학원 서양사학 석사 1989년 서강대학교 대학원 서양사학 박사 약력 1991년 한양대학교 역사학전공 교수 1995년 3월 ~ 2001년 2월 한양대학교 인문과학대학 사학과 부교수 1995년 폴란드 크라쿠프 사범대학 초청교수 1995년 폴란드 야길조니언 대학 초청교수 하버드 대학 옌칭연구소 초청연구원 영국 글래모건대학 외부교수 일본 국제일본문화연구센터 초청연구원 한양대학교 인문과학대학 사학과 교수 2004년 비교역사문화연구소 소장 2015년 3월 서강대학교 사학과 교수 부임 저작 저서 민족문제와 마르크스주의자들(한겨레, 1986) 대보름 날 해방촌(도서출판 심상사, 1987) 마르크스, 엥겔스와 민족문제(탐구당, 1990) 오늘날의 역사학:쟁점과전망(역사비평사, 1992) 오늘날의 역사학(역사비평사, 1993) 바르샤바에서 보낸 편지(도서출판 강, 1998) 민족주의는 반역이다(도서출판 소나무, 1999) 우리 안의 파시즘(도서출판 삼인, 2000) 그대들의 자유 & 우리들의 자유(아카넷, 2000) 이념의 속살(도서출판 삼인, 2001) 서양의 지적 운동(지식산업사, 2002) 대중독재 1, 2(책세상, 2004) 근대의 국경 역사의 변경(휴머니스트, 2004) 적대적 공범자들(도서출판 소나무, 2005) 근대의 경계에서 독재를 읽다(도서출판 그린비라이프, 2006) 여성주의 학교 '간다'(지성사, 2008) 새로운 세대를 위한 새로운 세대를 위한 세계사 편지(휴머니스트, 2010) 기억전쟁: 가해자는 어떻게 희생자가 되었는가(휴머니스트, 2019) 공저 오만과 편견(휴머니스트, 2003) - 서카이나오키 공저 국사의 신화를 넘어서(휴머니스트, 2004) - 이성시 공저 대중독재와 여성 논문 마르크스, 엥겔스와 민족문제(서강대학교, 1989) 같이 보기 표현의 자유 사상의 자유 인물과 사상 대중독재 민족주의 박노자 박지향 강준만 김완섭 김규항 노회찬 위르겐 하버마스 브루스 커밍스 노암 촘스키 심상정 이영훈 장정일 진중권 홍세화 마광수 역사비평 선우휘 한승조 조갑제 지만원 이인화 전원책 이덕일 외부 링크 임지현 교수 클라우스 디트리히 교수, 개항기 한국이 서양인에 끼친 영향에 주목 동아일보 1959년 출생 살아있는 사람 대한민국의 교육인 대한민국의 대학 교수 대한민국의 언론인 대한민국의 역사가 대한민국의 철학자 대한민국의 작가 반파시스트 서강대학교 동문

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jie-Hyun%20Lim

Jie-Hyun Lim

Jie-Hyun Lim (Korean: 임지현 [im-chi-hyŏn]; Hanja: 林志弦; born 1959) is a South Korean historian, writer, and "memory activist." He is a full professor of transnational history and the director of the Critical Global Studies Institute at Sogang University, Seoul, who conceptualized paradigms of "Mass Dictatorship" and "Victimhood Nationalism." Since Lim founded the Research Institute of Comparative History and Culture in 2004, he has carried out a series of international projects, including the "East Asian History Forum for Criticism and Solidarity" and the "Flying University of Transnational Humanities." Lim has written and edited around two dozen books, including Global Easts: Remembering, Imagining, Mobilizing (Columbia University Press, 2022), Everyday Fascism (우리 안의 파시즘, 2000), and Victimhood Nationalism (희생자의식 민족주의, 2021). He is a co-editor of Gender Politics and Mass Dictatorship: Global Perspectives (2011), Mass Dictatorship and Memory as Ever Present Past: Mass Dictatorship in the 20th Century (2014), The Palgrave Handbook of Mass Dictatorship (2016), and Mnemonic Solidarity: Global Interventions (2021), among other works. Lately, Lim has been delving into the field of “transnational history [and memory] as an alternative narrative to the national [one],” asserting that memory beneath history should be deterritorialized. He is also conceptualizing "Global Easts" that are neither Global North nor Global South, thereby developing the problem consciousness of his 2022 publication from the perspective of the global history of modernity. Life Early life Ji-Hyun Lim was born in 1959 in Seoul, South Korea, not long after the conclusion of the Korean War (1950⎼1953). At that time, the Military coup d'état in May 1961 established Park Chung Hee’s regime (1961⎼1979) of Development Dictatorship, with its gilded slogans—“Korean way of democracy” and “the National Regeneration” (Yu-shin Constitution). As Lim retrospects, “[t]he shattered Cold War constellation provided the conditions for Park to proclaim a state of emergency, which rationalized the shift from democracy to dictatorship,” in which “the individual selves voluntarily sacrifice[d] themselves for the higher self or absolute ego of the nation.” In 1977 when Lim was attending Sogang University as a history student and university newspaper reporter, a police investigator visited Lim's house because he was a member of “Red Clay” (황토 [hwang-t'o]), a clandestine anti-autocracy circle of Sogang University. This experience led Lim to learn about his late grandfather’s past as a troika of the Korean Communist Party and an independence fighter during the Japanese occupation. Lim confesses in his autobiography, Doing History (역사를 어떻게 할 것인가: 어느 사학자의 에고 히스토리, 2016), that he has always thought of his academic pursuit as participating in his grandfather's “inner exile.” After the outbreak of the Gwangju Uprising (1980), Lim felt a strong sense of survivor's shame, which spurred him to study Marxist intellectual history as a graduate student at Sogang University. Above all, Lim wanted to establish "South Korean social science" or "South Korean Western history” based on the problem consciousness of his society, where the aftermath of the Gwangju Uprising came as too heavy a task for South Korean historians. In 1989, he finalized his dissertation, “Marx and Engels on the National Question” (Marx-Engels와 민족문제), which investigates nationalist issues in light of Marxist thought. Career In 1989, Ji-Hyun Lim became an associate professor at Hanyang University, Seoul, and later served as the chair of the history department from 1997 to 1999. Meanwhile, Lim was a visiting professor at the Pedagogical University of Cracow in the 1990s. In this post-communist Poland, he witnessed the Polish transition from real socialism to a market economy and democracy, regarded by the Polish people as “a stubborn rightist” because of his Luxembourgian Marxism. Compared with Lim's twenties in postcolonial South Korea, where he imagined Korea's transition to socialism and looked at the rapid economic growth of Korea as “an angry young leftist,” his stay in Poland was the opposite experience. Lim acknowledges that such contrasting observations on the edges of East Asia and Eastern Europe have been valuable assets in exploring the periphery of global history: it allowed him “to escape the intellectual complacency, be it leftist or rightist, of Cold War politics.” From 2004 to 2015, Lim was the founding director of the Research Institute of Comparative History and Culture at Hanyang University. In March 2015, Lim became a professor of Transnational History at Sogang University, and the same year, he founded the Critical Global Studies Institute. Other career milestones of Lim include being a visiting scholar at Harvard Yenching Institute (2002⎼2003), International Research Center for Japanese Studies (2009⎼2010), EHESS (2010), Paris II University (2014), Bielefeld University (2017), National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University (2017), Hitotsubashi University (2018), Paris X University (2019), GWZO (2019), and Columbia University (2020); external professor at the University of Glamorgan (2002⎼2003); research fellow at Wissenschaftskolleg (2011⎼2012). Work Transnationalism In the 1990s, Jie-Hyun Lim juxtaposed Polish and Korean national histories, exploring each narrative's broken sutures. Through this transnational interaction, Lim could critically contemplate South Korean nationalism based on its parallel with the Polish nationalist movement. One of his books that demystifies the nationalist imaginary is Beyond Nationalism (민족주의는 반역이다, 1999). This book tried to remove the fictive resistance ideology from the ethnic nationalism, highlighting the shared texture between political power and nationalism. In addition, it paved the way for Lim's later thoughts regarding postcolonialism, subaltern research, and post-Marxist theories. In the 2000s, Lim's transnational inquisitiveness was stretched into the theme of “border history.” From those years, China had been pushing its Northeast Project, insisting that the history of Goguryeo, an ancient kingdom on the Korean Peninsula across the northeast part of the modern Chinese domain, is theirs. Lim looked at this controversy differently than his South Korean contemporaries, borrowing Thongchai Winichakul’s concept of “geo-body,” the nationalist perception of contemporary territory as its synchronic, timeless body. In Lim's opinion, the history of Goguryeo was neither Chinese nor Korean history; instead, it should be counted as border history, overlapping history, or regional history. That is, to make this territorial dispute a rational and productive debate, both South Korea and China must overcome the compulsion of a “geo-body,” the tendency to be relieved only by incorporating the history of the border areas into its national history. Since the 2010s, Lim has held the “Flying University of Transnational Humanities,” a trans-institutional summer school program for PhDs and doctoral students. Its main objective is to liberate humanistic imagination from the boundary of the national state by building transnational solidarity. In particular, Lim aimed to encourage trans-disciplinary conversations beyond interdisciplinary ones, resisting the top-down process of globalization led by the capital and political power. For this reason, Lim argues that this project's aspiration to create a global network of transnational humanities research and education is theoretically rooted in the critical rationale of postcolonialism. Most recently, Lim has been summoning his memory of the post-communist Poland in the 1990s, where he recognized striking similarities between Korean and Polish history and politics. One realization stood out: both Korea and Poland—at once the “West” for Asia yet “Eastern Europe''—had been assigned the role of “East.” In his Global Easts: Remembering, Imagining, Mobilizing (2022), Lim explores such entangled Easts to reconsider global history from the margins, drawing out commonalities in their experiences of modernity, their transitions from dictatorship to democracy, and the shaping of collective memory. This line of discussion encompasses Lim's recent paradigms: "mass dictatorship" and "victimhood nationalism." In other words, Lim criticizes mass dictatorships of the right and left in the Global Easts, considering Carl Schmitt’s idea of sovereign dictatorship and the concept of decisionist democracy. Additionally, ranging across Poland, Germany, Israel, Japan, and South Korea, Lim traces how notions of victimhood have become central to nationalism. Finally, Lim argues that nationalism is inherently transnational, critiquing how the nationalist imagination of the Global Easts has influenced countries across borders. Mass Dictatorship Jie-Hyun Lim’s awareness of “Mass Dictatorship” (“대중독재” [tae-chung-tok-chae]; 大衆獨裁), or grass-roots fascism, germinated in 1999 when the Kim Dae-Jung government announced its project to build the Park Chung Hee Memorial Hall. On the bright side, this was a gesture of democratic peace toward the autocratic past, but Lim interpreted it as "an arrogance that regards social memory as something that may be solved with personal forgiveness and reconciliation." Thus, Lim posed a problem against this consecration of historical memory, recognizing Park's modernization as a “Market Stalinism.” However, such critical awareness did not cross the threshold of academia, and the nostalgia for the Park Regime seemed only to grow in Korean society. Hence, Lim began to explore in his serial articles of Contemporary Criticism (당대비평) why the public misses the oppressive system. In these writings, which were later published as a separate volume, Everyday Fascism (2000), Lim discusses the routinized and even desired dictatorship of South Korea, arguing that democratic changes in social structure, economic system, laws, political parties, and social organization do not necessarily guarantee the genuine democracy. Also, he insists that unless the fascist fabric of South Korean society that binds people's daily lives fundamentally changes, its democratization of the 1990s is bound to be reversible. For this reason, Lim demanded the deconstruction of South Korea’s internalized and structuralized power code: the ideological fictions. That is to say, the fight against the dictatorship should go on, replacing the habitus of vertical “dominance” with the habitus of “fraternity.” In the 2000s, Lim published the Mass Dictatorship series (대중독재 1,2,3; 2004–2007) in his capacity as a chief editor. This project was with other South Korean historians specializing in fascism, Nazism, Franco regime, Action française, and Stalinism. Beyond this, there have been six important publications in English on this subject: Gender Politics and Mass Dictatorship: Global Perspectives (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), Mass Dictatorship and Modernity (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), Imagining Mass Dictatorships: The Individual and the Masses in Literature and Cinema (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), Mass Dictatorship and Memory as Ever Present Past (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), The Palgrave Handbook of Mass Dictatorship (Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), and Everyday Life in Mass Dictatorship: Collusion and Evasion (Palgrave Macmillan, 2016). These works criticize the demonizing logic of existing dictatorship studies, which sets a Manichean dichotomy of “an evil power oppresses good citizens,” whether right-wing or left-wing discourse. Victimhood nationalism “Victimhood nationalism” is Jie-Hyun Lim's most recent paradigm, which again questions the nationalist antagonism based on collective affiliation, or whether collective and hereditary guilt/victimhood can be established. In his Victimhood Nationalism (2021), Lim sharply pinpoints the politicized sense of victimhood with controversial examples, including the long-stood binary of Korea and Japan (“Korean victims” versus “Japanese perpetrators” of the colonial occupation). Lim argues that such a nationalist equation is both right and wrong because no country is made up of purely victims or perpetrators. In other words, the global memory space is transnationally designed with political facts and statistics that are never value-neutral. To prove this, Lim collected data from different corners of the global memory space, including diplomatic documents, academic discussions, press, testimonials, popular culture, and social media, regarding two regional groups: Eastern Europe (Poland–Germany–Israel) and East Asia (Korea–Japan–the U.S.). Through such comparative analysis, he explores how the competing narratives of victimhood are produced and consumed, proving that “Victimhood Nationalism” is inherently a transnational and planetary discourse. While Lim propels forward “from history to memory” as such, being a “memory activist” who restores the authenticity of memories that have been repressed over a long time, it is notable that his theory of "victimhood nationalism" is from the periphery of global modernity, based on the real experiences of Eastern Europe and East Asia; it does not settle for an unequal academic division of labor, in which the West presents theories, and the East provides empirical data to them. In 2022, Victimhood Nationalism was translated into Japanese, which is acclaimed that "[the Japanese] will not be able to greet August (the month when Imperial Japan surrendered in World War II) without mentioning this book." Criticism In 2004, Jie-Hyun Lim suggested a transnational viewpoint regarding the dispute over Goguryeo history, insisting on deconstructing the concept of national history. To this, some scholars condemned him as ignoring Korea’s long-standing national identity as "the successor of Goguryeo," which has continued since the Goryo Dynasty, emphasizing that Lim specializes in "Western history," not Korean history discipline. Also, when Lim argued that the masses agreed upon President Park’s dictatorship like other 20th-century fascisms, he was heavily criticized by the nationalist leftists in South Korea. They blamed Lim’s theory of "Everyday Fascism" as fundamentalism or "progressive nihilism" that blankets the troubles of political dictatorship, even judging it as reducing everything to a matter of etiquette and being in sympathy with the far right. However, the essential idea of Lim is not to overlook the moral issues found in historical figures but rather to theorize the hegemonic power of ideology that dominates the daily lives of the masses. Similar criticism arose when Lim first used the concept of "Victimhood Nationalism" in 2007, shedding a different light on the fuss around the novel So Far from the Bamboo Grove (1986) by Yoko Kawashima Watkins, a Japanese American writer. Since this story illustrates the suffering of Japanese refugees returning home from emancipated Korea, portraying Koreans as evil perpetrators and Japanese as innocent victims, critics accused it of hiding the history of the Japanese colonization of the Korean peninsula. Nevertheless, Lim argued that such a collective denunciation of Korean people toward this work is instead an overreaction to deny the uncomfortable truth—not because Watkins’ decontextualization of the main characters' lives is unproblematic, but because this narrative is undeniably an authentic memory of some Japanese people. This criticism inspired Lim to point out the antagonistic symbiosis between the victim nation and the perpetrator nation, or, in other words, the transnational nature of “Victimhood Nationalism.” Selected publications Authored books Global Easts: Remembering-Imagining-Practicing (2022) Edited books Mnemonic Solidarity-Global Interventions (2021) The Palgrave Handbook of Mass Dictatorship (2016) Mass Dictatorship and Memory as Ever Present Past (2014) Gender Politics and Mass Dictatorship: Global Perspectives (2011) Book chapters “Introduction: Mnemonic Solidarity,” Mnemonic Solidarity-Global Interventions (2021) “Postcolonial Reflections on the Mnemonic Confluence of the Holocaust, Stalinist Crimes, ad Colonialism,” Mnemonic Solidarity-Global Interventions (2021) “Nationalizing the Bolshevik Revolution Transnationally: Non-Western Modernization among Proletarian Nations,” The Global Impacts of Russia’s Great War and Revolution, Book 2: The Wider Arc of Revolution, Part 2 (2019) “Transnational Memory Formation: Memory-History-Culture,” The Routledge Companion to World Literature and World History (2018) “World History, Nationally: How has the national appropriated the transnational in East Asian historiography?,” Global History, Globally (2018) “Afterword: entangled memories of the Second World War,” Remembering the Second World War (2017) “Introduction” and "Victimhood," The Palgrave Handbook of Mass Dictatorship (2016) “Nationalism and History,” The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Nationalism (2015) “Second World War in Global Memory Space,” Cambridge History of Second World War (2015) “Mass dictatorship as a transnational formation,” Modernity and Mass Dictatorship (2013) “Introduction: Coming to Terms with the Past of Mass Dictatorships,” Mass Dictatorship and Memory as Ever Present Past (2014) “Victimhood nationalism in coming to terms with the mass dictatorship,” Mass Dictatorship and Memory as Ever Present Past (2014) “Towards a Transnational History of Victimhood Nationalism: On the Trans-Pacific Space,” The Trans-Pacific Imagination: Rethinking Boundary, Culture and Society (2012) “Historicizing the World in East Asia,” A Companion to World History (2012) “Nationalism, Neo-Nationalism,” Encyclopedia of Global Studies (2012) “Introduction: Meandering between Self-empowerment and Self-mobilisation,” Gender Politics and Mass Dictatorship: Global Perspectives (2011) “Series Introduction: Mapping Mass Dictatorship: Towards a Transnational History of Twentieth-Century Dictatorship,” Gender Politics and Mass Dictatorship: Global Perspectives (2011) “Victimhood Nationalism in Contested Memories: National Mourning and Global Accountability,” Memory in a Global Age: Discourses, Practices and Trajectories (2010) Articles “Triple Victimhood: On the Mnemonic Confluence of the Holocaust, Stalinist Crime, and Colonial Genocide,” Journal of Genocide Research (2020) “Mnemonic Solidarity in the Global Memory Space,” Global-e (2019) “What is Critical in Critical Global Studies?,” Global-e (2017) “History Education and Nationalist Phenomenology in East Asia,” Global Asia (2015) “Transnational History of Victimhood Nationalism-On the Transpacific Space," Studia Politologica (2014) “A Postcolonial Reading of the Sonderweg: Marxist Historicism Revisited,” Journal of Modern European History (2014) “Mass Dictatorship – A Transnational Formation of Modernity,” Moving the Social: Journal of Social History and the History of Social Movements (2012) “Victimhood Nationalism and History Reconciliation in East Asia,” History Compass (2010) “Appendix: Introduction to TMPR special issue 6.3, ‘Political Religions and Sacralisation of Politics,” Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions (2007) “Historiographical Perspectives on ‘Mass Dictatorship,’” Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions (2005). “Conference Report: Coercion and Consent: A Comparative Study of ‘Mass Dictatorship’” Contemporary European History (2004) “Coercion and Consent: A Comparative Study on Mass Dictatorship,” Potsdamer Bulletin fuer Zeithistorische Studien (2004) See also Transnational history History of East Asia Eastern European history Cultural history of Poland Goguryeo controversies International Committee of Historical Sciences References South Korean historians 1959 births South Korean academic administrators Living people Academic staff of Sogang University

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B4%89%20%28%EB%B6%88%EA%B5%90%29

촉 (불교)

촉(觸, 접촉, 3사화합분별변이, , , )은 초기불교의 12연기설(十二緣起說)의 6번째 지분이며, 부파불교의 설일체유부의 5위 75법에서 심소법(心所法: 46가지) 중 대지법(大地法: 10가지) 가운데 하나이며, 대승불교의 유식유가행파와 법상종의 5위 100법에서 심소법(心所法: 51가지) 중 변행심소(遍行心所: 5가지) 가운데 하나이다. 촉이라고 번역되는 산스크리트어 스파르사(sparśa) 또는 팔리어 파싸(phassa)의 다른 역어로는 여러 가지가 있는데, 《인본욕생경》에서는 촉을 갱(更)이라 하고 있고, 《수행본기경》과 《증일아함경》 《중아함경》에서는 갱락(更樂)이라 하고 있다. 초기불교의 12연기설에 따르면, 촉(觸)은 5번째 지분인 6입(六入: 감관, 즉 根, 즉 六根)과 4번째 지분인 명색(名色: 정신과 물질, 모든 정신적물질적 사물, 즉 대상, 즉 境, 즉 무위법을 제외한 六境)과 3번째 지분인 식(識: 마음, 6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)의 3가지가 접촉하는 것이다. 부파불교의 설일체유부와 대승불교의 교학에 따르면, 촉(觸)은 3화(三和) 즉 3사화합(三事和合)에서 생겨나는, 즉 근(根) · 경(境) · 식(識)의 화합에서 생겨나는, 즉 감관[根]과 대상[境]과 마음[識: 6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법]의 3가지가 화합하여 생겨나는 마음작용(심소법)으로, 촉(觸)의 마음작용이 발생함으로써 비로소 마음은 대상을 접촉하게 된다. 촉(觸)이 성립됨과 동시에 다른 마음작용인 수(受, 지각)상(想, 표상)사(思, 의지)가 생겨난다. 《품류족론》 제2권에 따르면, 촉(觸)은 촉(觸: 3사화합)등촉(等觸: 평등한 3사화합)촉성(觸性: 3사화합의 성질)등촉성(等觸性: 평등한 3사화합의 성질)이촉(已觸: 과거의 3사화합)촉류(觸類: 3사화합의 등류)를 통칭한다. 한편, 엄격히 말하자면, 설일체유부와 유식유가행파의 교학인 3화생촉설에 따르면, 3사화합(三事和合)과 촉(觸)은 서로 별개의 법이다. 이러한 사항을 염두에 둔 상태에서, 설명상의 편의를 위해 일반적으로 종종 촉(觸)을 3사화합 또는 3화합(三和合)이라고 한다. 촉(觸)이 대지법 또는 변행심소에 속한다는 것은 촉(觸)이 없으면 인식대상에 대한 경험이 불완전해지거나 또는 불가능하다는 것을 의미한다. 촉(觸)이 없으면 인식대상을 지각[受]하거나 표상[想]하거나 인식대상에 대해 욕구[思]나 의지[思]를 가지는 등의 인식작용을 위한 기반이 존재하지 않는 것이므로 그 인식대상에 대한 경험 자체가 불가능하게 된다. 따라서 그 인식대상에 대한 경험적 지식을 얻을 수 없게 된다. 초기불교 《잡아함경》 제13권에 수록된 제306경 〈인경(人經)〉에서 고타마 붓다는 다음과 같이 말하고 있다. 위의 인용문을 비롯한 《아함경》 등의 초기불교 경전 상의 내용에 따르면, 촉(觸)은 감관[根]과 대상[境]과 마음[識: 6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕]의 3가지의 화합 그 자체, 혹은 그 화합으로부터 생겨나는 마음작용을 말한다. 그리고 촉(觸)은 5온에 속한 수(受, 지각)와 상(想, 표상, 개념, 생각)과 사(思, 욕구, 의지, 즉 행)의 마음작용들이 발생하게 하는 작용을 한다. 이러한 초기불교의 고타마 붓다의 가르침들에 근거하여 부파불교와 대승불교에서는 이 가르침들을 해석함으로써 자신들의 법체계와 5온에 대한 교학을 수립하였는데, 촉(觸)의 경우에는 특히 의견 차이가 발견된다. 부파불교 설일체유부 (3화생촉설) 부파불교의 설일체유부의 교학을 비판적으로 집대성한 《구사론》에 따르면, 촉(觸)은 감관[根]과 대상[境]과 마음[識: 6식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법]의 3가지가 화합하여 생겨나는 마음작용으로, 감관[根]과 마음(6식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 대상을 접촉하게 하는 마음작용이다. 즉, 설일체유부에서는 감관[根]과 대상[境]과 마음[識: 6식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법]의 3가지가 화합이 원인이 되어 이 화합과는 별도의 마음작용으로서의 촉(觸)이 생겨난다는 3화생촉설(三和生觸說: 3사의 화합이 촉을 낳는다는 교의)을 주장하였다. 그리고 세부적으로는 초기불교의 가르침과 동일하게 6가지의 촉(觸)들, 즉 안촉(眼觸)이촉(耳觸)비촉(鼻觸)설촉(舌觸)신촉(身觸)의촉(意觸)의 6촉신(六觸身) 또는 6촉(六觸)이 있다고 본다. 6촉이 있다는 교의는, 설일체유부 외에도 부파불교의 경량부와 대승불교의 유식유가행파 등 불교 전반에서, 초기불교 경전에 나타난 고타마 붓다의 가르침에 따라 모두가 인정하는 교의이다. 경량부 (3화성촉설) 부파불교의 경량부에서는 감관[根]과 대상[境]과 마음[識: 6식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법]의 3사(三事: 3가지 요소)의 화합과는 별도로 촉(觸)이라는 마음작용이 생긴다는 설일체유부의 주장과는 달리, 이들 3사의 화합이 바로 촉(觸)이며 별도로 새롭게 촉(觸)이 생겨나지 않는다고 말한다. 전자의 설일체유부의 주장을 3화생촉설(三和生觸說: 3사의 화합이 촉을 낳는다는 주장)이라고 하고 후자의 경량부의 주장을 3화성촉설(三和成觸說: 3사의 화합이 곧 촉을 이룬다는 주장)이라 한다. 대승불교의 유식유가행파에서는 설일체유부와 동일하게 삼화생촉설을 주장하였다. 대승불교 (3화생촉설) 인도 불교의 유식학의 역사는 3기로 나누기도 하는데, 미륵과 더불어 유식학의 시조 또는 주창자라고 할 수 있는, 인도의 유식학 제1기의 무착은 《대승아비달마집론》 에서, 촉(觸)이란, 감관[根]과 대상[境]과 마음[識: 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법]의 3가지가 화합함에 의지하여, 모든 감관[根] 즉 6근(六根)으로 하여금 변이(變異)하게 하고 분별(分別)하게 하는 것을 그 본질적 성질[體]로 하고 다른 마음작용인 수(受, 지각)의 의지처[所依]가 되는 것을 그 본질적 작용[業]으로 하는 마음작용이라 정의하고 있다. 인도 불교의 유식학의 제2기의 세친은 《대승오온론》에서, 촉(觸)이란, 감관[根]과 대상[境]과 마음[識: 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법]의 3가지가 화합(和合)하게 하고 분별(分別)하게 하는 것을 그 본질적 성질[性]로 하는 마음작용이라 정의하고 있다. 인도 불교의 유식학의 제3기에 해당하는 《성유식론》에서는 제1기의 무착과 제2기의 세친의 정의와 유사하게 그러나 차이가 나게 촉(觸)을 정의하고 있다. 《성유식론》에 따르면, 촉(觸)은 감관[根]과 대상[境]과 마음[識: 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법]의 3가지가 화합하여 생겨나는 마음작용으로, 마음(6식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)과 마음작용으로 하여금 대상을 접촉하게 하는 것을 그 본질적 성질[性]로 하고, 변행심소에 속한 다른 마음작용인 수(受, 지각)상(想, 표상)사(思, 의지) 등을 일으키는 의지처[所依]가 되는 것을 그 본질적 작용[業]으로 하는 마음작용이다. 위의 《성유식론》의 인용문에서 세 가지의 화합[三和] 또는 3화합(三和合)은 '근경식(根境識) 3사화합(三事和合)', 즉 감관[根]과 대상[境]과 마음[識: 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법]이 최초로 접촉하는 것을 말한다. 또한 이 3사화합이 원인이 되어 이 화합과는 별도의 촉(觸)이라는 마음작용이 생긴다는 것을 말한다. 이러한 견해를 3화생촉설(三和生觸說: 3사의 화합이 촉을 낳는다는 주장)이라고 하는데, 설일체유부와 동일한 견해이다. 위의 《성유식론》의 인용문에서 달라지는 것[變異]은 감관[根]과 대상[境]과 마음[識: 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법]이 화합하기 이전에는 이들 3가지는 아무런 작용을 일으키지 않으며, 이들 3가지가 화합함으로써 비로소 각자의 작용을 일으키게 된다는 것을 말한다. 즉, 이들 3가지는 화합 이후의 양상이 화합 이전의 양상과는 크게 달라지기 때문에 위의 인용문의 정의에서 '변이(變異)', 즉 '달라진다'고 말한 것이다. 위의 《성유식론》의 인용문에서 분별하는 것[分別] 즉 3분별(三分別) 또는 3사분별(三事分別)은 인식식별요별과 같은 앎의 의미가 아니라 '비슷한 작용을 한는 상사(相似)의 뜻이다. 즉, 감관[根]과 대상[境]과 마음[識: 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법]의 화합에 의해 촉(觸)이 생겨나고 그렇게 되면 이들 3가지의 양상이 화합 이전과는 크게 달라져 각자의 작용을 나타내게 되는데, 이러한 전체적인 작용과 유사[相似]한 작용이 다시 일어난다는 것을 말한다. 이 비슷한 작용은 2가지로 나뉘는데, 첫 번째는 생겨난 촉(觸)이 다시 이들 3가지의 화합을 강화시켜서 확실한 접촉이 형성되게 하는 것이다. 이 경우에는 촉(觸)이 원인이 되고 확실한 화합 또는 강화된 화합이 결과가 된다. 두 번째는 화합으로부터 촉(觸)이 생겨난 것과 유사하게 촉(觸)으로부터 변행심소에 속한 다른 마음작용인 수(受)상(想)사(思)가 일어난다는 것이다. 그런데, 여기서 '촉으로부터 일어난다'는 것은 촉(觸) 다음에 수(受)상(想)사(思)가 순서대로 일어난다는 뜻이 아니라 촉(觸)이 성립됨과 동시에 수(受)상(想)사(思)가 일어난다는 것으로, 이러한 동시발생설(同時發生說)은 설일체유부와 동일한 견해이며, 계기발생설(繼起發生說)을 주장한 경량부의 견해와는 다르다. 위의 《성유식론》의 인용문에서 성(性) 또는 체성(體性)은 본질적인 성질 또는 직접적인 작용을 뜻하고, 업(業) 또는 업용(業用)은 본질적인 작용 또는 간접적인 작용을 뜻한다. 같이 보기 3사화합(三事和合) 촉(觸) 6촉(六觸) 또는 6촉신(六觸身) 유대촉(有對觸) 증어촉(增語觸) 명촉(明觸) 무명촉(無明觸) 비명비무명촉(非明非無明觸) 수(受) 또는 수온(受蘊) 3수(三受) 5수(五受) 6수(六受) 또는 6수신(六受身) 상(想) 또는 상온(想蘊) 6상(六想) 또는 6상신(六想身) 사(思) 또는 행온(行蘊) 6사(六思) 또는 6사신(六思身) 애(愛) 6애(六愛) 또는 6애신(六愛身) 전식득지(轉識得智) 대원경지(大圓鏡智) 평등성지(平等性智) 묘관찰지(妙觀察智) 성소작지(成所作智) 참고 문헌 각주 불교 용어 불교 사상

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spar%C5%9Ba

Sparśa

Sparśa (Sanskrit; Pali: phassa) is a Sanskrit/Indian term that is translated as "contact", "touching", "sensation", "sense impression", etc. It is defined as the coming together of three factors: the sense organ, the sense object, and sense consciousness (vijnana). For example, contact (sparsha) is said to occur at the coming together of the eye organ, a visual object, and the visual sense consciousness. Sparśa is identified within the Buddhist teachings as: One of the seven universal mental factors in the Theravada Abhidharma. One of the five universal mental factors in the Mahayana Abhidharma The sixth link in the twelve links of dependent origination Explanation Theravada The Atthasālinī (Expositor, Part IV, Chapter I, 108) states: Contact means “it touches”. It has touching as its salient characteristic, impact as its function, “coinciding” (of the physical base, object and consciousness) as its manifestation, and the object which has entered the avenue (of awareness) as proximate cause. Nina van Gorkom explains: Phassa is manifested by coinciding or concurrence, namely, by the coinciding of three factors: physical base (vatthu), object and consciousness. When there is seeing, there is the coinciding of eye (the eyebase), visible object and seeing-consciousness; through this concurrence phassa, which is in this case eye-contact, is manifested. Nina van Gorkom also explains: Phassa is different from what we mean in conventional language by physical contact or touch. When we use the word contact in conventional language we may think of the impingement of something external on one of the senses, for example the impingement of hardness on the bodysense. We may use words such as touching or impingement in order to describe phassa, but we should not forget that phassa is nāma, a cetasika which arises together with the citta and assists the citta so that it can experience the object which presents itself through the appropriate doorway. When hardness presents itself through the bodysense there is phassa, contact, arising together with the citta which experiences the hardness. Phassa is not the mere collision of hardness with the bodysense, it is not touch in the physical sense. Impact is the function of phassa in the sense that it assists the citta so that it can cognize the object. Mahayana The Abhidharma-samuccaya states: What is sparsha (contact)? It is it determination, a transformation in the controlling power, which is in accordance with the three factors coming together. Its function is to provide it basis for feeling. Herbert Guenther explains: It is an awareness in which a pleasant [or unpleasant or neutral] feeling is felt when the object, sensory capacity, and cognitive process have come together and which is restricted to the appropriate object. Transformation in the controlling power means that when the visual sense meets a pleasant object [for example] and the feeling becomes the cause of adhering to this pleasure, rapport [sparsha] restricts the pleasant color-form and the feeling becomes the cause of pleasure. Six classes The Theravada and Mahayana traditions both identify six "classes" of contact: eye-contact ear-contact nose-contact tongue-contact body-contact mind-contact For example, when the ear sense and a sound object are present, the associated auditory consciousness (Pali: viññāṇa) arises. The arising of these three elements (dhātu) – ear-sense, sound and auditory consciousness – lead to "contact" (phassa). Within the twelve nidanas Sparśa is the sixth of the Twelve Nidānas. It is conditioned by the presence of the six sense-openings (), and in turn is a condition for the arising of pleasant, unpleasant or neutral 'sensations' or 'feelings' (vedanā). Dan Lusthaus explains: sparśa (P. phassa) - Literally 'touch' or 'sensory contact'. This term accrued varied usages in later Indian thought, but here it simply means that the sense organs are 'in contact with' sensory objects. The circuit of intentionality, or to borrow Merleau-Ponty's term intentional arc, is operational. This term could be translated as 'sensation' as long as this is qualified as a constitutional, active process that is invariably contextualized within its psycho-cognitive dimensions. For Buddhists, sensation can neither be passive nor purely a physical or neurological matter. When the proper sensorial conditions aggregate, i.e., come into contact with each other, sensation occurs. These proper conditions include a properly functioning sense organ and a cognitive-sensory object, which already presuppose a linguistically-complex conscious body (nāma-rūpa). Jeffrey Hopkins explains: Roughly speaking, [sparsha refers to] the coming together of an object, a sense organ, and a moment of consciousness. Hence contact, in the twelve links, refers to contact with a sense-object and the subsequent discrimination of the object as attractive, unattractive, or neutral. Sense objects are always present, and thus when a sense organ—the subtle matter that allows you to see, hear, and so forth—develops, an eye consciousness, ear consciousness, nose consciousness, tongue consciousness, or body consciousness will be produced. Alexander Berzin provides an explanation of the sixth link in the context of the development of the fetus; he states: The sixth of the twelve links of dependent arising. The subsidiary awareness (mental factor) of contacting awareness [sparsha] during the period of time in the development of a fetus when the distinguishing aggregate and such other affecting variables as contacting awareness are functioning, but the feeling aggregate is not yet functioning. During this period, one experiences contacting awareness of objects as pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral, but does not feel happy, unhappy, or neutral in response to this. Within the five aggregates In terms of the Five Aggregates, sparśa is the implicit basis by which Form (rūpa) and Consciousness (viññāna) lead to the mental factors of Feeling (vedanā), Perception (sañña) and Formations (sankhāra). Alternate translations Contact (Erik Pema Kusang, Jeffrey Hopkins, Nina van Gorkom) Contacting awareness (Alexander Berzin) Rapport (Herbert Guenther) Sensation (Dan Lusthaus) Sense impression Touch (Jeffrey Hopkins) Touching (Jeffrey Hopkins) See also Ayatana (sense bases) Mental factors (Buddhism) Skandha (aggregates) Asparsa yoga References Sources Bhikkhu Bodhi (2003), A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, Pariyatti Publishing Dalai Lama (1992). The Meaning of Life, translated and edited by Jeffrey Hopkins, Boston: Wisdom. Dan Lusthaus, Buddhist Phenomenology Guenther, Herbert V. & Leslie S. Kawamura (1975), Mind in Buddhist Psychology: A Translation of Ye-shes rgyal-mtshan's "The Necklace of Clear Understanding" Dharma Publishing. Kindle Edition. Kunsang, Erik Pema (translator) (2004). Gateway to Knowledge, Vol. 1. North Atlantic Books. Nina van Gorkom (2010), Cetasikas, Zolag External links Berzin, Alexander (2006), Primary Minds and the 51 Mental Factors Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997). Paticca-samuppada-vibhanga Sutta: Analysis of Dependent Co-arising, Access to Insight U Kyaw Min (n.d.). Introducing Buddhist Abhidhamma: Meditation and Concentration Twelve nidānas Mental factors in Buddhism Sanskrit words and phrases

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%A0%EB%8D%A4%20%EC%BD%9C

애덤 콜

애덤 콜(Adam Cole, 1988년 7월 5일 ~ )은 본명은 오스틴 재킨스(Austin Jenkins)다. 미국의 남자프로레슬링선수다. 키는 183cm(6 ft 0 in)에다가 몸무게는 91kg(200 lb)이다. 2008년 프로레슬링 입문으로 피니쉬는 브레인버스터 온투 더 니, 코로나 크래쉬(리프팅 인버티드 해머락 디디티), 피겨-포 레그락, 플로리다 키(브릿지 스트레이트 재킷 수플렉스), 라스트 샷/붐(런닝 샤이닝 위자드), 파나마 썬라이즈(다이빙 프론트 플립 파일드라이버), 런닝 하이 니, 사이드 킥이라는 사용을 하게 된다. 그가 WWE 로얄 럼블 2018에서 남성 로얄 럼블매치 중에서 참가를 했으나 레이 미스테리오에게 탈락을 당했다. 그러나 이분은 WWE NXT에서 활동을하는 남자 프로레슬링선수다.그리고 현재 NXT에 있는 스테이블인 언디스퓨티드 에라에서 리더로 활동하고 있다. NXT 챔피언을 최근까지 소유하고 있었으나 NXT 노스 아메리칸 챔피언인 키스 리와 더블 타이틀 매치를 펼쳐 패배하여 NXT 챔피언십을 잃고 말았다. Professional wrestling highlights Finishing moves Brainbuster on to knee - 2015-present; previously used as a characteristic move Corona Crash (Lifting inverted hammerlock DDT) - 2011-2012 Figure-four leglock - 2012-2015 Florida Key (Bridging straight jacket suplex) - 2012-2015 Last Shot (WWE NXT) / Boom (AEW) (Running shining wizard, sometimes on an opponent on his knees or in the neck) - 2017-present Panama Sunrise (Diving front flip piledriver) - 2012-present Running high knee - 2017-present Side kick - 2011-present; used as a signature moves Signature movers Coleateral (Snap inverted brainbuster) Corona Kick (Running front dropkick) - 2011-2012 Diving crossbody Jumping enzuigiri Wheelbarrow double knee backbreaker Manager Mia Yim Nicknames "The One" "The Panama City Playboy" "The Industry Ruler" "The Best Damn Pro Wrestler on the Planet" Entrance themes "Faithless" by Injected (CZW) "Break Anotha" by Blake Lewis (CZW) "Get Off the Stoves" by The Stoves (ROH; 2010-2013) "Whatta Man" by Salt-n-Pepa (PWG; 2011-2017) "Something for You" by David Rolfe (ROH; 2013-2017) "Shot'Em" by [Q]Brick (ROH/NJPW; 2016-2017; used as a member of the Bullet Club) "Adam Cole Bay-Bay" by Yonosuke Kitamura "Undisputed" by CFO$ (WWE NXT; 2017-2021; used as a member of the Undisputed Eea) "Thunder Boom" by Def Rebel (WWE NXT; 2021) "All About Tha (BOOM!)" by Mikey Rukus (AEW; 2021-present) 수상 CZW 월드 주니어 헤비웨이트 챔피언 (1회) 베스트 오브 더 베스트 엑스 (2011) DFE 월드 오픈웨이트 챔피언/WWL 월드 헤비웨이트 챔피언 (1회) EWA 월드 크루저웨이트 챔피언 (1회) 배틀 오브 케티즈버그 (2009) ICW 월드 슈퍼 인디웨이트 챔피언 (1회) 슈퍼 월드 인디웨이트 16 (2017) MCW 월드 레이지 텔레비전웨이트 챔피언 (2회) 셰인 샴록 메모리얼 컵 (2012) NHPW 월드 아트 오브 파이팅웨이트 챔피언 (1회) PWX 월드 헤비웨이트 챔피언 (1회) PCW 월드 크루저웨이트 챔피언 (1회) PWG 월드 챔피언 (1회) 배틀 오브 로스 앙헬레스 (2012) 월드-원 노스 아메리칸웨이트 챔피언 (1회) 신야 하시모토 메모리얼 컵 (2010) RCW 월드 크루저웨이트 챔피언 (1회) RCW 월드 태그팀웨이트 챔피언 (1회) - 데번 무어 ROH 월드 챔피언 (3회) ROH 월드 텔레비전웨이트 챔피언 (1회) ROH 월드 챔피언 토너먼트 (2013) ROH 월드 태그팀웨이트 챔피언 넘버원 컨텐더 로터리 토너먼트 (2011) - 카일 오라일리 서바이벌 오브 더 피티스트 (2014) 매치 오브 더 이열 (2012) - 카일 오라일리 vs 슈퍼 스매시 브라더스 (플레이어 우노 맨 스튜퍼파이) 앤 영 벅스 2012년 7월 21일 매치 오브 더 이열 (2016 - 영 벅스 (매트 잭슨 앤 닉 잭슨) vs 맷 사이달 앤 닉크 앤 윌 오스프레이 2016년 9월 3일 레슬러 오브 더 이열 (2013) 빅 탑 태그팀 챔피언 (1회) - 브릿 베이커 파이브 스타 매치 (2016) - 영 벅스 (매트 잭슨 앤 닉 잭슨) vs 맷 사이달 앤 닉크 앤 윌 오스프레이 2016년 9월 3일 루키 오브 더 이열 (2010) WXW 월드 C4 하이브리드웨이트 챔피언 (1회) WWE 월드 NXT 헤비웨이트 챔피언 (1회) WWE 월드 NXT 노스 아메리칸웨이트 챔피언 (1회) WWE 월드 NXT 태그팀웨이트 챔피언 (1회) - 보비 피시 & 카일 오라일리 & 로더릭 스트롱 (언디스퓨티드 에라) (1회) 외부 링크 1988년 출생 살아있는 사람 미국의 남자 프로레슬러

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam%20Cole

Adam Cole

Austin Kirk Jenkins (born July 5, 1989) is an American professional wrestler currently signed to All Elite Wrestling (AEW), where he performs under the ring name Adam Cole. He also competes in AEW's sister promotion Ring of Honor (ROH), where he is one half of the current ROH World Tag Team Champions with MJF in their first reign. He is also known for his tenure with WWE. Cole began his eight-year tenure with ROH in 2009 and went on to become the first-ever three-time ROH World Champion. In addition, he is a one-time ROH World Television Champion, and the winner of the 2014 ROH Survival of the Fittest tournament. Cole has also wrestled for several independent promotions, including Chikara, Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW), where he is a former CZW World Junior Heavyweight Champion, and Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG), where he is a former PWG World Champion; he holds the records for longest reigns for both titles. He also worked in New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), where he was part of the Bullet Club stable. From 2017 to 2021, Cole was signed to WWE and performed on their NXT brand. During this time, Cole was the leader of The Undisputed Era, whose membership included Bobby Fish, Kyle O'Reilly, and later Roderick Strong. Cole was the second wrestler to become the NXT Triple Crown Champion, having been the inaugural NXT North American Champion, a one-time NXT Tag Team Champion, and is the longest-reigning NXT Champion of all-time. Early life Austin Jenkins was born on July 5, 1989, in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and raised in nearby Manheim. He has a younger brother. His parents separated when he was 10 years old. Jenkins took karate lessons as a child. Jenkins competed in wrestling at Manheim Central High School before quitting his senior year so he could get a job to pay for his professional wrestling training. Professional wrestling career Combat Zone Wrestling (2008–2013) Jenkins was trained at the Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW) Wrestling Academy by D. J. Hyde and Jon Dahmer. He became an official student at the Academy on November 14, 2007, while he was still a senior in high school. He made his CZW debut at No Pun Intended as Adam Cole on June 21, 2008, when he teamed with The Reason in a loss to GNC (Joe Gacy and Alex Colon). His next appearance was on September 13 at the Chri$ Ca$h Memorial Show, when he defeated Tyler Veritas in a CZW Wrestling Academy showcase match. Cole then began to feud with GNC, facing them in several matches with different partners, which led to GNC and EMO defeating Cole, L.J. Cruz and HDTV in a six-man tag team match on October 11. At the following show named Night of Infamy 7: Greed, GNC defeated Cole and HDTV in a regular tag team match. Cole gained his first win over GNC at Cage of Death 10: Ultraviolent Anniversary on December 13, when he, Veritas, and Cruz defeated GNC and EMO in a six-man tag team match. In 2009, Cole teamed regularly with Tyler Veritas and they won a tag team gauntlet match, outlasting the teams of The S.A.T., L.J. Cruz and Izzy Kensington, 2.0, All Money Is Legal, and GNC at X: Decade of Destruction – 10th Anniversary in February. At the following show in March, they won a four-way match against the team of Jagged and Cole Calloway, GNC, and Team AnDrew (Andy Sumner and Drew Gulak). After Cole took a hiatus from CZW, he returned at A Tangled Web 2 on August 8, where he and Veritas won another four-way match against BLKOUT, Team Macktion (TJ Mack and Kirby Mack), and The Spanish Armada (Alex Colon and L.J. Cruz). At Down With the Sickness Forever on September 13, Cole and Veritas challenged for The Best Around (Bruce Maxwell and TJ Cannon) for the CZW World Tag Team Championship, but were unsuccessful. For the remainder of 2009, Cole and Veritas began focusing on singles competition, as they both entered the tournament to determine the inaugural CZW Wired TV Champion, with Cole defeating Alex Colon and Rich Swann en route to the final at Cage of Death 11, where he lost to Veritas. At Walking on Pins and Needles in March 2010, Cole wrestled Sabian to a 15-minute time-limit draw. Later in 2010, Cole began challenging for the CZW World Junior Heavyweight Championship and on April 10 at Swinging for the Fences, Cole faced defending champion Sabian in a match that ended in a 20-minute time-limit draw. On May 8, 2010, Cole won the CZW World Junior Heavyweight Championship by defeating defending champion Sabian and Ruckus in a three-way match at Fist Fight. Cole successfully defended the championship against Ryan Slater in both June and August and Blk Jeez in September. At It's Always Bloody in Philadelphia on October 9, Cole turned into a heel (villainous character) by attacking long-time tag team partner Veritas and successfully defended the CZW World Junior Heavyweight Championship against A. R. Fox later that night. In November, Cole toured Germany with CZW and he retained the championship against Zack Sabre Jr. at Live in Germany in Oberhausen. In December, Cole gained Mia Yim as a manager and she helped him to retain the Junior Heavyweight Championship in two separate matches at Cage of Death XII. At Twelve: Anniversary in February 2011, Cole qualified for the Best of the Best X tournament by defeating Pinkie Sanchez. On April 9 at Best of the Best X, Cole qualified for the final of the tournament by defeating Johnny Gargano and Kyle O'Reilly in a three-way match in the first round and Sabre in the semi-final, then defeating Sami Callihan in the final, thus winning the Best of the Best X tournament. Cole then developed an alliance with his trainer D. J. Hyde, with Hyde helping Cole to retain the championship against Fox in May. Further title defenses against Jonatham Gresham, Chuck Taylor and AJ Curcio followed throughout the year. On November 12, Cole lost the CZW World Junior Heavyweight Championship to Callihan despite both Hyde and Yim interfering on his behalf, ending his reign at 553 days, the longest reign in the championship's history. At An Excellent Adventure in January 2012, Cole unsuccessfully challenged Devon Moore for the CZW World Heavyweight Championship. Cole's alliance with Hyde ended at the Best of the Best 11 internet pay-per-view, when Hyde gained a new protégé in Tony Nese who Cole went on to defeat in a match. Cole and Hyde began feuding briefly, with Hyde attacking Cole in May and Cole attacking Hyde the following month. In November 2012, Cole went on to feud with Sami Callihan, claiming that he would always be regarded as a better wrestler than Callihan. At Cage of Death 14: Shattered Dreams on December 8, Cole defeated Callihan in a No Hold Barred match. On April 13, 2013, Cole defeated Callihan in what billed as the "final encounter" between the longtime rivals. Independent circuit (2009–2017) On August 7, 2009, Carelle defeated Qenann Creed to win the MCW Rage Television Championship. He held the championship for over four months, before losing it to Ryan McBride on December 26. After changing his ring name to Adam Cole, he regained the championship from McBride two months later on February 27, 2010. Cole held it until July 31, when he and Tyler Hilton were defeated by Cobian and Tommy Dreamer, which meant that Cobian won the championship. On November 7, 2009, Cole defeated VSK to win WXW C4's Hybrid Championship in Allentown, Pennsylvania. He lost the championship to Dave Rose on March 6, 2010, after a five-month reign. On November 20 and 21, 2009, Cole defeated four opponents (D. J. Hyde, Ryan McBride, "Mighty" Quinn Nash and Eric Enders) to win Ground Breaking Wrestling's 1st annual 16-man Battle of Gettysburg tournament. With his victory, Cole earned a title shot against champion Greg Excellent in April 2010, but he lost. Cole began competing for the Evolve promotion in 2010, making his debut match for the promotion on May 1 at Evolve 3: Rise Or Fall, he lost to Sami Callihan. At Evolve 4, Cole defeated Johnny Gargano to improve his record to one win and one loss. Following his victory he challenged Jimmy Jacobs to a match at the next show. At Evolve 5: Danielson vs. Sawa, Cole lost to Jacobs. Cole appeared at Dragon Gate USA's (DGUSA) Open the Freedom Gate pay-per-view taping on November 28, 2009, on the pre-show, where he wrestled Kyle O'Reilly in a losing effort. On July 24, 2010, Cole appeared at DGUSA's Enter the Dragon 2010 pay-per-view taping in a four-way match against Chuck Taylor, Arik Cannon, and Ricochet, which was won by Taylor. On August 28, 2010, Cole appeared at Chikara's Young Lions Cup tournament. He defeated Kyle O'Reilly in the quarter-finals, but was eliminated from the semi-final six-man elimination match by Obariyon. On April 30, 2011, Cole participated in East Coast Wrestling Association's 2011 Super 8 Tournament. He defeated Sami Callihan and Austin Aries en route to the final, where he lost to Tommaso Ciampa. On November 30, 2012, he won the Premiere Wrestling Xperience's Heavyweight Championship. Cole lost the title in February 2013. Ring of Honor (2009–2017) Future Shock (2009–2012) Cole made his Ring of Honor (ROH) debut on February 28, 2009, when he lost to John Kerman in a dark match at the Ring of Honor Wrestling tapings. At the Ring of Honor Wrestling tapings the following night, Cole appeared in a dark match again, teaming with Ninja Brown against John Kerman and Corey Abbott. The match ended in a no contest when the Dark City Fight Club (Kory Chavis and Jon Davis) attacked the match participants. He appeared again on the July 26, 2010, episode of Ring of Honor Wrestling, teaming with Nick Westgate in a loss to The Kings of Wrestling (Chris Hero and Claudio Castagnoli). On August 23, 2010, ROH announced that Cole had signed a contract with the company. At the August 2 tapings of Ring of Honor Wrestling, Cole was defeated by Mike Bennett. Cole began to ally himself with fellow ROH newcomer Kyle O'Reilly, with the pair forming a tag team. At the October 2 Ring of Honor Wrestling tapings they defeated the team of Grizzly Redwood and Mike Sydal. They lost to Steve Corino and Kevin Steen on October 15, and The All Night Express (Kenny King and Rhett Titus at a show on October 16. They defeated the Bravado Brothers (Harlem and Lance) on the November 8 episode of Ring of Honor Wrestling. On November 12, Cole participated in the 2010 edition of the Survival of the Fittest tournament. He defeated Steve Corino in the first round, but was the second person eliminated from the final, a six-man elimination match. The following night in Toronto, Cole and O'Reilly defeated the Bravado Brothers. Cole made his ROH pay-per-view debut on December 18 at Final Battle 2010, where he and O'Reilly were defeated by the All Night Express. On April 1 and 2 at Chapter One and Two of Honor Takes Center Stage, Cole and O'Reilly faced the Briscoe Brothers (Jay and Mark) and the Kings of Wrestling in two losing efforts, despite putting on strong performances. On July 8, Cole and O'Reilly defeated the Bravado Brothers to earn a future shot at the ROH World Tag Team Championship. On July 25, ROH announced that Cole had re-signed with the promotion. At the August 13 tapings of Ring of Honor Wrestling, the tag team of Cole and O'Reilly was named Future Shock. Championship reigns (2012–2015) At the January 7, 2012, tapings of Ring of Honor Wrestling, Future Shock disbanded and Cole formed a new partnership with Eddie Edwards, opposite Kyle O'Reilly and Davey Richards. On March 4 at the 10th Anniversary Show, Cole and Edwards defeated O'Reilly and Richards in a main event tag team match, with Cole pinning Richards, the reigning ROH World Champion, for the win. On June 24 at Best in the World 2012: Hostage Crisis, Cole defeated O'Reilly in a "Hybrid Rules" match. Afterwards, Cole tried to make peace with his former partner, but the offer was turned down. On June 29, 2012, Cole won his first championship in ROH, defeating Roderick Strong to become the ROH World Television Champion in Baltimore, Maryland, at a taping of Ring of Honor Wrestling. On September 15 at Death Before Dishonor X: State of Emergency, Cole successfully defended the title against Mike Mondo, before being confronted by Matt Hardy. At the following internet pay-per-view, Glory By Honor XI: The Unbreakable Hope on October 13, Cole successfully defended his title against Eddie Edwards. On December 16 at Final Battle 2012: Doomsday, Cole was defeated by Hardy in a non-title match. At the following iPPV, 11th Anniversary Show on March 2, 2013, Cole lost the World Television Championship to Matt Taven, ending his reign at 246 days. On May 4 at Border Wars 2013, Cole unsuccessfully challenged Jay Briscoe for the ROH World Championship. On May 30, ROH announced that Cole had re-signed with the promotion. After the ROH World Championship was vacated, Cole entered a tournament to determine the new champion, defeating Mark Briscoe in his first round match on July 27. On August 3, Cole defeated Jay Lethal to advance to the semifinals of the tournament. On September 20 at Death Before Dishonor XI, Cole first defeated Tommaso Ciampa in the semifinals and then Michael Elgin in the finals to win the tournament and become the new ROH World Champion. After being presented the title belt by former champion Jay Briscoe, Cole attacked Briscoe and Elgin thus establishing himself as a villain. In early November, Cole suffered a concussion, temporarily sidelining him from wrestling. On December 14 at Final Battle 2013, Cole successfully defended the ROH World Championship in a three-way match against Briscoe and Elgin, following outside interference from Matt Hardy, with the two later forming a stable alongside Mike Bennett, Maria Kanellis and later Matt Taven named The Kingdom. Post-match, Cole and Hardy were attacked by the returning Chris Hero, which led to Cole's next title defense on February 21, 2014, at the 12th Anniversary Show, where he defeated Hero. A rematch between the two, contested under Ringmaster's Challenge rules, took place on March 8 and saw Cole again retain the title. On April 4 at Supercard of Honor VIII, Cole defeated Jay Briscoe in a ladder match to become the undisputed ROH World Champion, retaining his title and taking over Briscoe's unrecognized "Real World Title" and later giving it to Matt Hardy who renamed it the “ROH Iconic Championship”. In May 2014, Cole took part in a tour co-produced by ROH and New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), during which he made two more successful title defenses; first against Kevin Steen at Global Wars on May 10 and then against NJPW's Jyushin Thunder Liger at War of the Worlds on May 17. The following month, Cole retained the championship against A. C. H. and Tommaso Ciamapa. On June 22 at Best in the World 2014, Cole lost the ROH World Championship to Michael Elgin, ending his reign at 275 days. Through ROH's relationship with NJPW, Cole made his Japanese debut on August 10, in Tokorozawa, Saitama, teaming with Kingdom stablemate Michael Bennett to defeat Captain New Japan and Jyushin Thunder Liger in a tag team match. On November 8, Cole won the 2014 Survival of the Fittest. On December 7 at Final Battle 2014, Cole unsuccessfully challenged Jay Briscoe for the ROH World Championship in a Fight Without Honor. The following week, Cole announced he had suffered a shoulder injury, which required surgery. Cole returned from his injury on May 12, 2015, at War of the Worlds '15, losing to A.J. Styles. Cole then began having problems with his Kingdom stablemates and started teasing a reunion with his Future Shock tag team partner Kyle O'Reilly. However, on September 18 at All Star Extravaganza VII, Cole turned on O'Reilly during his match for the ROH World Championship and reunited with the rest of the Kingdom, becoming a heel once again. Bullet Club (2016–2017) On May 8, 2016, at Global Wars, Cole joined Bullet Club, helping the stable take over the ring in a show-closing angle. On June 16, at Best in the World, Cole teamed up with The Young Bucks and formed The Superkliq to defeat War Machine and Moose. On August 19 at Death Before Dishonor XIV, Cole defeated Jay Lethal to win the ROH World Championship for the second time, becoming the third man to regain the championship. Afterwards, Cole's victory celebration was abruptly ended when he was laid out by a returning Kyle O'Reilly. Cole returned to NJPW on September 22, representing Bullet Club and successfully defending the ROH World Championship against Will Ospreay at Destruction in Hiroshima. Three days later at Destruction in Kobe, Cole and The Young Bucks were defeated by David Finlay, Ricochet and Satoshi Kojima in a match for the vacant NEVER Openweight 6-Man Tag Team Championship. On December 2 at Final Battle, he lost the ROH World Championship to O'Reilly. Cole regained the title from O'Reilly on January 4, 2017, at NJPW's Wrestle Kingdom 11 in Tokyo Dome, thus making Cole the first three-time ROH World Champion. On March 10 at the 15th Anniversary Show, Cole lost the ROH World Championship to Christopher Daniels, when Bullet Club's newest member and Daniels' longtime tag team partner Frankie Kazarian turned on him. In early 2017, Cole began showing tension with Bullet Club stablemate Kenny Omega with The Young Bucks (Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson) caught in the middle. The storyline led to an angle on March 11, where Cole tried to fire The Young Bucks from Bullet Club, but the two responded by stating that Omega, not Cole, was the leader of the stable. Despite the dissension, Cole remained a member of Bullet Club. On May 1, it was reported that Cole's ROH contract had expired and he was now a free agent. On May 12, during the third night of the War of the Worlds tour, Cole was defeated by NJPW's Hiroshi Tanahashi in a singles match. After the match, Kenny Omega and The Young Bucks turned on Cole and kicked him out of Bullet Club, giving his spot in the stable to Marty Scurll. Two days later, Cole was defeated by Scurll in his ROH farewell match, a Philadelphia Street Fight. Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (2011–2017) Cole made his debut in Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG) on October 22, 2011, alongside regular tag team partner O'Reilly as Future Shock, unsuccessfully challenging The Young Bucks for the PWG World Tag Team Championship. Future Shock were defeated by the RockNES Monsters (Johnny Goodtime and Johnny Yuma), at Fear on December 10. On April 21, 2012, Future Shock entered the annual Dynamite Duumvirate Tag Team Title Tournament (DDT4), where they made it to the semifinals, before losing to the eventual tournament winners, Super Smash Bros. (Player Uno and Stupefied). On July 21 at PWG's ninth anniversary event, Future Shock unsuccessfully challenged the Super Smash Bros. for the PWG World Tag Team Championship in a three-way ladder match, which also included The Young Bucks. On September 1, Cole entered the 2012 Battle of Los Angeles, now working under his "Panama City Playboy" heel persona. After upsetting El Generico in his first round match, Cole advanced to the following day's quarterfinals, where he defeated Eddie Edwards. After a win over Sami Callihan in the semifinals, Cole defeated Michael Elgin in the finals to win the 2012 Battle of Los Angeles and become the number one contender to the PWG World Championship. Following his win, Cole attacked the reigning champion, Kevin Steen, and left with his title belt. On December 1, Cole defeated Steen in a Guerrilla Warfare match to become the new PWG World Champion. On January 12, 2013, Cole reunited with Kyle O'Reilly to enter the 2013 Dynamite Duumvirate Tag Team Title Tournament. After defeating the Dojo Bros (Eddie Edwards and Roderick Strong) in their first round match, Future Shock was eliminated from the tournament in the semifinals by El Generico and Kevin Steen. On March 23, Cole made his first successful defense of the PWG World Championship against Drake Younger, and followed it with another retention against longtime rival, the WWE bound Sami Callihan six falls to five in a 60-minute Iron Man match on June 16. Two months later, at PWG's tenth anniversary event, Cole successfully retained his title in a three-way Guerrilla Warfare match against Drake Younger and Kevin Steen. On August 31, Cole formed a new heel stable named "The Mount Rushmore of Wrestling" with Kevin Steen and The Young Bucks, when the four attacked 2013 Battle of Los Angeles winner Kyle O'Reilly, Candice LeRae, Joey Ryan and referee Rick Knox. On October 19, Cole defeated O'Reilly, with help from his new stablemates, and on December 20 and 21 defeated Chris Hero and Johnny Gargano, respectively, to make his fourth, fifth and sixth successful defenses of the PWG World Championship. On January 31, 2014, the 426th day of his title reign, Cole became the longest reigning PWG World Champion. Cole continued his reign on March 28, successfully defending the title against female wrestler Candice LeRae. Cole's record-setting reign ended on May 23, 2014, when he lost the title to Kyle O'Reilly in a "Knockout or Submission Only" match. On December 11, 2015, Cole made a surprise return to PWG, joining Roderick Strong, Super Dragon and The Young Bucks as the newest member of Mount Rushmore 2.0. On May 19, 2017, Cole had his farewell match in PWG, where he was defeated by Sami Callihan. WWE (2017–2021) Debut with The Undisputed Era (2017–2019) Before signing to WWE, Jenkins worked with the company twice. First on the July 2, 2010, episode of SmackDown where he played a man at a bar drinking with Serena Deeb in a Straight Edge Society segment, after WWE had offered him a tryout meant for Austin Watson (Xavier Woods) and as an apology, offered him a spot as an extra. The second was the first weekend of February 2013, where Jenkins took part in a tryout at their Performance Center in Florida. On August 14, 2017, multiple sources confirmed that Jenkins had officially signed with WWE and would be working in the company's developmental territory NXT. Cole made his NXT debut on August 19 at NXT TakeOver: Brooklyn III, attacking newly crowned NXT Champion Drew McIntyre, alongside Bobby Fish and Kyle O'Reilly, establishing himself as a heel in the process. The following month, the trio of Cole, Fish and O'Reilly was officially dubbed "The Undisputed Era". Following weeks of attacking other teams, The Undisputed Era was put in a WarGames match at NXT TakeOver: WarGames against Sanity (Alexander Wolfe, Eric Young, and Killian Dain) and the team of The Authors of Pain (Akam and Rezar) and Roderick Strong. At NXT TakeOver: WarGames on November 18, The Undisputed Era won after Cole pinned Young. On the December 12, Cole was defeated by Aleister Black in a qualifying match for a fatal-four-way number one contender's match for the NXT Championship, which also involved Johnny Gargano, Killian Dain, and Lars Sullivan on the December 27 episode of NXT, where Cole and the Undisputed Era interfered and cost Black the match. This led to Cole facing Black at NXT TakeOver: Philadelphia on January 27, 2018, in an Extreme Rules match. At the event, Cole was defeated by Black, despite interference from Fish and O'Reilly. Cole competed in the Royal Rumble match at the Royal Rumble pay-per-view on January 28, his first appearance on the main roster. He was eliminated by a returning Rey Mysterio. Cole became the inaugural NXT North American Champion at NXT TakeOver: New Orleans on April 7, 2018, in a ladder match, and later in the night he won the Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic as well as defended the NXT Tag Team Championship in a triple threat Winner Take All match with Kyle O'Reilly. On April 25, Cole defeated Oney Lorcan in his first title defense after interference from The Undisputed Era. At NXT TakeOver: Brooklyn IV, Cole lost the NXT North American Championship to Ricochet, ending his reign at 133 days. On the October 10 episode of NXT, Cole failed to regain the NXT North American Championship in triple threat match that also included Pete Dunne. At NXT TakeOver: WarGames, Ricochet, Dunne and War Raiders defeated The Undisputed Era in a WarGames match. Cole participated in the WWE Worlds Collide event. He defeated Shane Thorne in the first round and Keith Lee in the quarterfinals before losing to Tyler Bate in the semifinals. During halftime of Super Bowl LIII, Cole, Johnny Gargano and Tommaso Ciampa were defeated by Ricochet, Aleister Black and Velveteen Dream on Halftime Heat. Longest reigning NXT Champion (2019–2020) On the March 20, 2019, episode of NXT, Cole defeated Velveteen Dream, Ricochet, Black and Matt Riddle in a Fatal 5-Way match for the right to face Johnny Gargano for the vacant NXT Championship. At NXT TakeOver: New York on April 5, Cole was defeated 2–1 by Gargano in a two-out-of-three falls match. However, at NXT TakeOver: XXV, Cole defeated Gargano in a rematch to win the championship for the first time. He successfully defended the title against Gargano in a two-out-of-three falls at NXT TakeOver: Toronto on August 10. In October, Cole and The Undisputed Era began a feud with the returning Tommaso Ciampa. On the November 1 episode of SmackDown, Cole was one of the many members of the NXT roster to invade SmackDown under the orders of Triple H. On the November 4 edition of RAW, Cole defended the NXT Championship against RAW superstar Seth Rollins; Rollins won by disqualification when The Undisputed Era attacked him, setting off a brawl between RAW and NXT; Cole thus retained the championship. At NXT TakeOver: WarGames on November 23, The Undisputed Era were defeated by Team Ciampa (Ciampa, Keith Lee, Dominik Dijakovic, and Kevin Owens) in a WarGames match. The following night at Survivor Series, Cole retained the NXT Championship against Pete Dunne. In the build-up for the NXT and NXT UK co-branded pay-per-view, Worlds Collide, The Undisputed Era began feuding with Imperium (WWE United Kingdom Champion Walter, Alexander Wolfe, Fabian Aichner and Marcel Barthel), which was further intensified during the closing moments of NXT UK TakeOver: Blackpool II on January 12, 2020, where the group attacked Imperium following Walter's successful title defense against Joe Coffey. At Worlds Collide, Imperium defeated The Undisputed Era despite being outnumbered 4-3 after Wolfe suffered an injury early in the match. At NXT TakeOver: Portland on February 16, Cole successfully retained his title against Tommaso Ciampa. On March 19, Cole became the longest reigning NXT Champion, breaking Finn Bálor's previous record of 292 days, and would surpass the one-year mark as champion on June 1 of that year. At TakeOver: In Your House on June 7, Cole retained the championship against Velveteen Dream in a Backlot Brawl. However, during the second night of The Great American Bash on July 8, Cole lost the NXT Championship to NXT North American Champion Keith Lee in a Winner Takes All match, ending Cole's record-breaking reign at 403 days. Implosion of The Undisputed Era and departure (2020–2021) After losing the NXT Championship, Cole slowly turned face as he began a rivalry with announcer Pat McAfee, after the two got into an argument on McAfee's talk show and McAfee punted Cole in the head on the August 5 episode of NXT. This led to a match between the two being set up for NXT TakeOver XXX, which Cole won. Cole cemented his face turn on the September 30 episode of NXT after calling out Austin Theory, who had insulted Kyle O'Reilly earlier in the night during a backstage promo. Cole and the other members of The Undisputed Era would go on to feud with The Kings of NXT (McAfee, Pete Dunne, Danny Burch, and Oney Lorcan). Over the next few weeks on NXT, McAfee mocked The Undisputed Era until they returned on the November 18 episode of NXT. General Manager of NXT, William Regal, announced that both teams would face each other at NXT Takeover: WarGames. At the event, The Undisputed Era defeated Team McAfee. Heading into 2021, Cole and Roderick Strong announced their participation in the Men's Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic. On the January 13, 2021, episode of NXT, they faced Breezango (Fandango and Tyler Breeze) in the first round and were victorious. On the February 3 episode of NXT, Cole and Strong were eliminated from the tournament after being defeated by the team of Tommaso Ciampa and Timothy Thatcher in the quarterfinals. At NXT TakeOver: Vengeance Day, The Undisputed Era assisted Finn Bálor after he was attacked by The Kings of NXT. As The Undisputed Era and Bálor posed together, Cole suddenly superkicked Bálor and then turn on stablemate Kyle O'Reilly, subsequently turning heel in the process. On the February 17 episode of NXT, Cole attacked O'Reilly during the latter's six man tag team match against The Kings of NXT. After Dunne's team picked up the win, Cole delivered a superkick to Bálor and raised the NXT Championship in the air. On the February 24 episode of NXT, Cole apologized for what he did to O'Reilly before Strong interrupted Cole. Bálor then came out and attacked Cole and Strong until Cole hit a superkick on Bálor. After crying and apologizing profusely to Strong, Cole then delivered a low blow to Strong and proclaimed himself as The Undisputed Era. On the March 3 episode of NXT, Bálor challenged Cole to for the NXT Championship the following week, which Cole accepted. The following week on NXT, Cole was defeated by Bálor after O'Reilly distracted him, and was viciously assaulted afterwards, ending with O'Reilly ripping off Cole's Undisputed Era armband, officially kicking Cole off the group. On the March 24 episode of NXT, after many heated encounters between Cole and O'Reilly, they officially signed a contract for their unsanctioned match on Night 2 of NXT TakeOver: Stand & Deliver. At the event, Cole lost to O'Reilly. On the June 1 episode of NXT, Cole returned and took out O'Reilly, Dunne and Johnny Gargano in a triple threat match to determine Karrion Kross' opponent for the NXT Championship at NXT TakeOver: In Your House. Later that night, Cole and Kross confronted each which led to a match being made at NXT TakeOver: In Your House where Kross defended his title against Cole, O'Reilly, Gargano and Dunne. At the event, Cole was unsuccessful in winning the NXT Championship. After failing to win back the championship, Cole reignited his feud with O'Reilly. A rematch between the two was made for The Great American Bash, where Cole defeated O'Reilly. On the August 10 episode of NXT, it was announced that Cole and O'Reilly would face each other in a two out of three falls match at NXT TakeOver 36. At the event, O'Reilly defeated Cole. This was Cole's final match and appearance in NXT, as his WWE contract expired. According to Dave Meltzer shortly after Jenkins signed with All Elite Wrestling that if he had stayed with the WWE, he would have been promoted to the main roster but as a manager for a heel-turned Keith Lee on the Raw brand. Additionally, Jenkins would have received a haircut and he would have also received a name change to avoid confusion with longtime announcer Michael Cole; the decision reportedly came directly from Vince McMahon and Bruce Prichard. This idea was later ridiculed and parodied in AEW, with John Silver of The Dark Order facetiously offering to "let" Adam Cole be his manager if Jenkins would agree to change his name and cut his hair. Lee himself would be released by WWE three months after Jenkins' departure and joined AEW months later. All Elite Wrestling (2021–present) Reunion with The Elite (2021–2022) On September 5, 2021, Cole made his surprise debut for All Elite Wrestling (AEW) at the promotion's All Out pay-per-view, following the main event match by reuniting with former Bullet Club stablemates Kenny Omega and The Young Bucks (Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson), as well as joining their stable, The Elite, establishing himself as a heel in the process. In a post-All Out news conference, Cole stated that his decision to sign with AEW was "fairly easy", as he wanted to work with everyone at AEW "24/7" as well as being able to have full access to his Twitch stream, something that WWE would have restricted had he been promoted to the main roster. The decision also allowed him to work with real-life girlfriend Britt Baker, which was immediately acknowledged on his AEW Dynamite debut later that week when he threatened to beat up announcer Tony Schiavone over the latter's friendship with Baker. The following week on AEW Dynamite, Cole made his in-ring debut, defeating Frankie Kazarian. At AEW Grand Slam on Rampage, Cole would team with The Young Bucks to defeat the team of Christian Cage, Jungle Boy and Luchasaurus. At Full Gear, Cole along with The Young Bucks would be defeated by Christian Cage, Jungle Boy and Luchasaurus in a falls count anywhere match. In November, Cole, alongside The Young Bucks and Bobby Fish, began a feud with Orange Cassidy and Best Friends. On the Holiday Bash special episode of Dynamite on December 22, Cole defeated Cassidy after an interference from the debuting Kyle O'Reilly, reuniting with Cole and Fish. The following week on New Year's Smash edition of Dynamite, they defeated Orange Cassidy and Best Friends. On the January 19 episode of Dynamite, Cole and Britt Baker defeated Cassidy and Kris Statlander in a mixed tag team match, scoring another victory on Cassidy. The following week, at the Beach Break special episode of Dynamite on January 26, Cassidy defeated Cole in a Lights Out that involved appearances from Best Friends, The Young Bucks, Bobby Fish and Danhausen. On the February 19 edition of Dynamite, Cole confronted AEW World Champion "Hangman" Adam Page, after the latter's title match against Lance Archer. The following week, Cole challenged Page to a title match at Revolution, a match he would lose. Cole would receive a rematch against Page for the title on the April 15 episode of Rampage in a Texas Deathmatch, which Cole would once again lose. On the April 20 episode of Dynamite, Cole alongside Jay White, interrupted Tony Khan and Takami Ohbari's announcement of AEW×NJPW: Forbidden Door on June 26, where Cole made the announcement and White claimed the show would be 'all about' both The Undisputed Elite and the Bullet Club. Cole also announced himself to be competing in the Owen Hart Cup tournament naming his qualifying opponent as Tomohiro Ishii. On the April 22 edition of Rampage, Cole defeated Ishii. Cole defeated Dax Harwood and Jeff Hardy, to advance to the tournament finals at Double or Nothing. At the event, he defeated Samoa Joe in the finals to win the men's tournament. On the June 8 edition of Dynamite, Cole interrupted "Hangman" Adam Page after Page called out IWGP World Heavyweight Champion, Kazuchika Okada and had challenged him to a match for his IWGP World Heavyweight Champion at AEW×NJPW: Forbidden Door. Cole deemed Page unworthy to face for the World Championship, whilst also stating that Okada may not be Champion by Forbidden Door, due to his title defense against Cole's ally, Jay White at Dominion 6.12 in Osaka-jo Hall. After White won the World Championship at the event, Page was set to address the situation on the special Road Rager episode of Dynamite on June 15, however Cole once again interrupted Page, stating his own challenge for the Championship. This led to White attacking Page from behind with a Bladerunner. After this, White refused to defend his title against Page at Forbidden Door, much to Cole's delight, although White also refused to defend the title against Cole at the event, much to Cole's dismay. On the June 22 edition of Dynamite, Cole once again interrupted Page, only to be interrupted himself by White, who refused to defend his title against Cole, due to his two losses to Page in AEW. White and Cole then attacked Page, only for Kazuchika Okada to debut in AEW and save Page. Soon after, a four-way match between Cole, Page, White and Okada, for the IWGP World Heavyweight Championship was announced for Forbidden Door. At the event, White retained the World Championship. Cole suffered a severe concussion during the match leading to the match being cut short, and rendering Cole unable to compete for an unspecified amount of time. Cole returned to AEW on the August 3 episode of Rampage, where he, Fish and O'Reilly would turn on and attack The Young Bucks, splitting from The Elite. Following this, Cole would remain absent from AEW programming for the rest of the year, recovering from his concussion. Return from injury (2023–present) Cole made his surprise return on the January 11, 2023, episode of Dynamite, delivering a promo thanking the fans for their support during his long recovery and warning the wrestlers on the back that Cole would return to in-ring competition soon, turning Cole face, for the first time in his AEW career. It was announced that Cole would wrestle his first match in 9 months on the March 29 edition of Dynamite. The week before on March 22, Cole delivered a promo, questioning who his first opponent would be, only to be interrupted by The Jericho Appreciation Society's (JAS) Daniel Garcia, who envied Cole's warm welcome back to AEW, despite not being featured on programming for months. This led to Cole challenging Garcia to be his first opponent since his return. The following week, Cole defeated Garcia, celebrating with his partner Britt Baker following the match. The celebration was interrupted by JAS leader Chris Jericho, who entered ringside and helped stablemate Garcia to the back. On the March 12 edition of Dynamite, Cole interrupted Jericho's celebration with Garcia after he had defeated Keith Lee, helping his former rival Lee to the back. The following week, Cole and Jericho, met in the ring attempting to talk out their problems, however after Jericho showed no respect to Cole, the two began to brawl. Shortly after, Garcia entered the ring aiding Jericho in beating down Cole, and handcuffing him to the bottom rope. This led to Britt Baker entering the ring and slapping Jericho, attempting to stop the assault, only for her to be ambushed by The Outcasts (Saraya, Toni Storm and Ruby Soho), who viciously beat Baker with a Kendo Stick, as a trapped Cole begged for the assault to end. On the next week's April 26 edition of Dynamite, a furious Cole entered the ring, demanding Jericho to enter the ring, however, was ambushed by JAS members Jake Hager, Matt Mernard, Angelo Parker and Garcia. This caused Orange Cassidy and Bandido, who had just wrestled a match, to enter the ring attempting to stop the JAS's assault, but they were quickly beaten down. This led Cole's longtime teammate and rival Roderick Strong, to make his AEW debut, helping fend off the JAS, embracing Cole in the ring. The following week, Cole, Strong, Cassidy, and Bandido defeated the JAS, with Cole attacking Jericho at the commentary desk as soon as the match concluded. The assault led to Jericho gaining a restraining order on Cole, barring the two from being in the same building however, this was bypassed by Cole on the May 17 edition of Dynamite, who attacked Jericho outside of the arena, during his Falls Count Anywhere match, against Strong whilst aiding Strong to get the victory. Soon after, it was announced that Cole and Jericho would face off at Double or Nothing on May 28, in an unsanctioned match, with Cole choosing Sabu, as the special guest enforcer. On May 28 at the event, Cole defeated Jericho. On the following episode of Dynamite, Cole and Britt Baker defeated Jericho and Saraya in a mixed-tag team match, ending the duo's feud. In June, Cole began a storyline with AEW World Champion MJF, interrupting his segment on the June 7 episode of Dynamite. the confrontation ended with MJF accepting an eliminator title match against Cole the following week, where if Cole won, he'd earn a future title match against MJF. The following week, Cole narrowly missed out on defeating MJF, due to the 30 minute time limit expiring as Cole was pinning MJF. After the draw, MJF refused to continue the match, thus losing Cole a future title match. On the June 21 edition of Dynamite, MJF further refused to grant Cole a title match, despite his close loss. The duo were then informed by Tony Schiavone that they had been randomly drawn together as a tag team for the upcoming Blind Eliminator Tournament, much to both men's dismay. On the same week's edition of Rampage, MJF announced he had gotten Adam Cole a match against NJPW's Tom Lawlor at Forbidden Door, Cole was then attacked by Lawlor and Royce Isaacs of Team Filthy. Shortly before Forbidden Door, the match was cancelled, after Cole was forced to pull out of the match due to an illness. As the Blind Eliminator Tournament began, Cole and MJF began to get along, eventually becoming best friends and defeating Daniel Garcia and Sammy Guevara in the tournament finals to win the tournament and earn an AEW World Tag Team Championship match against FTR. The title match took place on the July 29 episode of Collision, where Cole and MJF lost. Despite the loss, MJF had promised Cole a future AEW World Championship match, which he announced to take place at the main event of All In. The following week, in addition to their AEW World Championship match, Cole—who still felt he and MJF could be a championship caliber tag team—challenged Aussie Open (Kyle Fletcher and Mark Davis) for the ROH World Tag Team Championship to take place on All In's Zero Hour pre-show. Aussie Open accepted the challenge on that week's Rampage. On August 27 at All In, Cole and MJF defeated Aussie Open to win the ROH World Tag Team Championships. In the main event, Cole lost to MJF, although the two embraced after the match. Other media Jenkins made his video game debut as a playable character in WWE 2K19, and appeared in its sequel WWE 2K20. He also appears as a playable character in AEW Fight Forever. He also streams on Twitch as "TheCHUGS". He also makes appearances in the AEW Games YouTube channel. Personal life Jenkins is in a relationship with fellow AEW professional wrestler and dentist Britt Baker. The two started dating in 2017 while they were living in Pennsylvania, having previously met using the Bumble app. Jenkins cites Shawn Michaels as his inspiration and Stone Cold Steve Austin as the wrestler who got him into professional wrestling. He enjoys scuba diving. Championships and accomplishments All Elite Wrestling Blind Eliminator Tag Team Tournament (2023) – with MJF Men’s Owen Hart Cup (2022) Dynamite Award (1 time) Biggest Surprise (2022) – CBS Sports Feud of the Year (2019) Match of the Year (2019) Wrestler of the Year (2019) Combat Zone Wrestling CZW World Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Best of the Best X (2011) Dreams Fighting Entertainment/World Wrestling League DFE Openweight Championship/WWL Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Eastern Wrestling Alliance EWA Cruiserweight Championship (1 time) Ground Breaking Wrestling Battle of Gettysburg (2009) International Wrestling Cartel IWC Super Indy Championship (1 time) Super Indy 16 (2017) Maryland Championship Wrestling MCW Rage Television Championship (2 times) Shane Shamrock Memorial Cup (2012) New Horizon Pro Wrestling NHPW Art of Fighting Championship (1 time) Premiere Wrestling Xperience PWX Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Preston City Wrestling PCW Cruiserweight Championship (1 time) Pro Wrestling Guerrilla PWG World Championship (1 time) Battle of Los Angeles (2012) Pro Wrestling Illustrated Feud of the Year (2019) Wrestler of the Year (2019) Ranked No. 2 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2020 Pro Wrestling World-1 World-1 North American Championship (1 time) Shinya Hashimoto Memorial Cup (2010) Real Championship Wrestling RCW Cruiserweight Championship (1 time) RCW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Devon Moore Ring of Honor ROH World Championship (3 times) ROH World Television Championship (1 time) ROH World Tag Team Championship (1 time, current) – with MJF Eighth ROH Triple Crown Champion ROH World Championship Tournament (2013) ROH World Tag Team Championship No. 1 Contender Lottery Tournament (2011) – with Kyle O'Reilly Survival of the Fittest (2014) SoCal Uncensored Match of the Year (2012) with Kyle O'Reilly vs. Super Smash Bros. (Player Uno and Stupefied) and The Young Bucks on July 21 Match of the Year (2016) with The Young Bucks (Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson) vs. Matt Sydal, Ricochet and Will Ospreay on September 3 Wrestler of the Year (2013) Sports Illustrated Ranked No. 2 of the top 10 male wrestlers in 2019 WrestleCircus Big Top Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Britt Baker Wrestling Observer Newsletter Rookie of the Year (2010) Feud of the Year (2019) WXW C4 WXW C4 Hybrid Championship (1 time) WWE NXT Championship (1 time) NXT North American Championship (1 time, inaugural) NXT Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Roderick Strong, Bobby Fish and Kyle O'Reilly Second NXT Triple Crown Champion Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic (2018) – with Kyle O'Reilly NXT Year-End Award (7 times) Male Competitor of the Year (2019, 2020) Overall Competitor of the Year (2019) Match of The Year (2019) Rivalry of the Year (2019, 2020) , Tag Team of the Year (2020) – with Roderick Strong, Bobby Fish and Kyle O'Reilly Bumpy Award (1 time) Rivalry of the Half-Year (2021) – vs Kyle O'Reilly Footnotes References External links 1989 births All Elite Wrestling personnel American male professional wrestlers American YouTubers Bullet Club members Expatriate professional wrestlers in Japan Living people NXT Champions NXT North American Champions NXT Tag Team Champions People from Panama City, Florida ROH World Champions ROH World Television Champions Sportspeople from Lancaster County, Pennsylvania Twitch (service) streamers Professional wrestlers from Pennsylvania Professional wrestlers from Florida American expatriate sportspeople in Japan 21st-century professional wrestlers PWG World Champions Owen Hart Cup winners Battle of Los Angeles (professional wrestling) winners ROH World Tag Team Champions

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%80%EC%9D%BC%EB%9F%AC%20%EB%B8%94%EB%9E%99

타일러 블랙

세스 "프리킨" 롤린스(Seth "Freakin" Rollins, 1986년 5월 28일 ~ )는 본명은 콜비 대니얼 로페즈(Colby Daniel Lopez) 미국의 남자 프로레슬링선수다. 피니쉬는 아바다 케다브라(슈퍼킥), 스카이워커(스탠딩 시라누이), 다이빙 하이 니, 스톰프/커브 스톰프/피스 오브 마인/블랙아웃(런닝 스톰프), 코크스크류 450° 스플래쉬, 킹슬레이어, 패럭시즘(스윙 리프팅 인버티드 DDT), RKO (점핑커터), 갓스 라스트 기프트(피셔맨 수플렉스 플롯-오버 스몰패키지 드라이버), 페디그리(더블 언더훅 페이스버스터), 위스트 락 숏-암 하이 니로 사용을 한다. 키는 188cm 몸무게는 98.4kg이다. 프로 레슬링 경력 2005년 프로레슬링에 입문을 했고 2012년 11월 18일 서바이벌 시리즈 2012에서 더 쉴드라는 멤버로 등장을 하게 되었다. 그리고 자신이 쉴드 멤버들을 배신하고 2014년 6월~10월까지 딘 앰브로스와 대립하고 2014년 11월 ~ 12월까지는 2014년 12월 ~ 2015년 1월까지는 존 시나와 브록 레스너와 대립하고 2015년 레슬매니아 31에선 랜디 오턴과 경기에서 패배하지만 메인이벤트였던 브록 레스너와 로만 레인즈의 경기에서 WWE 머니 인 더 뱅크의 조항에서 경기를 트리플 쓰렛 매치로 바꾼다음 새로운 WWE 월드 헤비웨이트 챔피언이 된다. 그리고 2015년 4월 ~ 5월까진 랜디 오턴과 대립하고 2015년 5월 ~ 6월까진 딘 앰브로스와 대립하고 2015년 6월 ~ 7월까지는 브록 레스너랑 대립을 했는데... WWE 배틀 그라운드2015에서 브록 레스너와 경기하지만 디 언더테이커가 난입해 노콘테스트로 끝났다. 2015년 7월 ~ 9월까지는 wwe 썸머슬램2015에서는 존시나를 이겨서 WWE U.S 챔피언에 등극하고 2015년 10월 ~ 11월까지는 케인과 대립하다가 11월 라이브 이벤트 도중 부상을 당한다. 그리고 6달 후... wwe 익스트림 룰즈2016에서 복귀한 후... 2016년 5월 ~ 6월까지는 로만과 대립을 했는데... 끝내 WWE 월드 헤비웨이트 챔피언이 됐는데... 끝내 딘이 머니 캐싱을 사용을 하면서 wwe 월드 헤비웨이트 챔피언을 빼앗기고 만다. 2016년 6월 ~ 7월까지는 딘, 로만하고 트리플 쓰렛 매치 중에서 대립을 했지만 끝내 딘이 이기게 되었다. wwe 썸머슬램2016에서 wwe 유니버셜 챔피언쉽을 대결을 하는데... 결과는 핀 베일러가 이기고 만다. 다만 2016년 8월 22일 wwe raw에서 WWE 유니버설 챔피언쉽 컨텐더 매치중에서 새미랑 대결을 해서 이기고 만다. 2016년 8월 29일 WWE Raw에서는 트리플 H가 끝내 페디그리로 당하면서 케빈이 차지하고 만다. (선역 전환후..) 2016년 9월 ~ 11월까는 케빈 오웬스를 대립을 하고 있었으나... 종결한다. 그리고 wwe 로드블록 엔드 오브 더 라인 2016에서 크리스 제리코랑 대결 하면서 끝내 이기고 만다. 2017년 1월 30일 WWE Raw에서 트리플 H에게 덤빌려고 하는 도중 누군가가 난입을 했는데... 바로 트리플 H가 데려온 사모아 조한테 서브미션으로 공격 당한다. 2017년 2월 27일 WWE Raw에서 복귀를 하게 된다. 아직은 트리플 H와의 대결은 확정이 안된 상태지만 2017년 3월 13일 WWE 러에서 트리플 H한테 목발 샷으로 당하고 만다. 이렇게 돼서 2017년 3월 ~ 4월까지 트리플 H대립이 했으나 WWE 레슬매니아33에서는 끝내 이기게 되었다. 그러나 WWE 페이백 2017에서 사모아 조를 롤업으로 이겼으나 다음날 Raw에서 사모아한테 ST조로 당했다. WWE 익스트림 룰즈 2017에서 WWE 유니버셜 챔피언 넘버원 컨텐더 매치 중에서 참가를 했지만 실패를 거둔다. 2017년 6월 ~ 7월에서는 브레이 와이어트랑 대립 중이다가 WWE 그레이트 볼스 오브 파이어 2017에서 지고 만다. 2017년 7월 17일 WWE 러에선 더 미즈를 기다리던 중에 나와서 끝내 예전 실드 멤버를 배신을 하는 사건을 회상하며 사과했다. 그래도 분이 풀리지 않는다면 한대 치라는 말에 딘 앰브로스가 바로 의자를 들었으나 한참을 망설이다가 그냥 링 밖으로 던졌다. 2017년 7월 24일에서 끝내 딘 앰브로스한테 악수를 하자고 했는데... 그러면서 딘 앰브로스가 악수를 하지 않고 아예 가버리고 만다. 그러다가 세자로&쉐이머스가 난입공격 하다가 다시 나타나 그들을 내쫓아내고 둘다 주먹악수로 딘이랑 같이 붙어 다니게 되었다. 2017년 8월 20일 진행되었던 WWE 섬머슬램 2017에서 세자로&쉐이머스 상대로 승리하여 2번째로 RAW 태그팀 챔피언십 벨트를 획득했다. 2017년 10월 2일 WWE Raw에서 더 쉴드라는 악역 태그팀 재결성을 한다. 2017년 11월 6일 WWE Raw에서도 끝내 WWE Raw 태그팀 챔피언 타이틀을 빼앗기고 만다. 2017년 서바이벌 시리즈에서 뉴 데이를 상대 했으나 끝내 승리를 했다. 2017년 12월 25일 WWE Raw에서 부상을 당한 딘 앰브로스의 빈자리를 채우기 위해 대신에 제이슨 조던을 만나게 되면서 WWE Raw 태그팀 챔피언을 세번째로 획득하게 되었다. 2018년 1월 28일 WWE 로얄 럼블 2018에서 더 바를 상대를 했지만 끝내 타이틀을 잃고 만다. 2018년 2월 25일 WWE 일리미네이션 체임버 2018일리미네이션 체임버 매치에 참가를 했으나 실패했다. 그리고 WWE 레슬매니아34에서 더 미즈와 절친 핀 베일러를 상대로 승리를 거두며 생애 첫 인터콘티넨탈 챔피언을 얻게 된다. 이로써 실드 3인방 전원이 트리플크라운과 그랜드슬램을 모두 달성하는 이변을 일으켰다. 그레이티스트 로얄 럼블 2018에서는 페이탈 포 웨이 사다리매치에서 타이틀방어에 성공했다. 그러다가 2018년 5월 ~ 6월까지는 엘라이어스라는 선수와 대립을 하다가 WWE 머니 인 더 뱅크2018에서 타이틀 방어를 했는데... 2018년 6월 18일 WWE Raw에서 돌프 지글러를 상대했지만 결국 타이틀마저 뺏기고 만다. 그리고 WWE 익스트림 룰즈 2018에서 타이틀 도전에 실패했으나 그리고 WWE 썸머슬램 2018에서 통산 2회 인터콘티넨탈 챔피언 벨트를 얻게된다. 2018년 10월 22일 WWE Raw에서 갑자기 앰브로스가 공격을 하는 바람에 쉴드는 해체된다. WWE 서바이버 시리즈 2018에서 나카무라 신스케를 이기고 그리고 드디어 2018년 11월 ~ 12월까지는 자신을 배신 당하던 딘 앰브로스와 대립을 한다. 그리고 WWE TLC 2018에서 끝내 타이틀을 잃게 된다. 2019년 1월 27일 로얄럼블에서 남성부 로얄럼블매치에 참가를 했으나 우승했다. 그리고 2019년 1월 28일 WWE Raw에서 브록 레스너와 대립을 했으나 아직은 잡지 못했다. 페스트 레인 2019에서 레인즈, 앰브로스와 같이 모여서 3vs3 태그팀매치중에서 이겼지만 그러나 2019년 3월 ~ 4월까지 브록 레스너와 대립을 하고 있다가 그럼에도 불구하고 2019년 4월 7일 진행되었던 WWE 레슬매니아 35에서 브록 레스너에게 경기시작 2분만에 이기고 생애 첫 유니버설 챔피언에 등극했다. 2019년 4월 ~ 5월까지 AJ 스타일스랑 대립을 한적도 있었고 게다가 2019년 5월에서는 배런 코빈이랑 대립을 하다가 WWE 슈퍼 쇼다운 2019에서 타이틀 방어를 하고 WWE 스톰핑 그라운즈 2019에서 타이틀 방어를 한다. 그리고 2019년 6월 ~ 7월까지 베키랑 같이 배런, 레이시랑 대립을 했으나 WWE 익스트림 룰즈 2017에서 타이틀을 잃고 그리고 2019년 7월 ~ 8월까지는 브록 레스너와 다시 대립을 했으나 WWE 썸머슬램 2019에서 타이틀을 되찾는다. 2019년 8월 ~ 9월까지 브라운 스트로우먼과 대립을 하다가 2019년 8월 19일 WWE Raw에서 WWE Raw 태그팀 챔피언을 얻고 그리고는 WWE 클래시 오브 챔피언스 2019에서 WWE Raw 태그팀 챔피언을 잃고 나머지는 WWE 유니버셜 챔피언을 방어를 하고 2019년 9월 ~ 10월까지는 브레이 와이어트랑 대립 중이다.그러다가 2019 WWE 크라운 주얼에서 더 핀드 브레이 와이어트와 유니버셜 챔피언십을 걸고 페이탈 포웨이 매치를 치뤘지만 아쉽게 챔피언 벨트를 내준다. 그러나 2019년 11월 25일 WWE Raw에서 악역으로 변하고 그리고 2019년 12월 9일 WWE Raw에서 AOP라는 같이 붙어 다니게 된다. 그러나 2020년 1월 13일 WWE Raw에서 3vs3 스트리트 파이트 매치 중에서 중간에 버디 머피가 있는데 결국은 버디 머피도움으로 연합하게 맺게 되었다. 그리고는 2020년 1월 20일 WWE Raw에서 WWE Raw 태그팀 챔피언을 얻게 되었다. 그리고 WWE 로얄 럼블 2020에서 로얄 럼블 매치중에서 참가를 했으나 실패를 거둔다. 그리고 2020년 2월 3일 WWE Raw에서 WWE 챔피언 넘버원 컨텐더 쓰리플 매치를 참가를 했는데 결국은 끝내 실패를 거둔다. 2020년 2월 17일 WWE Raw에서 스트릿 프로핏츠하고 바이킹 레이더스가 난입을 하는 바람에 이때 피하고 AOP, 머피가 당하는거 봤다. 이때 머피랑 같이 WWE 슈퍼 쇼 다운 2020에서 대결할 예정이다. 그리고 그 후... WWE 슈퍼 쇼 다운 2020에서 방어를 했지만 다음날 2020년 3월 2일 WWE Raw에서 타이틀을 잃게 된다. WWE 일리미네이션 체임버 2020에서 결국은 패배한 뒤 그 후 오웬스에게 스터너를 맞고 뻗는다. 2020년 3월 16일 WWE Raw에서 이번에는 케빈이 도발을 하거나 WWE 레슬매니아 36에서 대결할 예정이다. 2020년 3월에서는 대립은 시작되는 모습이다. 그러나 WWE 레슬매니아 36에서 지고 2020년 4월 ~ 5월까지는 드류랑 대립을 했으나 이미 패배하고 2020년 5월 18일 WWE Raw에서는 이번에는 오스틴 씨어리랑 붙어 다니기 시작을 한다. 그리고 이번에는 2020년 6월 22일 레이 미스테리오라는 대립이 시작된다. 그리고 WWE 익스트림 룰즈 2020에서 이기고 결국은 2020년 7월 21일 WWE Raw에서 도미닉 미스테리오라는 있는데 대립을 하고 WWE 썸머슬램 2020에서 이기게 된다. 다만 WWE 페이백 2020에서는 결국은 2vs2 대결로 끝내 지고 말았다. 그리고 2020년 10월 5일 WWE Raw에서 머피를 공격을 하고 끝내 이렇게 해체되면서 분열로 WWE 스맥다운에서 올 예정이다. 2020년 10월 16일 WWE 스맥다운에서 다니엘 브라이언 공격을 하다가 결국은 당하는 바람에 머피한테도 당한다. 그리고 WWE 서바이버 시리즈 2020에서는 5:5 제거 매치에 참가를 했지만 시큰둥하게 경기를 진행하다가 셰이머스의 브로그 킥에 문자 그대로 대주며 첫 번째로 탈락 당한다. 그리고 휴식을 갖거나 로얄 럼블 2021에서 참가를 했으나 에지한테 탈락 당한다. 그리고 2021년 2월 12일 스맥다운중에서 복귀한다. 베키 린치의 출산으로 자신이 가족이 되었다는 등 선역으로 돌아가려는 암시를 했지만 그런 거 없었고 이전의 메시아일 때와 비슷하게 상대방에 위어 서려는 듯한 깔보는 태도를 유지한다. 이후 선역 바뀌게한 세자로를 공격한다. 세자로의 태그팀 파트너인 나카무라 신스케를 상대로 WWE 패스트 레인 2021에서 맞붙게 되면서 나카무라 신스케 꺾는다. 그러나 2021년 3월 ~ 4월까지 세자로 대립하다가 WWWE 레슬매니아 37에서는 지고 WWE 백래쉬 2021에서 난입하여 공격을 하게 된다. 수상 AIW 인텐스 디비전 챔피언 1회 AAW 헤비웨이트 챔피언 2회 AAW 태그팀 챔피언 2회 - 마렉 브레이브 (1회), 지미 제이컵스 (1회) FIP 월드 헤비웨이트 챔피언 1회 IWA 미드 사우스 라이트 헤비웨이트 챔피언 1회 MCPW 월드 헤비웨이트 챔피언 1회 NWA 미드웨스트 태그팀 챔피언 1회 (마렉 브레이브) PWG 월드 태그팀 챔피언 1회 (지미 제이컵스) ROH 월드 챔피언 1회 ROH 월드 태그팀 챔피언 2회 (지미 제이컵스) FCW 플로리다 헤비웨이트 챔피언 1회 FCW 15 챔피언 1회 FCW 플로리다 태그팀 챔피언 1회 (리치 스팀보트) 1대 FCW 그랜드 슬래머 6대 FCW 명예의 전당 NXT 챔피언 1회 WWE 챔피언 2회 WWE 월드 헤비웨이트 챔피언 (신 버전) 1회 WWE 유니버셜 챔피언 2회 WWE 인터콘티넨탈 챔피언 2회 WWE 러 태그팀 챔피언 6회 - 로만 레인즈 (1회), 딘 앰브로스 (2회), 제이슨 조던 (1회), 브라운 스트로우먼 (1회), 버디 머피 (1회) WWE 유나이티드 스테이츠 챔피언 2회 2014년 WWE 머니 인 더 뱅크 우승자 2019년 WWE 로얄 럼블 우승자 WWE 29번째 트리플 크라운 WWE 19번째 그랜드 슬램 외부 링크 1986년 출생 살아있는 사람 미국의 남자 프로레슬러 아르메니아계 미국인 아이오와주 출신 독일계 미국인 아일랜드계 미국인 미국의 무신론자 20세기 미국 사람 21세기 미국 사람

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seth%20Rollins

Seth Rollins

Colby Daniel Lopez (born May 28, 1986) is an American professional wrestler. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand under the ring name Seth "Freakin" Rollins. He is the current and inaugural World Heavyweight Champion in his first reign. Rollins is generally considered to be one of the best currently active professional wrestlers in the world, being credited for his in-ring ability and aptness of reinventing his on-screen character. Prior to signing with WWE, Lopez wrestled under the ring name Tyler Black for Ring of Honor (ROH) and was part of the Age of the Fall stable with Jimmy Jacobs. During his time in ROH, he held the ROH World Championship once and the ROH World Tag Team Championship twice with Jacobs, and won the 2009 Survival of the Fittest tournament. Lopez also wrestled for various independent promotions including Full Impact Pro, where he was a one-time FIP World Heavyweight Champion, as well as Pro Wrestling Guerrilla, where he was a one-time PWG World Tag Team Champion, also with Jacobs. Lopez signed with WWE in 2010 and was sent to its former developmental territory Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW), where he was renamed to Seth Rollins and became the inaugural FCW Grand Slam Champion. After WWE rebranded it's developmental brand from FCW to NXT, he became the inaugural NXT Champion. Lopez debuted on WWE's main roster at the 2012 Survivor Series as part of a faction called The Shield, alongside Dean Ambrose and Roman Reigns. He won his first main roster championship, the WWE (now Raw) Tag Team Championship with Reigns; he would go on to hold the title a record six times with various tag partners. As a singles main event, Rollins became a five-time world champion in WWE, having won the WWE World Heavyweight Championship twice, WWE Universal Championship twice, and the World Heavyweight Champion once. He has also held the WWE Intercontinental Championship, and the WWE United States Championship - both twice each, making him the promotion's 29th Triple Crown Champion and 19th Grand Slam Champion, as well as the second wrestler to accomplish the latter twice under the revised 2015 format. He is also currently the only wrestler to hold the NXT Championship, the WWE Championship, the Universal Championship, and the World Heavyweight Championship, and the only wrestler to compete in three inaugural WWE championship matches (NXT, Universal, and World Heavyweight). He also won the 2014 Money in the Bank ladder match, the 2015 Slammy Award for Superstar of the Year, and the 2019 Royal Rumble. All totaled, Rollins has won 16 championships in WWE (with all but one on the main roster). Rollins was one of the major elements of The Reality Era and remains a central fixture in The New Era. After leaving The Shield in 2014, Rollins joined The Authority, establishing himself as a main event talent and one of the leading villains at the time. Since then, he has become one of the company's top babyfaces and has headlined numerous major pay-per-view and livestreaming events for WWE. Rollins topped Pro Wrestling Illustrateds PWI 500 list of the top 500 wrestlers in the world three times 2015, 2019 and 2023, and was named Wrestler of the Year by Sports Illustrated in 2022. Rollins is the only wrestler to cash in a Money in the Bank contract at a WrestleMania event. He also holds the record for the single longest televised TV match in WWE history, performing for 65 minutes straight, whilst defeating John Cena and Roman Reigns in the same night. Early life Lopez was born in Davenport, Iowa, on May 28, 1986. He is of Armenian, German, and Irish descent. His surname, Lopez, comes from his Mexican-American stepfather, whom he considered his true father. In 2019, he discovered via a DNA test that he had a long-lost brother and sister. He graduated from Davenport West High School in 2004. As a teenager, he was an introvert who lived a straight edge lifestyle and was a big fan of rock and heavy metal music. He trained at a wrestling school owned by Danny Daniels on the borders of Chicago and Oak Park. Professional wrestling career Independent circuit (2005–2010) Lopez made his debut at the age of 19 in 2005, wrestling in the Iowa independent scene under the ring name Gixx. He then joined Ian Rotten's Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South (IWA) under the name Tyler Black, and entered the Ted Petty Invitational Tournament, defeating Sal Thomaselli before being eliminated by Matt Sydal in the quarterfinals in Hammond, Indiana on September 23, 2005. He soon joined NWA Midwest and won the promotion's tag team championship with Marek Brave. The two retained the NWA Midwest Tag Team Championship against Ryan Boz and Danny Daniels, Brett Wayne and Hype Gotti and Jayson Reign and Marco Cordova several times in early 2006. He briefly appeared in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) and teamed with Jeff Luxon in a loss to The Latin American Xchange (Homicide and Hernandez) on Impact! in October 2006. On May 25, 2007, while in a match with then Full Impact Pro (FIP) Tag Team Champions The Briscoe Brothers (Jay and Mark Briscoe) in Melbourne, Florida, Black's tag team partner Marek Brave suffered a legitimate back injury, leading Black to pursue a singles career by competing in Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG), where he defeated Joey Ryan in his debut on June 10. At PWG's Life During Wartime on July 6, 2008, Black and Jimmy Jacobs won the PWG World Tag Team Championship by defeating Roderick Strong and El Generico, a replacement for Jack Evans. At FIP's event on December 20, Black defeated Go Shiozaki to win the FIP World Heavyweight Championship. At FIP's event on May 2, 2009, Davey Richards was awarded the FIP World Heavyweight Championship by forfeit when Black was unable to compete. Ring of Honor The Age of the Fall (2007–2009) At the Ring of Honor (ROH) pay-per-view taping of Man Up on September 15, 2007, Black made his debut alongside Jimmy Jacobs and Necro Butcher, with the three attacking The Briscoe Brothers, and hanging Jay Briscoe from light rigging fashioned as a noose. The three formed a stable called The Age of the Fall. The angle was so controversial that ROH decided to remove the footage from the pay-per-view that was being taped at the event. Black later made his ROH in-ring debut later that night in a dark match, wrestling Jack Evans to a no contest. At Glory by Honor VI in November, Black defeated Alex "Sugarfoot" Payne, but was attacked by The Briscoe Brothers following the match. He appeared with The Age of the Fall in their match against The Briscoe Brothers during the main event. At Final Battle on December 30, Black and Jacobs defeated The Briscoe Brothers to win the ROH World Tag Team Championship. They lost the championship one month later on January 26, 2008, to the No Remorse Corps (Davey Richards and Rocky Romero) when competing in an Ultimate Endurance match also involving The Hangmen 3 (Brent Albright and B. J. Whitmer), and the team of Austin Aries and Bryan Danielson. At Take No Prisoners on May 30, Black unsuccessfully challenged Nigel McGuinness for the ROH World Championship. At Up For Grabs, Black and Jacobs won an eight-team tournament to win their second ROH World Tag Team Championship. The two lost the championship at Driven on November 14 to the team of Kevin Steen and El Generico. Black had a second chance at the ROH World Championship at Death Before Dishonor VI in New York City, when he faced McGuinness, Danielson and Claudio Castagnoli in a four-way elimination match, but McGuinness retained the title. At Final Battle in December, after Black lost a number one contender match to Austin Aries, Jacobs turned on him, and Black was then attacked by Aries. At Full Circle, Black was given a non-title match against then-ROH World Champion Nigel McGuinness on January 16, 2009, where Black was victorious. The following night, Black faced McGuinness in a title match, which ended in a time limit draw. On June 26 at Violent Tendencies, Black defeated Jimmy Jacobs in a steel cage match to end their feud. ROH World Champion and departure (2009–2010) In September 2009, Black took a hiatus after receiving surgery on his neck. On October 10, Black defeated Kenny King in a first-round match and then Claudio Castagnoli, Colt Cabana, Delirious, Chris Hero and Roderick Strong in the finals to win the 2009 Survival of the Fittest tournament, earning him a ROH World Championship match. On December 19 at Final Battle, ROH's first live pay-per-view, Black wrestled then ROH World Champion Austin Aries to a 60-minute time limit draw. Because of this draw, then ROH commissioner Jim Cornette booked the two in a rematch between February 13, 2010 for the company's Eighth Anniversary Show. The booking saw Cornette set up a judging panel with himself on and one person picked by each competitor, in order for there to be a decisive winner in case of another draw. Aries picked King while Black picked Strong, whom he guaranteed an ROH World Championship title shot should he win. At the event, Black pinned Aries to win the ROH World Championship. On April 3, Black retained the title in a three-way elimination match against Austin Aries and Roderick Strong at The Big Bang! pay-per-view on April 3. He also retained the title on June 19 at the following pay-per-view, Death Before Dishonor VIII, in a match against Davey Richards. Black turned into a villain at the August 20 tapings of Ring of Honor Wrestling after news broke that he had signed a developmental contract with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). He threatened to take the ROH World Championship with him to WWE and refused to put the championship at stake in a match with Davey Richards on August 28 which he then lost by submission. On September 11 at Glory By Honor IX, in his final ROH appearance, Black lost the ROH World Championship to Roderick Strong in a no disqualification match with Terry Funk as a guest enforcer, ending his reign at 210 days after seven successful title defenses. World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE Developmental territories (2010–2012) On August 8, 2010, Lopez signed a developmental contract with WWE and was assigned to their developmental territory Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW) in September. On September 14, Black made his WWE debut in a dark match prior to the SmackDown taping by defeating Trent Barreta. Lopez debuted for FCW on September 30 under the name Seth Rollins, in a loss to Michael McGillicutty. Rollins then faced Hunico on November 4 in the first ever FCW 15 match under 15-minute Iron Man rules where they fought to a 1–1 draw. Following this, Rollins, along with Hunico, Richie Steamboat and Jinder Mahal, participated in the FCW 15 Jack Brisco Classic tournament. On January 13, 2011, Rollins defeated Hunico in the finals to win the tournament and became the inaugural FCW Jack Brisco 15 Champion. On March 25 at a house show, Rollins and Richie Steamboat defeated Damien Sandow and Titus O'Neil to win the FCW Florida Tag Team Championship. Rollins and Steamboat eventually lost the championship to Big E Langston and Calvin Raines. In July 2011, Rollins began a feud with Dean Ambrose. Ambrose and Rollins had their first match for the FCW 15 Championship in a 15-minute Iron Man match on the August 14 episode of FCW, which ended in a draw with neither men scoring a fall and, as a result, Rollins retained his title. A subsequent 20-minute rematch for the title two weeks later resulted in a similar 0–0 draw. A second 30-minute rematch for the title on the September 18 episode of FCW went to a time limit 2–2 draw and the match was sent into sudden death overtime, where Rollins scored a pinfall to win the match 3–2. On September 22, Rollins lost the FCW 15 Championship to Damien Sandow by disqualification after Ambrose attacked Sandow late in the match. On February 23, 2012, Rollins defeated Leo Kruger to become the new FCW Florida Heavyweight Champion. Rollins lost the championship to Rick Victor at a house show on May 31. When WWE rebranded FCW into NXT in August 2012, Rollins' NXT TV debut took place on the second episode of the rebooted NXT at Full Sail University on June 27, when he defeated Jiro. Rollins entered the Gold Rush Tournament to crown the inaugural NXT Champion where he defeated Jinder Mahal in the tournament finals on the August 29 episode of NXT. On the October 10 episode of NXT, Rollins had his first successful defense of his title after he beat Michael McGillicutty. On the January 2, 2013 episode of NXT, Rollins successfully defended the NXT Championship against Corey Graves, before losing it the next week on NXT to Big E Langston in a No Disqualification match. After losing the title, Rollins continued to feud with Graves and attacked him during his number one contender's match for the NXT Championship with Conor O'Brian. Rollins then accepted Graves' challenge and defeated him in a lumberjack match to end the feud. The Shield (2012–2014) On November 18, 2012, at the Survivor Series pay-per-view, Rollins made his main roster debut as a heel alongside Dean Ambrose and Roman Reigns, attacking Ryback during the triple threat main event for the WWE Championship, allowing CM Punk to pin John Cena and retain the title. The trio declared themselves The Shield, vowed to rally against "injustice" and denied working for Punk, but routinely emerged from the crowd to attack Punk's adversaries. This led to a Tables, Ladders and Chairs match at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs on December 16, where The Shield defeated Team Hell No (Daniel Bryan and Kane) and Ryback in their WWE debut match. Rollins continued to appear on NXT and defend the NXT Championship, until he lost it to Big E Langston on the January 9, 2013 episode of NXT. The Shield continued to aid Punk after TLC, attacking both Ryback and The Rock (at Royal Rumble) in January 2013. It was revealed on the January 28 episode of Raw that Punk and his manager Paul Heyman had been paying The Shield and Brad Maddox to work for them. The Shield then quietly ended their association with Punk while beginning a feud with John Cena, Ryback and Sheamus that led to a six-man tag match on February 17 at Elimination Chamber, which The Shield won. On April 7, they defeated Sheamus, Big Show and Randy Orton at WrestleMania 29. The following night on Raw, The Shield attempted to attack The Undertaker, but were stopped by Team Hell No. This set up a six-man tag team match on the April 22 episode of Raw, which The Shield won. On the May 13 episode of Raw, The Shield's undefeated streak in televised six-man tag team matches ended in a disqualification loss in a six-man elimination tag team match against John Cena, Kane and Daniel Bryan. On May 19 at Extreme Rules, Rollins and Reigns defeated Team Hell No in a tornado tag team match to win the WWE Tag Team Championship. On the June 14 episode of SmackDown, The Shield suffered their first decisive loss in televised six-man tag team matches against Team Hell No and Randy Orton when Bryan made Rollins submit. Rollins and Reigns successfully retained the WWE Tag Team Championship against Bryan and Orton at Payback on June 13. In August, The Shield began working for Chief operating officer Triple H and The Authority. They retained their titles against The Usos during the Money in the Bank pre-show on July 14 and against The Prime Time Players (Darren Young and Titus O'Neil) at Night of Champions on September 15. At Battleground on October 6, the recently (kayfabe) fired Cody Rhodes and Goldust reclaimed their jobs by beating Rollins and Reigns in a non-title match. On the October 14 episode of Raw, Rollins and Reigns lost the titles to Rhodes and Goldust in a No Disqualification match following interference from Big Show. At Hell in a Cell on October 27, Rollins and Reigns failed to regain the titles in a triple threat match also involving The Usos. At Survivor Series on November 24, The Shield teamed with Antonio Cesaro and Jack Swagger, facing Rey Mysterio, The Usos, Cody Rhodes and Goldust in a traditional Survivor Series match. Although Rollins was eliminated by Mysterio, Reigns won the match for the team. At TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs on December 15, The Shield lost to CM Punk in 3-on-1 handicap match after Reigns accidentally speared Ambrose. On January 26, 2014, at the Royal Rumble, Rollins entered his first Royal Rumble match at #2, gaining three eliminations before he was eliminated by teammate Reigns. The next night on Raw, The Shield competed against Daniel Bryan, Sheamus and John Cena in a six-man tag team qualifying match to enter the Elimination Chamber match for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship, but lost the match via disqualification after The Wyatt Family (Bray Wyatt, Erick Rowan and Luke Harper) interfered and attacked Cena, Bryan, and Sheamus. At Elimination Chamber on February 23, The Shield were defeated by the Wyatt Family in a rematch. Later in March, The Shield began a feud with Kane, turning face in the process. At WrestleMania XXX on April 6, The Shield defeated Kane and The New Age Outlaws (Billy Gunn and Road Dogg). The Shield then feuded with Triple H, the COO of WWE and leader of The Authority, who then reformed Evolution with Batista and Randy Orton to take on The Shield. The Shield defeated Evolution at Extreme Rules on May 4, and again at Payback on June 1 in a No Holds Barred elimination match, in which no members of The Shield were eliminated. WWE Champion (2014–2016) On the June 2 episode of Raw, Rollins turned on Ambrose and Reigns to rejoin The Authority, turning heel once again. He entered himself into the Money in the Bank ladder match at the titular event on June 29, which he won after interference from Kane. Rollins defeated Ambrose at Battleground on July 20 via forfeit after their match was called off by Triple H after a pre-match attack by Ambrose on Rollins backstage as well as at SummerSlam on August 17 in a lumberjack match after hitting him with his Money in the Bank briefcase following interference from Kane. The following night on Raw, Rollins defeated Ambrose once again in a Falls Count Anywhere match by referee stoppage after Kane interfered again and helped Rollins execute a Curb Stomp on Ambrose through cinder blocks, giving him a kayfabe injury. Rollins then began feuding with Roman Reigns and a match between the two was set up for Night of Champions on September 21, but Reigns developed a legitimate incarcerated hernia which required surgery prior to the event, resulting in Rollins being declared the winner via forfeit, before being attacked by a returning Ambrose. Shortly after, Rollins adopted Jamie Noble and Joey Mercury as bodyguards, being named "J&J Security". The feud between Rollins and Ambrose culminated at Hell in a Cell on October 26 when Rollins defeated Ambrose in a Hell in a Cell match after Bray Wyatt interfered and attacked Ambrose. Following Hell in a Cell, tension began growing between Rollins and Randy Orton due to The Authority's preferential treatment of Rollins, leading to a match between the two on the November 3 episode of Raw, which Rollins won. After the match, Orton attacked The Authority but was overpowered, resulting in Rollins performing a Curb Stomp on Orton onto the steel ring steps, kayfabe injuring him. At Survivor Series on November 23, Rollins captained Team Authority in a five-on-five elimination tag team match against Team Cena, in which he was the sole survivor for his team and the last man eliminated by Dolph Ziggler, resulting in The Authority being ousted from control of WWE. At TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs on December 14, he lost to Cena in a tables match. On the January 5, 2015 episode of Raw, The Authority regained control over WWE. At the Royal Rumble on January 25, Rollins failed to win a triple threat match for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship against Cena and champion Brock Lesnar. At Fastlane on February 22, Rollins, Big Show and Kane defeated Ziggler, Erick Rowan and Ryback; however after the match Randy Orton returned and attacked Noble, Mercury and Kane, while Rollins fled the arena. After weeks of teasing a reunion with The Authority, Orton eventually attacked Rollins, leading to a match between the two at WrestleMania 31 on March 29, which Rollins lost. Later that night, Rollins cashed in his Money in the Bank contract during Lesnar and Reigns' WWE World Heavyweight Championship match, turning it into a triple threat match and pinned Reigns to win the title for the first time in his career, making him the first man to cash in his Money in the Bank contract at WrestleMania and during a title match. Rollins continued his feud with Orton after WrestleMania, which led to a steel cage match for the championship with Kane residing as special guest "gatekeeper" at Extreme Rules on April 26, where Rollins retained after interference from the latter. At Payback on May 17, Rollins retained the title against Orton, Reigns, and Ambrose in a fatal-four-way match after pinning Orton. Rollins then retained the championship against Ambrose on May 31 at Elimination Chamber after getting himself disqualified. Rollins again retained over Ambrose at Money in the Bank on June 14 in a ladder match. At Battleground on July 19, Rollins retained the title by disqualification against Brock Lesnar after The Undertaker attacked Lesnar. In August, Rollins continued his feud with United States Champion John Cena, whom he defeated in a Winner Takes All match at SummerSlam on August 23 for both the WWE World Heavyweight and the United States Championships after interference from Jon Stewart. With the win, Rollins became the first and only wrestler to hold both championships simultaneously until losing the United States Championship back to Cena at Night of Champions on September 20, but was able to retain the WWE World Heavyweight Championship against Sting later that night. On October 3 at Live from Madison Square Garden, Rollins failed to win back the United States Championship in a steel cage match. At Hell in a Cell on October 25, Rollins retained the WWE World Heavyweight Championship against Kane and per the match stipulation, Kane was fired as Director of Operations. On November 4, during a match against Kane at a WWE live event in Dublin, Ireland, Rollins tore the ACL, MCL and medial meniscus in his knee while attempting to execute a sunset flip powerbomb. The injury required surgery and it was estimated it would take Rollins out of action for approximately six to nine months, therefore he was forced to vacate the WWE World Heavyweight Championship the next day, ending his reign at 220 days. WWE recognizes his reign as lasting 219 days. On the December 21 episode of Raw, Rollins made a special appearance to accept his Slammy Award for 2015 Superstar of the Year. At Extreme Rules on May 22, 2016, Rollins returned from injury, attacking Roman Reigns with a Pedigree after his WWE World Heavyweight Championship defense against AJ Styles. The following night on Raw, Shane McMahon scheduled a match between Reigns and Rollins for the title at Money in the Bank. At the event on June 19, Rollins defeated Reigns to win his second WWE World Heavyweight Championship, becoming the first wrestler to legitimately defeat Reigns in singles competition on the main roster, only to lose the title minutes later to Dean Ambrose, who cashed in the Money in the Bank contract he won earlier that night. In July, Rollins failed to regain the renamed WWE Championship from Ambrose on both Raw and SmackDown. During the 2016 WWE draft on July 19, Rollins was drafted to Raw as the brand's first draft pick. At Battleground on July 24, Rollins unsuccessfully competed in a triple threat match against Ambrose and Reigns for the newly renamed WWE World Championship, which became exclusive to the SmackDown brand. Because of this, the WWE Universal Championship was introduced the following night on Raw. Rollins lost the inaugural title match against Finn Bálor on August 21 at SummerSlam. The Shield reunion (2016–2017) After Bálor relinquished the title the following night on Raw due to a legit shoulder injury sustained at SummerSlam, Rollins faced Big Cass, Kevin Owens and Roman Reigns in a four-way elimination match for the title, but Triple H interfered and attacked Rollins, allowing Owens to win the championship. On the September 5 episode of Raw, Rollins attacked Owens during his celebration ceremony, turning face for the first time since 2014. Rollins failed to win the title from Owens at Clash of Champions on September 25 and Hell in a Cell on October 30 due to several interferences from Chris Jericho. At Survivor Series on November 20, Rollins formed part of Team Raw with Owens, Jericho, Braun Strowman and Roman Reigns in a losing effort to Team SmackDown. At Roadblock: End of the Line on December 18, Rollins defeated Jericho.In January 2017, Rollins started a feud with Triple H leading into WrestleMania. On January 28, Rollins appeared at NXT TakeOver: San Antonio, interrupting the show and demanding to confront Triple H, who came out only to order security to remove Rollins from the ring. On the January 30 episode of Raw, Rollins confronted Stephanie McMahon and once again called out Triple H, demanding answers for his betrayal. Later that night, Rollins was ambushed from behind by the debuting Samoa Joe, who choked him out in the Coquina Clutch. Rollins signed a contract to compete against Triple H in a non-sanctioned match on April 2 at WrestleMania 33 which he won. Rollins defeated Samoa Joe at Payback on April 30 to give Joe his first singles loss on the main roster. At Extreme Rules on June 4, Rollins competed in a fatal five-way Extreme Rules match to determine the number one contender to the WWE Universal Championship also involving Bálor, Joe, Reigns and Wyatt, which Joe won. On the July 10 episode of Raw, Rollins saved Dean Ambrose from an attack by The Miz and the Miztourage (Curtis Axel and Bo Dallas). After failing to gain Ambrose's trust for several weeks, the two argued in the ring on the August 14 episode of Raw and brawled with each other before fighting off Cesaro and Sheamus, reuniting the team in the process. At SummerSlam on August 20, Ambrose and Rollins defeated Cesaro and Sheamus to win the Raw Tag Team Championship and retained the titles in a rematch at No Mercy on September 24. On the October 9 episode of Raw, Rollins and Ambrose reunited with Roman Reigns. The newly reformed Shield was due to face Braun Strowman, Cesaro, Kane, The Miz and Sheamus at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs on October 22 in a 5-on-3 handicap Tables, Ladders and Chairs match, but Reigns was replaced over an illness concern by Kurt Angle and they won the match. Ambrose and Rollins lost the titles back to Cesaro and Sheamus on the November 6 episode of Raw due to SmackDown's The New Day distracting the champions, ending their reign at 78 days (WWE recognizes their reign as lasting 79 days). At Survivor Series on November 19, The Shield defeated The New Day. In December, Ambrose suffered a torn biceps, sidelining him for approximately nine months, putting The Shield on hiatus. Intercontinental Champion (2017–2018) On the December 25 episode of Raw, Rollins and Jason Jordan defeated Cesaro and Sheamus to become the new Raw Tag Team Champions. At the Royal Rumble on January 28, 2018, Rollins entered at #18 in the Royal Rumble match but was eliminated by Reigns. Right after the Royal Rumble match, Rollins and Jordan lost the tag titles to Cesaro and Sheamus, ending their reign at 34 days. Rollins and Jordan's tag team dissolved on February 6 after Jordan had neck surgery. Following this, Rollins was named as a competitor in the Elimination Chamber match to determine the #1 contender for the Universal Championship, which would take place at Elimination Chamber. On the February 19 episode of Raw, Rollins competed in a seven-men gauntlet match to decide who would enter the Elimination Chamber match last, where he eliminated Roman Reigns in the first and then John Cena in the second fall, before he was eliminated by Elias. Rollins wrestled for one hour and five minutes, which is the longest performance in a match by any wrestler in the show's history. Six days later, at Elimination Chamber, Rollins was the fifth man eliminated by Braun Strowman in the match. On April 8 at WrestleMania 34, Rollins defeated Finn Bálor and The Miz in a triple threat match to win the Intercontinental Championship for the first time in his career. With his win, Rollins became the twenty-ninth Triple Crown Champion and the eighteenth Grand Slam Champion in WWE history, respectively. After retaining the title against The Miz at Backlash on May 6 and Elias on June 17 at Money in the Bank, Rollins dropped the championship the following night on Raw to Dolph Ziggler after a distraction by Ziggler's ally Drew McIntyre, ending his reign at 71 days. Rollins failed to regain the title from Ziggler in a 30-minute Iron Man match at Extreme Rules on July 15 after interference from McIntyre, but at SummerSlam on August 19, Rollins defeated Ziggler to regain the championship after enlisting the help of a returning Dean Ambrose. The next night on Raw, Rollins reformed The Shield with Ambrose and Roman Reigns, preventing Strowman from cashing in his Money in the Bank contract for the Universal Championship against Reigns. At Hell in a Cell on September 16, Rollins and Ambrose failed to win the Raw Tag Team Championship from McIntyre and Ziggler. At Super Show-Down on October 6, The Shield defeated McIntyre, Ziggler and Strowman in a six-man tag team match. Two nights later on Raw, The Shield was defeated by the trio in a rematch, with Ambrose walking away from his teammates after their defeat. On the October 22 episode of Raw, Reigns took a hiatus due to his legitimate returning leukemia. Later that night, Rollins and Ambrose defeated Ziggler and McIntyre to win the Raw Tag Team Championship (making Rollins a double champion), only for Ambrose to turn on Rollins as he attacked him, igniting a feud between the two and disbanding The Shield once again. Rollins and Ambrose lost the titles on the November 5 episode of Raw, when Rollins lost a handicap match to AOP (Akam and Rezar). On November 18 at Survivor Series, Rollins defeated United States Champion Shinsuke Nakamura in an interbrand champion vs. champion match. On December 16 at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs, Rollins lost the Intercontinental Championship to Ambrose, ending his reign at 119 days. Rollins failed to regain the championship from Ambrose on several occasions, including in a Falls Count Anywhere match when Bobby Lashley interfered, and in a triple threat match where Lashley won the championship after pinning Ambrose. Universal Champion (2018–2019) On January 27, 2019, at the Royal Rumble, Rollins won his first Royal Rumble match by lastly eliminating Braun Strowman. The following night on Raw, Rollins challenged Brock Lesnar for the Universal Championship at WrestleMania 35. Soon after, Rollins reconciled with Ambrose and the recently returned Reigns to reform The Shield for the third time. The trio defeated Drew McIntyre, Bobby Lashley and Baron Corbin on March 10 at Fastlane. At WrestleMania 35 on April 7, Rollins defeated Lesnar to win the Universal Championship for the first time. Rollins then entered a feud with AJ Styles, retaining the Universal Championship against him on May 19 at Money in the Bank. Rollins successfully defended the title against Corbin at Super ShowDown on June 7, and at Stomping Grounds on June 23; the latter title defense featured Lacey Evans as special guest referee. He won with assistance of his real-life wife and Raw Women's Champion Becky Lynch to overcome the biased refereeing from Evans. Rollins and Lynch defeated Corbin and Evans at Extreme Rules on July 14 in a Winner Takes All Extreme Rules match mixed tag team match. Afterwards, Rollins lost the title to Lesnar, who cashed in his Money in the Bank contract, ending his reign at 98 days. The following night on Raw, Rollins won a ten-man battle royal for the right to face Lesnar for the championship at SummerSlam by last eliminating Randy Orton. At the event on August 11, Rollins defeated Lesnar to regain the championship, making him the second wrestler to hold the Universal Championship more than once. He also became the first superstar to defeat Lesnar at both WrestleMania and SummerSlam. On the August 19 episode of Raw, Rollins won his record-tying fifth Raw Tag Team Championship along with Braun Strowman when they defeated Karl Anderson and Luke Gallows. At Clash of Champions on September 15, Rollins and Strowman lost the titles to Dolph Ziggler and Robert Roode. Later that night, Rollins retained the Universal Championship against Strowman but was attacked by "The Fiend" Bray Wyatt after the match. At Hell in a Cell on October 6, Rollins defended his title against The Fiend in a Hell in a Cell match that ended in referee stoppage after The Fiend was buried under several weapons and hit with a sledgehammer by Rollins, a decision which was negatively received by critics and fans. On October 31 at Crown Jewel, Rollins lost the Universal Championship to The Fiend in a falls count anywhere match, ending his second reign at 80 days. The Messiah (2019–2020) Rollins was selected as the captain for Team Raw against Team SmackDown and Team NXT on November 24 at Survivor Series, where Team SmackDown emerged victorious. The following night on Raw, Rollins berated the entire Raw roster for "dropping the ball" and failing to win at the pay-per-view. These comments later drew the attention of Kevin Owens, who attacked Rollins and challenged him to a match, which ended in a disqualification after AOP (Akam and Rezar) attacked Owens. On the December 9 episode of Raw, despite earlier denying an alliance with AOP, Rollins joined them by attacking Owens, turning heel for the first time since 2016. After this, Rollins began calling himself the "Monday Night Messiah" while stating that he was "sacrificing" his opponents for "the greater good" and created a faction with AOP and Buddy Murphy. Rollins and Murphy defeated The Viking Raiders to win the Raw Tag Team Championship on the January 20, 2020 episode of Raw, becoming a record six-time champion. Rollins competed in the Royal Rumble on January 26, 2020, as the final entrant, but was eliminated by eventual winner Drew McIntyre. Rollins and Murphy retained the titles against The Street Profits at Super ShowDown on February 27, but lost the titles to them on the March 2 episode of Raw. Rollins and Murphy failed to reclaim the championship from the Street Profits at Elimination Chamber six days later. At WrestleMania 36 on April 4, Rollins faced Owens in No Disqualification match, which he lost thus ending the feud. At Money in the Bank on May 10, Rollins unsuccessfully challenged Drew McIntyre for the WWE Championship. The next night on Raw, Rollins attacked Rey Mysterio and injured his eye with the steel ring steps. On the May 18 episode of Raw, Rollins recruited Austin Theory as a member of his faction. Mysterio eventually returned and challenged Rollins to an Eye for an Eye match, where the only way to win was to extract the opponent's eyeball. The match took place at The Horror Show at Extreme Rules on July 19, which Rollins won after using the ring steps to remove Mysterio's eye. Over the following weeks, Rey Mysterio's son Dominik confronted Rollins about the attacks on both him and his father. At SummerSlam on August 23, Rollins defeated Dominik in a Street Fight. The following night on Raw, a tag team match was set up between Rollins and Murphy against Rey and Dominik Mysterio at Payback on August 30, where Rollins and Murphy lost to Rey and Dominik. On the October 5 episode of Raw, Murphy attacked Rollins after he refused to apologize to him, thus ending their alliance. As part of the 2020 WWE draft in October, Rollins was drafted to the SmackDown brand. On the November 20 episode of SmackDown, Rollins lost to Murphy to end the feud. At Survivor Series two days later, Rollins was a part of Team SmackDown, but was the first person eliminated by Sheamus after "sacrificing" himself and his team lost the match. The Visionary (2021–2023) After a two month hiatus, Rollins returned at the Royal Rumble on January 31, 2021, entering at #29 and lasting until the final three before being eliminated by eventual winner Edge. Rollins made his return to SmackDown on the February 12 episode, stating he was the leader that SmackDown needed and that the SmackDown roster needed to "embrace the vision", prompting the locker room to walk out on him. Rollins then attacked Cesaro, who was the only one that stayed behind, beginning a feud with him. At Fastlane on March 21, Rollins defeated Shinsuke Nakamura. On the first night of WrestleMania 37 on April 10, Rollins lost to Cesaro. At WrestleMania Backlash on May 16, Rollins made an appearance to attack Cesaro with a steel chair. On June 20 at Hell in a Cell, Rollins defeated Cesaro. On the July 9 episode of SmackDown, Rollins defeated Cesaro again to qualify for the Money in the Bank ladder match at the titular event, ending their feud in the process. At Money in the Bank on July 18, Rollins was unsuccessful in winning the contract, as the match was won by Big E. On the same night, Rollins interfered in the main event where Roman Reigns was defending the Universal Championship against Edge, distracting the referee to cost Edge the match. Over the following weeks, Rollins and Edge confronted and attacked each other until the August 6 episode of SmackDown, where Edge challenged Rollins to a match at SummerSlam, which Rollins accepted. At the event on August 21, Rollins lost to Edge by submission, but won their rematch on the September 10 episode of SmackDown. As part of the 2021 Draft, Rollins was drafted to the Raw brand. On the October 8 episode of SmackDown, Edge demanded a Hell in a Cell match between them, which was made official for Crown Jewel. At the event on October 21, Rollins was defeated by Edge, thus ending their feud. At Survivor Series on November 21, Rollins took part in the 5-on-5 elimination match on Team Raw and won the match as the sole survivor after eliminating Jeff Hardy. On the October 25 episode of Raw, Rollins defeated Finn Bálor, Kevin Owens, and Rey Mysterio in a fatal four-way ladder match to become the #1 contender for the WWE Championship against Big E at Day 1. Over the following weeks, Kevin Owens and Bobby Lashley were also added to the WWE Championship match at Day 1, making it a fatal four-way match. At Day 1 on January 1, 2022, Rollins failed to win the title as Brock Lesnar was added to the match and won the title. That month, he began to work as Seth "Freakin" Rollins. At the Royal Rumble on January 29, Rollins faced SmackDown's Roman Reigns for the Universal Championship, winning the match by disqualification but not the title. On February 18 at Elimination Chamber, he challenged for the WWE Championship inside the namesake structure, but was eliminated by Lesnar. Rollins then unsuccessfully attempted to find a spot on the card at WrestleMania 38, until Mr. McMahon announced that Rollins would face an opponent of his choosing on the March 28 episode of Raw. On the first night of the event on April 2, Rollins' opponent was unveiled as a returning Cody Rhodes, who defeated Rollins. At WrestleMania Backlash on May 8, Rollins lost to Rhodes for a second time. On the following episode of Raw, Rollins attacked and laid out Rhodes during his match for the United States Championship against Theory. The following week, Rhodes challenged Rollins to a match at Hell in a Cell, inside the namesake structure, which Rollins accepted. At the event on June 5, Rollins lost to Rhodes for a third time. The match received a 5-star rating from esteemed wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer, making it the first WWE main roster match to receive a 5-star rating since 2011, and the first match of Rollins's career to receive such a rating. On the June 13 episode of Raw, Rollins defeated AJ Styles to qualify for the titular match at Money in the Bank on July 2, which was won by Theory. Following this, Rollins would start attacking Matt Riddle over the next couple weeks until a match was made between them at SummerSlam. However, the match was postponed after Riddle suffered an injury following an attack by Rollins on the July 25 episode of Raw. Despite this, both Rollins and Riddle appeared at SummerSlam on July 30, engaging in a brawl which saw Rollins come out on top. The match between the two occurred at Clash at the Castle on September 3, where Rollins defeated Riddle. Over the next following weeks, Rollins and Riddle would continue attacking each other until when on the September 19 episode of Raw, it was announced at Extreme Rules, they would have a rematch in a Fight Pit match. At the event on October 8, Rollins lost to Riddle by submission. On the October 10 episode of Raw, Rollins won the United States Championship for a second time by defeating Bobby Lashley after a returning Brock Lesnar attacked Lashley before the match. This made him the second wrestler (after The Miz) to become a two-time WWE Grand Slam Champion. The following week on Raw, Rollins successfully defended the title against Riddle to end their feud. On the November 7 episode of Raw, Rollins issued an open challenge that was answered by Lashley, who attacked Rollins before the match started. As a result, Mr. Money in the Bank Austin Theory cashed in his contract. However, due to interference from Lashley, Rollins retained the title. Rollins then started a feud with Theory, turning face for the first time since 2019. At Survivor Series WarGames on November 26, Rollins lost the United States Championship to Theory in a triple threat match that also involved Lashley, ending his reign at 47 days. On the December 12 episode of Raw, Rollins defeated Lashley to earn another United States Championship match against Theory. On the January 2, 2023 episode of Raw, Rollins failed to regain the title from Theory. On January 28, Rollins entered the Royal Rumble at #15 but was eliminated by Logan Paul. On the January 30 episode of Raw, Rollins defeated Chad Gable in a qualifying match for the Elimination Chamber match for the title. At Elimination Chamber on February 18, Rollins failed to win the title when he was the last person eliminated by Theory after interference from Paul. On the first night of WrestleMania 39 on April 1, Rollins defeated Paul. At Backlash on May 6, Rollins defeated Omos. World Heavyweight Champion (2023–present) On the May 8 episode of Raw, Rollins won the right to compete for the newly established World Heavyweight Championship at Night of Champions by first defeating Damian Priest and Shinsuke Nakamura in a triple threat match, and then defeating Finn Bálor, who had won a similar triple threat match. At Night of Champions, Rollins defeated AJ Styles in the tournament final to become the inaugural champion. Two days later on Raw, Rollins was interrupted by Styles, who congratulated Rollins on the win, and the two would go on to face The Judgment Day (Finn Bálor and Damian Priest) in the main event in a winning effort. The following week on the June 5 episode of Raw,, Rollins defeated Priest in an open challenge to retain the title. At NXT Gold Rush, Rollins defeated Bron Breakker to retain the title. At Money in the Bank, Rollins would successfully defend the title against Bálor after an unintended distraction by Priest, who seemingly had intentions of cashing in his newly-won Money in the Bank briefcase, would cause the latter to lose the match. At SummerSlam on August 5, Rollins defeated Bálor once again to retain the title despite interference from fellow Judgment Day members. Rollins then retained the title against Shinsuke Nakamura at Payback and at Fastlane in a Last Man Standing match. Professional wrestling style and persona Lopez's WWE ring name is a tribute to punk rock musician Henry Rollins. During his time in FCW, Rollins used a superkick to a kneeling opponent called Avada Kedavra as a finisher. For most of his WWE career, Rollins has used the Curb Stomp as a finishing move, often simply referred to as the Stomp. However, the move would be banned by WWE in March 2015, as chairman Vince McMahon thought the Curb Stomp was too "cruel". Rollins resumed use of the move in January 2018. Rollins has also used the Pedigree and a jumping knee strike called the Ripcord Knee as finishing moves. Throughout his time as a member of The Shield, before the team initially split, his character was that of an "out-spoken hot-head who will do crazy things" to help The Shield. After turning into a villain and aligning himself with AOP in late-2019, Rollins began to dub himself "Monday Night Messiah" and allude himself to Jesus while debuting a new entrance theme to go along with the new character. He also began recruiting new "disciples" into his group such as Murphy and Austin Theory proclaiming himself to be their leader and savior. In 2021, Rollins adopted his "Visionary" persona, which was a boastful, delusional character that had a reputation for eccentricity and wore flamboyant suits. Other media Rollins is regularly featured on Xavier Woods' YouTube channel UpUpDownDown, where he goes by the nickname "Texas Steve". In August 2019, he won a #1 contender's tournament to challenge Samoa Joe for the UpUpDownDown Championship. He defeated Joe in a game of Track & Field II to win the championship. In October, in his first and only defense, he lost the championship to his now-wife Becky Lynch in Marvel vs. Capcom Infinite. In July 2022, he defeated Riddle in the finals of a WWE 2K22 tournament to win the vacant UpUpDownDown Championship, becoming the first person to hold the championship twice. Personal life Lopez is a fan of the Chicago Bears and the St. Louis Cardinals. In 2014, Lopez and his former tag team partner Marek Brave started a professional wrestling school called The Black & The Brave Wrestling Academy in Moline, Illinois. In February 2019, Lopez opened a coffee shop called 329 Dport in his hometown of Davenport, Iowa. On February 9, 2015, a nude photo of former NXT wrestler Zahra Schreiber, who reportedly was Lopez's girlfriend, was posted to his social media accounts, the contents of which are automatically republished by WWE.com. Soon after, nude photos of Lopez were posted on the Twitter page of his then-fiancée, Leighla Schultz. In response, Lopez apologized for "private photographs that were distributed without [his] consent". On February 25, 2016, Lopez broke up with Schreiber. Lopez began dating Irish professional wrestler Rebecca Quin, better known as Becky Lynch, in January 2019. Their relationship was made public in May after months of speculation. As of 2019, the couple lived in Moline. They announced their engagement on August 22, 2019. On May 11, 2020, Quin announced during an episode of Raw that she and Lopez were expecting their first child. Their daughter, Roux, was born in December. The couple married on June 29, 2021. Lopez announced their marriage on Instagram. Filmography Film Television Web series Video games Championships and accomplishments Absolute Intense Wrestling AIW Intense Championship (1 time) All American Wrestling AAW Heavyweight Championship (2 times) AAW Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Marek Brave (1) and Jimmy Jacobs (1) Florida Championship Wrestling FCW Florida Heavyweight Championship (1 time) FCW Jack Brisco 15 Championship (1 time) FCW Florida Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Richie Steamboat Jack Brisco Classic (2011) First FCW Grand Slam Champion Full Impact Pro FIP World Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South IWA Mid-South Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Mr. Chainsaw Productions Wrestling MCPW World Heavyweight Championship (1 time) NWA Midwest NWA Midwest Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Marek Brave New York Post Match of the Year (2022) Pro Wrestling Guerrilla PWG World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Jimmy Jacobs Pro Wrestling Illustrated Feud of the Year (2014) Most Hated Wrestler of the Year (2015, 2020) Tag Team of the Year (2013) Wrestler of the Year (2015) Ranked No. 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2015, 2019 and 2023 Ring of Honor ROH World Championship (1 time) ROH World Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Jimmy Jacobs ROH World Championship No. 1 Contender Tournament (2008) ROH World Tag Team Championship Tournament (2008) – with Jimmy Jacobs Survival of the Fittest (2009) Rolling Stone Best Briefly Resuscitated Storyline (2015) Most Puzzling New Finisher (2015) Most Smothered In-Ring Potential (2014) Ranked No. 9 of the 10 best WWE wrestlers of 2016 Sports Illustrated Ranked No. 3 of the top 10 men's wrestlers in 2018 Wrestler of the Year (2022) Wrestling Observer Newsletter Tag Team of the Year (2013) Worst Feud of the Year (2013) – Worst Feud of the Year (2019) Worst Match of the Year (2019) WWE WWE Championship (2 times) World Heavyweight Championship (1 time, current; inaugural) WWE Universal Championship (2 times) NXT Championship (1 time, inaugural) WWE Intercontinental Championship (2 times) WWE United States Championship (2 times) WWE (Raw) Tag Team Championship (6 times) – with Roman Reigns (1), Dean Ambrose (2), Jason Jordan (1), Braun Strowman (1), and Buddy Murphy/Murphy (1) Money in the Bank (2014) Men's Royal Rumble (2019) World Heavyweight Championship Tournament (2023) Gold Rush Tournament (2012) 29th Triple Crown Champion 11th Grand Slam Champion (under current format; 19th overall) Second two-time Grand Slam Champion Slammy Award (9 times) Anti-Gravity Moment of the Year (2014) Breakout Star of the Year (2013) Double-Cross of the Year (2014) Faction of the Year (2013, 2014) Fan Participation (2014) Match of the Year (2014) Superstar of the Year (2015) Trending Now (Hashtag) of the Year (2013) – #BelieveInTheShield WWE Year-End Award for Best Reunion (2018) – Bumpy Award (1 time) Best Dressed of the Half-Year (2021) – with Sonya Deville References External links 1986 births 21st-century professional wrestlers AAW Heavyweight Champions AAW Tag Team Champions American atheists American male professional wrestlers American people of German descent American people of Irish descent American people of Armenian descent FCW Florida Heavyweight Champions FCW Florida Tag Team Champions FCW Jack Brisco 15 Champions FIP World Heavyweight Champions Living people NWA/WCW/WWE United States Heavyweight Champions NXT Champions People from Scott County, Iowa Professional wrestlers from Iowa Professional wrestling trainers PWG World Tag Team Champions ROH World Champions ROH World Tag Team Champions The Authority (professional wrestling) members World Heavyweight Champions (WWE, 2023–present) WWE Grand Slam champions WWF/WWE Intercontinental Champions WWE Champions WWE Universal Champions Royal Rumble winners Money in the Bank winners WWE Raw Tag Team Champions

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%EB%AA%A8%EC%95%84%20%EC%A1%B0

사모아 조

사모아 조(Samoa Joe, 1979년 3월 17일 ~ )는 본명은 누팔라우 조엘 시노아(Nuufalou Joel Seanoa)다. 미국의 남자 프로레슬링선수다. 실제키는 188cm(6 ft 3in)에다가 몸무게는 126kg(280 lb)이다. 2000년 프로레슬링 입문으로 피니쉬는 아일랜드 드라이버(싯아웃 파워슬램), 키메라 수플렉스(저먼 수플렉스 팔로우 풀 넬슨 수플렉스 팔로우 브릿지 스트레이트 재킷 수플렉스), 코키나 클러치(리어 네이키드 초크), 머슬 버스터, 스피닝 리프팅 사이드 슬램, 씨씨에스 엔즈이기리(점핑 엔즈이기리)로 사용을 하는데... 시그니처 기술은 ST 조(사이드 슬램), 수어사이드 엘보우 스매쉬로 이것도 사용을 한다. Professional wrestling highlights Finishing moves CCS Enzuigiri (Jumping enzuigiri with his back to the opponent) - 1999-present; used as a signature moves Chimera-Plex (German suplex followed full nelson suplex followed bridging straight jacket suplex) - 1999-2005; 2016-2017; used as a signature moves Coquina Clutch / The Clutch / The Choke (Rear naked choke sometimes with bodyscissors) - 1999-present Island Driver (Sitout powerslam sometimes from an elevated position) - 1999-2005; used as a signature moves Muscle buster sometimes from an elevated position - 2005-2016; 2021-present Spinning lifting side slam - 2017-2021 Signature moves Back chop and shoot kick and jumping knee drop Back elbow smash Belly to belly suplex Death valley driver sometimes from the second string Facewash normally preceded by running big boot Folding powerbomb transitioned STF and crossface Inverted atomic drop follow running big boot follow running senton Lifting body slam Multiples elbow smash variations Jumping Running Suicide dive Multiples punch and overhead chop Multiples suplex variations Exploder German Half nelson Head and arm Running lariat Samoan drop Samoan Elbow (Running delayed elbow drop with taunts) ST Joe (Side slam from corner to approaching opponent) Yokosuka cutter Manager Dave Prazak Jay Lethal Jeff Jarrett Jim Cornette Jimmy Hart Kevin Nash Okada/Okato Tazz Nicknames "The Destroyer" (WWE) "The Samoan Submission / Suplex Machine" (PWG/ROH/TNA) "The (Samoan) Submission Specialist" (NXT/WWE) "The Nation of Violence" (TNA) Entrance themes "Another Body Murdered" by Faith No More and Boo-Yaa TRIBE (ROH) "Mama Said Knock You Out" by LL Cool J (ROH) "The Champ is Here" by Jadakiss (ROH) "Crush You Up" by Dale Oliver (TNA; 2005-2008) "On Fire" by Dale Oliver (TNA; 2008-2009) "Nation of Violence" by Dale Oliver (TNA; 2009-2015) Dale Oliver's "Main Event Mafia" (TNA; 2009; used as a member of The Main Event Mafia) "The Anthem" by MVP and Jess Jamez (TNA; 2015; used as a member of The Beat Down Clan) "Tap Out" by Adam Gubman (ROH; 2015) "Destroyer" by CFO$ (NXT/WWE; 2015-2020) "Coliseum Clash" by Mikey Rukus (ROH/AEW; 2022-present) 수상 네츄럴 헤비웨이트 챔피언 (1회) 스맥 토커 오브 더 이열 (2016) 익스트림 에잇 토너먼트 (2006) 레볼루션 스트롱 스타일 토너먼트 (2004) GWA 헤비웨이트 챔피언 (1회) 퓨드 오브 더 이열 (2007) vs 커트 앵글 모스트 파펄러 레슬러 오브 더 이열 (2006) 랭크드 넘버 4 오브 더 탑 500 싱글즈 레슬링 인 더 PWI 500 인 2006 언드 2008 GHC 태그팀 챔피언 (1회) - 매그너스 NWA 인터콘티넨탈 태그팀 챔피언 (1회) - 사코다 켄지 PWA 퓨어 레슬링 챔피언 (1회) ROH 퓨어 챔피언 (1회) ROH 챔피언 (1회) TNA 텔레비젼 챔피언 (1회) TNA 월드 헤비웨이트 챔피언 (1회) TNA 월드 태그팀 챔피언 (2회) - 본인 (1회), 매그너스 (1회) TNA X 디비젼 챔피언 (5회) 킹 오브 더 마운틴 (2008) TNA X 디비젼 챔피언 토너먼트 (2014) 슈퍼 X 컵 (2005) 피스트 오브 파여드 (2009 - TNA 월드 헤비웨이트 챔피언 콘텐스트) 건틀릿 포어 더 골드 (2007 - TNA 월드 헤비웨이트 챔피언) 와일드 카드 토너먼트 (2011) - 매그너스 써드 TNA 그랜드 슬램 챔피언 써드 TNA 트리플 크라운 챔피언 미스터 TNA (2006, 2007) X 디비젼 스타 오브 더 이열 (2006) 퓨드 오브 더 이열 (2006-2007) - 커트 앵글 피니쉬 오브 더 이열 (2007) 머슬 버스터 TWE 헤비웨이트 챔피언 (1회) UPW 헤비웨이트 챔피언 (1회) UPW 노 홀드 바드 챔피언 (1회) UIWA 태그팀 챔피언 (2회) 베스트 브롤러 (2005, 2006) 매치 오브 더 이열 (2005) - 사코다 켄지 모스트 아웃스탠딩 레슬러 (2005) NXT 챔피언 (3회) 더스틴 로즈 태그팀 클래식 (2015) - 핀 벨러 WWE 유나이티드 스테이츠 챔피언 (2회) 외부 링크 1979년 출생 살아있는 사람 미국의 남자 프로레슬러 캘리포니아주 출신

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoa%20Joe

Samoa Joe

Nuufolau Joel Seanoa (born March 17, 1979), better known by the ring name Samoa Joe, is an American professional wrestler. He is currently performing for All Elite Wrestling (AEW) and its sister promotion, Ring of Honor (ROH), where he is the current ROH World Television Champion in his first reign. He is also a former two-time AEW TNT Champion. Debuting in 1999, Joe joined ROH soon upon its formation in 2002, holding the ROH World Championship for a record 21 months from March 2003 to December 2004; he was later inducted into the ROH Hall of Fame. In June 2005, he joined Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA), where he embarked on a 19-month-long undefeated streak. During his 10-year stint in TNA, he held the TNA World Heavyweight Championship once; the TNA X Division Championship five times; the TNA World Tag Team Championship twice; and the TNA Television Championship once. After departing TNA in 2015, Joe began wrestling for WWE on its NXT brand. After winning the NXT Championship twice, he joined the main roster in January 2017, going on to win the WWE United States Championship on two occasions and headline several pay-per-view events. In 2019, he began working as a color commentator due to accumulated injuries. He was released from his contract in April 2021, but was rehired that June, winning the NXT Championship a third time before being released once again in January 2022. He made his return to ROH, and his debut in AEW, in April 2022. Early life Seanoa was born on March 17, 1979, and raised in Orange County, California. He resided mainly in Huntington Beach and spent time during his childhood in ʻEwa Beach, Hawaii. His family founded a Polynesian dance troupe in the United States called Tiare Productions. Seanoa made his stage debut at the 1984 Summer Olympics opening at the age of five. He became a California State Junior Judo Champion and was an all league football player while attending Ocean View High School. Before becoming a wrestler, Seanoa worked as a mortgage broker. Professional wrestling career Early career (1999–2001) Seanoa attended the United Independent Wrestling Alliance (UIWA) West Coast Dojo, where he trained under Cincinnati Red, Johnny Hemp and, occasionally, John Delayo. He debuted in December 1999 in a match against "Uncle" Jess Hansen three months after beginning his training, adopting the ring name "Samoa Joe". In 2000, Joe began appearing with the California-based Ultimate Pro Wrestling (UPW) promotion, then a developmental affiliate of the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), where he feuded with John Cena. He held the UPW No Holds Barred Championship from March to April 2001. He was named Southern California's Rookie of the Year for 2000. In February 2001, he appeared on an episode of WWF Jakked, losing to Essa Rios; he was subsequently told by WWF personnel that he "didn't have a future in [the WWF"]. In March 2001, Joe defeated Christopher Daniels to win the UPW Heavyweight Championship; he held the title for a record 258 days before losing to Mikey Henderson in November 2001. In October 2001, Joe competed in All Pro Wrestling's "King of Indies" tournament that was won by American Dragon. Pro Wrestling Zero-One (2001–2003) As part of a working arrangement between Ultimate Pro Wrestling and Shinya Hashimoto's Pro Wrestling Zero-One promotion, Joe made his first appearance in Japan in June 2001, participating in Pro Wrestling Zero-One's "Shingeki" series of pay-per-views as well as the annual Burning Heart tournament. In his debut match he teamed with Keiji Sakoda to defeat Katsumi Usuda and Yuki Ishikawa to become the inaugural Intercontinental Tag Team Champions; the titles were awarded to Mike Rapada and Steve Corino the following month. Joe returned to Pro Wrestling Zero-One in January 2002, where Masato Tanaka and Shinjiro Otani defeated him and Tom Howard to win the vacant Intercontinental Tag Team Championship. He continued to work for the promotion throughout 2002, participating in a number of its biggest shows and tournaments as "Samoa Joe" and later "King Joe". Joe made his final appearances with Pro Wrestling Zero-One in August 2003 as part of its "Summer Festival 2003" tour. Wrestling as "King Joe", he competed in a series of tag team matches and six-man tag team matches, including teaming with King Adamo to unsuccessfully challenge Kohei Sato and Hirotaka Yokoi for the All Asia Tag Team Championship. Ring of Honor (2002–2007, 2008) In 2002, Samoa Joe joined the ranks of the nascent Philadelphia, Pennsylvania-based promotion Ring of Honor (ROH). He debuted in October 2002 at "Glory By Honor" as Christopher Daniels's "hired assassin", brought in to defeat Daniels's chief enemy, Low Ki. Originally booked for just the one match against Low Ki, Joe impressed fans with his extremely stiff and hard-hitting style that resembled a mixed martial arts fighter more than a wrestler, resulting in ROH booking him full-time. Joe quickly rose through the ranks and became ROH Champion by defeating Xavier at Night of Champions in March 2003. After he defeated The Zebra Kid at "Frontiers of Honor" in London, England in May 2003, the title was renamed the ROH World Championship. Joe held the title for a record 645 days, defending the title 29 times in the United States and in Europe. During this time, he had a critically acclaimed trilogy of title defenses against CM Punk (the second of which received a "five star" rating from veteran journalist Dave Meltzer, the first match in the United States in seven years to do so). In October 2003, Joe faced Ares in a bout promoted by the German Wrestling Association in Bad Schwalbach, Germany with both Joe's ROH World Championship and the vacant GWA Heavyweight Championship on the line, defeating Ares to win the GWA Heavyweight Championship (the title was deactivated later that year). Joe's reign finally ended when he lost to Austin Aries at Final Battle in December 2004. Soon after losing the ROH World Championship to Aries, Joe became the ROH Pure Champion by defeating his on-screen protégé Jay Lethal in May 2005. He lost the title to Nigel McGuinness at "Dragon Gate Invasion" in August 2005. In October 2005, when Japanese heavyweight superstar Kenta Kobashi made a "once-in-a-lifetime" trip to the United States, he was signed to two Ring of Honor shows. ROH officials selected Joe to face him in a singles match on the first night and a tag match on the second. Joe proved to be a formidable opponent for Kobashi, in a back and forth match, which Dave Meltzer again gave a five-star rating. The match went on to win the Wrestling Observer Newsletter award for "Match of the Year". In 2006, Joe was one of the principal wrestlers representing Ring of Honor in their war against rival Philadelphia promotion Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW). The war culminated in a five-on-five "Cage of Death" match at "Death before Dishonor IV" in July 2006. Joe helped ROH dominate in the match, until, after picking up CZW wrestler Chris Hero for the muscle buster, he was attacked by fellow ROH wrestler Bryan Danielson. Danielson repeatedly hit Joe's injured knee with a steel chair, forcing him to quit the match. Joe was later replaced in the match by Homicide, who went on to win the match for ROH. At the September 16, 2006 ROH show, Joe got into an argument and pull-apart brawl with Pro Wrestling Noah star Takeshi Morishima. Subsequently, a match was signed for February 2007 pitting Joe against Morishima which Joe won. Joe later teamed with Homicide to fight against the Briscoes, and, like Homicide, found himself back in the ROH World Championship hunt. Joe, however, came up short against champion Bryan Danielson in several matches, including a match that ended in a time limit drawn after 60 minutes and a cage match in December 2006. Joe ceased to be a full-time performer in ROH on March 4, 2007. His appearances leading up to that date were billed as the "Samoa Joe Farewell Tour". On March 4, he defeated long-time rival Homicide in the Liverpool Olympia in Liverpool, England in his final ROH match. On November 22, 2008, Joe made a one night return to ROH at Rising Above (its second every pay-per-view), defeating Tyler Black in a dark match. Independent circuit (2003–2015) From 2003 to 2007, Joe made several appearances for Southern California promotion Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG), making his debut on November 15, 2003, when he defeated CM Punk in a singles match. During his time in the promotion, Joe had a notable on-screen rivalry with Super Dragon and unsuccessfully challenged Dragon for his PWG Championship on February 12, 2005. After Dragon had lost the title, Joe defeated him in a grudge match on August 19, 2005. Joe received another shot at the PWG Championship the following November, but was this time defeated by Kevin Steen. Joe made his to date final PWG appearance on April 8, 2007, when he defeated Low Ki in a singles match. From 2004 to 2006, Joe also made several appearances for Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South (IWA-MS), where he most notably made it to the finals of the 2004 Ted Petty Invitational and, later that same year, won the Revolution Strong Style Tournament. On February 14, 2009, Joe made debuted for the Puerto Rican International Wrestling Association (IWA) at Noche de Campeones, where he unsuccessfully challenged El Chicano for the IWA Undisputed World Unified Heavyweight Championship. On November 3, 2013, Joe made his debut at Championship Wrestling From Hollywood, defeating Willie Mack. On November 3, Joe defeated Mack in the Main Event. On November 15, 2014, Joe appeared at JAPW 18th Anniversary Show, where he defeated Chris Hero. Throughout his career, Joe has also wrestled in Europe for promotions such German Stampede Wrestling (GSW), International Pro Wrestling: United Kingdom (IPW:UK), and Westside Xtreme Wrestling (wXw). Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2005-2015) Undefeated streak (2005–2006) On June 14, 2005, Joe signed a contract with Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA). He made his official debut five days later at the Slammiversary pay-per-view, defeating Sonjay Dutt in a match that saw him dubbed "The Samoan Submission Machine" by announcer Mike Tenay. Joe was a participant in the Christopher Daniels Invitational Super X Cup, defeating Sonjay Dutt and Alex Shelley to advance to the tournament finals at Sacrifice. Joe won the tournament by defeating A.J. Styles, but only with help from Daniels. As a result of Daniels' interference, however, TNA Director of Authority Larry Zbyszko made Daniels defend his X Division Championship in a three-way match against both Joe and Styles at Unbreakable. This match marked Joe's first title shot in the company, though Styles won the match. Joe's undefeated streak was still officially intact, as it was Daniels that had been pinned, not Joe. This match is to date the only match in TNA's history to receive a rating of five stars from Dave Meltzer. At Genesis on November 13, he teamed with Daniels, Alex Shelley, and Roderick Strong (a team that Daniels called "The Ministry") against Sonjay Dutt, Chris Sabin, Matt Bentley, and Austin Aries in an eight man elimination match. Following the victory by Daniels and Joe (Shelley and Strong were eliminated earlier in the match), Joe attacked Daniels, beating him around the ringside area until he had busted him open. He then threw Daniels into the ring, and delivered a Muscle Buster. Joe then went out to grab a steel chair from ringside and brought it into the ring, after which he gave Daniels a second Muscle Buster, this time onto the chair, supposedly giving Daniels a level-3 concussion. In response to these actions, Styles called Joe out on an episode of Impact!, saying his attack of Daniels violated an unwritten code of respect in the X Division. Prior to Turning Point, Joe attacked Styles, saying he did not respect the X Division code (a vast departure from his Ring of Honor persona, who is a stalwart defender of their written Code of Honor). Joe defeated Styles at Turning Point and won the X Division Championship. Joe could not injure Styles, however, Daniels came out and stopped him. Daniels was later slated to face Joe at Final Resolution in 2006 for the X Division Championship. During the build-up to the match, Joe stated that he intended to end Daniels' career. During the match, Styles came down to the ring to cheer for Daniels. Not long after making Daniels bleed from his head, Joe stopped going for the pin, instead dropping knee after knee on Daniels' head. Styles, concerned about Daniels' health, signaled for the match to be stopped by throwing in the towel, allowing Joe to retain the X Division title. Joe proceeded to win the rematch of the three-way at Unbreakable, thus retaining his title. This three-way feud continued until Destination X, when he lost the title to Daniels in an Ultimate X match, a match in which there is no pinfall or submission, thus keeping his undefeated streak. Joe was then taken out of the X Division and was scheduled to take on Sabu at Lockdown. Despite that, he still had a scheduled X Division title match, and, on April 13's Impact! (TNA's Thursday debut), Joe regained the X Division title after delivering an Island Driver from the middle turnbuckle to Christopher Daniels. Joe then successfully defended his X Division title against Sabu at Lockdown. At Sacrifice, Joe partnered with Sting in a tag team match against Jeff Jarrett and Scott Steiner. Joe and Sting were victorious, but after the match, Joe left the ring and allowed Sting to be attacked. Joe explained this by stating that he agreed to only watch Sting's back "from bell to bell" (implying that once the second bell rang, his duties were over), but still had issues with Steiner. Joe added Scott Steiner to his undefeated streak, at Slammiversary. During the Impact! tapings on May 15, Joe was injured as he performed a kick, and it was reported that he tore every knee ligament except the anterior cruciate ligament. He suffered a first degree tear to the posterior cruciate ligament and a second degree tear to the medial collateral ligament. Joe would remain out of action for two weeks. After returning, Joe lost his X Division Championship in a triple threat match with Sonjay Dutt and Senshi. Senshi pinned Dutt to win the championship after Steiner laid out Joe with a steel chair. Joe would have his chance at revenge when he participated in a four-way number one contender match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship along with Sting, Christian Cage, and Scott Steiner at Victory Road on July 16. Joe lost this match when Sting pinned Steiner. Joe beat Jeff Jarrett at No Surrender in a "Fan's Revenge Lumberjack match". After the match, he took Jarrett's NWA World Heavyweight Championship with him, telling Jim Cornette that if Jarrett or Sting (Jarrett's scheduled opponent at Bound for Glory) wanted the belt, they could take it from him. On the October 12 episode, Joe agreed to return the belt to the Jarrett-Sting winner under one condition—the winner had to agree to give him a title shot. This offer was turned down, and finally Joe was given the choice of giving back the title or be fired. Kurt Angle made his debut and got into a brawl with Joe after he again refused to give back the belt, and during the brawl, Jarrett took the belt back. At Bound for Glory on October 22, Joe defeated Raven, Brother Runt and Abyss in a Monster's Ball match. The match ended when special referee Jake Roberts performed a DDT to Raven, allowing Joe to deliver the Muscle Buster to Raven for the pinfall. Later in the night, Joe was involved in a pull-apart brawl with Kurt Angle after Jim Cornette announced that he would be fired if he interfered in the main event match that involved Angle as special enforcer. At Genesis, Joe lost to Angle after submitting to Angle's ankle lock. This ended his eighteen-month undefeated streak. TNA World Heavyweight Champion (2006–2008) Throughout the rest of 2006 into 2007, Joe continued to feud with Angle and picked up a victory by submission in their rematch at Turning Point, before suffering a legit knee injury in a tag team match. On January 14, 2007, at Final Resolution, Joe was defeated by Angle in a thirty-minute Iron Man match when Angle was put in the ankle lock but was saved from submitting another fall by the time expiring. On the February 14 edition of Impact!, Joe won a gauntlet match to become the number one contender to Christian Cage's NWA World Heavyweight Championship at Destination X, but lost the match. He qualified to compete in the Match of Champions at Victory Road by defeating Jay Lethal and Chris Sabin for the X Division title on the July 12 episode of Impact!. At the Match of Champions, Joe scored the winning pinfall on Brother Ray and won the TNA World Tag Team Championship from Team 3D, making him the first wrestler in TNA to hold multiple TNA championships. He opted to hold the title by himself. At Hard Justice, Joe put up the X Division title and both Tag Team titles against Kurt Angle's TNA World title as well as the IGF's version of the IWGP World Championship. Joe, however, lost all his titles thanks to interference by Karen Angle. Joe then became the teammate of Kevin Nash and Scott Hall in their match against the Angle Alliance at Turning Point. Hall, however, no-showed the event. Before the match, Joe was asked to cut a promo alleviating heat from the company and introducing Eric Young as Hall's replacement. Joe went five minutes overtime and ranted against Hall, Nash and some other superstars, which legitimately upset Nash and TNA President Dixie Carter at ringside. Joe, Nash and Young defeated the Angle Alliance when Joe pinned Tomko. After the match, Joe and Nash briefly argued and shoved one another backstage, with Joe apologizing at a talent meeting the following day. On-screen, though, Joe continued to direct his frustration towards TNA management, going as far as to trash a Christmas party organized by Matt Morgan. In storyline, after complaining to Jim Cornette that he did not have a match at Final Resolution, Cornette decided to team Joe with Kevin Nash, who was to receive a title shot with Scott Hall when he returned. At Final Resolution, Joe and Nash lost to the team of A.J. Styles and Tomko after Nash refused to tag himself into the match leaving Joe to fend for himself. At Against All Odds, Joe served as the special enforcer for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship match where Kurt Angle defended his title against challenger Christian Cage. During the contest, A.J. Styles interfered and Joe fought Styles to the back, but Tomko came out and attacked Cage giving Angle the win. On the February 14 edition of Impact!, Joe formed an alliance with Cage and Kevin Nash, to compete with Kurt Angle's Angle Alliance. Joe was also given the next TNA World Heavyweight Championship opportunity against Angle. At Lockdown, Joe defeated Angle to win his first TNA World Championship and become TNA's third Triple Crown Champion. The stipulation of the match was if Joe had lost, he would have had to retire from professional wrestling. Joe was then challenged to a match by Booker T at Victory Road, which he accepted. At Victory Road the match went to a No Contest when Sting hit Joe with a baseball bat and Booker pinned him while Sharmell made the three count. At Hard Justice, Joe defeated Booker after a guitar shot, thus reclaiming physical possession of the title belt, which Booker had kept after Victory Road. At Bound for Glory IV, he fought Sting in a losing effort to defend the TNA World Heavyweight Championship, ending his reign at 182 days. On the October 30 edition of Impact!, Joe and AJ Styles formed a faction of younger wrestlers also featuring Jay Lethal, Consequences Creed, Petey Williams, Eric Young, ODB and The Motor City Machine Guns (Alex Shelley and Chris Sabin), calling themselves "The Frontline", to oppose The Main Event Mafia of Kurt Angle, Sting, Kevin Nash, Booker T and Scott Steiner. At Turning Point Nash defeated Joe by pinning him with his feet on the ropes following a steel chair shot, a low blow and after ramming Joe's head to an exposed turnbuckle. At Final Resolution, The Front Line lost to The Main Event Mafia in a 4-on-4 tag match and Styles failed to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship. On the December 18 edition of Impact!, Joe and Styles defeated Sting and Nash in a Six Sides of Steel match. Following the match, Joe was attacked by the members of the Main Event Mafia and suffered injuries which would sideline him for the rest of the year. Nation of Violence; Main Event Mafia (2009–2011) On the January 29, 2009 episode of Impact, a video aired in which Joe – sporting a new buzzcut hairstyle, tribal face paint, and a much heavier frame – stated he wanted to introduce the Main Event Mafia to his "Nation of Violence". At Destination X, Joe lost to Main Event Mafia member Scott Steiner by disqualification. At Lockdown in April 2009, Joe teamed with A.J. Styles, Christopher Daniels, and Jeff Jarrett to defeat the Main Event Mafia in a Lethal Lockdown match Joe went to feud with Main Event Mafia member Kevin Nash, defeating him at Sacrifice in May 2009. At Slammiversary, Joe helped Kurt Angle win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship in the King of the Mountain match, and thus turned heel. On the June 25 episode of Impact!, Joe officially joined The Main Event Mafia. At Victory Road, Joe faced Sting in a grudge match. Late in the match, Taz made his TNA debut and helped Joe beat Sting, thus revealing himself as his new adviser. At Hard Justice Joe defeated Homicide to win the X Division title for the fourth time. After winning this title, Joe feuded with his longtime rival Daniels and defeated him at No Surrender. On the October 8 edition of Impact! Joe lost the X Division title to Amazing Red after Bobby Lashley interfered in the match. At Bound for Glory Lashley defeated Joe in a submission match with a referee stoppage. The following month at Turning Point Joe unsuccessfully challenged TNA World Heavyweight Champion A.J. Styles for the title in a three-way match, also involving Daniels. At Final Resolution Joe took part in the "Feast or Fired" match and won the briefcase containing a shot at the TNA World Heavyweight Championship. After being off TV for several weeks, Joe returned on the February 4 edition of Impact!, by attacking A.J. Styles, who had recently turned heel with Ric Flair turning face, he then declared that he would be using his "Feast or Fired" briefcase to get a shot at Styles' TNA World Heavyweight Championship at Against All Odds. At the pay-per-view Styles retained his title against Joe in a No Disqualification match refereed by Eric Bischoff. On the following Impact!, Joe was abducted by masked men. On March 29 he resurfaced in a video package on an episode of Impact!. Joe made his return on the April 19 edition of Impact! appearing as a surprise member of Team Hogan (Abyss, Jeff Jarrett and Rob Terry) in an eight-man tag team match against Team Flair (Sting, Desmond Wolfe, Robert Roode and James Storm), in which he scored the deciding pinfall by pinning Roode after a Muscle Buster. His abduction never was explained. According to Joe, Vince Russo planned a big storyline with a psycho gimmick. However, Russo called him to return because he need more babyfaces and Russo never find the way to explain the abduction. In the following weeks Joe went on to randomly attack wrestlers like Douglas Williams, Brian Kendrick and Matt Morgan, the last of whom lost the TNA World Tag Team Championship thanks to the attack. On the May 20 edition of Impact! Joe was ranked number ten in the first ever TNA Championship Committee rankings for a TNA World Heavyweight Championship title shot. He began his climb up the rankings by defeating Hernandez on June 17, number four ranked A.J. Styles on July 1 and by wrestling number two ranked Jeff Hardy to a ten-minute time limit draw on the July 22 edition of Impact!. After the match with Hardy, Joe was upset with the production crew for starting a countdown to the time limit draw, when Joe specifically requested not to start one because he thought it would reveal the ending of the match early. Because of his outburst, Joe was suspended from TNA indefinitely. Joe returned from his suspension on August 23 at the tapings of the August 26 edition of Impact! to defeat Orlando Jordan. The following week on Impact!, Joe aligned himself with Jeff Jarrett and Hulk Hogan in their war with Sting and Kevin Nash. At No Surrender Joe and Jarrett faced defeated Sting and Nash in a tag team match, when Joe choked out Sting, after Jarrett had hit him with his baseball bat behind Joe's back. At Bound for Glory Joe and Jarrett faced Sting, Nash and their newest ally D'Angelo Dinero in a handicap match, after Hulk Hogan, who was scheduled to team with Joe and Jarrett, was forced to pull out due to a back surgery. At the end of the match Jarrett abandoned Joe and left him to be pinned by Nash. Later in the night it was revealed that Hogan was in fact in the building as he helped Jeff Hardy win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship and formed a new heel alliance with Hardy, Eric Bischoff, Jeff Jarrett and Abyss. At Turning Point Jarrett defeated Joe, after choking him out with a baton, following interference from Gunner and Murphy. The following month at Final Resolution Joe faced Jarrett in a submission match. After a pre–match assault and later an interference by Gunner and Murphy, Jarrett managed to force Joe to submit with an ankle lock. Earlier that same day it was reported that Joe's contract with TNA had expired. On December 17, 2010, Joe re–signed with the promotion. Joe returned on the January 6, 2011, edition of Impact!, confronting D'Angelo Dinero in a storyline where Okato was paired with Joe. On February 13 at Against All Odds Joe defeated Dinero in a singles match. and at Lockdown, in a steel cage match. Joe's next feud would be with the undefeated Crimson, whom he would abandon in the ring and the hands of Abyss on two occasions, claiming that he himself had not needed anyone's help during his own undefeated streak, becoming a tweener in the process. On June 12 at Slammiversary IX, Joe was defeated by Crimson in a singles match, and afterwards shook Crimson's hand. Afterwards, Joe began showing frustration as his losing streak continued with losses against Rob Van Dam, Devon, Kazarian and Bobby Roode. After losing all nine of his matches in the Bound for Glory Series to determine the number one contender to the TNA World Heavyweight Championship, Joe finally ended his long losing streak on the August 4 edition of Impact Wrestling by defeating D'Angelo Dinero via submission, but the decision was reversed after he refused to release his hold following the match. Joe then accused TNA management of being against him and proclaimed that from now on the blood would be on their hands. After voicing his intention of ruining the Bound for Glory Series, Joe attacked its participants Devon, D'Angelo Dinero and rankings leader Crimson, who was forced to pull out of the tournament following the attack, after suffering a storyline ankle injury. On the final week of the Bound for Glory Series, Joe went to interfere in a match between Gunner and Rob Van Dam, but was stopped by guest color commentator Matt Morgan, who was sidelined with a torn pectoral muscle. This led to a brawl later in the evening, which ended with Joe hitting Morgan in the arm with a steel chair. On September 11 at No Surrender, Joe continued his losing streak as he was defeated by Morgan in a grudge match. On the following edition of Impact Wrestling, Joe ended his losing streak by defeating Morgan in a submission match. After returning from his injury, Crimson scored two more victories over Joe, first defeating him in a singles match on the October 6 edition of Impact Wrestling, and then in a three-way match, also involving Matt Morgan, at Bound for Glory on October 16. Teaming and feuding with Magnus (2011–2012) On the January 5, 2012, edition of Impact Wrestling, Joe and Magnus defeated A.J. Styles and Kazarian to win the four-week-long Wild Card Tournament and become the number one contenders to the TNA World Tag Team Championship. Magnus said that Vince Russo put them as a tag team because "we were both always pissed off, so we could be pissed off together". Three days later at Genesis, Joe and Magnus failed to capture the TNA World Tag Team Championship from Crimson and Matt Morgan. Despite the loss, Joe and Magnus remained together as a tag team, attacking Crimson and Morgan on the next two editions of Impact Wrestling. On the February 2 episode of Impact Wrestling, Joe and Magnus defeated Crimson and Morgan in a non-title match to earn another shot at the TNA World Tag Team Championship. On February 12 at Against All Odds, Joe and Magnus defeated Crimson and Morgan to win the TNA World Tag Team Championship. Joe and Magnus then defeated Crimson and Morgan in two rematches, the first on the February 23 episode of Impact Wrestling and the second on March 18 at Victory Road, to retain the championship. On the March 22 episode of Impact Wrestling, Joe and Magnus successfully defended their title against Mexican America (Anarquia and Hernandez). On April 15 at Lockdown, Joe and Magnus defeated The Motor City Machine Guns in a steel cage match to retain the TNA World Tag Team Championship. During the first "Open Fight Night" on April 26, Joe and Magnus successfully defended the TNA World Tag Team Championship against the team of Jeff Hardy and Mr. Anderson, after which they were attacked by Christopher Daniels and Kazarian, who had asked for a title shot earlier in the event. On May 13 at Sacrifice, Joe and Magnus lost the TNA World Tag Team Championship to Daniels and Kazarian. On the May 31 episode of Impact Wrestling, Joe had a run-in with X Division Champion Austin Aries, which led to Joe costing Aries his match with Crimson the following week. On June 10 at Slammiversary, Joe unsuccessfully challenged Aries for the X Division Championship. On the following episode of Impact Wrestling, Joe entered the 2012 Bound for Glory Series, taking part in the opening gauntlet match, from which he was the last man eliminated by James Storm. On July 8 at Destination X, Joe defeated old rival Kurt Angle via submission to become the new points leader in the Bound for Glory Series. When the group stage of the tournament concluded on September 6, Joe finished second behind James Storm, thus advancing to the semifinals. Three days later at No Surrender, Joe was eliminated from the tournament, after losing to Jeff Hardy in his semifinal match. On the September 27 episode of Impact Wrestling, Joe defeated Mr. Anderson to win the vacant TNA Television Championship, making him TNA's third Grand Slam Champion. Joe made his first successful title defense the following week, defeating Rob Van Dam. On October 14 at Bound for Glory, Joe successfully defended his title against former tag team partner Magnus. Joe continued making successful defenses the following weeks, defeating Robbie E on the October 18 episode of Impact Wrestling, and Robbie T the following week. Joe then resumed his rivalry with former partner Magnus, defeating him via disqualification on the November 1 episode of Impact Wrestling, after being hit with a wrench. The rivalry culminated in a No Disqualification match on November 11 at Turning Point, where Joe was again successful in retaining the title. Feud with Aces & Eights; Main Event Mafia (2012–2014) On the December 6, 2012 episode of Impact Wrestling, Joe lost the TNA Television Championship to Devon after DOC of Aces & Eights hit him with a ball-peen hammer. Three days later at Final Resolution, Joe teamed with Garett Bischoff, Kurt Angle, and Wes Brisco to defeat Devon, DOC, and two masked members of Aces & Eights in an eight-man tag team match. On the January 3, 2013, episode of Impact Wrestling, Joe and Kurt Angle defeated Devon and a masked member of Aces & Eights in a steel cage tag team match. Afterwards, the returning Sting saved Joe and Angle from a beatdown from Aces & Eights before revealing the mystery member as the debuting Knux. On January 13 at Genesis, Joe was defeated by Mr. Anderson in a singles match, following interference from Mike Knox. On March 10 at Lockdown, Team TNA, consisting of Joe, Eric Young, James Storm, Magnus, and Sting defeated Aces & Eights, consisting of Devon, DOC, Garett Bischoff, Mike Knox, and Mr. Anderson in a Lethal Lockdown match. On the March 21 episode of Impact Wrestling, Joe was defeated by Jeff Hardy in a four-way number one contenders match for the World Heavyweight Championship, which also included Kurt Angle and Magnus. On the April 18 episode of Impact Wrestling, Devon was scheduled to defend his Television Championship against Magnus, however, he was attacked by DOC and Knux before the match could start. Joe was then awarded the title match in his place, but Devon retained the title after interference from Aces & Eights. Joe returned on the May 23 episode of Impact Wrestling, saving former tag team partner Magnus from an attack by Aces & Eights. On June 2 at Slammiversary XI, Joe teamed with Jeff Hardy and Magnus in a winning effort against Aces & Eights (Garett Bischoff, Mr. Anderson, and Wes Brisco). On the following episode of Impact Wrestling, Joe defeated Robbie E to qualify for the 2013 Bound for Glory Series. During the June 27 episode of Impact Wrestling, Joe was helped to a submission victory over Mr. Anderson in his Bound For Glory Series match after Kurt Angle and Sting took out Anderson's fellow Aces and Eights members, and was then named as the third member of their new Main Event Mafia. On October 10, 2013, he added himself to the Ultimate X match in Bound For Glory against Manik, Austin Aries, Chris Sabin and Jeff Hardy. At Bound for Glory, Sabin won the match. In November 7, The Main Event Mafia was "temporarily disbanded" by Sting, and Samoa Joe was put in the World Title Tournament. His first round matchup against former Main Event Mafia stable-partner Magnus will be a Fall Count Anywhere match on Turning Point PPV (which became a free-Spike TV event) on November 21. On November 14 episode of Impact, Samoa Joe aired his grievances over the botched contract negotiations between Dixie Carter and AJ Styles, and will defend his title with Styles if he wins the title. At Turning Point, Joe was defeated by Magnus in the first round of the tournament for the vacant TNA World Heavyweight Championship. On the December 12 edition of Impact Wrestling, Joe was unsuccessful in grabbing any of the four cases in a Feast or Fired match against Austin Aries, Chris Sabin, Curry Man, Dewey Barnes, James Storm, Norv Fernum, Gunner, Chavo Guerrero, Zema Ion and Hernandez. On the January 1, 2014 edition of Impact Wrestling, Joe talked to Dixie, telling her about what AJ said in regards to having a locker room full of friends. Dixie ignoring what Joe previously said, told him to only focus on his match against her nephew, Ethan Carter III. Later on the show, Joe is jumped backstage by EC3, only to fight back on their way to the ring to start the match. Joe went on to win the match by disqualification after taking a hit from a wrench by EC3 after an interference by Rockstar Spud. On Day 1 of Genesis, Joe, along with James Storm, Gunner, Eric Young, Joseph Park, and ODB, won a 12-man tag team match against The BroMans (Jessie Godderz, Robbie E, and Zema Ion), Bad Influence (Christopher Daniels and Kazarian) and Lei'D Tapa after Daniels submitted to his Coquina Clutch. On Day 2 of Genesis, Joe defeated Rockstar Spud by submission after a Muscle Buster, followed by the Coquina Clutch, holding it until Spud passed out. Joe later helped in leveling the playing field in Sting's match against Magnus for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship, following interferences by EC3, Bad Influence, The BroMans and Bobby Roode, with Sting's contract voided if he lost. Championship pursuits (2014–2015) On the February 6, 2014 episode of Impact Wrestling, Joe defeated Bobby Roode to become the number one contender for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship. At Lockdown in March 2014, Joe lost to TNA World Heavyweight Champion Magnus in a cage match following interference from Abyss. Following a short hiatus from TNA, Joe returned on May 29, helping Eric Young and Bully Ray fend off an attack by MVP, Bobby Lashley, and Kenny King. In June 2014, Joe defeated Low Ki and Sanada to win the TNA X Division Championship. At Hardcore Justice in August 2014, Joe successfully defended the X Division Championship against Low Ki. However, he was stripped of the title the following month due an injury. At Bound for Glory in October 2014, Joe defended the title against Kaz Hayashi and Low Ki by in a three way dance despite not being the champion at the time. On the January 7, 2015 episode of Impact Wrestling, Joe helped Lashley regain the TNA World Heavyweight Championship with the help of MVP, Kenny King, Low Ki and Roode's friend Eric Young, turning Joe and the last two into heels in the process. On the following night's tapings of the January 16, 2015 episode of Impact Wrestling, MVP presented the group as his "family" and officially christened them the Beat Down Clan, following which MVP attempted to present Lashley as the centerpiece of the Clan as well as a "founding member" (officially establishing the MVP-Lashley-King trio as the foundation of the BDC as a faction). However, Lashley refused to become a part of this new group and decided to leave, but was attacked by the other members with MVP saying that the title belongs to the BDC. On February 6, 2015, at Lockdown, Team Angle (Kurt Angle, Austin Aries, Gunner and Lashley) defeated The BDC (MVP, Samoa Joe, Low Ki and Kenny King) in a Lethal Lockdown match. On February 17, 2015, Joe parted ways with TNA, ending his run of nearly a decade with the company. Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (2006, 2011) On March 10, 2006, Joe made his debut for the Mexican Lucha Libre AAA World Wide (AAA) promotion at Rey de Reyes, where he teamed with Konnan and Ron Killings as Team TNA in a four-way twelve-man tag team match, which was won by AAA representatives Octagón, La Parka and Vampiro. Joe returned to the promotion the following September at Verano de Escándalo, where he represented TNA first in an eight-man tag team match, where he, A.J. Styles, Homicide and Low Ki defeated Abismo Negro, Charly Manson, Electroshock and Histeria, and then in a six-man tag team match, where he, Styles and Low Ki defeated the Mexican Powers (Crazy Boy, Joe Líder and Juventud Guerrera). Joe returned to the promotion in July 2011, when he represented La Sociedad in two six man tag team matches. First at a AAA television taping on July 16, he, L.A. Park and Scott Steiner defeated Dr. Wagner, Jr., Electroshock and El Zorro, and then on July 31 at Verano de Escándalo, he, Silver King and Último Gladiador were defeated by the team of Drago, Electroshock and Heavy Metal. Pro Wrestling Noah (2007, 2012) On October 25, 2007, Joe made his debut for the Japanese promotion Pro Wrestling Noah as part of its "Autumn Navigation" tour. Wrestling in Yokohama, he teamed with Yoshihiro Takayama to defeat Mitsuharu Misawa and Takeshi Morishima. Two days later, Joe challenged Misawa for the GHC Heavyweight Championship in a one-on-one match at the Nippon Budokan in Tokyo, losing by pinfall after Misawa struck the back of Joe's head with his elbow. On July 22, 2012, Joe returned to Pro Wrestling Noah as part of its "Great Voyage" tour. Teaming with Magnus, he defeated Special Assault Team (Akitoshi Saito and Jun Akiyama) to win the GHC Tag Team Championship in the Ryōgoku Kokugikan in Tokyo. Joe made his final appearance with Pro Wrestling Noah several months later on October 8, when he and Magnus lost the GHC Tag Team Championship to No Mercy (Kenta and Maybach Taniguchi) in Yokohama. Return to Ring of Honor (2015) After departing Total Nonstop Action Wrestling, Samoa Joe returned to ROH in March 2015. On March 27 at Supercard of Honor IX, Joe unsuccessfully challenged ROH World Champion Jay Briscoe. On June 20, Joe teamed with A.J. Styles to defeat ROH World Tag Team Champions Christopher Daniels and Frankie Kazarian in a non-title match. Joe subsequently left Ring of Honor once again. WWE (2015–2022) NXT Champion (2015–2017) In 2015, Samoa Joe was signed to a non-exclusive developmental contract by WWE. On May 20, 2015, during the main event of NXT TakeOver: Unstoppable, he made what was his first appearance with WWE since February 2001, stopping Kevin Owens from attacking an injured Sami Zayn with a chair. While initially Joe's contact enabled him to continue working outside WWE, on June 1, WWE signed him to a full-time contract due to his impressive merchandise sales. Joe made his in-ring debut on the June 10 episode of NXT, defeating Scott Dawson. On the June 17 episode of NXT, a match between Joe and Kevin Owens ended in a no contest, with the two continuing to brawl after the match until they were separated. At NXT TakeOver: Brooklyn in August 2015, Joe defeated Baron Corbin by technical submission. Joe then entered the Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic tournament with NXT Champion Finn Bálor as his partner, defeating the Lucha Dragons in the first round, Enzo and Cass in the quarter-finals, The Mechanics in the semi-finals, and Baron Corbin and Rhyno in the finals at NXT TakeOver: Respect in October 2015. On the November 4, 2015 episode of NXT, Joe turned on Finn Bálor by attacking him after a match against Apollo Crews. In December 2015 at NXT TakeOver: London, Joe unsuccessfully challenged Bálor for the NXT Championship. After defeating Sami Zayn in a two out of three falls match to become the number one contender on the March 9 episode of NXT, Joe challenged Bálor once again at NXT TakeOver: Dallas in April 2016, losing after suffering a large laceration to his right cheek minutes into the match. Later that month at a NXT live event in Lowell, Massachusetts, Joe finally defeated Bálor to win the NXT Championship. In his first title defense, Joe defeated Bálor in a steel cage match in June 2016 at NXT TakeOver: The End, marking the end of their feud. Joe then engaged in a feud with Shinsuke Nakamura, who defeated him in a title match on August 20 at NXT TakeOver: Brooklyn II, ending his reign at 121 days. During the match, Joe suffered a legitimate dislocated jaw. On November 19 at NXT TakeOver: Toronto, Joe defeated Nakamura in a rematch to win back the title. However, he lost the title back to Nakamura on December 3, 2016, in Osaka, Japan, ending his second reign at 14 days. Joe's feud with Nakamura ended on December 8, 2016, in Melbourne, Australia when Nakamura successfully defended the NXT Championship against Joe in a steel cage match. World championship pursuits (2017–2019) Joe debuted on WWE's main roster on the January 30, 2017 episode of Raw, attacking Seth Rollins and aligning himself with Triple H. The following week on Raw, he defeated Roman Reigns after a distraction by Braun Strowman. At Fastlane in March 2017, Joe defeated Sami Zayn by technical submission. At Payback in April 2017, Joe lost to Seth Rollins; he retaliated by costing Rollins a match for the WWE Intercontinental Championship on Raw the following night. At Extreme Rules in June 2017, Joe defeated Finn Bàlor, Seth Rollins, Roman Reigns, and Bray Wyatt in an Extreme Rules match to become the number one contender to the WWE Universal Championship. At WWE Great Balls of Fire in July 2017, Joe unsuccessfully challenged Brock Lesnar for the Universal Championship. On the July 17 episode of Raw, Joe faced Reigns to determine the next number one contender for the Universal Championship; the match ended in a no contest after Braun Strowman interfered and attacked both men. At SummerSlam in August 2017, Joe, Reigns, and Strowman all challenged Lesnar for the Universal Championship in a fatal four-way match, with Lesnar pinning Reigns to retain his title. At a house show later that month, Joe suffered a knee injury. Joe returned from injury on the October 30, 2017 episode of Raw, defeating Apollo Crews. At Survivor Series in November 2017, Joe teamed with Finn Bálor, Braun Strowman, Triple H and Kurt Angle (as "Team Raw") to defeat Bobby Roode, John Cena, Randy Orton, Shane McMahon, and Shinsuke Nakamura (as "Team SmackDown") in a Survivor Series match. He went on to feud with The Shield, costing Dean Ambrose and Seth Rollins a Raw Tag Team Championship match against Cesaro and Sheamus and unsuccessfully challenging Roman Reigns for the WWE Intercontinental Championship. In January 2018, Joe suffered a foot injury during a match with Titus O'Neil. Joe returned from injury in April 2018. At the Greatest Royal Rumble that month, he unsuccessfully challenged Seth Rollins for the Intercontinental Championship in a ladder match also involving Finn Bálor and The Miz. At Backlash in May 2018, Joe lost to Roman Reigns. Joe unsuccessfully challenged WWE Champion AJ Styles at SummerSlam in August 2018, at Hell in a Cell in September 2018, a third time at Super Show-Down in October 2018, and a fourth time at Crown Jewel in November 2018. At Survivor Series later that month, Joe teamed with Jeff Hardy, The Miz, Rey Mysterio, and Shane McMahon (as "Team SmackDown") in a loss to Bobby Lashley, Braun Strowman, Dolph Ziggler, Drew McIntyre, and Finn Bálor (as "Team Raw"). In January 2019, Joe competed in the Royal Rumble but was eliminated by Mustafa Ali. At Elimination Chamber in February 2019, Joe unsuccessfully challenged Daniel Bryan for the WWE Championship in an Elimination Chamber match that also included AJ Styles, Jeff Hardy, Kofi Kingston, and Randy Orton. United States Champion; color commentator (2019–2021) On the March 5, 2019 episode of SmackDown Live, Joe, alongside Rey Mysterio and Andrade, answered WWE United States Champion R-Truth's open challenge. Joe subsequently defeated Truth, Mysterio, and Andrade to capture the United States Championship, marking his first championship on the main roster. Joe successfully defended the title against Truth, Mysterio and Andrade at Fastlane, and against Mysterio at WrestleMania 35. On April 22, Joe was moved to Raw as part of 2019 Superstar Shake-up. At the Money in the Bank, Joe lost the title to Mysterio. On the June 3 episode of Raw, Joe became a two-time United States Champion, after Mysterio was forced to relinquish the championship due to a separated shoulder, and handed the title to Joe, before Joe subsequently attacked Mysterio. At the Stomping Grounds, Joe lost the title to Ricochet, ending his second reign at 19 days. The following night on Raw, Joe would turn his attention to the WWE Championship, attacking WWE Champion Kofi Kingston. A match was later scheduled between the two at the Extreme Rules for the WWE Championship, where Joe lost to Kingston. At the Smackville event on July 27, Joe unsuccessfully challenged Kofi Kingston for the title in a triple threat match, also involving Dolph Ziggler. In August, Joe was announced as a competitor in the 2019 King of the Ring tournament. Joe defeated Cesaro in the first round, facing Ricochet in the quarter-finals, but the match ended in a double pinfall, with both men advancing to the semi-finals. Joe lost to Baron Corbin in the semi-finals in a triple threat match, also involving Ricochet. It was reported that Joe suffered a broken thumb, while working a match several weeks back. During his in-ring absence, Joe made appearances as a color commentator on Raw. He debuted as a commentator on the November 18 episode of Raw as the replacement for Dio Maddin, who was attacked by Brock Lesnar, and remained on commentary throughout the following month. On the December 23 episode of Raw, Joe was attacked by the Authors of Pain. The following week on Raw, Joe returned from injury, saving Kevin Owens from an attack by AOP and Seth Rollins, turning face for the first time since 2015. Joe then went on to compete in the Royal Rumble match entering at #29, but was unsuccessful after being eliminated by Rollins. On the February 10 episode of Raw, Joe, Owens, and The Viking Raiders faced Rollins, Buddy Murphy, and AOP in a losing effort. This would be Joe's last match for over a year. On February 20, 2020, it was revealed that Joe had suffered yet another injury, hurting his head during a commercial shoot and was not medically cleared to compete. Four days later, Joe was suspended for thirty days for violating WWE's wellness policy. On the April 27 episode of Raw, Joe returned to television replacing Jerry Lawler on Raw commentary. Joe would remain on the Raw commentary team until April 12, 2021, when he was replaced by Corey Graves. He was released by the company on April 15, 2021. Return to NXT (2021–2022) In June 2021, Joe was rehired by WWE, reportedly at the behest of NXT's head producer Triple H. Joe made his return on the June 15 episode of NXT, being presented as the "enforcer" of NXT's general manager William Regal. Over the next few weeks, Joe feuded with NXT Champion Karrion Kross, leading to a title match at NXT TakeOver 36 in Orlando, Florida on August 22 where Joe defeated Kross to win the NXT Championship for an unprecedented third time. This was Joe's sole match during his second run with WWE. On September 12, Joe relinquished the title before making any title defenses; he stated in 2022 that he vacated the title due to a combination of him testing positive for COVID-19 and WWE chairman Vince McMahon wanting to change the overall creative direction of NXT. After recovering from COVID-19, Joe was assigned to work as a trainer backstage. He was released by WWE once again on January 6, 2022, having not reappeared on television since his third reign as NXT Champion. All Elite Wrestling / Ring of Honor (2022–present) Samoa Joe returned to Ring of Honor, now owned by All Elite Wrestling (AEW) co-founder and president Tony Khan, on April 1, 2022, at Supercard of Honor XV, coming to the aid of Jonathan Gresham and Lee Moriarty after they were attacked by Jay Lethal and Sonjay Dutt. Following this, Tony Khan announced that Joe had signed with AEW. On the April 6 episode of AEW Dynamite, Joe made his in-ring AEW debut, defeating Max Caster to qualify for the Owen Hart Foundation Tournament. On the following Dynamite, Joe defeated Minoru Suzuki to win the ROH World Television Championship, becoming an ROH Triple Crown winner in the process. Joe defeated Johnny Elite in the quarter-finals and Kyle O'Reilly in the semi-finals of the Owen Hart Foundation Tournament before losing to Adam Cole in the final at Double or Nothing due to interference by Bobby Fish. At Death Before Dishonor in July 2022, Joe successfully defended the ROH World Television Championship against Jay Lethal. Due to their common problems with Lethal, Sonjay Dutt, and Satnam Singh, Joe began teaming with AEW TNT Champion Wardlow. The duo defeated Josh Woods and Tony Nese at Grand Slam in September 2023. The team broke up due to Joe attacking Wardlow after Powerhouse Hobbs began eyeing Wardlow's TNT Championship, causing Wardlow to unintentionally undermine Joe and his ROH World Television Championship turning heel. This set up a three-way match for the TNT Championship between Joe, Wardlow, and Hobbs at Full Gear in November 2022, where Joe defeated Wardlow and Hobbs to win the TNT Championship, making him a double champion. After winning both television championships, Joe began referring to himself as the "King of Television". On the November 30, 2022 episode of Dynamite, Joe made his first successful TNT Championship defense against AR Fox. The following week on Dynamite, Joe defeated former TNT Champion Darby Allin in another defense. After Joe attacked Allin post-match, Wardlow ran to the ring, causing Joe to flee. At the ROH pay-per-view Final Battle in December 2022, Joe successfully defended the ROH World Television Championship against Juice Robinson. Later that month at Dynamite: New Year's Smash, Joe successfully defended the TNT Championship against Wardlow, then cut off a portion of Wardlow's hair after the match. On the January 4, 2023 episode of Dynamite, Joe lost the TNT championship to Allin, ending his reign at 46 days. On the February 1 episode of Dynamite, Joe regained the title after defeating Allin in a no holds barred match. After the match, he was attacked by a returning Wardlow. Wardlow subsequently regained the title at Revolution in March 2023. At All In in August 2023, Joe unsuccessfully challenged CM Punk for the "Real World Championship". The following month at All Out, Joe successfully defended the ROH World Television Championship against Shane Taylor; on his way to the ring, Joe jostled AEW World Champion MJF, leading to a brawl. Subsequently, Joe entered the Grand Slam World Championship Eliminator Tournament, defeating Jeff Hardy in the quarter-finals; Penta El Zero Miedo in the semi-finals; and Roderick Strong in the final; at Grand Slam on September 20, he unsuccessfully challenged MJF for the AEW World Championship. Professional wrestling style and persona Samoa Joe wrestles in a "technician" and "powerhouse" style, with "blistering, MMA-inspired offense". Ring of Honor described him as "one of the hardest-hitting and most intense competitors in the sport". His use of submission holds saw him nicknamed the "Samoan Submission Machine". His signature moves include the "Coquina Clutch" (a rear naked choke), the "Island Driver" (a sitout side powerslam), the muscle buster, the "Olé Kick" (a Yakuza kick), the STF, the "STJoe" (an STO); and the uranage. Other media In 2006, Joe made brief appearances on the American version of the television show Distraction, participating in the round where wrestlers perform moves on contestants while they answer questions. In June 2022, Joe was announced to be doing the physical performance of the character Sweet Tooth for Peacock's Twisted Metal adaptation (the character will be voiced by Will Arnett). Joe will voice King Shark in the upcoming Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League video game. In April 2014, Joe launched a video game streaming channel on Twitch. Joe has been featured on fellow wrestler Xavier Woods' YouTube channel UpUpDownDown under the nickname "Joey Headrocker". In July 2019, Joe defeated Jimmy Uso in a game of World Heroes to win the "UpUpDownDown Championship". In August 2019, Joe lost the title to Seth Rollins in a game of Track & Field II. He has appeared on Rob Van Dam's web-based reality show RVD TV numerous times. In 2023, Joe appeared on the Doughboys podcast, reviewing Taco Bell. Filmography Television Video games Personal life Seanoa married his wife, Jessica, in 2007. He is close friends with fellow wrestlers CM Punk, Homicide, Christopher Daniels, AJ Styles, and Rob Van Dam. Seanoa avidly trains in Brazilian jiu-jitsu, judo, and Muay Thai. He was often noted as a sparring partner for Team Punishment member Justin McCully, and was often in attendance in the locker room for Team Punishment fighters such as Tito Ortiz and Kendall Grove. Championships and accomplishments All Elite Wrestling AEW TNT Championship (2 times) Grand Slam World Championship Eliminator Tournament (2023) Ballpark Brawl Natural Heavyweight Championship (1 time) CBS Sports Commentator of the Year (2020) Smack Talker of the Year (2018) Extreme Wrestling Federation Xtreme 8 Tournament (2006) IWA Mid-South Revolution Strong Style Tournament (2004) German Wrestling Association GWA Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide Tag Team Tournament (2006) – with A. J. Styles, Homicide, and Low Ki Pro Wrestling Illustrated PWI Feud of the Year (2007) PWI Most Popular Wrestler of the Year (2006) Ranked No. 4 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2006 and 2008 Pro Wrestling Noah GHC Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Magnus Pro Wrestling Zero-One NWA Intercontinental Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Keiji Sakoda Ring of Honor ROH Pure Championship (1 time) ROH World Championship (1 time) ROH World Television Championship (1 time, current) Seventh ROH Triple Crown Champion ROH Hall of Fame (class of 2022) SoCal Uncensored Rookie of the Year (2000) Total Nonstop Action Wrestling TNA Television Championship (1 time) TNA World Heavyweight Championship (1 time) TNA World Tag Team Championship (2 times) – by himself (1) and with Magnus (1) TNA X Division Championship (5 times) King of the Mountain (2008) Maximum Impact Tournament (2011) TNA X Division Championship Tournament (2014) Super X Cup (2005) Feast or Fired (2009 – World Heavyweight Championship contract) TNA Turkey Bowl (2007) Gauntlet for the Gold (2007 – TNA World Heavyweight Championship) Wild Card Tournament (2011) – with Magnus TNA Grand Slam Champion TNA Triple Crown Champion TNA Year End Awards (6 times) Mr. TNA (2006, 2007) X-Division Star of the Year (2006) Feud of the Year (2006, 2007) Finisher of the Year (2007) Twin Wrestling Entertainment TWE Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Ultimate Pro Wrestling UPW Heavyweight Championship (1 time) UPW No Holds Barred Championship (1 time) Wrestling Observer Newsletter Best Brawler (2005, 2006) Most Outstanding Wrestler (2005) Pro Wrestling Match of the Year (2005) WWE NXT Championship (3 times) WWE United States Championship (2 times) Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic (2015) – with Finn Bálor Notes References External links 1979 births 21st-century professional wrestlers AEW TNT Champions All Elite Wrestling personnel American male judoka American male professional wrestlers American Muay Thai practitioners American people of Samoan descent American practitioners of Brazilian jiu-jitsu American professional wrestlers of Samoan descent GHC Tag Team Champions Living people NWA/WCW/WWE United States Heavyweight Champions NXT Champions Ocean View High School alumni People from Huntington Beach, California Professional wrestlers from California Professional wrestlers who use face paint Professional wrestling announcers Professional wrestling authority figures ROH Pure Champions ROH World Champions ROH World Television Champions TNA World Heavyweight/Impact World Champions TNA Television Champions TNA/Impact World Tag Team Champions TNA/Impact X Division Champions Twitch (service) streamers

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%84%EB%86%8D%EB%B3%B5%ED%95%A9%EC%8B%9C

도농복합시

도농복합시(都農複合市) 또는 도농통합시(都農統合市)란 도시(동) 지역과 농촌(읍, 면) 지역이 통합된 형태의 시를 말한다. 대한민국에서는 1995년 지방자치 시행으로 인해 시(市)와 주변 군(郡) 통합하면서 많은 도농복합시가 탄생하였다. 군(郡)이 시(市)로 승격하는 경우에는, 군에서 도시화된 읍(邑) 또는 면의 리(里)가 동(洞)으로 바뀐다. 일반적으로 시내 동 지역이 시청 소재지가 되며, 시의 도심 역할을 한다. 역사 도입 경위 조선총독부는 대한제국 시절 기존의 공동체를 해체하고 일본의 지방 제도를 조선지역에 도입하기 위해 행정 구역을 개편, 일본의 기초지방자치단체인 시정촌에 대응하는 행정 기관으로 부(府, 일본의 시에 해당), 읍(邑, 일본의 정에 해당), 면(面, 일본의 촌에 해당)이 설치되었다. 부는 1914년 4월 1일에, 읍면은 1931년 4월 1일에, 도는 1933년 4월 1일에 각각 법인격이 부여된 지방자치단체가 되어 지방 의회가 구성되었다. 이렇게 도를 광역자치단체로, 부읍면을 기초자치단체로하는 행정 체계가 완성되었는데, 반면 대한제국 시기까지 지방 제도의 기초단위였던 군은 법인격이 부여되지 않고, 역할도 축소되어 읍면의 사무를 감독하고 지원하는 행정 기관이 되었다. 다만 1921년에 군제폐지법을 공포, 1923년에 군회(군의회)가 폐지되고 1926년에 군장(군수), 군역소(군청)가 폐지되어 주소에나 쓰는 이름뿐인 존재가 된 일본의 군과는 달리 조선총독부는 군을 폐지하지는 않았다. 광복 이후 미군정은 지방 의회는 해산시켰으나 행정체계 자체는 그대로 활용했고, 대한민국 정부 수립 이후 대한민국 지방자치법이 제정되면서 부를 시로 고친것 이외에는 종전의 제도가 유지되었다. 1952년에 지방선거를 시행하여 시읍면의회가 다시 구성되고, 1956년의 지방선거에서는 민선 시읍면장이 선출되었다. 그러나 5·16 군사 정변을 일으킨 군부세력은 지방의회를 해산시키고 민선 자치단체장을 해임, 지방자치를 정지시켰고 1961년 10월 1일에 시행된 「지방자치에관한임시조치법」에 따라 시군이 지방자치단체가 되었는데(물론 시장·군수는 관선이었고 시군의회는 구성되지 않았으므로 지방자치제는 사실상 폐지되었다), 이로 인해 문제가 발생한다. 군사정권은 단순히 읍면의 법인격과 재산, 사무, 권한 등을 군에 귀속시켰을 뿐 행정구역을 조정하지도 않았고, 읍의 인구가 5만 이상이 되면 시가 되어 군에서 분리되는 제도도 그대로 유지된 탓에 지방자치단체의 구심점이 되어야 할 읍이 시로 승격, 군에서 분리되어 남은 군의 행정 구역은 월경지·위요지 등 기형적인 행정 구역이 발생하고, 분리된 시는 도시화가 진행되어 계속 발전하는데 비해 농어촌인 군은 계속 낙후되어 주민의 생활권은 분리된 시에 종속되었으나 행정 구역이 다른 탓에 시와 군 사이에 지역감정이 발생하기도 하였다. 「지방자치에관한임시조치법」에는 인구 10만 내외로 군을 재획정 한다는 조항이 있으나 실제로는 남양주군과 신안군이 신설되는 등 부분적인 개편이 있었을 뿐 전국적인 행정 구역 재획정은 이루어지지 않았다. 민주화 이후 지방자치제가 부활한 후, 생활권과 행정 구역을 합치시키고 자치단체간에 협조하여 처리해야 할 상·하수도, 교통, 환경 등의 문제에 효율적으로 대처하고 도시와 농어촌 간의 균형발전을 목적으로 지방자치법을 개정, 시에도 읍면을 둘 수 있도록 하고, 1995년의 전국동시지방선거를 앞두고 전국적으로 시와 군의 통합을 추진한다. 제1차 행정 구역 개편 제1차 시·군 통합은 각 도의 도지사가 생활권이 같거나 역사적 동질성이 있는 지역을 선정하여 시·군 별로 공청회를 실시, 주민의견조사를 시행하고 해당 시·군의회와 도의회를 의견을 들은 후 내무부에 건의하고, 국회에 통합법안을 제출하여 의결하는 절차로 진행되었다. 다만 통합 결과 인구가 50만 이상이 되는 도시는 대도시문제가 발생할 것을 우려하여 통합 대상에서 제외하였다. 각 도에서 47개 시, 43개 군을 선정하여 통합이 진행되었다. 주민의견조사 결과 33개시, 32개군이 통합에 찬성하였으며, 1994년 8월 3일에 「경기도남양주시등33개도농복합형태의시설치등에관한법률」이 제정되어 1995년 1월 1일자로 33개시, 32개군이 폐지되고 33개 도농복합형태의 시가 설치되었다. 제2차 행정 구역 개편 다음으로 경상남도 양산군·김해군·진해시 각 일부를 부산광역시에, 달성군을 대구광역시에, 강화군·옹진군을 인천광역시에 편입함으로써 기존 직할시의 광역화 및 울산광역시 신설, 1차 통합에 무산된 지역의 통합을 재추진 하였다(서울 및 광역시의 자치구 신설과 경기도를 경기남도·경기북도로 분리할 것도 논의되었으나, 이 문서에서는 다루지 않는다). 그러나 부산광역시 확장과 울산광역시 신설은 경상남도의 강력한 반발에 부딪혀 양산군 동부 5개읍면만이 부산광역시에 편입되고, 울산광역시 설치는 보류되어 울산시·울산군을 우선 통합하고 광역시 승격은 이후에 다시 추진하게 되었다. 1차 통합에 무산된 지역 중에서는 시청 위치에 합의한 동광양시·광양군의 통합만이 이루어졌다. 1994년 12월 22일에 제정된 「전라남도광양시등2개도농복합형태의시설치등에관한법률」에 따라 1995년 1월 1일자로 동광양시·광양군·울산시·울산군이 폐지되고 도농복합형태의 광양시·울산시가 설치되었으며, 같은날 제정된 「서울특별시광진구등9개자치구설치및특별시·광역시·도간관할구역변경등에관한법률」에 따라 1995년 3월 1일자로 경남 양산군 기장읍·장안읍·일광면·정관면·철마면이 부산광역시에, 경북 달성군이 대구광역시에, 경기 강화군·옹진군이 인천광역시에 편입되었다. 제3차 행정 구역 개편 1995년 6월 27일에 있을 대한민국 제1회 지방 선거를 앞두고, 1차 통합에 무산된 지역의 통합이 재추진되었다. 주민의견조사 결과 6개시, 5개군이 통합에 찬성하였으며, 1995년 5월 10일에 제정된 「경기도평택시등5개도농복합형태의시설치등에관한법률」에 따라 당일 6개시, 5개군이 폐지되고 5개의 도농복합형태의 시가 설치되었다. 이후 법률에 의해 군 중에서 읍 지역의 인구가 5만 명 이상이 넘으면 군을 폐지하고 도농복합형태의 시가 설치되는 제도가 시행되었다. 1995년 12월 6일에 제정된 <경기도파주시등5개도농복합형태의시설치등에관한법률>에 의해 1996년 3월 1일 자로 파주군·이천군·용인군·논산군·양산군이 각각 폐지되고 도농복합형태의 파주시·이천시·용인시·논산시·양산시가 설치되었다. 1996년 12월 31일에 제정된 <울산광역시설치등에관한법률>에 의해 1997년 7월 15일자로 울산시가 폐지되고 도농복합형태의 울산광역시가 설치되었다. 1997년 12월 17일에 제정된 <경기도안성시등2개도농복합형태의시설치등에관한법률>에 의해 1998년 4월 1일자로 안성군·김포군이 각각 폐지되고 도농복합형태의 안성시·김포시가 설치되었고, 같은날 제정된 <전라남도여수시도농복합형태의시설치등에관한법률>에 의해 같은날 여수시·여천시·여천군이 각각 폐지되고 도농복합형태의 여수시가 설치되었다. 2000년 12월 20일에 제정된 <경기도화성시등2개도농복합형태의시설치등에관한법률>에 의해 2001년 3월 21일자로 화성군·광주군이 각각 폐지되고 도농복합형태의 화성시·광주시가 설치되었다. 2003년 7월 18일에 제정된 <충청남도계룡시도농복합형태의시설치등에관한법률>에 의해 2003년 9월 19일자로 충청남도직할 계룡출장소의 관할 구역(논산시 두마면)에 도농복합형태의 계룡시가 설치되고, 같은날 제정된 <경기도양주시·포천시도농복합형태의시설치등에관한법률>에 의해 2003년 10월 19일자로 양주군·포천군이 각각 폐지되고 도농복합형태의 양주시·포천시가 설치되었다. 2006년 2월 21일에 제정된 <제주특별자치도 설치 및 국제자유도시 조성을 위한 특별법>에 의해 2006년 7월 1일자로 제주시·서귀포시·북제주군·남제주군이 폐지되고 <제주특별자치도 행정시와 읍·면·동 및 리의 명칭과 구역에 관한 조례>에 의해 도농복합형태의 제주시·서귀포시가 설치되었다. 2010년 3월 12일에 제정된 <경상남도 창원시 설치 및 지원특례에 관한 법률>에 의해 2010년 7월 1일자로 창원시·마산시·진해시가 각각 폐지되고 도농복합형태의 창원시가 설치되었다. 2010년 12월 27일에 제정된 <세종특별자치시 설치 등에 관한 특별법>에 의해 2012년 7월 1일자로 연기군이 폐지되고, 종전의 연기군과 공주군 일부, 청원군 일부를 관할로 도농복합형태의 세종특별자치시가 설치되었다. 2011년 8월 4일에 제정된 <충청남도 당진시 도농복합형태의 시 설치 등에 관한 법률>에 의해 2012년 1월 1일자로 당진군이 폐지되고 도농복합형태의 당진시가 설치되었다. 2013년 1월 23일에 제정된 <충청북도 청주시 설치 및 지원특례에 관한 법률>에 의해 2014년 7월 1일자로 청주시·청원군이 각각 폐지되고 도농복합형태의 청주시가 설치되었다. 2013년 6월 4일에 제정된 <경기도 여주시 도농복합형태의 시 설치 등에 관한 법률>에 의해 2013년 9월 23일자로 여주군이 폐지되고 도농복합형태의 여주시가 설치되었다. 도농복합 형태의 시 1995년 1월 1일 32개의 도농복합시가 탄생한 이후, 2013년 9월 23일 여주시, 2014년 7월 1일 통합 청주시가 출범하면서 56개의 도농복합시가 탄생했다. <계룡시 설치에 관한 특별법>에 의거하여 충청남도 논산시에서 분리되어 승격한 계룡시와 <세종특별자치시 설치 등에 관한 특별법>에 의거하여 탄생한 세종특별자치시를 제외한 대부분의 도농복합시는 <도농복합형태의 시 설치 등에 관한 법률>에 의거하여 탄생하였다. 아래 열거된 시들은 도농복합 형태의 시이다. 시명 뒤에 있는 괄호 안의 도시(시)와 농촌(군)이 합쳐져서 도농복합 형태의 시가 탄생했다. 괄호가 없는 경우에는 군이었던 지역이 시로 승격한 경우이며 군이었을 때의 지역명은 시로 승격했을 때와 동일하다. 단, 충청남도 계룡시는 시 승격 이전에는 충청남도 논산시 두마면이었다. 역대 연도별 도농복합시 목록 도시 서울특별시와 대전광역시, 광주광역시, 경기도 16개시(수원시, 오산시, 시흥시, 안산시, 광명시, 안양시, 과천시, 의왕시, 군포시, 하남시, 구리시, 성남시, 의정부시, 동두천시, 고양시, 부천시), 강원특별자치도 3개시(속초시, 동해시, 태백시), 전라북도 전주시, 전라남도 목포시 등은 주변 읍, 면 지역과 통합되지 않고 해당 도시 지역으로만 구성된다. 도농복합시의 이모저모 전국에 있는 도농복합시 중 약 가 김영삼 정부 때 세워졌다. 제주특별자치도, 경상남도, 경상북도, 충청남도, 충청북도에 있는 시들은 모두 도농복합시이다. 그러나 대전과 광주의 경우 군이 없음. 경기도는 유일하게 순도시가 도농복합시보다 더 많다. (순도시 16개:도농복합시 12개) 도농복합시를 성립하는 유형은 다음과 같다. (지명이 다르게 되는 경우가 있지만, 기호를 쓴다) A시 + A군 → A시 (예 : 춘천시 + 춘천군→춘천시) A시 + B군 → A시 또는 B시 (예 : 이리시 + 익산군→익산시) & (예 : 순천시 + 승주군→순천시) A시 + B시 + B군 → A시 또는 B시 (예: 평택시 + 송탄시 + 평택군→평택시 등) 각주 도시지리학 대한민국의 행정 구역 1995년 설치 1995년 대한민국

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1995%20municipal%20annexation%20in%20South%20Korea

1995 municipal annexation in South Korea

The 1995 municipal annexation in South Korea was an administrative event in which many cities and counties joined together into "urban-rural integrated" (도농복합시) cities (i.e. city-county consolidation) as of 1 January 1995. Some of the annexation were done later as of 10 May 1995. Some of the counties were annexed to certain metropolitan cities (광역시) as of 1 March 2015. The purpose of this annexation plan was to resolve certain problems related to municipal government; for instance, discord between administrative districts and life spheres. The relevant municipalities had the same history in that they once belonged to the same county or municipality before the central town of the country was separated as a city. However, cities separated from old counties of Gwangju (in Gyeonggi Province), Suwon (Hwaseong), Siheung and Bucheon, in the suburbs of Seoul, were not considered for such annexation. For Daejeon, Busan and Gwangju (in Honam area), the remnant counties (Daedeok to Daejeon, Dongnae to Busan, and Gwangsan to Gwangju) were already annexed to the relevant metropolitan cities. Annexation of Ganghwa County to Incheon was not related to Incheon's historical background, but rather a political scheme to expand Incheon in size. In fact, many of the relevant municipalities before the annexation were formed after the Great municipal annexation in 1914 as the Japanese colonial government and later the South Korean government had implemented a policy to separate urban areas into cities from existing counties. List of cities and counties joined into "urban-rural integrated" cities in 1995 Note: The names of former cities and counties before the 1995 annexation are complied with the old standard Romanisation, or McCune–Reischauer Romanisation. The names of the current "integrated" cities are complied with the current Revised Standard Romanisation (effective as of 2000). The names of some former counties that were not existent at the time of the annexation in 1995 are also complied with the current Romanisation. Cities that are not specified as "metropolitan city" are all "municipal" cities. Gyeonggi area Kanghwa County (now Ganghwa County, Incheon) + Ongjin County (now Ongjin County, Incheon) → annexed to Incheon Metropolitan City. Some parts of Ongjin County were a part of former Bucheon County. Migŭm City + Namyangju County → Namyangju City P'yŏngt'aek City + Songt'an City + Pyŏngt'aek County → Pyeongtaek City Tiny sections of Gwangmyeong City → Seoul's Geumcheon-gu & Guro-gu Tiny section of Jichuk-dong in Goyang City → Seoul's Eunpyeong-gu Guri City and Namyangju City have not yet merged. Yangju City and Dongducheon City have not yet merged until now, but there is a "grass-root" consolidation movement for "consolidated" Yangju City in Yangju, Uijeongbu and Dongducheon areas today. Not considered for annexation Cities separated from old counties of Kwangju (in Gyeonggi Province), Suwon (Hwasŏng), Siheung and Bucheon, in the suburbs of Seoul, were not considered for annexation. Some districts of Seoul that were annexed from such counties were not also considered for inter-municipal consolidation; rather, Yeongdeungpo and Gangnam areas were considered for independent municipal or metropolitan cities separated from Seoul at that time. From old Gwangju County: several districts in southeastern Seoul (Gangnam, Songpa and Gangdong), Seongnam City, Hanam City and Gwangju County (today's Gwangju city in Gyeonggi Province) From old Suwon (later Hwaseong) County: Suwon City, Osan City and Hwaseong County (today's Hwaseong City) From old Bucheon County: several districts in Incheon (Nam-gu, including today's Yeonsu-gu), Namdong-gu, Seo-gu, Buk-gu (today's Bupyeong and Gyeyang) and Bucheon City From old Siheung County: several districts in southwestern/southern Seoul (Yeongdeungpo, Guro- includes today's Geumcheon), Gwanak, Dongjak and Seocho), Anyang City, Gwangmyeong City, Ansan City, Gwacheon City, Gunpo City, Uiwang City and Siheung City. A merger of Seoul Metropolitan City and Goyang City was not considered since former townships of old Goyang County that were later annexed to Seoul from 1936 to 1949 were mostly former outer districts of old Seoul (i.e. Hanseong Prefecture) before 1914 and the government at the time of 1995 did not consider the prefectural expansion of Seoul but rather once seriously considered a division of Seoul into several municipal or metropolitan cities. Gangwon area Kangnŭng City + Myŏngju County → Gangneung City Ch'unch'ŏn City + Ch'unsŏng County → Chuncheon City Wonju City + Wonsŏng County → Wonju City Samch'ŏk City + Samch'ŏk County → Samcheok City Sokcho City and Yangyang County have not yet merged until now. Chungcheong area Ch'ungju City + Chungwŏn County → Chungju City Chech'ŏn City + Chewŏn County → Jecheon City Kongju City + Kongju County → Gongju City Taech'ŏn City + Poryŏng County → Boryeong City Sŏsan City + Sŏsan County → Seosan City Onyang City + Asan County → Asan City Ch'ŏnan City + Ch'ŏnwon County → Cheonan City Cheongju City and Cheongwon County merged into 'consolidated' Cheongju City in 2014. Honam area Kunsan City + Okku County → Gunsan City Kimje City + Kimje County → Gimje City Namwŏn City + Namwŏn County → Namwon City Chŏngju City + Chŏngŭp County → Jeongeup City Iri City + Iksan County → Iksan City (as of 10 May 1995) Sunch'ŏn City + Sŭngju County → Suncheon City Tonggwangyang City + Kwangyang County → Gwangyang City Naju City + Naju County → Naju City Yŏsu City, Yŏch'ŏn City and Yŏch'ŏn County merged into 'consolidated' Yeosu City in 1998. Jeonju City and Wanju County have not yet merged until now. Mokpo City, Muan County and Sinan County have not yet merged until now. Yeongnam area P'ohang City + Yŏngil County → Pohang City Kumi City + Sŏnsan County → Gumi City Kyŏngsan City + Kyŏngsan County → Gyeongsan City Kyŏngju City + Wŏlsŏng County → Gyeongju City Kimch'ŏn City + Kŭmnŭng County → Gimcheon City Chŏmch'on City + Mungyŏng County → Mungyeong City Sangju City + Sangju County → Sangju City Andong City + Andong County → Andong City Yŏngju City + Yŏngp'ung County → Yeongju City Yŏngch'ŏn City + Yŏngch'ŏn County → Yeongcheon City Changsŭngp'o City + Kŏje County → Geoje City Miryang City + Miryang County → Miryang City Parts of Ch'angwon County + Masan City → Masan City (now parts of 'consolidated' Changwon City) Parts of Ch'angwon County + Ch'angwon City → Changwon City Chinju City + Chinyang County → Jinju City Ch'ungmu City + T'ongyŏng County → Tongyeong City Kimhae City + Kimhae County → Gimhae City (as of 10 May 1995) Samch'ŏnp'o City + Sach'ŏn County → Sacheon City (as of 10 May 1995) Parts of Yangsan County (today's Yangsan City) → annexed to Busan Metropolitan City, forming today's Gijang County, Busan (as of 1 March 1995). The area was a remnant part of former Dongnae County before being annexed to Yangsan in 1973. Talsŏng County (now Dalseong County, Daegu) → annexed to Daegu Metropolitan City (as of 1 March 1995). Talsŏng County was a remnant county to Taegu Metropolitan City (대구직할시). Ulsan City + Ulchu County (now Ulju County, Ulsan) → Ulsan City (now Ulsan Metropolitan City). Ulchu County was annexed as Ulchu District, Ulsan City, but it became a county again as Ulsan City was promoted to a metropolitan city in 1997. Ulchu County was a remnant county to Ulsan City. Notes 1995 in South Korea Geography of South Korea

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%81%EA%B5%AD%ED%95%AD%EA%B3%B5%EC%9D%98%20%EC%9A%B4%ED%95%AD%20%EB%85%B8%EC%84%A0

영국항공의 운항 노선

2020년 1월 기준, 아래는 영국항공의 취항지 목록이다. 운항 노선 아시아 동아시아 베이징 - 베이징 서우두 국제공항 상하이 - 상하이 푸둥 국제공항 홍콩 - 홍콩 첵랍콕 국제공항 도쿄 하네다 국제공항 나리타 국제공항 동남아시아 싱가포르 - 싱가포르 창이 국제공항 방콕 - 수완나품 국제공항 - (코로나19 사태로 일시 중단) 남아시아 말레 - 말레 국제공항 계절편 델리 - 인디라 간디 국제공항 뭄바이 - 차트라파티 시바지 국제공항 벵갈루루 - 벵갈루루 국제공항 첸나이 - 첸나이 국제공항 하이데라바드 - 라지브 간디 국제공항 서남아시아 베이루트 - 베이루트 국제공항 마나마 - 바레인 국제공항 리야드 - 킹 칼리드 국제공항 두바이 - 두바이 국제공항 텔아비브 - 벤구리온 국제공항 도하 - 하마드 국제공항 쿠웨이트 시티 - 쿠웨이트 국제공항 이슬라마바드 - 뉴이슬라마바드 국제공항 아프리카 서아프리카 아크라 - 코토카 국제공항 라고스 - 무르탈라 모하메드 국제공항 아부자 - 은남디 아지키웨 국제공항 남아프리카 케이프타운 - 케이프타운 국제공항 요하네스버그 - OR 탐보 국제공항 동아프리카 포트루이스 - 시우 사구르 람룰람경 국제공항 나이로비 - 조모 케냐타 국제공항 북아프리카 트리폴리 - 트리폴리 국제공항 마라케시 - 마라케시 메나라 공항 알제 - 우아리 부메디엔 공항 카이로 - 카이로 국제공항 샤름엘셰이크 - 샤름엘셰이크 국제공항 튀니스 - 튀니스 카르타고 국제공항 유럽 서유럽 잉글랜드 런던 런던 히드로 국제공항 메인 허브 런던 개트윅 국제공항 허브 런던 시티 공항 뉴캐슬 - 뉴캐슬 공항 맨체스터 - 맨체스터 공항 버밍엄 - 버밍엄 공항 계절편 스코틀랜드 글래스고 - 글래스고 공항 애버딘 - 애버딘 공항 에든버러 - 에든버러 공항 인버네스 - 인버네스 공항 파리 - 파리 샤를 드 골 국제공항 그르노블 - 알프스 이제르 공항 계절편 낭트 - 낭트 아틀랑티크 공항 니스 - 니스 코트다쥐르 공항 리옹 - 생텍쥐페리 국제공항 마르세유 - 마르세유 프로방스 공항 몽펠리에 - 몽펠리에 메디테라니 공항 계절편 뮐루즈 - 유로 에어포트 보르도 - 보르도 메리냑 공항 샹베리 - 샹베리 공항 계절편 툴루즈 - 툴루즈 블라냑 공항 피가리 - 피가리 쉬드 코르스 공항 계절편 베를린 - 베를린 브란덴부르크 국제공항 뒤셀도르프 - 뒤셀도르프 국제공항 뮌헨 - 뮌헨 국제공항 슈투트가르트 - 슈투트가르트 공항 쾰른 - 쾰른 본 공항 프라이부르크 - 유로 에어포트 프리드리히샤펜 - 프리드리히샤펜 공항 계절편 프랑크푸르트 - 프랑크푸르트 국제공항 하노버 - 하노버 공항 함부르크 - 함부르크 공항 암스테르담 - 암스테르담 스키폴 국제공항 로테르담 - 로테르담 헤이그 공항 룩셈부르크 시티 - 룩셈부르크 핀델 국제공항 브뤼셀 - 브뤼셀 국제공항 더블린 - 더블린 국제공항 중유럽 제네바 - 제네바 국제공항 취리히 - 취리히 국제공항 바젤 – 유로 에어포트 빈 - 빈 국제공항 인스부르크 - 인스부르크 공항 계절편 잘츠부르크 - 잘츠부르크 공항 남유럽 아테네 - 아테네 국제공항 미코노스 - 미코노스 국제공항 계절편 산토리니 - 산토리니 국제공항 계절편 자킨토스 - 자킨토스 국제공항 계절편 칼라마타 - 칼라마타 국제공항 계절편 케팔로니아 - 케팔로니아 국제공항 계절편 테살로니키 - 테살로니키 국제공항 계절편 하니아 - 하니아 국제공항 계절편 몰타 - 몰타 국제공항 마드리드 - 마드리드 바라하스 국제공항 라스팔마스 - 그란 카나리아 공항 계절편 말라가 - 말라가 공항 메노르카 - 메노르카 공항 계절편 무르시아 - 무르시아 공항 바르셀로나 - 바르셀로나 엘프라트 국제공항 발렌시아 - 발렌시아 공항 이비자 - 이비자 공항 계절편 지브롤터 - 지브롤터 공항 팔마데마요르카 - 팔마데마요르카 공항 티라이나 - 티라이나 국제공항 로마 - 레오나르도 다 빈치 국제공항 밀라노 밀라노 리나테 국제공항 밀라노 말펜사 국제공항 나폴리 - 나폴리 국제공항 바리 - 바리 카롤 보이티와 공항 계절편 베니스 - 베니스 마르코 폴로 국제공항 베르가모 - 베르가모 오리오 알 세리오 국제공항 베르나 - 베르나 공항 볼로냐 - 굴리엘모 마르코니 국제공항 브린디시 - 브린디시 살렌토 공항 계절편 저지 - 저지 공항 제노바 - 제노바 크리스토포로 콜롬보 공항 카타니아 - 카타니아 폰타나로사 공항 칼리아리 - 칼리아리 엘마스 공항 계절편 튜린 - 튜린 공항 팔레르모 - 팔코네 보르셀리노 공항 계절편 플로렌스 - 페레톨라 공항 피사 - 피사 갈릴레오 갈릴레이 국제공항 자그레브 - 자그레브 국제공항 풀라 - 풀라 공항 계절편 라르나카 - 라르나카 국제공항 파포스 - 파포스 국제공항 계절편 달라맘 - 달라맘 공항 계절편 보드룸 - 밀라스 보드룸 공항 계절편 이스탄불 | 이스탄불 아르나부코이 국제공항 리스본 - 리스본 포르텔라 국제공항 파루 - 파루 공항 동유럽 모스크바 도모데도보 국제공항 셰레메티예보 국제공항 부쿠레슈티 - 헨리 코안더 국제공항 소피아 - 소피아 공항 프라하 - 프라하 바츨라프 하벨 국제공항 바르샤바 - 바르샤바 프레드릭 쇼팽 국제공항 부다페스트 - 부다페스트 페리 헤지 국제공항 북유럽 오슬로 - 오슬로 가르데르모엔 국제공항 코펜하겐 - 코펜하겐 카스트럽 국제공항 빌룬드 - 빌룬드 공항 스톡홀름 - 스톡홀름 알란다 국제공항 예테보리 - 예테보리 란테보리 공항 레이캬비크 - 케플라비크 국제공항 헬싱키 - 헬싱키 반타 국제공항 아메리카 북아메리카 워싱턴 D.C. - 워싱턴 덜레스 국제공항 뉴욕 - 뉴욕 존 F. 케네디 국제공항 뉴어크 - 뉴어크 리버티 국제공항 내슈빌 - 내슈빌 국제공항 뉴올리언스 - 뉴올리언스 국제공항 덴버 - 덴버 국제공항 댈러스 - 댈러스 포트워스 국제공항 라스베이거스 - 매캐런 국제공항 로스앤젤레스 - 로스앤젤레스 국제공항 마이애미 - 마이애미 국제공항 보스턴 - 보스턴 로건 국제공항 볼티모어 - 볼티모어 워싱턴 국제공항 산호세 - 산호세 국제공항 - (코로나19 사태로 일시 중단) 샌디에이고 - 샌디에이고 국제공항 샌프란시스코 - 샌프란시스코 국제공항 시애틀 - 시애틀 터코마 국제공항 시카고 - 시카고 오헤어 국제공항 애틀랜타 - 하츠필드 잭슨 애틀랜타 국제공항 오클랜드 - 오클랜드 국제공항 올랜도 - 올랜도 국제공항 탬파 - 탬파 국제공항 피닉스 - 피닉스 스카이하버 국제공항 필라델피아 - 필라델피아 국제공항 휴스턴 - 조지 부시 인터콘티넨털 공항 몬트리올 - 몬트리올 피에르 엘리오트 트뤼도 국제공항 밴쿠버 - 밴쿠버 국제공항 토론토 - 토론토 피어슨 국제공항 멕시코시티 - 멕시코시티 국제공항 캉쿤 - 캉쿤 국제공항 프리린치 - L.F. 와이드 국제공항 산호세 - 후안 산타마리아 국제공항 남아메리카 리우데자네이루 - 리우데자네이루 갈레앙 국제공항 상파울루 - 상파울루 구아룰류스 국제공항 부에노스아이레스 - 미니스토로 피스타리니 국제공항 산티아고 - 아르투로 메리노 베니테스 국제공항 카리브해 세인트조지스 - 세인트 모리스 국제공항 푼타카나 - 푼타카나 국제공항 브리지타운 - 그랜드 테리 아담스 국제공항 나소 - 린든 핀들링 국제공항 비외포르 구 - 하와노리아 국제공항 세인트 키츠 - 로버트 L. 브레드쇼 국제공항 안티구아 – VC 버드 국제공항 킹스턴 - 노먼 맨리 국제공항 몬테고베이 - 상스터 국제공항 그랜드 케이먼 - 오웬 로버츠 국제공항 프로비던셜스 - 프로비던셜스 공항 토바고 - 크라운 포인트 공항 포트오브스페인 - 피아르코 국제공항 오세아니아 시드니 – 시드니 킹스포드 스미스 국제공항 - (코로나19 사태로 일시 중단) 과거 취항지 아시아 동아시아 서울 - 김포국제공항 서울 - 인천국제공항 청두 - 청두 솽류 국제공항 나고야 - 나고야 코마키 공항 오사카 - 간사이 국제공항 타이페이 - 타이완 타오위안 국제공항 동남아시아 쿠알라룸푸르 - 쿠알라룸푸르 국제공항 자카르타 - 수카르노 하타 국제공항 마닐라 - 니노이 아키노 국제공항 남아시아 다카 - 샤잘랄 국제공항 콜롬보 - 반다라나이케 국제공항 콜카타 - 네타지 수바스 찬드라 보스 국제공항 서남아시아 다란 - 다란 국제공항 담맘 - 킹 파드 국제공항 제다 - 킹 압둘아지즈 국제공항 다마스쿠스 - 다마스쿠스 국제공항 아부다비 - 아부다비 국제공항 무스카트 - 무스카트 국제공항 바그다드 - 바그다드 국제공항 테헤란 - 테헤란 이맘 호메이니 국제공항 도하 - 도하 국제공항 이슬라마바드 - 베나지르 부토 국제공항 중앙아시아 예레반 - 츠바르트노츠 국제공항 바쿠 - 헤이다르 알리예프 국제공항 타슈켄트 - 타슈켄트 국제공항 트빌리시 - 트빌리시 국제공항 알마티 - 알마티 국제공항 비슈케크 - 마나스 국제공항 아시가바트 - 아시가바트 국제공항 아프리카 서아프리카 카노 - 말람 아미누 카노 국제공항 몬로비아 - 로버츠 국제공항 프리타운 - 룽기 국제공항 아비장 - 포르부에 공항 남아프리카 빈트후크 - 호세아 쿠타코 국제공항 더반 - 킹 샤카 국제공항 리차드 베이 - 리차드 베이 공항 포트 엘리자베스 - 포트 엘리자베스 공항 릴롱궤 - 링롱궤 국제공항 가보로네 - 세레체카마경 국제공항 만치니 - 마차파 공항 루사카 - 루사카 국제공항 하라레 - 하라레 국제공항 빅토리아 폴스 - 빅토리아 폴스 공항 동아프리카 마헤 - 세이셸 국제공항 아디스아바바 - 볼레 국제공항 루안다 - 루안다 콰트루 드 페베레이루 공항 엔테베 - 엔테베 국제공항 다르에스살람 - 줄리어스 니에레레 국제공항 북아프리카 트리폴리 - 트리폴리 국제공항 아가디르 - 아가디르-알마시라 공항 카사블랑카 - 모하메드 V 국제공항 탕헤르 - 탕헤르 공항 하르툼 - 하르툼 국제공항 하시메사우드 - 우에드이라라 국제공항 룩소르 - 룩소르 국제공항 알렉산드리아 - 알렉산드리아 국제공항 유럽 서유럽 잉글랜드 런던 - 런던 루턴 공항 런던 - 런던 스탠스테드 국제공항 노리치 - 노리치 공항 뉴쿼이 - 뉴쿼이 공항 리버풀 - 리버풀 존 레넌 공항 본머스 - 본머스 공항 브리스톨 - 브리스톨 공항 블랙풀 - 블랙풀 공항 사우샘프턴 - 사우샘프턴 공항 엑세터 - 엑세터 공항 이스트 미들랜드 - 이스트 미들랜드 공항 티스사이드 - 더럼 티스 밸리 공항 플리머스 - 플리머스 시티 공항 스코틀랜드 노스 로날드세이 - 노스 로날드세이 공항 바라 - 바라 공항 벤베큘라 - 벤베큘라 공항 샌데이 - 샌데이 공항 섬버그 - 섬버그 공항 스토르노웨이 - 스토르노웨이 공항 스트론세이 - 스트론세이 공항 웨스트레이 - 웨스트레이 공항 위크 - 위크 공항 이데이 - 이데이 공항 이슬레이 - 이슬레이 공항 캠벨타운 - 캠벨타운 공항 커크월 - 커크월 공항 티이리 - 티이리 공항 파파 웨스트레이 - 파파 웨스트레이 공항 페어 아일 - 페어 아일 공항 웨일즈 카디프 - 카디프 공항 북아일랜드 데리 - 데리 공항 파리 - 파리 오를리 공항 비아리츠 - 비아리츠 앙글레 바욘 공항 계절편 안시 - 안시 몽블랑 공항 베를린 - 베를린 테겔 국제공항 뉘른베르크 - 뉘른베르크 공항 드레스덴 - 드레스덴 공항 라이프치히 - 라이프치히 할레 공항 뮌스터 - 뮌스터 오스나브루크 국제공항 자르브뤼켄 - 자르브뤼켄 공항 에인트호번 - 에인트호번 공항 앤트워프 - 앤트워프 국제공항 오스텐더 - 오스텐더 브루제 국제공항 섀넌 - 섀넌 공항 워터포드 - 워터포드 공항 코크 - 코크 공항 중유럽 베른 - 베른 공항 루가노 - 루가노 공항 린츠 - 린츠 공항 남유럽 스코페 - 스코페 국제공항 베오그라드 - 베오그라드 니콜라 테슬라 국제공항 무르시아 - 무르시아 산하비에르 공항 사라고사 - 사라고사 공항 헤레스 데라 프론테라 - 헤레스 공항 류블랴나 - 류블랴나 국제공항 프리슈티나 - 프리슈티나 국제공항 앙카라 - 에센보아 국제공항 이스탄불 - 이스탄불 아타튀르크 국제공항 포르투 - 포르투 공항 동유럽 리가 - 리가 국제공항 상트페테르부르크 - 풀코보 국제공항 빌뉴스 - 빌뉴스 국제공항 민스크 - 민스크 국제공항 탈린 - 탈린 공항 키예프 - 보리스필 국제공항 북유럽 오슬로 - 오슬로 포르네부 공항 베르겐 - 베르겐 공항 스타방게르 - 스타방게르 공항 예일 - 파게르네스 공항 헤우게순 - 헤우게순 공항 오르후스 - 오르후스 공항 티스테드 - 티스테드 공항 스톡홀름 - 스톡홀름 브롬마 국제공항 노르셰핑 - 노르셰핑 공항 말뫼 - 말뫼 공항 헬싱보리 - 앵엘홀름 헬싱보리 공항 바사 - 바사 공항 탐페레 - 탐페레 피르칼라 공항 투르쿠 - 투르쿠 공항 아메리카 북아메리카 뉴올리언스 - 루이 암스트롱 뉴올리언스 국제공항 디트로이트 - 디트로이트 메트로폴리탄 웨인 카운티 국제공항 샬롯 - 샬롯 더글러스 국제공항 찰스턴 - 찰스턴 국제공항 포트로더레일 - 포트로더레일 할리우드 국제공항 피츠버그 - 피츠버그 국제공항 캘거리 - 캘거리 국제공항 킬로나 - 킬로나 국제공항 과달라하라 - 미겔 이달고 이 코스티야 국제공항 카리브해 몬테고 베이 - 생스터 국제공항 아바나 - 호세 마르티 국제공항 산후안 - 루이스 무뇨스 마린 국제공항 남아메리카 카라카스 - 시몬 볼리바르 국제공항 보고타 - 엘도라도 국제공항 리마 - 호르헤 차베스 국제공항 오세아니아 멜버른 - 멜버른 공항 애들레이드 - 애들레이드 공항 브리즈번 - 브리즈번 공항 퍼스 - 퍼스 공항 오클랜드 - 오클랜드 국제공항 크라이스트처치 - 크라이스트처치 국제공항 각주 더 보기 영국항공 외부 링크 British Airways' live destination list 항공사 취항지 영국항공

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20British%20Airways%20destinations

List of British Airways destinations

British Airways serves destinations across all six inhabited continents. Following is a list of destinations the airline flies to, ; terminated destinations are also listed. The list does not include cities served solely by affiliated regional carriers, and some terminated destinations may now be served either via franchise or through codeshare agreements with other carriers. List See also British Airways franchise destinations British Airways World Cargo Transport in the United Kingdom Notes and references Notes References External links British Airways' current destination list Destinations Lists of airline destinations Oneworld destinations United Kingdom aviation-related lists

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%A0%EB%8B%88%ED%8C%A1

애니팡

《애니팡》()은 위메이드플레이가 만든 싸이월드 앱스토어와 네이버 소셜앱스를 기반으로 한 플래시 게임이자 카카오톡을 기반으로 한 모바일 퍼즐 게임이다. 사용자간끼리 점수 경쟁을 할 수 있는 시스템으로 이루어진 소셜 네트워크 게임이다. 2009년 9월에 싸이월드 앱스토어에 출시되었다. 2012년 7월 30일 안드로이드 버전으로 출시되었으며, 9월 11일에는 앱스토어에도 출시되었다. 2012년 10월 11일, 서비스 시작 74일만에 다운로드 건수 2,000만을 돌파하였다. 국내 사용자만으로 다운로드 수 2,000만을 넘긴 게임은 애니팡이 처음이다. 국내 스마트폰 가입자 수를 감안할 때 스마트폰 이용자 세 명 중 두 명이 애니팡을 다운로드받았다는 분석이 있었다. 게임의 인기로 카카오톡 측은 게임사업 분야 공개채용에 애니팡 20만점 이상이라는 자사 시스템을 기반으로 한 게임 고득점자를 우대한다는 조건을 내걸기도 했다. 게임 방식 제한 시간 1분 동안 같은 동물 세 마리 이상을 가로, 세로로 맞춰 없애는 게임이다. 일정한 게이지가 차면 폭탄이 설치되며 폭탄을 누르면 그 폭탄이 설치된 가로, 세로의 모든 동물이 터진다. 같은 줄에 있는 4마리를 동시에 맞춰 터뜨리면 반짝이면서 웃는 모습의 동물이 나오고, 이 동물은 터질 때 주위 동물을 같이 터뜨린다. 또한 5마리를 동시에 맞춰 터뜨리게 되면 랜덤팡이 설치되며, 이 랜덤팡은 한 종류의 동물들이 모두 터진다. 게임을 하기 위해서는 하트가 필요하며 8분에 1개씩 하트가 새로 주어지며, 최대 5개까지 채워지지만 돈을 주고 구입할 수도 있으며 카카오톡을 통해 친구를 초대하거나 애니팡을 이용하는 다른 유저에게서 선물받을 수 있다. 아이템 돋보기 (Reading Glasses) : 터뜨릴 수 있는 동물들의 위치를 빠르게 알려주며, 게임 시작 시 특수동물이 배치된다. (180코인, 폭탄을 50개 터뜨리면 생긴다.) 긴급폭탄 (Emergency Bomb) : 사용시 +자 형으로 폭발하며, 게임 당 한 번씩만 사용할 수 있다. (200코인, 폭탄을 100개 터뜨리면 생긴다.) 시간보너스 (Time Bonus) : 시계모양이 달린 동물을 터트릴 시 게임 시간이 5초 늘어난다. 해당 동물은 게임당 3번 등장한다. (270코인,폭탄을 200개 터뜨리면 생긴다.) 이지콤보 (Easy Combo) : 콤보 연결 시간이 33% 늘어나면서 쉬워진다. (530코인, 폭탄을 300개 터뜨리면 생긴다.) 황금폭탄 (Golden Bomb) : 폭탄을 황금으로 바꾸며 한 번 눌러 아랫줄을 없애면 별폭탄으로 변한다. 별폭탄은 한 번 더 눌러 윗줄을 없앨 수 있다. (590코인, 애니팡 사천성을 설치하면 생긴다.) 슈퍼핑키 (Super Pinky) : 핑키(돼지)가 망토를 쓰고 나온다. 라스트팡때 딸기를 15개 터트려 추가 점수를 준다. (700코인, 애니팡 사천성을 10번 플레이하면 생긴다.) 서퍼블루 (Suffer Blue) : 블루(강아지)를 터뜨리면 고득점을 쉽게 노릴 수 있다. 체인지팡 (Change Pang) : 게임중에 3번씩 등장한다. 어떤 종류의 동물을 드래그 했을 때 특수동물로 가득 차 터지면서 고득점을 노릴 수 있는 것이 장점이다. 라스트팡때 스스로 특수동물이 바뀌어 터지면서 추가 점수를 준다. 히든팡 (Hidden Pang) : 게임 시작 전에 일곱 마리의 동물 중 한 종류의 동물들이 터져 점수가 생긴다. 스마일팡 (Smile Pang) : 게임 시작 전에 스마일 팩트가 일곱 마리의 동물 중 한 마리만 특수동물로 바뀐다. 라스트팡때 특수동물들이 스스로 터지면서 점수를 얻는다. 트리플마오(Triple Mao) : "상하이 애니팡"에 등장하는 캐릭터 마오가 나온다. 마오블럭을 맞히면 줄이 한방에 없어진다. 인기 요인 애니팡의 인기 요인으로는 자투리 시간에 이용하기 좋은 1분이라는 짧은 게임 시간, 카카오톡을 통한 지인과의 점수 경쟁 시스템, 서로를 초대하거나 하트 아이템의 주고받기를 통한 이용자간의 소통 등이 꼽히고 있다. 월스트리트저널은 한국인이 애니팡에 강박에 가까운 집착을 보인다고 보도하면서 인기 요인으로 한국인이 대부분 이용하는 소셜 메신저 카카오톡을 기반으로 한 점, 하트 시스템을 통한 이용자 유인, 7일에 한 번씩 최고 점수가 사라지고 초기화되는 점 등을 꼽았다. 각종 논란 및 영향 동물사랑실천협회가 세종문화회관 앞에서 캠페인을 벌이면서 '왜 하필 애니팡이죠?', '당신의 탭 한번으로 저는 사라집니다' 등의 문구가 적힌 피켓을 사용해 논란이 있었다. 동물사랑실천협회 측은 "동물 사랑에 도움이 되는 게임이 만들어지기를 바랐을 뿐, 애니팡이 동물 학대 게임이라고 주장한 적은 없다"고 해명했다. 게임에 필요한 하트 아이템을 돈을 주고 구입하지 않아도 다른 이용자에게서 받을 수 있기 때문에 일선 학교에서 친구를 위협해 하트를 받아내는 '하트 셔틀' 현상이 일기도 했으며, 직장 상사나 거래처 직원에 대한 관리 차원에서 하트를 선물하는 등 오프라인에서의 관계가 게임에서도 통용되는 데 대한 피로감을 호소하는 의견도 있었다 월스트리트저널은 하트 시스템이 한국의 위계적인 조직 문화와 결합해 직장 및 학교에서 갈등을 발생시킨다고 지적했다. 또한 평소에 연락이 뜸했거나 소식이 끊겼던 상대와 무작위로 하트를 주고받는 과정에서 이성 친구 및 동료와 연결이 되어 부부간의 갈등을 유발한다는 의견도 있었을 정도다 애니팡의 성공으로 캔디팡, 보석팡 등 비슷한 이름의 게임들이 잇달아 출시되었다. 같이 보기 애니팡 사천성 각주 외부 링크 위메이드플레이의 게임 2012년 비디오 게임 2014년 비디오 게임 2016년 비디오 게임 플래시 게임 안드로이드 게임 IOS 게임 모바일 게임 프리웨어 게임 매치3 게임 동물을 소재로 한 비디오 게임 카카오 연동 소프트웨어

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anipang

Anipang

Anipang is a South Korean mobile puzzle game available through Cyworld Appstore and Naver Social Apps. Anipang is a social network game in which users compete with each other. It was developed by SundayToz. Service began on 11 October 2012, and within 74 days, the game had been downloaded more than 20 million times, making it the first South Korean game to achieve that milestone. On the strength of popularity, Sunday Toz has released a sequel titled "Anipang 2". This game is under consideration for entering the North American market. Cause of popularity The first aspect is that this game is a short-term game, with sessions lasting one minute. Therefore, this game is good for passing the time when commuting or going outside to subways or bus stations. The second aspect relates to social networking services. This game is based on the Kakao Talk system, so users can send messages to their friends related on kakaotalk friends. Also, Anipangs structure is simple and middle-aged people prefer to play this game. Controversy and influence Anipang has been criticised by mass media in South Korea, because its basic structure is very similar to other mobile games. As a result, mass media and broadcasting people have accused the developers of copying other companies' ideas. Another controversy has arisen over the gambling system; for example, Anipang: The Sichuan has a structure similar to the game of mahjong. and there are other problems because of the bug. This bug programme causes the high score to rise automatically. Impact This game was released in 2011 and became popular in South Korea mobile market, because Anipang is the first mobile game based on a social networking system in that market. There were over 5,000,000 users in 2011, and more people took part in and enjoyed this game after years. There are now over 20,000,000 users, the highest number of users in the mobile game market in South Korea. The stock price of the developer SundayToz has risen rapidly over the past three years. Sunday Toz has opened an Anipang pop-up store in a department store in South Korea. In 2015, Anipang 2 entered the overseas mobile market, reaching countries such as Japan and China. The community application 'Line' helped to spread Anipang. Sequels The first sequel to the original Anipang, Anipang Sanghai, had a game structure based on the original Anipang. There were more than one million advance bookings for downloads of Anipang Sanghai prior to its release. The second sequel to the original Anipang was Anipang Matgo. This game is based on a traditional Korean card game called hwatu matgo, while the design is similar to other Anipang games. The third sequel to the original Anipang was Anipang: The Sichuan. This game is based on the program named Sichuan. This game is similar to the Chinese game mahjong. References External links Kakao Talk|Sunday Toz|Android OS 2012 video games Video games developed in South Korea Android (operating system) games IOS games Puzzle video games

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A4%EB%B2%84%EB%9D%BC%EC%9D%B4%EB%8B%9D%20%ED%94%8C%EB%A0%88%EC%9D%B4%EB%B6%81

실버라이닝 플레이북

《실버라이닝 플레이북》()은 2012년 개봉한 미국의 로맨틱 코미디 드라마 영화이다. 매슈 퀵의 2008년 발간 된 동명의 소설을 원작으로 데이비드 O. 러셀가 감독하고 각본을 썼다. 브래들리 쿠퍼, 제니퍼 로렌스, 이외에 조연으로는 로버트 드 니로, 재키 위버, 크리스 터커, 아누팜 커와 줄리아 스타일스가 출연한다. 이 영화는 쿠퍼가 연기한 아내의 외도를 목격하고 모든 것을 잃게 되지만 긍정의 힘으로 다시금 자신의 인생을 되찾으려는 팻과 로렌스가 연기한 남편의 죽음 이후 진짜 사랑을 찾기 위해 노력하는 티파니의 색다른 로맨스를 담고 있다. 영화는 제37회 토론토 국제 영화제에서 첫 상영 되어 관객상을 수상하였고, 2012년 9월 8일과 2012년 11월 16일에 미국에서 개봉되었다. 이 영화는 상업적으로 큰 성공을 거두었으며, 수많은 찬사를 받았다. 미국 아카데미상에서는 최우수 작품상, 감독상, 각색상, 남우주연상, 여우주연상 등의 8개 부문에 후보 지명되었다. 이것은 1981년에 영화 《레즈》가 4개의 연기 부문에 오스카상 후보로 지명 된 이후 첫 번째 영화가 되었으며, 2004년 영화 《밀리언 달러 베이비》가 빅 5 오스카상 후보(작품상, 감독상, 남우주연상, 여우주연상, 각본상 또는 각색상에 후보에 모두 지명 된 영화)에 지명 된 이후 첫 영화로, 로렌스는 여우주연상을 수상했다. 또한 이외에도 골든 글로브상에서 4개 부문에 후보 지명되어 로렌스는 영화 뮤지컬·코미디 부문 최우수 여우주연상을 수상, 영국 아카데미 영화상(BAFTA)에서 3개 부문에 후보 지명되어 데이비드 O. 러셀은 최우수 각색상을 수상했다. 또한 미국 배우 조합상(SAG)에서 4개 부문에 인디펜던트 스피릿 어워즈에서는 4개 부문에 후보 지명되어 최우수 작품상을 수상했다. 이 영화는 흥행에 성공하여 전세계 2억 3600만 달러를 벌어 예산의 11배에 달했다. 시놉시스 아내의 외도를 목격하고 감정이 폭발해 상대 남자를 폭행한 일로 한 순간에 아내와 직장을 잃고 정신병원에서 치료를 받게 된 팻(브래들리 쿠퍼). 그가 8개월간의 병원 생활 동안 얻은 것은 ‘긍정의 힘’이다. 퇴원 후 가장 먼저 생각한 것은 접근금지명령 상태인 헤어진 아내를 되찾는 것. 하지만 일방적인 희망은 가로놓인 장벽에 부딪히며 감정 조절이 힘들어진다. 남편이 죽은 후 외로움을 참을 수 없었던 티파니(제니퍼 로렌스)는 직장의 모든 직원들과 난잡한 관계를 맺다가 실직하게 된다. 내숭이라고는 없는 티파니가 오직 아내밖에 모르는 팻에게 노골적으로 접근하면서 둘의 옥신각신 상황은 계속된다. 둘의 부담스런 만남은 거래가 이루어지면서 사랑으로 발전한다. 거래는 티파니가 팻의 편지를 그의 헤어진 아내에게 전해주는 대신, 팻은 티파니와 함께 댄스 대회에 참가하는 것. 시작은 부자연스러웠지만 만남이 잦아지며 둘은 서로를 이해하게 된다. 출연 브래들리 쿠퍼 - 파트리치오 "팻" 솔리타노 주니어 역, 전직 교사로 이혼남. 제니퍼 로렌스 - 티파니 맥스웰 역, 젊은 미망인 로버트 드 니로 - 파트리치오 "팻" 솔리타노 시니어 역, 팻과 제이크의 아버지. 재키 위버 - 델로레스 솔라티노 역, 팻과 제이크의 어머니. 아누팜 커 - 의사 클리프 파텔 역, 팻의 담당 의사로 친구. 크리스 터커 - 대니 맥다니엘스 역, 정신 병원에서 팻의 좋은 친구. 줄리아 스타일스 - 베로니카 역, 티파니의 언니. 시어 위검 - 제이크 솔리타노 역, 팻의 형. 존 오티즈 - 로니 역, 베로니카의 남편, 팻의 절친한 친구이자 티파니의 형부. 브레아 비 - 니키 역, 팻의 전 아내. 셰릴 윌리엄스 - 티파니와 베로니카의 어머니 역 패트릭 맥데이드 - 티파니와 베로니카의 아버지 역 대시 미호크 - 키오 경관 역 매튜 러셀 - 릭키 디앤젤로 역 폴 허먼 - 랜디 역 팻시 메크 - 낸시 역, 팻과 니키가 일했던 학교의 교장. 필립 쇼르바 - 조디 역, 티파니의 전 남자친구. 제작 와인스타인 컴퍼니의 임원인 르네 위트는 하비 와인스타인에게 영화의 바탕이 되는 책을 선택하도록 설득했으며, 시드니 폴락은 데이비드 O. 러셀에게 감독을 맡겼다. 폴락은 러셀에게 이야기가 괴롭히는 감정, 유머, 로맨스가 섞인 이야기 때문에 이 영화 적응이 까다로울 것이라고 말했다. 러셀은 5년 동안 각본을 20번 반복 작성했다고 추정한다. 러셀은 가족 관계와 양극성 장애와 강박증이 있는 자신의 아들과의 관계 때문에 그 이야기에 끌렸다. 이 영화는 33일 일정으로 촬영 되었다. 더 무겁고 더 극단적인 버전의 댄스 시퀀스가 촬영 되었고 드 니로의 캐릭터가 등장한 장면은 다양한 버전으로 촬영 되었다. 러셀은 편집과 함께 자신이 원하는 균형을 잡았다. 주요 촬영 지역으로는 펜실베이니아주 필라델피아 부근의 어퍼 다비, 리들리 파크, 랜스던 등에서 진행되었다. 영화에서 이름으로 언급되지는 않았지만 리들리 파크는 결국 적립되며 경찰관은 목걸이에 머리 글자 'RPPD'가 붙은 것을 볼 수 있다. 이 영화는 2008 NFL 축구 시즌의 후반부에 걸쳐 진행되어, 필라델피아 이글스가 NFC 챔피언쉽 경기에 진출하는 것을 보았다. 시애틀과 샌프란시스코에 대한 이글스의 승리를 포함하여 여러 게임이 언급 되고 있으며, NFC 동부 라이벌인 워싱턴 레드스킨스와 뉴욕 자이언츠 두 곳 (싸움이 일어 났을 때 팻이 참석했던 게임) 중 2명과 시즌 마지막 경기에서 댈러스를 상대로 승리를 거두었다. 캐스팅 러셀은 당초 빈스 본과 조이 데이셔넬과 함께 영화를 만들려고 했지만 그 대신에 《파이터》를 만들었다. 마크 월버그는 러셀과 네 번째로 작업 할 예정이었으나 생산 지연으로 일정 충돌이 발생하여 하차해야 했다. 러셀은 브래들리 쿠퍼와 함께 《오만과 편견 그리고 좀비》의 각본을 작업 할 계획이었으며, 그의 캐스팅에 대해 "좋고 나쁜 녀석의 에너지"와 예측할 수 없는 가능성을 언급하면서 쿠퍼가 출연한 《웨딩 크래셔》의 연기에 깊은 인상을 받았다고 한다. 쿠퍼는 러셀에게 그 공연이 있을 때 "그는 더 무겁고 화를 냈으며 더 두려웠다"고 말하면서 그 감정을 끌어 들였다. 러셀은 쿠퍼가 팻 솔리타노에게 그 자질을 입혀 줄 것에 기뻐했다. 앤 해서웨이는 티파니 맥스웰로 캐스팅 되었지만 《다크 나이트 라이즈》의 일정 충돌과 러셀과의 생각 차이로 인해 그녀는 하차했다. 이외에도 엘리자베스 뱅크스, 커스틴 던스트, 안젤리나 졸리, 블레이크 라이블리, 루니 마라, 레이첼 맥아덤스, 안드레아 라이즈보로, 올리비아 와일드에 제의가 갔다. 처음에 러셀은 제니퍼 로렌스의 나이가 그 역할에 적합하다고 생각하지 했다. 그는 로렌스 (촬영 당시 만 21세)가 쿠퍼 (만 37세)와 너무 어울리지는 않는다고 생각했지만 오디션에서 "눈과 얼굴의 표현력"이 "나이들지 않았다"고 인정하면서 마음을 바꿨다. 러셀은 로렌스와 티파니라는 인물을 비교하면서, 티파니를 연기하는데 필요한 취약성과 자신감을 갖고 있지만 자신이 아는 신경증 환자 중 한 명이라고 설명했다. 티파니는 몇 차례 반복하며 바꿔갔다. 로렌스는 그녀의 머리카락을 검게 염색하고 무거운 고트 메이크업에서 테스트 촬영을 했지만 와인스타인은 허락을 내리지 않았다. 그녀의 캐릭터의 최종 버전은 검은 머리와 십자가와 같은 작은 고트 터치로 엉망이 되었지만 자신감을 잃지 않았다. 특히 역할을 위해, 러셀은 로런스에게 체중을 늘리고 낮은 톤으로 말하도록 요청했다. 로렌스와 쿠퍼는 이전의 댄스 경험이 없었다. 안무가인 맨디 무어가 댄스 시퀀스를 가르쳤다. 무어는 "실제 자연적인 춤 능력"을 가지고있는 것으로 쿠퍼를 언급했다. 로렌스는 클라이 막스 볼룸 댄스에 대해 "즉흥적이었던 것은 아니었다. 나는 형편없는 무용수이기 때문에 결코 그 어떤 것도 할 수 없었을 것이다. 그것이 마침내 함께 왔을 때, 그 장면은 정말로 그것이 느낀 것처럼 재미있었다."라고 말했다. 개봉 이 영화는 2012년 9월 8일 토론토 국제 영화제에서 초연 되었고, 관객상을 수상하였다. 영화는 그 주 이후인 2012년 11월 16일에 미국의 극장에서 제한적으로 개봉되었다. 또한 2012년 10월 18일에 뭄바이 영화제에서 개막작으로 상영 되었다. 와인스타인 컴퍼니는 평소와 달리 실버라이닝 플레이북을 위해 폭 넓은 개봉을 계획했으며, 전국적으로 약 2,000개의 스크린을 보급했다. 긍정적인 평가와 추수 감사절에 투자하여 더 많은 비즈니스를 수행하였다. 대신에 입소문 지원 전략을 세우면서 점차 확대되어 더 적은 극장에서 천천히 상영을 연장해 갔다. 연장 상영을 계속하면서 영화는 12월 25일에 700개의 극장으로 확장되었다. 평가 중요한 평가 실버라이닝 플레이북은 2012년 토론토 국제 영화제에서 초연 되었으며 비평적으로 찬사를 받았다. 이 영화의 236개 리뷰를 기준으로 로튼 토마토의 지지도는 92%이며 평균 평점은 8.2 / 10 점이다. 웹 사이트의 중요한 합의는 "실버 라이닝 플레이 북은 까다로운 주제의 줄타기를 하고 있지만 데이비드 O. 러셀의 민감한 연출과 재능있는 캐스트의 예리한 작업은 진정한 균형을 이룬다"고 말했다. 주류 비평가의 100개 리뷰 중 가중 평균 평점을 부여하는 메타크리틱에서, 영화는 "평평한 찬사"를 나타내는 45명의 평론가의 리뷰를 토대로 평균 81 점을 획득했다. 쿠퍼와 로렌스는 그들의 공연에 대해 찬사를 받았다. 〈더 플레이리스트〉의 케빈 재거너스는 이 영화를 "대단히 재미있고 군중을 기쁘게 하는 승자"로 칭찬하면서 두 명의 주인공의 연기는 상을 받을만한 "신중하게 개발 되고 완벽하게 투구 되었다"라고 언급했다. 〈할리우드 리포터〉의 데이비드 루니는 "쿠퍼와 로렌스 사이의 화학적 관계는 그들을 보는 기쁨을 준다." 그리고 그들의 연기는 작은 역할조차도 훌륭한 연기를 하는 앙상블 캐스트를 고정시킨다. 루니는 또한 안무의 "상쾌한 혼란스러움"과 "신경적인 에너지"를 칭찬했다. 〈타임〉의 리차드 콜리스는 주인공 (특히 로렌스)들의 연기에 박수를 보냈다. 그녀의 연기는 전체 영화를 보며 성숙함을 찬양하는 "머무르는 이유"라고 말했다. 러셀의 연출 또한 널리 인정 받았으며, 〈버라이어티〉의 저스틴 창은 "가능성이 희박한 코미디에서 벗어날 수있는 사람은 없다. 데이비드 O. 러셀은 정신 질환, 결혼 실패, 축구의 치유력에 대처하고 예리하고 만족스러운 결과를 보여준다."라고 언급했다. 〈인디와이어〉의 에릭 콘은 "A-" 점으로 쿠퍼와 로렌스의 연기를 칭찬하면서, 또한 러셀 감독에게는 "솔로 시나리오 작가 겸 디렉터인 러셀은 냉소와 씁쓸함 사이에서 종종 우승한 결과와 함께 종종 춤을 추는 예기치 않게 매력적인 로맨틱 코미디를 위해 작고 발랄한 많은 캐스트들을 조립한다."라고 말했다. 〈워싱턴 포스트〉의 앤 호나데이는 러셀의 연출에 주목하면서 "어떤 다른 손에서, 매튜 퀵 소설의 각색은 진부한 실패한 로맨틱 코미디 또는 아마도 더 나쁜, 자의적으로 기발한 인디의 재료일 것이다."라고 말했다. 로저 에버트는 영화가 "너무 좋았고, 거의 굉장히 오래된 고전이 될 수 있다"고 말하면서 4개의 별에서 3반을 주고 아버지와 아들의 주된 관심사가 최종 내기를 중심으로 하는 러셀의 시나리오를 "독창적인" 것으로 언급했다. 케네스 투란은 영화를 "완전한 성공"이라고 불렀고 배우의 연기는 크리스 터커를 포함하여 "저항할 수 없는" 지원군으로 훌륭했다. 〈필라델피아인콰이어러〉의 스티븐 레아는 영화에 대해 "현란하게 똑똑한 각본에서부터 두 명의 주인공이 예기치 않게 움직이는 장면까지 탁월한 노력"이라고 말했다. 〈덴버 포스트〉의 히카르도 바카는 영화에 대해 "트레일러에서 웃음, 어렴풋한 불안과 따뜻한 나비"를 어떻게 유지할 수 있었는지 칭찬했다. 〈롤링 스톤〉의 피터 트래버스는 이 영화를 "올해 최고의 영화 중 하나"라고 불렀다. 〈데일리텔레그래프〉의 로비 콜린은 로런스가 영화의 "은색 안감"이라고 언급하면서도 주인공을 "잔돈 넘치는 헤드 케이스"로 묘사하면서 "정신병에 시달리는 무익은 피곤함"이라고 썼다. 〈글로브앤메일〉의 수석 영화 비평가인 리암 레이시는 4개의 별 중 3개를 줬지만, 공통된 유대감을 가진 기발한 외부인에 대한 선댄스 영화제 스타일의 영화를 더 잘 만든 버전이다."라고 언급했다. NFL은 영화에서 도박에 비판적이었고, 추수감사절 동안 브래들리 쿠퍼와 크리스 터커와의 인터뷰를 방송하지 않았다. 기타 평가 로맨틱 코미디 장르의 상투적인 전개와는 다르다는 평이 있다. 주인공을 포함한 등장인물들은 마치 현실 세계의 인간 군상처럼 어딘가 부족한 부분들이 다 있으며, 그런 특징들을 잘 반영했다. 이는 마치 우리 모두에게 각자 부정적인 면이 있으며, 이를 잘 포용하고 보듬어주자는 의미로 보이기도 한다. 사랑은 불완전한 것이며, 현실에서처럼 이 영화에서도 주인공과 그들의 가족은 서로 티격태격하는 모습이 잘 그려졌다. 연출을 맡은 데이비드 O. 러셀은 끊임없이 대화가 이어지는 방식으로 갈등을 보여주는 방법으로 유명한데, 이 영화에서도 그의 장기가 잘 반영됐다. 끊임없는 말싸움으로 파국에 치달았다가 다시 갈등이 해소되다가 하는 것을 보면 원작 소설의 각색이 훌륭하게 잘 되었다는 평이다. 각자의 캐릭터를 잘 소화해낸 세 명의 배우들(브래들리 쿠퍼, 제니퍼 로렌스, 로버트 드 니로)에 대해서도 좋은 평이 나왔으며, 이들은 여러 상을 수상하거나, 후보로 지명되었다. 박스 오피스 이 영화는 16개 지역에서 개막 주말에 443,003 달러를 벌어 들였고, 《스카이폴》과 《링컨》 등의 영화와의 경쟁이 치열했다. 두 번째 주말에 367개 지역으로 확장 된 이 영화는 440만 달러로 9위를 차지했다. 12월 30일까지 영화는 745개의 극장에서 상영 되어 2730만 달러를 벌어 들였다. 2013년 1월 18일 2,523개의 극장으로 확장되면서 총 1,270만 달러의 수익을 창출하여 총 5670만 달러의 매출을 올렸다. 두 번째 주말에 2,500개 이상의 극장에서 상영하면서 매출은 12.2% 감소했다. 기테시 아타발레는 이것이 1억 달러에 도달하는 길에 잘 향하고 있고 그것이 몇 주 동안 내구성을 유지한다면 훨씬 더 높아질 수 있다고 말했다. 레이 수서스는 이 영화가 1억 달러를 벌어 들일 것이라고 예측하면서 영화가 천천히 시작 하겠지만 12월을 계속지나면서 대규모 프랜차이즈 영화에 대한 로렌스와 쿠퍼의 팬층을 데려와 넓은 청중을 확보하게 될 것이라고 전망했다. 2013년 2월 19일 북미 지역에서 1억 달러를 돌파했다. 2013년 5월 11일부터 영화는 예산의 11배 이상을 벌어 들였다. 수상 및 후보 이 영화는 미국 아카데미상에서 최우수 작품상, 러셀은 감독상, 각색상, 편집상, 쿠퍼는 남우주연상, 로렌스는 여우주연상, 드 니로는 남우조연상, 위버는 여우주연상의 8개 부문에 후보 지명되어, 로렌스는 여우주연상을 수상했다. TOP 10 목록 〈시네마블렌드〉에서 연간 10위를 기록한 이 영화에 8점을 주었다. 〈가디언〉에서는 연간 베스트 10의 목록에서 4위를 차지했다. 음악 실버라이닝 플레이북의 사운드트랙은 2012년 11웡 16일, 소니 뮤직 엔터테인먼트에서 발매되었다. 사운드 트랙의 싱글 리드인 "Silver Lining (Crazy 'Bout You)"는 영국 싱글 차트에서 100위를 차지했다. 사운드 트랙에는 스티비 원더, 데이브 브루벡 쿼텟, 앨트 제이, 이글스 오브 데스 메탈, 제시 제이, 대니 엘프만이 작곡 한 두 곡의 음악이 포함되어 있다. 홈 미디어 실버라이닝 플레이북은 2013년 4월 1일 영국에서 DVD와 블루 레이로 출시되었고, 2013년 4월 30일 미국에서 출시되었다. 각주 외부 링크 영어 영화 작품 2012년 영화 미국의 로맨틱 코미디 영화 미국의 로맨틱 드라마 영화 미국의 코미디 드라마 영화 미국의 댄스 영화 대니 엘프먼 영화 음악 미국의 소설을 바탕으로 한 영화 소설을 바탕으로 한 영화 로맨스 소설의 영화화 작품 불륜을 소재로 한 영화 정신병원을 배경으로 한 영화 필라델피아를 배경으로 한 영화 2008년을 배경으로 한 영화 펜실베이니아주에서 촬영한 영화 도박 영화 와인스타인 컴퍼니 영화 데이비드 O. 러셀 감독 영화 필라델피아 이글스 인디펜던트 스피릿 어워드 작품상 수상작 우울증을 소재로 한 영화 양극성 장애를 소재로 한 영화 춤 경연회를 소재로 한 영화 사교춤을 소재로 한 영화 과부와 홀아비를 소재로 한 영화 아카데미 여우주연상 수상작

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver%20Linings%20Playbook

Silver Linings Playbook

Silver Linings Playbook is a 2012 American romantic comedy-drama film written and directed by David O. Russell. The film was based on Matthew Quick’s 2008 novel The Silver Linings Playbook. It stars Bradley Cooper and Jennifer Lawrence, with Robert De Niro, Jacki Weaver, Anupam Kher, Chris Tucker, John Ortiz and Julia Stiles in supporting roles. The story takes place in Ridley Park, Pennsylvania. Cooper plays Patrizio "Pat" Solitano Jr., a man with bipolar disorder who is released from a psychiatric hospital and moves back in with his parents (De Niro and Weaver). Pat is determined to win back his estranged wife. He meets a young widow, Tiffany Maxwell (Lawrence), who offers to help him get his wife back if he enters a dance competition with her. The two become closer as they train, and Pat, his father, and Tiffany examine their relationships with each other as they cope with their situations. Silver Linings Playbook premiered at the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival on September 8, 2012, and was released in the United States on November 16, 2012. The film opened to widespread critical acclaim, with high praise drawn to Russell's direction, and the performances of Cooper, Lawrence, De Niro and Weaver. It emerged as a commercial success at the box office, grossing over $236 million worldwide. A recipient of several accolades, Silver Linings Playbook received eight nominations at the 85th Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Adapted Screenplay. It became the first film since Reds (1981) to be Oscar-nominated for the four acting categories and the first since Million Dollar Baby (2004) to be nominated for the Big Five Oscars, with Lawrence winning the Academy Award for Best Actress, becoming the second-youngest Best Actress winner in Oscar history. It also received four Golden Globe Award nominations, with Lawrence winning Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical; three BAFTA nominations, with Russell winning Best Adapted Screenplay; four Screen Actors Guild nominations, with Lawrence winning Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role; and five Independent Spirit Award nominations, winning in four categories, including Best Film. Plot After eight months' treatment in a mental health facility for bipolar disorder, Patrizio "Pat" Solitano Jr. is released into the care of his parents, Patrizio Sr. and Dolores, at his childhood home in Upper Darby, Pennsylvania. His primary focus is to reconcile with his ex-wife, Nikki. She has moved away and obtained a restraining order against him after Pat found her in the shower with another man and badly beat him. Pat's therapist, Cliff Patel, tries to convince him to keep taking his medication, as a repeat of his violent outbursts might send him back to the clinic. Pat tells him that he has a new outlook on life: He attempts to see the good, or silver linings, in all that he experiences. Meanwhile, Pat experiences a series of anxiety attacks. Pat attends dinner at his best friend Ronnie's house and meets his sister-in-law, Tiffany Maxwell, a widow with an unnamed disorder. They connect, talking about different drugs they have taken to manage their mental illnesses. She tries to offer him casual sex, but Pat is focused on getting Nikki back. Trying to get closer to him, Tiffany offers to deliver a letter to Nikki if, in return, he partners with her in an upcoming dance competition. Pat agrees and they start practicing over the following weeks. Starting to develop feelings for Tiffany, he tries to push them away. He believes the competition will be a good way to show Nikki he has changed. Patrizio Sr., hoping to open his restaurant, has resorted to illegal bookmaking. Having bet most of his money on a Philadelphia Eagles game, he asks Pat to attend for good luck. So, Pat asks Tiffany for time off from practice to attend the game. She gives him a typed reply from Nikki, which cautiously hints they may be able to reconcile. Before entering the stadium, Pat and his brother Jake get into a fight with some racist fans and are hauled away by the police. The Eagles lose the game, and Patrizio is furious. When Patrizio claims that the Eagles lost because of Tiffany being involved in Pat's life, she refutes his allegations by pointing out that the Philadelphia teams had done better whenever she and Pat were together. Convinced, Patrizio makes a parlay with Randy: If the Eagles win their week 16 game against the Cowboys and Tiffany and Pat score five out of ten in their dance competition, he will win back double the money he lost on the first bet. Pat is reluctant, so Tiffany, Dolores, and Patrizio conspire to persuade him to dance in the competition, telling him Nikki will be there. Noticing that the letter from Nikki also refers to "reading the signs", a phrase frequently used by Tiffany, he realizes that she wrote the letter. Tiffany, Pat, and their friends and family arrive at the competition on the night of the football game. Tiffany despairs when she sees Nikki in the audience, invited by Ronnie and his wife [Tiffany's sister] Veronica. They want her to lift her restraining order on Pat, giving them the chance to reconcile. Tiffany starts to drink heavily at the bar. Pat finds Tiffany moments before their turn and drags her onto the dance floor. They begin their routine as the Eagles defeat the Dallas Cowboys. After their set, Tiffany and Pat receive an average score of exactly 5.0 points, amid cheers from friends and family and confused looks from the crowd. Pat approaches Nikki and whispers into her ear. When Tiffany sees this she runs off, so Pat leaves Nikki and chases her. He hands her a letter, in which he admits to knowing she forged the letter. He confesses that he loved her from the moment he met her, though it took him a long time to realize it. They share a kiss. Patrizio opens a restaurant with the money he has won, and Pat and Tiffany begin a relationship, no longer wearing their wedding rings. Cast Production Development Renee Witt, an executive at The Weinstein Company, convinced Harvey Weinstein to option the book by Matthew Quick on which the film is based, doing so before it was published. Sydney Pollack then began developing for David O. Russell to direct. Pollack told Russell that the film adaptation would be tricky because of the story's mixture of troubling emotion, humor, and romance. Russell estimates he rewrote the script twenty times over five years. Russell was drawn to the story because of the family relationships and the connection he felt to his own son, who has bipolar disorder and OCD. The film was shot in 33 days. A darker, more extreme version of the dance sequence was filmed and scenes with De Niro's character were shot in multiple versions, with the character harsher or warmer, as Russell worked with editor Jay Cassidy to set the balance they wanted. The locations are Upper Darby, Ridley Park, and Lansdowne communities just outside Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although not mentioned by name in the film, Ridley Park is credited at the end, and a police officer can be seen wearing the initials "RPPD" on his collar. The film takes place over the second half of the 2008 NFL football season, which saw the Philadelphia Eagles advance to the NFC Championship Game. Several games are mentioned, including the Eagles' victories over Seattle and San Francisco, their losses to two of their NFC East rivals Washington Redskins and the New York Giants (which was the game Pat was attending when the fight broke out), and their victory over Dallas in the regular season's final game. Casting Russell initially intended to make the film with Vince Vaughn and Zooey Deschanel, but went on to make The Fighter instead. Mark Wahlberg was set to work with Russell for the fourth time but had to drop out after delays in production created a scheduling conflict. Russell had originally planned to work with Bradley Cooper on an adaptation of Pride and Prejudice and Zombies, having been impressed with Cooper's performance in Wedding Crashers (2005), citing his "good bad-guy energy" and unpredictability as justification for casting. Cooper told Russell "he had been heavier and angrier and more fearful" at the time of that performance and had drawn on those feelings for it. Russell was excited that Cooper would bring those qualities to Pat Solitano. Anne Hathaway was cast as Tiffany Maxwell, but due to scheduling conflicts with The Dark Knight Rises and creative differences with Russell, she dropped out. Other actresses who were considered for the part included Elizabeth Banks, Kirsten Dunst, Angelina Jolie, Blake Lively, Rooney Mara, Rachel McAdams, Andrea Riseborough and Olivia Wilde. Initially, Russell did not believe Lawrence's age was suitable for the role. He thought Lawrence (21 at the time of filming) was too young to play opposite Cooper (37), but her audition changed his mind, admitting that the "expressiveness in her eyes and in her face" was "ageless". Russell compares Lawrence to the character Tiffany, describing her as confident but one of the least neurotic people he knows, with the confidence and glimpses of vulnerability needed to play Tiffany. Tiffany went through several iterations. She was initially meant to be goth. Lawrence dyed her hair black and did test shoots in heavy goth makeup, but Weinstein disapproved. The final version of her character remained messed-up yet confident, with small goth touches such as the dark hair and a cross. Specifically for the role, Lawrence was asked by Russell to put on weight and to speak in a lower register. According to Entertainment Weekly, Lawrence said she didn't have a handle on Tiffany at first, which was what excited her about the role. "She was just a character I one-hundred percent did not understand at all... She's like, 'I'm messed up, I'm not like everybody else, I've got issues. Take it or leave it because I like myself. Lawrence and Cooper had no previous dance experience. In less than a month, Mandy Moore, a choreographer for So You Think You Can Dance, taught them the dance sequences. Moore describes Cooper as having "some real natural dancing ability". Lawrence said of the climactic ballroom dance, "None of that was improvised, absolutely not. I'm a terrible dancer, so I would never have been able to do any of that. When it finally came together, that scene really was just as fun as it feels." Release Silver Linings Playbook premiered at the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival on September 8, 2012, where it won the People's Choice Award. It opened at the 2012 Mumbai Film Festival on October 18, 2012, and received a limited release in the United States on November 16, 2012, opening wider later that week. The Weinstein Company initially planned an unusually wide release for Silver Linings Playbook, going nationwide on an estimated 2,000 screens. They were encouraged by positive reviews and hoping to capitalize on Thanksgiving to do more business. Instead, they took a more slow-burn approach, opening in fewer theaters, expanding gradually, in a strategy to build up word-of-mouth support. Continuing the slow release, the film expanded to 700 theaters on December 25. Home media Silver Linings Playbook was released on DVD and Blu-ray on April 30, 2013 by Anchor Bay Entertainment. Reception Critical response Silver Linings Playbook premiered at the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival and was critically acclaimed. The film has an approval rating of 92% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 260 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Silver Linings Playbook walks a tricky thematic tightrope, but David O. Russell's sensitive direction and some sharp work from a talented cast gives it true balance." On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 reviews from mainstream critics, the film holds an average score of 81, based on reviews from 45 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale. Cooper and Lawrence were highly lauded for their performances. Kevin Jagernauth of The Playlist praised the film as "an enormously entertaining, crowd-pleasing winner" and noted that the performances from the two leads were "carefully developed, and perfectly pitched", deserving of awards. David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter said that "the chemistry between Cooper and Lawrence makes them a delight to watch" and that their performances anchor the ensemble cast who also give great performances even in small roles. Rooney also complimented the "invigorating messiness" and "nervous energy" of the choreography. Richard Corliss of Time magazine also applauded the performances of the leads, particularly Lawrence, stating that her performance is "the reason to stay" to watch the whole film, and praising her maturity. Russell's direction was also widely acclaimed, with Justin Chang of Variety writing: "Never one to shy away from unlikely sources of comedy, David O. Russell tackles mental illness, marital failure and the curative powers of football and dance with bracingly sharp and satisfying results." Eric Kohn of Indiewire gave the film an "A−" grade, praising Russell's direction and the performances of Cooper and Lawrence, stating that "both as solo screenwriter and director, Russell assembles a small, bubbly cast for an unexpectedly charming romcom that frequently dances — at one point, quite literally — between cynicism and bittersweetness with largely winning results." Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post remarked on Russell's skill, noting how "in any other hands, the adaptation of Matthew Quick's novel would be the stuff of banal rom-com fluff or, perhaps worse, self-consciously quirky indie cliches." Roger Ebert gave the film 3.5 out of four stars, saying that the film was "so good, it could almost be a terrific old classic" and described Russell's screenplay as "ingenious" for the way the major concerns of both the father and son pivot on the final bet. Kenneth Turan called the film "a complete success" and the actors' performances "superb," including Chris Tucker in an "irresistible" supporting turn. Steven Rea of The Philadelphia Inquirer called the film "a transcendent endeavor, from its exhilaratingly smart screenplay... to the unexpected and moving turns of its two leads." Ricardo Baca of The Denver Post praised how the film managed to maintain "the awkward laughs, giddy anxiousness and warm butterflies from the trailer" for its entire length. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called it "one of the year's best films. It's crazy good." Negative reviews of the film came from The New Yorker, whose critic David Denby called it "a miscalculation from beginning to end" and found Cooper's character "tiresome", while Richard Brody found Linings perhaps to "be the year's most artificial film" and "the plot [...] utterly ridiculous." In a rare step outside the magazine's typical practices, Brody revisited the film and wrote a supplementary review, once again condemning it as having "no characters but sets of switches, each of which has a binary set of options and all of which have to line up for things to come out right." Brody wrote, "I'm finding it hard not to make fun of the film's highly constructed and narrow-bore array of givens, of plot points and their resolutions." Both critics found Lawrence's Oscar-winning performance "unconvincing". Denby wrote, "we don't believe [Tiffany] for a second when she says that, in her grief, she 'had sex with everyone in my office'. Lawrence is tough and proud, and always plays strong, and the remark doesn't track with anything we see onscreen." Brody finds Lawrence, "a poised and graceful actress", who "has none of the wildness that her character needs—and that lack of wildness is part of the reason for the film's success." Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph wrote that there's a "tiring fruitlessness to the mayhem", describing the lead character as a "rambling headcase", though noting Lawrence as the film's "only 'silver lining'". The Globe and Mails chief film critic, Liam Lacey, gave 3 out of four stars, but wrote "you can easily see Silver Linings Playbook as a better-acted version of any number of Sundance-style films about quirky outsiders who find a common bond." The NFL was critical of the gambling in the film and declined to broadcast an interview with Bradley Cooper and Chris Tucker during Thanksgiving. Box office Silver Linings Playbook earned $443,003 in its opening weekend from 16 locations, facing strong competition from films including Skyfall and Lincoln. Expanding to 367 locations in its second week, the film moved to ninth place with $4.4 million. By December 30, it was showing at 745 theaters and had earned $27.3 million. On January 18, 2013, it earned $12.7 million when it expanded to 2,523 theaters, which boosted its total to $56.7 million. In its second weekend of playing in over 2500 theaters, its sales only declined by 12.2%. Gitesh Pandya stated it was well on its way to reaching the $100 million mark and could go much higher if it remained durable over the weeks. Ray Subers forecast the film would earn $100 million, predicting that the film would start slow but keep going through December and gain a wide audience, bringing in fans of Cooper and Lawrence from their work on big franchise films, The Hangover and The Hunger Games, respectively. The film surpassed the $100 million mark in North America on February 19, 2013. As of May 11, 2013, the film emerged as a sleeper box office hit, making over eleven times its budget. Accolades At the 85th Academy Awards, Silver Linings Playbook received eight nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director for Russell, Best Actor for Cooper, Best Actress for Lawrence, Best Supporting Actor for De Niro and Best Supporting Actress for Weaver, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film Editing, with Lawrence winning the film its only Academy Award, thus becoming the second-youngest winner in the Best Actress category, only behind Marlee Matlin in Children of a Lesser God (1986). Top ten lists Cinemablend listed the film at number 8 on its list of the year's 10 best. Critic Catherine Shoard of The Guardian listed the film at number 4 on her list of the year's 10 best. Musical adaptation It was announced on October 5, 2021 that the movie will be developed into a stage musical for Broadway. Music Soundtrack Silver Linings Playbook: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is a soundtrack to the film of the same name, released in the United States by Sony Music Entertainment on November 16, 2012 for digital download. The lead single from the soundtrack, "Silver Lining (Crazy 'Bout You)" peaked at #100 in the UK Singles. The soundtrack includes music from Stevie Wonder, the Dave Brubeck Quartet, Alt-J, Eagles of Death Metal, Jessie J and two tracks from the score composed by Danny Elfman. Not featured on the soundtrack include Led Zeppelin's "What Is and What Should Never Be" and The White Stripes' "Hello Operator". Stevie Wonder's "Don't You Worry 'bout a Thing" and The White Stripes' "Fell in Love with a Girl" are played as the opening numbers of Pat and Tiffany's dance scene; "Misty" performed by Johnny Mathis, is played after Pat and Tiffany learn they received an average of 5.0 for their dance number. "Wild Is the Wind" performed by Nina Simone, which is played at the start of the film's end credits. Also not on the soundtrack are, and the opening numbers of their dance scene Score Danny Elfman's score for the film was released on digital download by Sony Music Entertainment simultaneously with the song album. "Goof Track" is not heard in the film. References External links 2012 films 2012 romantic comedy-drama films Adultery in films American football films American romantic comedy-drama films American dance films Ballroom dancing films Films scored by Danny Elfman Films about dance competitions Films about dysfunctional families Films about widowhood Films about bipolar disorder Films based on American novels Films based on romance novels Films directed by David O. Russell Films featuring a Best Actress Academy Award-winning performance Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe winning performance Films set in 2008 Films set in psychiatric hospitals Films set in Philadelphia Films shot in Pennsylvania Films whose writer won the Best Adapted Screenplay BAFTA Award Films about gambling Independent Spirit Award for Best Film winners Philadelphia Eagles Films about depression BAFTA winners (films) Toronto International Film Festival People's Choice Award winners 2012 comedy films 2012 drama films The Weinstein Company films 2010s English-language films Films produced by Bruce Cohen 2010s American films

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9C%EA%B3%84%EB%A7%88%EC%9D%84%20%ED%8B%B0%ED%82%A4%ED%86%A1%21

시계마을 티키톡!

《시계마을 티키톡!》(Tickety Toc)은 대한민국의 퍼니플럭스와 하이원 엔터테인먼트, 영국의 조디악이 공동 제작한 애니메이션이다. 줄거리 어느 시계 상점에 걸려 있는 한 벽시계 속에는 '티키톡'이라는 환상의 마을이 펼쳐져 있다. 그 안에는 나무인형 쌍둥이 남매 '토미'와 '틸리'가 살고 있는데, 이들은 한 시간에 한 번씩 차임타임이 되면 강아지 기차 '포포티'와 함께 시계 밖으로 나와서 시간을 알려야만 한다. 티키톡 마을에는 이들 말고도 무무 아줌마, 팡 아저씨, 베베토 씨, 치키디, 롤링스, 또잉키, 투털루, 삐약이들 등 다양한 친구들이 같이 살고 있다. 토미와 틸리는 친구들과 함께 매일 티키톡에서 즐거운 일상을 보내며 수많은 사건에 휘말리지만 스스로의 힘과 친구들의 도움으로 차임타임을 결코 놓치지 않는다. 등장 인물 똑딱꾸러기 매 시 정각이 되면 시계 밖으로 나와서 시간을 알리는 이들을 똑딱꾸러기(Tic Tocketeers)라고 부른다. 토미(Tommy) 성우: 엄태준(시즌1에서 토미 역을 맡은 성우이다. 성우 엄상현씨의 아들이다.아버지가 또잉키역을 맡고 있어서 아버지하고 같이 맡고 있다해도 과언이 아니다.)/이종원 (시즌2에서 토미 역을 맡은 성우이다. 성우 엄태준 군이 변성기가 와서 교체한 것으로 추정된다. 또한 목소리도 시즌1과는 다른 것으로 보아 교체된 것으로 보인다.) 티키톡 마을에 살고 있는 나무인형이다. 매 시간 정각 차임타임이 되면 시계 밖으로 나가서 시간을 알리는 역할을 한다. 시간을 알릴 때는 작은북을 들고 나간다. 틸리(Tilly) 성우: 최다인 티키톡 마을에 살고 있는 나무인형이다. 쌍둥이 남매인 토미와 함께 차임타임이 되면 시계 밖으로 나가서 시간을 알리는 역할을 한다. 시간을 알릴 때는 나팔을 들고 나간다. 시계마을 주민들 포포티(Popoti) 성우: 정혜옥 기차 모양을 한 강아지이다. 차임타임이 되면 토미와 틸리를 똑딱하우스로 태워다 주며 자기 자신도 시계 밖으로 나가 시간을 알린다. 빨간 공을 매우 좋아하며 기찻길을 달릴 때 공을 기찻길 위로 던져 주면 반사적으로 공을 따라 달린다. 달리는 것 자체를 매우 좋아하는 듯 하다. 무무 아줌마(Moomoo) 성우: 홍소영 소 모양의 나무 인형이다. 똑딱하우스에서 토미와 틸리 남매를 뒷바라지하고 있으며 집안일, 운동, 춤 등등 못 하는 것이 없다. 항상 에너지가 넘치고 성격이 긍정적이며 기분이 좋을 때는 무무춤을 춘다. 팡 씨(Pang) 성우: 변영희 치타 모양의 나무 인형이다. 시계마을의 수리공으로서 자기만의 오토바이를 타고 다니며 주로 똑딱하우스의 시계를 고치는 일이 많다. 수리공답게 이것저것 희한한 발명품들을 만들어 내기도 하지만 한편으로는 살짝 덜렁대는 면도 보인다. 왕년에는 육상 선수로 활동했다고 한다. 베베토 씨(Bebeto) 성우: 신용우 박쥐 모양의 나무 인형이다. 시계마을에서 잡화상을 운영하고 있다. 박쥐이기 때문에 낮 시간에는 판매대 위에 걸어 놓은 옷걸이에 매달려 잠을 잔다. 그래서 물건을 사기 위해서 종을 울려서 깨워야 하는데 종을 치면 및으로 항상 떨어지는 일이 잦다. 어린 토미와 틸리에게도 항상 해요체로 말을 한다. 또잉키(Ddoingki) 성우: 엄상현(성우 엄태준의 아버지이다.아들이 토미역을 맡고있으면 자신이 또잉키역을 맡고있다 해도 과언이 아니다.) 토끼 모양의 나무 인형이다. 수리공이 되는 것이 꿈이라 팡 아저씨의 작업실에서 일을 배우는 중이다. 장난기가 많고 항상 이리저리 산만하게 뛰어다니며, 휴대용 토끼굴을 가지고 다니면서 여기저기에서 갑작스레 나타났다가 사라진다. 롤링스타즈(Rolling stars) 성우: 김은아 달팽이 모양의 나무 인형이다. 농사를 짓고 있으며 자기 밭에서 키운 농작물을 시계마을 주민들에게 나누어 준다. 평소에는 무척 느리지만 집 속에 몸을 숨기면 대단히 빠른 속도로 굴러다닐 수 있다. 투털루(Tooterloo) 성우: 오병조 부엉이 모양의 나무 인형이다. 슬랩스틱 개그를 주로 하는 캐릭터로서 각 이야기의 중심에 서는 것은 아니지만 주변에서 스스로 작은 사고를 친다. 대사는 한 마디도 하지 않는다. 치키디(Chikidee) 성우: 정미라 닭 모양의 나무 인형이다. 시계마을 맨 꼭대기에 있는 풍향계 위에서 날씨를 알려주는 역할을 하는데 일기예보라기보다 현재날씨 쪽에 더 가깝다. 언젠가 유명해지는 것이 꿈이라 이것저것 재미있는 일을 시도하는 일이 많다. 삐약이들 병아리 모양의 나무 인형들이다. 외부 링크 시계마을 티키톡! 공식 홈페이지 EBS 시계마을 티키톡! 홈페이지 시계마을 티키톡! 네이버 카페 시계마을 티키톡! 페이스북 2010년대 대한민국의 텔레비전 애니메이션 2012년 애니메이션 2013년 애니메이션 2016년 애니메이션 한국교육방송공사의 텔레비전 애니메이션 투니버스의 텔레비전 프로그램

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tickety%20Toc

Tickety Toc

Tickety Toc is a preschool comedy computer-animated television series produced by The Foundation, part of Zodiak Media and FunnyFlux Entertainment. The first series consists of 52 episodes, each 11 minutes long, but is often shown as twenty-six blocks, each containing two episodes. The first series was acquired by the Nick Jr. Channel as part of a global deal. The series premiered in Asia on 19 April 2012 and was subsequently rolled out internationally with localised dubs. Tickety Toc aired for the first time on British TV on 23 April 2012 and became the number 1 daytime show on Nick Jr. in the United States for the first three months when it launched 10 September 2012. In addition to the Nick Jr. global acquisition, the show has been sold to free-to-air television partners internationally. Launching on Channel 5's Milkshake slot 1 November 2012. Other broadcasters who have picked up the 52-episode series include TG4 in Ireland and Family Channel in Canada. Jolly Roger or Amusement Rides LTD made a Pufferty kiddie ride, featuring the main characters Tommy and Tallulah. It features a mirror, so anyone can see themselves on Pufferty, the Tickety Toc theme tune, and four sound effects. In the United States, Tickety Toc originally aired on Nickelodeon's preschool block Nick Jr., but was later burned off to the Nick Jr. Channel on weekdays. The series has a page on Paramount+, but no episodes have been added as of . Premise The show takes place in the world within the Tickety Toc Clock, which is located in the middle of a wall of clocks inside an old clock shop. Behind the clock's face is an extraordinary world where things don't always run smoothly. The show's main characters, siblings Tommy and Tallulah, race against time to keep the Tickety Toc Clock ticking and chiming the time. They do everything with enthusiasm, commitment, and positivity, even if it gets them into trouble. Among the characters who live in the clock's world are Pufferty, a dog-train hybrid; jaguar maintenance man McCoggins, rabbit Hopparoo, baker cow Madame Au Lait, bat boss Battersby, green and orange chicken Chickadee, and gardener snail Lopsiloo. Throughout the episodes, an owl named Tooteroo tries to do a certain activity, sometimes based on the episode's theme, but is always unlucky. Characters The show's characters are Tommy, Tallulah, Pufferty, McCoggins, Hopparoo, Madame Au Lait, Battersby, Chickadee, Lopsiloo, and Tooteroo. Episodes Season 1 (2012) Season 2 (2013) Season 3 (2014) Season 4 (2015) Season 5 (2016) International broadcasts Tickety Toc aired on EBS in South Korea. Tickety Toc aired on Channel 5, and is now airing on Sky Kids, in the United Kingdom. In the United States, all episodes of Tickety Toc aired from 2012 until 2018 on the Nick Jr. Channel. Reception The show was met with mixed reviews. Merchandise Zodiak Rights, the Consumer Products Licensing division of the Zodiak Media Group, launched merchandise, including toys, books, games and clothing, internationally starting in fall 2013. Vivid Imaginations and Just Play were the master toy partners for Tickety Toc globally. International licensing agents represented Tickety Toc in the following countries: United States – Established Brands Canada – Studio Licensing France – Zodiak Kids, Paris Australia – Fusion Benelux – J & M Brands References External links 2012 British television series debuts 2015 British television series endings 2010s British animated television series 2010s British children's television series British children's animated comedy television series 2012 South Korean television series debuts 2015 South Korean television series endings Educational Broadcasting System original programming South Korean children's animated comedy television series British computer-animated television series English-language television shows Channel 5 (British TV channel) original programming Nick Jr. original programming British preschool education television series Animated television series about children Animated preschool education television series 2010s preschool education television series Television series by Banijay

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%86%A0%EB%A7%88%EC%8A%A4%20%EB%A7%88%EC%9D%B4%EC%96%B4

토마스 마이어

토마스 마이어(, 1957년 ~)는 독일 출생의 디자이너로 현재 Kering그룹의 럭셔리 부문(Luxury Division)에 속해있는 이탈리아 럭셔리 라이프스타일 브랜드인 보테가 베네타(Bottega Veneta)의 크리에이티브 디렉터를 맡고 있다. 토마스 마이어는 2001년 6월 크리에이티브 디렉터로 보테가 베네타에 합류하였다. 취임 이래로 토마스 마이어는 보테가 베네타를 세계 최고의 럭셔리 브랜드 하우스로 성장시켰다. 동시에, 그는 신중하게 그 중요성이 점차 커져가는 품질, 장인정신, 개성이라는 덕목들을 최우선으로 강조하면서 럭셔리 제품 사업을 탈바꿈시켰다. 생애 토마스 마이어는 1957년 4월 독일 블랙 포레스트(Black Forest) 가장자리에 위치한 포르츠하임(Pforzheim)에서 출생했다. 건축가 집안에서 태어난 그는 어린 시절 발도르프 학교(Waldorf school)를 다녔다. 이후 그는 파리로 건너가 샹브르 신디칼 드 라 오뜨 꾸뛰르(Chambre Syndicale de la Haute Couture)의 교육을 받았다. 그는 기라로쉬(Guy Laroche), 소니아 리키엘(Sonia Rykiel) 등 최고의 명성을 자랑하는 프랑스, 이탈리아, 독일 패션 및 럭셔리 브랜드의 디자이너로 활동하였다. 특히 소니아 리켈의 경우 8년 동안 남성복 디자인을 담당하였고, 레빌론(Revillon)에서는 크리에이티브 디자이너로 4년간 활동하였다. 에르메스(Hermès)에서는 9년 동안 여성 기성복 디자인 및 가죽 소품과 액세서리 디자인을 담당하였다. 1999년, 그는 모든 계약 활동들을 접고 플로리다로 건너갔다. 보테가 베네타 2001년 6월, 토마스 마이어는 톰 포드(Tom Ford)에 의해 보테가 베네타의 크리에이티브 디렉터로 임명되었다. 그 당시 보테가 베네타는 구찌(Gucci) 그룹으로 알려져 있던 Kering 그룹에 인수되어 Kering의 럭셔리 부문에 통합되었다. 토마스 마이어는 일에 대한 뛰어난 집중력과 독립적인 사고, 그리고 강한 열정을 지녔으며, 보테가 베네타에 합류한 이래 그는 광범위 하면서도 신중하게 브랜드의 확장을 진두지휘 하였다. 그는 보테가 베네타에 합류한지 몇 개월 지나지 않은 2001년 9월 주로 액세서리로 구성된 첫 컬렉션을 선보였다. 그는 보다 더 광범위한 미션에 착수하기 전, 그가 보테가 베네타를 지탱하는 네 가지 주춧돌로 꼽는 “최상의 품질, 소재, 뛰어난 장인정신, 현대적인 기능성 및 유행을 타지 않는 디자인”을 근간으로 하는 브랜드의 핵심 가치들을 정립하였다. 토마스 마이어는 그의 첫 컬렉션에서 이 핵심 가치들을 각기 잘 표현한 까바(Cabat)백을 선보였으며, 이 백은 보테가 베네타의 베스트 셀러가 되었다. 토마스 마이어는 또한 보테가 베네타가 “When your own initials are enough 당신의 이니셜만으로 충분할 때”라는 유명한 슬로건에 담겨 있는, 브랜드의 로고 없는 전통으로 돌아갈 것을 선언하였다. 이 같은 로드맵 원칙들을 바탕으로, 토마스 마이어는 보테가 베네타를 오늘날의 럭셔리 라이프 스타일 브랜드로 성장시켰다. 첫 2년 안에 보테가 베네타는 런던, 파리, 밀라노, 뉴욕에 플래그십 스토어를 오픈하였고, 시즌 컬렉션에서는 여성 및 남성 기성복을 일부 선보였다. 그는 2005년 2월에 브랜드 최초의 여성 기성복 패션쇼를 개최하였으며, 2006년 6월에는 최초의 남성 기성복 패션쇼를 개최하였다. 오늘날 보테가 베네타는 토탈 남녀 기성복 컬렉션뿐 아니라, 액세서리, 파인 쥬얼리, 가구, 의자 및 소파, 테이블탑(tabletop), 데스크탑, 러기지, 도자기, 아이웨어, 향수 및 시계까지 다양한 제품을 생산하고 있다. 또한 브랜드의 근간인 전통을 계승하기 위해, 보테가 베네타는 2006년 이탈리아 비첸차에 라 스쿠올라 델라 펠레테리아(La Scuola della Pelleteria)라는 독특한 장인양성 전문 스쿨을 설립하였다. 또한 보테가 베네타의 스타일을 맘껏 즐기고 싶어하는 이들을 위해 로마, 피렌체의 세인트 레지스 호텔(St. Regis Hotels)과 시카고 파크 하얏트 호텔(Park Hyatt Hotel)에 몇 안 되는 매우 독특한 보테가 베네타 스위트룸을 오픈하였다. 토마스 마이어 라벨 토마스 마이어는 1997년 자신의 이름을 딴 라벨을 출시하였고, 1998년 온라인 부티크를 런칭하였다. 그 이후, 플로리다와 햄튼에 자신의 이름을 딴 세 개의 스토어를 오픈 하였다. 토마스 마이어 컬렉션은 전 세계 30개국 이상의 100개 이상 매장에서 판매하고 있다. 각주 외부 링크 보테가 베네타 웹사이트 토마스 마이어 웹사이트 New York Times 기사: "Tomas Maier, Creative Director, Bottega Veneta" 1975년 출생 살아있는 사람 독일의 디자이너 독일의 패션 디자이너 구찌 사람

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomas%20Maier

Tomas Maier

Tomas Maier (born 1957) is a German-born designer. From 2001 to 2018, he served as Creative Director at the Italian brand Bottega Veneta. Early life and training Born in April 1957 in Pforzheim, West Germany, Maier was raised in a family of architects and attended a Waldorf school as a child. From there he headed to Paris, where he trained at the Chambre Syndicale de la Haute Couture. Career Maier's early professional experience includes designing for several fashion and luxury goods houses in France, Italy, and Germany, including Guy Laroche, Sonia Rykiel, where he designed menswear for eight years, and Revillon, where he spent four years as creative director. For nine years, Maier was a women's ready-to-wear designer at Hermès, where he also designed leather goods and accessories. By 1999, he quit his contracts and moved to Florida. Bottega Veneta, 2001–2018 Maier was appointed by Tom Ford to become the Creative Director at Bottega Veneta in June 2001, when the company was acquired by the Gucci Group (which merged with PPR in 2008 and became Kering in 2013). During his time at Bottega Veneta, Maier presided over an expansion of the brand. He presented his first collection, which consisted solely of accessories, in September 2001, a few months after being hired. In the first two years, he oversaw the opening of Bottega Veneta flagship stores in London, Paris, Milan, and New York. He also added a small selection of women's and men's ready-to-wear pieces to the seasonal presentations. Among the product categories that Bottega Veneta now offers, in addition to women's and men's ready-to-wear collections, are accessories, jewellery, furniture, seating, tabletop, desktop, luggage, porcelain, eyewear, fragrance and watches. Maier helped found an artisan school, La Scuola della Pelleteria, in Vicenza in 2006. In addition, St. Regis Hotels in Rome and Florence as well as Park Hyatt Hotel in Chicago offer Bottega Veneta suites. In 2014, Maier and Bottega Veneta partnered with the Japanese publication Casa BRUTUS and launched an initiative to raise awareness of the potential destruction of Modernist buildings in Japan due to economics, politics, and the preparation for the 2020 Summer Olympics. Under Maier's leadership, Bottega Veneta tripled its revenues and exceeded $1 billion for the first time in 2012 before revenues fluctuated in the following years. By 2017, Saint Laurent overtook Bottega Veneta as Kering's second-biggest source of revenue; Kering announced Maier's resignation on 13 June 2018. Tomas Maier Tomas Maier established a swimwear label in 1997 with business partner Andrew Preston, and an online boutique was launched in 1998. Since then, five eponymous stores have opened in Palm Beach, Bal Harbour, East Hampton, and New York City. The collection is sold at over 100 stores in more than 30 countries. On 19 November 2013, Kering announced it was investing in Tomas Maier's own label to "infuse it with the capital needed to ramp up expansion, including the addition of more company-owned boutiques". , the private label generated about $10 million annually from swimwear, knitwear, and jersey. In 2018, Tomas Maier teamed up with Japanese casual wear retailer Uniqlo for a one-time-only resort-focused collection. The Tomas Maier brand was shut down in 2018, definitely ending the cooperation between the designer and Kering. References 1957 births German fashion designers Gucci people High fashion brands Living people Waldorf school alumni

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%AC%EB%B9%84%EB%8F%88-%EC%95%84%EC%9D%B4%EC%98%A4%EB%94%98

포비돈-아이오딘

포비돈-아이오딘 (Povidone-iodine, PVP-I) 또는 포비돈-요오드는 폴리비닐피롤리돈(포피돈, PVP)과 아이오딘의 화학적 배합물이다. 포비돈-아이오딘은 보통 9.0% ~ 12.0%의 아이오딘을 함유하고 있다. 포비돈-아이오딘은 H. A. 셀란스키와 M. V. 셀란스키 박사가 필라델피아에 있는 산업 독극물 연구소에서 처음 발견하였다. 그들은 쥐를 대상으로 실시한 실험에서 포비돈-아이오딘이 아이오딘 팅크처보다 독성은 덜하면서 항균력은 강하다는 것을 증명했다. 인간을 대상으로 한 임상 실험에서도 포비돈-아이오딘 제품이 다른 아이오딘 화합물 제품보다 월등히 뛰어난 효과를 보여줬다. 포비돈-아이오딘은 1955년에 처음 판매되기 시작한 이후, 현재는 아이오딘 계열의 살균 소독제 중에서 세계적으로 가장 선호하는 제품이 되었다. 상호명 베타딘으로 주로 판매된다. 특성 포비돈-아이오딘은 에틸 알코올, 아이소프로필 알코올, 폴리에틸렌 글리콜, 글리세롤뿐만 아니라 물에도 잘 녹는다. 용액 상태의 포비돈-아이오딘은 아이오딘 팅크처나 아이오딘-아이오딘화 칼륨보다 훨씬 안정적이다. 용도 포비돈-아이오딘은 상처 부위의 감염 예방과 치료를 위한 살균 소독제로 광범위하게 사용된다. 베인 상처, 긁힌 상처, 찢어진 상처, 화상, 수포 등에 응급 처치용으로 사용된다. 1811년 베르나르 쿠르투아가 아이오딘을 발견한 후부터, 아이오딘은 피부 상처의 감염 예방과 치료 목적으로 널리 사용되어왔다. 아이오딘은 효과적이고 광범위한 항박테리아제로 인식되었을 뿐만 아니라, 효모, 곰팡이, 균류, 바이러스, 원생동물 등에도 효과적이었다. 그러나, 수용액 상태의 아이오딘은 상처 부위에 닿으면 따끔거리는 자극성이 있고, 주변 피부 조직을 얼룩지게 하는 단점이 있다. 이러한 단점을 극복하기 위해서 만든 것이 포비돈-아이오딘이다. 박테리아는 포비돈-아이오딘에게 저항성이 매우 낮다는 것이 증명되었다. 또한, 포비돈-아이오딘에 대한 과민율은 겨우 0.7%밖에 되지 않는다. 포비돈-아이오딘은 수술 전후의 피부 세척, 상처, 궤양, 화상 부위의 감염 예방 및 치료, 욕창과 체성궤양의 감염 치료, 칸디다 균이나 트리코모나스와 연관된 질염의 치료를 위해 사용된다. 이러한 목적으로 사용되는 포비돈-아이오딘은 7.5 ~ 10.0% 농도로 용액, 스프레이, 연고, 솜, 거즈, 일회용 면봉 등의 형태로 만들어진다. 이렇게 만들어진 제품은 일반적으로 포비돈-아이오딘 또는 베타딘이라는 제품명으로 판매되며, 처방전 없이 구입할 수 있다. 포비돈-아이오딘은 흉막 유착술에도 사용된다. 이러한 목적으로 사용되는 포비돈-아이오딘은 활석과 동등하게 효과적이고 안정적인데다, 이용하기 쉽고 가격도 싸기 때문에 흉막 유착술에 포비돈-아이오딘을 선호한다. 포비돈-아이오딘 2.5% 완충 용액은 임균이나 트라코마 클라미디아균에 의해 감염될 경우 실명에 이르게 할 수도 있는 신생아 결막염 예방을 위해 사용되기도 한다. 포비돈-아이오딘은 균류나 바이러스 등에 대해 효과적이기 때문에 신생아 결막염 예방에 매우 적합한 것으로 나타나고 있다. 포비돈-아이오딘은 카복시메틸 셀룰로스, 폴리메틸 알코올, 폴리비닐 알코올, 젤라틴, 폴리아크릴아미드 등과 같은 하이드로젤에 부착되어 판매되기도 한다. 이 하이드로젤은 상처 드레싱에 사용된다. 포비돈-아이오딘의 발산율은 하이드로젤의 구성 성분에 따라 달라진다. 하이드로젤에 CMC/PVA가 많을 경우 발산율은 높아지고, 젤라틴 성분이 많을 경우 발산율은 감소한다. 포비돈-아이오딘은 머스터드 가스로부터 피부 손상을 감소시키는데 사용할 수도 있다. 부작용 갑상선 기능 이상 환자가 장기간 사용할 경우 갑상선 호르몬 관련 물질에 악영향을 줄 우려가 있다. 피부의 넓은 부위에 장기간 사용했을 경우 피부 색소 침착, 피부 변색 등이 나타날 수 있다. 임산부 또는 임신하고 있을 가능성이 있는 부인 및 수유부에게 장기간 또는 광범위하게 사용할 경우, 아이오딘이 태반 장벽을 통해 유즙으로 이행될 수 있다. 흡수된 아이오딘은 태아나 신생아의 갑상선 기능에 영향을 미치거나 갑상선종을 일으킬 수 있다. 방사성 아이오딘 치료 환자에게 장기간 사용시 갑상선종 및 갑상선 기능 저하 또는 항진이 나타날 수 있다. 대체제 대략 850명의 환자를 대상으로 클로르헥시딘-알코올과 포비돈-아이오딘의 수술 전후 피부 감염 예방 효과를 비교한 임상 연구 결과, 수술 부위의 감염률은 클로르헥시딘-알코올을 사용한 그룹이 포비돈-아이오딘을 사용한 그룹보다 더 낮았다. (9.5% vs. 16.1%) 클로르헥시딘-알코올은 표피 절개 부위 감염률 (4.2% vs. 8.6%)과 내피 절개 부위 감염률 (1% vs. 3%) 모두에서 포비돈-아이오딘보다 더욱 뛰어난 예방 효과를 보여줬다. 하지만, 장기 내부의 경우 두 그룹 사이에 큰 차이는 없었다. (4.4% vs. 4.5%). 임상 실험을 진행한 연구진은 이러한 결과가 클로르헥시딘-알코올과 포비돈-아이오딘 모두 광범위한 항미생물 활동성을 가지고 있지만, 클로르헥시딘-알코올이 포비돈-아이오딘보다 활동력이 빠르고 지속되는 잔류 효과가 있기 때문이라고 말했다. 같이 보기 클로르헥시딘 염화 벤제토늄 아이오딘 팅크처 아이오딘-아이오딘화 칼륨 베타딘 소독제 각주 더 읽기 외부 링크 아이오딘 방부제 소독제 세계 보건 기구 필수 의약품

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povidone-iodine

Povidone-iodine

Povidone-iodine (PVP-I), also known as iodopovidone, is an antiseptic used for skin disinfection before and after surgery. It may be used both to disinfect the hands of healthcare providers and the skin of the person they are caring for. It may also be used for minor wounds. It may be applied to the skin as a liquid or a powder. Side effects include skin irritation and sometimes swelling. If used on large wounds, kidney problems, high blood sodium, and metabolic acidosis may occur. It is not recommended in women who are less than 32 weeks pregnant. Frequent use is not recommended in people with thyroid problems or who are taking lithium. Povidone-iodine is a chemical complex of povidone, hydrogen iodide, and elemental iodine. It contains 10% Povidone, with total iodine species equaling 10,000 ppm or 1% total titratable iodine. It works by releasing iodine which results in the death of a range of microorganisms. Povidone-iodine came into commercial use in 1955. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Povidone-iodine is available over the counter. It is sold under a number of brand names including Betadine. Medical uses Povidone-iodine is a broad spectrum antiseptic for topical application in the treatment and prevention of wound infection. It may be used in first aid for minor cuts, burns, abrasions and blisters. Povidone-iodine exhibits longer lasting antiseptic effects than tincture of iodine, due to its slow absorption via soft tissue, making it the choice for longer surgeries. Chlorhexidine is almost twice as effective in preventing infection after surgery with a similar to lower risk of adverse events, and the combination of sodium hypochlorite and hypochlorous acid in very low concentration is significantly superior for wound healing. Consequently, PVP-I has found broad application in medicine as a surgical scrub; for pre- and post-operative skin cleansing; for the treatment and prevention of infections in wounds, ulcers, cuts and burns; for the treatment of infections in decubitus ulcers and stasis ulcers; in gynecology for vaginitis associated with candidal, trichomonal or mixed infections. For these purposes PVP-I has been formulated at concentrations of 7.5–10.0% in solution, spray, surgical scrub, ointment, and swab dosage forms; however, use of 10% povidone-iodine though recommended, is infrequently used, as it is poorly accepted by health care workers and is excessively slow to dry. Because of these critical indications, only sterile povidone-iodine should be used in most cases. Non-sterile product can be appropriate in limited circumstances in which people have intact, healthy skin that will not be compromised or cut. The non-sterile form of Povidone iodine has a long history of intrinsic contamination with Burkholderia cepacia ( Pseudomonas cepacia), and other opportunistic pathogens. Its ability to harbor such microbes further underscores the importance of using sterile products in any clinical setting. Since these bacteria are resistant to povidone iodine, statements that bacteria do not develop resistance to PVP-I, should be regarded with great caution: some bacteria are intrinsically resistant to a range of biocides including povidone-iodine. Antiseptic activity of PVP-I is because of free iodine (I2) and PVP-I only acts as carrier of I2 to the target cells. Most commonly used 10% PVP-I delivers about 1–3 ppm of I2 in a compound of more than 31,600 ppm of total iodine atoms. All the toxic and staining effects of PVP-I is due to the inactive iodine only. Eyes A buffered PVP-I solution of 2.5% concentration can be used for prevention of neonatal conjunctivitis, especially if it is caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, or Chlamydia trachomatis. It is currently unclear whether PVP-I is more effective in reducing the number of cases of conjunctivitis in neonates over other methods. PVP-I appears to be very suitable for this purpose because, unlike other substances, it is also efficient against fungi and viruses (including HIV and Herpes simplex). Pleurodesis It is used in pleurodesis (fusion of the pleura because of incessant pleural effusions). For this purpose, povidone-iodine is equally effective and safe as talc, and may be preferred because of easy availability and low cost. Alternatives There is strong evidence that chlorhexidine and denatured alcohol used to clean skin prior to surgery is better than any formulation of povidone-iodine. Contraindications PVP-I is contraindicated in people with hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid gland) and other diseases of the thyroid, after treatment with radioiodine, and in people with dermatitis herpetiformis (Duhring's disease). Side effects The sensitization rate to the product is 0.7%. Interactions The iodine in PVP-I reacts with hydrogen peroxide, silver, taurolidine and proteins such as enzymes, rendering them (and itself) ineffective. It also reacts with many mercury compounds, giving the corrosive compound mercury iodide, as well as with many metals, making it unsuitable for disinfecting metal piercings. Iodine is absorbed into the body to various degrees, depending on application area and condition of the skin. As such, it interacts with diagnostic tests of the thyroid gland such as radioiodine diagnostics, as well as with various diagnostic agents used on the urine and stool, for example Guaiacum resin. Structure Povidone-iodine is a chemical complex of the polymer povidone (polyvinylpyrrolidone) and triiodide (I3−). It is soluble in cold and mild-warm water, ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, and glycerol. Its stability in solution is much greater than that of tincture of iodine or Lugol's solution. Free iodine, slowly liberated from the povidone-iodine (PVP-I) complex in solution, kills cells through iodination of lipids and oxidation of cytoplasmic and membrane compounds. This agent exhibits a broad range of microbiocidal activity against bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. Slow release of iodine from the PVP-I complex in solution minimizes iodine toxicity towards mammalian cells. PVP-I can be loaded into hydrogels, which can be based on carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), and gelatin, or on crosslinked polyacrylamide. These hydrogels can be used for wound dressing. The rate of release of the iodine in the PVP-I is heavily dependent on the hydrogel composition: it increases with more CMC/PVA and decreases with more gelatin. History Following the discovery of iodine by Bernard Courtois in 1811, it has been broadly used for the prevention and treatment of skin infections, as well as the treatment of wounds. Iodine has been recognized as an effective broad-spectrum bactericide, and is also effective against yeasts, molds, fungi, viruses, and protozoans. Drawbacks to its use in the form of aqueous solutions include irritation at the site of application, toxicity, and the staining of surrounding tissues. These deficiencies were overcome by the discovery and use of PVP-I, in which the iodine is carried in a complexed form and the concentration of free iodine is very low. The product thus serves as an iodophor. PVP-I was discovered in 1955, at the Industrial Toxicology Laboratories in Philadelphia by H. A. Shelanski and M. V. Shelanski. They carried out tests in vitro to demonstrate anti-bacterial activity, and found that the complex was less toxic in mice than tincture of iodine. Human clinical trials showed the product to be superior to other iodine formulations. Research Povidone-iodine has found application in the field of nanomaterials. A wound-healing application has been developed which employs a mat of single wall carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) coated in a monolayer of povidone-iodine. Research has previously found that the polymer polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP, povidone) can coil around individual carbon nanotubes to make them water-soluble. See also Cadexomer iodine Iodophor Inadine Lugol's iodine Tincture of iodine References Further reading External links Antiseptics Disinfectants Iodine Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate World Health Organization essential medicines

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전인범

전인범(全仁釩, 1958년 9월 6일~)은 대한민국의 군인이다. 본관은 정선(旌善)이다. 서울특별시 동대문구에서 태어나 8세 때 모친을 따라 미국으로 이주해 4년 간 생활 후 귀국, 1977년 경기고등학교를 졸업하고 육군사관학교 전사학과에 입교하였다. 1981년 4월 육군사관학교 37기로 임관하여 30사단 90연대 15중대 3소대장으로 군 생활을 시작한 이래 9사단 29연대장, 합동참모본부 전략기획부 전작권 전환 추진단장, 27사단장, 한미연합군사령부 작전참모차장, 유엔군사령부 군사정전위원회 수석대표, 특수전사령관 등을 역임하고 2016년 7월 육군 중장으로 예편하였다. 1983년 10월 아웅 산 묘소 폭탄 테러 사건 당시 합동참모의장 전속부관으로 폭발에 의해 중상을 입은 합참의장을 구출한 공로를 인정받아 보국훈장 광복장을 수훈하는 등, 현역 시절 한국과 미국 정부로부터 총 11개의 훈장을 받아 대한민국 국군 장성 중 최다 훈장 수훈자로 기록되었다. 전역 후 브루킹스 연구소 방문학자, 존스 홉킨스 대학교 객원연구원으로 해외 연수 중인 2017년 문재인의 요청으로 더불어민주당 문재인 제19대 대통령 선거 경선 캠프 안보자문위원을 맡았으며, 2018년 한국자유총연맹 부총재에 임명되었다. 이외에 동물들의 권리에도 관심을 가져 동물자유연대 이사로서 동물의 자유를 위한 활동도 하고 있다. 생애 생애 초반 전인범은 1958년 9월 6일에 서울특별시 동대문구 휘경동 서울위생병원에서 미국 유학 중이었던 의과학 전공의인 아버지 전주화와 마찬가지로 미국에서 유학 중인 정치학 석사과정생 어머니 홍숙자 사이에서 1남 1녀 중 장남으로 태어났다. 그의 부모는 미국 유학 중 한국유학생회 모임에서 만나 1957년 결혼하였으며 전인범을 임신한 모친이 보스턴 대학교 대학원 정치학 석사과정을 졸업 후 먼저 귀국해 서울 중구 장충동 시댁에 살고 있었고, 부친은 한 학기를 더 공부해야 했기에 유학을 마치고 그가 태어난지 100일째 되던 날 귀국하였다. 유년 시절의 대부분은 서울에 살았으며 1965년 대한민국 최초의 여성 외교관인 모친 홍숙자가 뉴욕 총영사관 부영사로 발령됨에 따라 미국으로 이주하여 4년 동안 뉴욕 맨해튼에서 생활하였다. 모친 홍숙자가 부영사로 발령된지 얼마 안되어 그의 부모는 이혼하였고, 1969년 한국으로 귀국한 뒤에도 그의 모친은 그가 영어를 잊지 않도록 AFKN을 주로 시청하게 했으며 저녁식사 때만큼은 영어로 대화하게 했다. 그 또한 『리더스 다이제스트』, 『뉴스위크』, 『타임』과 같은 시사 잡지를 빼놓지 않고 읽으며 어릴 때부터 국제관계에 대한 감각을 익혀나갔다. 당시 제2차 세계 대전을 다룬 미국 TV 프로그램 《Combat!》에 나오는 군인 샌더스 중사를 동경하던 그는 12살 때 국군의 날 시가행진을 보던 중 외삼촌에게 “군인이 되려면 육군사관학교에 가야 한다”는 말을 듣고 육사 진학을 희망하게 되었다. 그 뒤 리라국민학교와 대경중학교를 거쳐 1977년 경기고등학교를 졸업하고 육군사관학교 37기로 입교했다. 육사 동기생 가운데 입학 성적이 368명 중 367등이었으나 영어 시험은 만점을 받았던 그는 1981년 4월 3일 육군사관학교 전사학과 졸업과 동시에 육군 소위로 임관했다. 군인 생활 1981년 초임지인 30사단 90연대 15중대 3소대장으로 근무 중 1군단장 이기백 중장에게 발탁되어 대한민국 육군 최초로 중위 계급으로 3성 장군인 군단장 전속부관을 맡게 되었다. 이후 이기백 장군이 육군참모차장, 2야전군사령관에 이어 합동참모의장을 지낼 때까지 약 3년간 부관으로 임무를 수행했다. 1983년 10월 아웅 산 묘역 테러 사건 당시 이기백 대장은 합참의장으로 대통령을 수행했으며, 전인범 중위 또한 이기백 장군의 전속부관으로 아웅 산 묘소 참배에 동행하였다. 당시 폭탄 테러로 아수라장이 된 묘역에서 추가 폭발의 위험을 무릅쓰고 현장에 뛰어든 그는 중상을 입은 이기백 장군을 구출해내어 보국훈장 광복장을 수훈하였다. 그때 폭발로 온몸에 박힌 파편 제거수술을 받은 이기백 대장이 의식이 돌아오자 마자 “각하께선 괜찮으시냐, 지금 몇 시냐, 밥은 먹었냐”라고 묻는 모습에 상관과 부하를 저렇게 챙기고 위하는 게 진짜 군인이란 것을 느끼게 되었다. 후일 아웅 산 테러 사건을 회상하며 “폭발 순간 주차장에서 대기 중이었는데, 충격이 너무 커 일순간 정신을 잃을 정도였다”고 기억했다. 당시 현장에서 잠시 카메라 배터리를 가지러 주차장에 갔다온 덕에 테러 순간을 면한 그는 “경호원들이 권총을 뽑아 들고 무전기에 대고 ‘A지점에서 폭파’ 소리 지르더라. 그때부터 발이 움직이지 않더라. 누가 로켓을 쐈는지, 포탄을 쐈는지 알 수 없어서 ‘들어갈까 말까’ 이런 생각이 들었다”며 두려움이 있었으나 합참의장을 구하고자 현장으로 뛰어들어 그를 구조하였다고 회고하기도 했다. 1986년 30사단 90연대 2대대 10중대장 시절에는 육군의 우수 전투중대장에게 주는 재구상을 받기도 했다. 당시 초급 지휘관으로 중대원들의 사격 훈련 중 소총 사격 영점을 못 잡는 병사를 데려다가 실탄을 주고 자신은 표적지 앞에 서서 사격을 하게 해 영점을 잡게 했다는 일화가 있다. 군사정권 시절 그가 중대장을 역임한 부대는 대학생들의 데모가 일어나면 연세대학교를 점령하는 부대였는데, 그는 국민을 보호해야하는 군인이 대학생을 진압하라는 명령에 많은 갈등을 했다. 그래서 원래는 데모 때 중대장이 맨 뒤에 서서 진압을 지시하게 돼 있는데 그는 맨 앞으로 나가서 돌 맞더라도 제일 먼저 맞고 죽으려고 했다고 과거를 회고하였다. 소령으로 진급한 뒤에는 육군참모총장실에서 정책장교 및 군사외교협력장교 보직을 받아 많은 통번역 임무를 수행하였고, 이에 대한 공로를 인정받아 1992년 한미연합사령관 로버트 리즈카시 대장으로부터 육군표창훈장(Army Commendation Medal)을 받았다. 중령 때에는 한미연합사 작전참모부 연습처 을지포커스렌즈 연습장교를 맡아 세계에서 가장 규모가 큰 연합모의 연습을 기획하고 실행한 공로로 2002년 근무공로훈장(Meritorious Service Medal)을 받았다. 2004년 12월에는 이라크 다국적군사령부 선거지원과장으로 근무하면서 공정한 선거업무의 주역으로 외국군(미국, 영국, 호주, 루마니아)을 지휘·감독, 이라크 민주주의 탄생에 기여한 것으로 평가받았다. 한국이 이라크전 때 세 번째로 많은 병력을 보냈는데 다국적군사령부 참모 중에 한국군이 그 외에는 없어 처음에는 직속 부하들이 자신을 무시했다고 느낀 그였다. 그래서 바쁘다는 외국군 장군들 대신 브리핑을 하는 등 좋은 평가를 받고자 노력해 점차 조직을 장악하였다고 밝혔다. 그는 미군과 영국군, 호주군 장교 10여 명을 지휘해 5400개 선거구에서 치러지는 이라크 유권자 1400만 명의 투표를 지원 및 감독하였으며, 3500t에 이르는 선거 관련 물자를 각 투표소에 공급하고 치안 유지를 지원하는 일도 맡았다. 선거가 무사히 끝난 뒤 이라크 평화정착에 기여한 공로로 대한민국 정부로부터 화랑무공훈장을, 한국 군인으로서는 최초로 미국 정부로부터 동성훈장(Bronze Star Medal)을 받았다. 2006년 11월 육군사관학교 37기 동기생들 가운데 1차로 장성 진급자에 선발되어 8개월 뒤인 다음해 7월 준장으로 진급했다. 2007년 7월 국제 테러단체인 탈레반에 의한 아프간 한국인 납치 사건이 발생했을 때 대한민국 정부를 대표한 카불 군사협조단장으로 급파, 인질 구출작전을 지휘하여 사건 발생 43일 만에 21명의 인질을 구출하는데 주도적인 역할을 하였다. 그의 임무는 군사협조단 단장으로서 국제안보지원군사령부에 파견돼 협조체계를 구축하는 것으로, 외국군을 설득할 논리가 부족하니 그들에게 인간적으로 다가가자고 생각하였다. 우선 스웨덴군 소장에게 ‘사람들 살려야 한다’, ‘사무실이 필요하다’, ‘상황실 출입을 허가해달라’, ‘인터넷, 유선전화, 휴대전화 쓰게 해달라’, ‘숙식 제공해달라’ 등을 부탁했다. 상황실에서는 유학시절에 알고 지낸 독일군, 미군을 만나 사람들이 죽고 사는 문제이니 많이 도와달라고 요청하기도 했다. 이렇게 군사협조단을 통해 수집된 인질 및 탈레반 세력의 동향 첩보 등은 정부가 대책을 마련하는데 기초자료가 됐고, 특히 인질 억류지역에서 동맹군의 불필요한 군사행동을 억제한 노력은 인질의 생명을 보호하는데 결정적으로 기여한 것으로 평가되었다. 이 공로로 대통령 표창을 받았다. 2009년 11월 소장으로 진급해 제27보병사단장에 임명되었다. 그는 장병들에게 훈련을 많이 시키는 장군으로 유명했지만 병사들의 병영 생활 자율성을 키워야 한다고 주장해왔다. 그래서 사단장 재임 기간 중 병사들에게 당시에는 어려웠던 평일 외출과 같은 복지 여건을 많이 만들려고 노력했었다. 또한 그는 전역하는 병사들을 위해 전역식을 열어주고 직접 참석해 “군 생활 하느라 고생했는데 내가 줄 건 육군 소장의 경례밖에 없다”며 전역병들에게 부동자세로 경례를 해주었고, 부대를 방문한 군수사령관 앞에서 병사들에게 보급되는 슬리퍼의 열악함을 토로하며 보급에 대한 확답을 받을 때까지 사령관 앞에서 슬리퍼를 물고 있기도 하는 등 장병들의 처우 개선을 위해 진력했다. 부대 소재 지역 주민들을 위한 대민 봉사활동과 산천어축제 등 대규모 문화관광 행사 지원에도 노력하여 훗날 그가 사단장을 이임하고 한미연합사로 영전한다는 소식이 전해지자 지역 주민들은 “전 사단장의 도움에 보답코자 이임 후 공적비를 건립키로 주민들이 뜻을 모았다”며 아쉬움을 나타냈다. 2011년 5월에는 한·미 연합작전 태세를 발전시킨 공과 한·미 우호관계 증진 노력을 인정받아 미국이 외국군에게 주는 최고등급 훈장인 공로훈장(Legion of Merit)을 수훈하였다. 그는 2008년 11월부터 2009년 11월까지 합동참모본부 전시작전통제권 전환 추진단장으로 근무 중 한미가 2007년에 합의한 전작권 전환을 구체적으로 진행하면서 150개에 달하는 전환 과제를 계발하고 진행을 감독하며 미측과의 긴밀한 협의를 추진, 복잡한 전환 과정을 관리하는 총 책임을 맡은 바 있다. 미국으로부터 이 훈장을 수훈한 외국인으로는 중화민국 총통 장제스, 영국 국왕 조지 6세, 소련군 총사령관 원수 게오르기 주코프, 프랑스 대통령 샤를 드 골 등이 있다. 2011년 11월 18일 미국 국방부와의 인터뷰에서 미국인들에게 전하고 싶은 메시지가 있느냐는 질문에 영화 《스파이더맨 시리즈》가 시사하는 교훈을 언급하였다. 그는 “《스파이더맨 1》은 우리에게 ‘큰 힘에는 큰 책임이 따른다(With great power comes great responsibility)’는 것을 가르쳐 주고 《스파이더맨 2》는 원하지 않아도 해야만 하는 일이 있음을 알려준다”며 안보의식 고취를 위해 미국인들은 《스파이더맨 1, 2》를 평생 동안 적어도 세 번 이상 보아야 한다고 권하기도 했다. 같은 달 21일 사단장 임기를 마치고 한미연합군사령부 작전참모차장으로 영전했으며, 1년 5개월 뒤인 2013년 4월에는 한미연합사 부참모장 겸 유엔군사령부 군사정전위원회 수석대표에 취임하였다. 수석대표 재임 당시 군정위에 한국군이 참모로 보직되도록 유엔사 측과 협의하여 관철시킨 바 있다. 2013년 10월 중장 진급과 함께 특수전사령관에 임명되었고, 동년 11월에는 한미연합방위체계 구축과 한미동맹 강화, 상호 유대관계 증진에 이바지한 공로를 인정받아 미국 정부로부터 공로훈장을 다시 한 번 수훈하였다. 2013년 현재 그는 한미 양국으로부터 총 8개의 훈장을 받아 대한민국 현역 장성 중 최다 훈장 수상자로 알려져 있다. 특전사령관 취임 후 부대의 장비 구입을 위한 예산 확보, 새로운 장비의 개발, 해외 특수부대와의 교류협력 등 특전사의 전투력 강화를 위한 개혁을 주도하고 있다는 평을 받았다. 피카티니 레일이나 광학장비와 같이 관행적으로 몰래 사용하던 사제 장비들의 사용을 허용하는 등 기존의 과도한 제재 규정들은 폐지시켰으며, 특히 헬기 사격, 천리행군 인증제 도입과 같이 과거에 하지 않던 실전적 훈련들을 대거 강화하였다. 우선 일반 병사보다 3배 정도 총을 더 쏘는 특전사 요원의 사격량을 5배로 늘렸고 전진하면서 사격할 때 탄피받이를 못 쓰게 하였다. 탄피 하나 없어지면 전 부대원이 나서서 찾아야 하는 것이 매우 비생산적인 일이라고 생각한 그는 대신 탄피를 주울 필요가 없도록 전진 사격 훈련시 1명이 뒤따라가게 하여 실제 몇 발을 쏘는지 세게 하였다. 또한 사령관 취임 당시 특전사에 체계적인 체력 증진 프로그램이 없어 특전사에서 35년간 복무했고 체력 단련과 관련해 박사 학위를 받은 한 원사에게 12개 코스의 프로그램을 만들도록 지시했다. 그 결과 특전사 요원의 허벅지가 평균 1cm 커졌고 체력 프로그램 시행 후 6개월 뒤 미군 특전사 요원들과 경기를 해 수영을 제외한 나머지 종목을 한국 특전사 요원들이 다 이기게 하기도 하였다. 이와 같은 훈련들은 특전사의 실제 전투력을 극대화하고 있다는 평가를 받고 있다. 그리고 긴박한 전장상황에서 오역 가능성을 최소화하고 한미 연합작전 수행능력 향상을 위해 전군 최초로 한국군은 영어로, 미군은 한국어로 브리핑하는 제도를 시행했다. 전 사령관은 이러한 자신의 개혁적인 행보에 관해 “모든 3성 장군은 4성 장군이 되고 싶어하고 4성 장군이 되는 게 군인으로서 더 없는 영광이라는 것을 나 역시 알고 있다. 일각에선 내가 부대 훈련을 실전적으로 바꾸고 개혁을 하면서 무리수를 두어 4성 장군이 되지 못할 것이라고 걱정한다. 하지만 나는 특수전사령관이고 내 임무는 4성 장군이 되는 것이 아니라 싸워서 백전백승 할 수 있는 세계 최고의 특수전 부대를 만드는 게 나의 사명이다”라고 밝혔다. 훗날 그가 사령관을 이임한 뒤 사제 장비는 장병들의 통일성을 해치고 위화감을 조성한다는 이유로 금지되었다. 이에 대해 특전사에 부대장비 및 개인물자를 납품하고 연구하는 특전사 출신의 한 예비역 대위는 “우리 군은 지나치게 ‘군복제 규정’에 얽매여 있다. 전인범 前 특전사령관은 유연한 사고를 가진 지휘관이었다. 그는 “‘군복제 규정’보다 임무와 전술향상이 더 중요하다. 사고를 유연히 하고 우수 장비라면 사제라도 활용하라”라고 이야기하면서 전술장비 및 피복의 사용과 발전을 장려했지만, 그가 교체되면서 이런 유연한 사고는 다시 움츠러들었다. 우리 군의 유연한 사고는 지휘관에 따라 들쑥날쑥 하다”며 아쉬움을 소회했다. 뉴데일리 군사전문기자 태상호는 “전인범 前 특수전사령관 같은 깨어 있는 특수전 지휘관들이 (특수부대의 역량을 강화시키기 위해) 고군분투를 했지만 특수작전에 대한 군내외부의 중요성 인식 부족과 비대칭 전력을 이해하지 못하고 큰 군(Big Army)만 중요시 하는 풍토로 인해 그 노력은 수포로 돌아갔다”라고 현 한국군에 대해 비판했다. 2014년 12월에는 공무 출장 중 터키군 총사령부 재활병원을 방문, 6·25 전쟁 참전용사인 알리 젱기스 투르크오울루를 위문하였다. 그는 6·25 전쟁 기간 가장 치열한 격전지 중 한 곳으로 꼽히는 평안북도 군우리 전투에서 터키군 1여단 소속 소대를 이끌었고, 보육원도 운영하며 많은 전쟁고아를 보살폈다. 전인범 중장은 “우리나라가 눈부신 경제성장을 이룩할 수 있었던 것은 참전용사들의 숭고한 희생정신이 있었기에 가능했다”고 말했다. 2015년 4월 5일부터 12일까지는 미국 통합특수전사령부와 미 육군 특수전사령부를 직접 방문, 미 통합특전사령관 조셉 보텔 대장과 미 육군 특전사령관 찰스 클리브렌드 중장을 만나 한·미 연합 특수작전에 대한 실질적 협력 방안을 논의했다. 그는 저격용 소총과 미군 주력 소총인 M4, 권총, 산탄총, 박격포, 방탄복 등을 점검하고 체험하는 등 미군 특전사의 장비와 무기를 현장 견학하고 실제 사격도 하였다. 이와 함께 방미 기간 동안 시애틀에 있는 6·25 참전 기념공원을 찾아 참전용사비에 헌화하기도 했다. 2015년 4월 14일 특수전사령관 임기를 마치고 제1야전군 부사령관으로 영전하였다. 특전사령관 이임사에서 그는 “우리는 야수의 본능을 잃어가는 동물원의 사자가 아닌 초원을 질주하며 천하를 호령하는 용맹함을 간직한 대한민국 육군의 대표부대 특전사 검은 베레 용사들”이라며 “누구도 할 수 없다고 생각하지만 ‘안 되면 되게 하라’는 투철한 사명감으로 도전하고 노력하는 정신이 바로 특전 정신이다. 우리들 특전용사에게 결코 불가능은 없다”고 강조했다. 2015년 6월 뉴 웨스트민스터 대학(New Westminster College)의 특별연구원(Distinguished Fellow)으로 선정되었다. 뉴 웨스트민스터 대학 총장 로버트 굿윈 3세는 “그는 윤리적 리더십에서 괄목한 성과를 내었고 교육훈련에 평생 동안 헌신해왔다”며 “현 세계의 국가적 안보 위협에 대한 이해는 그가 정부의 국제적, 국가적, 지역 단위 이해관계자들의 민군 상호운용성과 방위협약에 대한 가치 있는 통찰력을 갖추게 하였다. 이것은 우리의 리더십, 외교와 사이버 보안에 관한 연구의 설계와 전달에 있어 가치를 따질 수 없을 정도로 귀중한 것이다. 위원회와 나는 그가 우리 뉴 웨스트민스터 대학의 새로운 특별연구원이 된 것을 매우 영광스럽게 생각한다”고 밝혔다. 전인범 중장은 특별연구원으로서 학문적 수월성의 최고위 기준에 대한 지원에 공헌해왔고, 뉴 웨스트민스터 대학과 연구원들의 세계적인 조직망 발전에 헌신해왔다고 알려졌다. 이 대학의 특별연구원으로는 필리핀 대통령 피델 라모스, 체코 대통령 바츨라프 클라우스, 캐나다 국방참모총장 대장 레이 헤노 등이 있으며, 특별연구원으로 선정된 인물 125명 가운데 한국인은 그가 최초이다. 2016년 5월 미국 통합특수전사령부 훈장(USSOCOM Medal)을 받았다. 미 특수전 발전에 공로가 있는 개인에게 수여되는 이 훈장은 1994년 제정된 이후 한국군이 받는 것은 그가 처음이다. 미 통합특수전사령부는 미 육군과 해군(해병대), 공군의 특수전사령부를 지휘하는 3군 통합사령부로, 전 중장은 2013년 10월부터 2015년 4월까지 한국 특전사령관 겸 연합특전사령관으로 재직하며 연합작전에 기여한 공로를 인정받아 이 훈장을 받게 되었다. 미 통합특수전사령부는 훈장 수여 증서를 통해 “연합특전사령관으로서 미 최정예 특수부대와 네이비 실(SEAL), 특수전 항공자산 등 1000여 명 이상의 미군을 훌륭하게 지휘했으며, 뛰어난 전문지식과 공익을 위한 헌신으로 한미연합군의 전략적 목표 달성을 위한 연합작전을 성공적으로 수행했다”고 밝혔다. 더불어 전 장군의 추진력과 창의력, 그리고 흔들리지 않는 결의와 함께 장기 비전이 대한민국 방어에 기여했다고 평가했다. 또한 전 장군의 남다른 노력과 뛰어난 리더십, 그리고 개인의 추진력은 대한민국과 한미연합사에 큰 기여가 됐다고 전했다. 2016년 7월 28일 특수전사령부 연병장에서 35년간의 군 생활을 마치는 전역식을 가졌고 같은 달 31일 전역하였다. 이날 전역식에는 한미연합사령관 빈센트 브룩스 대장, 미 8군사령관 토마스 밴달 중장, 미 2사단장 테드 마틴 소장 등 주한미군 수뇌부와 이기백, 정호용, 김동진, 김태영 전 국방부 장관 등 한미 양국 군 관계자들이 참석해 전 중장의 전역을 축하했다. 그는 이 자리에서 국가안전보장에 기여한 공로로 한국 정부의 보국훈장 국선장과 한미동맹 강화에 기여한 공로로 미국 정부의 공로훈장을 각각 받았으며, 특히 보국훈장 국선장은 그가 중위 시절 합참의장으로 모셨던 이기백 전 국방장관이 걸어주었다. 전 중장은 전역사에서 선배 장군들과 미군 장성들, 동기, 후배들을 거론하면서 최선을 다했지만 부족했던 자신에게 아낌없는 지원과 후원을 보내준 것에 고마움을 표했다. 그는 “군인들이 진급할 때마다 ‘국가와 국민을 보호하기 위하여 헌법을 수호하고 봉사와 헌신의 자세로 부여된 임무를 완수하고, 상관의 명령에 복종하겠다’고 약속하는데 저는 여러분과 함께 이 약속을 지켰다. 감사하다”고 말했으며, 마지막으로 “안 되면 되게 하라 검은 베레 영원하라”는 특전 정신을 외치며 전역사를 마쳤다. 전역 직후인 9월 언론과 가진 인터뷰에서는 “남자로 태어나 한평생 국가를 지키고 국민을 보호했다는 데 보람을 느낀다”며 동물자유연대 회원으로서 “앞으로 개와 고양이를 위해 열심히 활동하고 싶고 길 가다가 휴지 떨어져 있으면 주우면서 살겠다”고 말하기도 했다. 예편과 문재인 캠프 합류 2016년 10월부터 브루킹스 연구소 동아시아정책연구센터 방문학자(Visiting Scholar), 존스 홉킨스 대학교 국제관계대학원 객원연구원(Visiting Fellow)으로 1년 동안 활동했다. 미국 연구기관의 연수는 연수자가 주제를 선정해 그 분야를 연구하며 자신의 전문 분야를 다른 연구자들과 공유하는 활동을 하는데, 그는 전시작전통제권 문제, 한국의 핵무장, 한미 군사동맹 강화 방안 등을 중심으로 연구하였다. 연수 3개월 동안 프린스턴 대학교 등 학교에서 특강, 브루킹스 연구소에서 주관하는 세미나 참여, 워싱턴 내의 많은 연구소와 기관 발표, 세미나, 회의에 참석해 미국의 생각을 이해하고 한국의 입장을 미국 전문가들에게 적극 설명하였다고 말했다. 2017년 1월에는 특전사 예비역들을 중심으로 결성되어 전국적으로 2만 6천여 명의 회원이 활동하고 있는 비영리 사단법인 봉사단체인 특전동지회의 제2대 총재로 취임하였다. 전 총재는 취임사를 통해 “새로운 시대 변화에 부응하는 대한민국 친목단체의 새로운 章을 열겠다”고 다짐하며, “현역 후배들의 권익을 위해 앞장서고, 회원을 편애하지 않는 모두의 특전동지회로 만들어 나가겠다”고 포부를 역설했다. 같은 달 북한의 김정은 노동당 위원장에게 대륙간탄도미사일 개발 등의 재고를 촉구하는 내용으로 A4 용지 4장 분량의 영문편지를 보내기도 하였다. ‘김정은 위원장님께: 전 대한민국 육군 중장의 공개편지’라는 제목의 이 편지에서 그는 “평화를 추구할 기회는 언제나 열려 있습니다”라면서 “가장 필수적인 첫 단계는 공공연한 위협의 회피, 핵과 미사일 실험의 중단, 핵무기 개발부터 인권에 이르기까지 신뢰를 증진시킬 협상에 참여하는 것 등을 포함합니다”라고 평화 프로세스를 제안했다. 2017년 2월 더불어민주당 제19대 대통령 선거 경선 후보 문재인의 대선 경선 캠프인 ‘더문캠’의 안보자문위원으로 활동을 시작했음을 자신의 페이스북을 통해 밝혔다. 이에 앞서 그는 2월 4일 문재인 후보가 경희대학교 평화의 전당에서 자신의 저서인 《대한민국이 묻는다》를 주제로 연 북 콘서트에 국방·안보분야 패널로 참석, 문 후보를 가리키며 “이분하고 함께하면 우리나라 안보를 든든히 하고 한미 관계를 튼튼히 해 우리 국민들이 앞으로 걱정없이 살 수 있겠구나 하는 확신이 있었다. 문 전 대표는 빨갱이가 아닌 것으로 확신한다”고 말하며 문재인 캠프 합류 선언을 하였다. 그는 이 자리에서 군 복무 시절 전방에서 쓰던 랜턴을 문재인에게 선물하며 “불을 밝혀 인재를 찾으시라. 그리고 집권하면 (반대파를 포함해) 모든 국민을 포용하라. 그러면 위대한 대통령이 될 수 있다”고 진언했다. 3성 장군 출신의 대선 후보 지지 선언이 전례 없는 여론의 각광을 받자 조선일보는 “송영무, 박종헌 등 참모총장 출신 4성 장군 두 명을 포함, 장성 10명이 문재인 캠프에 참여했을 때는 이런 현상이 없었다. 그만큼 ‘의외’로 받아들여지는 것 같다”고 평했다. 후일 전인범 영입을 기획한 것은 전적으로 문재인 후보의 작품임이 밝혀지기도 하였다. 당시 그를 영입하고자 다가온 많은 정치계 인사들에게 그는 군 개혁에 대하여 강하게 호소했으나 어느 누구도 그의 의견을 진지하게 들어주는 이가 없었고, 그중 유일하게 진지하게 들어준 사람이 문재인 후보였기에 안보자문 합류를 결정하였다. 하지만 문재인 대선 경선 캠프에서 호감형은 아니었다는 그는 문재인 캠프 내의 안보 인사들이 모인 더불어민주당 안보정책 토론회에서 “군 복무도 제대로 안 한 사람들이 무슨 안보자문이냐”고 일갈했다는 일화가 있다. 또한 그 자리에서 “지금 우리나라 국방의 가장 큰 문제는 훈련을 할 수 없다는 것”이라며 “훈련을 하면 반드시 사고가 나도록 돼 있는데 그럴 경우 소대장부터 대대장까지 무한책임을 지우고, 박근혜 정부에서는 심지어 참모총장까지 보직해임을 시켰다”고 군에 대해 비판했다. 이어 “훈련을 할 수 없으니 전시작전권 환수도 못하고 아무것도 못한다. 북한이 이걸 알고 우리를 우습게 본다고 태영호 공사도 언급하더라”고 강조하면서 군 지휘관들이 훈련에 수반되는 책임 추궁을 피하기에 급급하다 보니 제대로 된 훈련이 이뤄지지 않는다고 지적하였다. 자문위원 직은 맡았으나 더불어민주당에는 입당하지 않음을 강조한 그는 외교·안보 문제에 대해 문재인 전 대표와 차이가 있을 때는 적극적으로 대응하겠다고 밝혔다. 이와 관련해 사드 한반도 배치 문제에 대해서는 “중국의 경제적 압력에 굴복하지 않고, 기존 한미 정부 간 합의는 존중한다는 두 가지를 선언해야 한다”고 말함으로써, 그동안 한중관계를 고려해 사드 배치 재검토를 주장해온 야권과는 결이 다른 의견을 표명한 바 있다. 이에 문재인 전 대표도 “사드 배치는 차기 정부로 넘겨 국회 비준 등 공론화 과정을 거쳐야 한다”면서도 “한미간 합의가 이뤄진 것이라 쉽게 취소하기 어렵다”며 유연한 입장을 취했다. 그의 문재인 캠프 합류에 실망한 일부 보수세력의 거센 비난이 쏟아지자 그는 페이스북을 통해 문재인 지지 선언의 이유를 설명했다. 친정인 군을 향한 비판에 육군은 공식 브리핑에서 “특전사 장병들이 생존용으로 사용하는 특수작전 칼을 당초 7만원씩에 구입하려고 했으나 더 나은 15만원짜리로 구입하기로 하고 2022년까지 모두 18억500만원을 예산에 편성했다”고 해명했으나, 2017년 예산에는 특수작전 칼 예산이 거의 반영되지 않은 것으로 드러났다. 육군 관계자는 시범사업으로 구입했다가 나중에 평가에서 합격해야 향후 5년간 18억원으로 칼을 구입하게 된다는 뜻에서 “올해는 시범사업으로 소량만 구입할 예정이며 예산은 5000만원”이라고 재차 해명했다. 2017년 2월 7일 오마이뉴스와의 인터뷰에서 그가 문재인을 지지하게 된 이유를 구체적으로 밝혔다. 왜 문재인을 돕기로 마음먹게 되었는지에 대한 질문에 “(문재인이) 저를 한번 보자고 그래서 궁금해서 만났다. 그 전부터 좋은 사람이라는 생각은 있었다. 만나보니까 좋은 분이고, 지적이더라. 공부하는 분이고. 근데 그날 제가 기분 나쁜 소리도 많이 했다. (- 안보관을 지적했나) 음…. 하여튼 그 기분 나쁜 소리를 다 받아주더라. 저는 그게 중요하다고 생각한다. 제가 설득하는 건 둘째고, 일단 잘 들어줬다는 게 중요하다. 그래서 도와야겠다고 생각했다”고 말했다. 훗날 자세히 밝혀진 바로는 문재인은 그를 영입하기 위해 10번이나 만나는 등 공을 들였으며, 전인범이 무슨 쓴소리를 해도 납작 엎드리며 “도와 달라”고 읍소하였다고 한다. 그래서 전인범은 고민 끝에 친분을 쌓아온 미군과 국무부 인사들에게 “문재인이 도와달라고 하는데 어떻게 생각하나”고 물어본 결과, 돌아온 대답은 “당신이 한·미 중간에서 문재인을 완화하는 역할을 해야 한다”며 그를 도와주라는 것이었다. 하여 그는 작심하고 문재인을 만나 “나도 나이가 60이다. 세 가지만 들어달라. 첫째, 사드(THAAD)가 중요하다. 미국과 한 약속은 무슨 일이 있어도 어기면 안 된다. 둘째, 중국의 경제적 압력에 굴하지 말라. 셋째, 전시작전권 전환을 임기 중에 밀어붙이지 말라”는 조건을 걸었고, 이를 문재인이 수용하면서 그가 문재인 지지 선언을 하게 되었다고 전해진다. 한편 전인범 중장이 전역식 때 전역사를 하면서 5·18 광주 민주화 운동 유혈 진압 책임자인 정호용을 고마운 선배로 언급한 것에 관해서는 “저는 죄는 미워도 사람은 미워하지 말자는 걸 중시하는 사람이다. 그분의 잘못된 부분을 옹호할 생각은 없다. 그런데 그분이 굉장히 인간적인 사람이다. 아랫사람들을 배려하는 사람이다. 그런 측면에서 이야기한 거지, 5·18과 관련해 그를 옹호하려는 건 아니다”라고 답했다. 뒤이어 5·18에 대해서는 “일선 군인들은 아무 죄가 없다고 생각한다. 오늘도 호남 분하고 이야기를 하며 ‘저는 언젠가 광주 5·18 묘역에 그때 죽은 군인들이 같이 묻혔으면 한다’고 말했다. 그리고 지금도 발포 명령을 누가 내렸는지 아무도 모르잖나. 지휘 체계가 문란했던 점이 당시 군의 잘못이지 하사들이 무슨 죄가 있나. 특전사가 살인마처럼 비춰지는 건 바뀌었으면 한다. 하여튼 저는 전두환 전 대통령이 발포를 지시했다고 생각하지 않는다. 그러나 책임을 면할 수 없다. 그래서 그들이 감옥에도 가고 그런 것 아닌가. 정호용은 그런 책임이 있지만, 제가 이야기했던 건 그분이 인간적으로 부하를 대했다는 것이다. 그 부분을 본받고, 감사하게 생각한다는 것이다”라고 이야기했다. 이와 같은 그의 5·18에 대한 견해에 우파 언론인임에도 5·18을 반공적 민주화 운동으로 높이 평가하는 조갑제는 “여러 번의 국가적 수사와 조사에서 광주 사태 초기엔 상급 지휘부의 발포 명령 자체가 없었으며 현장 상황이 워낙 급하여 자위적 차원의 대응발포로 비극이 시작되었다는 사실이 확정되었다. 물론 전두환 국군보안사령관의 발포 명령은 없었다”며 전인범의 발언을 옹호하였다. 그러나 그의 5·18 발언을 문제 삼은 정치권에서 부인인 심화진 성신여대 총장이 학교 공금 횡령 혐의로 1심에서 징역형을 선고 받은 것까지 싸잡아 공격하며 논란이 불거지자, 그는 광주 항쟁에 대한 표현의 부족으로 심려를 끼쳐 사과드린다는 말과 함께 다시 미국 연수과정으로 돌아가겠다는 의사를 밝혔다. 그는 “저는 다시 미국 연수과정으로 돌아가 북핵을 바라보는 엄중함과 심각함, 오랜 동안 지속돼온 혈맹으로서의 미국에 대한 변함없는 지지, 이를 통한 더욱 굳건한 한미 동맹관계 발전이라는 문 전 대표의 안보관을 알리는 데에 미력이나마 도움이 되도록 노력하겠다”며 “멀리서나마 문 전 대표와 대한민국의 승리를 기원하겠다”고 덧붙였다. 이에 문재인 후보 측 관계자는 “누를 끼친 데 대한 글을 올리시고 미국에서도 돕겠다고 한 것은 ‘자숙’으로 보면 된다”고 설명하며 “안보, 군사 분야에 대한 자문은 계속 하실 것”이라고 언급하였다. 문재인이 대통령에 당선되고 이틀 후 청와대 관계자는 “대선 과정에서 공을 들여 영입한 전인범 전 특전사령관이 문 대통령의 외교안보라인 구상의 한 축이었는데 그가 중도 하차하면서 인사가 꼬였다”고 발언함으로서 문재인 정부는 출범과 함께 그를 중용할 계획이었음을 나타냈다. 이렇듯 그는 문재인 정부 출범 이후에도 정부의 안보정책을 자문해 주었다. 해외 연수 2017년 5월 23일부터 25일까지 미국 하와이 호놀룰루에서 열린 아시아태평양지상군(LANPAC) 심포지엄에 초청을 받아 한미동맹의 중요성과 발전 방안에 대해 발표하였다. 전인범 중장은 이례적으로 예비역 한국 장군임에도 불구하고 각 국의 현직 육군 최고 수뇌부가 참석하는 이 심포지엄에 초청을 받아 예비역으로는 유일하게 발표했는데, 현직 미군 주요 지휘관들은 물론 전직 미군 수뇌부들로부터 한·미 군사동맹과 한·미 연합전력 극대화 해법에 대한 가장 신뢰할 수 있는 한국군 출신으로 평가받고 있어 이 심포지엄에도 초청되었다. 그는 발표문에서 “한미간 긴밀한 연합작전과 지휘통제를 강화하기 위해서는 효율적인 전술지휘통제자동화체계(C⁴I)가 기반되어야 하며 양국간 언어장벽의 문제를 보다 깊이 있게 이해하고 문화의 차이를 이해하는 등 상호 이해를 증진시키기 위한 노력이 필요하다”는 점을 역설하였고, “미국이 우리나라의 주도적 역할을 인정하고 우리나라는 주도적 역할을 할 수 있는 능력을 키워야 한다”고 주장했다. 또한 심포지엄이 끝나고 연합뉴스와 가진 인터뷰에서 “미군 발표자들 대부분은 기조연설과 발표문에서 북한을 ‘부상하는 적(rising adversary)’으로 지칭했다”면서 “미국이 핵과 미사일 개발에 질주하는 북한을 어떻게 인식하고 있는지를 잘 보여주는 말”이라고 전했다. 1년 간의 미국 연수 기간 동안 그는 케네소 주립 대학교, 템플 대학교, 외교정책연구소 등 미국 전역의 대학과 연구소, 로펌을 찾아 한반도 갈등이 미국 국민들의 일상에 미칠 파급력에 대해 강연하였다. 2017년 10월 8일 매일경제와의 인터뷰에서 강연을 하기 전에 먹고 사는 문제부터 이야기를 시작한다는 그는 실용적인 문제부터 언급하는 것이 평범한 미국인들에게 한반도 갈등이 미국에 어떤 경제적 영향을 미칠지를 효과적으로 이해시킬 수 있는 방법이라고 설명했다. 미국은 세계를 상대하는 최강대국이자 선진국이나 미국인들 또한 한국인과 마찬가지로 먹고 사는 문제가 제일 중요하다며, 이렇게 경제적으로 접근하는 방식을 통해 한국의 입장을 최대한 객관적이고 진솔하게 얘기하는 것이 나라를 지키고 애국하는데 조금이라도 보탬이 될 것이라 생각한다고 밝혔다. 한 달 후인 11월 13일 판문점 조선인민군 병사 귀순 총격 사건 당시 귀순한 오청성 하사가 국군에 의해 구출될 때까지 생존해 있을 수 있던 것은 북한 신속대응군 추격조가 오 하사를 급히 쫓느라 호흡 조절에 실패해 급소를 가격하는 소위 ‘킬 샷(kill shot)’을 하지 못했기 때문이라고 설명하였다. 전 전 사령관은 “CCTV 영상을 보면 전력 질주하는 오 하사를 쫓느라 AK 소총을 든 두 북한 경비병은 300m 이상, 권총을 든 두 경비병 추격조는 200m 이상 전력 질주했다”며 “추격조는 최정예 특수부대원으로 구성되지만 오래 뛰다 보니 총을 쏠 때 호흡이 안정되지 않았다”고 말했다. 그는 “특히 오 하사가 추격조의 사격에 노출된 시간은 10초가 채 안 돼 정확한 조준 사격이 이뤄지지 않았다”며 “그 덕에 심장, 대동맥, 정동맥 등 출혈을 많이 일으키는 곳이나 신경계인 머리 척추와 같은 급소를 맞지 않아 살 수 있었다”고 분석했다. 그는 또 “총탄은 몸에 박히면 여러 갈래로 쪼개지면서 간이나 비장, 폐 등 장기에 손상을 주도록 설계된다”며 “그런데 오 하사와 추격조 간 거리가 살상 효과가 높은 50m보다 짧아 관통한 총알이 많아서 살상 효과가 충분히 발휘되지 못했다”고 말했다. 그는 “총탄이 몸을 관통할 경우 출혈을 빨리 멈추게 하고 패혈증만 막으면 살릴 확률이 높아진다”며 급소만 피하면 총알이 몸에 박히는 것보다 관통하는 것이 생존에 유리하다고 설명했다. 2018년 6월 예비역 신분인 그의 주도로 국회의원회관에서 특수작전 전술 및 장비 현대화를 위한 세미나 ‘제1회 특수·지상작전 세미나’가 개최되었다. 그간 국가 안보전략과 국방 관련 정책 토론회는 많았으나, 일선 전투원들과 직접적으로 연관된 전술 및 장비 관련 세미나가 공개적으로 개최된 적은 없었기에 눈길을 끌었다. 세미나에서 전인범 전 특전사령관은 효율적인 강한 군대를 만들기 위해서는 육군의 특전사를 비롯해 수색·특공부대, 해군 및 해병대, 공군의 지상작전 부대의 정예화가 이뤄져야 한다고 강조했다. 그는 “이를 위해서는 해외의 사례를 우리 상황에 맞게 적용할 수 있을지를 심도 있게 연구해야 한다”면서 “실전에 맞지 않는 전술 및 장비소요(구매 요청 및 구매)는 과감하게 개선돼야 할 것”이라고 말했다. 전 중장은 세미나 참석자들의 적극적인 참여를 유도하기 위해 형식과 틀을 깬 어법과 행동으로 참석자들로부터 박수를 받기도 하였다. 해당 세미나는 특수·지상작전연구회, 군사전문지 플래툰 등 민간이 주도한 최초의 개방형 군사 세미나로, 세미나 준비를 해온 특수·지상작전연구회 소속 정진만 아세아항공전문학교 교수는 “당초 100명 미만의 규모로 세미나를 준비했는데 150여 명 이상이 참석했고 상당수 인원이 참석을 원했는데 장소가 비좁아서 받을 수 없어 안타까웠다”고 말했다. 같은 달 한국자유총연맹 부총재에 임명, 9월에는 그를 단장으로 하는 자유총연맹 대표단이 웨스트 포토맥 공원 내 한국전참전기념공원에 들어 설 한국전쟁 미군 참전용사 추모벽 건립에 1만 달러를 기증했다. 그는 “한국전참전기념공원에 추모의 벽이 설치된다는 이야기를 듣고 한국자유총연맹 중앙회 차원에서 1만 달러를 즉석에서 마련, 기탁하게 됐다”면서 “한국자유총연맹은 특정정파에 치우치지 않고 정치 중립을 지키면서 국가에 이익이 되고 국민에게 행복을 주는 국리민복을 기본 가치로 하고 있다”고 밝혔다. 11월 조지아 공과대학교 샘 넌 국제대학원에서 특별방문연구원(Distinguished Visiting Fellow)으로 연수 중인 그는 한국일보와의 인터뷰에서 문재인 정부의 전시작전통제권 환수 추진에 대해 “전작권 환수가 군사적 요인인 작전수행능력보다 정치적 요인인 민족의 자주권을 우선에 두고 추진된 면이 있다고 생각한다. 전작권을 민족의 자주권과 연결 짓는 것은 바람직하지 않다. 전작권 환수는 오로지 효율적인 작전수행능력의 관점에서 추진돼야 한다”는 의견을 피력했다. 그러면서 ‘작전 통제권’이라는 개념이 대다수 국민의 생각보다 제한적임을 천안함 피격 사건을 예로 들어 설명하며 “어떤 나라가 다른 나라의 영해에 들어와서 어뢰를 갈겨서 그 나라의 해군 장병 46명을 살해했다. 이건 전쟁인가, 도발인가. 내가 보기엔 전쟁 상황이다. 바로 보복을 했어야 한다”면서 “하지만 한국과 미국 대통령이 전화로 전쟁 선포를 합의하지 않았다. 이 경우 전시가 아니다”라고 말했다. 이어 “한국이 국익을 고려해 미국과 합의로 전쟁을 선포하지 않으면 작전 통제권은 미국에 넘어가지 않는다”며 전작권을 자존심 문제로 바라보는 일반 국민의 인식에 전환이 필요함을 주장했다. 후일 문재인 정부 임기 내 전작권 전환이 어렵다는 시각이 지배적이게 되자 과거 문재인 대선 경선 캠프에 참여할 때 내걸었던 조건인 ‘전작권 전환을 서두르지 않을 것’을 상기하며 임기 내 전작권 전환이 어려워져 다행이라는 입장을 밝히기도 하였다. 앞으로의 계획을 묻는 기자의 질문에는 “꾸준히 한미 우호를 위한 활동을 하고 있다. 이외에 동물복지단체인 동물자유연대 이사로 동물들의 자유를 위한 일도 하고 있다. 2015년부터 무려 3년 4개월간 8평의 좁은 내실에 갇혀 살던 사자 가족 3마리를 2018년 6월 넓은 땅 미국 콜로라도주 덴버에 위치한 야생동물보호소 ‘와일드 애니멀 생츄어리(The Wild Animal Sanctuary)’로 보내줬다. 앞으로는 열악한 환경에서 사육되는 500여 마리 곰들의 자유를 위해서도 애쓸 계획이다”라고 밝혔다. 귀국 이후 2019년 1월 해외 연수를 마치고 귀국, 2월 육군교육사령부와 본인이 고문을 맡고 있는 특수·지상작전연구회는 미래전장환경에 대비한 지상군의 발전을 위해 9개 분야에 대한 양해각서를 체결했다. 전인범 고문은 “특수·지상작전연구회는 지상전의 미래는 정예부대에 있으며 그 중심에는 특전사와 특공, 수색, 특경, 해병 수색 그리고 SEAL 등이 있다고 생각한다”면서 “정예부대원이 전투력의 핵심이고, 정신전력과 전투체력, 장비 및 훈련, 리더십이 전승(戰勝)의 요인이라고 믿는다”고 말했다. 이어 특수·지상작전연구회는 사람이 제일 중요하다는 점을 강조하면서 “그동안 우리 군이 깊게 고민하지 못했던 소화기, 탄약, 장구류, 소부대 통신, 응급의무, 드론, 폭약류, 침투/퇴출자산, 개인의 사이버 능력 등 9개 분야를 중심으로 연구·발전해 지상전 전투력 향상에 기여할 것”이라고 덧붙였다. 3월 특수·지상작전연구회에서 워리어 플랫폼 사업의 건전한 발전방향을 제시하는 ‘제2회 특수·지상작전 세미나’의 1, 2부 토론 진행을 맡아 주제발표자와 객석의 차이를 무너트린 자유롭고 파격적인 진행으로 참가자 모두의 적극적인 의견 제시를 유도했다. 특수·지상작전연구회 관계자는 “워리어플랫폼 사업 중 핵심이라고 불리는 총기와 광학장비를 중심으로 참가자 모두가 참석하는 소통형 세미나로 진행했다”면서 “발표자가 홀로 설명을 해나가는 종래의 세미나 진행에서 탈피해야만 현실성 있는 의견들이 제시될 수 있기 때문”이라고 말했다. 2019년 한일 무역 분쟁이 발생하기 두 달 전인 5월 애틀랜타 던우디의 애틀랜타 국제문제협회에서 열린 ‘한반도 정세’에 관한 특강에서 “일본이 175개의 한국 경제보복 카드를 준비하고 있다”고 예측하였다. 그는 “과거 50년간 친목 도모 차원에서 한일 경제인이 매년 회의를 했지만 금년에 처음으로 안 했다는 얘기를 들었다”며 “일본과 사업하는 지인들로부터 분위기가 심상치 않다는 얘기가 진정성 있게 들려오고 있다”고 했다. 그러면서 “일본 기업의 재산을 압류하는 문제에 관한 한 미국과 다른 나라들은 한국 편이 아닐 수 있다”면서 “일본의 경제보복 조치가 우리에게 부메랑이 되어 돌아올지 알 수 없다”고 진단했다. 그는 이른바 ‘재팬 패싱’이 단기적으로 쾌재를 부르게 할 수 있지만, 중장기적으로는 한반도 정세에 득보다 실을 더한다고 우려했다. 2020년 4월 중앙일보를 통하여 그가 문재인을 지지한지 3년 만에 대통령 곁을 떠났음이 알려졌다. 문재인이 무조건 싫어서 떠난 것은 아니었으며 문재인 정부가 추진한 9·19 남북 군사합의의 가치는 높게 평가하였으나, 집권 전 문재인이 자신에게 해준 약속과는 반대로 가고 있음을 이유로 떠났다는 것이었다. 정부가 남북관계 진전에 욕심이 앞서 유엔사를 비롯한 미군을 환대하지 않고 육군사관학교의 사기를 지나치게 꺾었으며, 국군을 ‘훈련 안 하는 군대’로 만들어 쓸모없는 조직으로 전락시켰다는 것이다. 결정적으로 그가 가장 참을 수 없는 것은 2019년 11월 강원도 삼척 앞바다로 내려온 북한 선원 2명을 강제북송한 조치로, 그들이 무슨 범죄를 저질렀건 간에 탈북한 이상 우리 국민인데 죄를 물어도 우리 법정에서 물어야지 북한으로 돌려보내 참혹한 최후를 맞게 한 것은 무슨 이유를 대더라도 용납할 수 없다고 밝혔다. 2020년 7월 북한이 그를 겨냥해 해킹 공격을 펼친 것으로 확인되었다. 북한은 KBS 북한 전문 프로그램 《남북의 창》 작가 A가 실제 사용하는 이메일 주소를 스피어 피싱으로 악용, 작가 A를 사칭해 그에게 북한 담화 관련 인터뷰를 요청하는 이메일을 보냈다. 전인범 중장은 “이메일을 받은 시기는 마침 《남북의 창》에서 유엔군사령부 문제가 다뤄지던 때”라면서 “평소 해킹 공격을 의심하지 못했다면 자칫 속을 뻔했다”고 말했다. 그가 현재 한국자유총연맹 부총재로 재임하는 것에 맞추어, 북한 공격자는 이메일 제목과 도입부에 ‘부총재님’이라고 명명하는 치밀함을 보였다. 2020년 8월 아시아투데이 칼럼에서 그는 북한의 비핵화를 위해 남한이 핵무장을 해야한다고 주장하였다. 첫째 이유로 북한 지도자들은 그들이 가진 핵무기를 쉽게 포기하지 않을 것이기에 비핵화에는 시간이 오래 걸릴 것이고, 시간이 오래 걸릴수록 불안한 안보 상황은 지속될 거라는 것이다. 둘째로 미국과의 동맹 관계가 시시각각 변하고 있어 미국만 믿다가는 재앙을 맞이할 수 있다는 이유이다. 북한의 핵무기를 억제할 수단은 미국의 핵우산인데, 이게 불분명해져 미국이 제공하는 핵 억제력이 변할 가능성이 있다면 우리가 핵을 가질 수밖에 없기 때문이다. 마지막으로 현재 우리가 개발하려 하고 있는 핵추진 잠수함은 핵 원료 농도가 20% 이하인 우라늄을 사용하므로 무기에 필요한 핵 농도 95%가 아니기 때문에 괜찮다고 하지만 국제사회는 그렇게 쉽게 받아들이지 않을 것이고, 어차피 국제사회를 설득해야 한다면 이참에 아예 핵무기를 개발하겠다고 선언하는 게 나을 것 같다는 생각에서이다. 이렇게 세 가지 이유로 대한민국도 핵무장을 해야한다고 했으나 이것으로 한반도의 비핵화를 포기하자는 것은 아니며, 오히려 이를 통해 북한의 핵 포기를 이끌어내 한반도의 비핵화를 이루어내자고 강조하였다. 훗날 이어진 칼럼에서는 미국 공화당 하원의원 스티븐 샤보트가 북한을 비핵화의 길로 가게 하기 위해서는 중국의 협조가 필요한데, 중국의 협조를 얻기 위해서는 한국과 일본의 핵무장이 중국의 협조를 이끌어 낼 유일한 방법이며 미국이 한·일의 핵무장을 돕자는 것은 아니지만 이에 대한 논의를 시작해야 한다고 2021년 3월 발표한 것을 인용하였다. 이를 통해 남한 핵무장 시에는 남북이 전면전 걱정없이 경제와 문화, 그리고 군사를 포함한 모든 분야의 교류를 할 수 있다며, 스티븐 샤보트와 같은 미국의 정치인과 정책입안자들이 많이 나올수록 한국의 국익에 도움이 되리라 확신한다고 밝혔다. 2020년 11월 한국 전쟁 70주년을 맞아 어린이들이 쉽게 이해할 수 있도록 그가 영어 번역을 맡은 6.25 전쟁 동화책 『6·25가 뭐예요?』가 발간되었다. 그는 영역에 참여한 이유에 대해 먼저 번역 부탁이 왔다며 “마다할 이유가 없었다. 옳은 일이다. 미국을 비롯해 16개국이 참전한 전쟁인데 해외에선 잊혀진 전쟁이라는 말까지 나온다. 해외 어린이에게도 전쟁이 어떻게 시작됐고 무슨 일이 있었는지 설명하고 싶었다”고 말하며 “우리 어린이들이 영어 실력을 길러, 외국 친구들에게도 6·25 전쟁에 대해 정확히 설명해줄 수 있기를 바란다”고 첨언했다. 2021년 5월 병사들의 휴대전화 사용 1년을 맞아 이에 대해 자신의 유튜브 채널에서 “병사들에게 휴대전화를 사용할 수 있도록 하게 하면서 순기능이 많다”며 병사들이 휴대폰을 쓰자 자살률이 줄고 병영 생활이 즐겁게 변했다고 말했다. 그는 “휴대전화를 사용할 수 있도록 하면서 선임병 갑질이 과거에 비해 많이 없어졌다고 한다”며 “군 내부 문제들도 지금 외부로 밝혀지고 있다”면서 그 당시 온라인을 통해 폭로돼 논란이 된 육군의 부실 급식 문제를 언급했다. 이어서 “격리된 군인들의 식단이 형편 없다든지, 휴가 후 격리시설 바퀴벌레라든지, 이런 제보성 문제 때문에 군은 곤란했을 것”이라며 “이런 부분이 군에겐 불편하겠지만, 어쨌든 그건 사실 아니냐”면서 문제점을 지적했다. 그러면서 “이 문제들이 해결되면서 전투력 향상엔 도움이 됐을 거라 생각한다”며 “중대장, 소대장들이 요즘은 힘이 없어서 목소리를 내도 받아들여지기 힘든 거 같다. 그래서 이런 문제가 까발려지는게 불편해도 도움이 될 것”이라고 밝혔다. 학력 1971. 2. 리라국민학교 5회 졸업 1974. 2. 대경중학교 16회 졸업 1977. 2. 경기고등학교 73회 졸업 1981. 4. 육군사관학교 37기 학사 2006. 8. 서울대학교 행정대학원 행정학 석사 2010. 2. 경남대학교 대학원 정치외교학 박사 명예 박사 학위 2011. 2. 이르쿠츠크 국립대학교 명예 정치학 박사 경력 1981. 30사단 90연대 15중대 3소대장 1982. 1군단장 전속부관 1982. 육군참모차장 전속부관 1983. 2야전군사령관 전속부관 1983. 합동참모의장 전속부관 1984. 30사단 90연대 2대대 7중대장 1986. 30사단 90연대 2대대 10중대장 1987. 30사단 작전처 작전장교 1988. 한미연합사 기획참모부 우발계획장교 1988. 한미연합사 부사령관 전속부관 1990. 특전사 작전처 연합작전장교 1991. 특전사 작전처 작전장교 1992. 육본 참모총장실 정책과 정책장교 1993. 육본 참모총장실 정책과 군사외교협력장교 1995. 22사단 55연대 3대대장 1997. 22사단 인사참모 1998. 22사단 작전참모 1999. 한미연합사 작전참모부 연습처 을지포커스렌즈(UFL)연습장교 2001. 한미연합사 작전참모부 연습처 한미연합전시증원(RSOI)연습장교 2003. 9사단 29연대장 2004. 이라크 다국적군사령부(MNF-I) 선거지원과장 2005. 국방부 국제협력관실 대미(對美)정책과장 2006. 1사단 작전부사단장 겸 서울대학교 국제문제연구소 객원연구원 2007. 합참 작전기획부 공동작계추진단장 2007. 카불 군사협조단장 2008. 합참 전략기획부 전략기획차장 2008. 합참 전략기획부 전작권전환추진단장 2009. 27사단장 2011. 한미연합사 작전참모차장 2013. 한미연합사 부참모장 겸 유엔사 군사정전위원회 수석대표 2013. 특수전사령관 2015. 1야전군 부사령관 진급 1981. 3. 28. 소위 1982. 4. 1. 중위 1984. 11. 1. 대위 1988. 11. 1. 소령 1994. 11. 1. 중령 2002. 11. 1. 대령 2007. 7. 1. 준장 2009. 11. 3. 소장 2013. 10. 29. 중장 상훈 1983. 보국훈장 광복장 1992. 미국 육군표창훈장 2000. 국무총리 표창 2002. 미국 근무공로훈장 2005. 미국 동성훈장 2005. 화랑무공훈장 2008. 대통령 표창 2011. 미국 공로훈장 2013. 보국훈장 천수장 2013. 미국 공로훈장 2016. 미국 통합특수전사령부 훈장 2016. 보국훈장 국선장 2016. 미국 공로훈장 기타 이력 2015. 뉴 웨스트민스터 대학 특별연구원 2016. 동물자유연대 이사 2016. 브루킹스 연구소 동아시아정책연구센터 방문학자 2016. 존스 홉킨스 대학교 국제관계대학원 객원연구원 2017. 특전동지회 총재 2017. 더불어민주당 문재인 제19대 대통령 선거 경선 캠프 안보자문위원 2017. 유엔군사령부 군사정전위원회 명예고문 2018. 한국자유총연맹 부총재 2018. 조지아 공과대학교 샘 넌 국제대학원 특별방문연구원 2018. 특수·지상작전연구회 고문 2019. 한국모형협회 고문 2020. 미국 육군협회 한국지부 부회장 2020. 미국 공군협회 MIG Alley 한국지부 부회장 평가와 비판 통역이 필요없는 유창한 영어 실력과 뛰어난 업무 추진력으로 주한미군 지휘부와 깊은 신뢰관계를 유지해 대한민국의 대표적인 ‘미국통’으로 불리고 있다. 조선일보 군사전문기자 유용원은 그를 ‘군내에서 영어를 가장 잘하는 사람’이라고 언급하였다. 동아일보 논설위원 송평인은 본인의 칼럼에서 대위 시절의 그를 군 복무 당시 본 기억을 회상하며 “유창한 영어로 한미 군사훈련을 조율하는 실력도 실력이지만 행동과 자세 하나하나에 자신감이 넘쳤다. 그때의 강렬한 인상이 지금도 생생하다”고 극찬했다. 주한미군사령관 커티스 스캐퍼로티 대장은 그를 일컬어 ‘가장 절친’이라 칭할 정도로 미군들의 신뢰를 받으며 강력한 한·미 군사동맹의 견인차 역할을 하고 있다고 평가받는다. 미 8군사령관 버나드 샴포 중장 역시 ‘한국 군인 중에서는 가장 오랜 절친이며 항상 올바른 조언을 해 주는 고문(顧問)이자 한미 군사동맹의 미래’라고 강조했다. 2009년 11월 27사단장 취임식 때 부인 심화진이 총장으로 재임 중인 성신여자대학교의 직원들이 동원됐음이 논란이 되었다. 대법원은 그가 문재인 지지 선언 5일 뒤인 2017년 2월 9일 그에 대한 명예훼손 혐의로 기소된 성신여대 조모 교수에 대한 상고심에서 조 교수의 의혹 제기가 일부 사실이라고 본 항소심 판결이 정당하다고 판시했다. 앞선 2016년 11월 항소심 재판부는 “원심은 고소인(전인범)의 사단장 취임식에 성신여대 ‘학생’이 동원된 사실이 없는 점 및 위 보도에는 ‘강제’로 직원과 학생을 동원하였다고 되어 있으나 피고인(조 교수)은 어떻게 직원과 학생을 강제로 동원했다는 것인지 전혀 밝히고 있지 못한 점 등의 이유를 들어 이 부분 제보 내용 및 보도 내용이 ‘허위’라고 판단하였으나, 기록을 통해 알 수 있는 사정에 비추어 보면 이 부분 피고인의 제보 내용 및 언론 보도 내용은 그 중요한 부분에 있어 객관적 사실에 합치된다고 할 것이고, 따라서 검사 제출 증거들만으로는 위 내용이 ‘허위’라고 단정할 수 없다”고 판결문에서 밝혔다. 한편 아내 심화진 성신여대 총장이 학교 공금 횡령 혐의로 재판 중일 때 그는 자신의 SNS에 심 총장의 결백을 주장하면서 “우리 집사람이 비리가 있었다면 제가 어떻게 했을 거라 생각하십니까”라고 자문한 뒤 “권총으로 쏴 죽였을 것”이라고 자답해 일부 누리꾼들에게 비판 받았다. 후일 심 총장에게 1심에서 징역형이 선고되자 “무죄를 확신해서 경솔한 표현을 했다”며 해명했다. 2014년 9월 특전사 13공수여단에서 포로체험 훈련 도중 부사관 2명이 숨진 사건이 발생하자 해당 훈련의 도입을 지시한 사람이 그였던 것을 두고 정치권에서 공방이 일었다. 2017년 2월 국민의당 김영환 최고위원은 문재인 캠프에 합류한 그에 대해 “이분은 취임 후인 2014년 9월 공수여단에 포로처럼 고문훈련을 시켜 두 명의 군인을 사망시킨 전력이 있다”며 “문재인 전 대표는 왜 ‘특전사 코스프레’를 포기하지 않고 집착하고 있느냐”고 비판했다. 이 사건에 대해서는 그가 전역 직후인 2016년 9월 신동아와의 인터뷰에서 “(포로체험 훈련 중 사망한) 조용준·이유성 하사. 나는 당시 부대 지휘관으로 절대적인 책임이 있다. 과정이야 어찌 됐든 나는 두 사람의 이름을 죽을 때까지 새기고 가야 한다는 벌을 받았다”며 지휘관으로서 도덕적 책임이 있음을 인정한 바 있다. 문재인 지지 선언 직후인 2017년 2월 오마이뉴스와의 인터뷰에선 당시 사고의 핵심 원인은 무엇이라고 생각하냐는 기자의 물음에 “무지와 부주의, 그리고 감독 부실이다. 그리고 당시 매뉴얼이 없어서 문제라고 보도됐는데, 군 생활 당시 매뉴얼이란 표현을 쓰던가. 에프엠(FM, filed manual, 야전교범)이란 표현을 쓴다. 사고 직후 장교가 기자에게 ‘매뉴얼이 있었나’라는 질문을 받고 ‘못 봤다’라고 답했다. 그런데 만약 ‘에프엠이 있었나’라고 물어봤으면 그렇게 답하지 않았을 거다. 우리가 책 만들 때 초고가 있잖나. 그때 (엄지와 검지를 4cm 정도 떨어뜨린 손을 내보이며) 이렇게 두꺼운 초고가 있었다. 나름대로 연구를 많이 했다”고 답했다. 이어 “이런 사고가 나선 절대로 안 되지만, 어처구니 없이 사고가 날 수도 있다는 점을 이해해주셨으면 한다. 그리고 책임만큼의 처벌만 받도록 이해해줬으면 한다. 2017년 1월에 제가 특전동지회 총재로 취임했는데, 취임식 때 희생된 두 부하의 아버지가 축하해주러 오셨더라. 그러면서 ‘사령관님이 무슨 죄가 있겠나. (일반순직이 아닌 특수직무순직으로 처리된 것에 대해) 잘 처리해주셔서 감사하다’고 그러더라. 제 마음이 어땠겠나”라고 덧붙였다. 이에 대하여 특전사 관계자는 “그들은 아들들이 비록 희생됐지만 포로체험 훈련의 취지에는 공감했기 때문에 사고 당시 사령관이었던 전인범 전 중장의 특전동지회 총재 취임식에 참석이 가능했다”고 밝혔다. 2017년 2월 오마이뉴스와의 인터뷰 당시 5·18 광주 민주화 운동 유혈 진압에 대해 이야기하면서 “저는 전두환 전 대통령이 (발포를) 지시했다고 생각하지 않는다. 그러나 책임을 면할 수 없다. 그래서 그들이 감옥에도 가고 그런 것 아닌가”라고 발언한 것에 호남 기반 정당인들의 비판이 이어졌다. 국민의당 고연호 대변인은 “이러한 일방적 발언은 국가적 민주화운동과 희생을 모욕하는 망언”이라며 “전 장군은 민주화운동에 희생되신 분들과 유족들께 씻을 수 없는 상처를 안겼다. 호남에서 지지를 호소하면서 정작 반5.18적 사고방식을 지닌 인사를 안보자문역으로 영입한 문재인 전 대표에게 제 정신인지 묻지 않을 수 없다”고 공격했다. 국민주권개혁회의 대변인 이찬열 의원은 “문 전 대표가 같은 특전사 출신임을 과시하기 위해 전 전 사령관을 영입한 것으로 보이지만, 광주에서 자행된 특전사의 만행을 생생히 기억하는 우리로서는 전인범 사령관의 잘못된 사고방식과 가치관에 대해 우려를 금할 수 없다”고 말했다. 일화 사관생도 시절 후배들을 엄하게 교육해 그의 별명은 ‘잔인범’이었다. 특전사령관 재임 당시 부하들을 아끼고 챙겨주는 지휘관으로 유명하였다. 가족 관계 조부: 전항섭 (全恒燮, 1906년~1958년, 유한양행 사장) 고모: 전혜성 (全惠星, 1929년~, 예일 대학교 교수) 고모부: 고광림 (高光林, 1920년~1989년, 주미한국대사관 특명전권공사) 내종누나: 고경신 (高慶信, 1946년~, 중앙대학교 화학과 교수) 내종형: 고경주 (高京珠, 1952년~, 미국 보건복지부 보건담당 차관보) 내종형: 고동주 (高東珠, 1953년~, 메사추세츠 주립대학교 의과대학 교수) 내종형: 고홍주 (高洪珠, 1954년~, 미국 국무부 법률고문) 내종사촌: 고경은 (高慶恩, 1958년~, 예일 대학교 법학전문대학원 석좌교수) 내종제: 고정주 (高정珠, 1960년~, 미술가) 숙부: 전주서 (전신전자 회장) 숙부: 전주형 (국제무역인) 숙부: 전주일 (미국 공무원) 아버지: 전주화 (全周華, 1931년~2005년, 한의사) 어머니: 홍숙자 (洪淑子, 1933년~, 뉴욕 총영사관 부영사) 여동생: 전경진 (全京珍, 1959년~) 배우자: 심화진 (沈和珍, 1956년~, 성신여자대학교 총장) 장인: 심용현 (沈龍鉉, 1918년~1986년, 성신학원 이사장) 손위처남: 심규형 (沈揆亨, 1942년~1992년, F-5 조종사·공군 대령) 같이 보기 김영식 박지만 박찬주 신원식 양종수 엄기학 이재수 각주 외부 링크 1958년 출생 20세기 대한민국 사람 21세기 대한민국 사람 살아있는 사람 정선 전씨 서울특별시 출신 대한민국의 개신교도 미국에 거주한 대한민국인 리라초등학교 동문 대경중학교 (서울) 동문 경기고등학교 동문 육군사관학교 동문 육군보병학교 동문 육군대학 동문 미국 합동참모대학교 동문 미국 육군참모대학교 동문 서울대학교 행정대학원 동문 경남대학교 대학원 동문 대한민국 육군 중장

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chun%20In-bum

Chun In-bum

Chun In-bum (born September 6, 1958) is a retired South Korean Army Lieutenant general and authority on Korean politics and military relations. Biography Early life Chun was born September 6, 1958, in the South Korean capital city of Seoul. He moved to the United States of America at the age of seven with his mother, who was serving as a South Korean diplomat, and spent four and a half years in New York City before returning to Korea in 1969 to finish high school. He was accepted to the Korea Military Academy (KMA) in 1977. There, he studied military history and was commissioned as an infantry officer in 1981 upon completion of his degree. Later life and military service Shortly after graduation, then-Lieutenant Chun was selected as an aide to Lieutenant General Lee Ki-baek, making him the youngest officer in the history of the army to be appointed aide to a three-star general. In October 1983, General Lee was nearly killed in a terrorist bombing in Rangoon and then-Lieutenant Chun was credited with saving Lee’s life in the aftermath of the attack. He was awarded the National Security Medal (Kwang-Bok) for his actions. Chun continued his career by serving in the ROK/US Combined Forces Command (CFC) in 1988, the Korean Special Warfare Command (SWC) in 1990, and in the ROK Army Chief of Staff Office. From 1995 to 1997, he commanded a battalion in the 22nd ROK Infantry Division. After promotion to brigadier general he served in positions commanding 29th Infantry Regiment of the 9th Infantry Division of the Republic of Korea Army and helped direct elections in Iraq in 2005. For his service in Iraq he received the Hwa-Rang Combat medal and became the first Korean officer since the Vietnam War to be awarded the U.S. Bronze Star. Later in 2005, he served as the Director of U.S. Affairs at the Korean Ministry of National Defense. In 2007, then Brigadier General Chun was deployed to Afghanistan in response to 2007 South Korean hostage crisis in Afghanistan. He was promoted to major general in 2009, and to lieutenant general in November 2013. He was assigned to head the ROK Special Warfare Command, for which he received U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) medal in 2016, becoming the first Korean to receive the honor. In 2015, Chun was promoted to deputy commander for the First ROK Army (FROKA) and became a Distinguished Fellow of New Westminster College. Retirement and Current Activities Chun retired from active duty in July 2016. After his retirement he briefly worked for Moon Jae-in’s presidential campaign before stepping down to conduct fellowships with Brookings Institution’s Center for East Asia Policy Studies (CEAP) and the US-Korea Institute of the School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) at Johns Hopkins University in Washington, D.C. Chun has been a board member of the Korean Animal Welfare Association since 2018. Personal life Chun is married to Shim Hwa-jin, former president of Sung-Shin Women’s University. The couple have two sons. References Living people People from Seoul Republic of Korea Army personnel 1958 births

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%98%20%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88%20%EA%B0%80%ED%86%A8%EB%A6%AD%20%EA%B5%90%EA%B5%AC%20%EB%AA%A9%EB%A1%9D

중국의 로마 가톨릭 교구 목록

중국의 로마 가톨릭 교구는 중국과 관계단절전에 20개 관구에 20개 관구장좌 대교구와 92개 일반 교구로 구성되었으며 교황직속 전교지역으로 준교구인 대목구 29개와 관리구 2개가 있다. 현재의 교구명칭 상당수는 행정구역명이 변경전의 이름이 있으므로 옆에 주소를 첨부하였다. 교구(敎區) 안칭 관구(安慶 管區) 안칭 관구장좌 대교구 (安慶 管區長座 大敎區) =안후이성 안칭시 범부 교구 (蚌埠) =안후이성 범부시 우후 교구 (蕪湖 敎區)= 안후이성 우후시 베이징 관구(北京 管區) 베이징 관구장좌 대교구(北京 管區長座 大敎區)=베이징 직할시 안궈 교구(安國 敎區) =허베이성 바오딩시 안궈시 바오딩 교구(保定 敎區)=허베이성 바오딩시 다밍 교구(大名 敎區) =허베이성 한단시 다밍현 징현 교구(景縣 敎區) =허베이성 헝수이시 징현 순더 교구(順得 敎區) =허베이성 형대시 텐진 교구(天津 敎區) = 텐진 직할시 센현 교구(獻縣 敎區) = 허베이성 창저우시 센현 쉬안화 교구(宣化 敎區)= 허베이성 장자커우시 융넨 교구(永年 敎區)= 허베이성 한단시 웨이현 융핑 교구(永平 敎區)= 허베이성 진횡다오시 루룽현 자오현 교구(趙縣 敎區)=헤베이성 스좌장시 자오현 정딩 교구(正定 敎區)=허베이성 스좌장시 정딩현 창사 관구(長沙 管區) 창사 관구장좌 대교구(長沙 管區長座 大敎區)=후난성 창사시 청더 교구(常德 敎區) =후난성 청더시 헝저우 교구(衡州 敎區) = 후난성 헝양시 위안링 교구(沅陵 敎區) =후난성 화이화시 위안링현 충칭 관구(重慶 管區) 충칭 관구장좌 대교구(重慶 管區長座 大敎區) =충칭직할시 일부 청두 교구(成都 敎區) = 쓰촨성 청두시 러산 교구(乐山 敎區) = 쓰촨성 러산시 =지아딩교구( 嘉定教区) 캉딩 교구(康定 敎區) =쓰촨성 간쯔자치주 캉딩현 닝원교구(寧遠敎區)=쓰촨성 량산자치주 시창시 난충 교구(南充 敎區) =쓰촨성 난충시 이빈 교구(宜宾 敎區)= 쓰촨성 이빈시 완현 교구(萬縣 敎區)=충칭시 완저우구 푸저우 관구(福州 管區) 푸저우 관구장좌 대교구(福州 管區長座 大敎區)=푸젠성 푸저우시 푸닝 교구(福寧 敎區) = 푸젠성 닝더시 사푸현 팅저우 교구(汀州 敎區) =푸젠성 룽옌시 창팅현 샤먼 교구(廈門 敎區) = 푸젠성 샤먼시 광저우 관구(廣州 管區) 광저우 관구장좌 대교구(廣州 管區長座 大敎區)= 광둥성 광저우시 베이하이 교구(北海 敎區) = 광시자치구 베이하이시 장먼 교구(江門 敎區) =광둥성 장먼시 자잉 교구(嘉應 敎區)= 광둥성 메이저우시 산터우 교구(汕头 敎區)= 광둥성 산터우시 샤오관 교구(韶关 敎區)= 광둥성 샤오관시 구이양 관구(貴陽 管區) 구이양 관구장좌 대교구(貴陽 管區長座 大敎區)=구이저우성 구이양시 난룽 교구(南龍 敎區)=구이저우성 첸시난주 안룽현 항저우 관구(杭州 管區) 항저우 관구장좌 대교구(杭州 管區長座 大敎區)= 저장성 항저우시 리수이 교구(麗水 敎區) =저장성 리수이시 닝보 교구( 寧波 敎區) =저장성 닝보시 타이저우 교구 (台州 敎區) = 저장성 타이저우시 융자 교구(永嘉 敎區) =저장성 원저우시 우한 관구(武汉 管區) 우한 관구장좌 대교구(武汉 管區長座 大敎區) =후베이성 우한시 일부 한양 교구( 漢陽 敎區)=후베이성 우한시 한양구 랴오허커우 교구(老河口 敎區)= 후베이성 상판시 라어허커우시 푸지 교구(蒲圻 敎區) =후베이성 상판시 적벽시 치저우 교구(蘄州 敎區)= 후베이성 황강시 치춘현 시난 교구(施南 敎區)= 후베이성 언스자치주 언스시 우창 교구(武昌 敎區)= 후베이성 우한시 우창구 샹양 교구(襄陽 敎區)= 후베이성 상양시 이창 교구(宜昌 敎區)= 후베이성 이창시 지난 관구(濟南 管區) 지난 관구장좌 대교구(濟南 管區長座 大敎區) =산둥성 지난시 카오저우 교구(曹州 敎區) = 산둥성 허쩌시 칭다오 교구(青島 敎區) = 상둥성 칭다오시 양구 교구(陽穀 教区)= 산둥성 랴오청시 옌타이 교구(煙台 敎區)= 산둥성 옌타이시 옌저우 교구(兖州 敎區)= 산둥성 지닝시 옌저우시 이저우 교구( 沂州 敎區)=산둥성 린이시 저우춘 교구(周村 敎區)= 산둥성 쯔보시 카이펑 관구(開封 管區) 카이펑 관구장좌 대교구( 開封 管區長座 大敎區)= 허난성 카이펑시 구이데 교구( 歸德 敎區) =허난성 상추시 뤄양 교구(洛陽 敎區) =허난성 뤄양시 난양 교구(南陽 敎區) =허난성 난양시 웨이후이 교구(衛輝 敎區) = 허난성 신샹시 신양 교구(信陽 敎區) =허난성 신양시 정저우 교구(鄭州 敎區)=허난성 정저우시 주마디안 교구(駐馬店 敎區)=허난성 주마디안시 쿤밍 관구(昆明 管區) 쿤밍 관구장좌 대교구(昆明 管區長座 大敎區)=윈난성 쿤밍시 다리 교구(大理 敎區)=윈난성 다리주 다리시 란저우 관구(蘭州 管區) 란저우 관구장좌 대교구(蘭州 管區長座 大敎區)=간쑤성 란저우시 핑량 교구(平涼 敎區)= 간쑤성 핑량시 진저우 교구(秦州 敎區) = 간쑤성 텐수이시 난창 관구(南昌 管區) 난창 관구장좌 대교구(南昌 管區長座 大敎區)=장시성 난창시 간저우 교구(贛州 敎區)=장시성 간저우시 지안 교구(吉安 敎區)=장시성 지안시 난청 교구(南城 敎區)=장시성 푸저우시 난청현 유장 교구(餘江 敎區)= 장시성 잉탄시 위장현 난징 관구(南京 管區) 난징 관구장좌 대교구(南京 管區長座 大敎區)=장쑤성 난징시 하이먼 교구(海门 敎區)= 장쑤성 난통시 하이먼시 샹하이 교구(上海 教区)=상하이 직할시 쑤저우 교구(苏州 教区)=장쑤성 쑤저우시 쉬저우 교구(徐州 教区)=장쑤성 쉬저우시 난링 관구(南寧 管區) 난링 관구장좌 대교구(南寧 管區長座 大敎區)=광서자치구 난링시 우저우 교구(梧州 教区)=광서자치구 우저우시 선양 관구(瀋陽 管區) 선양 관구장좌 대교구(瀋陽 管區長座 大敎區)=랴오닝성 선양시 츠펑 교구(赤峰 教区)=네이멍구자치구 츠펑시 푸순 교구(撫順 教区)=랴오닝성 푸순시 지린 교구(吉林 教区)= 지린성 지린시 러허 교구(熱河 教区)=허베이성 청더시 쓰핑지에 교구(四平街 教区)=지린성 쓰핑시 옌지 교구(延吉 教区)=지린성 연변조선족자치주 옌지시 잉커우 교구(營口 教区)=랴오닝성 잉커우시 후허하오터 관구(呼和浩特 管區) 후허 하오터 관구장좌 대교구(呼和浩特 管區長座 大敎區)=네이멍구자치구 후허하오터시 진잉 교구(集寧 教区)= 네이멍구자치구 우란차부시 닝샤 교구(寧夏 教区)= 닝샤자치구 은촨시 시완지 교구(西彎子 教区)= 허베이성 장자커우시 타이위안 관구(太原 管區) 타이위안 관구장좌 대교구(太原 管區長座 大敎區)=산시성 타이위안시 다퉁 교구(大同 教区)=산시성 다퉁시 펀양 교구(汾陽 教区)=산시성 뤼량시 펀양시 홍둥 교구(洪洞 教区)=산시성 린펀시 홍둥현 창즈 교구(長治 教区)=산시성 창즈시 쉬저우 교구(朔州 教区)= 산시성 쉬저우시 진중 교구(晋中 教区)=산시성 진중시 시안 관구(西安 管區) 시안 관구장좌 대교구(西安 管區長座 大敎區)=섬서성 시안시 펑상 교구(鳳翔 教区)=섬서성 바오지시 펑상현 한중 교구(漢中 教区)= 섬서성 한중시 싼위안 교구(三原 教区)= 섬서성 센양시 싼위안현 옌안 교구(延安 教区)= 섬서성 연안시 저우즈 교구(周至 教区)=섬서성 시안시 저우즈현 교황 직할 관리구 바오칭 대목구(寶慶 代牧区) 구이린 대목구(桂林 代牧区) 하이난 대목구(海南 代牧区) 하이저우 대목구(海州 代牧区) 자무시 대목구(佳木斯 代牧区) 지안우 대목구(建甌 代牧区) 장저우 대목구(絳州 代牧区) 린둥 대목구(林東 代牧区) 린칭 대목구(臨清 代牧区) 리저우 대목구(澧州 代牧区) 치치할 대목구(齊齊哈爾 代牧区) 샤오우 대목구(邵武 代牧区) 샤시 대목구(沙市 代牧区) 시찬 대목구(石阡 代牧区) 수이샨 대목구(隨縣 代牧区) 통저우 대목구(同州 代牧区) 턴시 대목구(屯溪 代牧区) 웨이하이웨이 대목구(威海衛 代牧区) 샹탄 대목구(湘潭 代牧区) 싱안푸 대목구(興安府 代牧区) 시닝 대목구(西寧 代牧区) 신쟝 대목구(新疆 代牧区) 신샹 대목구(新鄉 代牧区) 양저우 대목구(揚州 代牧区) 이두시안 대목구(益都縣 代牧区) 이시안 대목구(易縣 代牧区) 융저우 대목구(永州 代牧区) 웨저우 대목구(岳州 代牧区) 자오퉁 대목구(昭通 代牧区) 하얼빈 관리구(哈爾濱 管理區) 러시아전례 하얼빈 관리구(哈爾濱 管理區) 외부 링크 나라별 로마 가톨릭 교구 목록

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Catholic%20dioceses%20in%20China

List of Catholic dioceses in China

The Catholic Church in China comprises 152 Latin jurisdictions: 21 ecclesiastical provinces (including one for Taiwan), consisting of 21 Metropolitan archdioceses and 100 suffragan dioceses 29 Apostolic Prefectures 1 exempt diocese, the diocese of Macau 1 Apostolic Administration, the Apostolic Administration of Harbin Furthermore, the Eastern Catholic (Byzantine rite) Russian Greek Catholic Church has an exempt Apostolic exarchate for China in Harbin. There is an Apostolic Nunciature as papal diplomatic representation (embassy-level) to China, in Taipei, the seat of government of the Republic of China on Taiwan, also charged with Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau. The Catholic Church recognizes the Republic of China as the sole government for all of China; nevertheless, it does not recognize all of its territorial claims. The term “China” has to be understood as including Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan in its 1949 provincial boundaries and Mainland China as effectively controlled by the People's Republic of China. Due to the non-recognition of the People's Republic of China, however, the authority of the Taipei-based Chinese Regional Bishops' Conference is effectively limited to the islands of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu. The dioceses of Hong Kong (suffragan of Guangzhou) and Macao (exempt) do not belong to that conference. The dioceses of Mainland China take part in the Beijing-based Chinese Bishops Conference, which is not recognized by the Holy See. Current Latin dioceses in Greater China Note that the diocese of Hong Kong belongs to the Ecclesiastical Province of Guangzhou, whereas the diocese of Macau is exempt. Also note that a small part of the diocese of Xiamen, the island of Kinmen, is administered by the Republic of China. At this moment, this part of the diocese is administered by the archdiocese of Taipei. In all of greater China, only one non-Latin jurisdiction exists: an apostolic exarchate of the Russian Greek Catholic Church in Harbin. It has, however, been vacant since 1939. However, the Chinese government has its own division of the dioceses, which is not necessarily identical to that of the Holy See. For example, many dioceses have been merged, and the difference between archdioceses, dioceses, apostolic prefectures and apostolic administrations has been abolished. Thus, according to the Chinese government, Mainland China is divided into 104 jurisdictions, all dioceses. Originally, the ecclesiastical provinces were closely aligned with the civil provinces of China. However, the borders of most provinces have not been redrawn again for decades. As a general guideline, however, the ecclesiastical provinces largely correspond with the following civil provinces: The ecclesiastical jurisdictions in Hainan, Macao, Qinghai and Xinjiang are all exempt, though Macao is a diocese (the others are apostolic prefectures or apostolic administrations). Heilongjiang is also exempt, being administered by three apostolic prefectures, with the exception of some parts of Mudanjiang, which belong to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Yanji, which is located in Jilin province (Ecclesiastical Province of Shenyang). In the Apostolic Constitution of 11 April 1946, all provinces are named by the name of the civil province as well as by the name of the archdiocese. The province of Suiyuan is described as the province of Mongolia, and the province of Shenyang as the province of Manchuria. However, these two names are not used anymore. Current Latin provinces and dioceses in PR China incl. Hong Kong Ecclesiastical Province of Anqing The Ecclesiastical Province of Anqing roughly covers the territory of Anhui province. The archdiocese is located in Anqing, even though Hefei has been the provincial capital since the 1940s - in fact, no diocese is located in Hefei. Also, apart from the archdiocese and the two diocese, there is also one exempt jurisdiction, the Apostolic Prefecture of Tunxi. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Anqing 安慶 Diocese of Bengbu 蚌埠 Diocese of Wuhu 蕪湖 Ecclesiastical Province of Beijing The territory of the Ecclesiastical Province of Beijing is largely equal to that of Hebei province, when including Beijing and Tianjin. An important exception was Chengde; however, in 2018, the diocese of Chengde was erected, a suffragan of the archdiocese of Beijing, covering the entire prefecture-level city of Chengde. Furthermore, Puyang and Xinxiang's Changyuan County (Henan province) belong to the diocese of Daming (Ecclesiastical Province of Beijing), whereas Handan's Linzhang County, She County and Wu'an (all located in Hebei) belong to the diocese of Weihui (Ecclesiastical Province of Kaifeng). Shandongs Ningjin County also belongs to the diocese of Jingxian. Parts of Qinhuangdao and Zhangjiakou do not belong to the Ecclesiastical Province of Beijing. Furthermore, the Apostolic Prefecture of Yixian has not yet been elevated to the rank of diocese, and as such is not yet part of the Ecclesiastical Province of Beijing, but is still exempt. Furthermore, the Diocese of Xiwanzi belongs to the Ecclesiastical Province of Suiyuan (Inner Mongolia), even though its seat is located in Hebei province. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Beijing 北京 Diocese of Anguo 安國 Diocese of Baoding 保定 Diocese of Chengde 承德 Diocese of Daming 大名 Diocese of Jingxian 景縣 (also known as Hengshui) Diocese of Shunde 順得 Diocese of Tianjin 天津 Diocese of Xianxian 獻縣 (also known as Cangzhou) Diocese of Xuanhua 宣化 (also known as Zhangjiakou) Diocese of Yongnian 永年 Diocese of Yongping 永平 (also known as Tangshan) Diocese of Zhaoxian 趙縣 Diocese of Zhengding 正定 Ecclesiastical Province of Changsha The Ecclesiastical Province of Changsha roughly covers the territory of Hunan province. In Hunan province, five exempt jurisdictions are also located: the Apostolic Prefecture of Baoqing, the Apostolic Prefecture of Lixian, the Apostolic Prefecture of Xiangtan, the Apostolic Prefecture of Yongzhou and the Apostolic Prefecture of Yueyang. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Changsha 長沙 Diocese of Changde 常德 Diocese of Hengzhou 衡州 Diocese of Yuanling 沅陵 Ecclesiastical Province of Chongqing The Ecclesiastical Province of Chongqing roughly corresponds to Sichuan and Chongqing (Chongqing was separated from Sichuan in 1997) and also covers Tibet, though the diocese serving Tibet, the diocese of Kangding, is located in Sichuan. All the dioceses are located in Sichuan, except for Chongqing and Wanxian, which are located in Chongqing. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Chongqing 重慶 Diocese of Chengdu 成都 Diocese of Jiading 嘉定 Diocese of Kangding 康定 Diocese of Ningyuan 甯遠 Diocese of Shunqing 順慶 Diocese of Suifu 敘府 Diocese of Wanxian 萬縣 Ecclesiastical Province of Fuzhou The Ecclesiastical Province of Fuzhou roughly covers the territory of Fujian province. In Fujian province, two exempt jurisdictions are also located: the Apostolic Prefecture of Jian'ou and the Apostolic Prefecture of Shaowu. Note that Kinmen belongs to the diocese of Xiamen, but is administered by the archdiocese of Taipei. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Fuzhou 福州 Diocese of Funing 福寧 Diocese of Tingzhou 汀州 Diocese of Xiamen 廈門 Ecclesiastical Province of Guangzhou The Ecclesiastical Province of Guangzhou roughly covers Guangdong and Hong Kong. Nearby Macau and Hainan are both exempt: the diocese of Macau and the Apostolic Prefecture of Hainan. Also, note that the diocese of Beihai is located in Guangxi. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Guangzhou 廣州 Diocese of Beihai 北海 Diocese of Hong Kong 香港 Diocese of Jiangmen 江門 Diocese of Jiaying 嘉應 Diocese of Shantou 汕頭 Diocese of Shaozhou 韶州 Ecclesiastical Province of Guiyang The Ecclesiastical Province of Guiyang roughly covers the territory of Guizhou. In Guizhou province, one exempt jurisdiction is also located: the Apostolic Prefecture of Shiqian. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Guiyang 貴陽 Diocese of Nanlong 南龍 Ecclesiastical Province of Hangzhou The Ecclesiastical Province of Hangzhou roughly covers the territory of Zhejiang. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Hangzhou 杭州 Diocese of Lishui 麗水 Diocese of Ningbo 寧波 Diocese of Taizhou 台州 Diocese of Yongjia 永嘉 Ecclesiastical Province of Hankou The Ecclesiastical Province of Hankou roughly corresponds with Hubei. Hankou has been merged with Wuchang and Hanyang to form Wuhan in 1927. Apart from the dioceses, two exempt jurisdictions exist, the Apostolic Prefecture of Shashi and the Apostolic Prefecture of Suixian. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Hankou 漢口 Diocese of Hanyang 漢陽 Diocese of Laohekou 老河口 Diocese of Puqi 蒲圻 Diocese of Qizhou 蘄州 Diocese of Shinan 施南 Diocese of Wuchang 武昌 Diocese of Xiangyang 襄陽 Diocese of Yichang 宜昌 Ecclesiastical Province of Jinan Apart from the dioceses, Shandong province also has three apostolic prefectures: the Apostolic Prefecture of Weihai, the Apostolic Prefecture of Yiduxian (Qingzhou) and the Apostolic Prefecture of Linqing. However, even after taking this into account, the boundaries do not completely correspond with Shandong province. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Jinan 濟南 Diocese of Caozhou 曹州 Diocese of Qingdao 青島 Diocese of Yanggu 陽穀 Diocese of Yantai 煙台 Diocese of Yanzhou 兖州 Diocese of Yizhou 沂州 Diocese of Zhoucun 周村 Ecclesiastical Province of Kaifeng The territory of the Ecclesiastical Province of Kaifeng is almost equal to that of Henan province. However, Puyang and Xinxiang's Changyuan County belong to the diocese of Daming (Ecclesiastical Province of Beijing), whereas Handan's Linzhang County, She County and Wu'an (all located in Hebei) belong to the diocese of Weihui. Furthermore, the Apostolic Prefecture of Xinxiang has not yet been elevated to the rank of diocese, and as such is not yet part of the Ecclesiastical Province of Kaifeng, but is still exempt. Note that the archdiocese is located in Kaifeng, and not in Zhengzhou, the provincial capital of Henan since 1954. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Kaifeng 開封 Diocese of Guide 歸德 (also known as Shangqiu) Diocese of Luoyang 洛陽 Diocese of Nanyang 南陽 Diocese of Weihui 衛輝 (also known as Anyang) Diocese of Xinyang 信陽 Diocese of Zhengzhou 鄭州 Diocese of Zhumadian 駐馬店 Ecclesiastical Province of Kunming The Ecclesiastical Province of Kunming roughly covers the territory of Yunnan. In Yunnan province, one exempt jurisdiction is also located: the Apostolic Prefecture of Zhaotong. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Kunming 昆明 Diocese of Dali 大理 Ecclesiastical Province of Lanzhou The Ecclesiastical Province of Lanzhou roughly covers the territory of Gansu. Note that Xinjiang is covered by the Apostolic Prefecture of Xinjiang-Urumqi and Qinghai by the Apostolic Prefecture of Xining. Historically, both provinces were part of the Apostolic Vicariate (now Archdiocese) of Lanzhou. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Lanzhou 蘭州 Diocese of Pingliang 平涼 Diocese of Qinzhou 秦州 Ecclesiastical Province of Nanchang The Ecclesiastical Province of Nanchang roughly covers the territory of Jiangxi. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Nanchang 南昌 Diocese of Ganzhou 贛州 Diocese of Ji’an 吉安 Diocese of Nancheng 南城 Diocese of Yujiang 餘江 Ecclesiastical Province of Nanjing The Ecclesiastical Province of Nanjing roughly covers the territory of Jiangsu and Shanghai. In Jiangsu province, two exempt jurisdictions are also located: the Apostolic Prefecture of Haizhou and the Apostolic Prefecture of Yangzhou. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Nanjing 南京 Diocese of Haimen 海門 Diocese of Shanghai 上海 Diocese of Suzhou 蘇州 Diocese of Xuzhou 徐州 Ecclesiastical Province of Nanning The Ecclesiastical Province of Nanning roughly covers the territory of Guangxi. In Guangxi, one exempt jurisdiction is also located: the Apostolic Prefecture of Guilin. Also, note that the diocese of Beihai, which is located in Guangxi, is part of the Ecclesiastical Province of Guangdong. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Nanning 南寧 Diocese of Wuzhou 梧州 Ecclesiastical Province of Shenyang The Ecclesiastical Province of Shenyang (Shenyang is the capital of Liaoning) roughly covers Liaoning and Jilin. However, the Diocese of Chifeng belongs to the Ecclesiastical Province of Shenyang, but is located in Inner Mongolia. Furthermore, the diocese of Yanji (in Jilin) also covers a very small part of Heilongjiang. Some parts of the North-East are covered by exempt jurisdictions: the Apostolic Administration of Harbin, the Apostolic Prefecture of Jiamusi, the Apostolic Prefecture of Lindong and the Apostolic Prefecture of Qiqihar. Harbin is also the seat of the Eastern Catholic Russian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Harbin, which, however, has been vacant since 1939 and only exists on paper. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Shenyang 瀋陽 Diocese of Chifeng 赤峰 Diocese of Fushun 撫順 Diocese of Jilin 吉林 Diocese of Rehe 熱河 Diocese of Sipingjie 四平街 Diocese of Yanji 延吉 Diocese of Yingkou 營口 Ecclesiastical Province of Suiyuan Suiyuan is now known as Hohhot; the dioceses roughly cover Inner Mongolia and Ningxia, though the diocese of Xiwanzi is actually located in Hebei. Also, the Diocese of Chifeng is located in Inner Mongolia, but belongs to the Ecclesiastical Province of Shenyang. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Suiyuan 綏遠 (also known as Hohhot) Diocese of Jining 集寧 Diocese of Ningxia 寧夏 Diocese of Xiwanzi 西彎子 Ecclesiastical Province of Taiyuan The territory of the Ecclesiastical Province of Taiyuan is almost equal to that of Shanxi province. However, the Apostolic Prefecture of Xinjiang (also referred to as Yuncheng or Jiangzhou) has not yet been elevated to the rank of diocese, and as such is not yet part of the Ecclesiastical Province of Taiyuan, but is still exempt. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Taiyuan 太原 Diocese of Datong 大同 Diocese of Fenyang 汾陽 (also known as Lüliang) Diocese of Hongdong 洪洞 (also known as Linfen) Diocese of Lu’an 潞安 (also known as Changzhi) Diocese of Shuozhou 朔州 Diocese of Yuci 榆次 (also known as Jinzhong) Ecclesiastical Province of Xi'an Apart from the dioceses, Shaanxi province also has two apostolic prefectures: the Apostolic Prefecture of Tongzhou and the Apostolic Prefecture of Xing’anfu. However, even after taking this into account, the boundaries do not completely correspond with Shaanxi province. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Xi’an 西安 Diocese of Fengxiang 鳳翔 Diocese of Hanzhong 漢中 Diocese of Sanyuan 三原 Diocese of Yan’an 延安 Diocese of Zhouzhi 盩厔 Current Latin province and dioceses in Taiwan Ecclesiastical Province of Taipei Note that Kinmen and the Matsu Islands belong to the diocese of Xiamen, but are administered by the archdiocese of Taipei with its Archbishop serving as an Apostolic Administrator in respect of the islands. Metropolitan Archdiocese of Taipei Diocese of Chiayi Diocese of Hualien Diocese of Hsinchu Diocese of Kaohsiung Diocese of Taichung Diocese of Tainan Current exempt jurisdictions, immediately subject to the Holy See Dioceses Diocese of Macau Apostolic Administrations Apostolic Administration of Harbin in Heilongjiang Apostolic Prefectures Apostolic Prefecture of Baoqing (Paoking/Shaoyang) in Hunan Apostolic Prefecture of Guilin (Kweilin) in Guangxi Apostolic Prefecture of Hainan in Hainan Apostolic Prefecture of Haizhou (Donghai/ Haichow) in Jiangsu Apostolic Prefecture of Jiamusi (Kiamusze) in Heilongjiang Apostolic Prefecture of Jian'ou (Jianning/Kienning/Kienow) in Fujian Apostolic Prefecture of Lindong (Lintung) in Inner Mongolia Apostolic Prefecture of Linqing (Lintsing) in Shandong Apostolic Prefecture of Lixian (Lizhou/Lichow) in Hunan Apostolic Prefecture of Qiqihar (Tsitsikar) in Heilongjiang Apostolic Prefecture of Shaowu in Fujian Apostolic Prefecture of Shashi (Shasi) in Hubei Apostolic Prefecture of Shiqian (Shihtsien) in Guizhou Apostolic Prefecture of Suixian (Suihsien) in Hubei Apostolic Prefecture of Tongzhou (Tungchow) in Shaanxi Apostolic Prefecture of Tunxi (Tunki) in Anhui Apostolic Prefecture of Weihai (Weihaiwei) in Shandong Apostolic Prefecture of Xiangtan (Siangtan) in Hunan Apostolic Prefecture of Xing’anfu (Ankang/Hinganfu) in Shaanxi Apostolic Prefecture of Xining (Sining) in Qinghai Apostolic Prefecture of Xinjiang (Jiangzhou/ Kiangchow) in Shanxi Apostolic Prefecture of Xinjiang-Urumqi (Urumqi/Sinkiang/Xinjiang) in Xinjiang Apostolic Prefecture of Xinxiang (Sinsiang) in Henan Apostolic Prefecture of Yangzhou (Yangchow) in Jiangsu Apostolic Prefecture of Yiduxian (Iduhsien) in Shandong Apostolic Prefecture of Yixian (Yihsien) in Hebei Apostolic Prefecture of Yongzhou (Lingling/Yungchow) in Hunan Apostolic Prefecture of Yueyang (Yuezhou/Yochow) in Hunan Apostolic Prefecture of Zhaotong (Chaotung) in Yunnan Eastern Catholic : Byzantine Rite Russian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Harbin (particular Russian Greek Catholic Church) Defunct jurisdictions Most former jurisdictions have current successor sees (although many are vacant). Suppressed without 'direct' successor (all in continental China) : (Arch)Diocesan There are no titular sees, and the Latin Titular Patriarchal See of All the East was suppressed in 1370 after a single incumbent, the Archbishop of Khanbalik. Archdiocese of Khanbalik Diocese of Citong Diocese of Ili-baluc alias Amaliaq alias Kulja (1320-1330) Pre-diocesan (some had their title preserved when merged into another) Apostolic Vicariate of Shansi Apostolic Vicariate of Kweichow Apostolic Vicariate of Kiangsi Apostolic Vicariate of Kokonur Mission sui juris of I-li (itself a late 'restoration' of the above diocese) Dioceses according to the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association The structure of dioceses of the CPCA is not the same one as the one of the Holy See. First of all, the distinction between archdioceses, dioceses, apostolic prefectures and apostolic administrations is not maintained: only dioceses exist. Secondly, the dioceses are structured according to the administrative divisions of the PRC. Many dioceses have been merged; some provinces are only served by a single diocese. Except for the diocese of Kangding, which also covers Tibet, all dioceses are restricted to territory within a single province. In total the CPCA has 104 dioceses, whereas according to the Holy See, Mainland China has 143 jurisdictions. In the course of time, the CPCA has established five new dioceses (the Diocese of Jincheng and the Diocese of Xinzhou in Shanxi, the Diocese of Bayannur and the Diocese of Baotou in Inner Mongolia, and the Diocese of Zhanjiang in Guangdong. Forty-four other jurisdictions have been merged with other dioceses. For example, according to the Holy See, Hunan province exists of one archdiocese, three dioceses and four apostolic prefectures. These eight jurisdictions have all been merged by the CPCA to form a single diocese of Hunan. Furthermore, many dioceses have been renamed or have had their seat relocated to a nearby city; most of the dioceses boundaries have also been redrawn to correspond with current PRC administrative divisions. In general, Chinese prefectures have no more than one diocese, but there are exceptions: the prefecture of Baoding is divided in the Diocese of Baoding and the Diocese of Anguo. This results in the following list of dioceses: The CPCA has abolished and merged: 3 jurisdictions in Anhui 2 jurisdictions in Fujian 3 jurisdictions in Guangxi 2 jurisdictions in Guizhou 4 jurisdictions in Hebei 3 jurisdictions in Heilongjiang 6 jurisdictions in Hebei 7 jurisdictions in Hunan 1 jurisdiction in Inner Mongolia 2 jurisdictions in Jiangsu 4 jurisdictions in Jiangxi 2 jurisdictions in Jilin 3 jurisdictions in Liaoning 2 jurisdictions in Shandong In total, 44 Holy See jurisdictions have been abolished and merged. This includes 26 out of 93 dioceses and 18 out of 29 apostolic prefectures. The CPCA has established: 1 jurisdiction in Guangdong 2 jurisdictions in Inner Mongolia 2 jurisdictions in Shanxi In total, 5 new CPCA jurisdictions have been established, all dioceses. Apart from these 5, the CPCA has also established a new diocese in Hebei, the Diocese of Chengde, but this diocese was recognized by the Holy See in 2018. In the following provinces, no new dioceses were established and existing dioceses were not abolished: Beijing, Chongqing, Gansu, Hainan, Henan, Ningxia, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shanghai, Sichuan, Tianjin, Tibet, Xinjiang, Yunnan and Zhejiang. In Guangdong and Zhejiang, no dioceses were abolished, but new diocese were established. However, names of dioceses may have been changed, dioceses may have been elevated, and the boundaries of dioceses may have changed. See also List of Catholic dioceses (structured view) China–Holy See relations Holy See–Taiwan relations Sources and external links GCatholic.org. References China Catholic dioceses

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18세기 프랑스 문학

18세기 프랑스 문학은 흔히 두 날짜로 구분되는데, 1715년 루이 14세의 죽음을 그 시작으로, 1799년 보나파르트 나폴레옹의 쿠데타를 그 끝으로 본다. 경제, 사회, 사상, 정치적 변화의 세기인 18세기의 작품들은 크게 두 사조로 나눌 수가 있는데, 사회의 근본에 의구심을 던지는 계몽주의 운동이 있는 반면에, 한편으로는 후대에 전낭만주의(préromantique)라 불릴 감수성의 태동이기도 했다. 계몽사상 17세기말부터 교회·귀족·왕권 등 전통적인 권위가 쇠퇴함에 따라 이성의 활동이 활발해졌는데, 먼저 이성은 기존 질서의 핵심과도 같았던 신앙의 원리를 쓰러뜨리려고 했다. 이러한 합리주의적 비판 작업은 두 선구자에 의해 이루어졌다. 퐁트넬은 〈신탁의 역사〉에서 "이성에 의하지 않고서는 아무것도 믿어서는 안 된다"고 했고, 피에르 벨(1647~1706)은 〈역사와 비평의 사전 Dictionnaire historique et critique〉(1697)으로 합리주의를 발전시켰다. 계몽시대 최초의 위대한 철학자 몽테스키외(1689~1755)는 〈페르시아인의 편지 Lettres persanes〉(1721)에서 프랑스의 여러 가지 제도와 풍습을 풍자하고 비판했다. 그의 〈로마인의 위대함과 그 쇠락의 원인에 관한 고찰 Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur décadence〉(1734)은 합리적이고 과학적인 역사의 기초를 세웠으며, 〈법의 정신 De l'esprit des lois〉(1748)은 삼권분립이라는 영국의 헌법 이론을 소개함으로써 전제정치를 뒤흔들어 놓았다. 볼테르(1694~1778)는 시인·극작가·역사가·철학자·소설가로서 60년간 프랑스의 지적 지도자 역할을 했다. 그는 〈철학 서간 Lettres philosophiques〉(1734)에서 영국을 정치적·종교적·철학적인 자유국가로 소개했는데, 이는 전제주의와 가톨릭교에 대한 최초의 폭탄과도 같은 것이었다. 그는 훗날 〈신앙자유론 Traité sur la tolérance〉(1763)·〈철학사전 Dictionnaire philosophique〉(1764)에서 더 직접적으로 가톨릭 교회를 공격했다. 또한 〈자디그 Zadig〉(1747)·〈캉디드 Candide〉(1759)·〈랭제뉘 L'lngénu〉(1767) 등과 같은 철학적 소설에서는 사회의 불의, 형이상학적 낙관주의, 정치의 부패 등을 고발했다. 18세기 후반에 철학자들의 그룹이 조직되어 합리적인 철학의 '총화'와도 같은 〈백과전서 Encyclopédie〉(1751~72)를 펴냄으로써 이성의 승리를 가져다주었는데, 주요편집자는 달랑베르(1717~83)와 드니 디드로(1713~84)였다. 디드로는 연극이론가이자 극작가이고 〈라모의 조카 Le Neveu de Rameau〉(1805, 1821, 1891)·〈운명론자 자크 Jacques le fataliste〉(1796)를 쓴 당대의 위대한 반소설(anti-roman) 작가이자 프랑스 최초의 미술 비평가(〈미술 비평 Salons〉, 1759~81)였는데, 무신론자로서 기독교 도덕을 공격했다. 진보를 믿었던 18세기 계몽시대의 모든 철학자들과는 달리 장자크 루소(1712~78)는 진보에 이론(異論)을 제기했다. 그는 〈학예론 Discours sur les sciences et les arts〉(1750)에서 자연은 선하나 문명은 그것을 타락시켰다고 주장했다. 또 〈인간 불평등 기원론 Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalité〉(1755)에서는 불평등의 기원인 사유재산제도에 기초를 둔 현대 사회 질서의 부정을 고발했다. 그의 〈사회계약론 Le Contrat social〉(1762)은 27년 후 혁명가들의 코란이 되었고, 인권과 시민의 권리선언을 낳게 했다. 연극 18세기 전반에는 모든 장르의 예술이 타락했는데 특히 비극이 그러하여, 볼테르의 비극들, 즉 〈자이르 Zaïre〉(1732)·〈메로프 Mérope〉(1743) 외에는 볼 만한 것이 없었다. 희극은 비극보다 훌륭하다. 희극 작가로는 〈튀르카레 Turcaret〉(1709)를 쓴 알랭 르네 르사주(1668~1747)에 이어 피에르 마리보(1688~1763), 피에르 오귀스탱 카롱 드 보마르셰(1732~99)가 등장한다. 마리보는 30편 이상의 희극을 썼으며, 대부분이 복잡하고 미묘한 연애심리를 그렸는데, 문체가 매우 세련되어 훗날 이런 문체를 '마리보다주'라고 불렀다. 주요작품은 〈사랑으로 닦여진 아를캥 Arlequin poli par l'amour〉(1720)·〈사랑의 놀라움 La Surprise de l'amour〉(1722)·〈사랑과 우연의 장난 Le Jeu de l'amour et du hasard〉(1730) 등이 있다. 보마르셰의 걸작으로는 사회·정치 풍자극 〈세비야의 이발사 Le Barbier de Séville〉(1775)·〈피가로의 결혼 Le Mariage de Figaro〉(1784) 등이 있다. 18세기 연극에는 '드라마'(le drame)라는 새로운 장르가 태어났다. 관객의 감정에 변화가 생겨 순수한 웃음 대신 감동을 좋아하게 되었는데 이 새로운 취미를 만족시키기 위해 희극은 진지해지고 '눈물을 자아내는 희극'(comédies larmoyantes)으로 바뀌어, 특수한 신분과 가정의 고민을 다루는 드라마가 된 것이다(감상적 희극). 드라마의 이론은 디드로의 〈사생아에 관한 대담 Entretion sur le fils naturel〉(1757)에 의해 정립되었으며, 그 예로는 니벨 드 라 쇼세(1691~1754)의 〈유행의 편견 Préjugé à la mode〉(1735) 등이 있으나, 미셸 장 스덴(1719~97)이 쓴 〈자신도 그런 줄 모르는 철학자 Le Philosophe sans le savoir〉(1765)가 가장 훌륭한 드라마로 평가되고 있다. 시 볼테르는 서사시·철학시·풍자시 등 온갖 장르에서 뛰어난 시인이었다. 그러나 18세기 최대의 시인은 단두대에 목이 잘린 앙드레 셰니에(1762~94)인데, 그의 격렬한 〈풍자시 Iambes〉(1819)는 옥중에서 쓴 것이다. 소설 18세기에는 소설이 크게 발달했다. 몽테스키외는 〈페르시아인의 편지〉(1721)에서 철학적 소설양식을 창조했다. 그 후 거의 모든 계몽사상가들이 그것을 즐겨 사용했는데, 특히 루소는 그의 방대한 서간체 소설 〈신(新)엘로이즈 La Nouvelle Héloïse〉(1761)에서 사회적·도덕적 문제들을 제기하고 있다. 르사주는 〈절름발이 악마 Le Diable boiteux〉(1707)와 특히 〈질 블라스 Gil Blas〉(1715~35)에서 사실주의적 소설을 창조했다. 〈질 블라스〉는 한 청년의 파란 많은 일생을 그린 것인데, 프랑스 문학에서 가장 성공한 악한소설(roman picaresque) 중 하나이다. 레스티프 드 라 브르톤(1734~1806) 역시 사실주의 작가로서 농민, 도시 서민, 파리 사회 등을 그렸다. 심리소설 또는 감성소설은 마리보의 〈마리안의 일생 La Vie de Marianne〉(1731~41)과 아베 프레보(1697~1763)의 〈마농 레스코 Manon Lescaut〉(1731)에 의해서 대표된다. 베르나르댕 드 생 피에르(1737~1814)의 〈폴과 비르지니 Paul et Virginie〉(1788)도 이 감성 문학 계열에 속한다. 이 작품은 열대의 이국적 배경 속에서 펼쳐지는 한 편의 전원시이다. 코데를로스 드 라클로(1741~1803)의 서간체 소설 〈위험한 관계 Les Liaisons dangereuses〉(1782)는 상류사회의 타락한 남녀관계를 분석한 걸작이다. 끝으로 사드 후작(1740~1814)의 소설 〈쥐스틴, 또는 미덕의 불운 Justine ou les malheurs de la vertu〉(1791)은 '새디즘'이라는 말이 생길 정도로 음란하고 잔인한 것으로 유명하다. 18세기에서 빠뜨릴 수 없는 것은 자전적 회고록이다. 생 시몽 공작(1675~1755)의 〈회상록 Mémoires〉은 부정확한 기록이 많지만 예술적 가치가 매우 높다. 루소의 〈고백록 Confessions〉(1765~70)은 성실한 자기 분석서로서, 자아를 토로하는 낭만주의의 길을 열었으며, 〈고독한 산책자의 몽상 Rêveries d'un promeneur solitaire〉(1776~78)은 추억과 명상과 몽상의 연속으로서 〈고백록〉의 후편이라 할 수 있다. 프랑스 문학 18세기 책 18세기 프랑스

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18th-century%20French%20literature

18th-century French literature

18th-century French literature is French literature written between 1715, the year of the death of King Louis XIV of France, and 1798, the year of the coup d'État of Bonaparte which brought the Consulate to power, concluded the French Revolution, and began the modern era of French history. This century of enormous economic, social, intellectual and political transformation produced two important literary and philosophical movements: during what became known as the Age of Enlightenment, the Philosophes questioned all existing institutions, including the church and state, and applied rationalism and scientific analysis to society; and a very different movement, which emerged in reaction to the first movement; the beginnings of Romanticism, which exalted the role of emotion in art and life. In common with a similar movement in England at the same time, the writers of 18th century France were critical, skeptical and innovative. Their lasting contributions were the ideas of liberty, toleration, humanitarianism, equality, and progress, which became the ideals of modern western democracy. Context The 18th century saw the gradual weakening of the absolute monarchy constructed by Louis XIV. Its power slipped away during the Regency of Philippe d'Orléans, (1715–1723) and the long regime of King Louis XV, when France lost the Seven Years' War with England, and lost much of its empire in Canada and India. France was forced to recognize the growing power of England and Prussia. The Monarchy finally ended with King Louis XVI, who was unable to understand or control the forces of the French Revolution. The end of the century saw the birth of the United States, with the help of French ideas and military forces; the declaration of the French Republic in 1792, and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, setting the stage for the history of modern France The 18th century also brought enormous social changes to France; an enormous growth in population; and, even more important, the growth of the wealthy class, thanks to new technologies (the steam engine, metallurgy), and trade with France's colonies in the New World and India. French society was hierarchal with the Clergy (First Estate) and Nobility (Second Estate) at the top and The Third Estate who included everyone else. Members of the Third Estate, especially the more wealthy and influential, began to challenge the cultural and social monopoly of the aristocracy; French cities began to have their own theaters, coffee houses and salons, independent of the aristocracy. The Rise of the Third Estate was influential in the overthrow of the monarchy in the French Revolution in 1789. French thinking also evolved greatly, thanks to major discoveries in science by Newton, Watt, Volta, Leibniz, Buffon, Lavoisier, and Monge, among others, and their rapid diffusion throughout Europe through newspapers, journals, scientific societies, and theaters. Faith in science and progress was the driving force behind the first French Encyclopedia of Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert. The authority of the Catholic Church was weakened, partly by the conflicts between high and low clergy, partly by the conflict between the State and Jesuits, who were finally expelled from the Kingdom in 1764. The Protestants achieved legal status in France in 1787. The church hierarchy was in continual battle with the Lumieres, having many of their works banned, and causing French courts to sentence a Protestant, Jean Calas, to death in 1762 for blasphemy, an act which was strongly condemned by Voltaire. The explorations of the New World and the first encounters with American Indians also brought a new theme into French and European Literature; exoticism, and the idea of the Noble Savage, which inspired such works as Paul et Virginie by Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre. The exchange of ideas with other countries also increased. British ideas were particularly important, particularly such ideas as constitutional monarchy and romanticism, which greatly influenced French writers, particularly in the following century. The visual arts of the 18th century were highly decorative and oriented toward giving pleasure, as exemplified by the Regency style and Louis XV style, and the paintings of François Boucher, Jean-Honoré Fragonard, Watteau and Chardin, and portrait painters Quentin de La Tour, Nattier and Van Loo. Toward the end of the century, a more sober style appeared, aimed at illustrating scenery, work, and moral values exemplified by Greuze, Hubert Robert and Claude Joseph Vernet. The leading figures in French music were François Couperin and Jean-Philippe Rameau, but they were overshadowed by other European composers of the century, notably Vivaldi, Mozart Haendel, Bach, and Haydn. For art and architecture in the 18th century, see French Rococo and Neoclassicism The Philosophes and the literature of ideas Continuing the work of the so-called "Libertines" of the 17th century, and the critical spirit of such writers as Bayle and Fontenelle, (1657–1757), the writers who were called the lumières denounced, in the name of reason and moral values, the social and political oppressions of their time. They challenged the idea of absolute monarchy and demanded a social contract as the new basis of political authority, and demanded a more democratic organization of central power in a constitutional monarchy, with a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government (Montesquieu, Diderot, and Rousseau.) Voltaire fought against the abuses of power by the government, such as censorship and letters of cachet, which allowed imprisonment without trial, against the collusion of the church and monarchy, and for an "enlightened despotism" where kings would be advised by philosophers. These writers, and others such as the Abbé Sieyès, one of the main authors of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, became known as the philosophes. They came from the wealthy upper class or Third Estate, sought a society founded upon talent and merit, rather than a society based on heredity or caste. Their ideas were strongly influenced by those of John Locke in England. They introduced the values of liberty and equality which became the ideals of the French Republic founded at the end of the century. They defended the freedom of conscience and challenged the role of religious institutions in society. For them, tolerance was a fundamental value of society. When the Convention placed the ashes of Voltaire in the Pantheon in Paris, they honored him as the man who "taught us to live as free men." While the philosophes had widely different approaches, they all had as a common objective, both for humanity and for individuals, the ideal of happiness (bonheur). Some, like Rousseau, dreamed of the happiness of the noble savage, rapidly disappearing; others, like Voltaire, sought happiness in a life of the worldly pursuit of refinement. The philosophes were optimists, and they saw their mission clearly; they did not simply observe, but agitated ceaselessly for the achievement of their goals. The important works of the philosophes belonged to a variety of different genres, such as the tale illustrating a particular philosophical point;(Zadig (1747) or Candide (1759), both by Voltaire in 1759); or satire on French life disguised as letters from an exotic country (Lettres persanes by Montesquieu in 1721); or essays (The Spirit of the Laws by Montesquieu in 1748, An Essay on Tolerance by Voltaire in 1763; The Social Contract by Rousseau in 1762; The Supplement to a voyage of Bougainville by Diderot, or The History of the Two Indias by the Abbé Guillaume-Thomas Raynal). The comedies of Marivaux and of Beaumarchais also played a part in this debate about and diffusion of great ideas. The monumental work of the philosophes was the Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, the famous encyclopedia of Diderot and d'Alembert, published in thirty-five volumes, with texts and illustration, from 1750 until 1772, accompanied by a large variety of essays, speeches, dialogues and interviews on all aspects of knowledge. French theater in the 18th century The great French playwrights of the 17th century, Molière, Racine and Corneille, continued to exert a great influence on the Comédie-Française, but new life was brought into French theater by the tragedies of Voltaire, which introduced modern themes while keeping the classical forms of the alexandrine, as in the play Zaïre in 1732, and The Fanaticism of Mohamet in 1741, both of which enjoyed great success. Nonetheless, royal censorship was still active in the theater under King Louis XV and Louis XVI, and, despite his popularity, Beaumarchais had great difficulty getting his play The Marriage of Figaro staged in Paris, because of its political message. The relaxing of morals under the French Regency brought the return in 1716 of the Comédie-Italienne, which had been driven out of Paris under Louis XIV. It also saw a period of great theatrical spectacles; crowds went to the theater to see famous actors and to laugh at the characters introduced by the Italian commedia dell'arte, such as Harlequin, Columbine and Pantalone. This was the genre used by Marivaux (1688–1763), with comedies which combined a perceptive analysis of the sentiments of love, subtle verbal play, and an analysis of the problems of society, all done through a clever use of the relationship between the master and his valet. His major works include Les Fausses Confidences (1737), le Jeu de l'amour et du hasard (1730), and l'Île des esclaves (1725). Jean-François Regnard and Alain-René Lesage (1668–1747) also had great success with comedies of manners, such as Regnard's Le Légataire universel, and Lesage's Turcaret in 1709. But the greatest author of French comedies in the 18th century was Beaumarchais (1732–1799), who displayed a mastery of dialogue and intrigue combined with social and political satire through the character of Figaro, a valet who challenges the power of his master, who is featured in two major works; le Barbier de Séville (1775) and le Mariage de Figaro (1784). The theater of the 18th century also introduced two new genres, now considered minor, which both strongly influenced the French theater in the following century; the "Comedy of Tears" (comédie larmoyante) and the bourgeois drama (drame bourgeois) which told stories full of pathos in a realistic setting, and which concerned the lives of bourgeois families, rather than aristocrats. Some popular examples of these genres were the Le Fils naturel (The Natural Son) by Diderot in 1757; Le Père de famille (The Father of the Family) by Diderot in 1758; Le Philosophe sans le savoir (The Philosopher who did not know he was a Philosopher) by Michel-Jean Sedaine, (1765); La Brouette du vinaigrier (The Vinegar Cart) by Louis-Sébastien Mercier (1775); and La Mère Coupable (The Guilty Mother) by Beaumarchais, (1792). The 18th century also saw the development of new forms of musical theater, such as the vaudeville theater, and the opéra comique, as well as a new genre of literary writing about theater, such as Diderot's Paradoxe sur le comédien; the writings of Voltaire defending theater actors against the condemnation of the church; and Rousseau's condemnation of immorality in the theater. The French novel in the 18th century The novel in the 18th century saw innovations in form and content which opened the way for the modern novel, a work of fiction in prose recounting the adventures or the evolution of one or several characters. In the 18th century the genre of the novel enjoyed a great increase in readership, and was marked by the effort to convey feelings realistically, through such literary devices as first-person narration, exchanges of letters, and dialogues, all trying to show, in the spirit of the lumieres, a society which was evolving. The French novel was strongly influenced by the English novel, through the translation of the works of Samuel Richardson, Jonathan Swift, and Daniel Defoe. The novel of the 18th century explored all the potential devices of a novel - different points of view, surprise twists of the plot, engaging the reader, careful psychological analysis, realistic descriptions of the setting, imagination, and attention to form. The texts of the period are difficult to neatly divide into categories, but they can loosely be divided into several subgenres. The philosophical tale This category includes the contes philosophiques of Voltaire, Zadig (1747) and Candide (1759), and also the later novella, l'Ingénu, (1768) in which Voltaire moved away from fantasy and introduced a large part of social and psychological realism. The realistic novel This subgenre combined social realism with stories about men and women looking for love. Examples include la Vie de Marianne (1741), and Le Paysan parvenu (1735) by Marivaux; Manon Lescaut (1731) by the abbé Antoine François Prévost (1731) and Le Paysan perverti (The Perverse Peasant) (1775), a novel in the form of letters by Nicolas-Edme Rétif (1734–1806). Within this subgenre is a sub-subgenre of realistic novels about love influenced by Spanish literature; novels full of satire, a variety of different social milieux, and young men learning their way in the new world. The classic example is Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane by Alain-René Lesage (1715). The novel of the imagination The novel of the imagination pictured life centuries in the future; L'An 2440, rêve s'il en fut jamais (The year 2440 - dream of all dreams) by Mercier (1771); or stories of fantasy le Diable amoureux (The Devil in Love) of Jacques Cazotte (1772). The libertine, or erotic novel The libertine, or erotic novel, featured eroticism, seduction, manipulation, and social intrigue. Classic examples are Les Liaisons dangereuses (Dangerous Liaisons) by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos (1782); Justine ou les Malheurs de la vertu (Justine or the misfortunes of virtue) by Donatien Alphonse François de Sade (the Marquis de Sade) (1797); Le Sopha- conte moral (The Sopha - a moral tale) by Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon (1745), and les Bijoux indiscrets (The indiscreet jewels) (1748) and La Religieuse (The Nun) by Diderot (1760). The novel of feelings The novel of feelings appeared in the second half of the 18th century, with the publication of Julie ou la Nouvelle Héloïse (Julie, or the New Heloise), in a novel in the form of letters, written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1761). It was modelled after the English novel Pamela by Samuel Richardson, which was the best-selling novel of the century, drawing readers by its pre-romantic depiction of nature and romantic love. Another popular example was Paul et Virginie by Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre (1787). The novel broken apart The romans éclatés, roughly translated "Novels broken apart", such as Jacques le fataliste et son maître (Eng: Jacques the Fatalist and His Master) (1773) and le Neveu de Rameau (Eng: The Nephew of Rameau) (1762) by Diderot are almost impossible to classify, but resemble the modernist novels that would come a century or more later. The birth of the autobiography in the 18th century Literary stories of people's lives were popular throughout the 18th century, with such popular books as la Vie de mon père (Eng: The Life of My Father) (1779) and Monsieur Nicolas (1794) by Nicolas-Edme Rétif, but the success of the century was Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who founded the genre of the modern autobiography with les Rêveries du promeneur solitaire (The dreams of a solitary walker) in 1776, and Les Confessions in 1782, which became the models for all novels of self-discovery. French poetry of the 18th century Voltaire used verse with great skill in his Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne (Poem on the Lisbon Disaster) and in le Mondain (The Man About Town), but his poetry was in the classical school of the 17th century. Only a few French poets of the 18th century have an enduring reputation; they include Jacques Delille (1738–1813), for les Jardins (The Gardens), in 1782; and Évariste de Parny (1753–1814) for Élégies in 1784, who both contributed to the birth of romanticism and to the poetry of nature and nostalgia. The poet of the 18th century best-known today is André Chénier (1762–1794), who created an expressive style in his famous la Jeune Tarentine (The Young Tarentine) and la Jeune Captive (The Young Captive), both published only in 1819, long after his death during the Terror of the French Revolution. Fabre d'Églantine was known both for his songs, such as Il pleut, il pleut, bergère) (It's raining, shepherdess) and for his participation in the writing of the new French Republican Calendar created during the French Revolution. Other genres of 18th century French literature The genre of modern art criticism was launched by Diderot in Salons, in which he analyzed the way emotions could be created by works of art, using the example of the feelings inspired by the poetic ruins painted by Hubert Robert. Georges-Louis Leclerc, Count of Buffon, popularized the scientific discoveries of his century with the massive Histoire naturelle (Natural History), published with great success between 1749 and 1789. During the French Revolution, political speeches became a popular genre of literature with the publication of the speeches of such talented orators as Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau, Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, Georges Danton and Maximilien Robespierre. Conclusions French literature in the 18th century offered a rich collection of works in all genres, and brought together, rather than opposed, the philosophical and analytical views of the Philosophes and Lumieres with the more subjective and personal views of the emerging romantic movement. Many of the works of the 18th century are forgotten, but the century also produced a number of writers who were great both for the originality and importance of their ideas and for their literary talent; writers such as Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Diderot and Beaumarchais, whose ideas are still quoted today. They used their novels and plays as weapons which profoundly changed their society, while expressing their own personalities and feelings. Thanks largely to these writers, in the 18th century French became the language of culture, political and social reform all across Europe, and as far away as America and Russia. References Bibliography Robert Mauzi, Sylvaine Menant, Michel Delon, Précis de Littérature Française du XVIIIe Siècle, Presses Universaires de France, 1990 Marc Ferro, Histoire de France, Éditions Odile Jacob, Paris, 2001 Michel Delon, Pierre Malandain, Littérature française du XVIIIe siècle, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1996. Béatrice Didier, Histoire de la littérature française du XVIIIe siècle, Paris, Nathan, 1992. Jean-Marie Goulemot, Didier Masseau, Jean-Jacques Tatin-Gourier, Vocabulaire de la littérature du XVIIIe siècle, Paris, Minerve, 1996. Michel Kerautret, La Littérature française du XVIIIe siècle, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1983. Michel Launay, Georges Mailhos, Introduction à la vie littéraire du XVIIIe siècle, avec la collaboration de Claude Cristin et Jean Sgard, Paris, Bordas, 1984. Nicole Masson, Histoire de la littérature française du XVIIIe siècle, Paris, H. Champion, 2003. François Moureau, Georges Grente, Dictionnaire des lettres françaises. Le XVIIIe siècle, Paris, Fayard, 1995. Complete Works of Voltaire (Œuvres complètes de Voltaire), Oxford, Voltaire Foundation, 1968- . 5

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뉴욕의 역사

유럽에서 뉴욕을 처음으로 방문한 에스티방 고메스는 스페인 제국의 함선으로 1524년에 이 지역을 처음 방문하여 뉴욕의 역사가 시작되었다. 그는 스페인의 군주이자 신성 로마 제국의 황제인 카를 5세에 의해 항해했다. 그는 어퍼 뉴욕 만의 레나페족을 만나고, 4월 17일에 내로우스에 정박하며 항해했던 것으로 생각된다. 유럽에서는 네덜란드 동인도 회사의 헨리 허드슨이 1609년 9월 3일에 헤리브 메인 함선에 탑승하여 어퍼 뉴욕 만의 내로우스에 도착했다. 크리스토퍼 콜럼버스같이, 그는 아시아의 서부 통로를 찾고 있었다. 그는 통로를 하나도 찾지 못했으나, 대신 풍부한 개체수의 비버를 찾았다. 비버 가죽은 유럽에서 수요가 높은 패션이 되었다. 뉴욕의 역사에서 비버의 중요성은 도시의 공식 인장에서도 확인할 수 있다. 허드슨의 항해는 신세계에서 네덜란드 식민지를 건설하는 데 도움을 주었고, 현재의 뉴욕이 될 뉴암스테르담을 건설했다. 네덜란드 서인도 회사는 아프리카 노예의 운송 사업을 시작했다. 17세기 후반까지 정착민의 40%가 아프리카 노예였다. 그들은 요새와 방책 건설에 도움을 주었고, 일부는 네덜란드 인으로서의 자유를 얻었다. 1664년에 영국이 뉴욕을 점령할 때까지, 아프리카와 카리브에서 노예 운송을 계속했다. 1703년, 뉴욕 가정의 42%가 노예를 소유했고 그들은 도시 내의 하인과 노동자로 일할 뿐 아니라 숙련된 장인과 거래, 선적 및 기타 분야에서도 참여했다. 그들은 뉴욕 식민지 개발에 중요했다. 혁명 당시에는 찰스턴에 이어 뉴욕은 두 번째, 도시에서 첫 번째로 가장 많은 노예를 가지고 있었고 그 수는 도시 인구의 4분의 1에 달했었다. 미국 독립 전쟁 당시에는 뉴욕 주변 지역은 롱아일랜드 전투를 포함하여 여러 격전을 펼쳤다. 영국의 승리로 영국은 뉴욕을 1776년 9월부터 1783년 말까지 점령했다. 반란군의 대장인 크라운의 제안으로, 1780년 도시의 노예들은 주인을 탈출하여 대부분 만 명의 흑인으로 북적였다. 영국은 1783년 자유화 직전 3천 명의 병력이 탈출했고, 블랙 왕당파들은 노바스코샤 등 다른 식민지로 진출했다. 조지 워싱턴은 1789년 4월 30일 페더럴 홀에서 미국의 초대 대통령으로 취임된 이후 1790년까지 미국의 수도였다. 뉴욕 주의회는 1799년 점진적 해방 프로그램을 통과시켰고, 1827년에는 주의 모든 구역에서 노예 제도를 폐지했다. 19세기 중반부터, 새로운 유럽에서의 이민자들의 물결이 몰아치며 도시의 민족 구성이 달라지고 노동자들이 확대되었다. 현대의 뉴욕은 1898년부터 뉴욕의 자치구에서 통합 개발의 흔적으로 대공황부터 제2차 세계 대전까지 경제와 건설 붐이 일었다. 역사적으로, 뉴욕은 미국으로의 이민의 주요 지역이며, 미국에서 문화, 경제의 가장 큰 영향을 주었으며 미국과 세계에서 중요한 도시 중 하나로 꼽힌다. 초기 역사 래네프와 뉴네덜란드 : 선사 시대 - 1664년 현대 뉴욕의 기초는 레나페족의 거주지에서 시작되었다. 이러한 문화적으로 비슷한 아메리카 토착민 그룹들은 알곤킨어족의 우나미어족들로 이루어져 있었다. 초기 유럽 정착민들은 우나미어족의 델라웨어어를 참고하여 지명학에 이용했으며, 예를 들어 "라리탄"은 지금의 스테튼아일랜드와 뉴저지이 되었고, "캐나시"는 브루클린으로, "해컨색"은 현재의 저맨해튼부터 허드슨-뉴저지를 뜻했다. 롱아일랜드 동부의 원주민들은 모히칸-피쿼트인과 매우 가까웠고, 이는 지금 뉴잉글랜드에서 모히칸-피쿼트 어로 알려져 있다., 이 지역인들은 뉴욕의 지리를 이용하여 낚시, 사냥, 무역, 그리고 때때로 전쟁을 했다. 이는 리나피 어에서 파생되어 라리탄 만과 캐나시와 같은 이름을 따게 되었다. 원주민들이 만들어 놓은 도로들은 현대 브로드웨이의 시초가 되었다. 레나페족은 사낭과 그 처리에 대한 고도의 기술을 발명했다. 유럽인이 도착하며 화전농업을 전수받으며 농업 분야의 생산량이 늘어났다. 또한, 만 지역에서 방대한 양의 조개와 생선을 채집했다. 역사적으로, 유럽인 정착 시기에 5천명의 레나페족이 80개 정착지에서 생활했다. 유럽인들은 로어맨해튼에서 모피 무역이 시작되자 네덜란드 공화국이 이 지역을 사며 1624년에서 25년까지 뉴암스테르담에 정착하며 뉴욕이 시작된다. 이후 1626년 곧바로 포트 암스테르담(Fort Amsterdam)이 건설되었다. 나중에, 네덜란드 서인도 회사는 노동자를 구하기 위해 아프리카 노예를 수입하며 영국과 인도의 공격에 대비해 벽을 구축하는 데 도움이 되었다. 초기 총독으로 빌헬름 베르허스트와 페터 미노이트가 있었다. 1638년 윌리엄 키프트가 뉴데덜란드의 총독이 되나, 5년 뒤 아메리카 원주민과 연루되어 키프트 전쟁이 발발한다. 1643년 2월 현재 저지시티 지역의 파보니아 학살로 토착민 80명이 사망한다. 학살 이후, 알곤퀸인이 개입하여 네덜란드가 패배한다. 네덜란드는 키프트의 도움 요청으로 추가 병력을 보내나, 1645년 8월 29일 네덜란드의 압도적인 패배로 아메리카 토착민과 평화 협정을 맺는다. 1647년 5월 27일, 네덜란드 개혁 교회(Dutch Reformed Church)의 신도인 페터 스토이베산트의 도착 후 총독이 되었다. 식민지는 1652년 자치권을 부여받았고 뉴암스테르담은 공식적으로 1653년 2월 2일 통합되었다. 뉴암스테르담의 초대 시장인 아렌트 반 헤트렘(Arent van Hattem)과 마르틴 크레기어(Martin Cregier)는 그 해 임명되었다. 영국과 혁명 - 1664년-1783년 1664년, 영국이 뉴암스테르담을 점령하고 제임스 2세(요크 공)의 이름을 따서 뉴욕(New york)으로 이름을 변경했다. 이 당시, 아프리카 노예는 이 도시 인구의 40%를 구성했다. 일부는 현재 워싱턴 스퀘어 공원 지역의 네덜란드 농장주 사람들은 130에어커의 토지를 얻고 자유인이 되기도 하였다. 네덜란드는 1673년 짧은 기간 동안 회복되어 도시 이름을 "뉴 오렌지"이 되나, 1674년 11월 수리남이 영구적으로 뉴암스테르담을 양도하기 전 영국으로 넘어갔다. 2차 영국-네덜란드 전쟁 후, 네덜란드는 북아메리카에서 영국의 뉴암스테르담(뉴욕)의 지배를 인정하는 대신에, 향신료 무역의 중심지로서 가치있는 토지였던 반다 제도의 룬섬의 지배를 하였다. 1700년까지, 레나페족의 인구는 200명까지 감소했다. 일부 지명은 네덜란드 시대의 이름에 유래되어 특히 플러쉬(네덜란드 플리싱언 마을에 유래), 할렘(하를럼에 유래), 브루클린(브뢰컬런에 유래)가 있다. 그러나, 몇몇 건물은 17세기부터 남아 있다. 뉴욕에 현존하는 가장 오래된 건축물은 브루클린에 1652년 지어진 피터 클래슨의 위크오프 하우스(Wyckoff House)이다. 새로운 영국 정복자들은 뉴암스테르담과 뉴네덜란드를 합쳐 뉴욕으로 이름을 바꿨다. 식민지가 성장하고 번영하며 자유도도 높아졌다. 영국에서 명예혁명이 발생하자, 제이콥 레이스레르(Jacob Leisler)가 레이스레르의 반란(Leisler's Rebellion)을 일으켜 체포 전인 1689년까지 1691년까지 효과적으로 도시를 점령했다. 1700년에는 뉴욕의 레나페족 인구는 200명으로 감소했다. 또한, 뉴욕에 시청이 들어와 본격적인 발전을 하기 시작했다. 1702년에는 황열병으로 인해 도시 인구 10%를 잃었다. 뉴욕은 1702년부터 1800년까지 황열병이 유행했다. 1703년, 뉴욕 가구의 42%는 노예로 필라델피아나 보스턴보다 높은 비율이었다. 뉴욕은 대영 제국의 지배하에 무역항으로서 중요성이 높아져 갔다. 1735년 존 피터 젱어의 명예 훼손 재판 이후 북미에서 언론의 자유가 시작되었다. 이것은 미국 독립 선언서의 자유에 대한 표준이 되었다. 1740년대 정착민의 확장과 함께 뉴욕의 노예 인구는 20%까지 낮아졌다. 총 2,500명의 사람들이 있었다. 1741년 일련의 화재 이후, 도시는 흑인들의 음모에 불쌍한 백인들을 구울려고 했다라는 소문이 퍼졌다. 역사학자들은 이것이 경보를 만들게 되고 두려움이 만들어졌다고 했지만, 행정 당국은 31명의 흑인과 4명의 백인만 기소하여 유죄를 선고했다. 이곳에서 13명의 흑인이 화형당했고 4명의 백인과 18명의 흑인이 교수형당했다. 1754년 조지 2세의 칙허장으로 로어 맨해튼에 왕립 대학으로 컬럼비아 대학교가 설립되었다. 미국 독립 이후에 컬럼비아 대학교는 자유의 상징이 되었다. 1766년부터 1776년까지 현지 주둔 영국군과 자유 폴란드인(Liberty Pole)은 대립하며 인지조례 등의 영국 조치에 대해 반발했으며 특히 자유의 아들들은 독립 운동의 전초전을 마련한다. 1765년 뉴욕 시에서 모인 인지조례 회의는 식민지가 처음으로 영국에게 대립각을 세운 때였다. 대륙군의 롱아일랜드 전투에서 대패 이후 조지 워싱턴 장군은 맨해튼섬에서 철수했고 이후 워싱턴 요새 전투에서 영국군이 안전하게 뉴욕을 차지하게 된다. 이 모든 것으로 인해 뉴욕은 왕당파적이었고 뉴욕 전체는 전쟁의 거점지가 된다. 뉴욕 시는 대영 제국이원인으로 의심되는 2번의 대화재를 겪었다. 나머지 전쟁 기간 동안 도시는 북미의 정치 및 군사의 중심지이자 왕당파의 세력권이 되었다. 대륙군 장교인 네이탄 헤일(Nathan Hale)은 맨해튼의 간첩 혐의로 체포되었다. 여기에 더해, 영국은 브루클린의 이스트 강을 통해 윌라보트 만(Wallabout Bay)의 형무소 선박(Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument)에서 전쟁 포로를 싣기 시작했다. 미국인은 전쟁에서 전투로 인한 사망자보다 이 배로 인한 사망자가 더 높았다. 영국은 1783년 11월 25일까지 마지막으로 점령했다. 조지 워싱턴은 영국이 철수한 이후 도시를 점령했다. 연방과 미국 초기 - 1784년-1854년 1785년 뉴욕 시에서 연합회의가 열렸고 그 곳에서 연합규약이 체결되었다. 나중에, 뉴욕은 미국의 헌법에 따른 최초의 미국 수도가 되었다. 또한, 윌 가의 페더럴 홀에서 첫 미국 의회 회의가 열렸고 미국 헌법을 채택했다. 미국이 확장하게 된 첫 번째 조례인 북서부 조례가 이곳에서 통과되었고, 미국 연방 대법원이 이곳에 세워져 미국 권리 장전 초안이 비준되었다. 뉴욕은 헌법 제정 회의(Constitutional convention (political meeting)) 이후 1788년 9월 13일 미국 최초의 수도가 되었다. 1789년 4월 30일, 초대 미국의 대통령인 조지 워싱턴이 월 가의 페더럴 홀에서 취임식을 가졌다. 뉴욕은 1790년 필라델피아를 제치고 최대의 도시가 되었다. 뉴욕은 경제의 중심지로 성장하며 이 결과 첫째로 알렉산터 해밀턴 미국의 제무 장관(Secretary of the Treasury)이 뉴욕에서 정책 관련 사무를 보게 되었고 이후 1825년 이리 운하의 개통 이후 미국 내륙의 광대한 농업 시장과 대서양의 항구를 연결하는 매개체가 되었다. 유럽의 전쟁으로 인해 이민수가 둔화된 이후 새로운 격자 계획(street grid) 시스템을 맨해튼 전체에 도입했다. 1850년 아일랜드 대기근 이후 대거 유입한 아일랜드인은 도시 내 아일랜드인 인구의 분기점이 되었다. 시민들의 수요에 대처하기 위해 뉴욕 경찰국과 뉴욕 교육국이 각각 1840년대와 1850년대 설립되었다. 근현대 역사 태머니파와 통합 - 1855년-1897년 1855년에는 페르디난도 우드 시장이 당선되면서 태머니 홀이 시작되었고, 아일랜드 이민자가 지원하는 미국 민주당의 정치 머신(political machine)은 이 기간 동안 지역 정치를 장악했다. 19세기 동안, 도시는 이민자와 개발에 의해 크게 변형되어 맨해튼 전역이 격자 거리로 변하는 1811년 위원회 계획을 세웠고 1819년에는 이리 운하가 개통되어 대서양의 항구와 미국 중서부, 캐나다 내륙과 연결되게 되었다. 1835년에는 뉴욕이 미국 최대의 도시가 되었다. 1857년 디자인 공모전을 열어 만들어진 센트럴 파크는 미국 최초의 디자인 공모전으로 만들어진 공원이 되었다. 또한, 이 공원은 미국 도시 최초의 풍경 공원(landscape park)이 되었다. 뉴욕에서는 1827년까지 노예 제도가 유지되고 있었지만, 1830년대 뉴욕 북부가 노예제 폐지 운동의 중심지가 되었다. 1840년의 시점에서 뉴욕의 아프리카계 사람 인구는 1만 6000명을 넘었다. 1847년 발생한 아일랜드 대기근으로 인해 아일랜드 이주민들의 대규모 유입이 일어났고, 1860년에는 아일랜드인들이 20만 명을 넘어 뉴욕 인구 네 명 중 한 명은 아일랜드인이였다. 또한 독일에서도 수 많은 이민자들이 왔는데, 1860년 뉴욕 인구 중 아일랜드인들을 제외하고 또 다른 25%를 독일인들이 차지했다. 1861년부터 1865년까지 미국 남북 전쟁 기간 동안 도시와 미국 남부와의 강한 관계, 이민자들의 증가, 징병제에 대한 분노 등으로 인해 1863년 뉴욕 징병거부 폭동이 발생했다. 남북 전쟁 이후에는 유럽에서의 이민자가 가파르게 증가하여 수 백만명의 사람들이 자유를 위해 뉴욕으로 이민을 왔으며 1886년에는 리버티섬에 자유의 여신상이 완공되었다. 20세기 초반 - 1898년-1945년 1898년, 브루클린(당시까지는 별개의 도시였다)와 맨해튼 외곽 지역이 통합함으로써 현대의 뉴욕 대도시권(City of Greater New York)이 형성되었다. 맨해튼과 브롱크스는 여전히 한 카운티에 속했으나, 인접한 카운티의 3개의 다른 자치구와 새로 생긴 2개의 자치구가 통합되어 새로운 '뉴욕 대도시권' 시 정부가 만들어졌다. 브루클린 자치구는 독립적인 도시로 통합되어 당시 막 건설된 브루클린 교가 맨해튼의 일부가 되었으며 킹스 카운티의 동부 일부 지방이 브루클린으로 통합되었다. 퀸스 자치구는 퀸스 카운티 서부에서 통합되었다(퀸스의 나머지 부분은 1899년 나소 카운티에서 통합되었다). 스테튼아일랜드 자치구는 리치몬드 카운티 전부를 포함했다. 자치구 내의 모든 정부(군, 도시, 마을)는 통폐합되었다. 1914년, 뉴욕주 의회는 5개 군들의 경계에 브롱크스 자치구를 만들었다. 1904년 6월 15일, 이스트강 강가의 노스브라더섬(North Brother Island, East River) 근처에서 증기선 제너럴 슬로컴 증기선에 화재가 발생하여 주로 독일 이민자로 구성된 약 천 명의 사람들이 사망했다. 그리고 1911년 3월 25일 그리니치빌리지의 트라이앵글 셔츠웨이스트 공장 화재로 인해 의류노동자 146명이 사망하였으며 도시의 소방 기준이 강화되었으며 건물 설계 및 산업 규정도 강화되었다. 20세기 전반 동안 도시는 세계의 산업, 상업, 통신의 중심지가 되었다. 첫 번째 뉴욕 지하철 회사인 인터보로우 철도(Interborough Rapid Transit Company)가 1904년 운영을 시작하였고 운영을 맡은 그랜드 센트럴 터미널과 펜실베이니아 역이 번창하였다. 뉴욕은 제1차 세계 대전 동안 급격한 변화, 범죄율의 상승, 빈곤율의 저하를 겪어 전쟁 이후 이민 제한법(Immigration Restriction Acts)으로 추가 이민을 제한하였고 대공황 이후 새로운 고용의 필요성이 없어졌다. 노동 조합은 도금시대(Gilded Age baron)의 지배를 끝냈다. 도시의 인구가 안정화되며 노동 조합은 노동자에게 새로운 보호와 풍요로움을 가져다주었고, 도시 정부와 인프라는 피오렐로 라가디아와 로버트 모세(Robert Moses)의 극적인 발전으로 아파트 거리의 황폐하가 중지되었고 새로운 공원이 확장되었으며, 거리가 재창조되고 구역(Zoning in the United States)을 재개편했다. 1940년, 뉴욕은 미국 남부에서의 대이주(Great Migration (African American))의 시작으로 아프리카계 미국인이 가장 많이 이주한 곳이었다. 1920년대 미국 금주법 시기에는 할렘 르네상스가 번성했으며 경제 호황으로 인해 마천루와 스카이라인의 경쟁이 심화되었다. 동시에 1925년에는 런던을 추월하여 세계에서 가장 인구가 많은 도시가 되었다. 대공황 기간 동안, 뉴욕 시장에 피렐로 라가디아가 당선되면서 80년 동안 뉴욕을 정치적으로 지배해온 태머니파의 정치적 영향력은 완전히 상실하였다. 대공황의 영향에도 불구하고, 1930년대는 세계에서 가장 높은 마천루가 여러 차례 건설되었으며 아르 데코 등 현대 스카이라인에 영향을 준 걸작이 이 때 탄생하였다. 제2차 세계 대전 이전과 이후, 도시의 광대한 지역이 교량의 건설로 개편되었으며 모세에 의한 공원과 산책로가 개편되었고 현대까지 영향을 준 미국의 자동차 중심의 사회가 시작하였다. 1938년에는 정치적 명칭인 워드(Wards of the United States)가 폐지되었다. 제2차 세계 대전 이후 - 1946년-1977년 제2차 세계 대전으로 인한 유럽 이민자들의 귀환으로 전후 경제 붐이 시작되었으며 퀸즈 동부의 거대 거주 시설 계획이 시작되었다. 도시는 전후 기간 동안 사진가 토드 웹(Todd Webb) 등에 의해 무거운 삼각대와 카메라를 이용한 광범위한 사진 촬영이 있었다. 뉴욕은 전쟁 중 주요 도시로 등장하면서 윌 가가 미국의 경제를 주도하게 되었으며, 1951년에는 국제 연합 본부가 맨해튼 이스트사이드의 퀸즈 플러싱 메도스 코로나 파크에 자리잡았다. 1960년대 동안 시장 로버트 모세(Robert Moses)의 부동산 개발 관점은 많은 사람들에게 인기를 잃었고 반도시 재개발파인 제인 제이콥스가 인기를 얻기 시작했다. 로어맨해튼을 통과하는 자동차 전용도로 건설 계획 중 시민들이 폭동으로 사망했다. 산업 시설의 이전으로 인한 대형 조선 및 의류 산업이 감소하면서 뉴욕은 급격하게 서비스 경제 체제로 전환되었다. 항구는 전통적인 노동자들의 많은 인건비를 줄이기 위해 컨테이너선으로 교체되었다. 많은 대기업들이 본사를 교외 또는 먼 도시로 이전했다. 그러나, 서비스는 특히 의료, 금융, 교육, 관광, 통신, 법률 분야에서 빠른 성장을 보였다. 뉴욕은 미국에서 가장 큰 도시이자 최대 규모의 도시권으로 남게 되었고, 가장 큰 금융, 상업, 정보, 문화의 중심지가 되었다. 많은 주요 미국 도시와 마찬가지로 뉴욕은 1960년대 인종 갈등과 갱 전쟁으로 인해 인구 감소를 겪었다. 거리 운동가와 블랙 팬더(Black Panthers) 같은 소수민족, 젊은 귀족(Young Lords)들은 임대료 파업과 쓰레기 공세 등의 문제에 가난한 지역에 대한 도시 서비스를 요구했다. 또한, 그들은 무료 건강 진료와 기타 프로그램의 창설을 주장하며 '사람들에게 힘을 주기 위한' 구성 및 확보 가이드를 만들었다. 1970년대 도시는 역사적으로 범죄율이 높은 도시로 악명을 끼쳤다. 1975년, 시 정부는 펠릭스 로흐튼(Felix Rohatyn)이 이끄는 회사 지원, 연방 정부의 대출과 채무 구조조정을 통해 가까스로 파산을 면했다. 또한, 뉴욕주 정부에 의해 강화된 금융 조사에 들어가라는 압박을 받았다. 1977년, 도시는 1977년 뉴욕 정전과 데이비드 버코위츠 연쇄 살인이라는 두 가지 재앙을 받았다. 1978년-현재 1980년대의 월 가는 세계 금융 산업의 중심지 역할을 다시 회복했다. 높은 실업율과 범죄율은 1990년대까지 최고 수준을 유지했다. 도시는 이후 아시아계, 라틴아메리카계, 미국 시민으로 나누어진 사회 및 경제로 복구되었으며 뉴욕 경찰국은 새로운 범죄 예방 기법을 도입했다. 1990년대 말 도시는 닷컴 버블 기간 동안 실리콘앨리로 금융 부분에서 호황을 누렸고 이는 부동산의 호황을 이루게 하는 원인이 된다. 뉴욕은 더욱 많은 버려진 산업 지역들이 산업, 예술, 주거지, 정육 단지 등으로 재개되었다. 뉴욕은 2000년 인구 조사 결과 사상 최고의 인구를 달성했다. 2000년도 이후의 인구 조사에 따르면 도시에서 가장 도시화된 맨해튼은 급격한 성장을 계속하고 있다. 이 기간 동안, 뉴욕은 9·11 테러의 현장이 되었다. 세계 무역 센터 공격으로 인해 거의 3000명의 사상자가 발생했고 도시는 충격에 휩싸였지만 도시의 빠른 재성장은 멈추지 않았다. 이 장소에는 원 월드 트레이드 센터, 기념관 등 새로운 건물들이 들어설 예정이며, 2013년에 완공될 예정이다. 2012년 10월 29일 저녁에는 허리케인 샌디의 폭풍 해일로 인해 맨해튼의 수 많은 거리, 터널, 지하철이 침수되었다. 브루클린, 퀸즈, 스테튼아일랜드의 저지대는 침수되었다. 도시와 교외의 대부분에는 전력 공급이 중단되기도 하였다. 현재 뉴욕은 보스턴에서 워싱턴 D.C.에 이르는, 인구 40,000,000명 정도의 세계 메갈로폴리스의 압도적인 중심이 되고 있으며, 그 중심에는 뉴욕이 있다. 현재는 "세계의 수도"로서의 입지를 다지고 있다. 더 보기 자치구의 역사 브롱크스의 역사 브루클린의 역사 퀸스의 역사 스태튼아일랜드의 역사 맨해튼의 역사 거리 및 도로의 역사 5번가의 역사 브로드웨이의 역사 월 가의 역사 소규모 섬의 역사 하트섬의 역사 리커스섬의 역사 랜달섬의 역사 리버티섬 거버너스섬의 역사 시티섬의 역사 루즈벨트섬의 역사 엘리스섬의 역사 – 뉴저지 주와 뉴욕주 소유 문집 뉴욕 역사 협회 뉴욕 박물관 New York: A Documentary Film 뉴욕의 물 공급 시스템 뉴욕의 범죄 및 재난 연대기 케네스 T. 잭슨 — 역사학자 18세기 뉴욕의 신문 목록 각주 참조 관련 자료 서적 Archdeacon, Thomas J. New York City, 1664–1710: Conquest and Change (1976) Caro, Robert. The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York. (1973) excerpt and text search Jackson, Kenneth T. and Roberts, Sam (eds.) The Almanac of New York City (2008) Greene, Evarts Boutelle et all, American Population Before the Federal Census of 1790, 1993, Kessner, Thomas. Fiorello H. LaGuardia and the Making of Modern New York (1989) the most detailed standard scholarly biography Kouwenhoven, John Atlee. The Columbia Historical Portrait of New York: An Essay In Graphic History. New York: Harper & Row, 1953. (Reprinted 1972). Scheltema, Gajus and Westerhuijs, Heleen (eds.).Exploring Historic Dutch New York. Museum of the City of New York/Dover Publications, New York (2011). Siegel, Fred and Siegel, Harry. The Prince of the City: Giuliani, New York and the Genius of American Life (2005), analytical academic study excerpt and text search Slayton, Robert A. Empire Statesman: The Rise and Redemption of Al Smith, (2001), 480pp, the standard scholarly biography; excerpt and text search 영상 8개 파트의 New York: A Documentary Film. 17½시간의 미국 공영 방송망의 릭 본스가 회상한 다큐멘터리. 원작은 1999년에 미국에서 방송되었으며 추가 에피소드가 2001년과 2003년에 방송됨. 외부 링크 'Historic Book Collection of New York on CD' Travel Guide to New York City Hotels and Tourism Gotham Center for New York City History Museum of the City of New York New-York Historical Society Interactive Timeline Origins of New York NYC Snapshot: Historic NYC A history of NYC by cosmopolis.ch The Mannahatta Project, seeking to map the Manhattan of 1609 Historical photos of New York{{ New York and its origins Young Lords origins A Map and Timeline of many of the historical events mentioned in this article Boston Public Library, Map Center. Maps of NYC , various dates 갤러리

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20New%20York%20City

History of New York City

The written history of New York City began with the first European explorer, the Italian Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524. European settlement began with the Dutch in 1608. The "Sons of Liberty" campaigned against British authority in New York City, and the Stamp Act Congress of representatives from throughout the Thirteen Colonies met in the city in 1765 to organize resistance to Crown policies. The city's strategic location and status as a major seaport made it the prime target for British seizure in 1776. General George Washington lost a series of battles from which he narrowly escaped (with the notable exception of the Battle of Harlem Heights, his first victory of the war), and the British Army occupied New York and made it their base on the continent until late 1783, attracting Loyalist refugees. The city served as the national capital under the Articles of Confederation from 1785 to 1789, and briefly served as the new nation's capital in 1789–90 under the United States Constitution. Under the new government, the city hosted the inauguration of George Washington as the first President of the United States, the drafting of the United States Bill of Rights, and the first Supreme Court of the United States. The opening of the Erie Canal gave excellent steamboat connections with upstate New York and the Great Lakes, along with coastal traffic to lower New England, making the city the preeminent port on the Atlantic Ocean. The arrival of rail connections to the north and west in the 1840s and 1850s strengthened its central role. Beginning in the mid-19th century, waves of new immigrants arrived from Europe dramatically changing the composition of the city and serving as workers in the expanding industries. Modern New York traces its development to the consolidation of the five boroughs in 1898 and an economic and building boom following the Great Depression and World War II. Throughout its history, New York has served as a main port of entry for many immigrants, and its cultural and economic influence has made it one of the most important urban areas in the United States and the world. The economy in the 1700s was based on farming, local production, fur trading, and Atlantic jobs like shipbuilding. In the 1700s, New York was sometimes referred to as a breadbasket colony, because one of its major crops was wheat. New York colony also exported other goods included iron ore as a raw material and as manufactured goods such as tools, plows, nails and kitchen items such as kettles, pans and pots. Native American settlement The area that eventually encompassed modern day New York was inhabited by the Lenape people. These groups of culturally and linguistically related Native Americans traditionally spoke an Algonquian language now referred to as Unami. Early European settlers called bands of Lenape by the Unami place name for where they lived, such as "Raritan" in Staten Island and New Jersey, "Canarsee" in Brooklyn, and "Hackensack" in New Jersey across the Hudson River from Lower Manhattan. Some modern place names such as Raritan Bay and Canarsie are derived from Lenape names. Eastern Long Island neighbors were culturally and linguistically more closely related to the Mohegan-Pequot peoples of New England who spoke the Mohegan-Montauk-Narragansett language. These peoples made use of the abundant waterways in the New York region for fishing, hunting trips, trade, and occasionally war. Many paths created by the indigenous peoples are now main thoroughfares, such as Broadway in Manhattan, the Bronx, and Westchester. The Lenape developed sophisticated techniques of hunting and managing their resources. By the time of the arrival of Europeans, they were cultivating fields of vegetation through the slash and burn technique, which extended the productive life of planted fields. They also harvested vast quantities of fish and shellfish from the bay. Historians estimate that at the time of European settlement, approximately 5,000 Lenape lived in 80 settlements around the region. European exploration and settlement New Angoulême The first European visitor to the area was Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian in command of the French ship La Dauphine in 1524. It is believed he sailed into Upper New York Bay, where he encountered native Lenape, returned through the Narrows, where he anchored the night of April 17, and left to continue his voyage. He named the area New Angoulême () in honor of Francis I, King of France of the royal house of Valois-Angoulême and who had been Count of Angoulême from 1496 until his coronation in 1515. The name refers to the town of Angoulême, in the Charente département of France. For the next century, the area was occasionally visited by fur traders or explorers, such as by Esteban Gomez in 1525. European exploration continued on September 2, 1609, when the Englishman Henry Hudson, in the employ of the Dutch East India Company, sailed the Half Moon through the Narrows into Upper New York Bay. Like Christopher Columbus, Hudson was looking for a westerly passage to Asia. He never found one, but he did take note of the abundant beaver population. Beaver pelts were in fashion in Europe, fueling a lucrative business. Hudson's report on the regional beaver population served as the impetus for the founding of Dutch trading colonies in the New World. The beaver's importance in New York's history is reflected by its use on the city's official seal. Dutch settlement The first Dutch fur trading posts and settlements were in 1614 near present-day Albany, New York, the same year that New Netherland first appeared on maps. Only in May 1624 did the Dutch West India Company land a number of families at Noten Eylant (today's Governors Island) off the southern tip of Manhattan at the mouth of the North River (today's Hudson River). Soon thereafter, most likely in 1626, construction of Fort Amsterdam began. Later, the Dutch West Indies Company imported African slaves to serve as laborers; they helped to build the wall that defended the town against English and Indian attacks. Early directors included Willem Verhulst and Peter Minuit. Willem Kieft became director in 1638 but five years later was embroiled in Kieft's War against the Native Americans. The Pavonia Massacre, across the Hudson River in present-day Jersey City, resulted in the death of 80 natives in February 1643. Following the massacre, Algonquian tribes joined forces and nearly defeated the Dutch. Holland sent additional forces to the aid of Kieft, leading to the overwhelming defeat of the Native Americans and a peace treaty on August 29, 1645. On May 27, 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was inaugurated as director general upon his arrival and ruled as a member of the Dutch Reformed Church. The colony was granted self-government in 1652, and New Amsterdam was incorporated as a city on February 2, 1653. The first mayors (burgemeesters) of New Amsterdam, Arent van Hattem and Martin Cregier, were appointed in that year. By the early 1660s, the population consisted of approximately 1500 Europeans, only about half of whom were Dutch, and 375 Africans, 300 of whom were slaves. A few of the original Dutch place names have been retained, most notably Flushing (after the Dutch town of Vlissingen), Harlem (after Haarlem), and Brooklyn (after Breukelen). Few buildings, however, remain from the 17th century. The oldest recorded house still in existence in New York, the Pieter Claesen Wyckoff House in Brooklyn, dates from 1652. English rule: 1664–1783 On August 27, 1664, four English frigates under the command of Col. Richard Nicolls sailed into New Amsterdam's harbor and demanded New Netherland's surrender, as part of an effort by king Charles' brother James, Duke of York, the Lord High Admiral to provoke the Second Anglo-Dutch War. Two weeks later, Stuyvesant officially capitulated by signing Articles of Surrender and in June 1665, the town was reincorporated under English law and renamed "New York" after the Duke, and Fort Orange was renamed "Fort Albany". The war ended in a Dutch victory in 1667, but the colony remained under English rule as stipulated in the Treaty of Breda. During the Third Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch briefly recaptured the city in 1673, renaming the city "New Orange", before permanently ceding the colony of New Netherland to the English for what is now Suriname in November 1674 at the Treaty of Westminster. The colony benefited from increased immigration from Europe and its population grew faster. The Bolting Act of 1678, whereby no mill outside the city was permitted to grind wheat or corn, boosted growth until its repeal in 1694, increasing the number of houses over the period from 384 to 983. In the context of the Glorious Revolution in England, Jacob Leisler led Leisler's Rebellion and effectively controlled the city and surrounding areas from 1689 to 1691, before being arrested and executed. Lawyers In New York at first, legal practitioners were full-time businessmen and merchants, with no legal training, who had watched a few court proceedings, and mostly used their own common sense together with snippets they had picked up about English law. Court proceedings were quite informal, for the judges had no more training than the attorneys. By the 1760s, the situation had dramatically changed. Lawyers were essential to the rapidly growing international trade, dealing with questions of partnerships, contracts, and insurance. The sums of money involved were large, and hiring an incompetent lawyer was a very expensive proposition. Lawyers were now professionally trained, and conversant in an extremely complex language that combined highly specific legal terms and motions with a dose of Latin. Court proceedings became a baffling mystery to the ordinary layman. Lawyers became more specialized and built their reputation, and their fee schedule, on the basis of their reputation for success. But as their status, wealth and power rose, animosity grew even faster. By the 1750s and 1760s, there was a widespread attack ridiculing and demeaning the lawyers as pettifoggers (lawyers lacking sound legal skills). Their image and influence declined. The lawyers organized a bar association, but it fell apart in 1768 during the bitter political dispute between the factions based in the Delancey and Livingston families. A large fraction of the prominent lawyers were Loyalists; their clientele was often to royal authority or British merchants and financiers. They were not allowed to practice law unless they took a loyalty oath to the new United States of America. Many went to Britain or Canada (primarily to New Brunswick and Nova Scotia) after losing the war. For the next century, various attempts were made, and failed, to build an effective organization of lawyers. Finally a Bar Association emerged in 1869 that proved successful and continues to operate. Native Americans and slaves By 1700, the Lenape population of New York had diminished to 200. The Dutch West Indies Company transported African slaves to the post as trading laborers used to build the fort and stockade, and some gained freedom under the Dutch. After the seizure of the colony in 1664, the slave trade continued to be legal. In 1703, 42% of the New York households had slaves; they served as domestic servants and laborers but also became involved in skilled trades, shipping and other fields. Yet following reform in ethics according to American Enlightenment thought, by the 1770s slaves made up less than 25% of the population. By the 1740s, 20% of the residents of New York were slaves, totaling about 2,500 people. After a series of fires in 1741, the city became panicked that blacks planned to burn the city in conspiracy with some poor whites. Historians believe their alarm was mostly fabrication and fear, but officials rounded up 31 blacks and 4 whites, who over a period of months were convicted of arson. Of these, the city executed 13 blacks by burning them alive and hanged 4 whites and 18 blacks. In 1754, Columbia University was founded under charter by King George II as King's College in Lower Manhattan. American Revolution The Stamp Act and other British measures fomented dissent, particularly among Sons of Liberty who maintained a long-running skirmish with locally stationed British troops over Liberty Poles from 1766 to 1776. The Stamp Act Congress met in New York City in 1765 in the first organized resistance to British authority across the colonies. After the major defeat of the Continental Army in the Battle of Long Island in late 1776, General George Washington withdrew to Manhattan Island, but with the subsequent defeat at the Battle of Fort Washington the island was effectively left to the British. The city became a haven for loyalist refugees, becoming a British stronghold for the entire war. Consequently, the area also became the focal point for Washington's espionage and intelligence-gathering throughout the war. New York was greatly damaged twice by fires of suspicious origin, with the Loyalists and Patriots accusing each other of starting the conflagration. The city became the political and military center of operations for the British in North America for the remainder of the war. Continental Army officer Nathan Hale was hanged in Manhattan for espionage. In addition, the British began to hold the majority of captured American prisoners of war aboard prison ships in Wallabout Bay, across the East River in Brooklyn. More Americans lost their lives aboard these ships than died in all the battles of the war. The British occupation lasted until November 25, 1783. George Washington triumphantly returned to the city that day, as the last British forces left the city. Federal and early America: 1784–1854 Starting in 1785 the Congress met in the city of New York under the Articles of Confederation. In 1789, New York became the first national capital under the new Constitution. The Constitution also created the current Congress of the United States, and its first sitting was at Federal Hall on Wall Street. The first Supreme Court sat there. The United States Bill of Rights was drafted and ratified there. George Washington was inaugurated at Federal Hall. New York remained the national capital until 1790, when the role was transferred to Philadelphia. During the 19th century, the city was transformed by immigration, a visionary development proposal called the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 which expanded the city street grid to encompass all of Manhattan, and the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825, which connected the Atlantic port to the vast agricultural markets of the Midwestern United States and Canada. By 1835, New York had surpassed Philadelphia as the largest city in the United States. New York grew as an economic center, first as a result of Alexander Hamilton's policies and practices as the first Secretary of the Treasury. In 1842, water was piped from a reservoir to supply the city for the first time. The Great Irish Famine (1845–1850) brought a large influx of Irish immigrants, and by 1850 the Irish comprised one quarter of the city's population. Government institutions, including the New York City Police Department and the public schools, were established in the 1840s and 1850s to respond to growing demands of residents. Modern history Tammany and consolidation: 1855–1897 This period started with the 1855 inauguration of Fernando Wood as the first mayor from Tammany Hall. It was the political machine based among Irish Americans that controlled the local Democratic Party. It usually dominated local politics throughout this period and into the 1930s. Public-minded members of the merchant community pressed for a Central Park, which was opened to a design competition in 1857; it became the first landscape park in an American city. During the American Civil War (1861–1865), the city was affected by its history of strong commercial ties to the South; before the war, half of its exports were related to cotton, including textiles from upstate mills. Together with its growing immigrant population, which was angry about conscription, sympathies among residents were divided for both the Union and Confederacy at the outbreak of war. Tensions related to the war culminated in the Draft Riots of 1863 led by Irish Catholics, who attacked black neighborhood and abolitionist homes. Many blacks left the city and moved to Brooklyn. After the Civil War, the rate of immigration from Europe grew steeply, and New York became the first stop for millions seeking a new and better life in the United States, a role acknowledged by the dedication of the Statue of Liberty in 1886. Early 20th century: 1898–1945 From 1890 to 1930, the largest cities, led by New York, were the focus of international attention. The skyscrapers and tourist attractions were widely publicized. Suburbs were emerging as bedroom communities for commuters to the central city. San Francisco dominated the West, Atlanta dominated the South, Boston dominated New England; Chicago dominated the Midwest United States. New York City dominated the entire nation in terms of communications, trade, finance, popular culture, and high culture. More than a fourth of the 300 largest corporations in 1920 were headquartered here. In 1898, the modern City of New York was formed with the consolidation of Brooklyn (until then an independent city), Manhattan, and outlying areas. Manhattan and the Bronx were established as two separate boroughs and joined with three other boroughs created from parts of adjacent counties to form the new municipal government originally called "Greater New York". The Borough of Brooklyn incorporated the independent City of Brooklyn, recently joined to Manhattan by the Brooklyn Bridge; the Borough of Queens was created from western Queens County (with the remnant established as Nassau County in 1899); and the Borough of Richmond contained all of Richmond County. Municipal governments contained within the boroughs were abolished, and the county governmental functions were absorbed by the city or each borough. In 1914, the New York State Legislature created Bronx County, making five counties coterminous with the five boroughs. The Bronx had a steady boom period during 1898–1929, with a population growth by a factor of six from 200,000 in 1900 to 1.3 million in 1930. The Great Depression created a surge of unemployment, especially among the working class, and a slow-down of growth. On June 15, 1904, over 1,000 people, mostly German immigrant women and children, were killed when the excursion steamship General Slocum caught fire and sank. It is the city's worst maritime disaster. On March 25, 1911, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in Greenwich Village took the lives of 146 garment workers. In response, the city made great advancements in the fire department, building codes, and workplace regulations. Throughout the first half of the 20th century, the city became a world center for industry, commerce, and communication, marking its rising influence with such events as the Hudson-Fulton Celebration of 1909. Interborough Rapid Transit (the first New York City Subway company) began operating in 1904, and the railroads operating out of Grand Central Terminal and Pennsylvania Station thrived. The city was a destination for internal migrants as well as immigrants. Through 1940, New York was a major destination for African Americans during the Great Migration from the rural American South. The Harlem Renaissance flourished during the 1920s and the era of Prohibition. New York's ever accelerating changes and rising crime and poverty rates were reduced after World War I disrupted trade routes, the Immigration Restriction Acts limited additional immigration after the war, and the Great Depression reduced the need for new labor. The combination ended the rule of the Gilded Age barons. As the city's demographics temporarily stabilized, labor unionization helped the working class gain new protections and middle-class affluence, the city's government and infrastructure underwent a dramatic overhaul under Fiorello La Guardia, and his controversial parks commissioner, Robert Moses, ended the blight of many tenement areas, expanded new parks, remade streets, and restricted and reorganized zoning controls. For a while, New York ranked as the most populous city in the world, overtaking London in 1925, which had reigned for a century. During the difficult years of the Great Depression, the reformer Fiorello La Guardia was elected as mayor, and Tammany Hall fell after eighty years of political dominance. Despite the effects of the Great Depression, some of the world's tallest skyscrapers were built during the 1930s. Art Deco architecture—such as the iconic Chrysler Building, Empire State Building, and 30 Rockefeller Plaza— came to define the city's skyline. The construction of the Rockefeller Center occurred in the 1930s and was the largest-ever private development project at the time. Both before and especially after World War II, vast areas of the city were also reshaped by the construction of bridges, parks and parkways coordinated by Robert Moses, the greatest proponent of automobile-centered modernist urbanism in America. Post–World War II: 1946–1977 Returning World War II veterans and immigrants from Europe created a postwar economic boom. Demands for new housing were aided by the G.I. Bill for veterans, stimulating the development of huge suburban tracts in eastern Queens and Nassau County. The city was extensively photographed during the post–war years by photographer Todd Webb. New York emerged from the war as the leading city of the world, with Wall Street leading the United States ascendancy. In 1951, the United Nations relocated from its first headquarters in Flushing Meadows Park, Queens, to the East Side of Manhattan. During the late 1960s, the views of real estate developer and city leader Robert Moses began to fall out of favor as the anti-urban renewal views of Jane Jacobs gained popularity. Citizen rebellion stopped a plan to construct an expressway through Lower Manhattan. After a short war boom, the Bronx declined from 1950 to 1985, going from predominantly moderate-income to mostly lower-income, with high rates of violent crime and poverty. The Bronx has experienced an economic and developmental resurgence starting in the late 1980s that continues into today. The transition away from the industrial base toward a service economy picked up speed, while the jobs in the large shipbuilding and garment industries declined sharply. The ports converted to container ships, costing many traditional jobs among longshoremen. Many large corporations moved their headquarters to the suburbs or to distant cities. At the same time, there was enormous growth in services, especially finance, education, medicine, tourism, communications and law. New York remained the largest city and largest metropolitan area in the United States, and continued as its largest financial, commercial, information, and cultural center. Like many major U.S. cities, New York suffered race riots, gang wars and some population decline in the late 1960s. Street activists and minority groups such as the Black Panthers and Young Lords organized rent strikes and garbage offensives, demanding improved city services for poor areas. They also set up free health clinics and other programs, as a guide for organizing and gaining "Power to the People." By the 1970s the city had gained a reputation as a crime-ridden relic of history. In 1975, the city government avoided bankruptcy only through a federal loan and debt restructuring by the Municipal Assistance Corporation, headed by Felix Rohatyn. The city was also forced to accept increased financial scrutiny by an agency of New York State. In 1977, the city was struck by the New York City blackout of 1977 and serial slayings by the Son of Sam. 1978–present The 1980s began a rebirth of Wall Street, and the city reclaimed its role at the center of the worldwide financial industry. Unemployment and crime remained high, the latter reaching peak levels in some categories around the close of the decade and the beginning of the 1990s. Neighborhood restoration projects funded by the city and state had very good effects for New York, especially Bedford-Stuyvesant, Harlem, and The Bronx. The city later resumed its social and economic recovery, bolstered by the influx of Asians, Latin Americans, and U.S. citizens, and by new crime-fighting techniques on the part of the New York Police Department. In 1989, New York City elected its first African American Mayor, David Dinkins. He came out of the Harlem Clubhouse. In the late 1990s, the city benefited from the nationwide fall of violent crime rates, the resurgence of the finance industry, and the growth of the "Silicon Alley", during the dot com boom, one of the factors in a decade of booming real estate values. New York was also able to attract more business and convert abandoned industrialized neighborhoods into arts or attractive residential neighborhoods; examples include the Meatpacking District and Chelsea (in Manhattan) and Williamsburg (in Brooklyn). New York's population reached an all-time high in the 2000 census; according to census estimates since 2000, the city has continued to grow, including rapid growth in the most urbanized borough, Manhattan. During this period, New York City was a site of the September 11 attacks of 2001; 2,606 people who were in the towers and in the surrounding area were killed by a terrorist attack on the World Trade Center, an event considered highly traumatic for the city but which did not stop the city's rapid regrowth. On November 3, 2014, One World Trade Center opened on the site of the attack. Hurricane Sandy brought a destructive storm surge to New York in the evening of October 29, 2012, flooding numerous streets, tunnels, and subway lines in Lower Manhattan. It flooded low-lying areas of Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island. Electrical power was lost in many parts of the city and its suburbs. The city went into lockdown in March 2020 amidst the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. , New York City has experienced the most deaths of any locality in the coronavirus pandemic in New York state, which itself has the highest number of confirmed coronavirus cases of any state in the United States. During the first wave, one-third of total known U.S. cases were in New York City. See also American urban history History of education in New York City Timeline of New York City Here Grows New York - film history of city from 1609 to present Boroughs History of the Bronx History of Brooklyn History of Queens History of Staten Island History of Manhattan Streets and thoroughfares History of Fifth Avenue History of Broadway History of Wall Street Small islands Hart Island Rikers Island Randall's Island Liberty Island Governors Island City Island Roosevelt Island Ellis Island – New Jersey/NYC Miscellany New-York Historical Society Museum of the City of New York New York: A Documentary Film New York City water supply system Timeline of New York City crimes and disasters Kenneth T. Jackson — historian List of newspapers in New York in the 18th century Notes References Further reading Abu-Lughod, Janet L. New York, Chicago, Los Angeles: America's global cities (U of Minnesota Press, 1999). ISBN 978-0-8166-3336-4. online Compares the three cities in terms of geography, economics and race from 1800 to 1990. Anbinder, Tyler. City of Dreams: The 400-Year Epic History of Immigrant New York (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016). 766 pp. Archdeacon, Thomas J. New York City, 1664–1710: Conquest and Change (1976) Beckert, Sven. The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 1850–1896 (Cambridge UP, 2001). online , The standard scholarly history, 1390pp onlibe review; Pulitzer Prize; excerpt Wallace, Mike. Greater Gotham: A History of New York City from 1898 to 1919 (2017) excerpt Burns, Ric, and James Sanders. New York: An Illustrated History (2003), book version of 17-hour Burns PBS documentary, "NEW YORK: A Documentary Film" Connable, Alfred and Edward Silberfarb. Tigers of Tammany: Nine Men Who Ran New York (Holt, 1967); popular history. Cray, Robert E., Jr. Paupers and Poor Relief in New York City and Its Rural Environs, 1700–1830 (Temple UP, 1988) online Ellis, Edward Robb. The Epic of New York City: A Narrative History (2004) 640pp; Excerpt and text search; Popular history concentrating on violent events & scandals Hershkowitz, Leo. Tweed's New York: Another Look. (New York: Anchor Press, 1977); scholarly study that argues Tweed was mostly innocent. online review Holli, Melvin G., and Jones, Peter d'A., eds. Biographical Dictionary of American Mayors, 1820-1980 (Greenwood Press, 1981) short scholarly biographies each of the city's mayors 1820 to 1980. online; see index at p. 410 for list. Homberger, Eric. The Historical Atlas of New York City: A Visual Celebration of 400 Years of New York City's History (2005) online Hood. Clifton. In Pursuit of Privilege: A History of New York City's Upper Class and the Making of a Metropolis (2016). Cover 1760–1970. ; second edition 2010 Jackson, Kenneth T. and Roberts, Sam (eds.) The Almanac of New York City (2008) Jaffe, Steven H. New York at War: Four Centuries of Combat, Fear, and Intrigue in Gotham (2012) Excerpt and text search Kessner, Thomas. Fiorello H. LaGuardia and the Making of Modern New York (1989) the most detailed standard scholarly biography online Lankevich, George J. New York City: A Short History (2002) McCully, Betsy. City At The Water's Edge: A Natural History of New York (2005), environmental history excerpt and text search McNickle, Chris. To be mayor of New York: Ethnic politics in the city (Columbia University Press, 1993) online; covers 1881-1989. McNickle, Chris. Bloomberg: A Billionaire's Ambition (Simon and Schuster, 2017), scholarly study of mayoralty. 2002–2013 online. Maier, Mark H. City Unions: Managing Discontent in New York City (Rutgers UP, 1987) Nadel, Stanley. Little Germany: Ethnicity, Religion, and Class in New York City, 1845-80 (1990). Quigley, David. Second Founding: New York City, Reconstruction, and the Making of American Democracy (Hill and Wang, 2004) excerpt Reitano, Joanne. The Restless City: A Short History of New York from Colonial Times to the Present (2010), Popular history with focus on politics and riots excerpt and text search Richter, Hedwig. "Transnational Reform and Democracy: Election Reforms in New York City and Berlin Around 19001." The Journal Of The Gilded Age And Progressive Era 15.2 (2016): 149-175. online Rosenwaike, Ira. Population history of New York City (1972) online Syrett, Harold Coffin. The city of Brooklyn, 1865-1898: a political history (Columbia University press, 1944) online Primary sources Burke, Katie. ed. Manhattan Memories: A Book of Postcards of Old New York (2000); Postcards lacking the (c) symbol are not copyright and are in the public domain. Dinkins, David N. A Mayor's Life: Governing New York's Gorgeous Mosaic (PublicAffairs Books, 2013) Gellman, David N. and David Quigley, eds. Jim Crow New York: A Documentary History of Race and Citizenship, 1777-1877 (2003) Jackson, Kenneth T. and David S. Dunbar, eds. Empire City: New York Through the Centuries 1015 pages of excerpts online Kouwenhoven, John Atlee. The Columbia Historical Portrait of New York: An Essay In Graphic History. (1953) Paterson, David. Black, Blind, & In Charge: A Story of Visionary Leadership and Overcoming Adversity. New York, 2020) Still, Bayrd, ed. Mirror for Gotham: New York as Seen by Contemporaries from Dutch Days to the Present (New York University Press, 1956) Stokes, I.N. Phelps. The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498-1909 compiled from original sources and illustrated by photo-intaglio reproductions of important maps plans views and documents in public and private collections (6 vols., 1915–28). A highly detailed, heavily illustrated chronology of Manhattan and New York City. see The Iconography of Manhattan Island All volumes are on line free at: I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 1. 1915 v. 1. The period of discovery (1524-1609); the Dutch period (1609-1664). The English period (1664-1763). The Revolutionary period (1763-1783). Period of adjustment and reconstruction; New York as the state and federal capital (1783-1811) I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 2. 1916 v. 2. Cartography: an essay on the development of knowledge regarding the geography of the east coast of North America; Manhattan Island and its environs on early maps and charts / by F.C. Wieder and I.N. Phelps Stokes. The Manatus maps. The Castello plan. The Dutch grants. Early New York newspapers (1725-1811). Plan of Manhattan Island in 1908 I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 3. 1918 v. 3. The War of 1812 (1812-1815). Period of invention, prosperity, and progress (1815-1841). Period of industrial and educational development (1842-1860). The Civil War (1861-1865); period of political and social development (1865-1876). The modern city and island (1876-1909) I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 4. 1922; v. 4. The period of discovery (565-1626); the Dutch period (1626-1664). The English period (1664-1763). The Revolutionary period, part I (1763-1776) I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 5. 1926; v. 5. The Revolutionary period, part II (1776-1783). Period of adjustment and reconstruction New York as the state and federal capital (1783-1811). The War of 1812 (1812-1815) ; period of invention, prosperity, and progress (1815-1841). Period of industrial and educational development (1842-1860). The Civil War (1861-1865) ; Period of political and social development (1865-1876). The modern city and island (1876-1909) I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 6. 1928; v. 6. Chronology: addenda. Original grants and farms. Bibliography. Index. Virga, Vincent, ed. Historic Maps and Views of New York (2008) Further viewing New York: A Documentary Film: an eight part, 17 hour documentary film directed by Ric Burns for PBS. It originally aired in 1999 with additional episodes airing in 2001 and 2003. External links Gotham Center for New York City History Museum of the City of New York New-York Historical Society Boston Public Library, Map Center. Maps of NYC , various dates Select "New York City" value to browse NYC Maps (satyrical, political, pictorial) from 1883 to 1984 at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection, Cornell University Library. Articles which contain graphical timelines

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뉴욕의 인구

뉴욕의 인구는 2014년 기준으로 8,491,079명으로, 미국에서 가장 인구가 많은 도시이다. 지난 30년부터 현재까지, 뉴욕의 인구는 증가 추세에 있으며, 인구학자들은 인구는 2030년까지 인구는 920만명에서 950만명에 달할 것이라고 추계하고 있다. 2010년 미국 인구조사국에 따르면 2000년 800만이던 인구가 2.1% 증가해 최고 기록인 8,175,133만명을 기록했다고 발표하였고, 이는 로스앤젤레스와 시카고를 합친 인구보다 더 많다. 샌프란시스코 베이 에어리어의 총 인구보다도 많다. 뉴욕의 인구 밀도는 1km2당 1만 194명이며, 인구 10만명 이상 지자체 중 가장 높다. 맨해튼의 인구 밀도는 1km2당 2만 5846명이며, 미국의 군 중 1위이다. 민족 뉴욕은 또한 멜팅 팟이라고 불릴 만큼 각양각색의 사람들이 모여 사는 다민족의 도시이며, 약 170여개의 언어가 뉴욕에서 사용되고 있다. 현재 인구의 36.7%가 외국 태생이며, 미국의 해외 영토에서 태어나거나 미국인의 부모가 외국에서 태어난 사람이다. 이보다 외국인 인구 비율이 높은 도시는 로스앤젤레스와 마이애미이다. 하지만, 두 시는 일부 국적에 의해 대부분 점유하고 있지만, 뉴욕의 경우, 지배적인 국적는 없다. 푸에르토리코계, 도미니카 공화국계, 중국계, 자메이카계, 가이아나계, 멕시코계, 에콰도르계, 아이티계, 트리니다드 토바고계, 콜롬비아계, 러시아계 사람이 가장 많다. 뉴욕 대도시권 지역은 이스라엘을 제외하고 최대의 유대인 공동체를 이루고 있다. 텔아비브의 인구가 뉴욕 지역의 유대인 인구에 미치지 않기 때문에, 뉴욕은 세계 최대의 유대인 공동체라고도 할 수 있다. 뉴욕 시민의 약 12%가 유대인이거나 유대인계의 자손이다. 아프리카계 미국인 지역 사회도 미국의 도시 중 최대이다. 뉴욕은 2010년 인구 조사에 의하면, 샌프란시스코, 로스앤젤레스를 제치고 1백만명 이상의 아시아계 사람이 거주하고 있다. 뉴욕의 아시아계 인구는 6%이며, 중국계의 40%가 퀸스에 살고 있다. 중국계 인구는 아시아 이외의 도시 지역에서 최대이며, 그 인구는 649,989명으로, 차이나타운도 6개 있다. 한국계의 경우, 로스앤젤레스에 이어 2번째로 많이 사는 도시이며 1.2%를 차지하는 14만명 이상의 인구가 살고 있다. 그 뒤를 이어 필리핀계 0.8%, 일본계 0.3%, 베트남계는 0.2%로 구성된다. 남아시아계 사람중 인도계가 뉴욕의 2.4%를 차지하며, 미국의 약 4분의 1이 모여있다. 방글라데시계 및 파키스탄계는 각각 0.7%, 0.5%이다. 2005년 추계에서 5대 민족 집단은 푸에르토리코계, 이탈리아계, 카리브계, 도미니카계, 중국계이다. 뉴욕의 푸에르토리코계 인구는 푸에르토리코를 제외하고 최대이다. 이탈리아계 사람들은 20세기 초에 대량으로 유입되었다. 아일랜드계는 6위의 민족 집단이며, 마찬가지로 중요한 지위를 차지하고있다. 유럽계의 뉴욕 시민 50명 중 1명에는 Y 염색체, 아일랜드의 5세기 왕까지 거슬러 올라가는 유전적 특징을 가지고 있다. 미국 인구조사국이 실시한 2005년부터 2007년까지 뉴욕 인구의 44.1%가 백인 (비 히스패닉은 35.1%)이다. 흑인 내지 아프리카계 미국인은 인구의 25.2% (비 히스패닉은 23.7%), 아메리칸 인디언은 0.4% (비 히스패닉은 0.2%), 아시아계는 11.6% (비 히스패닉은 11.5%), 태평양 섬 사람은 0.1% 미만이다. 기타 인종은 16.8% (비 히스패닉은 1%), 두 개 이상의 혼혈은 1.9% (비 히스패닉은 1%)이다. 히스패닉, 라틴계는 인구의 27.4%이다. 뉴욕은 이민자들의 주요 도시가 되었는데, 1892년부터 1924년까지 엘리스섬을 지나간 유럽 이민자들만 1,200만명이 넘었다. 이후에도 많은 유럽인들이 이민을 해왔고, 1940년에는 백인이 도시의 92%를 차지할 정도였다. 현대에 들어서도 뉴욕은 계속해서 이민자들이 늘어나고 있는 추세이며, 이민자들을 위한 대도시로 여겨지고 있다. 경제 소득 격차는 큰데, 2005년 기준으로 가장 부유한 지역의 가구 소득의 중간값은 18만 8,697달러인 반면, 가장 빈곤한 지역에서는 9,320달러이다. 고소득층은 급여가 상승하고 있지만, 중·저소득층은 급여가 정체함에 따라 격차가 커지고 있다. 2006년 맨해튼의 주 평균 임금은 1,453달러로 미국의 군 중에서 가장 성장률이 높다. 또한 맨해튼은 미국에서는 드문 베이비붐을 맞이하고있다. 2000년부터 맨해튼에 사는 5세 미만의 어린이는 32% 이상 증가하고 있다. 몇년 동안, 모스크바와 뉴욕은 억만장자가 가장 많은 도시로 선정되고 있다. 또한, 동성애자 및 양성애자의 인구도 약 568,903명이며, 미국에서 가장 큰 규모이다. 통계 다음은 뉴욕 시의 1698년부터 2010년까지의 인구 추이를 표현한 표와, 1790년부터 2010년까지의 인구 추이를 나타내는 그래프이다. 또한, 1790년 이후 10년마다 인구 조사에 의한 수치이며, 1900년 이후에는 5개 자치구의 합산이다. 각주 미국의 인구 인구

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics%20of%20New%20York%20City

Demographics of New York City

New York City is a large and ethnically diverse metropolis. It is the largest city in the United States with a long history of international immigration. The New York region continues to be by far the leading metropolitan gateway for legal immigrants admitted into the United States. The city is the geographical and demographic center of both the Northeast megalopolis and the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the U.S. by both population and urban area. With over 20.1 million people in its metropolitan statistical area and 23.5 million in its combined statistical area as of 2020, New York City is one of the world's most populous megacities. The city and its metropolitan area are the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. New York City enforces a right-to-shelter law guaranteeing shelter to anyone who needs shelter, regardless of their immigration status; and the city is home to more than 3.2 million residents born outside the U.S., the largest foreign-born population of any city in the world as of 2016. Throughout its history, New York City has been a major point of entry for immigrants; the term "melting pot" was coined to describe densely populated immigrant neighborhoods on the Lower East Side. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. English remains the most widely spoken language, although there are areas in the outer boroughs in which up to 25% of people speak English as an alternate language, and/or have limited or no English language fluency. English is least spoken in neighborhoods such as Flushing, Sunset Park, and Corona. Population New York City is the most populous city in the United States, with an estimated 8,804,190 people living in the city, according to the 2020 U.S. Census (up from 8,175,133 in 2010; 8.0 million in 2000; and 7.3 million in 1990). This amounts to about 44% of New York State's population and a similar percentage of the metropolitan regional population. New York's two key demographic features are its population density and cultural diversity. The city's population density of 29,091.3 people per square mile (11,232/km2), makes it the densest of any American municipality with a population above 100,000. Manhattan's population density is 74,781 people per square mile (28,872/km2), highest of any county in the United States. New York City is multicultural. About 36% of the city's population is foreign-born, one of the highest among US cities. The eleven nations constituting the largest sources of modern immigration to New York City are the Dominican Republic, China, Jamaica, Guyana, Mexico, Ecuador, Brazil, Haiti, Trinidad and Tobago, Colombia, Russia and El Salvador. Ethnicity The New York City metropolitan area is home to the largest Dominican population in the United States, and as of 2023 Dominicans are the largest Latino Group in New York City, and the largest ethnic group in Manhattan. New York City is also home to the largest Jewish community outside Israel. It is also home to nearly a quarter of the nation's Indian Americans and 15% of all Korean Americans; the largest African American community of any city in the country; and including 6 Chinatowns in the city proper, comprised as of 2008 a population of 659,596 overseas Chinese, the largest outside of Asia. New York City alone, according to the 2010 Census, has now become home to more than one million Asian Americans, greater than the combined totals of San Francisco and Los Angeles. New York contains the highest total Asian population of any U.S. city proper. 6.0% of New York City is of Chinese ethnicity, with about forty percent of them living in the borough of Queens alone. Koreans make up 1.2% of the city's population, and Japanese at 0.3%. Filipinos are the largest southeast Asian ethnic group at 0.8%, followed by Vietnamese who make up only 0.2% of New York City's population. Indians are the largest South Asian group, comprising 2.4% of the city's population, with Pakistanis at 0.4% and Bangladeshis at 0.8%, respectively. The largest ethnic groups as of the 2021 American Community Survey estimates were African Americans, Dominicans, Puerto Ricans and Chinese. The Puerto Rican population of New York City is the largest outside Puerto Rico. The New York City metropolitan area is also home to the largest Italian population in North America and the third largest Italian population outside of Italy. Italians emigrated to the city in large numbers in the early 20th century, establishing several "Little Italies". The Irish also have a notable presence, along with Germans. New York City has a high degree of income variation. In 2005 the median household income in the highest census tract was reported to be $188,697, while in the lowest it was $9,320. The variance is driven by wage growth in high income brackets, while wages have stagnated for middle and lower income brackets. In 2006 the average weekly wage in Manhattan was $1,453, the highest and fastest growing among the largest counties in the United States. The borough is also experiencing a "baby boom" among the wealthy that is unique among U.S. cities. Since 2000, the number of children under age 5 living in Manhattan has grown by more than 32%. In 2000, about 3 out of every 10 New York City housing units were owner-occupied, compared to about 2 owner-occupied units out of every 3 units in the U.S. as a whole. Rental vacancy is usually between 3% and 4.5%, well below the 5% threshold defined to be a housing emergency, justifying the continuation of rent control and rent stabilization. About 33% of rental units fall under rent stabilization, according to which increases are adjudicated periodically by city agencies. Rent control covers only a very small number of rental units. Some critics point to New York City's strict zoning and other regulations as partial causes for the housing shortage, but during the city's decline in population from the 1960s through the 1980s, a large number of apartment buildings suffered suspected arson fires or were abandoned by their owners. Once the population trend was reversed, with rising prospects for rentals and sales, new construction has resumed, but generally for purchasers in higher income brackets. Profile and comparison Comparison with other cities New York is the largest city in the United States, with the city proper's population more than double the next largest city, Los Angeles (or roughly equivalent to the combined populations of Los Angeles, Chicago, and Houston, the United States' second, third, and fourth most populous cities respectively). In 2006, demographers estimated New York's population would reach 9.1 million by 2030. In 2000 the reported life expectancy of New Yorkers was above the national average. Life expectancy for females born in 2009 in New York City is 80.2 years and for males is 74.5 years. Race and ethnicity The city's population in 2020 was 30.9% White (non-Hispanic), 28.7% Hispanic or Latino, 20.2% Black or African American (non-Hispanic), 15.6% Asian, and 0.2% Native American (non-Hispanic). A total of 3.4% of the non-Hispanic population identified with more than one race. Throughout its history, New York has been a major port of entry for immigrants into the United States. More than 12 million European immigrants were received at Ellis Island between 1892 and 1954. The term "melting pot" was first coined to describe densely populated immigrant neighborhoods on the Lower East Side. By 1900, Germans were the largest immigrant group, followed by the Irish, Jews, and Italians. In 1940, Whites represented 92% of the city's population at 6.6 million. Approximately 37% of the city's population is foreign born, and more than half of all children are born to mothers who are immigrants as of 2013. In New York, no single country or region of origin dominates. The ten largest sources of foreign-born individuals in the city were the Dominican Republic, China, Mexico, Guyana, Jamaica, Ecuador, Haiti, India, Russia, and Trinidad and Tobago, while the Bangladeshi-born immigrant population has become one of the fastest growing in the city, counting over 74,000 by 2011. Asian Americans in New York City, according to the 2010 census, number more than one million, greater than the combined totals of San Francisco and Los Angeles. New York contains the highest total Asian population of any U.S. city proper. The New York City borough of Queens is home to the state's largest Asian American population and the largest Andean (Venezuelan, Colombian, Ecuadorian, Peruvian, and Bolivian) populations in the United States, and is also the most ethnically and linguistically diverse urban area in the world. Over 100,000 Venezuelan asylum seekers have arrived in New York City since 2022. The Chinese population is the fastest-growing nationality in New York State. Multiple satellites of the original Manhattan's Chinatown—home to the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, as well as in Brooklyn, and around Flushing, Queens, are thriving as traditionally urban enclaves—while also expanding rapidly eastward into suburban Nassau County on Long Island, as the New York metropolitan region and New York State have become the top destinations for new Chinese immigrants, respectively, and large-scale Chinese immigration continues into New York City and surrounding areas, with the largest metropolitan Chinese diaspora outside Asia, including an estimated 812,410 individuals in 2015. In 2012, 6.3% of New York City was of Chinese ethnicity, with nearly three-fourths living in either Queens or Brooklyn. A community numbering 20,000 Korean-Chinese (Chaoxianzu or Joseonjok) is centered in Flushing, Queens, while New York City is home to the largest Tibetan population outside China, India, and Nepal, also centered in Queens. Koreans made up 1.2% of the city's population, and Japanese 0.3%. Filipinos were the largest Southeast Asian ethnic group at 0.8%, followed by Vietnamese, who made up 0.2% of New York City's population in 2010. Indians are the largest South Asian group, comprising 2.4% of the city's population, with Bangladeshis and Pakistanis at 0.7% and 0.5%, respectively. Queens is the preferred borough of settlement for Asian Indians, Koreans, Filipinos, and Malaysians, and other Southeast Asians. New York City has the largest European and non-Hispanic white population of any American city. At 2.7 million in 2012, New York's non-Hispanic White population is larger than the non-Hispanic White populations of Los Angeles, Chicago, and Houston combined. The non-Hispanic White population has begun to increase since 2010. The European diaspora residing in the city is very diverse. According to 2012 census estimates, there were roughly 560,000 Italian Americans, 385,000 Irish Americans, 253,000 German Americans, 223,000 Russian Americans, 201,000 Polish Americans, and 137,000 English Americans. Additionally, Greek and French Americans numbered 65,000 each, with those of Hungarian descent estimated at 60,000 people. Ukrainian and Scottish Americans numbered 55,000 and 35,000, respectively. People identifying ancestry from Spain numbered 30,838 total in 2010, and Belarusians numbered about 55,000 as of 2010. Brighton Beach, Brooklyn, also known as Little Russia or Little Odesa, is the largest center of the Russian- and Ukrainian-American communities. People of Norwegian and Swedish descent both stood at about 20,000 each, while people of Czech, Lithuanian, Portuguese, Scotch-Irish, and Welsh descent all numbered between 12,000 and 14,000. Arab Americans number over 160,000 in New York City, with the highest concentration in Brooklyn. Central Asians, primarily Uzbek Americans, are a rapidly growing segment of the city's non-Hispanic White population, enumerating over 30,000, and including more than half of all Central Asian immigrants to the United States, most settling in Queens or Brooklyn. Albanian Americans are most highly concentrated in the Bronx, while Astoria, Queens is the epicenter of American Greek culture as well as the Cypriot community. New York is home to the highest Jewish population of any city in the world, numbering 1.6 million in 2022, more than Tel Aviv and Jerusalem combined. In the borough of Brooklyn, an estimated 1 in 4 residents is Jewish. The city's Jewish communities are derived from many diverse sects, predominantly from around the Middle East and Eastern Europe, and including a rapidly growing Orthodox Jewish population, the largest outside Israel. The metropolitan area is home to 20% of the nation's Indian Americans and at least 20 Little India enclaves, and 15% of all Korean Americans and four Koreatowns; the largest Asian Indian population in the Western Hemisphere; the largest Russian American, Italian American, and African American populations; the largest Dominican American, Puerto Rican American, and South American and second-largest overall Hispanic population in the United States, numbering 4.8 million; and includes multiple established Chinatowns within New York City alone. Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, Guyana, Peru, and Brazil, are the top source countries from South America for immigrants to the New York City region; the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Haiti, and Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean; Nigeria, Egypt, Ghana, Tanzania, Kenya, and South Africa from Africa; and El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala in Central America. Amidst a resurgence of Puerto Rican migration to New York City, this population had increased to approximately 1.5 million in the metropolitan area . Since 2010, Little Australia has emerged and is growing rapidly, representing the Australasian presence in Nolita, Manhattan. In 2011, there were an estimated 20,000 Australian residents of New York City, nearly quadruple the 5,537 in 2005. Qantas Airways of Australia and Air New Zealand have been planning for long-haul flights from New York to Sydney and Auckland, which would both rank among the longest non-stop flights in the world. A Little Sri Lanka has developed in the Tompkinsville neighborhood of Staten Island. Le Petit Sénégal, or Little Senegal, is based in Harlem. Richmond Hill, Queens is often thought of as "Little Guyana" for its large Guyanese community, as well as Punjab Avenue (ਪੰਜਾਬ ਐਵੇਨਿਊ), or Little Punjab, for its high concentration of Punjabi people. Little Poland is located in Greenpoint, Brooklyn. Profile New York's two key demographic features are its density and diversity. The city has an extremely high population density of 26,403 people per square mile (10,194/km2), about 10,000 more people per square mile than the next densest large American city, San Francisco. Manhattan's population density is 66,940 people per square mile (25,846/km2). The city has a long tradition of attracting international immigration and Americans seeking careers in certain sectors. As of 2006, New York City has ranked number one for seven consecutive years as the city most U.S. residents would most like to live in or near. Immigration Throughout its history New York City has been a principal entry point for immigration to the United States. These immigrants often form ethnic enclaves, neighborhoods dominated by one ethnicity. The city experienced major immigration from Europe in the 19th century and another major wave in the early 20th century, being admitted into the United States of America primarily through Ellis Island. Since the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, and particularly since the 1980s, New York City has seen renewed rates of high immigration. Newer immigrants are from Latin America, the Caribbean, Asia, Eastern Europe and Africa. 36% of the city's population is foreign-born. Among U.S. cities, this proportion is higher only in Los Angeles and Miami. In New York no single country or region of origin dominates. The eleven largest countries of origin are the Dominican Republic, China, Jamaica, Guyana, Mexico, Ecuador, Haiti, Trinidad and Tobago, Colombia, Russia and El Salvador. Between 1990 and 2000 the city admitted 1,224,524 immigrants. Demographers and city officials have observed that immigration to New York City has been slowing since 1997. This is mostly due to more and more immigrants choosing directly to locate to the city's suburbs and then commute to the city or work in many of its booming edge cities such as Fort Lee, NJ, Hempstead, NY, Morristown, NJ, Stamford, CT, White Plains, NY and others. Despite the slowdown in immigration the city's overall immigrant population has continued to increase and in 2006 it numbered 3.038 million (37.0%) up from 2.871 million (35.9%) in 2000. By 2013, the population of foreign-born individuals living in New York City had increased to 3.07 million, and as a percentage of total population, was the highest it had been in the past 100 years. Demographic profile Minority ancestries Immigrant Africans, Caribbeans, and African Americans make up 25.1% of New York City's population. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, there were 2,086,566 black people residing in New York City. Percentage wise, approximately two out of every five black residents of New York City resides in Brooklyn (primarily in the Central, Northern, and Eastern sections of the borough), one out of every five resides in Bronx (mainly in the borough's Northeastern, Southeastern and Southern sections) one out of every five resides in Queens (mainly in the borough's Southeastern area), with the remaining black residents residing in Manhattan (primarily in Harlem) and Staten Island (mainly the North Shore of the borough). Native Americans make up 0.4% of New York City's population. According to the survey, there were 29,569 Native Americans residing in New York City. Of 29,569 Native Americans, 2,075 were of the Cherokee tribal grouping. In addition, 213 were of the Navajo tribal grouping. Also, 42 people identified themselves as Chippewa, and 47 people identified themselves as Sioux. There is a number of Mohawks indigenous to the New York city area and/or Upstate New York, and many Mohawks arrived in the 1930s to work in the skyscraper building construction industry. And a few Lenape Indians indigenous to the New York city area still remain in the city, migrated from other rural parts to Manhattan. Asian Americans make up 11.8% of New York City's population. According to the survey, there were 976,807 Asian Americans residing in New York City. Of 976,807 Asian Americans, 445,145 were of Chinese descent, representing 5.4% of the city's population. In addition, there were 226,888 Indian Americans residing in the city, representing 2.7% of the population. Approximately 103,660 people identified themselves as "Other Asian", a category that includes people of Cambodian, Laotian, Hmong, and Pakistani descent. Individuals in this category represent 1.2% of the city's population. There were 88,162 Korean Americans residing in the city, representing 1.1% of the population. Other Asian American groups include those of Filipino (68,826, 0.8%), Japanese (26,096, 0.3%), and Vietnamese (18,030, 0.2%) descent. Pacific Islander Americans make up 0.1% of New York City's population. According to the survey, there were 4,941 Pacific Islander Americans residing in New York City. Of 4,941 Pacific Islander Americans, 1,992 were Native Hawaiian. Approximately 904 were of Samoan descent, and 504 were of Guamanian descent. In addition, 1,541 were of other Pacific Islander ancestries. Multiracial Americans make up 2.1% of New York City's population. According to the survey, there were 177,643 multiracial Americans residing in New York City. People of black and white ancestry numbered at 37,124, making up 0.4% of the population. People of white and Asian ancestry numbered at 22,242, making up 0.3% of the population. People of white/Native American ancestry (10,762) and black/Native American ancestry (10,221) each made up 0.1% of the city's population. The term "Multiracial American", however, can be very misleading. For example, many people of Latin American background may have various racial ancestries. Furthermore, there are many Americans who have multiple racial ancestries who are not aware of it. Therefore, the actual numbers are likely much higher. Hispanics and Latinos make up 27.5% of New York City's population. According to the American Community Survey, there were 2,287,905 Hispanic or Latino Americans residing in New York City. The Hispanic/Latino population is categorized with four groups, "Puerto Rican" (785,618 or 9.4%), "Mexican" (297,581 or 3.6%), "Cuban" (42,377 or 0.5%), and "Other Hispanic or Latino" (1,165,576 or 14.0%). While most Hispanics in New York City do not select a race in addition to their ethnicity in the American Community Survey, among those foreign-born, 33% also self-identify as white, and 9% as black. According to the 2006-2007 Center for Latin American, Caribbean & Latino Studies: Puerto Rican: (1,278,628) Dominican: (602,093) Mexican: (289,755) Ecuadorian: (201,708) Colombian: (113,469) Salvadoran:(100,396) Other Hispanic or Latino: (351,635) Note: This source contains all of the numerical information in the data above. White ancestries White Americans make up 44.6% of New York City's population. According to the survey, there were 3,704,243 White Americans residing in New York City. White Americans of non-Hispanic origin make up 35.1% of the city's population. There are 2,918,976 non-Hispanic whites residing in the city. Much of New York City's European American population consists of individuals of Italian, Irish, German, Russian, Polish, English, and Greek ancestry. There is a considerable Bulgarian population in New York. Bulgarians migrated in New York in the 1900s. According to the 2006–2008 American Community Survey, the top ten White, European ancestries were the following: Italian: 8.2% (684,230) Irish: 5.3% (443,364) German: 3.6% (296,901) Russian: 3.1% (260,821) Polish: 2.8% (237,919) English: 1.9% (160,472) Greek: 1.0% (83,575) French: 0.9% (73,587) Hungarian: 0.7% (59,225) Ukrainian: 0.6% (49,643) Other smaller European ancestries include: Portuguese: 0.5% (46,384) Scottish: 0.5% (41,787) Scotch-Irish: 0.3% (28,770) Dutch: 0.3% (24,776) Norwegian: 0.3% (24,737) Swedish: 0.3% (22,206) Diversity of New York City's boroughs According to a 2001 study by Claritas, four of the city's five boroughs ranked among the nation's twenty most diverse counties. Queens ranked 1st, Brooklyn 3rd, Manhattan 7th, and The Bronx 17th. In addition, Hudson County and Essex County, New Jersey, both of which are part of the New York Metropolitan Area, ranked 6th and 15th, respectively. The city has several demographically unique characteristics. Queens is the only large county in the United States where the median income among black households, about $52,000 a year, has surpassed that of whites. The New York City metropolitan area is home to the largest Jewish community outside Israel. It is also home to nearly a quarter of the nation's Indian American population, and the largest African American community of any city in the country. New York City, with about 800,000 Puerto Rican residents, has the largest Puerto Rican population outside of Puerto Rico. Another historically significant ethnic group are Italians, who emigrated to the city in large numbers during the late 19th century. New York City is home to the largest Italian American population in the United States. The Irish and Germans also have a notable presence. 2020 Census Demographics As according to the New York City Department of City Planning, there were a total of 8,804,190 residents. There were almost equivalent populations of 2,719,856 White residents at 30.9% and 2,490,350 Hispanic residents at 28.3%, meanwhile there were 1,776,891 Black residents at 20.2% and 1,373,502 Asian residents at 15.6%. There were even much smaller numbers of 143,632 other race residents at 1.6% and 299,959 Two or More races residents at 3.4%. Although the Asian population is still below the Black population in ranking, they are slowly catching up to being close to the Black population ranking. From 2010 to 2020, the growing Asian population outpaced the growing Hispanic population despite that the Hispanic population is still much larger than the Asian population. The Asian population rose from 1,028,119 residents (12.6% in 2010) to 1,373,502 Asian residents (15.6% in 2020) increasing by 345,383 residents or 33.6% by 2020. The Hispanic population increased marginally from 2,336,076 residents (28.6% in 2010) to 2,490,350 residents (28.3% in 2020) increasing by 154,274 residents or 6.6% by 2020, though their percentage portion from the total NYC population dropped as other populations grew. Meanwhile, the White and Black populations experienced declines from 2010 to 2020. Of all racial populations, the Black population experienced the biggest decline in NYC from being 1,861,295 residents (22.8% in 2010) to 1,776,891 residents (20.2% in 2020) decreasing by -84,404 residents or -4.5% by 2020. The White population declined from 2,722,904 residents (33.3% in 2010) to 2,719,856 residents (30.9% in 2020) decreasing by -3,048 -0.1 by 2020. The White population declined mainly in these NYC Boroughs through these following rankings, Queens, The Bronx, and then Staten Island, though the White population increased marginally in Brooklyn and then Manhattan. The Black population experienced declines by these following rankings in these NYC Boroughs, Brooklyn, Queens, and then Manhattan, though the Black population increased marginally in The Bronx and then Staten Island. The Hispanic population increased in these NYC Boroughs by these following rankings, The Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn, and then Staten Island, but experienced decline in Manhattan. The Asian population increased in these NYC Boroughs by these following rankings, Queens, Brooklyn, Manhattan, The Bronx, and then Staten Island. According to the 2019-20 demographic data from Mayor's Office of Immigrant Affairs, there were 3,030,397 foreign born residents in the city. Each the foreign born White and Black populations made up 19% of the foreign born residents, Hispanics made up 31% of the foreign born residents, and the Asians made 28% of the foreign born residents. For a long time since the mid to late 20th century, the Hispanic residents made up the vast majority of the foreign born population in the city, but since the 2010s, the growing foreign born Asian residents have been catching up and now starting to challenge the Hispanic residents as the largest foreign born population. Households The 2000 census counted 2,021,588 households with a median income of $38,293. 30% of households had children under the age of 18, and 37% were married couples living together. 19% had a single female householder, and 39% were non-families. 32% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10% were single residents 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.59 persons, and the average family size was 3.32. The median age in New York City in 2000 was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 90 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86 males. During the 2000s, Manhattan experienced a "baby boom" unique among U.S. cities. Between 2000 and 2007, the number of children under age 5 living in Manhattan grew by more than 32%. The increase is driven mostly by affluent white families with median household incomes over $300,000. Income Overall, nominal household income in New York City is characterized by large variations. This phenomenon is especially true of Manhattan, which in 2005 was home to the highest incomes U.S. census tract, with a household income of $188,697, as well as the lowest, where household income was $9,320. The disparity is driven in part by wage growth in high income brackets. In 2006 the average weekly wage in Manhattan was $1,453, the highest among the largest counties in the United States. Wages in Manhattan were the fastest growing among the nation's 10 largest counties. Among young adults in New York who work full-time, women now earn more money than men — approximately $5,000 more in 2005. New York City's borough of Manhattan is the highest nominal income county in the United States. In particular, ZIP code 10021 on Manhattan's Upper East Side, with more than 100,000 inhabitants and a per capita income of over $90,000, has one of the largest concentrations of income in the United States. The other boroughs, especially Queens and Staten Island, have large middle-class populations. New York City's per capita income in 2000 was $22,402; men and women had a median income of $37,435 and $32,949 respectively. 21.2% of the population and 18.5% of families had incomes below the federal poverty line; 30.0% of this group were under the age of 18 and 17.8% were 65 and older. Of Forbes Magazine's 400 richest American billionaires, 70 live in New York City. Former mayor and Presidential candidate Michael Bloomberg is one of the nation's richest men. As of 2009 New York has regained the number one spot as the city with most billionaires (55), after losing out to Moscow in 2008. Projections Neighborhood Tabulation Areas (NTAs) are a geographic unit created to help project populations at a small area level, as part of the long-term sustainability plan for the city known as PlaNYC, covering the years 2000–2030. The minimum population for an NTA is 15,000 people, a level seen as a useful summary level which can be used both with the 2010 Census and the American Community Survey. New York has ranked first in population among American cities since the first census in 1790. New York will maintain this position for the foreseeable future, although there are varying forecasts on how much the population will increase. The most realistic population projections from the Department of City Planning anticipate a 1.1 million increase by 2030, bringing the city's population total to 9.1 million. While the city's projected 2030 population will be a new high, only two boroughs, Staten Island and Queens have reached their population peak every year for the last 5 years. The study projects that by 2030, Queens will have 2.57 million people and Staten Island 552,000. Manhattan, with 1.83 million, Bronx with 1.46 million and Brooklyn with 2.72 million, will still be below their population peaks. Disputed 2010 Census data On March 27, 2011, New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg announced that the city would file a formal challenge to the Census results, as a result of alleged undercounting in the boroughs of Queens and Brooklyn. The mayor has asserted that the numbers for Queens and Brooklyn, the two most populous boroughs, are implausible. According to the Census, they grew by only 0.1% and 1.6%, respectively, while the other boroughs grew by between 3% and 5%. In addition, the Mayor claims, the census showed improbably high amounts of vacant housing in vital neighborhoods such as Jackson Heights, Queens. Historical population data Changes in population by race and ethnicity Changes in population by borough

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뉴욕의 문화

뉴욕의 문화는 전세계적으로 인정받으며, 뉴욕은 세계 문화의 중심지가 되었다. 아이슬란드와 라트비아 영사는 뉴욕을 세계의 문화 수도라고 칭했다. 미국의 수많은 문화 운동이 뉴욕에서 시작되었다. 할렘 르네상스는 아프리카계 미국인 문학의 표준을 만들었다. 1940년대는 재즈의 중심지가 되었으며, 1950년대는 추상 표현주의의 중심지였다. 1970년대에는 힙합의 발상지가 되었다. 뉴욕은 춤의 수도로도 여겨진다. 《스파이더맨》을 비롯한 도서, 영화, 텔레비전 프로그램 등 대중 매체에도 자주 배경으로 등장하는 도시이다. 엔터테인먼트와 공연 미국의 영화 산업 중에서도 뉴욕은 중요한 역할을 하고 있다. 초기 아방가르드 영화인 맨해타는 뉴욕에서 촬영되었다. 2,000개 이상의 예술, 문화 단체와 500개 이상의 크고 작은 아트 갤러리가 뉴욕 내에 있다. 뉴욕은 예술에 대한 지출이 미국 정부의 국가 예술 기금 예산보다 많다. 19세기에는, 카네기 홀과 메트로폴리탄 미술관 등 중요 문화 시설의 네트워크가 구축되었다. 전등의 출현으로 정교한 극장 작품이 생겨나 1880년대에는 브로드웨이와 42번가 극장에서 브로드웨이 뮤지컬로 알려지게되는 새로운 연극이 상연하게 되었다. 이민자의 영향을 강하게 받아 해리건 앤 하트, 조지 M. 코언 등의 작품은 희망과 야심 등의 테마를 많이 도입한 이야기의 노래를 이용했다. 이 작품은 현재 뉴욕 연극계의 주력이 되고 있다. 좌석수가 500석이 넘는 39개의 대극장은 타임스 스퀘어 극장 지구에 있다. 그 극장에서는 공연을 펼치고, 그 공연 또한 브로드웨이라고 불리기도 한다. 링컨 센터는 미국에서 가장 큰 공연 예술 센터이며, 재즈 앳 링컨 센터, 메트로폴리탄 오페라, 뉴욕 시티 오페라 등이 이 안에 있다. 센트럴 파크 서머스테이지는 센트럴 파크에서 행해지는 음악 공연으로, 무료로 관람할 수 있다. 관광 뉴욕에는 매년 4,700만명의 이상의 외국인 및 미국인이 방문하여, 관광 산업은 뉴욕에서 가장 중요한 산업 중 하나이다. 유명한 관광지로는 엠파이어 스테이트 빌딩, 엘리스섬, 브로드웨이 극장, 메트로폴리탄 박물관과 같은 많은 박물관, 미술관, 센트럴 파크, 워싱턴 스퀘어 파크, 록펠러 센터, 타임스 스퀘어, 브롱크스 동물원, 코니 아일랜드, 뉴욕 식물원 등이 있다. 또한 5번가와 매디슨 로에서 다양한 쇼핑을 할 수 있다. 또한 그리니치 빌리지에서는 핼러윈 퍼레이드, 트라이베카 영화제 등 여러 축제, 행사도 개최된다. 자유의 여신상은 유명한 관광지이자 미국에서 가장 유명한 상 중 하나이다. 2010년에는 4,900만명의 관광객이 뉴욕을 방문했으며, 2011년에는 5,000만명을 넘었다. 음식 뉴욕의 음식은 이민자의 영향을 받은 음식이 많으며, 사람도 매우 많아 매우 다양하다. 동유럽과 이탈리아 이민자의 손에 의해 유명해진 것이 베이글, 치즈 케이크, 뉴욕풍 피자이다. 허가를 받은 이동식 식료품 가게가 약 4000점 있으며 대부분이 이민자들이 경영한다. 그 중에서 현대 뉴욕의 길거리 음식으로 인기를 끈 것이 팔라펠이나 케밥 등 중동 요리이다. 또한, 핫도그와 프레츨은 길거리 음식의 대표적인 음식이다. 길거리 음식도 많지만, 고급 요리점도 많이 늘어서 있다. 미디어 뉴욕은 세계의 TV, 광고, 음악, 신문, 책 산업의 중심지이자, 북아메리카에서 가장 큰 미디어 시장이다. 뉴욕의 복합 미디어 기업으로는 타임 워너, 뉴스 코퍼레이션, 허스트 코퍼레이션 등이 있다. 세계 10대 광고 대행사 네트워크 중 7개가 뉴욕에 본사를 두고 있다. 또한, 소니 뮤직 엔터테인먼트, 워너 뮤직 그룹의 본사도 뉴욕에 있다. 200개 이상의 신문사와 350개 이상의 잡지사가 뉴욕에 사무실이 있으며, 출판업계는 약 2만 5000명을 고용하고 있다. 미국의 전국적인 3대 일간지 가운데 월 스트리트 저널과 뉴욕 타임스가 뉴욕의 신문이다. 뉴욕의 주요 타블로이드로는 데일리 뉴스와 알렉산더 해밀턴에 의해 1801년에 설립된 뉴욕 포스트가 있다. 그 외에도, 40여개 언어로 번역된 신문이나 잡지도 270부가 발행된다. El Diario La Prensa 신문은 뉴욕 최대이자 미국에서 가장 오래된 스페인어 일간지이다. 뉴욕 암스테르담 뉴스는 할렘에서 간행되는 아프리카계 미국인의 주요 신문이다. 빌리지 보이스는 최대 규모의 대안신문이다. TV 산업은 뉴욕에서 발전하였으며, 뉴욕 경제에 중요한 요소이다. 4대 미국 방송 네트워크인 ABC, CBS, FOX, NBC는 모두 뉴욕에 본부를 두고 있다. MTV, FOX 뉴스, HBO, 코미디 센트럴 등 다수의 케이블 채널도 뉴욕에 본사를 두고 있다. 2005년 뉴욕에서 촬영된 텔레비전 프로그램은 100개를 넘었다. 또한 뉴욕은 비상업적인 미디어에 있어서도 중심지이다. 뉴욕에는 공용 액세스 텔레비전 채널인 맨해튼 네이버후드 네트워크도 있다. WNET는 뉴욕의 주요 공공 방송국이며, 전국의 공공 방송 서비스 (PBS) 프로그램을 공급하는 최대 방송국이다. WNYC는 1997년까지 뉴욕에서 소유하고 있던 공공 라디오 방송국으로, 미국 최대의 수신기가 있다. 뉴욕은 공공 방송 서비스인 NYCTV를 운영하고 있으며, 뉴욕의 음악과 문화를 다룬 여러 쇼가 에미상을 수상하고 있다. 사투리 뉴욕 지역의 사투리는 "브루클리니스", "뉴요키즈"라고 불리기도 한다. 또한, 미국 영어에서 가장 잘 알려진 사투리로 간주되고 있다. 이 사투리의 원형은 중산층·노동자 계급 유럽계 미국인의 발음이 토대가 되고 있으며, 지난 수십년 동안 비유럽인이 유입되면서 변화되었다. 전통적인 뉴욕 사투리는 음절 끝이나 자음 앞의 / r / (국제 음성 기호 (IPA)에서 [ɹ])은 발음하지 않는다. 그 결과, "New York"은 "New Yawk"처럼 발음된다. "park"는 [pɑək] 또는 [pɒək], "butter"는 [bʌɾə], "here"는 [hiə]라고 발음한다. 또 다른 특징은 '로 백 체인 시프트'(low back chain shift) 현상으로, "talk", "law" "cross", "coffee" 등의 모음은 [ɔ]로 발음하며, 종종 "core", "more"의 [ɔr]도 강하게, 일반 미국 영어보다 높게 발음한다. 가장 극단적인 뉴욕 사투리는 "girl", "oil" 같은 단어의 모음을 [ɜɪ]로 발음한다. 따라서 "girl"이 "goil"로, "oil"이 "erl"이라고 발음되는 것처럼 들리기도 한다. "Jersey"를 "Joizey", "33rd St."를 "Toidy-Toid Street", "toilet"을 "terlet"이라고 발음하는 사람이 많다. 1970년대 시트콤 《올 인 더 패밀리》의 등장인물 아치 벙커는 그런 말투를 쓰는 전형적인 인물이다. 하지만, 그러한 말투는 현재에 들어서는 일반적인 말투는 아니다. 스포츠 두 개의 메이저 리그 야구 팀이 있는 도시는 뉴욕을 포함하여, 로스앤젤레스, 시카고, 볼티모어-워싱턴 대도시권, 샌프란시스코 베이 에이리어로 5개 도시 밖에 없다. 메이저 리그 베이스볼에 현재 참가하고 있는 두 팀은 뉴욕 양키스와 뉴욕 메츠이며, 양 팀은 매 정규 시즌에 6번 맞붙는다. 양키스는 27번 우승했고, 메츠는 2번 우승하였다. 또한, 뉴욕 자이언츠 (현재 샌프란시스코 자이언츠)와 브루클린 다저스(현재 로스앤젤레스 다저스)도 뉴욕에 있었지만, 양 팀 모두 1958년에 캘리포니아로 이전했다. 마이너 리그팀은 스태튼아일랜드 양키스와 브루클린 사이클론즈가 있다. 뉴욕은 야구의 수도로 불린다. 또한 현재 양키스의 주장을 맡고 있는 데릭 지터는 뉴욕에서 가장 인기있는 스포츠 선수 중 한 명이다. 뉴욕 팀끼리 월드 시리즈 챔피언을 겨루는 시리즈를 서브웨이 시리즈라고 한다. 미식축구팀에는 NFL 소속 뉴욕 제트와 뉴욕 자이언츠가 있다. 그러나 두 팀은 뉴저지주의 메트라이프 스타디움에 본거지를 두고 있다. 아이스하키팀에는 NHL 소속 뉴욕 레인저스가 있다. 뉴욕 근교에는 뉴저지 데블스와 롱아일랜드의 뉴욕 아일랜더스라는 두 NHL 팀도 있다. 축구는 미국의 최상위리그인 메이저 리그 축구 소속의 뉴욕 레드불스가 있다. 레드불스 역시 미식축구 팀들과 마찬가지로 뉴저지 주해리슨의 레드불 아레나를 홈구장으로 하고 있다. 농구 팀은, NBA 소속 브루클린 네츠와 뉴욕 닉스가 있다. WNBA에는 뉴욕 리버티도 속하고 있다. 최초의 국립 대학교 농구 선수권 대회인 내셔널 인비테이션 토너먼트는 1938년에 뉴욕에서 개최되어, 지금도 매년 개최되고 있다. 앞서 말한 스포츠 이외에도 뉴욕에서는 각종 스포츠 대회가 개최되고 있다. 퀸스 플러싱에서는 그랜드 슬램 중 하나인 US 테니스 오픈 챔피언쉽이 열린다. 뉴욕 마라톤은 세계 최대의 마라톤 대회로, 2004년부터 2008년까지의 레이스 완주자 수는 세계 역사상 기록 1위부터 5위까지를 차지하고 있다. 밀로즈 게임스는 매년 열리는 육상 경기 대회이다. 권투는 매년 매디슨 스퀘어 가든에서 아마추어 복싱 골든 글로브스가 열린다. 뉴욕 이민 사회와 결부된 스포츠도 많다. 스틱볼은 야구의 길거리 버전으로 1930년대에 이탈리아계, 독일계, 아일랜드계 노동자 계급의 젊은이들 사이에서 유행했고 지금도 많이 행해지고 있으며, 브롱크스의 한 거리는 스틱볼 거리로 이름이 바뀌기도 하였다. 최근 남아시아와 카리브 제도에서 온 이민자의 유입에 따라 여러 아마추어 크리켓 리그도 개최되고 있다. 스트리트 하키, 축구, 야구 등의 스포츠는 뉴욕의 거리에서 흔히 볼 수있다. 뉴욕은 남녀노소 많은 사람들이 길거리 스포츠를 즐기고 있기 때문에 세계 최대의 도시 놀이터라고도 불린다. 각주

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture%20of%20New%20York%20City

Culture of New York City

New York City has been described as the cultural capital of the world. The culture of New York is reflected in its size and ethnic diversity. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. Many American cultural movements first emerged in the city. Large numbers of Irish, Italian, Jewish, and eventually Asian, African, and Hispanic Americans also migrated to New York throughout the 20th century and continuing into the 21st century, significantly influencing the culture and image of New York. The city became the center of stand-up comedy in the early 20th century. The city was the top venue for jazz in the 1940s, expressionism in the 1950s and home to hip hop, punk rock, and the Beat Generation. Along with London, New York City is the global center of musical theatre, often referred to as "Broadway" after the major thoroughfare in Manhattan. The Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village, Lower Manhattan, is a designated U.S. National Historic Landmark and National Monument, as the site of the June 1969 Stonewall riots and the cradle of the modern gay rights movement. The city is the birthplace of many cultural movements, including the Harlem Renaissance in literature and visual art; abstract expressionism (also known as the New York School) in painting; and hip hop, punk, salsa, freestyle, Tin Pan Alley, certain forms of jazz, and (along with Philadelphia) disco in music. New York has been considered the dance capital of the world. The city is also frequently the setting for novels, movies (see List of films set in New York City), and television programs. New York Fashion Week is one of the world's preeminent fashion events and is afforded extensive coverage by the media. New York has also frequently been ranked the top fashion capital of the world on the annual list compiled by the Global Language Monitor. Artists have been drawn into the city by opportunity, as the city government funds the arts with a larger annual budget than the National Endowment for the Arts, and New York is the center of the global art market, which grew up along with national and international media centers. History Pace One of the most common traits attributed to New York is its fast pace, which spawned the term "New York minute". Journalist Walt Whitman characterized New York's streets as being traversed by "hurrying, feverish, electric crowds". Department of Cultural Affairs The Department of Cultural Affairs (DCLA), a branch of the government of New York City, is the largest public funder of the arts in the United States. DCLA's funding budget is larger than that of the National Endowment for the Arts, the federal government's national arts funding mechanism. DCLA provides funding and support services to about 1,400 art and cultural organizations in the five boroughs, including 375 museums, 96 orchestras, 24 performing arts centers, 7 botanical gardens, 5 zoos and 1 aquarium. Recipients span many disciplines, including the visual, literary and performing arts; public-oriented science and humanities institutions including zoos, botanical gardens and historic and preservation societies; and creative artists at all skill levels who live and work within the city's five boroughs. DCLA also administers the Percent for Art program, which funds public art at building sites. In fiscal year 2007, DCLA's expense budget, used for funding programming at non-profits, was $151.9 million. Its capital budget, used to support projects at 196 cultural organizations throughout the city ranging from roof replacement to new construction, is roughly $867 million for the period between 2007 and 2011. Arts Music Beginning with the rise of popular sheet music in the early 20th century, New York's Broadway musical theater and Tin Pan Alley's songcraft, New York became a major center for the American music industry. Since then the city has served as an important center for many different musical topics and genres. New York's status as a center for European classical music can be traced way back to the early 19th century. The New York Philharmonic, formed in 1842, did much to help establish the city's musical reputation. The first two major New York composers were William Fry and George Frederick Bristow, who in 1854 famously criticized the Philharmonic for choosing European composers over American ones. Bristow was committed to developing an American classical music tradition. His most important work was the Rip Van Winkle opera, which most influentially used an American folktale rather than European imitations. The best-known New York composer, indeed, the best-known American classical composer of any kind, was George Gershwin. Gershwin was a songwriter with Tin Pan Alley and the Broadway theatres, and his works synthesized elements of many styles, including the music of New York's Yiddish theatre, vaudeville, ragtime, operetta, jazz and the post-Romantic music of European composers. Gershwin's work gave American classical music unprecedented international recognition. Following Gershwin, the next major American composer was Aaron Copland from Brooklyn, who used elements of American folk music and jazz in his compositions. His works included the Organ Symphony, which earned him comparisons to Igor Stravinsky, and the music for the ballet Appalachian Spring and the Copland Piano Variations. The New York blues was a type of blues music characterized by significant jazz influences and a more modernized, urban feel than the country blues. Prominent musicians from this field include Lionel Hampton and Big Joe Turner. In New York, jazz became fused with stride (an advanced form of ragtime) and became highly evolved. Among the first major New York jazz musicians was Fletcher Henderson, whose jazz orchestra, first appearing in 1923, helped invent swing music. The swing style that developed from New York's big jazz bands was catchy and very danceable, and was originally played largely by black orchestras. Later, white bands led by musicians like Jimmy Dorsey and Benny Goodman began to dominate and produced a number of instrumentalists that had a profound effect on the later evolution of jazz. Star vocalists also emerged, mainly women like the bluesy Billie Holiday and the scat singer Ella Fitzgerald. Beginning in the 1940s, New York was the center of a roots revival in American folk music. Many New Yorkers developed a renewed interest in blues, Appalachian folk music and other roots styles. Greenwich Village, in Lower Manhattan, became a hotbed of American folk music as well as leftist political activism. The performers associated with the Greenwich Village scene had sporadic mainstream success in the 1940s and 1950s; some, like Pete Seeger and the Almanac Singers, did well, but most were confined to local coffeehouses and other venues. Performers like Dave Van Ronk and Joan Baez helped expand the scene by appealing to university students. In the early 1960s, Baez was instrumental in introducing the up-and-coming young folk artist Bob Dylan to her audience and he quickly achieved national prominence. By the mid-'60s, folk and rock were merging, with Bob Dylan taking the lead in July 1965, releasing "Like a Rolling Stone", with a distinctive, revolutionary rock sound for its time, steeped in tawdry New York imagery, followed by an electric performance in late July at the Newport Folk Festival. Dylan plugged an entire generation into the milieu of the singer-songwriter, often writing from an urban, distinctly New York point of view. By the mid to late 1960s, bands and singer-songwriters began to proliferate the underground New York art/music scene. The release of The Velvet Underground & Nico in 1967, featuring singer-songerwriter Lou Reed and German singer and collaborator Nico was described as "most prophetic rock album ever made" by Rolling Stone in 2003. Other New York based singer songerwriters began to emerge, using the urban landscape as their canvass, a backdrop for lyrics in the confessional style of poets like Anne Sexton and Sylvia Plath. In July 1969, Newsweek magazine ran a feature story, "The Girls-Letting Go," describing the groundbreaking music of Joni Mitchell, Laura Nyro, Lotti Golden and Melanie, as a new breed of female troubadour: "what is common to them are the personalized songs they write, like voyages of self discovery, brimming with keen observation and startling in the impact of their poetry." The work of these early New York based singer-songwriters, from Laura Nyro's New York Tendaberry (1969), to Lotti Golden's East Village diaries on Motor-Cycle her 1969 debut on Atlantic Records, has served as inspiration to generations of female singer-songwriters in the rock, folk and jazz traditions. i Disco music developed from the funk, soul and jazz of the 1960s, becoming a distinct genre of music, eschewing the raw sound of a four piece garage band and embracing a new technology that employed driving synthesizers with booming a bass drum that defined the disco sound with a steady quarter note beat, or Four on the floor (music). It was not unusual for producers to contract local symphony and philharmonic orchestras as well as session musicians to further refine the sound. Disco, a musical idiom that was strongly associated with minorities (primarily black and gay audiences), became a phenomenon in dance clubs and discothèques in the 1970s. Many of the major disco nightclubs were in New York, including Paradise Garage, Danceteria and Studio 54, attracting notable followers from the art world, such as Andy Warhol, the fashion industry like Karl Lagerfeld, as well as socialites, musicians and intellectuals. This tradition continued in the 1980s with Area, Danceteria, and Limelight. In the 1970s, punk rock emerged in New York's downtown music scene with seminal bands such as the New York Dolls, Ramones and Patti Smith. Anthrax and KISS were the best known heavy metal and glam rock performers from the city. The downtown scene developed into the "new wave" style of rock music at downtown clubs like CBGB's. The 1970s were also when the Salsa and Latin Jazz movements grew and branched out to the world. Labels such as the "Fania All Stars", musicians like Tito Puente and Celia Cruz and Ralph Mercado, the creator of the RM&M record label, all contributed to stars like Hector LaVoe, Ruben Blades and many others. The New Yorican Sound, differed somewhat from Salsa that came from Puerto Rico, it was being sung by Puerto Rican Americans from New York and had the swagger of the Big Apple. Hip hop first emerged in the Bronx in the early 1970s at neighborhood block parties when DJs, like DJ Kool Herc, began isolating percussion breaks in funk and R&B songs and rapping while the audience danced. For many years, New York was the only city with a major hip-hop scene, and all of the early recordings came from New York. People like Kurtis Blow and LL Cool J brought hip hop to the mainstream for the first time, while so-called East Coast rap was defined in the 1980s by artists including Eric B. & Rakim, Kurtis Blow and Run-D.M.C. Major New York stars emerged to go on and produce multi-platinum records, including Puff Daddy, Jay-Z and The Notorious B.I.G., along with acts like Wu-Tang Clan, Nas, Big L, and Busta Rhymes. New York is also one of only five cities in the United States with permanent professional resident companies in all of the major performing arts disciplines: The Metropolitan Opera, New York Philharmonic, New York City Ballet, and the Public Theater. The Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, actually a complex of buildings housing 12 separate companies, is the largest arts institution in the world. It is also home to the internationally renowned Jazz at Lincoln Center. Other notable performance halls include Carnegie Hall, Radio City Music Hall, and the Brooklyn Academy of Music. With nearly 8 million people riding the city's subway system each day, New York's transit network is also a major venue for musicians. Each week, more than 100 musicians and ensembles – ranging in genre from classical to Cajun, bluegrass, African, South American and jazz – give over 150 performances sanctioned by New York Transit at 25 locations throughout the subway system. Visual art The 1913 Armory Show in New York, an exhibition which brought European modernist artists' work to the U.S., both shocked the public and influenced art making in the United States for the remainder of the twentieth century. The exhibition had a twofold effect of communicating to American artists that artmaking was about expression, not only aesthetics or realism, and at the same time showing that Europe had abandoned its conservative model of ranking artists according to a strict academic hierarchy. This encouraged American artists to find a personal voice, and a modernist movement, responding to American civilization, emerged in New York. Alfred Stieglitz (1864–1946), photographer, Charles Demuth (1883–1935) and Marsden Hartley (1877–1943), both painters, helped establish an American viewpoint in the fine arts. Stieglitz promoted cubists and abstract painters at his 291 Gallery on 5th Avenue. The Museum of Modern Art, founded in 1929, became a showcase for American and international contemporary art. By the end of World War II, Paris had declined as the world's art center while New York emerged as the center of contemporary fine art in both the United States and the world. In the years after World War II, a group of young New York artists known as the New York School formed the first truly original school of painting in America that exerted a major influence on foreign artists: abstract expressionism. Among the movement's leaders were Jackson Pollock (1912–1956), Willem de Kooning (1904–1997), and Mark Rothko (1903–1970). The abstract expressionists abandoned formal composition and representation of real objects to concentrate on instinctual arrangements of space and color and to demonstrate the effects of the physical action of painting on the canvas. New York's vibrant visual art scene in the 1950s and 1960s also defined the American pop art movement. Members of this next artistic generation favored a different form of abstraction: works of mixed media. Among them were Jasper Johns (1930– ), who used photos, newsprint, and discarded objects in his compositions. Pop artists, such as Andy Warhol (1930–1987), Larry Rivers (1923–2002), and Roy Lichtenstein (1923–1997), reproduced, with satiric care, everyday objects and images of American popular culture—Coca-Cola bottles, soup cans, comic strips. Today New York is a global center for the international art market. The Upper East Side has many art galleries, and the downtown neighborhood of Chelsea is known for its more than 200 art galleries that are home to modern art from both upcoming and established artists. The industry is also present in neighborhoods known for their art galleries such as DUMBO, where dealers representing both established and up-and-coming artists compete for sales with bigger exhibition spaces, better locations, and stronger connections to museums and collectors. Wall Street money and funds from philanthropists flow steadily into the art market, often prompting artists to move from gallery to gallery in pursuit of riches and fame. Enriching and countering this mainstream commercial movement is the constant flux of underground movements, such as hip-hop art and graffiti, which engendered such artists as Keith Haring and Jean-Michel Basquiat, and continue to add visual texture and life to the atmosphere of the city. Long Island City, Queens is a rapidly flourishing art scene in New York, serving as home to the largest concentration of arts institutions outside of Manhattan. Its abundance of industrial warehouses provide ample studio and exhibition space for many renowned artists, museums and galleries. Public art New York has a law that requires no less than 1% of the first twenty million dollars of a building project, plus no less than one half of 1% of the amount exceeding twenty million dollars be allocated for art work in any public building that is owned by the city. The maximum allocation for any site is $400,000. Many major artists have created public works in the city, including Jeff Koons, Louise Bourgeois, Nam June Paik, and Jim Power the "Mosaic Man." Anish Kapoor's Sky Mirror, a highly reflective stainless steel dish nearly three stories tall, was on view at Rockefeller Center in September and October 2006. In 2005 Christo and Jeanne-Claude installed The Gates, a site-specific art project inspired by traditional Japanese torii gates. The installation consisted of 7,503 metal "gates" along 23 miles (37 km) of pathways in Central Park. From each gate hung a flag-shaped piece of saffron-colored nylon fabric. The subway system also hosts several public art projects, including intricate tile mosaics and station signage. Subversive public art trends have also coursed through New York. Toward the end of the 1960s the modern American graffiti subculture began to form in Philadelphia, south of New York. By 1970, the center of graffiti innovation moved from Philadelphia to New York, where the graffiti art subculture inspired an artistic style and social philosophy dubbed "Zoo York." The name originated from a subway tunnel running underneath the Central Park Zoo that was the haunt of very early "oldschool" graffiti writers like ALI (Marc André Edmonds), founder of The Soul Artists. The subway tunnel became a scene where crews of Manhattan graffiti artists gathered at night. With greater law enforcement and aggressive cleaning of subway trains in the 1980s and 1990s, the graffiti movement in New York eventually faded from the subway. Film New York's film industry is smaller than that of Hollywood, but its billions of dollars in revenue makes it an important part of the city's economy and places it as the second largest center for the film industry in the United States. New York was an epicenter of filmmaking in the earliest days of the American film industry, but the better year-round weather of Hollywood eventually saw California becoming the home of American cinema. The Kaufman-Astoria film studio in Queens, built during the silent film era, was used by the Marx Brothers and W. C. Fields. As cinema moved west, much of the motion picture infrastructure in New York was used for the burgeoning television industry. Kaufman-Astoria eventually became the set for The Cosby Show and Sesame Street. New York has undergone a renaissance in film-making with 276 independent and studio films in production in the city in 2006, an increase from 202 in 2004 and 180 in 2003. More than a third of professional actors in the United States are based in New York. One of the filmmakers most associated with New York is Woody Allen, whose films include Annie Hall and Manhattan. Other New Yorkers in film include the actor Robert De Niro, who started the Tribeca Film Festival after the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, and the directors Martin Scorsese, Francis Ford Coppola, Spike Lee, Jim Jarmusch, Joel and Ethan Coen, and many others. While major studio productions are based in Hollywood, New York has become a capital of independent film. The city is home to a number of important film festivals, including the Tribeca Film Festival, the New York Film Festival and the Human Rights Watch Film Festival, as well as major independent film companies like Miramax Films. New York is also home to the Anthology Film Archives, which preserves and exhibits hundreds of avant-garde works from the entire span of film history. The oldest public-access television in the United States is the Manhattan Neighborhood Network, well known for its eclectic local programming that ranges from a jazz hour to discussion of labor issues to foreign language and religious programming. There are eight other Public, educational, and government access (PEG) cable TV channels in New York, including Brooklyn Cable Access Television. New York's municipally owned broadcast television service, NYC Media, creates original programming that includes Emmy Award-winning shows like Blue Print New York and Cool in Your Code, as well as coverage of New York City government. Other popular programs on NYC TV include music shows; New York Noise showcases music videos of local, underground, and indie rock musicians as well as coverage of major music-related events in the city like the WFMU Record Fair, interviews of New York icons (like The Ramones and Klaus Nomi), and comedian hosts (like Eugene Mirman, Rob Huebel, and Aziz Ansari). The Bridge, similarly, chronicles old school hip hop. The channel has won 14 New York Emmys and 14 National Telly awards. Stage performance Dance The early 20th century saw the emergence of modern dance in New York, a new, distinctively American art form. Perhaps the best known figure in modern dance, Martha Graham, was a pupil of pioneer Ruth St. Denis. Many of Graham's most popular works were produced in collaboration with New York's leading composers – Appalachian Spring with Aaron Copland, for example. Merce Cunningham, a former ballet student and performer with Martha Graham, presented his first New York solo concert with John Cage in 1944. Influenced by Cage and embracing modernist ideology using postmodern processes, Cunningham introduced chance procedures and pure movement to choreography and Cunningham technique to the cannon of 20th century dance techniques. Cunningham set the seeds for postmodern dance with his non-linear, non-climactic, non-psychological abstract work. In these works each element is in and of itself expressive, and the observer determines what it communicates. George Balanchine, one of the 20th century's foremost choreographers and the first pioneer of contemporary ballet, formed a bridge between classical and modern ballet. Balanchine used flexed hands (and occasionally feet), turned-in legs, off-centered positions and non-classical costumes to distance himself from the classical and romantic ballet traditions. Balanchine also brought modern dancers in to dance with his company, the New York City Ballet; one such dancer was Paul Taylor, who in 1959 performed in Balanchine's piece Episodes. Another significant modern choreographer, Twyla Tharp, choreographed Push Comes To Shove for the American Ballet Theatre under Mikhail Baryshnikov's artistic directorship in 1976; in 1986 she created In The Upper Room for her own company. Both these pieces were considered innovative for their use of distinctly modern movements melded with the characteristics of contemporary ballet such as the use of pointe shoes and classically trained dancers. New York has also historically been a center for African-American modern dance. Alvin Ailey, a student of Lester Horton (and later Martha Graham), spent several years working in both concert and theatre dance. In 1958 Ailey and a group of young African-American dancers formed the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater. Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater performs annually at City Center Theater in New York. Ailey drew upon his memories of Texas, the blues, spirituals and gospel as inspiration. Bill T. Jones, winner of a MacArthur "Genius" Award in 1994, choreographed for the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater, among others. Another significant African-American dancer, Pearl Primus, made her debut on February 24, 1943, at the 92nd Street Y as a social-protest dancer. Her concerns and expression fit into the landscape of the ongoing Harlem renaissance and gained much public support, and was immediately graced with attention after her first professional solo debut. Her dances were inspired by revolutionary African-American choreographer Katherine Dunham. Primus became known for her singular ability to jump very high while dancing. She focused on matters such as oppression, racial prejudice, and violence. New York was the birthplace of other dance forms, as well. Breakdance became an influential street dance style that emerged as part of the Hip Hop Movement in African-American and Puerto Rican communities in the South Bronx in the early 1970s. It is arguably the best known of all hip hop dance styles. Popular speculations of the early 1980s suggest that breakdancing, in its organized fashion seen today, began as a method for rival gangs of the ghetto to mediate and settle territorial disputes. In a turn-based showcase of dance routines, the winning side was determined by the dancers who could outperform the other by displaying a set of more complicated and innovative moves. It later was through the highly energetic performances of the late funk legend James Brown and the rapid growth of dance teams, like the Rock Steady Crew of the Bronx, that the competitive ritual of gang warfare evolved into a pop-culture phenomenon receiving massive media attention. Parties, disco clubs, talent shows, and other public events became typical locations for breakdancers, including gang members for whom dancing served as a positive diversion from the threats of city life. Tap Dance, and American Born Art Form, first took place in New York in the Five Points District. Theatre The advent of electric lighting led to elaborate theatre productions, and in the 1880s New York theaters on Broadway and along 42nd Street began to showcase a new stage form that came to be known as the Broadway musical. Strongly influenced by the feelings of immigrants to the city, these productions used song in narratives that often reflected themes of hope and ambition. Many musicals in New York became seminal national cultural events, like the controversial 1937 staging of Marc Blitzstein's labor union opera The Cradle Will Rock, directed by Orson Welles and produced by John Houseman. Originally to open at the Maxine Elliott Theatre with elaborate sets and a full orchestra, the production was shut down on opening night, and Welles, Housman, and Blitzstein scrambled to rent the Venice Theatre twenty blocks north. The crowds gathered to see the production walked up 7th Avenue, and by nine o'clock the Venice Theatre's 1,742 seats were sold out. Blitzstein began performing the musical solo, but after beginning the first number he was joined by cast members, who were forbidden by the Actor's Union to perform the piece "onstage", from their seats in the audience. Blitzstein and the cast performed the entire musical from the house. Many who attended the performance, including poet Laureate Archibald MacLeish, thought it to be one of the most moving theatrical experiences of their lives. Performances of the musical to this day rarely use elaborate sets or an orchestra in homage to this event. Houseman and Wells went on to found the Mercury Theatre and do radio drama, in which they performed one of the most notable radio broadcasts of all time, The War of the Worlds. Many New York playwrights, including Elia Kazan and Arthur Miller, became icons in American theater. Professional Yiddish theatre in New York, a major cultural influence in the city, began in 1882 with a troupe founded by Boris Thomashefsky, an immigrant from Ukraine. The plays in the late 19th century were realistic, while in the beginning of the 20th century, they became more political and artistic in orientation. Some performers were well-respected enough to move back and forth between the Yiddish theatre and Broadway, including Bertha Kalich and Jacob Adler. Some of the major composers included Abraham Goldfaden, Joseph Rumshinsky and Sholom Secunda, while playwrights included David Pinski, Solomon Libin, Jacob Michailovitch Gordin and Leon Kobrin. Concurrently with Yiddish theatre was the development of Vaudeville (a term thought to be a corruption of the old French word vaudevire, meaning an occasional or topical light popular song), a style of multi-act theatre which flourished from the 1880s through to the 1920s. An evening's schedule of performances (or "bill") could run the gamut from acrobats to mathematicians, from song-and-dance duos and Shakespeare to animal acts and opera. The usual date given for the "birth" of vaudeville is October 24, 1881, the night during which variety performer and theatre owner Tony Pastor, in his effort to lure women into the male-dominated variety hall, famously staged the first bill of self-proclaimed "clean" vaudeville in New York. African American audiences had their own Vaudeville circuits, as did speakers of Italian and Yiddish. The Palace Theatre on Broadway, described by its owner, Martin Beck, as "the Valhalla of vaudeville" opened with vaudeville shows from the Keith Circuit and lured the best and brightest in vaudeville. Its shift to a full bill of movies on November 16, 1932, is generally regarded as the death of vaudeville. Today the 39 largest theatres (with more than 500 seats) in New York are collectively known as "Broadway" after the major thoroughfare through the Theater District, and are mostly located in the Times Square vicinity. Many Broadway shows are world-famous, such as the musicals Cats and The Phantom of the Opera. Along with those of London's West End, theaters in New York's Broadway district are often considered to be the most professional in the English language. Smaller theatres, termed off Broadway and off-off-Broadway depending on their size, have the flexibility to produce more innovative shows for smaller audiences. An important center of the American theatre avant-garde, New York has been host to such seminal experimental theatre groups as The Wooster Group and Richard Foreman's Ontological-Hysteric Theater. The subways of New York are also occasional venues for beauty pageants and guerrilla theater. The MTA's annual Miss Subways contest ran from 1941 to 1976 and again in 2004 (under the revised name "Ms Subways"). Past Miss Subways winners include Eleanor Nash, an FBI clerk described by her poster that hung in subway cars in 1960 as "young, beautiful and expert with a rifle." The 2004 Ms Subways winner, Caroline Sanchez-Bernat, was an actress who played a role in Sunday Brunch 4. The 35-minute piece of performance art was a full enactment of a Sunday brunch — including crisp white tablecloth, spinach salad appetizer and attentive waiter in black tuxedo — performed aboard a southbound A train in 2000. With subway riders looking on, the actors chatted amiably about Christmas, exchanged gifts and signed for a package delivered by a United Parcel Service delivery man who entered the scene at the West 34th Street stop. Theatre companies Circle Repertory Company Classic Stage Company Great Jones Repertory Company Ma-Yi Theater Company No.11 Productions Pick Up Performance Company Roundabout Theatre Company Stand-up comedy New York is considered by many to be the heart of stand-up comedy in the United States. The city is home to a number of leading comedy clubs including Caroline's. Literature Novels Several important movements originated in New York. One of the first American writers to gain critical acclaim in Europe, Washington Irving, was a New Yorker whose History of New York (1809) became a cultural touchstone for Victorian New York. Diedrich Knickerbocker, an old-fashioned Dutch New Yorker in Irvin's satire of chatty and officious logistical history, made "Knickerbocker" a bye-word for quaint Dutch-descended New Yorkers, with their old-fashioned ways and their long-stemmed pipers and knee-breeches long after the fashion had turned to trousers. This served as the inspiration for the New York Knicks's moniker, whose corporate name is the "New York Knickerbockers." The Harlem Renaissance established the African-American literary canon in the United States. The zenith of this "flowering of Negro literature," as James Weldon Johnson called it, was between 1924, when Opportunity magazine hosted a party for black writers where many white publishers were in attendance, and the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the start of the Great Depression. African-Americans of the northward Great Migration and African and Caribbean immigrants converged in Harlem, which became the most famous center of Negro life in the United States at that time. A militant black editor indicated in 1920 that "the intrinsic standard of Beauty and aesthetics does not rest in the white race" and that "a new racial love, respect, and consciousness may be created." The work of black Harlem writers sought to challenge the pervading racism of the larger white community and often promoted progressive or socialist politics and racial integration. No singular style emerged; instead there was a mix ranging from the celebration of Pan-Africanism, "high-culture" and "street culture," to new experimental forms in literature like modernism, to Classical music and improvisational jazz that inspired the new form of jazz poetry. The mid-20th century saw the emergence of The New York Intellectuals, a group of American writers and literary critics who advocated leftist, anti-Stalinist political ideas and who sought to integrate literary theory with Marxism. Many of the group were students at the City College of New York in the 1930s and associated with the left-wing political journal The Partisan Review. Writer Nicholas Lemann has described the New York Intellectuals as "the American Bloomsbury". Writers often considered among the New York Intellectuals include Robert Warshow, Philip Rahv, William Phillips, Mary McCarthy, Dwight Macdonald, Lionel Trilling, Clement Greenberg, Irving Kristol, Sidney Hook, Irving Howe, Alfred Kazin, and Daniel Bell. The 1940s and 1950s also saw the rise in prominence of Ayn Rand, who was based in New York for many years and whose novels The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged were both set in the city. Parallel and counter to these mainstream groups have been such New York-centered underground movements as the Beat poets and writers, including Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, Gregory Corso and others, continuing into the 1980s and beyond with such writers as Kathy Acker and Eileen Myles. Various movements down through the years have centered on avant-garde publishing enterprises such as Grove Press and Evergreen Review, as well as unnumbered zine-style pamphlets and one-off literary productions still available in independent bookstores today. At present the underground continues to thrive in the form of small press literary publishers, including Soft Skull Press, Fugue State Press, Dennis Cooper's Little House on the Bowery/Akashic Press, and many others. Over the years many literary institutions have developed in the city, including PEN America, the largest of the international literary organization's centers. The PEN America plays an important role in New York's literary community and is active in defending free speech, the promotion of literature, and the fostering of international literary fellowship. Literary journals, including The Paris Review, The New York Review of Books, n+1, The New Criterion, and New York Quarterly are also important in the city's literary scene. Contemporary writers based in the city, many of whom live in the Park Slope neighborhood of Brooklyn, include Norman Mailer, Barbara Garson, Don DeLillo, Jhumpa Lahiri, Paul Auster, Siri Hustvedt, Jonathan Safran Foer, Jonathan Lethem, Thomas Pynchon and many others. New York has also been a flourishing scene for Jewish American literature, as well as for Puerto Rican poets and writers, who call themselves "nuyoricans" (a blending of the phrases "New York" and "Puerto Rican"). The landmark Nuyorican Poets Café is a bastion of the Nuyorican Movement, an intellectual movement involving poets, writers, musicians and artists of Puerto Rican descent, mostly notably the late Pedro Pietri and Giannina Braschi. While the state has an official poet Laureate, New York City does not. Instead, by tradition it hosts an annual "People's Poetry Gathering", curated by the City University of New York and city poetry groups, in which ordinary New Yorkers offer their own lines to an epic poem for the city. This technique was also used in the creation of a spontaneous poetic response by New Yorkers to the September 11, 2001 attacks that became a travelling exhibition called Missing: Streetscape of a City in Mourning. The poems, with 110 lines each for the 110 stories of the destroyed World Trade Center towers, were printed on black, billowing cotton banners over in height. Comic books The American comic book was invented in New York in the early 1930s as a way to cheaply repackage and resell newspaper comic strips, which also experienced their major period of creative growth and development in New York papers in the first decades of the 20th century. Immigrant culture in the city was the central topic and inspiration for comics from the days of Hogan's Alley, the Yellow Kid, The Katzenjammer Kids and beyond. Virtually all creators and workers employed in the early comic book industry were based in New York, from publishers to artists, many of them coming from immigrant Jewish families in the Lower East Side and Brooklyn. It can be argued that superheroes, the uniquely American contribution to comic books, owe their origin to New York, despite the fact that the first superhero, Superman, was created by two artists from Cleveland, Ohio. Even when not based explicitly in New York, superhero stories often make use of recognizable stand-ins for the city, such as Metropolis or Gotham City (Gotham being a common nickname for New York). The form and narrative conventions of superhero stories frequently dictate New York-sized cities as the settings, even generically. Marvel Comics became famous for breaking with convention and setting their stories explicitly in a "real" New York, giving recognizable addresses for the homes of their major characters. Peter Parker, Spider-Man, lived with his Aunt May in Forest Hills, Queens. The Baxter Building, long-time home of the Fantastic Four, was located at 42nd and Madison Avenue. In 2007, the City of New York declared April 30 May 6 "Spider-Man Week" in honor of the release of Spider-Man 3. Both of the previous Spider-Man movies made heavy use of New York as a backdrop and included crowd scenes filled with "stereotypical New Yorkers." New York also served as an inspiration and home for much of America's non-superhero comic books, famously starting with cartoonist and Brooklyn native Will Eisner's many depictions of everyday life among poor, working-class and immigrant New Yorkers. Today New York's alternative comics scene is thriving, including native New Yorkers Art Spiegelman, Ben Katchor and Dean Haspiel, graduates of the School of Visual Arts cartooning program (the first accredited cartooning program in the country) and many others. Meanwhile, New York's comic book history has worked its way into other facets of New York culture, from the Pop Art of Roy Lichtenstein to the recent literary production of Brooklyn-based Jonathan Lethem and Dave Eggers. Museums The Metropolitan Museum of Art is one of the world's largest and most important art museums, and is located on the eastern edge of Central Park. It also comprises a building complex known as "The Cloisters" in Fort Tryon Park at the north end of Manhattan Island overlooking the Hudson River which features medieval art. The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) is often considered a rival to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Brooklyn Museum is the second largest art museum in New York and one of the largest in the United States. One of the premier art institutions in the world, its permanent collection includes more than one-and-a-half million objects, from ancient Egyptian masterpieces to contemporary art, and the art of many other cultures. There are many smaller important galleries and art museums in the city. Among these is the Frick Collection, one of the preeminent small art museums in the United States, with a very high-quality collection of old master paintings housed in 16 galleries within the former mansion of steel magnate Henry Clay Frick. The collection features some of the best-known paintings by major European artists, as well as numerous works of sculpture and porcelain. It also has furniture, enamel, and carpets. The Jewish Museum of New York was first established in 1904, when the Jewish Theological Seminary received a gift a 26 Jewish ceremonial art objects by Judge Mayer Sulzberger. The museum now boasts a collection 28,000 objects including paintings, sculpture, archaeological artifacts, and many other pieces important to the preservation of Jewish history and culture. Founded in 1969 by a group of Puerto Rican artists, educators, community activists and civic leaders, El Museo del Barrio is located at the top of Museum Mile in Spanish Harlem, a neighborhood also called 'El Barrio'. Originally, the museum was a creation of the Nuyorican Movement and Civil Rights Movement, and primarily functioned as a neighborhood institution serving Puerto Ricans. With the increasing size of New York's Latino population, the scope of the museum is expanding. The American Museum of Natural History and its Hayden Planetarium focus on the sciences. There are also many smaller specialty museums, from the Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum to the International Center of Photography and The Museum of Television and Radio. There is even a Museum of the City of New York. A number of the city's museums are located along the Museum Mile section of Fifth Avenue. In recent years New York has seen a major building boom among its cultural institutions. Long Island City in Queens is an increasingly thriving location for the arts, home to P.S.1 Contemporary Art Center and SculptureCenter for example. SculptureCenter, New York's only non-profit exhibition space dedicated to contemporary and innovative sculpture, re-located from Manhattan's Upper East Side to a former trolley repair shop in LIC, renovated by artist/designer Maya Lin in 2002. The museum commissions new work and presents challenging exhibits by emerging and established, national and international artists and hosts a diverse range of public programs including lectures, dialogues, and performances. In 2006 more than 60 arts institutions spread across the five boroughs, from smaller community organizations like the Museum of Contemporary African Diasporan Arts in Brooklyn to major institutions like The Morgan Library & Museum, underwent architectural renovation or new construction. In aggregate the projects represented more than $2.8 billion in investment. The New York City Department of Cultural Affairs budget for building projects was the largest in the city's history: $865 million from 2006 through 2010, up from a $339.6 million planned budget for the 2001-4 period. The Alliance for the Arts, a nonpartisan, nonprofit arts advocacy and research group, reported in 2003 that the economic impact of cultural construction projects in New York — including factors like jobs created and collateral spending in the city — between 1997 and 2002 was $2.3 billion, with an anticipated impact of $2.7 billion for the period from 2003 through 2006. Inventions New York City, like any other city across the United States and the world, has changed with its own unique inventions, among which are: Air conditioning Club sandwiches Jell-O Oreos Potato chips Toilet paper Tuxedos Cultural diversity Demographics To some observers, New York, with its large immigrant population, seems more of an international city than something specifically "American". But to others, the city's very openness to newcomers makes it the archetype of a "nation of immigrants". The term "melting pot" derives from the play The Melting Pot, by Israel Zangwill, who in 1908 adapted Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet to a setting in the Lower East Side, where droves of immigrants from diverse European nations in the early 1900s learned to live together in tenements and row houses for the first time. In 2000, 36% of the city's population was foreign-born. Among American cities this proportion was higher only in Los Angeles and Miami. While the immigrant communities in those cities are dominated by a few nationalities, in New York no single country or region of origin dominates. The seven largest countries of origin are the Dominican Republic, China, Jamaica, Russia, Italy, Poland and India. The cultural diversity of New York can be seen in the range of official city holidays. With the growth of New York's South Asian community, Diwali, the Hindu Festival of Lights, was added to the calendar in 2022-2023. As in many major cities, immigrants to New York often congregate in ethnic enclaves where they can talk and shop and work with people from their country of origin. Throughout the five boroughs the city is home to many distinct communities of Indians, Irish, Italians, Chinese, Koreans, Dominicans, Puerto Ricans, Caribbeans, Hasidic Jews, Latin Americas, Russians and many others. Many of the largest citywide annual events are parades celebrating the heritage of New York's ethnic communities. Attendance at the biggest ones by city and state politicians is politically obligatory. These include the St Patrick's Day Parade, probably the top Irish heritage parade in the Americas; the Puerto Rican Day Parade, which often draws up to 3 million spectators; the West Indian Labor Day Parade, among the largest parades in North America and the largest event in New York; and the Chinese New Year Parade. New Yorkers of all stripes gather together for these spectacles. Other significant parades include the Gay Pride Parade, Greenwich Village Halloween Parade and the Coney Island Mermaid Parade, all icons in the city's counter-culture pantheon. New York has a larger Jewish population than any other city in the world, larger than even Jerusalem. Approximately one million New Yorkers, or about 13%, are Jewish. As a result, New York culture has borrowed certain elements of Jewish culture, such as bagels. The city is also home to the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, the headquarters of Orthodox Jewish movements, one of three American campuses of Hebrew Union College of Reform Judaism, Yeshiva University, and the home of the Anti-Defamation League. Temple Emanu-El, the largest Jewish house of worship in the world, became the first Reform congregation in America in 1845. It is also the home of such Jewish comedians, as Woody Allen and Jerry Seinfeld. Festivals and parades New York, with its many ethnic communities and cultural venues, has a large number of major parades and street festivals. SummerStage in Central Park is one of about 1,200 free concerts, dance, theater, and spoken word events citywide sponsored by the City Parks Foundation. The Village Halloween Parade is an annual holiday parade and street pageant presented the night of every Halloween (October 31) in Greenwich Village. Stretching more than a mile, this cultural event draws two million spectators, fifty thousand costumed participants, dancers, artists and circus performers, dozens of floats bearing live bands and other musical and performing acts, and a worldwide television audience of one hundred million. The Feast of San Gennaro, originally a one-day religious commemoration, is now an 11-day street fair held in mid-September in Manhattan's Little Italy. Centered on Mulberry Street, which is closed to traffic for the occasion, the festival generally features parades, street vendors, sausages and zeppole, games, and a religious candlelit procession which begins immediately after a celebratory mass at the Church of the Most Precious Blood. Another festival is held with the same attractions at New York's other Little Italy, in the Fordham/Belmont area in the Bronx. The streets are closed to traffic and the festivities begin early in the morning and proceed late into the night. Other major parades include the annual Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, presented by Macy's Department Store and lasting three hours on Thanksgiving Day, which features enormous inflatable balloons, and Puerto Rican Day Parade which is held along Fifth Avenue (Manhattan) from 44th Street to 86th Street. The parade also extends through other ethnic Puerto Rican neighborhoods throughout the city in Brooklyn and the Bronx. A major component of New Year's Eve celebrations in the United States is the "ball dropping" on top of One Times Square that is broadcast live on national television. A 1,070-pound, 6-foot-diameter Waterford Crystal ball, high above Times Square, is lowered starting at 23:59:00 and reaching the bottom of its tower at the stroke of midnight (00:00:00). New York Harbor From 1982 to 1988, New York dropped a large apple in recognition of its nickname, "The Big Apple." Dick Clark hosted televised coverage of the event from 1972 to 2011 with his show, Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve. For about four decades, until one year before his death in 1977, Canadian violinist and bandleader Guy Lombardo and his Royal Canadians serenaded the United States from the ballroom of the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel on Park Avenue. Their recording of the traditional song Auld Lang Syne still plays as the first song of the new year in Times Square. Sports New York is home to the headquarters of the National Football League, Major League Baseball, the National Basketball Association, the National Hockey League, and Major League Soccer. The New York metropolitan area hosts the most sports teams in these five professional leagues. Five of the ten most expensive stadiums ever built worldwide (MetLife Stadium, the new Yankee Stadium, Madison Square Garden, Citi Field, and Barclays Center) are located in the New York metropolitan area. New York has been described as the "Capital of Baseball". There have been 35 Major League Baseball World Series and 73 pennants won by New York teams. It is also one of only five metro areas (Los Angeles, Chicago, Baltimore–Washington, and the San Francisco Bay Area being the others) to have two major league teams. Additionally, there have been 14 World Series in which two New York teams played each other, known as the Subway Series and occurring most recently in . No other metropolitan area has had this happen more than once (Chicago in , St. Louis in , and the San Francisco Bay Area in ). The city's two current MLB teams are the New York Mets and the New York Yankees, who compete in four games of interleague play every regular season that has also come to be called the Subway Series. The Yankees have won a record 27 championships, while the Mets have won the World Series twice. The city also was once home to the Brooklyn Dodgers (now the Los Angeles Dodgers), who won the World Series once, and the New York Giants (now the San Francisco Giants), who won the World Series five times. Both teams moved to California in 1958. There are also two Minor League Baseball teams in the city, the Brooklyn Cyclones and Staten Island Yankees. The city is represented in the NFL by the New York Giants and the New York Jets, although both teams play their home games at MetLife Stadium in nearby East Rutherford, New Jersey, which hosted Super Bowl XLVIII in 2014. The New York Rangers represent the city in the NHL. The New York Islanders, who originally played in Nassau County on Long Island, and moved to the Barclays Center in 2015. Also within the metropolitan area are the New Jersey Devils, who play in nearby Newark, New Jersey. The city's NBA teams include the Brooklyn Nets and the New York Knicks, while the city's Women's National Basketball Association team is the New York Liberty. The first national college-level basketball championship, the National Invitation Tournament, was held in New York in 1938 and remains in the city. In soccer, New York is represented by New York City FC of MLS, who play their home games at Yankee Stadium. The New York Red Bulls play their home games at Red Bull Arena in nearby Harrison, New Jersey. Historically, the city is known for the New York Cosmos, the highly successful former professional soccer team which was the American home of Pelé, one of the world's most famous soccer players. Queens is host of the U.S. Open Tennis Championships, one of the four annual Grand Slam tournaments. The New York Marathon is one of the world's largest, and the 2004–2006 events hold the top three places in the marathons with the largest number of finishers, including 37,866 finishers in 2006. The Millrose Games is an annual track and field meet whose featured event is the Wanamaker Mile. Boxing is also a prominent part of the city's sporting scene, with events like the Amateur Boxing Golden Gloves being held at Madison Square Garden each year. Many sports are associated with New York's immigrant communities. Stickball, a street version of baseball, was popularized by youths in the 1930s. A street in Clason Point in the Bronx has been renamed Stickball Boulevard, as tribute to New York's most known street sport. In popular culture Because of its sheer size and cultural influence, New York has been the subject of many different, and often contradictory, portrayals in mass media. From the sophisticated and worldly metropolis seen in many Woody Allen films, to the hellish and chaotic urban jungle depicted in such movies as Martin Scorsese's Taxi Driver, New York has served as the backdrop for virtually every conceivable viewpoint on big city life. In the early years of film, New York was characterized as urbane and sophisticated. By the city's crisis period in the 1970s and early 1980s, however, films like Midnight Cowboy, The French Connection, Dog Day Afternoon, Taxi Driver, Marathon Man, Cruising, Dressed to Kill, and Death Wish showed New York as full of chaos and violence. With the city's renaissance in the 1980s and 1990s came new portrayals on television; Friends, Seinfeld, and Sex and the City showed life in the city to be glamorous and interesting. Nonetheless, a disproportionate number of crime dramas, such as Law & Order, continue to make criminality in the city as their subject even as New York has become the safest large city in the United States in the 2000s and 2010s. See also Culture of The Bronx Culture of Brooklyn Culture of Manhattan Culture of Queens Culture of Staten Island Alliance for the Arts LGBT culture in New York City List of nightclubs in New York City List of people from New York City Media in New York City New York City arts organizations Public Art Fund References Further reading External links NYC Arts and Tumblr City Lore New York City On YellowPosts Center for Traditional Music and Dance (CTMD) New York in the 70s Yoko Ono's Flickr album of Tannenbaum's images Partial list of major international cultural centers in New York City: Austrian Cultural Forum New York Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan Instituto Cervantes-Nueva York New York Chinese Cultural Center French Institute Alliance Francaise Goethe-Institut New York Hungarian Cultural Institute Italian Cultural Institute Polish Cultural Institute Romanian Cultural Institute New York Scandinavia House Swiss Institute Tenri Cultural Institute The Ukrainian Museum Cultural history of New York City New York, the city of all time.

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9B%84%EC%A7%80%EC%99%80%EB%9D%BC%EB%85%B8%20%EC%9A%94%EB%A6%AC%EC%93%B0%EB%84%A4

후지와라노 요리쓰네

후지와라노 요리쓰네(, 겐포 6년 음력 1월 16일(1218년 2월 12일) ~ 겐초 8년 음력 8월 11일(1256년 9월 1일))는 가마쿠라 막부의 4대 쇼군이다. 생애 고셋케(五攝家) 중의 하나인 구조가 당주 구조 미치이에의 삼남으로 태어났다. 어머니는 사이온지 긴쓰네(西園寺公經)의 딸인 도모코(倫子)이다. 아명은 미토라(三寅)로 생년월일이 인년·인월·인일로 인의 간지가 세 번 겹친 데서 비롯되었다고 한다. 겐포 7년(1219년)에 3대 쇼군인 미나모토노 사네토모가 암살되자, 황족을 쇼군으로 앉혀서 옹립하고자 했던 막부는 유력 고케닌(御家人)들이 모여 공동명의로 상주문을 지어 교토로 보냈지만, 고토바 상황의 거부로 실현되지 못했다. 때문에 요리토모의 여동생으로 예전 이치조 요시야스(一條能保)에게 시집갔던 보몬히메(坊門姬)의 증손 미토라를 가마쿠라로 맞이해 온다. 이때 미토라의 나이는 겨우 두 살에 불과했다. 그 뒤 조큐의 난을 거쳐 6년 뒤인 가테이 원년(1225년) 미토라는 관례를 올리고 '요리쓰네'라는 이름을 얻게 되었다. 이듬해인 가테이 2년(1226년) 조정으로부터 가마쿠라 막부의 4대 쇼군으로 임명되었다. 일반적으로 12, 3세에 관례를 올리던 것에 비하면 요리쓰네의 관례는 상당히 빠른 시기에 이루어진 것으로 지금껏 선례가 없던 일이었지만, 관례를 행하지 않고는 관직에 임명할 수 없는 것이 당시의 관행이었기에, 이것을 어기면서까지 요리쓰네를 쇼군으로 옹립하기에는 명분이 약하다고 판단한 에보시오야(烏帽子親) 야스토키가 관례 나이를 대폭 낮추면서 임관 조건을 맞추고자 했던 것이다. 더불어 요리쓰네의 에보시오야가 된 야스토키는 '가마쿠라도노'의 친권자로서 권리를 행사할 수 있는 근거를 마련하게 되었다. 가테이 2년(1230년) 12월 9일에는 2대 쇼군이었던 미나모토노 요리이에(源賴家)의 딸로서 15세가 많은 다케노 고쇼(竹御所)를 아내로 맞이했지만, 요리쓰네가 쇼군으로 있던 7년 동안 가마쿠라 막부의 실권은 초대 쇼군 요리토모의 미망인이었던 호조 마사코(北條政子)가 대행했고, 쇼군은 유명무실한 존재였다. 싯켄 호조 요시토키·마사코 남매가 내세운 꼭두각시 쇼군으로서 덴푸쿠 2년(1234년)에는 정실 다케노 고쇼가 사망하는 등 쇼군으로서의 실권을 갖지 못했다. 하지만 나이가 차고 관위가 높아가면서는 싯켄 야스토키의 차남인 도모토키(朝時)를 필두로 하는, 도쿠소케(得宗家)나 싯켄 정치에 불만을 품은 세력들이 요리쓰네에게 모이면서 차츰 막부 내에서의 권력 기반을 굳혀갔다. 또한 아버지 미치이에와 외할아버지 사이온지 기미쓰네가 간토모시쓰기(關東申次)를 맡아 조정과 막부, 양쪽으로 권력을 떨치기 시작한 것도 당시 심각한 문제로 떠올랐다. 더욱이 호조씨와의 양호한 관계를 바라던 기미쓰네가 사망하고, 기미쓰네와는 달리 호조씨에 대한 반감을 가지고 있던 미치이에가 간토신차가 되면서 막부에 의한 정치에 개입을 시도하기에 이른다. 때문에 요리쓰네와 싯켄 쓰네토키와의 관계가 악화되었고 간겐 2년(1244년) 쓰네토키에 의해 쇼군직을 적남 후지와라노 요리쓰구에게 넘겨주고 만다. 이듬해인 간겐 3년(1245년)에 가마쿠라의 구원수량원(久遠壽量院)에서 출가하여 법명을 행하(行賀)라고 칭했다. 출가한 뒤에도 한동안 가마쿠라에 머물렀고 '오오도노(大殿)'라 불리며 더욱 더 막부 내에 세력을 행사했지만, 나고야 미쓰토키(名越光時) 등 호조 도쿠소케에 반대하는 세력들이 요리쓰네를 중심으로 싯켄을 배척하려 한 움직임이 찰지되었고, 싯켄 도키요리에 의해 간겐 4년(1246년)에 교토에 송환, 로쿠하라(六波羅)의 와카마쓰도노(若松殿)으로 옮겼다. 또한 이 사건으로 아버지 미치이에도 간토신차에서 파면되고 칩거당한다(미야 소동). 그 후, 호지 원년(1247년)에 미우라 야스무라·미쓰무라(光村) 형제에 의한 요리쓰네의 가마쿠라 귀환 시도가 있었지만 실패한다(호지의 난). 또 겐초 3년(1251년) 아시카가 야스우지(足利泰氏)가 자신의 자유 출가가 문제가 되어 영지를 몰수당한 사건도 미치이에·요리쓰네 부자가 관여된 것으로 보인다. 겐초 3년(1252년)에는 요리쓰네의 아들이었던 요리쓰구도 쇼군직에서 해임되어 교토로 송환되었고, 실의에 빠져 있던 미치이에도 얼마 뒤에 죽었다. 4년 뒤인 고겐 원년(1256년) 8월 11일(양력 9월 1일) 39세로 사망한다. 요리쓰네가 사망한 다음 달에 마치 뒤를 따르듯 요리쓰구도 사망하고 있다. 이 무렵 일본 내에 돌고 있던 역병이 원인이 된 것으로 여겨지지만, 오부 다카유키는 구조 집안 3대가 단기간에 잇따른 죽음을 맞이한 것에 의심을 품고 이들의 죽음에 누군가의 관여가 있었던 것은 아닐까 추측하고 있다.. 또 오부가 시대 고증을 담당한 NHK 대하드라마 「호조 도키무네」에서는 도키무네의 아버지 도키요리가 반란 진압의 명분으로 보냈던 자객에 의해 구조 부자가 모두 살해된 것으로 묘사되기도 했다. 요리쓰네와 요리쓰구 2대를 일본 역사에서는 셋케 쇼군·후지와라 쇼군·구교(公卿) 쇼군이라고 부른다. 관위 역임 날짜는 모두 음력입니다. 가로쿠 원년(1225년) 12월 29일에 관례를 치름. 가로쿠 2년(1226년) 1월 27일에 정(正)5위하(下)가 되고 우콘노에노곤노쇼조(右近衛權少將)에 임관. 세이이타이쇼군 선하를 받고 3월 12일에는 천황이 아니면 사용이 금지된 색을 쓰는 것이 허가됨. 3월 25일에 종4위상으로 오르고 우콘노에노츄조(右近衛中將)으로 전임. 4월 8일에 관위가 정4위하로 관위가 오름(우콘노에노츄조는 그대로). 죠에이 원년(1232년) 1월 30일、빈고(備後)의 곤노카미(權守)를 겸임. 2월 27일에는 종3위로 관위가 오름(우콘노에노츄조나 빈고노곤노카미는 그대로 겸임). 덴푸쿠 원년(1233년) 1월 28일에 곤노주나곤(權中納言)으로 전임. 분라쿠 원년(1235년) 12월 21일에 정3위로 관위가 오름(곤노주나곤은 그대로). 가테이 원년(1235년) 10월 8일、무쓰·데와의 아제치(按察使)를 겸임. 11월 19일에 종2위로 관위가 오름(곤노주나곤이나 아제치직은 그대로). 가테이 2년(1236년) 7월 20일에 정2위로 관위가 오름.(곤노주나곤은 그대로) 민부경(民部卿)을 겸임하게 됨. 아제치에서 물러남. 랴쿠닌 원년(1238년) 2월 24일에 고에몬노카미(右衛門督) 겸임(민부경에서 물러남). 2월 25일에는 게비이시(檢非違使)의 벳토 겸임. 3월 7일에는 곤노다이나곤(權大納言)이 됨(게비이시벳토나 고에몬노카미는 그대로). 4월 18일에 곤노다이나곤과 게비이시벳토, 고에몬노카미직을 사임하다. 간겐 2년(1244년) 4월 28일、세이이타이쇼군직 사임하다. 간겐 3년(1245년) 7월 5일、출가하여 법명을 행하(行賀)라 칭하다. 계보 아버지: 구조 미치이에 어머니: 사이온지 도모코(西園寺倫子) - 사이온지 기미쓰네의 딸 아내: 미나모토노 기쿠코(源鞠子, 다케노 고쇼) - 미나모토노 요리이에의 딸 아내: 후지와라노 지카요시(藤原親能)의 딸 아들: 후지와라노 요리쓰구(藤原賴嗣, 1239-1256) 아들: 도조(道增) 아들: 미나모토노 메구미(源惠) 전설 이바라키현 가시마시 궁중에 있는 가시마신궁 백마제는 요리쓰네가 관동으로 내려갔을 때 신탁으로 악래왕을 퇴치했기 때문에 가시마신궁 신전에서 금중에서 거행되던 백마절 그림회를 집전한 것이 기원이라고 한다. 편휘를 준 인물 호조 쓰네토키(교지) 호조 도키요리 등장 작품 호조 도키무네 (NHK 대하드라마) - 2001년, 주연: 우카지 다카시 가마쿠라도노의 13인 － 2022년, 주연: 織田一央織、나카무라 류타로(中村龍太郎) 각주 1218년 출생 1256년 사망 구조가 가마쿠라 막부의 정이대장군 13세기 일본 사람

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuj%C5%8D%20Yoritsune

Kujō Yoritsune

, also known as , was the fourth shōgun of the Kamakura shogunate of Japan. His father was kanpaku Kujō Michiie and his grandmother was a niece of Minamoto no Yoritomo. His wife was a granddaughter of Minamoto no Yoritomo and daughter of Minamoto no Yoriie. He was born in the year (according to Chinese astrology) of the Tiger, in the month, on the day, and so his given name at birth was Mitora (三寅, "Triple Tiger"). Yoritsune was a member of the great Fujiwara clan. The Kujō family was one of the five branches of the historically powerful Fujiwara clan of courtiers. Family Father: Kujō Michiie Mother: Saionji Rinko Wife: Minamoto no Yoshiko (1202–1234) Concubine: Omiya no Tsubone Children: Kujō Yoritsugu by Omiya Kujō Michijo by Omiya Minamoto no Meguhime by Omiya Events of Yoritsune's bakufu At the age of seven, in 1226, Yoritsune became Sei-i Taishōgun in a political deal between his father and the Kamakura shogunate regent Hōjō Yoshitoki and Hōjō Masako who set him up as a puppet shogun. 1225 (Karoku 1, 11th month): At Kamakura, Yoritsune's coming of age ceremonies took place at age 8; but control of all bakufu affairs remained entirely in the hands of Hōjō Yasutoki, the regent (shikken). 1226 (Karoku 2, 1st month): Emperor Go-Horikawa raised Yoritsune to the first rank of the fifth class in the apex of artistocratic court hierarchy (the dōjō kuge). 1230 (Kangi 2, 12th month): Yoritsune is married to the daughter of Minamoto no Yoriie. She is 15 years older than he is. 1231 (Kangi 3, 2nd month): Yoritsune is raised to the second rank of the 4th class in the dōjō kuge. 1231 (Kangi 3, 3rd month): Yoritsune is created a general of the left. 1231 (Kangi 3, 4th month): Yoritsune is raised to the first rank of the 4th class in the dōjō kuge. 1232 (Jōei 1, 2nd month): Yoritsune is raised to the second rank of the 3rd class in the dōjō kuge. 1233 (Tenpuku 1, 1st month): Yoritsune is granted the court post of provisional 1234 (Bunryaku 1, 12th month): Yoritsune is raised to the first rank of the 3rd class in the dōjō kuge. 1235 (Katei 1, 11th month): Yoritsune is raised to the second rank of the second class in the dōjō kuge. 1236 (Katei 2, 7th month): Yoritsune is raised to the first rank of the second class in the dōjō kuge. 1237 (Katei 3, 8th month): Yoritsune ordered the building of a mansion in the Rokuhara section of Miyako. 1238 (Ryakunin 1, 1st month): Yoritsune leaves Kamakura en route to Miyako, accompanied by Yaskutoki and the troupes of several provinces. Fujiwara no Yukimitis stays at Kamakura to preserve order in the land. 1238 (Ryakunin 1, 2nd month): Yoritsune arrives in Miyako and begins to live in his new palace at Rokuhara. 1238 (Ryakunin 1, 10th month): Yoritsune leaves Miyako to return to Kamakura. July 14, 1242 (Ninji 3, 15th day of the 6th month): Hōjō Yasutoki died at age 60. From Gennin 1, or during 19 years, Yasutoki had been the regent or prime minister (shikken) of the Kamakura shogunate. Yasutoki's son, Hōjō Tsunetoki succeeded him as shikken, but Yoritsune himself took charge of the bakufu. 1244 (Kangen 2): In the spring of this year, a number of extraordinary phenomena in the skies over Kamakura troubled Yoritsune deeply. 1244 (Kangen 2, 4th month): Yoritsune's son, Yoritsugu, had his coming-of-age ceremonies at age 6. In the same month, Yoritsune asked Emperor Go-Saga for permission to give up his responsibilities as shogun in favor of his son, Kujō Yoritsugu. September 11, 1245 (Kangen 3, 7th month): Yoshitsune shaved his head and became a Buddhist priest. 1246 (Kangen 4, 7th month): Yoritsune's son, now Shogun Yoritsugu (who is only 7 years old) marries the sister of Hōjō Tsunetoki (who is himself only 16 years old). September 1, 1256 (Kōgen 1, 11th day of the 8th month): Kujō Yoritsune, also known as Fujiwara Yoritsune, died at the age of 39 years. October 14, 1256 (Kōgen 1, 24th day of the 9th month): Yoritsune's son and successor as Kamakura shogun, Kujō Yoritsugu, also known as Fujiwara Yoritsugu, died at the age of 18 years. Eras of Yoritsune's bakufu The years in which Yoritsune was shogun are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. Karoku (1225–1227) Antei (1227–1229) Kangi (1229–1232) Jōei (1232–1233) Tenpuku (1233–1234) Bunryaku (1234–1235) Katei (1235–1238) Ryakunin (1238–1239) En'ō (1239–1240) Ninji (1240–1243) Kangen (1243–1247) Notes References Mass, Jeffrey P. (1976). The Kamakura bakufu: a study in documents. Stanford: Stanford University Press. __. (1974). Warrior government in early medieval Japan: a study of the Kamakura Bakufu, shugo and jitō New Haven: Yale University Press. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128 Ōyama Kyōhei. Kamakura bakufu 鎌倉幕府. Tokyo: Shōgakkan 小学館, 1974. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691. Varley, H. Paul. (1980). A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 6042764 1218 births 1256 deaths 13th-century Japanese people 13th-century shōguns Kamakura shōguns People of Kamakura-period Japan Fujiwara clan People from Kyoto

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%89%B4%EC%9A%95%EC%9D%98%20%EA%B5%90%ED%86%B5

뉴욕의 교통

뉴욕의 교통의 특징은 대중 교통이 잘 발달되어 있다는 것이다. 2005년 기준으로 시민의 54.6%가 대중 교통을 이용해 통근, 통학하고 있다. 미국의 모든 대중교통 이용자의 약 3분의 1, 철도 사용자의 약 3분의 2가 뉴욕과 그 근교에 살고 있다. 이는 다른 지역에서 약 90%가 출퇴근 차량을 이용하고 있는 것과는 대조적이다. 미국 인구조사국에 따르면, 뉴욕 시민이 출퇴근에 걸쳐있는 시간은 하루 평균 34.6분이며, 대도시 중에서는 최장이다. 또한, 뉴욕은 인구 밀도는 높지만 자동차 이용률이 낮고 대중 교통 이용률이 높기 때문에, 미국에서 가장 에너지 효율이 높은 도시 중 하나이다. 철도 뉴욕에는 암트랙이 다니고 있으며, 펜실베이니아 역을 출발한다. 암트랙 북동쪽 회랑을 통해, 보스턴, 필라델피아, 워싱턴 D.C. 등과 연결되어 있으며, 시카고, 뉴올리언스, 마이애미, 토론토, 몬트리올 등도 장거리 철도로 연결되어 있다. 뉴욕 지하철은 영업역 수가 468개이며, 그 수로는 세계 최대의 지하철망이다. 2006년의 승객수는 총 15억명이며, 연간 승객수로 세계 3위이다. 런던 지하철, 파리 메트로, 몬트리올 지하철, 워싱턴 메트로, 마드리드 지하철, 도쿄 지하철 등 대부분의 도시에서 야간에 폐쇄되는 반면, 거의 전 노선에서 하루 24시간 영업하고 있는 것도 큰 특징이다. 뉴저지주, 코네티컷주, 뉴욕은 철도에 의해 연결되어있어, 롱 아일랜드 철도, 메트로 노스 철도, 뉴저지 트랜짓이 달리고있다. 이 철도는 그랜드 센트럴 역과 펜실베이니아 역에 집중되고 있으며, 250개 이상의 역과 20개 이상의 노선이 있다. 그 외, 스태튼아일랜드를 달리는 스태튼아일랜드 철도, 뉴욕 지하철과 뉴저지 북서부를 연결하는 경로 트레인이있다. 버스 메트로폴리탄 트랜스포테이션 오서리티 (MTA)의 버스는 다섯 개의 행정구를 모두 달리고 있다. 버스 정류장의 수는 1만 2,507개가 있다. 2008년 1년간 총 7억 4,700만명이 이용하고 있다. 포트 오서리티 버스 터미널에는 하루에 7000개의 버스가 발착하고 1일 20만명의 통근객이 이용하고 있다. 항공 뉴욕은 국제 여객에게 있어서 미국 최대의 관문이다. 뉴욕 도시권에는 퀸스 지역에 존 F. 케네디 국제공항, 라가디아 공항, 뉴저지에 뉴어크 리버티 국제공항 3개가 있다. 특히 존 F. 케네디 공항은 전 세계의 편리한 장소로 거점이 되고있다. 또한 네 번째 공항으로 뉴욕 뉴버그 근교의 스튜어트 국제공항이 위 3개의 공항을 관리하는 뉴욕 뉴저지 항만 공사에 흡수하여, 증가하는 여객에 대응하기 위한 완화 공항으로 확장 및 정비될 계획이 있다. 기타 뉴욕은 대중 교통 이용자도 많지만, 자전거 이용자도 많다. 하루에 자전거를 타는 사람은 12만명이다. 도보 통근자도 많으며, 미국의 주요 도시 중 가장 에너지 효율이 높은 도시이다. 시내 이동 방법에서 도보와 자전거는 21%를 차지해 미국 대도시의 비율 8%와 비교하면 상당히 높다. 대중 교통 네트워크를 보완하기 위해, 뉴욕에는 고속도로, 공원 도로 (파크웨이)가 펼쳐져 있고, 뉴저지 북부, 웨스트체스터 군, 롱아일랜드, 코네티컷주 남서부와 도시로 이어지고 있다. 이 도로는 교외에서 통근 도로로 수백만명이 이용하고 있으며, 특히 출퇴근 시간에는 매일 같이 교통 체증이 일어나기도 한다. 조지 워싱턴 다리는 세계에서 자동차의 통행에서 가장 혼잡한 다리의 하나이다. 1811년 위원회 계획에 의한 도로의 바둑판화는 뉴욕의 거리 발전에 큰 영향을 주었다. 다수의 스트리트와 애비뉴 중에서도, 브로드웨이, 월 스트리트, 매디슨 애비뉴는 미국에서 각각 극장, 금융, 광고 산업을 가리키는 말로서도 사용되고 있다. 이 외에도, 뉴욕에는 북아메리카 최대의 브루클린과 스태튼아일랜드를 연결하는 현수교 베라자노 내로스 교, 세계 최초의 기계 환기에 의한 운송 터널인 홀랜드 터널, 북아메리카 유일의 공중 통근 케이블카인 루스벨트섬과 맨해튼을 연결하는 루스벨트 아일랜드 트램웨이, 1만 2000대 이상의 옐로 캡이라 불리는 택시가 있다. 또한, 맨해튼과 도시의 내외 곳곳을 연결하는 페리도 많은데, 스태튼아일랜드 페리가 대표적이다. 스태튼아일랜드 페리는 스태튼아일랜드와 로어 맨해튼 사이의 거리 8.4km를 연결하는 페리이며, 연간 1,900만명 이상의 승객을 수송한다. 각주 외부 링크 Regional Plan Association New York Metropolitan Transportation Council , an association of urban and suburban agencies 교통 계획

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation%20in%20New%20York%20City

Transportation in New York City

The transportation system of New York City is a network of complex infrastructural systems. New York City, being the most populous city in the United States, has a transportation system which includes one of the largest and busiest subway systems in the world; the world's first mechanically ventilated vehicular tunnel; and an aerial tramway. New York City is home to an extensive bus system in each of the five boroughs; citywide and Staten Island ferry systems; and numerous yellow taxis and boro taxis throughout the city. Private cars are less used compared to other cities in the rest of the United States. Within the New York City metropolitan area, the airport system, which includes John F. Kennedy International Airport, LaGuardia Airport, Newark Liberty International Airport (located in New Jersey), Stewart Airport, and a few smaller facilities, is one of the largest in the world. The Port of New York and New Jersey, which includes the waterways of the New York City metropolitan area, is one of the busiest seaports in the United States. There are three commuter rail systems, the PATH rapid transit system to New Jersey, and various ferries between Manhattan and New Jersey. Numerous separate bus systems operate to Westchester County, Nassau County, and New Jersey. For private vehicles, a system of expressways and parkways connects New York City with its suburbs. Background History The history of New York City's transportation system began with the Dutch port of New Amsterdam. The port had maintained several roads; some were built atop former Lenape trails, others as "commuter" links to surrounding cities, and one was even paved by 1658 from orders of Petrus Stuyvesant, according to Burrow, et al. The 19th century brought changes to the format of the system's transport: the establishment of a Manhattan street grid through the Commissioners' Plan of 1811, as well as an unprecedented link between the then-separate cities of New York and Brooklyn via the Brooklyn Bridge, in 1883. The Second Industrial Revolution fundamentally changed the city; the port infrastructure grew so rapidly following the 1825 completion of the Erie Canal that New York City became the most important connection between all of Europe and the interior of the United States. Elevated trains and subterranean transportation, known as 'El trains' and 'subways', were introduced between 1867 and 1904. In 1904, the first subway line became operational. Practical private automobiles brought an additional change to the city by around 1930, notably the 1927 Holland Tunnel. With automobiles gaining importance, the later rise of Robert Moses proved essential to creating New York's modern road infrastructure. Moses was the architect of all of the parkway, many other important roads, and seven great bridges. Mass transit use and car ownership New York City is distinguished from other U.S. cities for its low personal automobile ownership and its significant use of public transportation. New York City has, by far, the highest rate of public transportation use of any American city, with 55.6% of workers who commute getting to work by this means in 2021. About one in every three users of mass transit in the United States and two-thirds of the nation's rail riders live in New York City or its suburbs. However, New York City also has the longest mean travel time for commuters (42.5 minutes) among major U.S. cities. New York is the only city in the United States where over half of all households do not own a car (Manhattan's non-ownership is even higher, around 75%; nationally, the rate is 8%). However, absolute figures for car ownership are still high when compared to other cities: in 2019, 55% of households were not car owners, indicating that 45% of households did own a car. Environmental and social issues New York City's uniquely high rate of public transit use makes it one of the most energy-efficient cities in the United States. Gasoline consumption in the city today is at the rate of the national average in the 1920s. New York City's high rate of transit use saved of oil in 2006 and $4.6 billion in gasoline costs. New York saves half of all the oil saved by transit nationwide. The reduction in oil consumption meant 11.8 million metric tons of carbon dioxide was kept out of the air. The New York City metro area was ranked by the Brookings Institution as the U.S. metro area with the lowest per-capita transportation-related carbon footprint and as the fourth lowest overall per-capita carbon footprint in 2005 among the 100 largest metro areas of the United States, outranked only by Honolulu, Los Angeles and Portland. The city's transportation system, and the population density it makes possible, also have other effects. Scientists at Columbia University examined data from 13,102 adults in the city's five boroughs and identified correlations between New York's built environment and public health. New Yorkers residing in densely populated, pedestrian-friendly areas have significantly lower body mass index (BMI) levels compared to other New Yorkers. Three characteristics of the city environment—living in areas with mixed residential and commercial uses, living near bus and subway stops and living in population-dense areas—were found to be inversely associated with BMI levels. Despite the energy efficiency that results from high transit use, the city's streets are generally seen as being dangerous to pedestrians and cyclists. , there are on average 225,000 crashes, 61,000 injuries, and 200+ deaths due to automobiles every year in New York City. Approximately 75% of city street space is devoted to moving cars and trucks at speed and parking these vehicles, while the other 25% of the street is left for pedestrians, bikes, and store fronts. Commuting Of all people who commuted to work in New York City in 2021, 32% use the subway, 30% drive alone, 12% take the bus, 10% walk to work, 4% travel by commuter rail, 5.6% carpool, 3.1% use a taxi, 1.7% ride their bicycle to work, and 0.4% travel by ferry. 54% of households in New York City do not own a car, and rely on public transportation. While the car culture is predominant in most American cities, mass transit is comparatively more heavily used in New York City. The subway is a popular location for politicians to meet voters during elections and is also a major venue for musicians. Each week, more than 100 musicians and ensembles ranging from classical to Cajun, bluegrass, African, South American and jazz genres, give over 150 performances New York City Transit sanctioned performances under the Music Under New York program, a few dozen of which are located throughout the subway system. 3.7 million people were employed in New York City; Manhattan is the main employment center with 56% of all jobs. Of those working in Manhattan, 30% commute from within Manhattan, while 17% come from Queens, 16% from Brooklyn, 8% from the Bronx, and 2.5% from Staten Island. Another 4.5% commute to Manhattan from Nassau County and 2% from Suffolk County on Long Island, while 4% commute from Westchester County. 5% commute from Bergen and Hudson counties in New Jersey. Some commuters come from Fairfield County in Connecticut. Some New Yorkers reverse commute to the suburbs: 3% travel to Nassau County, 1.5% to Westchester County, 0.7% to Hudson County, 0.6% to Bergen County, 0.5% to Suffolk County, and smaller percentages to other places in the metropolitan area. On average, New Yorkers spend 1 hour and 27 minutes per weekday commuting with public transit. Of these, 31% ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 15 minutes, but 23% of riders wait for an average of over 20 minutes. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is . Ridership The Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) operates most of New York City's transit systems. Using census data, the MTA reported in August 2006 that ridership on its buses, subways and commuter trains in recent years has grown faster than population growth, indicating that more New Yorkers are choosing to use mass transit, despite the poor service in some areas of New York City by mass transit. The MTA attributed the ridership gains to the introduction of the MetroCard in 1993, and the replacement of more than 2,800 rolling stock since 2000. From 1995 to 2005, the authority said, ridership on city buses and subways grew by 36%, compared with a population gain in the city of 7%. In the suburbs, it said, a 14% increase in ridership on Metro-North and the Long Island Rail Road outpaced a suburban population gain of 6%. With dramatic increases in fuel prices in 2008, as well as increased tourism and residential growth, ridership on buses and subways grew 3.1% up to about 2.37 billion trips a year compared to 2007. This is the highest ridership since 1965. In 2013, ridership on the New York City Subway was 1.7 billion, the highest ridership since 1946, despite Hurricane Sandy-related subway closures. Ridership in city buses was 803 million. Transit culture The system is a major venue for commerce, entertainment, and political activism. Much of the city, excluding Staten Island, relies on the subway, which is open 24 hours a day, as its main source of transportation. Campaigning at subway stations is a staple of New York elections akin to candidate appearances at small town diners during presidential campaigns in the rest of the country. Each week, more than 100 musicians and ensembles with a broad ranging of genres, including classical, bluegrass, African, South American, and jazz, give over 150 performances sanctioned by New York City Transit at 25 locations throughout the subway system, many under the Music Under New York program. There are many more who are unauthorized performers called buskers, who range from professionals putting on an impromptu show to panhandlers seeking donations by way of performance. One outcome of the city's extensive mass transit use is a robust local newspaper industry. The readership of many New York dailies consists in large part by transit riders who read during their commutes. The three-day transit strike in December 2005 briefly depressed circulation figures, underscoring the relationship between the city's commuting culture and newspaper readership. The subways of New York have been venues for beauty pageants and guerrilla theater. The MTA's annual Miss Subways contest ran from 1941 to 1976 and again in 2004 under the revised name "Ms. Subways". The subways and commuter rail systems also have some artworks in their stations, commissioned under the MTA Arts & Design umbrella. Transit systems Rail The primary mode of transportation in New York City is rail. Only 6% of shopping trips in Manhattan involve the use of a car. The city's public transportation network is the most extensive and among the oldest in North America. Responsibility for managing the various components of the system falls to several government agencies. The largest and most important is the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA), a public benefit corporation in New York state, which runs two of the city's three rapid transit systems, most of its buses, and two of its three commuter rail networks. Ridership in the city increased 36% to 2.2 billion annual riders from 1995 to 2005, far outpacing population growth. Average weekday subway ridership was 5.076 million in September 2006, while combined subway and bus ridership on an average weekday that month was 7.61 million. Rapid transit systems MTA The New York City Subway is the largest subway system in the world when measured by number of stations (), and the eighth-largest when measured by annual ridership (1.76 billion passenger trips in 2015). It is the second-oldest subway system in the United States after the rapid transit system in Boston. In 2002, an average 4.8 million passengers used the subway each weekday. During one day in September 2005, 7.5 million daily riders set a record for ridership. In 2013, the subway delivered over 1.71 billion rides, averaging approximately 5.5 million rides on weekdays, about 3.2 million rides on Saturdays, and about 2.6 million rides on Sundays. Ridership consistently increased in the early 21st century, partly because of the subway's energy efficiency. Life in New York City is so dependent on the subway that the city is home to one of the few 24-hour subway systems in the world. The city's subway services run through all boroughs except Staten Island, which is served 24/7 by the Staten Island Railway. Subway riders pay with the MetroCard, which is also valid on all other rapid transit systems and buses in the city, as well as the Roosevelt Island tramway. The MetroCard has completely replaced tokens, which were used in the past, to pay fares. Fares are loaded electronically on the card. Since 2019, riders have had the option to use OMNY, a contactless system compatible with smart wallets and credit cards. System rollout of OMNY to all buses and subway stations was complete in 2020, and OMNY will replace the MetroCard by 2023. PATH The Port Authority Trans-Hudson (PATH) is a rapid transit system that links Manhattan to Jersey City, Hoboken, Harrison, and Newark, in New Jersey. A primary transit link between Manhattan and New Jersey, PATH carries 240,000 passengers each weekday on four lines. While some PATH stations are adjacent to subway stations in New York City, Newark, and the Hudson-Bergen Light Rail stations in Hudson County, there are no free transfers. The PATH system spans 13.8 miles (22.2 km) of route mileage, not including track overlap. Like the New York City Subway, PATH operates 24 hours a day. Opened in 1908 as the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad, a privately owned corporation, PATH since 1962 has been operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Airport services John F. Kennedy and Newark Liberty airports are served by intermodal rail systems. AirTrain JFK is an 8.1 mi (13 km) rapid transit system that connects Kennedy to New York's subway and commuter rail network in Queens 24 hours a day. It also provides free transit between airport terminals. For trips beyond the airport, the train costs $8.25. Roughly 4 million people rode the AirTrain to and from Kennedy in 2006, an increase of about 15% over 2005. AirTrain Newark is a 1.9-mile (3 km) monorail system connecting Newark's three terminals to commuter and intercity trains running on the Northeast Corridor rail line. Commuter rail New York City's commuter rail system is the most extensive in the United States, with about 250 stations and 20 rail lines serving more than 150 million commuters annually in the tri-state region. Commuter rail service from the suburbs is operated by two agencies. The MTA operates the Long Island Rail Road on Long Island and the Metro-North Railroad in the Hudson Valley and Connecticut. New Jersey Transit operates the rail network west of the Hudson River. These rail systems converge at the two busiest train stations in the United States, Penn Station and Grand Central Terminal, both in Manhattan. In addition, connections are available to nearby commuter rail systems, including Southeast Connecticut's Shore Line East and Central Connecticut and Southern Massachusetts' Hartford Line in New Haven, Connecticut, and Southeast Pennsylvania's SEPTA in Trenton, New Jersey. Service is currently being considered to Scranton in Northeast Pennsylvania via the Lackawanna Cut-Off. Intercity rail While rail freight transportation in New York City and Long Island has atrophied with most freight activity now taking place in North Jersey, the city has more frequent passenger rail service, including both intercity and commuter, than any other city or location in the nation. Intercity service is provided by Amtrak. Fifty-four trains run each day on the busiest route, the Northeast Corridor from New York City to Philadelphia. For trips of less than to other Northeastern cities, Amtrak is often cheaper and faster than air travel. Amtrak accounts for 47% of all non-automobile intercity trips between New York City and Washington, D.C. and about 14% of all intercity trips (including those by automobile) between those cities. Amtrak's high-speed Acela trains run from New York to Boston and Washington, D.C., via the Northeast Corridor, using tilting technology and fast electric locomotives. New York City's Penn Station is the busiest Amtrak station in the United States by annual boardings. In 2004, Acela had 4.4 million passenger boardings, more than double the second-busiest station, Union Station in Washington, D.C. It was expanded with a new concourse in 2017, and waiting hall in 2021. Overnight trains connect New York City with Chicago (where numerous connections are available to the west coast services), Atlanta, New Orleans, and Miami. There are two daily trains to Miami, one daily train to Charlotte, and one daily train to Savannah. Chicago is connected with New York City by two trains: one runs daily via Upstate New York and Cleveland, while another runs three times a week on a longer route via Cincinnati. Major destinations with frequent service include Albany, Baltimore, Boston, Harrisburg, Philadelphia, Providence, and Washington, D.C. There are also international daily trains to Toronto and Montreal in Canada, via the Empire Corridor to Albany and points west. Buses , over 5,710 MTA Regional Bus Operations-operated buses carried about 2.5 million daily passengers 24/7 on more than 238 local routes, 62 express routes, and 7 Select Bus Service routes, amounting to 793 million annual bus trips. Buses owned by MTA account for 80% of the city's surface mass transit. New York City has the largest clean-air diesel-hybrid and compressed natural gas bus fleet in the United States. Local bus routes are labeled with a number and a prefix identifying the primary borough (B for Brooklyn, Bx for the Bronx, M for Manhattan, Q for Queens, and S for Staten Island). Express bus routes operated under MTA New York City Bus use the letter X rather than a borough label. Express bus routes operated under MTA Bus (formerly controlled by the NYC Department of Transportation) use a two-borough system with an M at the end (i.e., BM, BxM, SIM, or QM). Additionally, MTA offers precise bus arrival time using QR code located at each stop. Some stops also have digital panels indicating arrival times. New York Waterway operates connecting bus routes to/from the West Midtown Ferry Terminal and East 34th Street Ferry Landing. Private bus companies Hampton Jitney and Hampton Luxury Liner operate daily, year-round service from points on the east side of Manhattan to the villages and hamlets of Long Island's east end, including the Hamptons, Montauk, and the North Fork. Hampton Jitney also runs limited service to and from Lower Manhattan and Brooklyn. Several Chinatown bus lines began operating in 1997, offering curbside intercity coach service to Chinatown and Midtown Manhattan. Two discount intercity bus services, BoltBus and Megabus, have provided bus service between New York City and several other U.S. cities since 2008. Tripper Bus and Vamoose Bus provide bus service between New York City and the Washington, D.C. suburbs of Arlington, Virginia, and Bethesda, Maryland. BestBus provides daily service from a stop along West 34th Street near 9th Avenue to Washington, D.C., Silver Spring, Maryland, and Manassas, Vienna, and Springfield in Virginia and summer weekend service to Rehoboth Beach and Dewey Beach in Delaware. Ferries The busiest ferry in the United States is the Staten Island Ferry, which annually carries over 19 million passengers on the 5.2 mile (8.4 km) run between St. George Ferry Terminal and South Ferry. Service is provided 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, and takes approximately 25 minutes each way. Each day eight boats transport almost 65,000 passengers during 104 boat trips. Over 33,000 trips are made annually. The Ferry has remained free of charge since 1997. Vehicles have not been allowed on the Ferry since the September 11 attacks, though bicycles are permitted on the lower level at no cost. The ferry ride is a favorite of tourists as it provides excellent views of the Lower Manhattan skyline and the Statue of Liberty. Since the 1980s ferry service on the Hudson River and East River has been restored and significantly expanded providing regular service to points in Manhattan, mostly below 42nd Street. Pier 11 at Wall Street, East 34th Street Ferry Landing, West Midtown Ferry Terminal and Battery Park City Ferry Terminal are major embarkation points. The terminals are run in public-private partnership with privately owned carriers. In February 2015, Mayor Bill de Blasio announced that the city government would begin NYC Ferry to extend ferry transportation to traditionally underserved communities in the city. The first routes of NYC Ferry opened in 2017. All of the system's routes have termini in Manhattan, with routes reaching to Brooklyn, Queens, and the Bronx, as well as a future Staten Island route. Under the NY Waterway logo, routes are run to Hoboken Terminal, Weehawken Port Imperial, Edgewater Landing, and Paulus Hook Ferry Terminal as well as other ferry slips along the west bank of the Hudson in New Jersey. Its East River shuttles between Wall Street and East 34th Street call at four slips in Brooklyn and Queens. It also operates routes to the Raritan Bayshore. SeaStreak runs to the Raritan Bayshore, supplementing the unaffiliated NY Waterway service. However, from 2012 to 2014, it also ran weekday morning and afternoon/evening service between East 34th Street and Pier 11 in Manhattan and Rockaway Park, Queens, with a stop at Brooklyn Army Terminal. The service began in late 2012 in the wake of massive subway infrastructure damage and service disruptions in Queens and Brooklyn from Hurricane Sandy, and was originally intended only as a temporary transportation alternative until subway service was restored, but it proved to be popular and was extended several times after that. However, it was ultimately discontinued in October 2014, despite vigorous efforts by local transportation advocates, civic leaders and elected officials to convince the city government to continue funding the subsidized service. New York Water Taxi makes an East River crossing to Red Hook. Liberty Water Taxi travels between BPC Ferry Terminal and Liberty State Park in Jersey City stopping at Paulus Hook. The companies also run seasonal excursions, notably to the Yankee Stadium and Gateway National Recreation Area beaches. Additionally, there is year-round ferry service to Ellis Island and Liberty Island and seasonal service to Governor's Island. Circle Line Downtown and Circle Line Sightseeing operate tourist routes into the Upper New York Bay or circumnavigate Manhattan. Ferry landings include: East 34th Street Ferry Landing, served by NY Waterway and SeaStreak South Street Seaport, served by New York Water Taxi St. George Ferry Terminal, served by the Staten Island Ferry Pier 11/Wall Street, served by New York Water Taxi, NY Waterway, and SeaStreak West Midtown Ferry Terminal, served NY Waterway Whitehall Terminal (South Ferry), served by the Staten Island Ferry Battery Park City Ferry Terminal, near the World Financial Center, served by NY Waterway, Liberty Water Taxi, New York Water Taxi Fulton Slip Red Hook Aerial tramway Built in 1976 to shuttle island residents to Midtown, the Roosevelt Island Tramway was originally intended to be a temporary commuter link for use until a subway station was established for the island. However, when the subway finally connected to Roosevelt Island in 1989, the tram was too popular to discontinue use. The Tramway is operated by the Roosevelt Island Operating Corp (RIOC). Each cable car has a capacity of 125 passengers. Travel time from Roosevelt Island to Manhattan is just under five minutes and the fare is the same as a subway ride. In 2006, service was suspended on the tramway for six months after a service malfunction that required all passengers to be evacuated. Other transit Other transit in the city includes: The Bee-Line Bus System, connecting the Bronx and Westchester County Nassau Inter-County Express, a bus system operated by Transdev that connects Queens and Nassau County. Until 2012, it was operated by the MTA under the brand Long Island Bus. The Downtown Connection, a free shuttle bus service in Lower Manhattan operated by the Downtown Alliance Private Transportation operates a bus route (labeled B110) between Borough Park and Williamsburg in Brooklyn. Dollar vans operate in boroughs outside Manhattan and in New Jersey. Major transit hubs There are several major transit terminals in the New York metropolitan area. They include train stations, bus terminals, and ferry landings. Major rail stations include: Pennsylvania Station, which is served by Amtrak, Long Island Rail Road, New Jersey Transit, and the New York City Subway Grand Central Terminal, which is served by Metro-North Railroad, Long Island Rail Road and the New York City Subway Jamaica station, which is served by Long Island Rail Road, New York City Subway, and AirTrain JFK Atlantic Terminal, which is served by the New York City Subway and Long Island Rail Road Newark Pennsylvania Station, which is served by Amtrak, New Jersey Transit, PATH and Newark Light Rail Hoboken Terminal, which is served by New Jersey Transit, Metro-North Railroad, PATH, Hudson-Bergen Light Rail, and NY Waterway Major bus hubs include: Port Authority Bus Terminal, served by commuter and intercity buses. The busiest bus station in the United States, the terminal serves both commuter routes, mainly operated by New Jersey Transit, and national routes operated by private companies, such as Greyhound and Peter Pan. George Washington Bridge Bus Station, also served by commuter and some intercity buses. Most commuter buses are from New Jersey and Rockland County. Penn Station is used by Megabus, Tripper Bus and Vamoose Bus. Chinatown, including the corner of East Broadway and Forsyth Street, where several intercity Chinatown buses have a common terminus. Roads and expressways Despite New York's reliance on public transit, roads are a defining feature of the city. Manhattan's street grid plan greatly influenced the city's physical development. Several of the city's streets and avenues, like Broadway, Wall Street and Madison Avenue are also used as shorthand or metonym in American vernacular for national industries located there: theater, finance, and advertising, respectively. In Manhattan, there are twelve numbered avenues that run parallel to the Hudson River, and 220 numbered streets that run perpendicular to the river. An advanced convergence indexing road traffic monitoring system was installed in New York City for testing purposes in May 2008. To keep roadways, tunnels, and bridges safe for pedestrians and drivers, New York City has made efficient use of timers to regulate traffic lighting and help conserve energy. Bridges and tunnels With its Gothic-revival double-arched stone towers and diagonal suspension wires, the Brooklyn Bridge is one of the city's most recognized architectural structures, depicted by artists such as Hart Crane and Georgia O'Keeffe. The Brooklyn Bridge's main span is , and was the longest in the world when it was completed. The Williamsburg Bridge and Manhattan Bridge are the two others in the trio of architecturally notable East River crossings. The Ed Koch Queensboro Bridge, which links Manhattan and Queens, is an important piece of cantilever bridge design. The borough of Staten Island is connected to Brooklyn through the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge. The George Washington Bridge, spanning the Hudson River between New York City and Fort Lee, New Jersey, is the world's busiest bridge in terms of vehicular traffic. New York has historically been a pioneer in tunnel construction. Most carry rail lines, but there are four exceptions. The Lincoln Tunnel, which carries 120,000 vehicles per day under the Hudson River between New Jersey and Manhattan, is the world's busiest vehicular tunnel. The Holland Tunnel, also under the Hudson River, was the first mechanically ventilated vehicular tunnel in the world and is considered a National Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers. Two other notable tunnels connect Manhattan to other places; one is the Queens Midtown Tunnel, and the other is the Hugh L. Carey Tunnel. At 9,117 feet (2,779 m), the Hugh L. Carey Tunnel, formerly known as the Brooklyn-Battery Tunnel, is the longest underwater tunnel in North America. Expressways A less favored alternative to commuting by rail and boat is the New York region's expressway network, designed by Robert Moses. The city's extensive network of expressways includes four primary interstate highways, Interstate 78, Interstate 80, Interstate 87, and Interstate 95. Interstate 78 and Interstate 87 terminate in the eastern and southern areas of the city respectively. Interstate 95 enters the city limits, and Interstate 80's eastern terminus is in Teaneck, New Jersey. I-278 and I-287 each serve as a partial beltway around the city; Interstate 278 in Staten Island, Brooklyn, Queens, and the Bronx, and Interstate 287 in Westchester County, Rockland County, and North Jersey. I-495 begins at the Queens Midtown Tunnel as the Queens-Midtown Expressway, becomes the Horace Harding Expressway between Queens Blvd and the Nassau County limits and finally becomes the Long Island Expressway into the Long Island suburbs. The 'LIE' moniker is commonly used by denizens of the city to describe the entire length of highway. New York's limited-access parkways, another Moses Project, are frequently congested as well, despite being designed from the outset to only carry cars, as opposed to commercial trucks or buses. The FDR Drive (originally known as the East River Drive) and Harlem River Drive are two such routes that run along the eastern edge of Manhattan. The Henry Hudson Parkway, the Bronx River Parkway and the Hutchinson River Parkway link the Bronx to nearby Westchester County and its parkways; the Grand Central Parkway and Belt Parkway provide similar functions for Long Island's parkway system. Private automobiles The city's traffic lights are controlled from a Department of Transportation center in Long Island City, with frequent adjustments to alleviate the city's chronic congestion. Around 48% of New Yorkers own cars, yet fewer than 30% use them to commute to work, most finding public transportation cheaper and more convenient for that purpose, due in large part to traffic congestion which also slows buses. To ease traffic, the Mayor, Michael R. Bloomberg, in 2007 proposed congestion pricing for motor vehicles entering Manhattan's business district from 6:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. However, this proposal was defeated when Sheldon Silver, Speaker of the New York State Assembly, announced that the bill would not come up for a vote in his chamber. The number of gas stations in Manhattan is 40 and falling, causing congestion around them. Due to the lack of competition and high cost of operations, fuel is often more expensive in Manhattan compared to state and national averages. Although the rate of electric vehicle ownership in New York City is low compared to the rate of ownership of traditional gas vehicles, there were over 3,000 electric vehicles registered to New York City and Westchester residents between 2011 and 2014, out of almost 300,000 total vehicles registered during this time. There were over 200 public charging stations in New York City, including 105 charging stations in Manhattan, by the end of March 2016. Most charging stations are 208 V or 240 V "Level 2 chargers," but there are also 120 V "Level 1 chargers" in private homes and workplaces; 480 V "DC fast chargers" in some locations; and several Tesla Superchargers around the city, for use only by Tesla, Inc.-manufactured vehicles. Congestion pricing Congestion pricing in New York City was a proposed traffic congestion fee for vehicles traveling into or within lower and midtown Manhattan. The congestion pricing charge was one component of Mayor Michael Bloomberg's plan to improve the city's future environmental sustainability while planning for population growth, entitled PlaNYC 2030: A Greener, Greater New York. However, it was not approved as it was never put to a vote on the Assembly. Delivery trucks Since the beginning of the 21st century, the growth of e-commerce companies such as Amazon has resulted in an increase in delivery trucks within New York City, with 1.5 million packages being delivered per day by 2019. Several logistics hubs and warehouses have been built within the city to more quickly distribute packages in the New York City area. In 2016, NYCDOT commissioner Polly Trottenberg said that 90% of goods transported into New York City arrived via truck. The influx of large motor vehicles on the already constricted city streets has had a considerable effect on the flow of traffic. In the most congested areas of Manhattan, vehicle traffic in 2019 moves 23% slower than in 2010, and for the bridges and tunnels funneling traffic to and from the city, traffic has slowed down even more considerably. As a result, traffic-related pollution increased around 9% from 1990 to 2019, even when adjusted for population growth. Though it is legal for delivery trucks to double park in most locations while making deliveries during off-peak hours, this often leads to congestion on the surrounding streets when double parking occurs during peak hours. There are often complaints that delivery trucks take up bike lanes and parking spaces. In 2018 alone, four delivery companies (UPS, FedEx, FreshDirect, and Peapod) were fined a combined $27 million due to parking and traffic violations. However, some delivery companies continued to double-park, incorporating any double-parking fines into the delivery fee. Further, the city's Stipulated Parking Fine Program allows drivers to eliminate their previous double-parking violations by paying a predetermined fine without challenging it in court. As a result, in 2019, the NYCDOT started enforcing rules to restrict deliveries in the midtown zone during peak hours, impose a time limit on deliveries, and ban commercial double-parking on streets with one lane of traffic. To reduce peak-hour traffic and truck emissions, the NYCDOT also operates the Off-Hour Deliveries Program in Manhattan's midtown zone, which requires deliveries in that zone to be made between 7 pm to 6 am. Taxis There are 13,237 taxis operating in New York City, not including over 40,000 other for-hire vehicles. Their distinctive yellow paint has made them New York icons. Taxicabs are operated by private companies and licensed by the New York City Taxi and Limousine Commission. "Medallion taxis", the familiar yellow cabs, are historically the only vehicles in the city permitted to pick up passengers in response to a street hail. In 2013, a new type of street hailed livery vehicles called "boro taxis" in "apple green" color are permitted to pick up passengers in the outer boroughs and the northern part of Manhattan. A cab's availability is indicated by the light on the top of the car. When the light is lit, the cab is empty and available; when it is not lit, the cab is unavailable. Fares begin at US$3.00 and increase based on the distance traveled and time spent in slow traffic. The passenger also must pay for tolls incurred during the ride. The average cab fare in 2000 was US$6.00; over US$1 billion in fares were paid that year in total. Since 1999, 241 million passengers have ridden in taxis in New York City. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, of the 42,000 cabbies in New York, 82% are foreign born: 23% from the Caribbean (the Dominican Republic and Haiti), and 20% from South Asia (India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh). Additionally, a large number of American citizen taxi drivers in New York are Puerto Rican or of Puerto Rican descent. In 2014, 23.1% of taxi drivers were from Bangladesh, 13.2% from Pakistan, 9.3% from India, 6.5% from Haiti, 5.9% from the U.S., and 4.4% from Egypt. In 2005, New York introduced incentives to replace its current yellow cabs with electric hybrid vehicles then in May 2007, New York City Mayor, Michael Bloomberg, proposed a five-year plan to switch New York City's taxicabs to more fuel-efficient hybrid vehicles as part of an agenda for New York City to reduce greenhouse gas emissions as well as surging fuel costs. In 2010, Nissan won a contract to provide the New York with a design based on their NV200 minivan model. Pedicabs, pedestrians, and bicycles Cycling in New York City is another means of transport in New York City. In 2009, an estimated 200,000 city residents bicycle on a typical day, and make 655,000 trips each day, greater than the number of the ten most popular bus routes in the city. The city annually hosts the largest recreational cycling event in the United States, the Five Boro Bike Tour, in which 30,000 cyclists ride through the city's boroughs. More than 500 people annually work as bicycle rickshaw, or pedicab, drivers, who in 2005 handled one million passengers. The City Council voted twice, including an override of Mayor Bloomberg's veto due to the market cap, in 2007 to license pedicab owners and drivers and allow only 325 pedicab licenses. Neither the limit on pedicabs nor the law itself went into effect due to a successful New York City Pedicab Owners' Association lawsuit over permit issuance. Ultimately, 943 pedicab business owners permits were issued in November 2009 after a second law was passed to address shortcomings of the 2007 law. Today, pedicabs meet market demand in midtown for both ecological transport as well as quick trips within the central business district during afternoon rush hours when motor traffic moves cross town at an average speed of 4.5 miles per hour. In 2019, New York City had a higher modal share of walking than any other city in the United States at 31% of all trips. By way of comparison, the next city with the largest proportion of walking commuters, Boston, had 119,294 commuter pedestrians, amounting to 4.1% of that city's commuters. Citibank sponsored the introduction of 6,000 public bicycles for the city's bike-share project, Citi Bike, in mid-2013. Research conducted by Quinnipiac University showed that a majority of New Yorkers supported the initiative. Throughout the first year operations, there were more than 100,000 registered members who rode over , including 70,000 members in the first three months alone. In 2014, Citi Bike announced that it would expand its operations by 6,000 bikes and add 375 new docking stations by 2017. In November 2018, a further, five-year expansion was announced, which would double the bike-share system's service area to . In addition, the number of bicycles would more than triple, from 12,000 to 40,000. Stalls would be installed in the remainder of Manhattan, as well as parts of Brooklyn, Queens, and the Bronx. A "green wave" refers to the programming of traffic lights to allow for continuous traffic flow (a series of green lights) over a number of intersections in one direction. In New York City, this “green wave” prioritizes bikers by timing traffic lights around the average biking speed, in addition to mitigating the negative effects of heavy automotive congestion. After a series of bicyclist deaths in 2019, the highest death toll for cyclists in two decades, the city decided to retime traffic lights, so that vehicles would have to travel an average of between consecutive green lights. Transportation commissioner Polly Trottenberg has pushed for increasing bike lanes to demonstrate the city's progress and commitment to transportation safety. However, with the expansion of cycling in New York City, there has been pushback from motorists. For example, in 2019, motorists and Upper West Side residents objected after two hundred parking spaces along Central Park West were eliminated to allow bike lane expansion. Dollar vans New York City has many forms of semi-formal and informal public transportation. Dollar vans in the New York metropolitan area serve major areas in Brooklyn, Queens, and the Bronx that lack adequate subway service. They pick up and drop off anywhere along a route, and payment is made at the end of a trip. Similar to dollar vans, Chinese vans serve predominantly Chinese communities in Chinatown; Flushing; Sunset Park, and Elmhurst. Jitney buses also provide transport to parts of Hudson County and Bergen County in New Jersey. Of particular note is the frequent Interstate express service offered along New Jersey Route 4 between the George Washington Bridge Bus Terminal and Paterson, New Jersey, provided by Spanish Transportation. Highly competitive Chinatown bus lines operate routes from New York City's Chinatowns to other Chinatowns in the Northeast, with frequent service to major cities like Boston, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C. These companies use full-size coaches and offer fares much lower than traditional carriers like Greyhound and Coach USA, who in turn have gone after the Chinatown carriers by offering online fares as low as $1 on BoltBus, NeOn, and Megabus services. Airports New York City is the top international air passenger gateway to the United States. New York is the busiest air gateway in the nation. In 2011 more than 104 million passengers used the major airports serving the city, John F. Kennedy International (also known as JFK), Newark Liberty International, and LaGuardia. Teterboro serves as a primary general aviation airport. JFK and Newark both connect to regional rail systems by a light rail service. JFK and Newark serve long-haul domestic and international flights. The two airports' outbound international travel accounted for about a quarter of all U.S. travelers who went overseas in 2004. LaGuardia caters to short-haul and domestic destinations. JFK is the major entry point for international arrivals in the United States and is the largest international air freight gateway in the nation by value of shipments. About 100 airlines from more than 50 countries operate direct flights to JFK. The JFK-London Heathrow route is the leading U.S. international airport pair. The airport is located along Jamaica Bay near Howard Beach, Queens, about east of downtown Manhattan. Newark was the first major airport serving New York City and is the fifth busiest international air gateway to the United States. Amelia Earhart dedicated the Newark Airport Administration Building in 1935, which was North America's first commercial airline terminal. In 2003, Newark became the terminus of the world's longest non-stop scheduled airline route, Continental's service to Hong Kong. In 2004, Singapore Airlines broke Continental's record by starting direct 18-hour flights from Newark to Singapore. The airport is located in Newark, New Jersey, about west of downtown Manhattan. LaGuardia, the smallest of New York's primary airports, handles domestic flights. It is named for Fiorello H. LaGuardia, the city's great Depression-era mayor known as a reformist and strong supporter of the New Deal. A perimeter rule prohibits incoming and outgoing flights that exceed 1,500 miles (2,400 km) except on Saturdays, when the ban is lifted, and to Denver, which has a grandfathered exemption. As a result, most transcontinental and international flights use JFK and Newark. The airport is located in northern Queens about from downtown Manhattan. Plans were announced in July 2015 to entirely rebuild LaGuardia Airport in a multibillion-dollar project to replace its aging facilities. Manhattan has three public heliports, used mostly by business travelers. A regularly scheduled helicopter service operates flights to JFK Airport from the Downtown Manhattan Heliport, located at the eastern end of Wall Street. There are also the East 34th Street Heliport and the West 30th Street Heliport. Seaport The Port of New York and New Jersey, with its natural advantages of deep water channels and protection from the Atlantic Ocean, has historically been one of the most important ports in the United States, and is now the third busiest in the United States behind South Louisiana and Houston, Texas in volume of cargo. In 2011, more than 34 million tons of oceanborne general cargo moved through the port. Bulk cargo represented another 52 million tons per year. Some 367,000 vehicles were imported and 284,000 were exported. In 2005, more than 5,300 ships delivered to the port goods that went to 35% of the U.S. population. The port is experiencing rapid growth. Shipments increased 5.2% in 2011. There are three cargo terminals on the New York City side of the harbor, including the Howland Hook Marine Terminal on Staten Island, and the combined Red Hook Container Terminal/Brooklyn Marine Terminal. Several additional larger cargo terminals and a passenger terminal are on the New Jersey side. Originally focused on Brooklyn's waterfront, especially at the Brooklyn Army Terminal in Sunset Park, most container ship cargo operations have shifted to the Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal on Newark Bay. The terminal, operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, is the largest port complex on the East Coast, with 4.3 million TEUs (twenty-foot equivalent units) of containerized cargo, which accounts for 61% of the North Atlantic container market. $208 billion of cargo passed through the Port of New York and New Jersey in 2011. The top five trading partners at the port are China, India, Italy, Germany, and Brazil. The New York Harbor is also a major hub for passenger ships. More than half a million people depart annually from Manhattan's New York Passenger Ship Terminal on the Hudson River, accounting for five percent of the worldwide cruise industry and employing 21,000 residents in the city. The Queen Mary 2, the world's second-largest passenger ship and one of the few traditional ocean liners still in service, was designed specifically to fit under the Verrazano Bridge, itself the longest suspension bridge in the United States. The Brooklyn Cruise Terminal is her regular port of call for transatlantic runs from Southampton, England. Cape Liberty Cruise Port in Bayonne is the third passenger terminal servicing the city. Water quality in the New York Harbor improved dramatically in the late 20th century. New Yorkers regularly kayak and sail in the harbor, which has become a major recreational site for the city. Current and proposed expansion projects Several proposals for expanding the New York City transit system are in various stages of discussion, planning, initial funding, or construction. Some proposals will compete with others for available funding: The Second Avenue Subway, a north–south line first proposed in 1919, will run from 125th Street in East Harlem to Hanover Square in Lower Manhattan when completed. The first phase, from 63rd Street to 96th Street opened for passenger service on January 1, 2017. The East Side Access project routes some Long Island Rail Road trains to Grand Central Terminal instead of Penn Station. Since many LIRR commuters work on the east side of Manhattan, many in walking distance of Grand Central, this project saves travel time and reduces congestion at Penn Station and on subway routes connecting it with the east side. It also greatly expands the hourly capacity of the LIRR system. The project officially opened in January 2023. The Penn Station Access project will allow some Metro-North trains on the New Haven Line, and eventually the Hudson Line, to reach Penn Station. The first phase involves four new stops for the New Haven Line and is planned to open in 2027. The Gateway Project will add a second pair of railroad tracks under the Hudson River, connecting an expanded Penn Station to NJ Transit and Amtrak lines. This project is a successor to a similar one called Access to the Region's Core, which was canceled in October 2010 by New Jersey Governor Chris Christie. The project has been delayed due to a lack of funding, but, , the tunnels under the East River were to be completed no earlier than 2035. Although New York City does not have light rail, a few proposals exist: There is a proposal to convert 42nd Street into a light rail transit mall that would be closed to all vehicles except emergency vehicles. The original 1988 plan on which it is based included a loop east to Penn Station along 34th Street. Although a truncated 42nd Street light rail line was approved by the City Council in 1994, it stalled due to lack of funding and opposition from local communities worried about increased traffic. Once the city government proposed the 7 Subway Extension/IRT Flushing Line (), it lost interest in any light rail on 42nd Street. Staten Island light rail proposals have found political support from Senator Charles Schumer and local political and business leaders. Brooklyn Historic Railway Association has also proposed a light rail in Red Hook, Brooklyn, but that was judged to be infeasible and is largely made redundant by the Brooklyn Queens Connector. The Brooklyn Queens Connector streetcar connecting Astoria, Queens and Sunset Park, Brooklyn was proposed by Mayor Bill de Blasio in February 2016, with construction planned to begin in 2019 and service around 2029. John F. Kennedy International Airport is undergoing a redevelopment, one of the largest airport reconstruction projects in the world. In recent years, Terminals 1, 4, 5, and 8 have been reconstructed. Santiago Calatrava proposed an aerial gondola system, linking Manhattan, Governors Island, and Brooklyn, as part of the city's plans to develop the island. As part of a long-term plan to manage New York City's environmental sustainability, Mayor Michael Bloomberg released several proposals to increase mass transit usage and improve overall transportation infrastructure. Apart from support of the above capital projects, these proposals include the implementation of bus rapid transit, the reopening of closed LIRR and Metro-North stations, new ferry routes, better access for cyclists, pedestrians and intermodal transfers, and a congestion pricing zone for Manhattan south of 86th Street. See also Cycling in New York City New York City Department of Transportation List of U.S. cities with most pedestrian commuters Rail freight transportation in New York City and Long Island References Further reading Ascher, Kate, The Works: Anatomy of a City, 2005 Cheape, Charles W., Moving the masses: urban public transit in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, 1880–1912, Harvard University Press, 1980. Mathew, Biju, Taxi!: Cabs and Capitalism in New York City, 2005 Solis, Julia, New York Underground, 2004 Tanenbaum, Susie J., Underground Harmonies: Music and Politics in the Subways of New York , 1995 External links MTA official website PANYNJ official website NYC area transit map Regional Plan Association New York Metropolitan Transportation Council , an association of urban and suburban agencies Transportation planning New York City Air pollution in New York City de:New York City#Wirtschaft und Infrastruktur es:Nueva York#Transporte

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조지 케넌

조지 프로스트 케넌(George Frost Kennan, 1904년 2월 16일 ~ 2005년 3월 17일) 은 미국의 고문, 외교관, 정치가, 역사가이며 '봉쇄의 아버지'라고 잘 알려져 있으며 미소냉전의 핵심이 된 인물이다. 향년 101세에 세상을 떠서 장수한 편이다. 약력 1926국무부 외무직원 소련 독일등 유럽에서 여러나라 근무 / 1947.4 조지 마샬의 요청으로 정책기획실을 구성 장기적인 미국의 대외정책을 수립./ 1950년 공직을 벗어나 모교인 프린스턴 고등연구소 / 1952 주소련대사 1961~1963 유고대사/ 이후 계속 고등연구소에서 활동 고전적 현실주의 국제정치학자로 분류됨/ "러시아, 전쟁을 떠나다(1956)"로 퓰리처상 수상/ Foreign Affairs 1947년 7월호에 실린 논문에서 '소련 봉쇄'를 주장 ('조지캐넌의 미국외교 50년' 7.소련 행동의 원천;p267-도서출판 가람기획 2013.8.6.) 행적 미국의 '외교적 압력과 비난'정책을 비판 그는 워싱턴을 비판했다. 미국 정책이 다루어야 할 현실에는 일본의 인구 증가, 중국의 약점과 불안정, 일본의 야망에 대응할 수 있는 실질적인 방법이 포함되었다. 그는 일본이 미국보다 아시아 본토에 더 큰 관심을 갖고 있으며, 일본 정책을 좌절시키려는 워싱턴의 노력은 도쿄에서 군국주의 자들의 힘을 증가시킬 뿐이라고 지적했다. 미국이 일본에 대한 정책을 조정했다면 진주만을 피할 수 있었다는게 그의 주장의 요점이다. 일본 전체주의화와 미국 책임론에 관한 건 "양차대전 전간기 미국이 동아시아에서 일본 제국이 점했던 입지와 대륙에 대한 이해관계를 경시한 나머지 일본 국내의 극단주의 세력이 부상하게끔 조장한 측면이 있었고, 그들을 수정주의 노선으로 치닫게 만들었다. 그 결과 중일전쟁 및 진주만 사태로 이어지는 역사적 조류가 형성되었으며, 일본을 패망시키긴 했지만, 그로 인해 파생된 세력 균형 구조상의 공백은 소비에트 러시아와 공산화된 중국이 차지해버리는 오히려 더 나쁜 결과만 초래했을 따름이다. 우리 미국이 한국에서 불행한 상황에 처한 건 2차대전 이전에 일본의 권익을 제대로 이해하지 못했고, 또한 아무런 희망적인 대안조차 제시하지 못한 주제에 문호 개방을 빙자해 일본을 아시아 대륙으로부터 무작정 몰아내려고 고집한 끝에 일종의 '얄궃은 벌'을 받은 후과인 셈이다." 즉, 미국이 일본 입장을 전혀 생각 안 해주고 일본이나 아시아에 무관심했다. 그 탓에 일본을 전쟁할 수밖에 없는 방향으로 몰아붙인 미국의 책임도 없지 않다. 그 벌로 중국, 러시아를 상대로 미국 혼자서 싸워야 하는 벌을 달게 받게 생겼다는 논리다. 조지 케넌은 방일할 때에도 맥아더와 자주 만났는데, 그를 일본 관리보다는 연합군 최고 사령관이라는 명칭을 써서 불렀다. 이런 더글라스 맥아더 사령관 역시 조지 케넌의 사상을 공유했다는 것을 맥아더의 다음 연설에서 알 수 있다. "일본을 통치한 뒤, 일본의 내부 사정을 알게 됐다. 생각보다 더 가난하고 궁핍한 생활을 하고 있었다. 일본은 자원이 부족한데 대공황으로 세계 무역이 제기능을 하지 않아 상품을 내다 팔 수 없었고 경제위기의 돌파구로 전쟁 밖에 없었다. 미국의 자원 무역제재 조치는 일본에 치명적였고 일본은 (미국과의 확전으로) 전쟁을 일으키지 않을 수 없었다. 게다가 유럽 민주주의 국가들하고 지역적으로 가까이 있는 독일은 민주주의를 충분히 알고도 파시즘으로 빠졌던 반면, 일본은 그렇지 못하고 주변에 민주주의 국가들이 없어 충분히 민주주의를 받아들일 기회가 없었다. 따라서 일본의 정신연령은 13세의 청소년이다. (유명한 맥아더의 일본인 정신연령은 13살 발언이 이 뜻) 명예높은 미국이 13세의 청소년 같은 판단력을 가진 자에게 성인과 똑같은 책임을 물어야 하는가? (도쿄 국제군사재판을 겨냥한 발언)" 공산주의 국가에 대한 언급 중국 관련 조지 케넌은 중국을 소련의 동맹이 아닌, 위성국가라고 언급한 바가 있다. 조지 케넌은 항상 감정주의 외교정책을 경계할 것을 강조했다. 중국 민족주의 지도자 장개석을 거의 사용하지 않았지만 그럼에도 불구하고 미국은 중국 공산주의자들이 대만을 강제로 점령하려는 시도에 반대해야한다고 믿었다. 한반도 관련 1950년 6월 북한이 남한을 침공했을 때 케난은 남한을 방어하기 위해 미국의 군사력을 사용하는 것을 지지했지만, 격리 정책에 따라 정치적 목표는 현상 유지를 회복하는 것이라고 믿었습니다.. 기 질적으로 그는 공산주의 폭정으로부터 사람들을 해방시키기 위한 십자군을 포함하여 십자군에 반대했습니다. 트루먼 행정부 내에서 그는 미군이 38 선을 넘어서는 안 된다고 권고했습니다. 인도차이나 관련 1950년 8월 인도 차이나에서 미국의 정책이 프랑스에서 정치적 통제를 유지하기 위해 프랑스를 인수하고 미국이 이미 영국의 일부를 맡았던 방식으로 프랑스 제국의 책임을 맡게 될 위험이 있다고 경고했다. 이 경고에도 불구하고 조지 케넌은 처음에 인도 차이나에서 공산주의를 봉쇄하려는 미국의 노력을 지지했다. 결국 그는 유고 슬라비아 주재 미국 대사로서 케네디 행정부의 일원이었다. 그러나 케난은 점차적으로 베트남 전쟁에 대해 불만을 토로하며 미국이 요구하는 이익보다 훨씬 더 많은 것을 그 갈등에 투자하고 있다고 걱정했다. 그는 그 전쟁에서 공산주의의 승리가 세계적 권력 균형을 바꿀 것이라고 믿지 않았다. 1966년 상원 외교위원회 증언에서 그는 파괴할 괴물을 찾기 위해 해외로 나가지 말라는 John Quincy Adams의 유명한 경고를 인용했고, 미국은 “불건전한 입장의 청산이 . . . 사치스럽거나 타협하지 않는 목표를 완고하게 추구한다."라는 말을 믿었다. 키신저의 조지 케넌 평가 세계에 대한 닉슨-키신저의 접근 방식 (소련과의 데탕트, 중국 개방, 베트남 전쟁 참전 종료)은 케난에게 호의를 보였다. 한 때, 키신저가 “미국의 어느 누구보다 나의 견해를 더 잘 이해한다”고 말했다. 극동 지역의 사건과 발전에 대한 그의 견해를 포함한 조지 케넌의 지정 학적 세계관은 항상 힘의 균형에 대한 비감정적인 계산과 인간 본성의 한계와 비극에 대한 감사를 기반에 두고 있었다. 사상 현실주의 외교 냉전 당시 미국의 가장 유명한 책사였던 헨리 키신저와 겹치는 사상을 갖고 있다. 조지 케넌과 키신저 두 사람 다 "탈감정주의"를 갖고 있고 늘 강조했었다. 키신저 역시 베트남 전쟁의 빠른 종결을 위해 베트남과 협상 시도도 했고, 조지 케넌도 한국 전쟁에서 미국이 38선 이북까지 수복하기 시작하자 이를 저지하려는 시도를 했었다는 행보까지 똑같다. 한마디로, "선을 넘지 말고 선을 지키며 냉철하게 행동하자."는 주의였다. 두 사람 모두 "머리를 차갑게 하고, 세계 정세를 객관적으로 보며 현실적인 판단을 해 국익을 우선시 한다."라는 현실주의적인 외교 정책 마인드를 갖고 있었다. 중요한 건 이는 미국이 잘못된 길로 걸어가거나 손해보는 실수를 저지르지 않길 걱정하는 시야로 바라보는 애국적인 외교 판단였다. "파괴할 괴물을 찾기 위해 해외로 나가지 말라"는 말처럼, 눈 앞의 보이는 적대세력의 겉모습만 보고 달려들고 보는 태도나 타입의 애국자들에 대한 경고와 충고였다. 봉쇄의 아이콘 1947년 '소련 봉쇄'를 주창한 것만큼, 그는 "봉쇄의 아버지"로 불리는 미국사의 한 거인이다. 그는 키신저처럼 전쟁이 길어지는걸 막고자하는 현실주의자였지만, 그렇다고 적에 대한 경계를 하지 않는 것은 아녔다. 선을 넘지 말자는 주의이나, 선을 튼튼하게 만들려고 했다. 적에 대한 경계를 늦추지 않는 그의 태도가 공산주의 세력에 대한 봉쇄론으로 발전됐다. 냉전에 대한 시각 그는 중공을 자주적인 국가로서 소련의 동맹이 아니라, 소련의 위성국가로 봤다. 최종 적은 소련이라는 그의 생각을 살펴 볼 수 있는 발언이다. 그와 키신저가 생각한 선을 넘지 않는 주의는 냉전 당시 미국과 소련이 서로 선을 넘지 않고 경쟁하는 대결 구도로 이끌어 가게 됐다. 각주 같이 보기 미국인 정치인 역사가 1904년 출생 2005년 사망 미국의 역사가 미국의 외교관 미국의 정치인 프린스턴 대학교 동문 소련 주재 미국 대사 미국의 백세인 미국의 정치학자 20세기 역사가

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20F.%20Kennan

George F. Kennan

George Frost Kennan (February 16, 1904 – March 17, 2005) was an American diplomat and historian. He was best known as an advocate of a policy of containment of Soviet expansion during the Cold War. He lectured widely and wrote scholarly histories of the relations between the USSR and the United States. He was also one of the group of foreign policy elders known as "The Wise Men." During the late 1940s, his writings inspired the Truman Doctrine and the U.S. foreign policy of containing the USSR. His "Long Telegram" from Moscow in 1946 and the subsequent 1947 article "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" argued that the Soviet regime was inherently expansionist and that its influence had to be "contained" in areas of vital strategic importance to the United States. These texts provided justification for the Truman administration's new anti-Soviet policy. Kennan played a major role in the development of definitive Cold War programs and institutions, notably the Marshall Plan. Soon after his concepts had become U.S. policy, Kennan began to criticize the foreign policies that he had helped articulate. By late 1948, Kennan became confident that the US could commence positive dialogue with the Soviet government. His proposals were dismissed by the Truman administration, and Kennan's influence waned, particularly after Dean Acheson was appointed Secretary of State in 1949. Soon thereafter, U.S. Cold War strategy assumed a more assertive and militaristic quality, causing Kennan to lament what he believed was an abrogation of his previous assessments. In 1950, Kennan left the State Department—except for a brief ambassadorial stint in Moscow and a longer one in Yugoslavia—and became a realist critic of U.S. foreign policy. He continued to analyze international affairs as a faculty member of the Institute for Advanced Study from 1956 until his death in 2005 at age 101. Early life Kennan was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to Kossuth Kent Kennan, a lawyer specializing in tax law, and Florence James Kennan. His father was a descendant of impoverished Scots-Irish settlers from 18th-century Connecticut and Massachusetts, and had been named after the Hungarian patriot Lajos Kossuth (1802–94). His mother died two months later due to peritonitis from a ruptured appendix, though Kennan long believed that she died after giving birth to him. The boy always lamented not having a mother. He was never close to his father or stepmother; however, he was close to his older sisters. At the age of eight, he went to Germany to stay with his stepmother in order to learn German. He attended St. John's Military Academy in Delafield, Wisconsin, and arrived at Princeton University in the second half of 1921. Unaccustomed to the elite atmosphere of the Ivy League, the shy and introverted Kennan found his undergraduate years difficult and lonely. Diplomatic career First steps After receiving his bachelor's degree in history in 1925, Kennan considered applying to law school, but decided it was too expensive and instead opted to apply to the newly formed United States Foreign Service. He passed the qualifying examination and after seven months of study at the Foreign Service School in Washington, he obtained his first job as a vice consul in Geneva, Switzerland. Within a year, he was transferred to a post in Hamburg, Germany. In 1928, Kennan considered quitting the Foreign Service to return to a university for graduate studies. Instead, he was selected for a linguist training program that would give him three years of graduate-level study without having to quit the service. In 1929, Kennan began his program in history, politics, culture, and the Russian language at the Oriental Institute of the University of Berlin. In doing so, he followed in the footsteps of his grandfather's younger cousin, George Kennan (1845–1924), a major 19th century expert on Imperial Russia and author of Siberia and the Exile System, a well-received 1891 account of the Czarist prison system. During the course of his diplomatic career, Kennan would master a number of other languages, including German, French, Polish, Czech, Portuguese, and Norwegian. In 1931 Kennan was stationed at the legation in Riga, Latvia, where, as third secretary, he worked on Soviet economic affairs. From his job, Kennan "grew to mature interest in Russian affairs". When the U.S. began formal diplomacy with the Soviet government during 1933 after the election of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Kennan accompanied Ambassador William C. Bullitt to Moscow. By the mid-1930s, Kennan was among the professionally trained Russian experts of the staff of the United States Embassy in Moscow, along with Charles E. Bohlen and Loy W. Henderson. These officials had been influenced by the long-time director of the State Department's division of East European Affairs, Robert F. Kelley. They believed that there was little basis for cooperation with the Soviet Union, even against potential adversaries. Meanwhile, Kennan studied Stalin's Great Purge, which would affect his opinion of the internal dynamics of the Soviet regime for the rest of his life. At the Soviet Embassy Kennan found himself in strong disagreement with Joseph E. Davies, Bullitt's successor as ambassador to the Soviet Union, who defended the Great Purge and other aspects of Stalin's rule. Kennan did not have any influence on Davies' decisions, and Davies himself even suggested that Kennan be transferred out of Moscow for "his health". Kennan again contemplated resigning from the service, but instead decided to accept the Russian desk at the State Department in Washington. A man with a high opinion of himself, Kennan began writing the first draft of his memoirs at the age of 34 when he was still a relatively junior diplomat. In a letter to his sister Jeannette in 1935, Kennan expressed his disenchantment with American life, writing: “I hate the rough and tumble of our political life. I hate democracy; I hate the press... I hate the ‘peepul’; I have become clearly un-American” Prague and Berlin By September 1938, Kennan had been reassigned to a job at the legation in Prague. After the occupation of the Czechoslovak Republic by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II, Kennan was assigned to Berlin. There, he endorsed the United States' Lend-Lease policy but warned against any notion of American endorsement of the Soviets, whom he considered unfit allies. He was interned in Germany for six months after Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States in December 1941. Lisbon calls In September 1942 Kennan was assigned to the legation in Lisbon, Portugal, where he begrudgingly performed a job administering intelligence and base operations. In July 1943 Bert Fish, the American Ambassador in Lisbon, suddenly died, and Kennan became chargé d'affaires and the head of the American Embassy in Portugal. While in Lisbon Kennan played a decisive role in getting Portugal's approval for the use of the Azores Islands by American naval and air forces during World War II. Initially confronted with clumsy instructions and lack of coordination from Washington, Kennan took the initiative by personally talking to President Roosevelt and obtained from the President a letter to the Portuguese premier, Salazar, that unlocked the concession of facilities in the Azores. Second Soviet posting In January 1944, he was sent to London, where he served as counselor of the American delegation to the European Advisory Commission, which worked to prepare Allied policy in Europe. There, Kennan became even more disenchanted with the State Department, which he believed was ignoring his qualifications as a trained specialist. However, within months of beginning the job, he was appointed deputy chief of the mission in Moscow upon request of W. Averell Harriman, the ambassador to the USSR. The "Long Telegram" In Moscow, Kennan again felt that his opinions were being ignored by President Truman and policymakers in Washington. Kennan tried repeatedly to persuade policymakers to abandon plans for cooperation with the Soviet government in favor of a sphere of influence policy in Europe to reduce the Soviets' power there. Kennan believed that a federation needed to be established in western Europe to counter Soviet influence in the region and to compete against the Soviet stronghold in eastern Europe. Kennan served as deputy head of the mission in Moscow until April 1946. Near the end of that term, the Treasury Department requested that the State Department explain recent Soviet behavior, such as its disinclination to endorse the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Kennan responded on February 22, 1946, by sending a lengthy 5,363-word telegram (sometimes cited as being more than 8,000 words), commonly called "The Long Telegram", from Moscow to Secretary of State James Byrnes outlining a new strategy for diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. The ideas Kennan expressed in the Long Telegram were not new but the argument he made and the vivid language he used in making it came at an opportune moment. At the "bottom of the Kremlin's neurotic view of world affairs is the traditional and instinctive Russian sense of insecurity". After the Russian Revolution, this sense of insecurity became mixed with communist ideology and "Oriental secretiveness and conspiracy". Soviet international behavior depended mainly on the internal necessities of Joseph Stalin's regime; according to Kennan, Stalin needed a hostile world in order to legitimize his autocratic rule. Stalin thus used Marxism-Leninism as a "justification for the Soviet Union's instinctive fear of the outside world, for the dictatorship without which they did not know how to rule, for cruelties they did not dare not to inflict, for sacrifice they felt bound to demand  ... Today they cannot dispense with it. It is the fig leaf of their moral and intellectual respectability". The solution was to strengthen Western institutions in order to render them invulnerable to the Soviet challenge while awaiting the mellowing of the Soviet regime. Kennan's new policy of containment, in the words of his later 'X' article, was that Soviet pressure had to "be contained by the adroit and vigilant application of counterforce at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points". At the National War College The long telegram dispatch brought Kennan to the attention of Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal, a major advocate of a confrontational policy with regard to the Soviets, the United States' former wartime ally. Forrestal helped bring Kennan back to Washington, where he served as the first deputy for foreign affairs at the National War College and then strongly influenced his decision to publish the "X" article. Meanwhile, in March 1947, Truman appeared before Congress to request funding for the Truman Doctrine to fight Communism in Greece. "I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." "X" Unlike the "long telegram," Kennan's well-timed article appearing in the July 1947 issue of Foreign Affairs under the pseudonym "X", titled "The Sources of Soviet Conduct", did not begin by emphasizing "traditional and instinctive Russian sense of insecurity"; instead, it asserted that Stalin's policy was shaped by a combination of Marxist–Leninist ideology, which advocated revolution to defeat the capitalist forces in the outside world and Stalin's determination to use the notion of "capitalist encirclement" in order to legitimize his regimentation of Soviet society so that he could consolidate his political power. Kennan argued that Stalin would not (and moreover could not) moderate the supposed Soviet determination to overthrow Western governments. Thus: ... the main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be a long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies.... Soviet pressure against the free institutions of the Western world is something that can be contained by the adroit and vigilant application of counterforce at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points, corresponding to the shifts and manœuvres of Soviet policy, but which cannot be charmed or talked out of existence. The goal of his policy was to withdraw all U.S. forces from Europe. "The settlement reached would give the Kremlin sufficient reassurance against the establishment of regimes in Eastern Europe hostile to the Soviet Union, tempering the degree of control over that area that the Soviet leaders felt it necessary to exercise". Kennan further argued that the United States would have to perform this containment alone, but if it could do so without undermining its own economic health and political stability, the Soviet party structure would undergo a period of immense strain eventually resulting in "either the break-up or the gradual mellowing of Soviet power." The publication of the "X" article soon began one of the more intense debates of the Cold War. Walter Lippmann, a leading American commentator on international affairs, strongly criticized the "X" article. Lippmann argued that Kennan's strategy of containment was "a strategic monstrosity" that could "be implemented only by recruiting, subsidizing, and supporting a heterogeneous array of satellites, clients, dependents, and puppets". Lippmann argued that diplomacy should be the basis of relations with the Soviets; he suggested that the U.S. withdraw its forces from Europe and reunify and demilitarize Germany. Meanwhile, it was soon revealed informally that "X" was indeed Kennan. This information seemed to give the "X" article the status of an official document expressing the Truman administration's new policy toward Moscow. Kennan had not intended the "X" article as a prescription for policy. For the rest of his life, Kennan continued to reiterate that the article did not imply an automatic commitment to resist Soviet "expansionism" wherever it occurred, with little distinction of primary and secondary interests. The article did not make it obvious that Kennan favored employing political and economic rather than military methods as the chief agent of containment. "My thoughts about containment," said Kennan in a 1996 interview to CNN, "were of course distorted by the people who understood it and pursued it exclusively as a military concept; and I think that that, as much as any other cause, led to [the] 40 years of unnecessary, fearfully expensive and disoriented process of the Cold War". Additionally, the administration made few attempts to explain the distinction between Soviet influence and international Communism to the U.S. public. "In part, this failure reflected the belief of many in Washington," writes historian John Lewis Gaddis, "that only the prospect of an undifferentiated global threat could shake Americans out of their isolationist tendencies that remained latent among them." In a PBS television interview with David Gergen in 1996, Kennan again reiterated that he did not regard the Soviets as primarily a military threat, noting that "they were not like Hitler." Kennan's opinion was that this misunderstanding all came down to one sentence in the "X" article where I said that wherever these people, meaning the Soviet leadership, confronted us with dangerous hostility anywhere in the world, we should do everything possible to contain it and not let them expand any further. I should have explained that I didn't suspect them of any desire to launch an attack on us. This was right after the war, and it was absurd to suppose that they were going to turn around and attack the United States. I didn't think I needed to explain that, but I obviously should have done it. The "X" article meant sudden fame for Kennan. After the long telegram, he recalled later, "My official loneliness came in fact to an end  ... My reputation was made. My voice now carried." Influence under Marshall Between April 1947 and December 1948, when George C. Marshall was Secretary of State, Kennan was more influential than he was at any other period in his career. Marshall valued his strategic sense and had him create and direct what is now named the Policy Planning Staff, the State Department's internal think tank. Kennan became the first Director of Policy Planning. Marshall relied heavily on him to prepare policy recommendations. Kennan played a central role in the drafting of the Marshall Plan. Although Kennan regarded the Soviet Union as too weak to risk war, he nonetheless considered it an enemy capable of expanding into Western Europe through subversion, given the popular support for Communist parties in Western Europe, which remained demoralized by the devastation of the Second World War. To counter this potential source of Soviet influence, Kennan's solution was to direct economic aid and covert political help to Japan and Western Europe to revive Western governments and assist international capitalism; by doing so, the United States would help to rebuild the balance of power. In June 1948, Kennan proposed covert assistance to left-wing parties not oriented toward Moscow and to labor unions in Western Europe in order to engineer a rift between Moscow and working-class movements in Western Europe. In 1947, Kennan supported Truman's decision to extend economic aid to the Greek government fighting a civil war against Communist guerrillas, though he argued against military aid. The historian John Iatrides argued that Kennan's claim that the Soviet Union would go to war if the United States gave military aid to Greece is hard to square with his claim that the Soviet Union was too weak to risk war, and the real reason for his opposition to military aid was that he did not regard Greece as very important. As the United States was initiating the Marshall Plan, Kennan and the Truman administration hoped that the Soviet Union's rejection of Marshall aid would strain its relations with its Communist allies in Eastern Europe. Kennan initiated a series of efforts to exploit the schism between the Soviets and Josip Broz Tito's Yugoslavia. Kennan proposed conducting covert action in the Balkans to further decrease Moscow's influence. The administration's new vigorously anti-Soviet policy also became evident when, at Kennan's suggestion, the U.S. changed its hostility to Francisco Franco's anti-communist regime in Spain in order to secure U.S. influence in the Mediterranean. Kennan had observed during 1947 that the Truman Doctrine implied a new consideration of Franco. His suggestion soon helped begin a new phase of U.S.–Spanish relations, which ended with military cooperation after 1950. Kennan played an important role in devising the plans for American economic aid to Greece, insisting upon a capitalist mode of development and upon economic integration with the rest of Europe. In the case of Greece, most of the Marshall Plan aid went towards rebuilding a war-devastated country that was already very poor even before World War II. Though Marshall Plan aid to Greece was successful in building or rebuilding ports, railroads, paved roads, a hydro-electricity transmission system, and a nationwide telephone system, the attempt to impose "good government" on Greece was less successful. The Greek economy was historically dominated by a rentier system in which a few wealthy families, a highly politicized officer corps and the royal family controlled the economy for their own benefit. Kennan's advice to open up the Greek economy was completely ignored by the Greek elite. Kennan supported France's war to regain control of Vietnam as he argued that control of Southeast Asia with its raw materials was critical to the economic recovery of Western Europe and Japan, but by 1949, he changed his views, becoming convinced that the French would never defeat the Communist Viet Minh guerrillas. In 1949, Kennan suggested what became known as "Program A" or "Plan A" for the reunification of Germany, stating the partition of Germany was unsustainable in the long run. Kennan argued that the American people would sooner or later grow tired of occupying their zone in Germany and would inevitably demand the pull-out of U.S troops. Or alternatively Kennan predicted the Soviets would pull their forces out of East Germany, knowing full well that they could easily return from their bases in Poland, forcing the United States to do likewise, but as the Americans lacked bases in other Western European nations, this would hand the advantage to the Soviets. Finally, Kennan argued that the German people were very proud and would not stand having their nation occupied by foreigners forever, making a solution to the "German question" imperative. Kennan's solution was for the reunification and neutralization of Germany; the withdrawal of most of the British, American, French and Soviet forces from Germany with the exception of small enclaves near the border that would be supplied by sea; and a four-power commission from the four occupying powers that would have the ultimate say while allowing the Germans to mostly govern themselves. Differences with Acheson Kennan's influence rapidly decreased when Dean Acheson became Secretary of State, succeeding the ailing George Marshall during 1949 and 1950. Acheson did not regard the Soviet "threat" as chiefly political, and he saw the Berlin blockade starting in June 1948, the first Soviet test of a nuclear weapon in August 1949, the Communist revolution in China a month later, and the beginning of the Korean War in June 1950, as evidence. Truman and Acheson decided to delineate the Western sphere of influence and to create a system of alliances. Kennan argued in a paper that the mainland of Asia be excluded from the "containment" policies, writing that the United States was "greatly overextended in its whole thinking about what we can accomplish and should try to accomplish" in Asia. Instead, he argued that Japan and the Philippines should serve as the "cornerstone of a Pacific security system". Acheson approved Program A shortly after he took up office as Secretary of State, writing in the margin of Kennan's paper that the "division of Germany was not an end onto itself". However, Plan A encountered massive objections from the Pentagon, who saw it as abandoning West Germany to the Soviet Union, and from within the State Department, with the diplomat Robert Murphy arguing that the mere existence of a prosperous and democratic West Germany would be destabilizing to East Germany, and hence the Soviet Union. More important, Plan A required the approval of the British and French governments, but neither was in favor of Program A, complaining it was far too early to end the occupation of Germany. Both public opinion in Britain and even more so in France were afraid of what might happen if the Allies loosened their control over Germany just four years after the end of World War II, and for reasons of geography and history, did not share Kennan's assurance that a reunified Germany would cause difficulties only for the Soviets. In May 1949, a distorted version of Plan A was leaked to the French press with the principal distortion being that the United States was willing to pull out of all of Europe in exchange for a reunified and neutral Germany. In the ensuing uproar, Acheson disallowed Plan A. Kennan lost influence with Acheson, who in any case relied much less on his staff than Marshall had. Kennan resigned as director of policy planning in December 1949 but stayed in the department as counselor until June 1950. In January 1950, Acheson replaced Kennan with Nitze, who was much more comfortable with the calculus of military power. Afterwards, Kennan accepted an appointment as Visitor to the Institute for Advanced Study from fellow moderate Robert Oppenheimer, Director of the Institute. In October 1949, the Chinese Communists under Mao Zedong won the Chinese Civil War and proclaimed the People's Republic of China. The "Loss of China", as it has become known in the United States, prompted a fierce right-wing backlash led by Republican politicians such as Richard Nixon and Joseph McCarthy, who used the "loss of China" as a convenient club with which to beat the Democratic Truman administration. Truman, Acheson, and other high officials such as Kennan were all accused of being criminally negligent at best in permitting the supposed loss. One of Kennan's closest friends, the diplomat John Paton Davies Jr. found himself under investigation in November 1949 as a Soviet spy for his role in the process, an allegation that would destroy his career and which horrified Kennan. What especially disturbed Kennan was that Paton Davies was accused of treason for predicting in a report that Mao would win the Chinese Civil War, which in the climate of hysteria caused by the "loss of China" was enough to lead the FBI to begin investigating him as a Soviet spy. Speaking of the Paton Davies case, Kennan warned that "We have no protection against this happening again", leading him to wonder what diplomat would be investigated next for treason. Kennan found the atmosphere of hysteria, which was labeled as "McCarthyism" in March 1950 by cartoonist Herbert Block, to be deeply uncomfortable. Acheson's policy was realized as NSC 68, a classified report issued by the United States National Security Council in April 1950 and written by Paul Nitze, Kennan's successor as Director of Policy Planning. Kennan and Charles Bohlen, another State Department expert on Russia, argued about the wording of NSC68, which became the basis of Cold War policy. Kennan rejected the idea that Stalin had a grand design for world conquest implicit in Nitze's report and argued that he actually feared overextending Russian power. Kennan even argued that NSC68 should not have been drafted at all, as it would make U.S. policies too rigid, simplistic, and militaristic. Acheson overruled Kennan and Bohlen, endorsing the assumption of Soviet menace implied by NSC68. Kennan opposed the building of the hydrogen bomb and the rearmament of Germany, which were policies encouraged by the assumptions of NSC68. During the Korean War (which began when North Korea invaded South Korea in June 1950), when rumors started circulating in the State Department that plans were being made to advance beyond the 38th parallel into North Korea, an act that Kennan considered dangerous, he engaged in intense arguments with Assistant Secretary of State for the Far East Dean Rusk, who apparently endorsed Acheson's goal to forcibly unite the Koreas. Memo to Dulles On 21 August 1950, Kennan submitted a long memo to John Foster Dulles who at the time was engaged in working on the U.S-Japanese peace treaty in which he went beyond American-Japanese relations to offer an outline of his thinking about Asia in general. He called U.S policy thinking about Asia as "little promising" and "fraught with danger". About the Korean War, Kennan wrote that American policies were based upon what he called "emotional, moralistic attitudes" which "unless corrected, can easily carry us toward real conflict with the Russians and inhibit us from making a realistic agreement about that area". He supported the decision to intervene in Korea, but wrote that "it is not essential to us to see an anti-Soviet Korean regime extended to all of Korea." Kennan expressed much fear about what General Douglas MacArthur might do, saying he had "wide and relatively uncontrolled latitude...in determining our policy in the north Asian and western Pacific areas", which Kennan viewed as a problem as he felt MacArthur's judgement was poor. Criticism of American diplomacy Kennan's 1951 book American Diplomacy, 1900–1950, strongly criticized American foreign policy of the last 50 years. He warned against U.S. participation and reliance on multilateral, legalistic and moralistic organizations such as the United Nations. Despite his influence, Kennan was never really comfortable in government. He always regarded himself as an outsider and had little patience with critics. W. Averell Harriman, the U.S. ambassador in Moscow when Kennan was deputy between 1944 and 1946, remarked that Kennan was "a man who understood Russia but not the United States". Ambassador to the Soviet Union In December 1951, President Truman nominated Kennan to be the next United States ambassador to the USSR. His appointment was endorsed strongly by the Senate. In many respects (to Kennan's consternation) the priorities of the administration emphasized creating alliances against the Soviets more than negotiating differences with them. In his memoirs, Kennan recalled, "So far as I could see, we were expecting to be able to gain our objectives  ... without making any concessions though, only 'if we were really all-powerful, and could hope to get away with it.' I very much doubted that this was the case." At Moscow, Kennan found the atmosphere even more regimented than on his previous trips, with police guards following him everywhere, discouraging contact with Soviet citizens. At the time, Soviet propaganda charged the U.S. with preparing for war, which Kennan did not wholly dismiss. "I began to ask myself whether  ... we had not contributed  ... by the overmilitarization of our policies and statements  ... to a belief in Moscow that it was war we were after, that we had settled for its inevitability, that it was only a matter of time before we would unleash it." In September 1952, Kennan made a statement that cost him his ambassadorship. In an answer to a question at a press conference, Kennan compared his conditions at the ambassador's residence in Moscow to those he had encountered while interned in Berlin during the first few months of hostilities between the United States and Germany. While his statement was not unfounded, the Soviets interpreted it as an implied analogy with Nazi Germany. The Soviets then declared Kennan persona non grata and refused to allow him to re-enter the USSR. Kennan acknowledged retrospectively that it was a "foolish thing for me to have said". Criticism of diplomacy under Truman Kennan was very critical of the Truman administration's policy of supporting France in Vietnam, writing that the French were fighting a "hopeless" war, "which neither they nor we, nor both of us together, can win.” About what he called the "rival Chinese regimes" (i.e. the People's Republic of China on the mainland and the Republic of China on Taiwan), Kennan predicated that the U.S. policy of supporting the Kuomintang government in Taiwan would "strengthen Peiping [Beijing]–Moscow solidarity rather than weaken it". Anticipating playing the "China card" strategy, Kennan argued that the United States should work to divide the Sino-Soviet bloc which had the potential to dominate Eurasia, and to this end should give China's seat on the UN Security Council to the People's Republic of China. In the atmosphere of rage and fury caused by the "loss of China" in 1950, it was politically impossible for the Truman administration to recognize the government in Beijing, and giving China's United Nations seat to the People's Republic was the closest the United States could go in building a relationship with the new government. About the ostensible subject of his paper, Kennan called Japan the "most important single factor in Asia". Kennan advocated a deal with the Soviet Union where in exchange for ending the Korean War the United States would ensure that Japan would remain a demilitarized and neutral state in the Cold War. Kennan's basic concept governing his thinking on foreign policy was that of the "five industrialized zones", the control of majority of which would make for the dominant world power. The "five industrialized zones" were the United States; Great Britain; the area around the Rhine river valley, namely the Rhineland and the Ruhr regions of Germany, eastern France, and the Low Countries; the Soviet Union and Japan. Kennan argued that if the "industrialized zones" except for the Soviet Union were aligned with the United States, then his country would be the world's dominant power. As such, "containment" applied only to the control of the "industrialized zones" of the world. Kennan had considerable disdain for the peoples of the Third World, and he viewed European rule over much of Asia and Africa as natural and normal. These views were typical of American officials in the late 1940s, but Kennan was unusual in retaining these views for the rest of his life; by the 1950s, many officials such as the Dulleses had come to feel that the perception that the average white American disliked non-white peoples was hurting America's image in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America, and this in turn was giving the advantage to the Soviet Union. Kennan felt that the United States should in general not be involved in the Third World as he felt there was nothing worth having there. There were some exceptions as Kennan regarded Latin America as being in the American sphere of influence as he felt that Washington should inform the leaders of the Latin American republics that they should "be careful not to wander too far from our side". Acheson was so offended by a report Kennan wrote in March 1950 in which he suggested that miscegenation between Europeans, Indians and African slaves was the root cause of Latin America's economic backwardness that he refused to have it distributed to the rest of the State Department. Kennan felt that both the oil of Iran and the Suez Canal were important to the West, and he recommended the United States should support Britain against the demands of Mohammad Mosaddegh and Mostafa El-Nahas to respectively take control of the Iranian oil industry and the Suez Canal. Kennan wrote that Abadan (the center of the Iranian oil industry) and the Suez Canal were crucial for the West for economic reasons, which justified the use of "military strength" by the Western powers to keep control of these places. Kennan and the Eisenhower administration Kennan returned to Washington, where he became embroiled in disagreements with Dwight D. Eisenhower's hawkish Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles. Even so, he was able to work constructively with the new administration. During the summer of 1953 President Eisenhower asked Kennan to manage the first of a series of top-secret teams, dubbed Operation Solarium, examining the advantages and disadvantages of continuing the Truman administration's policy of containment and of seeking to "roll back" existing areas of Soviet influence. Upon completion of the project, the president seemed to endorse the group's recommendations. By lending his prestige to Kennan's position, the president tacitly signaled his intention to formulate the strategy of his administration within the framework of its predecessor's, despite the misgivings of some within the Republican Party. The critical difference between the Truman and Eisenhower policies of containment had to do with Eisenhower's concerns that the United States could not indefinitely afford great military spending. The new president thus sought to minimize costs not by acting whenever and wherever the Soviets acted (a strategy designed to avoid risk) but rather whenever and wherever the United States could afford to act. In 1954, Kennan appeared as a character witness for J. Robert Oppenheimer during the government's efforts to revoke his security clearance. Despite his departure from government service, Kennan was frequently still consulted by the officials of the Eisenhower administration. When the CIA obtained the transcript of Khrushchev's "Secret Speech" attacking Stalin in May 1956, Kennan was one of the first people to whom the text of the "Secret Speech" was shown. On 11 October 1956, Kennan testified to the House Committee of Foreign Affairs about the massive protests going on in Poland that Soviet rule in Eastern Europe was "eroding more rapidly than I ever anticipated". The fact that a nationalist faction of the Polish Communist Party led by Władysław Gomułka overthrew the Stalinist leadership in Warsaw over the objections of Khrushchev, who was forced to reluctantly accept the change in leadership, led Kennan to predicate that Poland was moving in a "Titoist" direction as Gomułka for his all commitment to Communism also made it clear that he wanted Poland to be more independent of Moscow. In 1957, Kennan departed the United States to work as the George Eastman Professor at Balliol College at Oxford. Sir Isaiah Berlin wrote that Kennan expected the Fellows of Balliol College to be engaged in conversation "polished by deep tradition, refinement, moral quality" and was instead disgusted to find that Fellows were engrossed in "a lot of idle gossip about local affairs, academic titles. He was horrified about that. Profound disappointment. England was not as he thought. An idealised image has been shattered". Kennan wrote about the Fellows of Balliol College in a letter to Oppenheimer: "I've never seen such back-biting, such fury, such fractions in all my life". In the same letter, Kennan wrote that the only Fellow with whom he could have a "serious conversation" was Berlin, and the rest were all obsessed with spreading malicious gossip about each other. However, Kennan was popular with the students at Balliol College as his twice weekly lectures on international relations were as he put it "tremendously successful", indeed to such an extent that he had to be assigned a larger lecture hall as hundreds of students lined up to hear him speak. In October 1957, Kennan delivered the Reith lectures on the BBC under the title Russia, the Atom and the West, stating that if the partition of Germany continued, then "the chances for peace are very slender indeed". Kennan defended the partition of Germany in 1945 as necessary, but went on to say:But there is a danger in permitting it to harden into a permanent attitude. It expects too much and for too long of a time of the United States, which is not a European power. It does less than justice to the strength and abilities of the European themselves. It leaves unsolved the extremely precarious and unsound arrangements which now govern the status of Berlin—the least disturbance of which could easily produce a new world crisis. It takes no account of the present dangerous situation in the satellite area. It renders permanent what was meant to be temporary. It assigns half of Europe by implication to the Russians. . . . The future of Berlin is vital to the future of Germany as a whole: the needs of its people and the extreme insecurity of the Western position there alone would constitute reasons why no one in the West should view the present division of Germany as a satisfactory permanent solution even if no other factors are involved. To resolve the "German question", Kennan advocated a version of his "program A" of 1949 calling for the complete withdraw of most of the British, French, American and Soviet forces from Germany as a prelude to German reunification and for the neutralization of Germany. Besides his call to a solution to the "German question", Kennan also predicated that Soviet rule in Eastern Europe was "shaky", and the best thing the Western powers could do was to pursue a firm, but essentially non-confrontational policy towards the Soviet Union to persuade Khrushchev it would not be dangerous for him to let Eastern Europe go. The Reith lectures caused much controversy, and involved Kennan in a very public war of words with Acheson and the vice president Richard Nixon about the correct solution to the "German question". The West German foreign minister, Heinrich von Brentano, stated about Kennan's Reith lectures: "Whoever says these things is no friend of the German people". Ambassador to Yugoslavia During John F. Kennedy's 1960 presidential election campaign Kennan wrote to the future president to offer some suggestions on how his administration should improve the country's foreign affairs. Kennan wrote, "What is needed is a succession of  ... calculated steps, timed in such a way as not only to throw the adversary off balance but to keep him off it, and prepared with sufficient privacy so that the advantage of surprise can be retained." He also urged the administration to "assure a divergence of outlook and policy between the Russians and Chinese," which could be accomplished by improving relations with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev who had wanted to distance himself from the Communist Chinese. He wrote: "We should  ... without deceiving ourselves about Khrushchev's political personality and without nurturing any unreal hopes, be concerned to keep him politically in the running and to encourage the survival in Moscow of the tendencies he personifies". Additionally, he recommended that the United States work toward creating divisions within the Soviet bloc by undermining its power in Eastern Europe and encouraging the independent propensities of satellite governments. Although Kennan had not been considered for a job by Kennedy's advisers, the president himself offered Kennan the choice of ambassadorship in either Poland or Yugoslavia. Kennan was more interested in Yugoslavia, so he accepted Kennedy's offer and began his job in Yugoslavia during May 1961. Kennan was tasked with trying to strengthen Yugoslavia's policy against the Soviets and to encourage other states in the Eastern bloc to pursue autonomy from the Soviets. Kennan found his ambassadorship in Belgrade to be much improved from his experiences in Moscow a decade earlier. He commented, "I was favored in being surrounded with a group of exceptionally able and loyal assistants, whose abilities I myself admired, whose judgment I valued, and whose attitude toward myself was at all times  ... enthusiastically cooperative  ... Who was I to complain?" Kennan found the Yugoslav government treated the American diplomats politely, in contrast from the way in which the Russians treated him in Moscow. He wrote that the Yugoslavs "considered me, rightly or wrongly, a distinguished person in the U.S., and they were pleased that someone whose name they had heard before was being sent to Belgrade". Kennan found it difficult to perform his job in Belgrade. President Josip Broz Tito and his foreign minister, Koča Popović, began to suspect that Kennedy would adopt an anti-Yugoslav policy during his term. Tito and Popović considered Kennedy's decision to observe Captive Nations Week as an indication that the United States would assist anticommunist liberation efforts in Yugoslavia. Tito also believed that the CIA and the Pentagon were the true directors of American foreign policy. Kennan attempted to restore Tito's confidence in the American foreign policy establishment, but his efforts were compromised by a pair of diplomatic blunders, the Bay of Pigs Invasion, and the U-2 spy incident. Relations between Yugoslavia and the United States quickly began to worsen. In September 1961, Tito held a conference of nonaligned nations, where he delivered speeches that the U.S. government interpreted as being pro-Soviet. According to historian David Mayers, Kennan argued that Tito's perceived pro-Soviet policy was in fact a ploy to "buttress Khrushchev's position within the Politburo against hardliners opposed to improving relations with the West and against China, which was pushing for a major Soviet–U.S. showdown". This policy also earned Tito "credit in the Kremlin to be drawn upon against future Chinese attacks on his communist credentials". While politicians and government officials expressed growing concern about Yugoslavia's relationship with the Soviets, Kennan believed that the country had an "anomalous position in the Cold War that objectively suited U.S. purposes". Kennan also believed that within a few years, Yugoslavia's example would cause states in the Eastern bloc to demand more social and economic autonomy from the Soviets. By 1962, Congress had passed legislation to deny financial aid grants to Yugoslavia, to withdraw the sale of spare parts for Yugoslav warplanes, and to revoke the country's most favored nation status. Kennan strongly protested the legislation, arguing that it would only result in a straining of relations between Yugoslavia and the U.S. Kennan came to Washington during the summer of 1962 to lobby against the legislation but was unable to elicit a change from Congress. President Kennedy endorsed Kennan privately but remained noncommittal publicly, as he did not want to jeopardize his slim majority support in Congress on a potentially contentious issue. In a lecture to the staff of the U.S embassy in Belgrade on 27 October 1962, Kennan came out very strongly in support of Kennedy's policies in the Cuban Missile Crisis, saying that Cuba was still in the American sphere of influence and as such the Soviets had no right to place missiles in Cuba. In his speech, Kennan called Fidel Castro's regime "one of the bloodiest dictatorships the world has seen in the entire postwar period", which justified Kennedy's efforts to overthrow the Communist Cuban government. Against Khrushchev's demand that American missiles be pulled out of Turkey as the price for pulling Soviet missiles out of Cuba, Kennan stated Turkey was never in the Soviet sphere of influence whereas Cuba was in the American sphere of influence, which for him made it legitimate for the United States to place missiles in Turkey and illegitimate for the Soviet Union to place missiles in Cuba. In December 1962 when Tito visited Moscow to meet with Khrushchev, Kennan reported to Washington that Tito was a Russophile as he lived in Russia between 1915–20, and still had sentimental memories of the Russian Revolution of 1917, which had converted him to Communism. However, Kennan observed from his dealings with Tito that he was very firmly committed to keeping Yugoslavia neutral in the Cold War, and his expressions of affection for Russian culture during his visit to Moscow did not mean that he wanted Yugoslavia back into the Soviet bloc. Accordingly, to Kennan, the Sino-Soviet split had caused Khrushchev to want a reconciliation with Tito to counter the Chinese charge that the Soviet Union was a bullying imperialist power, and Tito was willing to accept better relations with the Soviet Union to improve his bargaining power with the West. Kennan also described Tito's championing of the non-aligned movement as a way of improving Yugoslavia's bargaining power with both West and East, as it allowed him to cast himself as a world leader who spoke for an important bloc of nations instead of being based on the "intrinsic value" of the non-aligned movement (which was actually little as most of the non-aligned nations were poor Third World nations). In this regard, Kennan reported to Washington that senior Yugoslav officials had told him that Tito's speeches praising the non-aligned movement were just diplomatic posturing that should not be taken too seriously. However, many in Congress did take Tito's speeches seriously, and reached the conclusion that Yugoslavia was an anti-Western nation, much to Kennan's chagrin. Kennan argued that since Tito wanted Yugoslavia to be neutral in the Cold War, that there was no point in expecting Yugoslavia to align itself with the West, but Yugoslav neutrality did serve American interests as it ensured that Yugoslavia's powerful army was not at the disposal of the Soviets and the Soviet Union had no air or naval bases in Yugoslavia that could be used to threaten Italy and Greece, both members of NATO. More importantly, Kennan noted that Yugoslavia's policy of "market socialism" gave it a higher standard of living than elsewhere in Eastern Europe, that there was greater freedom of expression there than in other Communist nations, and the very existence of a Communist nation in Eastern Europe that was not under the control of the Kremlin was very destabilizing to the Soviet bloc as it inspired other communist leaders with the desire for greater independence. With U.S.–Yugoslav relations getting progressively worse, Kennan tendered his resignation as ambassador during late July 1963. Academic career and later life In 1957 Kennan was invited by the BBC to give the annual Reith Lectures, a series of six radio lectures which were titled Russia, the Atom and the West. These covered the history, effect, and possible consequences of relations between Russia and the West. After the end of his brief ambassadorial post in Yugoslavia during 1963, Kennan spent the rest of his life in academe, becoming a major realist critic of U.S. foreign policy. Having spent 18 months as a scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) between 1950 and 1952, Kennan joined the faculty of the Institute's School of Historical Studies in 1956, and spent the rest of his life there. Opposition to the Vietnam War During the 1960s, Kennan criticized U.S. involvement in Vietnam, arguing that the United States had little vital interest in the region. In February 1966, Kennan testified before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee at the request of the committee's chairman, Senator J. William Fulbright, where he stated that the "preoccupation" with Vietnam was undermining U.S. global leadership. He accused the administration of Lyndon Johnson of distorting his policies into a purely military approach. President Johnson was so annoyed by the hearings called by his friend-turned-foe Fulbright that he tried to upstage them by holding a sudden and unannounced summit in Honolulu starting on 5 February 1966 with Chief of State Nguyễn Văn Thiệu and Prime Minister Nguyễn Cao Kỳ of South Vietnam, where he declared that the United States was making excellent progress in Vietnam and was committed to social and economic reforms. Kennan testified that were the United States not already fighting in Vietnam that: "I would know of no reason why we should wish to become so involved, and I could think of several reasons why we should wish not to". He was opposed to an immediate pull-out from Vietnam, saying "A precipitate and disorderly withdrawal could represent in present circumstances a disservice to our own interests, and even to world peace", but added that he felt "there is more respect to be won in the opinion of this world by a resolute and courageous liquidation of unsound positions than by the most stubborn pursuit of extravagant and unpromising objectives." In his testimony, Kennan argued that Ho Chi Minh was "not Hitler" and everything he had read about him suggested that Ho was a Communist, but also a Vietnamese nationalist who did not want his country to be subservient to either the Soviet Union or China. He further testified that to defeat North Vietnam would mean a cost in human life "for which I would not like to see this country be responsible for". Kennan compared the Johnson administration's policy towards Vietnam as being like that of "an elephant frightened by a mouse". Kennan ended his testimony by quoting a remark made by John Quincy Adams: "America goes not abroad in search of monsters to destroy. She is the well-wisher to the freedom and independence of all. She is the champion and vindicator only of her own." Kennan then stated: "Now, gentlemen, I don't know exactly what John Quincy Adams had in mind when he spoke those words. But I think that, without knowing it, he spoke very directly and very pertinently to us here today." The hearings were aired live on television (at the time a rare occurrence), and Kennan's reputation as the "Father of Containment" ensured that his testimony attracted much media attention, all the more so as the Johnson administration professed to be carrying out in Vietnam "containment" policies. Thus Johnson pressured the main television networks not to air Kennan's testimony, and as a result, the CBS network aired reruns of I Love Lucy while Kennan was before the Senate, provoking the CBS director of television programming, Fred Friendly, to resign in protest . By contrast, the NBC network resisted the presidential pressure and did air the proceedings of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. To counter Kennan's testimony, Johnson sent Secretary of State Dean Rusk before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee where he testified that the war in Vietnam was a morally just struggle to stop "...the steady extension of Communist power through force and threat." Despite expectations, Kennan's testimony before the Senate attracted high ratings on television. Kennan himself recalled that in the month afterward he received a flood of letters, which led him to write about the public response: "It was perfectly tremendous. I haven't expected anything remotely like this." The columnist Art Buchwald described being stunned to see that his wife and her friends had spent the day watching Kennan testify instead of the standard soap operas, saying that he did not realize that American housewives were interested in such matters. Fulbright's biographer wrote that testimony of Kennan together with General James Gavin was important because they were not "irresponsible students or a wild-eyed radicals," which made it possible for "respectable people" to oppose the Vietnam War. Kennan's testimony in February 1966 was the most successful of his various bids to influence public opinion after leaving the State Department. Before he appeared before the Senate, 63% of the American public approved of Johnson's handling of the Vietnam War; after his testimony, 49% did. Critic of the counterculture Kennan's opposition to the Vietnam War did not mean any sympathy for the student protests against the Vietnam War. In his 1968 book Democracy and the Student Left, Kennan attacked the left-wing university students demonstrating against the Vietnam War as violent and intolerant. Kennan compared the "New Left" students of the 1960s with the Narodnik student radicals of 19th century Russia, accusing both of being an arrogant group of elitists whose ideas were fundamentally undemocratic and dangerous. Kennan wrote that most of the demands of the student radicals were "gobbledygook" and he charged that their political style was marked by a complete lack of humor, extremist tendencies and mindless destructive urges. Kennan conceded that the student radicals were right to oppose the Vietnam War, but he complained that they were confusing policy with institutions as he argued that just because an institution executed a misguided policy did not make it evil and worthy of destruction. Kennan blamed the student radicalism of the late 1960s on what he called the "sickly secularism" of American life, which he charged was too materialistic and shallow to allow understanding of the "slow powerful process of organic growth" which had made America great. Kennan wrote that what he regarded as the spiritual malaise of America had created a generation of young Americans with an "extreme disbalance in emotional and intellectual growth." Kennan ended his book with a lament that the America of his youth no longer existed as he complained that most Americans were seduced by advertising into a consumerist lifestyle that left them indifferent to the environmental degradation all around them and to the gross corruption of their politicians. Kennan argued that he was the real radical as: "They haven't seen anything yet. Not only do my apprehensions outclass theirs, but my ideas of what would have to be done to put things right are far more radical than theirs." In a speech delivered in Williamsburg on 1 June 1968, Kennan criticized the authorities for an "excess of tolerance" in dealing with student protests and rioting by Afro-Americans. Kennan called for the suppression of the New Left and Black Power movements in a way that would be "answerable to the voters only at the next election, but not to the press or even the courts". Kennan argued for "special political courts" be created to try New Left and Black Power activists as he stated that this was the only way to save the United States from chaos. At the same time, Kennan stated that based upon his visits to South Africa: "I have a soft spot in my mind for apartheid, not as practiced in South Africa, but as a concept." Through Kennan disliked the petty, humiliating aspects of apartheid, he had much praise for the "deep religious sincerity" of the Afrikaners whose Calvinist faith he shared while he dismissed the capacity of South African blacks to run their country. Kennan argued in 1968 that a system similar to apartheid was needed for the United States as he doubted the ability of average black American male to operate "in a system he neither understands nor respects," leading him to advocate the Bantustans of South Africa to be used as a model with areas of the United States to be set aside for Afro-Americans. Kennan did not approve of the social changes of the 1960s. During a visit to Denmark in 1970, he came across a youth festival, which he described with disgust as "swarming with hippies—motorbikes, girl-friends, drugs, pornography, drunkenness, noise. I looked at this mob and thought how one company of robust Russian infantry would drive it out of town.” Establishment of Kennan Institute Always a student of Russian affairs Kennan, together with Wilson Center Director James Billington and historian S. Frederick Starr, initiated the establishment of the Kennan Institute at the academic institution named for Woodrow Wilson. The Institute is named to honour the American George Kennan, a scholar of the Russian Empire, and a relation of the subject of this article. Scholars at the Institute are meant to study Russia, Ukraine and the Eurasian region. Critic of the arms race Containment, when he published the first volume of his memoirs in 1967, involved something other than the use of military "counterforce". He was never pleased that the policy he influenced was associated with the arms build-up of the Cold War. In his memoirs, Kennan argued that containment did not demand a militarized U.S. foreign policy. "Counterforce" implied the political and economic defense of Western Europe against the disruptive effect of the war on European society. According to him, the Soviet Union exhausted by war posed no serious military threat to the US or its allies at the beginning of the Cold War but was rather an ideological and political rival. Kennan believed that the USSR, Britain, Germany, Japan, and North America remained the areas of vital U.S. interests. During the 1970s and 1980s as détente was ended particularly under President Reagan, he was a major critic of the renewed arms race. Politics of silence In 1989 President George H. W. Bush awarded Kennan the Medal of Freedom, the nation's greatest civilian honor. Yet he remained a realist critic of recent U.S. presidents, urging in a 1999 interview with the New York Review of Books the U.S. government to "withdraw from its public advocacy of democracy and human rights," saying that the "tendency to see ourselves as the center of political enlightenment and as teachers to a great part of the rest of the world strikes me as unthought-through, vainglorious and undesirable". Opposition to NATO enlargement A key inspiration for American containment policies during the Cold War, Kennan would later describe NATO's enlargement as a "strategic blunder of potentially epic proportions". Kennan opposed the Clinton administration's war in Kosovo and its expansion of NATO (the establishment of which he had also opposed half a century earlier), expressing fears that both policies would worsen relations with Russia. During a 1998 interview with The New York Times after the U.S. Senate had just ratified NATO's first round of expansion, he said "there was no reason for this whatsoever". He was concerned that it would “inflame the nationalistic, anti-Western and militaristic" opinions in Russia. "The Russians will gradually react quite adversely and it will affect their policies," he said. Kennan was also bothered by talks that Russia was "dying to attack Western Europe", explaining that, on the contrary, the Russian people had revolted to "remove that Soviet regime" and that their "democracy was as far advanced" as the other countries that had just signed up for NATO then. Last years Kennan remained vigorous and alert during the last years of his life, although arthritis had him using a wheelchair. During his later years, Kennan concluded that "the general effect of Cold War extremism was to delay rather than hasten the great change that overtook the Soviet Union". At age 98 he warned of the unforeseen consequences of waging war against Iraq. He warned that attacking Iraq would amount to waging a second war that "bears no relation to the first war against terrorism" and declared efforts by the Bush administration to associate Al-Qaeda with Saddam Hussein "pathetically unsupportive and unreliable". Kennan went on to warn: Anyone who has ever studied the history of American diplomacy, especially military diplomacy, knows that you might start in a war with certain things on your mind as a purpose of what you are doing, but in the end, you found yourself fighting for entirely different things that you had never thought of before  ... In other words, war has a momentum of its own and it carries you away from all thoughtful intentions when you get into it. Today, if we went into Iraq, like the president would like us to do, you know where you begin. You never know where you are going to end. In his final years, Kennan embraced the ideals of the Second Vermont Republic, a secessionist movement incorporated in 2003. Noting the large-scale Mexican immigration to the Southwestern United States, Kennan said in 2002 there were "unmistakable evidences of a growing differentiation between the cultures, respectively, of large southern and southwestern regions of this country, on the one hand", and those of "some northern regions". In the former, "the very culture of the bulk of the population of these regions will tend to be primarily Latin American in nature rather than what is inherited from earlier American traditions ... Could it really be that there was so little of merit [in America] that it deserves to be recklessly trashed in favor of a polyglot mix-mash?" It's argued that Kennan represented throughout his career the "tradition of militant nativism" that resembled or even exceeded the Know Nothings of the 1850s. Kennan also believed American women had too much power. In February 2004 scholars, diplomats, and Princeton alumni gathered at the university's campus to celebrate Kennan's 100th birthday. Among those in attendance were Secretary of State Colin Powell, international relations theorist John Mearsheimer, journalist Chris Hedges, former ambassador and career Foreign Service officer Jack F. Matlock, Jr., and Kennan's biographer, John Lewis Gaddis. Kennan died on March 17, 2005, at his home in Princeton, New Jersey, aged 101. He was survived by his Norwegian wife Annelise, whom he married in 1931, and his four children, eight grandchildren, and six great-grandchildren. Annelise died in 2008 at the age of 98. In an obituary in The New York Times, Kennan was described as "the American diplomat who did more than any other envoy of his generation to shape United States policy during the cold war" to whom "the White House and the Pentagon turned when they sought to understand the Soviet Union after World War II". Of Kennan, historian Wilson D. Miscamble remarked "[o]ne can only hope that present and future makers of foreign policy might share something of his integrity and intelligence". Foreign Policy described Kennan as "the most influential diplomat of the 20th century". Henry Kissinger said that Kennan "came as close to authoring the diplomatic doctrine of his era as any diplomat in our history", while Colin Powell called Kennan "our best tutor" in dealing with the foreign policy issues of the 21st century. Published works During his career at the IAS, Kennan wrote seventeen books and scores of articles on international relations. He won the Pulitzer Prize for History, the National Book Award for Nonfiction, the Bancroft Prize, and the Francis Parkman Prize for Russia Leaves the War, published in 1956. He again won a Pulitzer and a National Book Award in 1968 for Memoirs, 1925–1950. A second volume, taking his reminiscences up to 1963 was published in 1972. Among his other works were American Diplomacy 1900–1950, Sketches from a Life, published in 1989, and Around the Cragged Hill in 1993. His properly historical works amount to a six-volume account of the relations between Russia and the West from 1875 to his own time; the period from 1894 to 1914 was planned but not completed. He was chiefly concerned with: The folly of the First World War as a choice of policy; he argues that the costs of modern war, direct and indirect, predictably exceeded the benefits of eliminating the Hohenzollerns. The ineffectiveness of summit diplomacy, with the Conference of Versailles as a type-case. National leaders have too much to do to give any single matter the constant and flexible attention which diplomatic problems require. The Allied intervention in Russia in 1918–19. He was indignant with Soviet accounts of a vast capitalist conspiracy against the world's first worker's state, some of which do not even mention the First World War; he was equally indignant with the decision to intervene as costly and harmful. He argues that the interventions, by arousing Russian nationalism, may have ensured the survival of the Bolshevik state. Kennan had a low opinion of President Roosevelt, arguing in 1975: "For all his charm, political skill, and able wartime leadership, when it came to foreign policy Roosevelt was a superficial, ignorant dilettante, a man with a severely limited intellectual horizon." Kennan, George F. (1956), "The Sisson Documents," Journal of Modern History v. 28 (June, 1956), 130–154 . Kennan, George F. (1964).On Dealing with the Communist World, New York and Evanston: Harper & Row for The Council on Foreign Relations, Inc. Correspondence John Lukacs (ed.), George F. Kennan and the Origins of Containment, 1944–1946: The Kennan-Lukacs Correspondence (University of Missouri Press, 1997). Awards, honors and legacy During his career, Kennan received a number of awards and honors. As a scholar and writer, Kennan was a two-time recipient of both the Pulitzer Prizes and the National Book Award, and had also received the Francis Parkman Prize, the Ambassador Book Award and the Bancroft Prize. Among Kennan's numerous other awards and distinctions were his election to both the American Philosophical Society and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1952), the Testimonial of Loyal and Meritorious Service from the Department of State (1953), Princeton's Woodrow Wilson Award for Distinguished Achievement in the Nation's Service (1976), the Order of the Pour le Mérite (1976), the Albert Einstein Peace Prize (1981), the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade (1982), the American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold Medal (1984), the American Whig-Cliosophic Society's James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service(1985), the Franklin D. Roosevelt Foundation Freedom from Fear Medal (1987), the Presidential Medal of Freedom (1989), the Distinguished Service Award from the Department of State (1994), and the Library of Congress Living Legend (2000). Kennan had also received 29 honorary degrees and was honored in his name with the George F. Kennan Chair in National Security Strategy at the National War College and the George F. Kennan Professorship at the Institute for Advanced Study. In June 2022, a memorial plaque honoring Kennan was unveiled in Belgrade, Serbia at the site of the former U.S. embassy. Kennan had served in the country when it was part of Yugoslavia, from 1961 to 1963. Academic criticism Russell argues that a school of thought known as political realism formed the basis of Kennan's work as a diplomat and historian and remains relevant to the debate over American foreign policy, which since the 19th century has been characterized by a shift from the Founding Fathers' realist school to the idealistic or Wilsonian school of international relations. According to the realist tradition, security is based on the principle of a balance of power, whereas Wilsonianism (considered impractical by realists) relies on morality as the sole determining factor in statecraft. According to the Wilsonians the spread of democracy abroad as a foreign policy is important and morals are valid universally. During the Presidency of Bill Clinton, American diplomacy represented the Wilsonian school to such a degree that those instead in favor of realism likened President Clinton's policies to social work. According to Kennan, whose concept of American diplomacy was based on the realist approach, such moralism without regard to the realities of power and the national interest is self-defeating and will result in the decrease of American power. In his historical writings and memoirs, Kennan laments in great detail the failings of democratic foreign policy makers and those of the United States in particular. According to Kennan, when American policymakers suddenly confronted the Cold War, they had inherited little more than rationale and rhetoric "utopian in expectations, legalistic in concept, moralistic in [the] demand it seemed to place on others, and self-righteous in the degree of high-mindedness and rectitude  ... to ourselves". The source of the problem is the force of public opinion, a force that is inevitably unstable, unserious, subjective, emotional, and simplistic. Kennan has insisted that the U.S. public can only be united behind a foreign policy goal on the "primitive level of slogans and jingoistic ideological inspiration". Miscamble argues that Kennan played a critical role in developing the foreign policies of the Truman administration. He also states that Kennan did not hold a vision for either global or strongpoint containment; he simply wanted to restore the balance of power between the United States and the Soviets. Like historian John Lewis Gaddis, Miscamble concedes that although Kennan personally preferred political containment, his recommendations ultimately resulted in a policy directed more toward strongpoint than to global containment. See also Cold War (1947–1953) George F. Kennan: An American Life (2011 biography) The Hawk and the Dove: Paul Nitze, George Kennan, and the History of the Cold War (2009 dual-biography) Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies Origins of the Cold War References Bibliography Congdon, Lee. George Kennan: A Writing Life (2008) Costigliola, Frank. Kennan: A Life Between Worlds (2023), scholarly biography excerpt Logevall, Fredrik, "The Ghosts of Kennan" (review of Frank Costigliola Kennan: A Life between Worlds, Princeton University Press, 2023, 591 pp.) online William I. Hitchcock: Frank Costigliola, Kennan: A Life Between Worlds. BOOK REVIEW Published in Society, 03 March 2023 . Felix, David (2015) Kennan and the Cold War: An Unauthorized Biography. Piscataway, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. . . (see article) . . . . . . . . . . . . . (alternative link). . . . . . . Further reading Foreign Affairs, vol. 102, no. 1 (January/February 2023), pp. 170–178. External links George F. Kennan Papers at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University Obituary from The New York Times Obituary from The Washington Post 1904 births 2005 deaths 20th-century American diplomats 20th-century American historians 20th-century American male writers Ambassadors of the United States to the Soviet Union Ambassadors of the United States to Yugoslavia American centenarians American male non-fiction writers American people of Scotch-Irish descent American political philosophers American political scientists Bancroft Prize winners Cold War diplomats Directors of Policy Planning Geopoliticians Institute for Advanced Study faculty American international relations scholars Men centenarians National Book Award winners Political realists Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Presidents of the American Academy of Arts and Letters Princeton University alumni Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography winners Kennan George F. Recipients of the Four Freedoms Award Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana, 1st Class Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) Writers from Milwaukee 20th-century political scientists Members of the American Philosophical Society

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십이처

12처(十二處)는 불교의 여러 일체법 분류체계 또는 분석방식 중 하나로, 존재 전체를 안처(眼處)이처(耳處)비처(鼻處)설처(舌處)신처(身處)의처(意處)의 6근(六根)6내처(六內處) 또는 6내입처(六內入處)와 색처(色處)성처(聲處)향처(香處)미처(味處)촉처(觸處)법처(法處)의 6경(六境)6외처(六外處) 또는 6외입처(六外入處)의 총 12가지 처(處)로 분류 또는 분석하는 법체계이다. 12처는 12입(十二入) 또는 12입처(十二入處)라고도 한다. 12처(十二處)에서 처(處, , )는 마음[心]과 마음작용[心所]을 생장(生長: 생겨나고 증대됨)시키는 문(門, dvāra)이라는 뜻을 가진다. 이것은, 달리 말하면, 12처의 각 처(處)가 현재 생겨나 있지 않은 마음과 마음작용을 생겨나게 하고 이미 생겨나 있는 마음과 마음작용의 세력을 강화시키는 역할을 한다는 것을 의미한다. 12처에서 마음에 해당하는 의처(意處)와 마음작용과 마음작용의 대상을 합친 것에 해당하는 법처(法處)를 제외한 나머지 10가지 처, 즉 5근(五根)과 5경(五境)을 통칭하여 10색입(十色入) 또는 10색처(十色處: 마음과 마음작용을 생겨나게 하고 강화시키는 10가지 물질의 문)라고 하는데, 부파불교의 전승에 따르면, 고타마 붓다는 유독 물질[色]에 어리석어 물질을 나[我]라고 집착하는 유형의 수행자들에게 물질을 5근(五根)과 5경(五境), 즉 10색처로 나누어 상세히 설명하는 12처를 설하였다고 한다. 12처 12처를 현대적인 용어로 풀이하면 "대략" 다음과 같다. 6근(六根) 또는 6내처(六內處): 주관 안처(眼處): 시각 기관, 즉 눈 이처(耳處): 청각 기관, 즉 귀 비처(鼻處): 후각 기관, 즉 코 설처(舌處): 미각 기관, 즉 혀 신처(身處): 촉각 기관, 즉 몸 의처(意處): 인식과 생각의 기관, 즉 마음(의식) 6경(六境) 또는 6외처(六外處): 객관 색처(色處): 시각 기관의 지각 대상, 즉 색깔이나 형태(모양과 크기)를 가진 물질 일반, 즉 소리냄새맛감촉을 제외한 모든 물질적 성질 성처(聲處): 청각 기관의 지각 대상, 즉 소리 향처(香處): 후각 기관의 지각 대상, 즉 냄새 미처(味處): 미각 기관의 지각 대상, 즉 맛 촉처(觸處): 촉각 기관의 지각 대상, 즉 감촉 법처(法處): 마음작용 및 마음작용의 대상 마지막 법처(法處)의 마음작용의 대상에는 특히 무위법(열반진여법성 등)이 포함된다. 무위법을 제외하면 법처(法處)의 마음작용의 대상은 대체로 개념(또는 비물질적 사물)이라 할 수 있다. 법처(法處)의 마음작용으로는 탐욕성냄어리석음탐욕 없음성냄지 않음지혜로움인식표상분석종합판단생각욕구의지관조집중몰입 등이 있다. 3과와 12처 12처는 초기불교 때부터 널리 사용되어온 일체법의 분류체계 또는 분석방식인 5온(五蘊)12처(十二處)18계(十八界)의 3과(三科)의 하나이다. 즉, 고타마 붓다는 가르침을 펼치는 중에 존재 전체를 한편으로는 5온을 통해 설명하기도 하고, 한편으로는 12처를 통해 설명하기도 하고, 한편으로는 18계를 통해 설명하기도 하였다고 전하는데, 이 3가지는 초기불교 이래 불교 전반에서 널리 사용되는 기본적인 존재 분류체계 또는 분석방식, 즉 기본적인 법체계가 되었다. 그리고 초기불교의 이 3가지 법체계들은 고타마 붓다가 반열반에 든 후의 후대에서 더욱 심화발전되어 부파불교의 설일체유부의 5위 75법의 법체계와 대승불교의 유식유가행파와 법상종의 5위 100법의 법체계 등으로 나타났다. 《구사론》 등의 아비달마 논서들에 따르면, 고타마 붓다가 5온(五蘊)12처(十二處)18계(十八界)의 3가지 법체계, 즉 3과(三科)의 분석방식으로 가르침을 편 것은 다음의 3가지 이유 때문이라고 한다. 수행자의 어리석음에 3가지 유형이 있기 때문이다. 수행자의 근기(根機: 가르침을 받을 수 있는 능력)에 3가지 유형이 있기 때문이다. 수행자가 좋아하는 것에 3가지 유형이 있기 때문이다. 첫 번째의 수행자의 어리석음의 3가지 유형과 해당 유형의 수행자들에 대해 고타마 붓다가 가르친 법체계는 다음과 같다고 한다. 마음작용[心所]에 어리석어 마음작용을 모두 나[我]라고 집착하는 유형:마음작용을 수(受: 지각)상(想: 표상)행(行: 思라고도 한다, 욕구와 의지)으로 나누어 상세히 설명하는 5온을 설하였다. 유독 물질[色]에 어리석어 물질을 나[我]라고 집착하는 유형:물질을 5근(五根)과 5경(五境)으로 나누어 상세히 설명하는 12처를 설하였다. 물질[色]과 마음[心: 여기서는, 마음과 마음작용을 합한 것] 모두에 어리석어 물질과 마음(여기서는, 마음과 마음작용을 합한 것)의 개별 또는 화합체를 나[我]라고 집착하는 유형:물질과 마음(여기서는, 마음과 마음작용을 합한 것)을 각각 10가지와 8가지로 나누어 상세히 설명하는 18계를 설하였다. 두 번째의 수행자의 근기(根機: 가르침을 받을 수 있는 능력)의 3가지 유형과 해당 유형의 수행자들에 대해 고타마 붓다가 가르친 법체계는 다음과 같다고 한다. 예리한[利] 근기의 유형: 5온을 설하였다. 중간[中] 근기의 유형: 12처를 설하였다. 둔중한[鈍] 근기의 유형: 18계를 설하였다. 세 번째의 수행자가 좋아하는 것의 3가지 유형과 해당 유형의 수행자들에 대해 고타마 붓다가 가르친 법체계는 다음과 같다고 한다. 간략한 글[略文]을 좋아하는 유형: 5온을 설하였다. 중간의 글[中文]을 좋아하는 유형: 12처를 설하였다. 자세한 글[廣文]을 좋아하는 유형: 18계를 설하였다. 주요 경문 일체법을 12처로 분류하여 분석하는 것과 관련하여 고타마 붓다의 사상을 잘 보여주는 간략하면서도 함축적인 짧은 경문(經文)으로 《잡아함경》 제13권의 제319경이 종종 인용되곤 한다. 이 제319경을 보통 〈일체경(一切經)〉이라고 한다. 〈일체경(一切經)〉은 생문(生聞)이라는 이름의 브라만, 즉 당시의 힌두교인 브라만교의 사제 또는 수행자였던 어떤 사람이 고타마 붓다에게 "무엇이 일체의 존재, 즉 나 자신을 포함한 우주 만물 그 자체 또는 우주 만물의 실체입니까?"하고 묻는 것으로 시작되며, 이 물음에 대한 고타마 붓다의 대답으로 이루어져 있다. 한편, 이 경문에서 고타마 붓다는 질문을 던진 생문(生聞) 브라만에게 5온12처18계의 3과(三科) 가운데 12처를 설하고 있는데, 부파불교의 전승에 따르면, 12처의 법체계는 유독 물질[色]에 무지한 수행자들이 그 무지 때문에 [오히려] 가지게 되는 "물질[色]을 나[我]라고 집착하는 오류"를 대치(對治)하기 위해, 물질[色]을 5근(五根)과 5경(五境)으로 나누어 상세히 설명하는 법체계이다. 12처을 설하고 있는 다른 주요 경문으로는 상좌부 불교의 《중부(中部, 맛지마 니까야)》의 제148경인 〈육륙경(六六經)〉, 부파불교의 《중아함경(中阿含經)》의 제21권 제86경인 〈설처경(說處經)〉, 《잡아함경(雜阿含經)》의 제13권 제304경인 〈육륙경(六六經)〉 등이 있다. 중부의 육륙경 (제148경): 팔리어본 과 영문본 (1) & (2) 중아함경의 설처경 (제86경): 한문본 과 한글본 잡아함경의 육륙경 (제304경): 한문본 과 한글본 참고 문헌 주해 각주 법체계 (불교) 불교 용어 불교 사상 명수 12

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80yatana

Āyatana

Āyatana (Pāli; Sanskrit: आयतन) is a Buddhist term that has been translated as "sense base", "sense-media" or "sense sphere". In Buddhism, there are six internal sense bases (Pali: ajjhattikāni āyatanāni; also known as, "organs", "gates", "doors", "powers" or "roots") and six external sense bases (bāhirāni āyatanāni or "sense objects"; also known as vishaya or "domains"). There are six internal-external (organ-object) (Pāli; Skt. ), pairs of sense bases: eye and visible objects ear and sound nose and odor tongue and taste body and touch mind and mental objects Buddhism and other Indian epistemologies identify six "senses" as opposed to the Western identification of five. In Buddhism, "mind" denotes an internal sense organ which interacts with sense objects that include sense impressions, feelings, perceptions and volition. In the Pali Canon In the Four Noble Truths, the Buddha identifies that the origin of suffering (Pali, Skt.: dukkha) is craving (Pali: ; Skt.: ). In the chain of Dependent Origination, the Buddha identifies that craving arises from sensations that result from contact at the six sense bases (see Figure 2 below). Therefore, to overcome craving and its resultant suffering, one should develop restraint of and insight into the sense bases. Sense-base contexts Throughout the Pali Canon, the sense bases are referenced in hundreds of discourses. In these diverse discourses, the sense bases are contextualized in different ways including: Sextets (Pali: chakka):The sense bases include two sets of six: six sense organs (or internal sense bases) and six sense objects (or external sense bases). Based on these six pairs of sense bases, a number of mental factors arise. Thus, for instance, when an ear and sound are present, the associated consciousness (Pali: ) arises. The arising of these three elements (dhātu) – ear, sound and ear-related consciousness – lead to what is known as "contact" (phassa) which in turn causes a pleasant or unpleasant or neutral "feeling" or "sensation" (vedanā) to arise. It is from such a feeling that "craving" () arises. (See Figure 1.) Such an enumeration can be found, for instance, in the "Six Sextets" discourse (Chachakka Sutta, MN 148), where the "six sextets" (six sense organs, six sense objects, six sense-specific types of consciousness, six sense-specific types of contact, six sense-specific types of sensation and six sense-specific types of craving) are examined and found to be empty of self. "The All" (Pali: sabba):In a discourse entitled, "The All" (SN 35.23), the Buddha states that there is no "all" outside of the six pairs of sense bases. In the next codified discourse (SN 35.24), the Buddha elaborates that the All includes the first five aforementioned sextets (sense organs, objects, consciousness, contact and sensations). References to the All can be found in a number of subsequent discourses. In addition, the Abhidhamma and post-canonical Pali literature further conceptualize the sense bases as a means for classifying all factors of existence. The Twelve Dependencies (Pali, Skt.: nidāna):As described in the "Related Buddhist concepts" section below and illustrated in Figure 2, the sense bases are a critical link in the endless round of rebirth known as the Twelve Causes and as depicted in the Wheel of Becoming (Skt.: bhavacakra). "Aflame with lust, hate and delusion" In "The Vipers" discourse (Asivisa Sutta, SN 35.197), the Buddha likens the internal sense bases to an "empty village" and the external sense bases to "village-plundering bandits." Using this metaphor, the Buddha characterizes the "empty" sense organs as being "attacked by agreeable & disagreeable" sense objects. Elsewhere in the same collection of discourses (SN 35.191), the Buddha's Great Disciple Sariputta clarifies that the actual suffering associated with sense organs and sense objects is not inherent to these sense bases but is due to the "fetters" (here identified as "desire and lust") that arise when there is contact between a sense organ and sense object. In the "Fire Sermon" (Adittapariyaya Sutta, SN 35.28), delivered several months after the Buddha's awakening, the Buddha describes all sense bases and related mental processes in the following manner: "Monks, the All is aflame. What All is aflame? The eye is aflame. Forms are aflame. Consciousness at the eye is aflame. Contact at the eye is aflame. And whatever there is that arises in dependence on contact at the eye – experienced as pleasure, pain or neither-pleasure-nor-pain – that too is aflame. Aflame with what? Aflame with the fire of passion, the fire of aversion, the fire of delusion. Aflame, I tell you, with birth, aging & death, with sorrows, lamentations, pains, distresses, & despairs." Extinguishing suffering's flame The Buddha taught that, in order to escape the dangers of the sense bases, one must be able to apprehend the sense bases without defilement. In "Abandoning the Fetters" (SN 35.54), the Buddha states that one abandons the fetters "when one knows and sees ... as impermanent" (Pali: anicca) the six sense organs, objects, sense-consciousness, contact and sensations. Similarly, in "Uprooting the Fetters" (SN 35.55), the Buddha states that one uproots the fetters "when one knows and sees ... as nonself" (anatta) the aforementioned five sextets. To foster this type of penetrative knowing and seeing and the resultant release from suffering, in the Satipatthana Sutta (MN 10) the Buddha instructs monks to meditate on the sense bases and the dependently arising fetters as follows: "How, O bhikkhus, does a bhikkhu live contemplating mental object in the mental objects of the six internal and the six external sense-bases? "Here, O bhikkhus, a bhikkhu understands the eye and material forms and the fetter that arises dependent on both (eye and forms); he understands how the arising of the non-arisen fetter comes to be; he understands how the abandoning of the arisen fetter comes to be; and he understands how the non-arising in the future of the abandoned fetter comes to be. [In a similar manner:] He understands the ear and sounds ... the organ of smell and odors ... the organ of taste and flavors ... the organ of touch and tactual objects ... the consciousness and mental objects.... "Thus he lives contemplating mental object in mental objects ... and clings to naught in the world." In post-canonical Pali texts The Vimuttimagga, the Visuddhimagga, and associated Pali commentaries and subcommentaries all contribute to traditional knowledge about the sense bases. Understanding sense organs When the Buddha speaks of "understanding" the eye, ear, nose, tongue and body, what is meant? According to the first-century CE Sinhalese meditation manual, Vimuttimagga, the sense organs can be understood in terms of the object sensed, the consciousness aroused, the underlying "sensory matter," and an associated primary or derived element that is present "in excess." These characteristics are summarized in the table below. The compendious fifth-century CE Visuddhimagga provides similar descriptors, such as "the size of a mere louse's head" for the location of the eye's "sensitivity" (Pali: pasāda; also known as, "sentient organ, sense agency, sensitive surface"), and "in the place shaped like a goat's hoof" regarding the nose sensitivity (Vsm. XIV, 47–52). In addition, the Visuddhimagga describes the sense organs in terms of the following four factors: characteristic or sign (lakkhaa) function or "taste" (rasa) manifestation (paccupahāna) proximate cause (padahāna) Thus, for instance, it describes the eye as follows: Herein, the eye's characteristic is sensitivity of primary elements that is ready for the impact of visible data; or its characteristic is sensitivity of primary elements originated by kamma sourcing from desire to see. Its function is to pick up [an object] among visible data. It is manifested as the footing of eye-consciousness. Its proximate cause is primary elements born of kamma sourcing from desire to see. In regards to the sixth internal sense base of mind (mano), Pali subcommentaries (attributed to Dhammapāla Thera) distinguish between consciousness arising from the five physical sense bases and that arising from the primarily post-canonical notion of a "life-continuum" or "unconscious mind" (bhavaga-mana): "Of the consciousness or mind aggregate included in a course of cognition of eye-consciousness, just the eye-base [not the mind-base] is the 'door' of origin, and the [external sense] base of the material form is the visible object. So it is in the case of the others [that is, the ear, nose, tongue and body sense bases]. But of the sixth sense-base the part of the mind base called the life-continuum, the unconscious mind, is the 'door' of origin...." The roots of wisdom In the fifth-century CE exegetical Visuddhimagga, Buddhaghosa identifies knowing about the sense bases as part of the "soil" of liberating wisdom. Other components of this "soil" include the aggregates, the faculties, the Four Noble Truths and Dependent Origination. Related Buddhist concepts Aggregates (Pali, khandha; Skt., skandha):In a variety of suttas, the aggregates, elements (see below) and sense bases are identified as the "soil" in which craving and clinging grow. In general, in the Pali Canon, the aggregate of material form includes the five material sense organs (eye, ear, nose, tongue and body) and associated sense objects (visible forms, sounds, odors, tastes and tactile objects); the aggregate of consciousness is associated with the sense organ of mind; and, the mental aggregates (sensation, perception, mental formations) are mental sense objects. Both the aggregates and the sense bases are identified as objects of mindfulness meditation in the Satipatthana Sutta. In terms of pursuing liberation, meditating on the aggregates eradicates self-doctrine and wrong-view clinging while meditating on the sense bases eradicates sense-pleasure clinging. Dependent Origination (Pali: ; Skt.: pratitya-samutpada):As indicated in Figure 2 above, the six sense bases (Pali: ; Skt.: ) are the fifth link in the Twelve Causes (nidāna) of the chain of Dependent Origination and thus likewise are the fifth position on the Wheel of Becoming (bhavacakra). The arising of the six sense bases is dependent on the arising of material and mental objects (Pali, Skt.: nāmarūpa); and, the arising of the six sense bases leads to the arising of "contact" (Pali: phassa; Skt.: sparśa) between the sense bases and consciousness (Pali: ; Skt.: visjñāna) which results in pleasant, unpleasant and neutral feelings (Pali, Skt.: vedanā). Elements (Pali, Skt.: dhātu):The eighteen elements include the twelve sense bases. The eighteen elements are six triads of elements where each triad is composed of a sense object (the external sense bases), a sense organ (the internal sense bases) and the associated sense-organ-consciousness (). In other words, the eighteen elements are made up of the twelve sense bases and the six related sense-consciousnesses. Karma (Skt.; Pali: kamma):In a Samyutta Nikaya discourse, the Buddha declares that the six internal senses bases (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind) are "old kamma, to be seen as generated and fashioned by volition, as something to be felt." In this discourse, "new kamma" is described as "whatever action one does now by body, speech, or mind." In this way, the internal sense bases provide a link between our volitional actions and subsequent perceptions. See also Heart Sutra—Mahayana text that shows the ayatanas in Mahayana discourse Indriya—"faculties", which include a group of "six sensory faculties" similar to the six sense bases Prajna (wisdom) Satipatthana Sutta—includes a meditation using sense bases as the meditative object Skandha—a similar Buddhist construct Twelve Nidanas—the chain of endless suffering of which the sense bases are the fifth link Notes References Sources Aung, S.Z. & C.A.F. Rhys Davids (trans.) (1910). Compendium of Philosophy (Translation of the Abhidhamm'attha-sangaha). Chipstead: Pali Text Society. Cited in Rhys Davids & Stede (1921–5). Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed.) (2000a). A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma: The Abhidhammattha Sangaha of Ācariya Anuruddha. Seattle, WA: BPS Pariyatti Editions. . Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000b). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. (Part IV is "The Book of the Six Sense Bases (Salayatanavagga)".) Boston: Wisdom Publications. . Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2005a). In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pali Canon. Boston: Wisdom Publications. . Bodhi, Bhikkhu (18 Jan 2005b). MN 10: Satipatthana Sutta (continued) (MP3 audio file) [In this series of talks on the Majjhima Nikaya, this is Bodhi's ninth talk on the Satipatthana Sutta. In this talk, the discussion regarding the sense bases starts at time 45:36]. Available on-line at http://www.bodhimonastery.net/MP3/M0060_MN-010.mp3. Buddhaghosa, Bhadantācariya (trans. from Pāli by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli) (1999). The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga. (Chapter XV is "The Bases and Elements (Ayatana-dhatu-niddesa)".) Seattle, WA: BPS Pariyatti Editions. . Hamilton, Sue (2001). Indian Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . Matthews, Bruce (1995). "Post-Classical Developments in the Concepts of Karma and Rebirth in Theravāda Buddhism," in Ronald W. Neufeldt (ed.), Karma and Rebirth: Post-Classical Developments. Delhi, Sri Satguru Publications. (Originally published by the State University of New York, 1986). . , Bhikkhu (trans.) & Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed.) (2001). The Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. . Rhys Davids, Caroline A.F. ([1900], 2003). Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics, of the Fourth Century B.C., Being a Translation, now made for the First Time, from the Original Pāli, of the First Book of the Abhidhamma-Piaka, entitled Dhamma- (Compendium of States or Phenomena). Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing. . Red Pine. The Heart Sutra: The Womb of the Buddhas (2004) Shoemaker & Hoard. Rhys Davids, T.W. & William Stede (eds.) (1921–5). The Pali Text Society’s Pali–English Dictionary. Chipstead: Pali Text Society. A general on-line search engine for the PED is available at http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/. Soma Thera (trans.) (1999). The Discourse on the Arousing of Mindfulness (MN 10). Available on-line at Satipatthana Sutta: The Discourse on the Arousing of Mindfulness. Soma Thera (2003). The Way of Mindfulness: English translation of the Satipahāna Sutta Commentary. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. . Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1993). Adittapariyaya Sutta: The Fire Sermon (SN 35.28). Available on-line at Adittapariyaya Sutta: The Fire Sermon. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997a). Kamma Sutta: Action (SN 35.145). Available on-line at Kamma Sutta: Action. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997b). Kotthita Sutta: To Kotthita (SN 35.191). Available on-line at Kotthita Sutta: To Kotthita. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997c). Suñña Sutta: Empty (SN 35.85). Available on-line at Suñña Sutta: Empty. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998a). Chachakka Sutta: The Six Sextets (MN 148). Available on-line at Chachakka Sutta: The Six Sextets. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998b). Loka Sutta: The World (SN 12.44). Available on-line at Loka Sutta: The World. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998c). Maha-salayatanika Sutta: The Great Six Sense-media Discourse (MN 149). Available on-line at Maha-salayatanika Sutta: The Great Six Sense-media Discourse. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998d). Yavakalapi Sutta: The Sheaf of Barley (SN 35.207). Available on-line at Yavakalapi Sutta: The Sheaf of Barley. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2001a). Pahanaya Sutta: To Be Abandoned (SN 35.24). Available on-line at Pahanaya Sutta: To Be Abandoned. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2001b). Sabba Sutta: The All (SN 35.23). Available on-line at Sabba Sutta: The All. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2004). Asivisa Sutta: Vipers (SN 35.197). Available on-line at Asivisa Sutta: Vipers. Upatissa, Arahant, N.R.M. Ehara (trans.), Soma Thera (trans.) and Kheminda Thera (trans.) (1995). The Path of Freedom (Vimuttimagga). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. . Vipassana Research Institute (VRI) (trans.) (1996). : The Great Discourse on Establishing Mindfulness (Pali-English edition). Seattle, WA: Vipassana Research Publications of America. . External links "Salayatana Vagga – The Section on the Six Sense Bases" of the Samyutta Nikaya, on www.accesstoinsight.org Twelve nidānas Eighteen dhātus Sanskrit words and phrases

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EC%82%AC%EB%AF%B8%EC%95%BC%20%EC%95%84%ED%85%8C%EB%82%98

아사미야 아테나

아사미야 아테나(, 마궁 아테나)는 SNK의 게임인 사이코 솔저와 더 킹 오브 파이터즈 시리즈 등의 등장인물이이다. 개요 첫 등장은 네오지오 이전에 SNK가 릴리즈 한 사이코 솔저의 1P 캐릭터(이 작품의 2P 캐릭터는 시이 켄수)이다. 이 작품의 아테나는 머리 모양은 긴 머리카락에 가깝지만 머리의 색은 보라색이 긴 분홍색으로, 복장도 푸픈 세일러복이었다. "사이코 솔저" 이전에 발표된 "아테나"의 주인공 아테나는 그녀의 선조에 맞는다. 아사미야 아테나의 초능력은 선조인 아테나 공주의 능력을 이어받은 것이며, 그녀의 가족에게 초능력은 없다.(유전이 아닌 능력만 전생한 것과 같은 것) 그녀가 가지는 초능력을 단적으로 말하면 "에스퍼 마미"와 같은 초능력인 듯 하다. 의를 위해서 싸우는 사이코 솔저이며, 초능력과 팔극권을 중심으로 한 중국 권법을 사용한다. 권법의 선생은 친 겐사이이다. 초능력은 자주 "사이코 파워"라고 불리며, 사이코 솔저팀은 루갈이 말하기를, KOF 참가팀 중에서 유일하게 "사리사욕을 위해 싸우지 않고 있다"로 되어 있는 팀이다. 성격은 명랑쾌활로 성실한 노력가이며, 남을 배려하는 다정함과 역경에 뒤지지 않는 중심의 강함을 가지고 있지만 한편은 울보한 일면도 있다. 태도는 항상 예의바르게 악인이나 연소자 이외에는 경어를 사용해서 이야기하고 남을 이름만 부름으로 되게 하는 것도 거의 없다. 오랜 기간동안 목소리를 담당하고 있는 이케자와 하루나는 "말씨가 난폭해지거나 악의를 가진 말하는 방법을 하지 않는다"는 것을 자각하고 있다고 한다. 팀메이트이며, 같은 사이코 솔저인 시이 켄수에게 연정을 가지고 있다. 아테나 본인은 "호의는 품고 있지만 애정에는 이르지 않고 있다"(94 설정) 라고 하는 것이나, "친구이상 연인미만"("MI2" 설정)이라고 하고, 친구 이상의 감정은 가지고 있지만 두드러진 진전은 없고, 미묘한 관계가 계속되고 있다. 당초에는 켄수의 호의에도 알아차리지 않고 있는 것 같았지만 "2000"에서 고백된 것을 기회로, 현재는 정말로 알아차리고 있을 모양이다. 의를 위해서 초능력으로 싸우는 여고생 사이코 솔저였지만 "96"부터는 아이돌 가수라고 하는 설정이 겹쳐, 스테이지나 전투 중의 연출이라도 아이돌다움이 전면에 밀어내지게 되었다. "더 킹오브 파이터즈" 시리즈에서는 의상이 바뀌는 것이 명물이 되고 있다. 자세한 내용은 아래와 같다. 의상은 매회 변한다. 초기의 작품에는 중국 권법을 다룬다는 설정상 권법도착을 모티프로 한 의상이었다. 94 : 에서는 중국 권법을 다룬다고 하는 설정상 긴 소매에 긴 바지 95 : 94의 옷을 반소매로 한 것 96 : 반소매에 퀼로트 스커트 97 : 베스트(Vest)에 반소매옷으로 미니 스커트와 타이츠가 합쳐진 것 98 : 차이나복풍 반소매옷에 스패츠(레깅스) 2000 : 슬릿이 들어간 원피스에 반소매반바지 2001 : 노 슬리브 옷에 스패츠(레깅스) 2002 : 반소매 크롭 톱의 윗도리에 미니스커트와 스패츠가 합쳐진 것 2003 : 아이돌풍 코스튬 XI : 하복 세일러복 XII : 검은 동복 세일러에 분홍색의 긴 머리카락, 오동통하게 된 체형 등의 "사이코 솔저"의 것으로 회귀하였다. XIII : XII와 거의 같지만 흰 동복의 세일러로 되어 있다. KOF SKY STAGE : XI와 같은 반소매 세일러복을 입고 있다 "KOF MAXIMUM IMPACT" 시리즈에서 처음은 "98"의 의상, "2" 및 "Regulation A"에서는 슬릿이 들어간 원피스에 반바지, 양쪽작품의 어나더 모델(2P 의상)에서는 베스트에 긴 소매 블라우스, 넥타이, 스커트 제복풍 의상이다.(안경과 배낭도 있음) "98", "2002", "XI" 등 미니 스커트의 코스튬 때에는 안에 스패츠를 착용한 적이 많다. 또 스패츠 뿐만 아니라 "NEOGEOCD SPECIAL"에서는 체조옷에 블루머 모습이 되는 등 블루머에도 강한 애착을 가지고 있어, 일상적으로 스커트 안에는 블루머를 신고 있다는 설정이다. 게임이라도 실제로 "KOF MAXIMUM IMPACT2"의 일부 코스튬에서는 미니 스커트 안에 착용하고 있어, 스패츠나 블루머를 각별히 애호하고 있다. 블루머나 학교지정의 물건, 배구팀의 유니폼 물건, 개인적으로 구입한 것 등을 신고 있어 20장 이상을 소지하고 있다. 한편 "KOF MAXIUM IMPACT" 시리즈의 어나더 코스튬에서는 특히 착용을 하지 않고, 스커트를 넘길 수 있으면 팬츠가 환히 다 보여버리지만, 특히 부끄러워하는 모양 등은 없다. "XII" "XIII"에서는 대단히 짧은 기장의 스커트를 신고 있지만 스커트 안이 보이는 묘사는 없으므로 스패츠나 블루머를 착용하고 있을지는 불명이다. "KOF SKY STAGE"에서는 스커트 모습으로 날면 안이 환히 다 보여지므로 세일러복에 블루머 모습으로 등장하는 안도 있었지만, 결국 반소매 세일러복에 미니 스커트로 등장하고 있다. 머리 모양은 기본으로 보라색의 긴 머리이다. "99"에서는 "켄수의 초능력이 되돌아오게" 하는 소원을 빔에서 머리를 잘랐기 때문에 보브 컷이 되고, "2000"에서는 조금 머리가 자란 것으로부터 경단이 되었지만 "2001"에서는 베리 쇼트가 되었다. "2002" 이후로는 다시 긴 머리카락으로 되돌아왔지만 "XII" 이후는 머리의 색이 분홍색에 가까운 색이 되었다. 또, 트레이드마크로 항상 별장식이 붙은 카츄샤를 착용하고 있으며,("2003"만 하트) 네오지오 포켓용 게임 "SNK GAL'S FIGHTERS"에서는 숏 컷이 팬에게서 평이 좋지 않았던 것을 증거로 하고 있다. 대전 전 데모에서는 세일러복(작품에 따라서는 블레이저 제복이나 스테이지 의상이거나 모방한다) 모습에서 통상의 의상으로 갈아입는다.(방법은 벗어 던지거나 초능력으로 빠르게 바꿈 등) 일부의 초필살기법의 연출이라도 의상이 변하는 경우도 있다. 출연작 사이코 솔저 갓 슬레이어 : 아득히 천공의 소나타 더 킹오브 파이터즈 시리즈 전작 KOF SKY STAGE 더 킹오브 파이터즈 경 THE KING OF FIGHTERS 배틀 DE 파라다이스 KOF MAXIMUM IMPACT 시리즈 ATHENA Awakening from the ordinary life SNK GAL'S FIGHTERS 정상혈전 최강 파이터즈 SNK VS CAPCOM CAPCOM VS SNK 2 MILLIONAIRE FIGHTING 2001 Days of Memories 시리즈 SNK 걸즈 패닉 시리즈 ATHENA ON STAGE NEO 프린트(KOF 시리즈의 아사미야 아테나가 설명 캐릭터로 기용되고 있다.) 배경출연 더 킹오브 파이터즈94 RE-BOUT(KOF2000의 어나더 스트라이커 아테나가 출연) 아테나 풀스로틀 성우 루샤나(사이코 솔저 : SNK의 여성사원. 시미즈 카오리는 이미지 송 및 패미콤판의 경품으로 붙여진 카세트 테이프의 메시지를 담당) 후루이 레이코 : KOF94 나가사키 모에 : KOF95 유미 마사에 : NEOGEO-CD SPECIAL 사토우 타마오 : KOF96(CD드라마판 포함), NEOGEO DJ STATION 지쓰카와 마리 : NEOGEO DJ STATION 구리스 유키나 : KOF97, KOF경 이케자와 하루나 : Awakening From the Ordinary Life, KOF98과 그 이후에 나오는 KOF 시리즈 이시바시 케이 : 실사작품 아테나 각주 관련인물 시이 켄수 - 친구 이상으로 연인 미만 친 겐사이 - 스승 바오 - 후배 시조 히나코 - 팀 메이트 마린 - 팀 메이트 와타나베 카오루 - 팬 모모코 - 팀 메이트 전훈 - 뒤쫓음 쿠사나기 쿄 - 밴드 오브 파이터즈 동료 야가미 이오리 - 밴드 오브 파이터즈 동료 테리 보가드 - 밴드 오브 파이터즈 동료 나코루루 - 밴드 오브 파이터즈 동료 미뇽 베아르 - 라이벌로 추정 가시와자키 리카 - 어드벤처 게임 "ATHENA"에서의 친구 아시네 - 아사미야 아테나를 모델로 한 캐릭터 아테나 - 선조 관련항목 더 킹 오브 파이터즈의 등장인물 목록 여자 비디오 게임 등장인물 더 킹 오브 파이터즈의 등장인물 가공의 가수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena%20Asamiya

Athena Asamiya

is a fictional character originally from the former SNK's 1987 video game Psycho Soldier. An esper, Athena is a descendant of Princess Athena from the earlier Athena game. She later appears in The King of Fighters series of fighting games as a member of the Psycho Soldier Team alongside her friend Sie Kensou and her teacher Chin Gentsai. While there have been changes to the team, Athena has been consistently playable in the main series. She was also given her own video game Athena: Awakening from the Ordinary Life, which was only released in Japanese regions for the PlayStation in 1999. Athena was designed with idea of having an appealing main character in Psycho Soldier following the staff's negative reaction to the Athena video game. The use of a character song and multiple outfits resulted in major praise by publications for video games. Nevertheless, the character also received negative criticism. Creation and design Athena Asamiya is based on the title character from SNK's video game Athena. The staff did not like the title character and thus wanted to create an improved sequel, Psycho Soldier. Athena has long pink hair and wears a black Japanese school uniform. In order to generate contrast between the two Athenas, Psycho Soldiers was designed to look more mature. In retrospective, character designer Ogura felt Athena's marketing as an idol was ahead of its time, citing things such as her songs and anime-like illustrations. The fact that Athena changed outfits in every game felt like something that Ogura believed would appeal to the demographic. For The King of Fighters '94 series, there was pressure within staff about including the character. The staff worked so much on her that other developers accused them of favoritism. Feeling pressure with how Western players would react to her high school look, SNK instead decided to design her wearing a different outfit which is first seen in her character's introduction when removing her high school look. Athena wears new outfits in every game, some with little changes. Her hair, however, is purple and becomes short from The King of Fighters '99 to The King of Fighters 2001, and regardless of her outfit, one item that remains relatively unchanged is the tiara she wears on her hair, with accompanying star-shaped hairpins. The staff from the series has been requested by fans to return her Japanese school uniform in several games, but they only made her wear it only in her introductions as they thought it would not be well received by gamers from other countries. In the Maximum Impact series, her normal costume as the basis for it, it is piece of "cute clothing that she has per her heart and soul into". On the other hand, her "Another" is a "school wear" outfit with glasses according to the staff. However, by The King of Fighters XI, Athena appears with a white school uniform and in The King of Fighters XII she returns to her original Psycho Soldier outfit as the members from SNK wanted to return The King of Fighters series to its "original concept". In The King of Fighters XIII, Athena returns wearing the same clothes but with a color alteration (white shirt and blue skirt; more in line with her attire from The King of Fighters XI). Eisuke Ogura was given multiple directions by the game staff in how Athena should look such as her facial expressions and limbs. Director Kei Yamamoto explained many of Athena's mechanics are based on psychic moves with being one of her most famous ones. Yamamoto explained that the XIII staff worked to produce balanced variations of her attacks. Her strongest move in that game, the brought multiple difficulties to the team but in the end SNK were satisfied with the result. When making The King of Fighters XIV with the Unreal Engine, the original game had more realistic visuals but clashed with character models Athena's and Kula Diamond's models that have been compared with anime-like series so they opted for the current look. The character was redesigned by Keisuke Ogura rather than veteran Nobuyuki Kuroki in order to appeal to newcomers. Sound director Asakana found Athena as character who remained faithful to previous incarnations to the point the staff had fun designing her. According to SNK, Athena's appearance from The King of Fighters '98 remains as the most popular within the fanbase which led to her inclusion in XIV as downloadable content. For the spin-off SNK Heroines: Tag Team Frenzy, Athena was given a magical girl-like outfit that would also fit her characterization. Multiple accessories were then added in order to appeal to a young demographic to the point of making her look like a main character. Bracelets were meant to look like morphing accessories on a comical note. Ogura wanted to give her a staff but the idea was rejected by the team. Nevertheless, the main theme of the game was that the cast would wear an outfit they would not like. Yasuyuki Oda stated it was difficult how to perform Athena's 3D models and yet making it look like her original 2D model. Athena has been voiced by several voice actresses since her debut in Psycho Soldier in which she was played by Rushina in the game and Kaori Shimizu for her image songs. For The King of Fighters series, Athena has been played by several actresses. Reiko Fukui voiced her in The King of Fighters '94, Moe Nagasaki in The King of Fighters '95, Tamao Satō in The King of Fighters '96 and Yukina Kurisu in The King of Fighters '97 and The King of Fighters: Kyo. Since The King of Fighters '98, Athena has been voiced by Haruna Ikezawa in each game she is featured as well as the anime The King of Fighters: Another Day and The King of Fighters: Destiny. Lily Kong voiced Athena in the English dub of The King of Fighters: Maximum Impact 2. Appearances In video games Athena first appears in the video game Psycho Soldier, fighting against several creatures attacking Earth along with her friend Sie Kensou. She would also appear in the crossover fighting game series The King of Fighters as part of the Psycho Soldier Team. The Psycho Soldier Team is initially composed of Kensou and Athena's teacher, Chin Gentsai. The team would be present in most King of Fighters tournament as Chin wanted to train more Kensou and Athena as well as searching for evil forces such as the demon Orochi. The team has little changes within tournaments with the only new member joining them being Bao from The King of Fighters '99 until The King of Fighters 2001. The King of Fighters '99: Evolution also contains a Striker version from Athena with her school uniform. By The King of Fighters 2003, the Psycho Soldier Team retires from competition as Kensou and Bao needed to train their new powers. As such, Athena second another variant of Heroine Fighters Team known as the High School Girls Team along with the Sumo fighter Hinako Shijo, who had been part of the Women Fighters Team in the previous two tournaments, and a mysterious girl named Malin. The Psycho Soldier Team returns in The King of Fighters XI with Athena, Kensou and Momoko, a young girl able to use Psychic powers. In The King of Fighters XII, Athena is playable, but like each character, she has no official teams, due to its beta state. In sequel, a finalized version of The King of Fighters XII, The King of Fighters XIII, she is back with Kensou and Chin representing the Psycho Soldiers; she and reappear in The King of Fighters XIV. In The King of Fighters XV, Athena joins Mai and Yuri to form a new super version of Heroine Fighters Team, as foreshadowed by her conversations with one of the Women Fighters’ team members in two games prior, and most likely an exchange request between her and original Women Fighters leader King, who re-joins Art of Fighting team. She is also featured in the spin-off games The King of Fighters: Battle de Paradise, The King of Fighters Neowave, KOF: Maximum Impact 1 and 2, and KOF ALL STARS. In the Maximum Impact series, Athena has a self-proclaimed rival named Mignon Beart whom she does not acknowledge or know her. Athena also appears in the spin-off video games The King of Fighters R-1 and The King of Fighters R-2 as part of the Heroine Team with Mai Shiranui and Yuri Sakazaki and in the sequel with Kazumi and Yuri once again. She is also present in the role-playing game The King of Fighters: Kyo where she and Kensou travel to Japan to meet Kyo Kusanagi, befriending Kyo's girlfriend, Yuki, in the process. The two can also be recruited for Kyo's team in the 1997 tournament. Athena, Kensou and Bao are also present in two Game Boy Advance games The King of Fighters EX: Neo Blood and The King of Fighters EX2: Howling Blood. Other two scrolling shooters, KOF: Sky Stage and Neo Geo Heroes: Ultimate Shooting, feature her as a playable character, while the role-playing game for mobile phones The King of Fighters '98: Online had her as part of the cast. In the 3D adventure game Athena: Awakening from the Ordinary Life, Athena has to find answers about strange things that happened in her school, and later in various parts of Japan related with her psychic powers. She was also added to the crossover series SNK vs. Capcom, being playable in SNK vs. Capcom: The Match of the Millennium and Capcom vs. SNK 2. Her character also appears in SNK Gals' Fighters as a playable character, with Athena wanting to win the Gals' tournament to recover her long hair, while in SNK Heroines: Tag Team Frenzy she is trapped in a new tournament. Athena appears also in the dating game series Days of Memories, in which each game is presented with different personalities (and even with different ages). She is also present in Metal Slug Defense, Brave Frontier and The Rhythm of Fighters. Besides spin-offs, Athena has been the main character of the mobile phone game Athena on Stage. She also appears in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate as a Spirit as well as a cameo in the King of Fighters Stadium stage. In other media Athena also appears in several comic adaptations from The King of Fighters series which retell the story from various video games. In Masato Natsumoto's manga The King of Fighters: Kyo, Athena has a crush on Kyo Kusanagi, being also interested in his abilities. She appears in several chapters from the series along with Kensou as they investigate the powers from Iori Yagami. In the manga from Ryo Takamisaki, The King of Fighters G, Athena is featured as one of the lead characters participating in The King of Fighters '96 tournament along with Kyo and Mature, a servant from the demon Orochi. She also makes a short appearance in the 2006 original net animation The King of Fighters: Another Day helping citizens from Southtown in a fire. In the live-action drama entitled Athena, her character is portrayed by Kei Ishibashi, while the story is based on the video game Athena: Awakening from the Ordinary Life. Athena also has her own CD soundtrack named as part of the 20th anniversary from the video games of Athena. The CD was published by Happinet and contains various tracks based on Athena's character. In the web series The King of Fighters: Destiny Athena faces Rugal Bernstein alongside other fighters during the climax but is defeated. In merchandise Her character is also featured in various types of merchandising such as figurines from KOF: Maximum Impact and SNK Beach Volley. Athena was also featured along with Mai Shiranui as a part of a set of two action figures with both her character being chibi. A key-chain from her character was also released by SNK. Athena was the featured character on a 'Neoprint' photo printing machine for a while. Reception Athena Asamiya has received generally positive reception, with authors Brian Ashcraft and Shoko Ueda describing her as "one of the pioneering female video game action stars." The character of Athena has been popular within gamers, ranking highly on character popularity polls. In the character popularity poll on Neo Geo Freak's website in 2000, she was voted as the tenth favorite character with a total of 1,020 votes. In 2018, Athena was voted as the eighth most popular Neo Geo character. Japanese magazine Gamest ranked Athena at No. 3 in the list of Top 50 Characters of 1994. Her redesign in The King of Fighters XII received mixed reception. Some fans called this incarnation chubby, though GameSpot writer Hirohiko Niizumi disagreed. Author Róisín Lally discussed how Athena Asamiya's design and character, which she describes as an "early adolescent child," contrasts the goddess Athena's, as well as the difference between "alive" art and "representational" art. She discussed how Asamiya's design is a "snapshot representation of the sexualization of young girls," and that it "feed(s) the lower part of the intellectual faculty." References Athena games Female characters in anime and manga Female characters in video games Female soldier and warrior characters in video games Fictional characters who can manipulate light Fictional Japanese people in video games Fictional martial artists in video games Fictional singers Fictional Wing Chun practitioners Singer characters in video games SNK protagonists Teenage characters in video games The King of Fighters characters Video game characters introduced in 1987 Video game characters who can teleport Video game characters who can move at superhuman speeds Video game characters who have mental powers

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아이언 스카이

아이언 스카이(Iron Sky)는 2012년 개봉한 핀란드, 독일, 오스트레일리아의 SF 코미디 액션 영화이다. 아이언 스카이는 핀란드 영화사인 블라인드 스포트 픽처스, 에네르지아 프로덕션과 독일 영화사인 27 필름스, 그리고 오스트리아 영화사인 뉴 홀랜드 픽처스가 합작해서 만든 공상과학 영화이면서 코미디물인 영화다. 2010년 11월과 12월에 독일 그리고 2011년 1월과 2월에 호주에서 영화의 영상 촬영을 마쳤다. 현재 아이언 스카이는 독일 국제 영화제에서 프리미어를 가지고 있으며, 2012년 4월 4일, 핀란드에서의 개봉을 시작으로 전 세계로 퍼져나갈 예정이다. 독일에서의 개봉은 2012년 4월 5일이다. 줄거리 제2차 세계 대전이 끝나기 바로 전, 비밀 나치 우주 계획이 실행되고, 달의 어두운 면으로 향하게 된다. 70년 동안, 비밀스럽게 나치는 거대한 우주 기지를 건설하게 되고, 날아다니는 비행 접시 모양의 막강한 병기를 만들게 된다. 미국인 우주인인 제임스 워싱턴(Christopher Kirby)가 나치의 비밀 기지의 근처에 달 착륙선을 타고 착륙하게 되자 달의 총통(Udo Kier)은 지구로 돌아가는 영광스런 순간이 생각보다 빨리 왔음을 예측한다. 워싱턴의 임무는 미국의 대통령(Stephanie Paul)을 홍보하는 것이었다. 하지만 지구를 침략하려는 상황이 바로 앞에 다가온 상황에 그가 무엇을 할 수 있겠는가? 제 4제국은 곧 바로 행동할텐데! 두 명의 나치 장교인 클라우스 아들러(Götz Otto)와 리네이트 리체(Julia Dietze)는 침략을 준비하기 위해서 지구로의 여행을 떠나게 된다. 달의 나치 UFO가 하늘을 까맣게 매울때, 지구는 준비가 전혀 안된 상황이었고, 모든 남자, 여자 그리고 국가들 모두 하나로 뭉쳐 그들의 세계를 지켜야 할 것이다. 캐스팅 줄리아 디에체 - 레나테 리히터 역 고츠 오토 - 클라우스 아들러 역 제작진 본 영화는 핀란드의 수도인 헬싱키를 본부로 하여 제작된다. 하지만 대부분은 독일에서 촬영되었다. 티모 부오렌솔라 티모 부오렌솔라는 다이렉터다. 그는 7년 동안 공상과학 장편 영화인 스타 레크(Star Wreck: In the Pirkinning)에 썼다. 티모 부오렌솔라는 또한 단편영화, 뮤직비디오, 그리고 광고도 맏기도 했다. 테로 카우코마 프로듀서, 배경담당이다. 테로 카우코마(Tero Kaukomaa)는 라스 폰 트리에(Lars von Trier)의 영원한 순간(Everlasting Moments), 어둠 속의 댄서(Dancer in the Dark)과 AJ 애닐라(AJ Annila)의 재드 워리어(Jagd Warrior)을 포함한 20개의 장편극 영화를 제작한 경험이 있다. 테로 카우코마(Tero Kaukomaa)는 영화를 만드는데에 최선을 다할 것이다. 사물리 토르소넨 시각 효과 프로듀서 사물리 토르소넨(Samuli Torssonen)는 스타 레크(Star Wreck)의 원동력이었다. 또한 1992년부터 공상과학 패러디를 제작하기 시작했다. 이제, 그는 아이언 스카이(Iron Sky)팀에서 일하며, CGI팀의 팀장이다. 사물리(Samuli)는 핀란드에서 최고의 CGI기술을 갖춘 이들 중 하나며, 또한 그의 열정은 믿을 수 없는 시각 효과와 큰 우주 전투를 만들어 낸다. 하지만, 그는 사람들이 쉽게 잊지 못한 영상을 만들기를 원한다. 올리버 데미안 프로듀서. 올리버 데미안(Oliver Damian)는 독일 영화사인 27 필름스(27 Films)의 프로듀서다. 캐시 오버렛 프로듀서. 캐시 오버렛(Cathy Overett)는 오스트리아의 영화사인 뉴 홀랜 픽처스(New Hollan Pictures)의 프로듀서다. 그녀는 5개의 장편 극영화를 제작했는데, 세상의 끝에서(At World's End)와 언피니쉬드 스카이(Unfinished Sky)가 그중 하나다. 이제, 그녀는 아이언 스카이(Iron Sky)를 제작하는데에 더 관심이 많다. 마크 오버렛 프로듀서. 마크 오버렛(Mark Overett)는 NHP 팀의 또 다른 프로듀서이다. 또한, 그는 NZ 사무소를 견제하기도 한다. 그는 5개의 장편 극영화를 제작했는 데, 비터 스윗 코미디인 분리된 도시(Separation City)가 그중 하나이다. 또한, 그는 TV 엔터테인먼트에서 음성 담당은 맡았던 적이있어 숙련된 기술이 있다. 산 푸 말타 행정 프로듀서 요한나 시니살로 작가. 공상과학 소설가은 요한나 시니살로(Johanna Sinisalo)는 5개의 소설과 또한, 40여개가 넘는 단편 소설들을 출판했다. 그녀는 SF소설에 수여하는 상인 노뷸러상을 그녀의 첫 번째 소설작인 놋 비포어 선다운(Not Before Sundown)로 수여받기도 했다. 덧붙여 말하자면, 그녀는 TV를 위한 광고와 셀수없이 많은 영화각본들을 썼다. 요한나(Johanna)는 시나리오 제작에 전문적인 생각을 부여했으며, 생각이 이야기로 적용되도록 돕고 있다. 자르모 푸스칼라 언론 책임자, 대본. 자르모 푸스칼라(Jarmo Puskala)는 밖을 내다보고, 상상할줄 아는 또다른 생각하는 사람이다. 그는 스타 레크(Star Wreck)의 베테랑이기도 하다.오늘날, 자르모(Jarmo)는 아이언 스카이(Iron Sky) 팀의 언론 책임자다. 그는 항상 언론과 웹사이트를 업데이트 한다. 자르모(Jarmo)의 나치가 달에 있다는 탁월한 상상이 이 영화를 시작하게 한 것이었다. 안티 후카넨 대본 작가 멤버, 사무소 지배인 안티 후카넨(Antti Hukkanen)는 더 스릴러 보이스 가이(Ther Trailer voice guy)로써 스타 레크(Star Wreck)에 2002년에 참가했다. 물론, 그는 에네르기아(Energia)의 사무소 지배인이며, 당신이 주문한 모든 상품들을 안티(Antti)가 담당한다. 안티(Antti)는 걸어다니는 군역사 백과사전이며, 그는 내부적으로 투기 기술에 전문가다. 주시 레티니에미 구상작가 미카 오라스마 카메라맨 울리카 폰 페게사크 무대 장치가 제이크 콜리어 의상 디자이너. 제이크 콜리어(Jake Collier)는 약 13년간 국제적으로 영화와 텔레비전에서 의상 디자인을 맡았다. 특별히 뉴질랜드에서부터 제이크(Jake)는 영화가 잘 제작되는지 보기 위해 베를린에서 헬싱키로 이사를 했다. 타르자 자쿠나호 제작 간사. 타르자 자쿠나호(Tarja Jakunaho)는 거의 20편의 영화를 제작했다. 그녀의 경력은 브로드 크로스-섹션(Broad cross-section)와 핀란드에서 길이 남을 첫 번째 공상과학 영화를 포함하고 있다. 제작 간사로써, 영화제작이 수월히 돌아가게 해줄것이다. 야노스 혼코넨 언론 기자, 프로듀서. 아마 스타 레크(Star Wreck)에서 미스터 푸코브(Mr.Fukov)로써 자노스 혼코넨(Janos Honkonen)을 기억하실 것이다. 아니면, 존경받을 만한 수많은 기술&과학 저널리스트 잡지로서 기억하실 것이다. 아이언 스카이(Iron Sky)에서는 그는 우리를 도울것이다. 페카 올루라 소셜 미디어. 페카 올루라(Pekka Ollula)는 블라인드 스팟 픽처스(Blind Spot Pictures)의 소셜미디어 팀장이다. 그는 자르모(Jarmo)와 자노스(Janos)가 올바른 업무 처리와 사업과 마케팅에서의 모든 기회를 이끌수 있도록 지도하고 있다. 페카(Pekka)는 창의적인 생각을 좋아하며, 그는 새로운 생각과 남들과는 차별화된 생각을 한다. 아마도, 그 때문인지 그는 KLOK 크리에이티브 에이젼시(KLOK Creative Agency)의 파트너이다. 마이클 칼레스니코 작가. 하워드 스턴스 프라이빗 파트스(Howard Stern’s Private Parts)를 썼으며, 히트를 친 하우 투 킬 유어 네이버스 도그(How to Kill Your Neighbor’s Dog)라는 코메디를 맡았다. 이 코메디는 2000년 토론토 국제 영화제에서 수상을 하기도 하였다. 그의 첫 번째 소설인 퍼커 업(Pucker Up)은 2011년의 봄 동안의 주름지게 잡혀진 스케줄을 보여준다. 북극의 고등학교 선생님이자, 런던의 바텐더이며 묫자리를 파는 사람이다. 후속작 2013년 5월 19일, 에너기아 프로덕션은 아이언 스카이 2의 제작 여부를 공식적으로 발표, Iron Sky: The Coming Race 이라고 이름 지었다. 아이언 스카이: 더 커밍 레이스는 아이언 스카이의 시퀄이 될것이며 아이언 스카이 영화 이후의 이야기를 다룰것으로 예상된다. 아이언 스카이 팀은 이미 스크립트 제작에 돌입하였으며 계획은 2014년 후반기에는 영화 스크립트 완성본을 완성하는 것이다. 내년 2014년에 프랑스 칸에서 있는 국제 영화제를 위해서 4~5분짜리 프로모 영상을 제작할 예정이며, 이 뜻은 곧 첫 번째 아이언 스카이 더 커밍 레이스의 프로모 영상이 2014년 5월에는 완성이 된다는 이야기이다. 아이언 스카이2는 150,000 유로의 예산을 예상하고 있으며, 마찬가지로 크라우드 펀딩 방식으로 예산을 모으게 된다. 제작진은 이전과 모두 같은 멤버로 구성되며, 사운드 트랙과 배우 역시 동일하다. 외부 링크 네이버 팬 사이트 cafe.naver.com/ironsky2018 2012년 영화 영어 영화 작품 정치 풍자 영화 핀란드의 SF 영화 핀란드의 코미디 영화 핀란드의 액션 영화 독일의 SF 영화 독일의 코미디 영화 독일의 액션 영화 오스트레일리아의 SF 액션 영화 오스트레일리아의 액션 코미디 영화 오스트레일리아의 SF 코미디 영화 2018년을 배경으로 한 영화 뉴욕주를 배경으로 한 영화 워싱턴 D.C.를 배경으로 한 영화 달을 배경으로 한 영화 세계 종말을 소재로 한 영화 프랑크푸르트에서 촬영한 영화 오스트레일리아에서 촬영한 영화 뉴욕에서 촬영한 영화 매드 사이언티스트 영화 SF 전쟁 영화 제3차 세계 대전을 소재로 한 영화 나치 독일 대체 역사 영화

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron%20Sky

Iron Sky

Iron Sky is a 2012 comic-science-fiction action film directed by Timo Vuorensola and written by Johanna Sinisalo and Michael Kalesniko. It tells the story of a group of Nazi Germans who, having been defeated in 1945, fled to the Moon, where they built a space fleet to return in 2018 and conquer Earth. Iron Sky is one of the most expensive Finnish films. Iron Sky comes from the creators of Star Wreck: In the Pirkinning and was produced by Tero Kaukomaa of Blind Spot Pictures and Energia Productions, co-produced by New Holland Pictures and 27 Films, and co-financed by numerous individual supporters; Samuli Torssonen was responsible for the computer-generated imagery. It was theatrically released throughout Europe in April 2012. A director's cut of the film with 20 additional minutes was released on DVD and Blu-ray on 11 March 2014. A video-game adaptation titled Iron Sky: Invasion was released in October 2012. A sequel, titled Iron Sky: The Coming Race, was crowdfunded through Indiegogo and released in January 2019. Plot In 2018, an American crewed mission lands on the Moon. The lander carries two astronauts, one of them an African-American male model, James Washington, specifically chosen to aid the U.S. President in her re-election (various "Black to the Moon" word-play posters are seen in the film, extolling the new Moon landing). Upon landing on the far side of the Moon, they encounter the descendants of Nazis who escaped to the Moon in 1945 (self-styled the "Fourth Reich" in dialogue). Washington is taken captive after the other astronaut is killed. Nazi scientist Doktor Richter examines Washington and obtains his smartphone, which he later recognizes as having more computing power than the 1940s-style computers of the Fourth Reich, enabling its use as a control unit to complete their giant space battleship Götterdämmerung. When Richter strives to demonstrate his Wunderwaffe to the current Führer, Wolfgang Kortzfleisch, the phone's battery is quickly exhausted. Nazi commander Klaus Adler, chosen for genetic reasons to mate with Earth specialist Renate Richter (Doktor Richter's daughter), embarks in a flying saucer to collect more such computers on Earth. He takes with him Washington, who has been "Aryanized" by Doktor Richter using an "albinizing" drug. Upon landing in New York City, they discover that Renate has stowed away with them. They abandon Washington after he connects them with the President's campaign adviser, Vivian Wagner. Adler and Renate energize the President's re-election campaign using Nazi-style rhetoric. Renate is unaware of Adler's ambition to replace Kortzfleisch and rule the world. After three months, Kortzfleisch lands on Earth and confronts Adler, but is killed by Adler and Vivian. Adler declares himself the new Führer before returning to orbit in Kortzfleisch's flying saucer, deserting Vivian but taking her tablet computer. Concurrently, Renate is persuaded by the homeless Washington that Adler intends global genocide. Shortly afterwards, the Moon Nazis launch a mass attack on the Earth with a fleet of giant Zeppelin-like spacecraft called Siegfrieds which tow asteroids as missiles and launch countless flying saucers at New York City, where they destroy the Statue of Liberty and blitz the city. The U.S. Air Force engage the flying saucers with some success. The United Nations assembles to discuss the Moon Nazi threat. The President appoints Vivian as commander of the secretly militarised spacecraft USS George W. Bush, which carries nuclear and directed-energy weapons, only to discover that most of the other nations (except Finland) have also secretly armed their spacecraft. They dispatch them against the Nazi fleet and wipe out the Siegfrieds. Adler arrives in Kortzfleisch's flying saucer with the tablet computer to activate the Götterdämmerung. Renate and Washington travel in Adler's flying saucer to the Götterdämmerung, where Washington goes to disable the engines while Renate seeks out Adler. Meanwhile, the international space fleet damage the Nazis' Moon base and approach the Götterdämmerung which dwarfs them all. Commanding the Götterdämmerung, Adler destroys parts of the Moon to expose Earth to his line-of-fire. During the battle, Washington disconnects Vivian's tablet from the control panel of the Götterdämmerung, while Renate kills Adler before he can fire at Earth. Renate and Washington separately escape as the Götterdämmerung crashes into the Moon. The U.S. president congratulates Vivian from the UN session; whereupon Vivian discloses the presence of large tanks of helium-3 on the Moon, of which the President immediately assumes sole claim on grounds that its possession ensures a millennium-long supply of energy. This enrages the other UN members, who engage in a brawl, while the international fleet turn on each other. At the damaged Moon base, Renate reunites with Washington, who has reverted his pigmentation back to normal. They kiss before a confused group of Nazi survivors, whom Renate assures, "have a lotta work cut out for [them]". The final moments of the film show the Earth apparently during an international nuclear war. At the very end of the credits, the planet Mars is revealed with an artificial satellite in orbit. Cast Julia Dietze as Renate Richter Götz Otto as Klaus Adler Christopher Kirby as James Washington Tilo Prückner as Doktor Richter Udo Kier as Wolfgang Kortzfleisch Peta Sergeant as Vivian Wagner Stephanie Paul as the President of the United States (a parody of Sarah Palin) Michael Cullen as Secretary of Defense Production Production began in early 2006, and the production team took their teaser trailer of the film to the 2008 Cannes Film Festival, seeking co-financiers. The team signed a co-production agreement with Oliver Damian's 27 Films Productions. Iron Sky is one of a new wave of productions, including Artemis Eternal, The Cosmonaut, A Swarm of Angels, and RiP!: A Remix Manifesto, produced in collaboration with an on-line community of film enthusiasts, creating participatory cinema. At Wreck-a-Movie, a collaborative film-making web site, the producers invited everyone interested to contribute ideas and resources to the project. On 11 February 2009, it was announced that the film would star German actress Julia Dietze, while the Slovenian industrial music group Laibach would be recording the soundtrack. Appropriately enough for a film about Nazism, the orchestral soundtrack incorporates leitmotifs from the operatic cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen and other operas by Richard Wagner, a composer whose music was favoured by the Nazi leaders. The national anthem of the Nazis from the Moon ("Kameraden, wir kehren Heim!") has the tune of "Die Wacht am Rhein". During the 2010 Cannes Film Festival, Iron Sky signed a co-production agreement with the Australian production company New Holland Pictures, which brought Cathy Overett and Mark Overett as co-producers of the film. Iron Sky was video-recorded in Red camera format. Cinematography began in November 2010 in Frankfurt for location shooting, and after that in January 2011 in Australia for studio shooting. Settings in Frankfurt were Weseler Werft (Weseler Shipyard) and (). On 6 February 2011, the cinematography of Iron Sky concluded; it then entered a ten-week post-production process. Release Iron Sky premiered on 11 February 2012 at the 62nd Berlin International Film Festival, in the Panorama Special section. It was released in Finland on 4 April and in Germany on 5 April, running in major cinemas. In the UK, there was some controversy regarding the decision of the distributor, Revolver Entertainment, to release the film for only one day, causing the film makers to issue a public condemnation of their UK distributor, and accusing Revolver of misleading them. Following high demand from the film's online fanbase, Revolver revised its decision and Iron Sky'''s UK cinema release was extended. Reception Critical reception of Iron Sky in the United States was negative. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 41% approval rating, based on 44 reviews, with an average rating of 4.5/10. William Goss of Film.com gave the film a D+, saying that it "feels more and more like a lost Austin Powers sequel that already feels exceedingly dated in its humor." Jeff Shannon of The Seattle Times gave the film two out of four stars, describing it as "great idea, lousy execution". Leslie Felperin of Variety described Iron Sky as being "...neither good enough to rep a proper breakout hit nor bad enough that it might attain cult status; it’s just kind of lame". Accolades The film won Best Visual Effects at the 2nd AACTA Awards. Spin-offs Comic On 5 October 2011, Blind Spot released a digital comic prequel to the film, titled Iron Sky: Bad Moon Rising, written by the writer of Alan Wake, Mikko Rautalahti, and fully illustrated by comic artist Gerry Kissell, creator of IDW Publishing's Code Word: Geronimo. IDW Publishing printed these comics in a softcover graphic novel collection in March 2013. Video game On 19 August 2012, TopWare Interactive announced Iron Sky: Invasion, an official video game adaptation and expansion of the film, to be developed by Reality Pump Studios. The game was described as an advanced space flight simulator game, with elements of the strategy and RPG genres. Board game In 2012, Revision Games published Iron Sky: The Board Game, a board game based on the film designed by Juha Salmijärvi. It is a strategy board game, where two opposing teams The Reich and The UWC struggle for domination over three continents of Earth. Each player is in charge of one continent and cooperation within each team is mandatory for success. Sequel On 20 May 2012, Kaukomaa announced that there are plans for a prequel and a sequel but refused to disclose details. In May 2013, Vuorensola announced that Iron Sky will have a sequel titled Iron Sky: The Coming Race. He also mentioned that unlike the first film, this installment will be completely funded by fans via Indiegogo, with an estimated budget of US$15 million. A promo video was to be shot for the 2014 Cannes Film Festival and the final draft of the script was scheduled to be published by the end of 2014. Filming was expected to begin in 2015. In July 2013, Vuorensola revealed Croatia as one of the proposed shooting locations. In February 2014, Dalan Musson signed in to write the screenplay. The Finnish Film Foundation and Medienboard Berlin-Brandenburg have come on board to finance the US$13 million project. Ultimately, this schedule was not maintained. In 2017, a January 2018 release date was announced. That date was missed, as was an August 2018 release. The movie was ultimately released in March 2019. Producers bankruptcy Blind Spot Pictures, the main production company for Iron Sky, declared bankruptcy on 17 September 2019. Iron Sky Universe Oy production company was filed for bankruptcy 12 October 2020 by Ilmarinen Mutual Pension Insurance Company. Timo Vuorensola himself also confirmed that Iron Sky Universe had filed for bankruptcy, saying "The production company of Iron Sky, called Iron Sky Universe, one which I jointly set up with Tero, is going under." See also Colonization of the Moon Rocket Ship Galileo, Robert A. Heinlein's 1947 novel in which Nazis establish a secret base on the Moon. The Iron Dream, a similarly titled novel by Norman Spinrad also concerning Nazism. Nazis at the Center of the Earth, a mockbuster of Iron Sky'' by The Asylum. References External links 2012 action comedy films 2012 science fiction action films 2010s science fiction comedy films 2012 films Alternate Nazi Germany films Apocalyptic films Australian alternative history films Australian political satire films Australian science fiction action films Australian science fiction comedy films Cultural depictions of Sarah Palin Dieselpunk films 2010s English-language films English-language Finnish films English-language German films Fictional Nazis Films about fictional presidents of the United States Films about Nazis Films adapted into comics Films directed by Timo Vuorensola Films set in 2018 Films set in Jersey City, New Jersey Films set in Manhattan Films set in Washington, D.C. Films set on the moon Films shot in Brisbane Films shot in Frankfurt Films shot in New York City Finnish alternate history films Finnish political satire films Finnish science fiction films German action comedy films German alternate history films 2010s German-language films German political satire films German science fiction action films German science fiction comedy films Mad scientist films Science fiction war films Films about World War III Films about nuclear war and weapons 2010s German films

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B8%8C%EB%A6%AC%20%EB%9D%BC%EC%8A%A8

브리 라슨

브리앤 시도니 디소니어스(, 1989년 10월 1일 ~ )는 브리 라슨()이라는 예명으로 활동하고 있는 미국의 배우, 영화 감독, 가수이다. 그녀는 미국 아카데미상, 영국 아카데미 영화상(BAFTA), 골든 글로브상 및 미국 배우 조합상 등 여러 시상식에서 수상하였다. 캘리포니아주, 새크라멘토에서 태어난 라슨은 만 6살 때 미국 음악원에서 연수 프로그램에 참석하기 전에 홈스쿨링으로 공부했으며, 그곳에서 가장 어린 학생이였다. 로스 앤젤레스로 이주한 후, 그녀는 《더 투나잇 쇼 위드 제이 레노》에서 만 8세의 나이에 스케치 코미디를 하며 연기 경력을 시작했다. 그녀는 2001년 시트콤 《레이싱 대드》에서 고정 출연한 후 《훗》(2006), 《스콧 필그림 Vs. 더 월드》(2010), 《21 점프 스트리트》 (2012), 《스펙타큘라 나우》(2013)과 《나를 미치게 하는 여자》(2015) 등 여러 영화에서 조연 역할을 하였다. 2009년부터 2011년까지 라슨은 TV 시리즈 《유나이티드 스테이트 오브 타라》에서 냉소적인 십대로 출연했다. 라슨은 독립 영화 《숏텀 12》(2013)으로 주목 받기 시작했다. 2015년을 기점으로 그녀는 더 많은 성공을 거두게 되었고, 엠마 도노휴의 동명의 소설을 기반으로 한 드라마 영화 《룸》에서 조이 "마" 뉴섬 역으로 그녀의 연기는 비평가들의 찬사를 받아 미국 아카데미상 최우수 여우주연상 수상을 포함하여 영국 아카데미 영화상(BAFTA), 크리틱스 초이스 영화상, 골든 글로브상 및 미국 배우 조합상 최우수 여우주연상 등을 수상하였다. 2017년, 그녀는 모험 영화 《콩: 스컬 아일랜드》에서 포토 저널리스트를 연기하며 그녀의 최고 흥행 수익을 거둔 영화가 되었으며, 영화 《더 글라스 캐슬》에서 자네트 웰스를 연기했다. 또한 그녀는 장편.영화 《유니콘 스토어》(2017)의 연출을 맡으며 영화 감독으로도 데뷔했다. 라슨은 2015년 앨범 《Finally Out of P.E.》을 발매한 뮤지션이기도 하다. 어벤져스, 캡틴마블에서 캡틴마블역을 맡았다. 성장 과정 브리 라슨()은 1989년 10월 1일, 캘리포니아주 새크라멘토에서 헤더(결혼 전 성씨는 애드워드)와 실뱅 디소니어스의 장녀로 태어났다. 그녀의 부모는 시술을 함께한 카이로프랙틱 의사였다. 형제로는 여동생 밀레인이 있다. 그녀의 아버지는 프랑스계 캐나다인이었기 때문에 라슨의 첫 번째 언어는 프랑스어였다. 라슨은 홈스쿨링을 받았으며, 만 6세 때 배우가 되는 것에 관심을 갖기 시작했다. 다음 해 샌프란시스코의 미국 음악원에서 연수 프로그램을 수강했으며 그곳에서 가장 어린 학생이 되었다. 그녀가 만 7세일 때 라슨의 부모는 이혼했고 그녀는 그 때문에 그녀가 "많은 어둠"을 경험했다고 말했다. 이혼 직후, 그녀의 어머니 헤더는 라슨의 연기 꿈을 이루기 위해 두 딸과 함께 로스앤젤레스로 이주했다. 그들은 재정적 수단이 제한되어 있어, 버뱅크의 할리우드 스튜디오 근처의 작은 아파트에서 살았다. 라슨의 예명은 그녀가 모친 증조모인 엘바 조세핀 라슨에서 따온 것이라 알려졌지만, 그녀는 어린 시절 선물 받은 인형 키얼스틴 라슨에서 영감을 받았다고 밝혔다. 그녀의 첫 직업은 《더 투나잇 쇼 위드 제이 레노》의 1996년 방영된 에피소드로 "Malibu Mudslide Barbie"에 대한 상업적 패러디 연기였다. 개인 생활 라슨은 2013년부터 뮤지션 알렉스 그린월드와 연인 관계이다. 2016년 5월, 라슨의 대리인은 그녀와 그린 월드가 약혼했음을 확인했다. 그 뒤, 2019년 1월, 둘은 헤어졌다. 2017년 3월 미국 아카데미상 남우주연상 시상에 나선 라슨은 수상자 호명과 상 전달 후 박수를 치지 않았는데, 배니티 페어와의 인터뷰에서 남우주연상 수상자인 케이시 애플렉에게 박수를 보내지 않은 것은 의도적이었다고 말하며, "무대에서 내가 했던 일 자체가 일종의 발언이었다"며 "나는 그 주제에 대해 언급할만한 것을 이미 모두 말했다고 생각한다"고 밝혔다. 출연 작품 영화 텔레비전 뮤직 비디오 수상 및 후보 각주 외부 링크 1989년 출생 살아있는 사람 미국의 여자 텔레비전 배우 미국의 여자 영화 배우 미국의 여자 어린이 배우 미국의 여자 가수 미국의 어린이 가수 미국의 여자 싱어송라이터 미국의 영화 감독 여자 영화 감독 캘리포니아주 출신 음악가 캘리포니아주 출신 배우 새크라멘토 출신 스웨덴계 미국인 아카데미 여우주연상 수상자 골든 글로브상 드라마 여우주연상(영화) 수상자 영국 아카데미 여우주연상 수상자 미국 배우 조합상 여우주연상 수상자 인디펜던트 스피릿 어워드 여우주연상 수상자 미국의 여성주의자

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brie%20Larson

Brie Larson

Brianne Sidonie Desaulniers (born October 1, 1989), known professionally as Brie Larson, is an American actress. Known for her supporting roles in comedies as a teenager, she has since expanded to leading roles in independent films and blockbusters. Larson is the recipient of various accolades, including an Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award, and a Primetime Emmy Award. Time magazine named her one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2019. At age six, Larson was the youngest student admitted to a training program at the American Conservatory Theater, and she began her acting career in 1998 with a comedy sketch on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. She appeared as a regular in the 2001 sitcom Raising Dad and briefly dabbled with a music career, releasing the album Finally Out of P.E. in 2005. Larson subsequently played supporting roles in the comedy films Hoot (2006), Scott Pilgrim vs. the World (2010), and 21 Jump Street (2012), and appeared as a sardonic teenager in the television series United States of Tara (2009–2011). Her breakthrough came with a leading role in the acclaimed independent drama Short Term 12 (2013), and she continued to take on supporting parts in the romance The Spectacular Now (2013) and the comedy Trainwreck (2015). For playing a kidnapping victim in the drama Room (2015), Larson won the Academy Award for Best Actress. The 2017 adventure film Kong: Skull Island marked her first big-budget release, after which she starred as Captain Marvel in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, beginning with Captain Marvel (2019). Larson has co-written and co-directed two short films, and made her feature film directorial debut with the independent comedy-drama Unicorn Store (2017). For producing the virtual reality series The Messy Truth VR Experience (2020), she won a Primetime Emmy Award. A gender equality activist and an advocate for sexual assault survivors, Larson is vocal about social and political issues. Early life Brianne Sidonie Desaulniers was born on October 1, 1989, in Sacramento, California, to Heather (née Edwards) and Sylvain Desaulniers. Her parents were homeopathic chiropractors who ran a practice together. They have another daughter, Milaine. Her father is Franco-Manitoban; French was Larson's first language. She holds dual citizenship of Canada and the United States. She was mostly home-schooled, which she believed allowed her to explore innovative and abstract experiences. Describing her early life, Larson has said she was "straight-laced and square", and that she shared a close bond with her mother but was shy and had social anxiety. During the summer, she would write and direct her own home movies in which she cast her cousins and filmed in her garage. At age six, she expressed interest in becoming an actress, later remarking that the "creative arts was just something that was always in me". That same year, she auditioned for a training program at the American Conservatory Theater in San Francisco, where she became the youngest student admitted. Larson experienced trauma at age seven due to her parents' divorce. She had a dysfunctional relationship with her father, saying: "As a kid I tried to understand him and understand the situation. But he didn't do himself any favors. I don't think he ever really wanted to be a parent." Soon after their separation, Heather relocated to Los Angeles with her two daughters to fulfill Larson's acting ambition. They had limited financial means and lived in a small apartment near Hollywood studio lots at Burbank. Larson described the experience, "We had a crappy one-room apartment where the bed came out of the wall and we each had three articles of clothing." Even so, she has recounted fond memories of this period and credits her mother for doing the best she could for them. As her last name was difficult to pronounce, she adopted the stage name Larson from her Swedish great-grandmother, as well as an American Girl doll named Kirsten Larson that she received as a child. Her first job was performing a commercial parody for Barbie, named "Malibu Mudslide Barbie", in a 1998 episode of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. She subsequently took on guest roles in several television series, including Touched by an Angel and Popular. In 2000, she was cast in the Fox sitcom Schimmel, which was canceled before airing when its star, Robert Schimmel, was diagnosed with cancer. Career 2001–2008: Early work and music career Larson's first major role came as Emily, the younger daughter of Bob Saget's character, in the WB sitcom Raising Dad, which aired for one season during the 2001–02 television schedule. Hal Boedeker of Orlando Sentinel criticized the program and wrote that its cast members were "merrily joking through the show". She was next hired for the ABC sitcom Hope & Faith, but she and some other cast members were replaced after an unaired pilot. In 2003, she starred alongside Beverley Mitchell in the Disney Channel film Right on Track, based on the junior drag race star sisters Erica and Courtney Enders, and played minor roles in the 2004 comedies Sleepover and 13 Going on 30. Larson developed an interest in music at age eleven when she learned to play the guitar. A music executive encouraged her to write her own songs, and she began self-recording and uploading tracks to her own website. After failing to get cast as Wendy Darling in the 2003 film Peter Pan, Larson wrote and recorded a song titled "Invisible Girl", which received airplay on KIIS-FM. She soon signed a record deal with Tommy Mottola of Casablanca Records; she and Lindsay Lohan were the only artists signed by the label at the time. In 2005, she released the album Finally Out of P.E., for which she also co-wrote songs with other songwriters, including Blair Daly, Pam Sheyne, Lindy Robbins, and Holly Brook. She titled it after a gym teacher she disliked and has said the songs she wrote were mostly about failed job opportunities. One of her singles, "She Said", was featured on the MTV series Total Request Live, was listed by Billboard in their weekly listings of the most-played videos in the channel, and peaked at number 31 on the Billboard Hot Single Sales. Larson went on tour with Jesse McCartney for Teen Peoples "Rock in Shop" mall concerts, opened for him during his Beautiful Soul tour, and also performed in New York City at the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade. Even so, the album was not a success, selling only 3,500 copies. Larson later admitted to being disillusioned with her music career, saying, "I wanted to write all my own songs, and [the recording company] were afraid of that. I wanted to wear sneakers and play my guitarthey wanted heels and wind blown hair." In 2006, Larson was cast alongside Logan Lerman and Cody Linley in the comedy film Hoot, about young vigilantes trying to save a group of owls. It received poor reviews, but Ruthe Stein of the San Francisco Chronicle was appreciative of Larson and Linley for bringing "a dash of Indiana Jones to their roles". She had a small part, the following year, in the Amber Heard-starring drama Remember the Daze, and she launched an arts and literature magazine, Bunnies and Traps, for which she wrote her own opinion columns and accepted submissions from other artists and writers. Larson has said she frequently considered quitting acting at that point, as she found it difficult to find much work, blaming it on filmmakers' inability to typecast her. She was particularly discouraged when she lost out on key roles in the films Thirteen (2003) and Juno (2007). To support herself, Larson worked as a club DJ. 2009–2014: Independent films and breakthrough In 2009, Larson began playing Kate Gregson, the sardonic teenage daughter of Toni Collette's character, coping with her mother's dissociative identity disorder, in the Showtime comedy-drama series United States of Tara. Portia Doubleday was initially cast in the role but was replaced with Larson after filming the pilot episode. Reviewing the first season for The New York Times, Alessandra Stanley took note of how well Larson played a "real teenager" and Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle credited her for finding nuance in her role. Larson has said that her character's journey to find meaning in life mirrored that of her own, and she was upset when the show was canceled after three seasons in 2011. Also in 2009, she starred alongside Rooney Mara in Tanner Hall, a coming-of-age film about four girls in boarding school. Despite disliking the film, Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times commended Larson for providing "one of the film's funniest bits". In her two other film releases that year, she played a scatterbrained cheerleader in House Broken and a popular high schooler in Just Peck. At the Williamstown Theatre Festival in 2010, Larson appeared in a stage production of Thornton Wilder's play Our Town. Directed by Nicholas Martin, it featured her in the role of Emily Webb, a precocious young girl. Reviewing the play for The Boston Globe, Louise Kennedy thought the production had glossed over the play's darker themes and bemoaned the lack of tragic arc in Larson's character. In film, she featured in Noah Baumbach's comedy-drama Greenberg and Edgar Wright's comedy Scott Pilgrim vs. the World. A journalist for Slant Magazine opined that these films helped raise her profile, and Larson has said the latter film, in which she played a rock star named Envy, marked a turning point in her career. In it, Larson performed the song "Black Sheep" with the band Metric. Although it did not fare well commercially, Scott Pilgrim vs. the World has since developed a cult following. She next played the troubled daughter of a corrupt cop (played by Woody Harrelson) in the drama Rampart (2011), an emotionally intense part she found herself unable to detach from. A confrontation scene between Harrelson and her proved upsetting for her; the director was surprised by how well it turned out and tweaked the script to further explore the father-daughter relationship. In 2012, Larson expanded into filmmaking by co-writing and co-directing the short film The Arm with Jessie Ennis and Sarah Ramos. The film, about societal expectations in the near future, won a special jury prize at the Sundance Film Festival. She featured as a seductive teenager in the critically panned drama The Trouble with Bliss, after which she played Molly, a high school student, in 21 Jump Street, an adaptation of the 1980s police procedural television series, co-starring Jonah Hill and Channing Tatum. Larson found her acting style to be more rigid than Hill's approach and was challenged by scenes that required her to improvise with him. Dana Stevens of Slate labeled Larson "a find of major proportions", adding that "she's not only beautiful but funny, with a scratchy contralto voice, and unlike the usual female in a buddy movie, she comes across as a real person". With a worldwide gross of over $200 million, 21 Jump Street proved to be Larson's most widely seen film to that point. Following an appearance in the sitcom Community, Larson collaborated with Dustin Bowser to co-write and co-direct Weighting (2013), a short film about a strained relationship, which was screened at South by Southwest. Larson's breakthrough came in the same year when she starred in Destin Daniel Cretton's critically acclaimed independent drama Short Term 12, which marked the first leading role of her career. Set in a group home for troubled teenagers, the film featured her as Grace, the emotionally distressed supervisor of the institution. To prepare, Larson interacted with staff in a children's home and watched online interviews of people with similar jobs. The film had a production budget of under $1 million, and she was pleased with its intimate and collaborative work environment. Larson's performance was acclaimed by critics. Manohla Dargis of The New York Times found her "terrific" and "completely persuasive", and Ian Freer of Empire stated that she "builds into a whirling dervish of a performance, making Grace strong but scarred, damaged but compassionate". Jenny McCartney of The Daily Telegraph predicted that it would "[mark] her out for a stellar career". Larson received a nomination for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead; she later remarked that the film prompted directors to offer her a wide variety of parts, but she turned down roles of the unidimensional love interest. Also in 2013, Larson had supporting roles in two romantic dramas, Don Jon and The Spectacular Now. In the former, written and directed by Joseph Gordon-Levitt, she played the sister of Don Jon (played by Gordon-Levitt). Peter Travers of Rolling Stone praised the film's exploration of sexual themes and found Larson to be "terrific" in it. In The Spectacular Now, starring Miles Teller and Shailene Woodley, she played Cassidy, the ex-girlfriend of Teller's character. Larson was drawn to the realism she found in the project's depiction of high school experiences. Writing for New York magazine, David Edelstein called upon viewers to admire "the shading and intelligence she brings to Cassidy". The 2014 crime drama The Gambler, based on the 1974 film of the same name, featured Larson as a literature student who has an affair with her professor (played by Mark Wahlberg), a gambling addict. The director Rupert Wyatt felt the role was underwritten and cast Larson to lend heft to it. Even so, Claudia Puig of USA Today wrote that the "talented Larson is given little to do, other than react". 2015–2019: Established actress Larson had three film releases in 2015. Her first appearance was in Digging for Fire, a largely improvised ensemble comedy-drama featuring Jake Johnson in the lead role. Filming took place without a script and Larson made several on-set decisions regarding her character's choices, including the removal of a planned romantic subplot involving her and Johnson. She next played the sister of Amy Schumer's character in the comedy Trainwreck, which was loosely based on Schumer's own life. Larson modeled her role on Schumer's sister, who served as an associate producer on the film. Tim Grierson of Screen International labeled the film "a deft blend of laughs, romance and poignancy" and found Larson to be "lively, [but] slightly underused". Trainwreck grossed over $140 million against a $35 million budget. Larson then starred in Room, a film adaptation of Emma Donoghue's novel of the same name. It featured her as Ma, a young woman held in captivity, who bears a child of rape. The role proved physically and emotionally taxing for her, and she modeled it on her mother's struggle as a single parent. A large portion of the film was shot inside a 10 ft × 10 ft shed created in a studio, and Larson prepared herself by spending a month isolated in her apartment. She interacted with specialists on sexual abuse and researched the lack of nutrition that a person in captivity would suffer. To achieve the look, she stayed away from sunlight, modified her diet, and exercised extensively to lose weight. Larson collaborated closely with co-star Jacob Tremblay, who played her son, and spent time performing activities that mirrored those of their characters. Room was critically acclaimed, with major emphasis on the performances of Larson and Tremblay. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times called her performance "astonishing", stating that the "reality and preternatural commitment she brings to Ma is piercingly honest from start to finish, as scaldingly emotional a performance as anyone could wish for". She won several awards, including the Academy Award for Best Actress, as well as a Golden Globe and BAFTA in the same category. Following the success of Room, Larson played a leading role in Free Fire (2016), an action-comedy about a shootout in a warehouse. She agreed to the project to call attention to gun violence. Eric Kohn of IndieWire noted how different Larson's role was from that in Room and added that her "businesslike demeanor once again proves her ability to command a scene with a single glare". Commercially, the film failed to recoup its $7 million investment. She had filmed a part in Todd Solondz's comedy Wiener-Dog, but her scenes were deleted from the final cut as Solondz found her character inessential to the story. The following year, Larson starred alongside Tom Hiddleston and Samuel L. Jackson in the second installment of the MonsterVerse franchise, entitled Kong: Skull Island. Shot in Vietnam, the film featured her as a photojournalist in the 1970s. It marked her first mainstream big-budget release, and while she was glad to play a role not defined by her looks, she bemoaned the lack of female co-stars. Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post praised the film's visual effects and remarked that "Larson manages to hold her own with very little to do". Kong: Skull Island was a commercial success, grossing over $566 million worldwide. Later in 2017, Larson portrayed Jeannette Walls in The Glass Castle, an adaptation of Walls' memoir, which reunited her with Destin Daniel Cretton. It tells the story of a young woman's relationship with her nonconformist parents (played by Woody Harrelson and Naomi Watts). Larson was drawn to the complex depiction of a parent-child relationship and identified with its theme of forgiveness. She collaborated closely with Walls and her siblings and observed their mannerisms. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian disliked the film's sentimentality but noted that "it is saved, just a little, by the robustness of Brie Larson's presence". Also poorly received was the India-set musical romance Basmati Blues, a project she had filmed back in 2013, which received criticism on social media for its white savior narrative. The 2017 Toronto International Film Festival marked the release of Larson's feature film directorial debut, the comedy-drama Unicorn Store, in which she also starred. It was later picked for digital distribution by Netflix in 2019. She played a disillusioned art student fascinated with unicorns. Larson had unsuccessfully auditioned in 2012 to star in the film when Miguel Arteta was attached to direct. After the production was stalled, Larson was offered to direct and star in it. She was drawn to the fanciful narrative and found a connection between her character's journey and her experience as a director. David Ehrlich of IndieWire disliked the film but took note of Larson's potential as a filmmaker. After a year-long absence from the screen, Larson starred as Carol Danvers / Captain Marvel in the Marvel Cinematic Universe superhero film Captain Marvel (2019), which marked Marvel Studios' first female-led film. She was initially skeptical about taking on such a high-profile role, but later accepted the part after viewing it as a platform to empower young women and found a connection with the character's flaws and humanity. In preparation, she underwent nine months of judo, boxing and wrestling training, and interacted with service personnel at the Nellis Air Force Base. Stephanie Zacharek of Time wrote that "Larson, a perceptive, low-key actor, carries the whole affair capably" and took note of how much she stood out in the film's quieter moments; David Sims of The Atlantic bemoaned the lack of depth in her role, but credited the actress for effectively portraying her character's struggle for independence from authoritarian men. Larson reprised her role in Avengers: Endgame, which she had filmed before Captain Marvel. Endgame grossed $2.79 billion worldwide to briefly become the highest-grossing film of all time, and Captain Marvel became the first female-led superhero film to gross over $1 billion worldwide. Also in 2019, Larson teamed with Destin Daniel Cretton for the third time in Just Mercy, based on Bryan Stevenson's memoir about death row inmate Walter McMillian's wrongful conviction, starring Michael B. Jordan and Jamie Foxx. She agreed to take on the supporting part of Eva Ansley, an advocate for the Equal Justice Initiative, to lend her support to Cretton's storytelling. Owen Gleiberman of Variety took note of how well she channeled her character's "antsy, cigarette-smoking defensiveness." 2020–present: Hiatus and return During the COVID-19 pandemic, Larson took a break from acting, stating that the roles she was being offered were variations of the one she played in Room. Feeling the need to recalibrate, she instead focussed on personal interests such as podcasting and vlogging. In 2020, she produced and appeared in an episode of The Messy Truth VR Experience, a virtual reality series created by Van Jones, for which they won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Interactive Program. In 2022, Larson reprised her role as Captain Marvel for the Disneyland Paris theme park ride Avengers Assemble: Filght Force and the Disney Wish cruise ship ride Avengers: Quantum Encounter. She collaborated with Disney+ on two projects. She created, directed and hosted the docuseries Growing Up and starred in the augmented reality short film Remembering. She also featured as the character Paradigm in the online video game Fortnite Battle Royale. At the 2023 Cannes Film Festival, Larson served as a jury member. Larson returned to the screen after over three years in the action film Fast X (2023), which marked the tenth installment of the Fast & Furious series. Paste Kevin Fox Jr. opined that she "shines when on screen, but feels wasted in a surprisingly small role". Larson hired producer Lee Eisenberg to develop Lessons in Chemistry, an adaptation of Bonnie Garmus's novel of the same name. The miniseries, which streamed on Apple TV+, is about chemist Elizabeth Zott who begins hosting a feminist cooking show in 1960s America. Slant Magazine Ross McIndoe took note of Larson's "commanding presence" and appreciated her ability to not turn Zott into a "caricature". In her final release of 2023, Larson will once again play Captain Marvel in the superhero sequel The Marvels. Advocacy Larson is a gender equality activist and an advocate for sexual assault survivors. She uses her celebrity to speak out on social and political issues, asserting, "I'd put it all on the line and be an activist for the rest of my life because it doesn't feel right to me to be quiet." Following a performance by Lady Gaga at the 2016 Academy Awards, where several sexual abuse survivors appeared with the singer, Larson hugged all of them as they exited the stage. At the following year's ceremony, she presented Casey Affleck with the award for Best Actor, but due to several accusations of sexual harassment made against him, she did not clap for him during a standing ovation from the audience. However, she did hug him; she later said her action "spoke for itself". In 2018, Larson collaborated with 300 women in Hollywood to set up the Time's Up initiative to protect women from harassment and discrimination. In the same year, she became one of the first actors to incorporate an inclusion rider provision in her film and press junket contracts. In a 2019 interview, she remarked upon diversity among film critics and journalists, finding them to be "overwhelmingly white male", and supported diversity in the industry. This comment led to trolling and review bombing of the Captain Marvel page on Rotten Tomatoes. In 2014, Larson teamed with Alia Penner to launch Women of Cinefamily, a monthly program to call attention to films directed by and starring women, for the nonprofit cinematheque Cinefamily, in which Larson served as an advisory board member. In the wake of sexual assault allegations against two of the company's male executives, she released a statement in support of the victims and calling for action to be taken against the men. Larson joined the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in 2016, and was later among the finalists for the organization's board of governors. In 2017, she was one of several celebrities to raise funds for the Motion Picture & Television Fund, a charity that offers assistance to elderly members of the industry, and co-hosted an event for the Women in Film organization, during which she urged filmmakers to be vocal against Donald Trump's presidency. She took part in the Women's March on Washington and condemned Trump's policies on transgender rights. At the 2018 Women in Film Crystal + Lucy Awards, where she was honored, Larson bemoaned the lack of diversity among film reporters and called for better representation of minority voices in film criticism. She announced a twenty-percent quota for underrepresented journalists at the Sundance and Toronto International Film Festivals. In 2019, she guest-edited an issue of Stylist magazine and used the platform to bring attention to diversity and social inclusion. At the Women in the World Annual Summit, she spoke out against the gender pay gap in Hollywood. Also in 2019, Variety honored Larson for her work with the Equal Justice Initiative. In 2020, she endorsed the "defund the police" movement. Personal life and media image Larson is reticent about her personal life and refuses in interviews to answer questions that make her uncomfortable. On her desire to be private, she has said she fears being judged for her flaws and that the privacy allows her to play a wide variety of roles without being typecast. Larson began dating Alex Greenwald, lead singer of the band Phantom Planet, in 2013, and they were engaged from 2016 to 2019. They had lived together in the Hollywood Hills neighborhood of Los Angeles. She had credited Greenwald for creating a safe space for her and for empowering her to take risks in her work. Since 2019, Larson was in a relationship with actor-filmmaker Elijah Allan-Blitz. In 2023, she stated that she was single, indicating that she and Allan-Blitz had broken-up. Describing Larson's off-screen persona, Holly Millea of Elle wrote in 2016 that she "carries herself like an athlete, lean and solid, surefooted [and] yet her energy is warm and familial, literally embracing". The writer Anne Helen Petersen finds her to be "incredibly warm" and adds that she is "a serious nerd, with the endlessly tunneling knowledge of a homeschooler". Jennifer Dickison of Porter states that Larson's "fully formed" personality made it difficult to categorize her into a conventional slot. Larson has said she is interested in films that illustrate the "human condition" and which "make people feel more connected to themselves [and] the rest of the world". She is drawn to roles that differ from her own personality and which involve themes of social activism. Fan Zhong of W magazine has identified a theme of "sex appeal, inner torment, and a quick, playful wit" in her characters. Lenny Abrahamson, who directed Larson in Room, believes that her craft has "none of that showy intensity that sometimes gets all the attention" and has said that her "awareness of tougher lives" empowers her performances. Destin Daniel Cretton, who directed her in Short Term 12 and The Glass Castle, has praised her ability to improvise, stating, "I never know what's going to happen, and often she doesn't know what's going to happen." Larson maintains an active social media presence and uses it as a platform to share opinions and posts that she writes herself. In 2020, she started her own YouTube channel. She also hosted a podcast named Learning Lots alongside actress Jessie Ennis. Larson was featured by Forbes in their 30 Under 30 list of 2016 and was included by People in their annual beauty list in 2016 and 2019. In 2018, she was named among the best American actors under 30 by IndieWire. In 2019, Madame Tussauds New York unveiled a wax statue of Larson as Captain Marvel. In the same year, Time magazine named her one of the 100 most influential people in the world. Acting credits and awards According to the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes and the box-office site Box Office Mojo, Larson's most critically acclaimed and commercially successful films are Scott Pilgrim vs. the World (2010), 21 Jump Street (2012), Short Term 12 (2013), Don Jon (2013), The Spectacular Now (2013), Trainwreck (2015), Room (2015), Kong: Skull Island (2017), Captain Marvel (2019), Avengers: Endgame (2019), and Fast X (2023). Larson has received an Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award, a Screen Actors Guild Award, and a British Academy Film Award, among other accolades, for her performance in Room. She won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Interactive Program for producing the virtual reality series The Messy Truth VR Experience (2020). References External links 1989 births 20th-century American actresses 21st-century American actresses 21st-century American singer-songwriters Activists from California Actresses from Los Angeles Actresses from Sacramento, California American Conservatory Theater alumni American YouTubers American child actresses American child singers American feminists American film actresses American people of French-Canadian descent American people of Swedish descent American television actresses American women pop singers American women singer-songwriters Best Actress Academy Award winners Best Actress BAFTA Award winners Best Actress Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (film) winners Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead winners Living people Musicians from Los Angeles Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners Actresses from Greater Los Angeles Primetime Emmy Award winners Singer-songwriters from California

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아폴리나리오 마비니

아폴리나리오 마비니(, 1864년 7월 23일 ~ 1903년 5월 13일)는 필리핀의 혁명가이자 독립운동가, 언론인, 작가, 정치인이다. 필리핀의 현대 헌법의 초안자이자 작성자이기도 하다. 필리핀의 행정원장을 역임했다. 필리핀 역사에서 그는 "위대한 마비니", "혁명의 뇌" 등으로 불린다. 농촌 출신으로 마닐라의 산후안데레트란대학에서 수학하고 1894년 산토 토마스 대학에서 법학박사학위를 받았다. 소아장애와 가난을 극복하고 법률가가 되었으며, 독립과 독립 이후의 혁명정부를 꿈꾸었지만 투옥 생활을 반복했다. 혁명정부를 구상해 낸 필리핀의 위대한 역사적 인물로 후에 필리핀의 국부의 한 사람으로 추앙받았으며 초대 수상과 외무부 장관을 역임했다. 1896년 8월 민족주의자 반란에 가담해 애국지사 안드레스 보니파시오 장군의 군대에 들어가 그의 심복이 되고 카티푸난의 이론가로 활동했다. 뒤이어 에밀리오 아기날도의 심복이 되어 그를 돕다가 필리핀 혁명정부 행정원장(수상)과 외무부장관에 선임되었다. 1898년부터 미국의 식민통치에 저항하여 독립을 꾀하다가 1899년 미국에 의해 강제로 해임당한 뒤, 체포되어 괌으로 유배되었고, 1903년 석방되어 필리핀으로 귀국했으나 같은 해 5월 콜레라로 39세의 젊은 나이에 사망하였다. 필리핀 최초의 현대 헌법 초안의 작성자이기도 하다. 필리핀 화폐 1페소 지폐 도완에 들어간 인물이자 현행 10페소 도안에 안드레스 보니파시오와 함께 들어갔다. 생애 학창 시절 아폴리나리오 마비니는 1864년 7월 23일 필리핀 바탕가스의 탈라가에서 이노센시오 마비니와 디오니시아 마라난의 둘째아들로 태어났다. 그의 집안은 가난하였지만 아폴리나리오는 어려서 할아버지와 어머니로부터 글쓰기와 읽기를 배웠다. 총명하였지만 집안 형편상 학업을 할 수 없었던 그는 심플리시오 아벨리노 초등학교에 입학, 소아장애로 고통을 받으면서도 어린나이에 심부름꾼, 잡부, 숙박업소의 종업원 등을 하며 심플리시오 아벨리노 초등학교를 고학으로 졸업하였다. 그 후 중학교와 고등학교에서 우수한 성적을 거두었고, 고등학교를 우수한 성적으로 졸업한 뒤 아폴리나리오는 마닐라의 산후안 데 레트란 단과대학의 문과에 입학하여 세계사를 전공하고 우수한 성적으로 졸업했다. 마비니의 어머니는 그를 성직자로 키우려 했지만 그는 가난하고 어려운 사람들을 돕겠다는 신념으로 어머니의 뜻을 저버린다. 그 후 산후안 데 레트란 단과대학 졸업 후 대학 편입학을 포기하고, 잠시 교사생활을 하였다. 그러나 마비니는 공부를 더 하고싶은 욕심에 노동으로 1888년 산토 토마스 대학에 입학하여 법학을 전공했다. 민족 해방과 혁명 운동 그 뒤 열강의 침략이 가시화되자 안드레스 보니파시오, 에밀리오 아기날도 등과 함께 스페인 등에 저항하는 민족 해방 운동에 참가하였다. 1896년 8월 민족주의자 반란에 가담해 애국지사 안드레스 보니파시오 장군의 군대에 들어가 그의 심복이 되고 카티푸난의 이론가로 활동했다. 뒤이어 에밀리오 아기날도의 심복이 된다. 그러나 1896년말 아폴리나리오는 갑자기 열병에 걸려 몸에 마비증상이 왔고, 전신마비라는 신체적인 결함으로 인해 마비니는 안드레스 보니파시오와 카티푸난의 무장 혁명운동당시 활동적인 부분을 담당하지는 못했으나 카티푸난의 이론가이자 혁명의 이론가로서 참모 역할을 하였고 혁명의 제2단계 실현에 기여하였다. 1897년 병중에도 필리핀을 지배해 온 스페인에 맞서는 독립 운동에 가담했으며 카티푸난의 이론가이자 핵심 참모로 활동했다. 스페인-미국 전쟁 당시 그는 아기날도의 수석 고문으로 활동했다. 이때 그는 스페인으로부터의 독립을 위해 미국과 손잡을 것을 주장했다. 그 뒤 카티푸난에서 아기날도를 대통령으로 선출하자 이를 지지하였다. 정부 수립 미국과의 갈등 그는 혁명정부를 구상하고 1898년 1월 아기날도 정부의 행정원장과 외무부장관을 역임하였다. 미국과 필리핀 혁명 정부 사이에 무력 총돌이 발생하자 그는 평화를 위한 협상을 제안했다. 그러나 협상 중 그가 제시한 조건에서 미국인들이 아기날도의 새로운 정부와 마비니 내각의 자율성을 인정할 것을 주장하는 조건이 있어 미국측은 협상을 거절했다. 마비니는 다시 협상을 추진하지만 회담은 또 다시 결렬되었다. 결국 그는 미국의 협상 거부가 필리핀 침략을 목적으로 하는 것이라고 보고 독립 전쟁을 결심한다. 1899년 5월 7일 일단 총리직을 사임했다. 그러나 그는 외무장관이었고, 1899년 8월 혁명국회에서 대법원장으로 선출되었다. 또한 1898년 9월부터 최초의 현대 필리핀 헌법 초안을 작성, 10월 교역도시 말롤로스에서 열린 정치집회에서 이를 발표하였다. 마비니는 미국헌법을 참조, 이와 유사한 헌법을 기초했다. 독립 전쟁 참여와 투옥 독립선언을 한 후 아귀날도가 정부를 개편하자 아폴리나리오 마비니가 아기날도 정부의 고문이 되었다. 마비니는 아귀날도에게 독재 정부를 포기하고 개방형 혁명 정부를 세울것을 충고했으나 거절당했다. 아기날도는 슬하에 5명의 장관을 두고 혁명국회는 새 법을 제정했다. 스페인을 몰아내고 독립하는데 성공했지만 다시 미국의 필리핀 침략이 가시화되자 그는 미국의 영향력 확장에 맞서 자립론을 주장하였다. 미국이 필리핀에서 영향력을 강화하자 이를 합병하려 하는 것으로 보고 아폴리나리오는 아기날도와 다시 독립운동을 벌였다. 1899년 12월 아서 C. 맥아더 주니어는 미국 상원을 움직여 마비니를 추방해야만 될 이유를 설명했고, 그는 미 당국에 의해 강제로 해임당한 뒤 체포, 투옥되었다가 1900년 10월 3일 풀려났다. 투옥과 최후 그러나 옥중에서 심해진 질병으로 운신이 불편하였고 그 뒤 마닐라의 작은 오두막 집에서 정치 기사와 칼럼 등을 작성하며 근근이 생계를 유지하였다. 그러나 미국 식민지 정부에 협조하지 않는다는 이유로 1901년 괌으로 유배되어갔다. 저서로는 사후 출간된 <필리핀 혁명 La revolución filipina>이 있다. 1903년 2월 다시 풀려나 필리핀으로 다시 돌아올 수 있었지만 5월 13일 콜레라에 걸려 마닐라 외곽의 자택에서 39세로 사망했다. 사후 마닐라 외곽에 있던 그의 집은 1968년도 사적지로 공인되었으며 그의 생존당시 고가구, 도기 및 식기류, 부엌의 모습이 담긴 사진들이 그대로 보존되었으며, 후일 마비니 기념관으로 개편되었다. 후일 필리핀의 독립 이후 필리핀 지폐 1페소 도안에 들어갔다가, 나중에는 10페소 도완에 들었다. 그 뒤 현행 필리핀 화폐 10페소 도안에 안드레스 보니파시오와 함께 들어있다. 저서 <필리핀 혁명 La revolución filipina> (1931) 참고 에밀리오 아기날도 호세 리잘 필리핀의 수상 민족 해방 운동 카티푸난 외부 링크 The Philippine Revolution, by Apolinario Mabini at the Austrian-Philippine Page at Institute of Social Anthropology, University of Vienna Msc.edu Mabini link Short biography Apolinario Mabini essays Apolinario Mabini's essays on the 1898 Philippine government 1864년 출생 1903년 사망 필리핀의 독립운동가 필리핀의 정치인 필리핀의 총리 필리핀의 장관 필리핀의 변호사 필리핀의 언론인 필리핀의 외교관 필리핀의 작가 필리핀의 혁명가 필리핀의 언론인 산토토마스 대학교 동문 고문 피해자 옥사한 사람 콜레라로 죽은 사람 카푸티난 반미 감정 바탕가스주 출신 필리핀-미국 전쟁 관련자

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apolinario%20Mabini

Apolinario Mabini

Apolinario Mabini y Maranan (, July 23, 1864 – May 13, 1903) was a Filipino revolutionary leader, educator, lawyer, and statesman who served first as a legal and constitutional adviser to the Revolutionary Government, and then as the first Prime Minister of the Philippines upon the establishment of the First Philippine Republic. He is regarded as the "utak ng himagsikan" or "brain of the revolution" and is also considered as a national hero in the Philippines. Mabini's work and thoughts on the government shaped the Philippines' fight for independence over the next century. Two of his works, El Verdadero Decálogo (The True Decalogue, June 24, 1898) and Programa Constitucional de la República Filipina (The Constitutional Program of the Philippine Republic, 1898), became instrumental in the drafting of what would eventually be known as the Malolos Constitution. Mabini performed all his revolutionary and governmental activities despite having lost the use of both his legs to polio shortly before the Philippine Revolution of 1896. Mabini's role in Philippine history saw him confronting first Spanish colonial rule in the opening days of the Philippine Revolution, and then American colonial rule in the days of the Philippine–American War. The latter saw Mabini captured and exiled to Guam by American colonial authorities, allowed to return only two months before his eventual death in May 1903. Life Early life and education Apolinario Mabini was born on July 23, 1864, in Barrio Talaga in Tanauan, Batangas. He was the second of eight children of Dionisia Maranan y Magpantay, a vendor in the Tanauan market, and Inocencio Leon Mabini y Lira, an illiterate peasant. Apolinario Mabini attended the historical school of Father Valerio Malabanan located in Lipa. Being poor, Apolinario Mabini was able to get educated due to the Malabanan school's matriculation of students based on their academic merit rather than ability of the parents to pay. He would meet future leader Miguel Malvar while studying in Lipa. In 1881, Mabini received a scholarship from Colegio de San Juan de Letran in Manila. An anecdote about his stay there says that a professor there decided to pick on him because his shabby clothing clearly showed he was poor. Mabini amazed the professor by answering a series of very difficult questions with ease. His studies at Letran were periodically interrupted by a chronic lack of funds, and he earned money for his board and lodging by teaching children. Law Studies Mabini's mother had wanted him to enter the priesthood, but his desire to defend the poor made him decide to study law instead. A year after receiving his Bachiller en Artes with highest honors and the title Professor of Latin from Letran, he moved on to University of Santo Tomas in 1888. There, where he received his law degree in 1894. Comparing Mabini's generation of Filipino intellectuals to the previous one of Jose Rizal and the other members of the propagandists movement, journalist and National Artist of the Philippines for Literature Nick Joaquin describes Mabini's generation as the next iteration in the evolution of Filipino intellectual development: Europe had been a necessary catalyst for the generation of Rizal. By the time of Mabini, the Filipino intellectual had advanced beyond the need for enlightenment abroad[....] The very point of Mabini's accomplishment is that all his schooling, all his training, was done right here in his own country. The argument of Rizal's generation was that Filipinos were not yet ready for self-government because they had too little education and could not aspire for more in their own country. The evidence of Mabini's generation was that it could handle the affairs of government with only the education it had acquired locally. It no longer needed Europe; it had imbibed all it needed of Europe. Mabini joined the Guild of Lawyers after graduation, but he did not choose to practice law in a professional capacity. He did not set up his own law office, and instead continued to work in the office of a notary public. Instead, Mabini put his knowledge of law to much use during the days of the Philippine Revolution and the Filipino-American war. Joaquin notes that all his contributions to Philippine history somehow involved the law: "His was a legal mind. He was interested in law as an idea, as an ideal[...] whenever he appears in our history he is arguing a question of legality." Masonry and La Liga Filipina Mabini joined the fraternity of Freemasonry in September 1892, affiliating with lodge Balagtas, and taking on the name "Katabay". The following year, Mabini became a member of La Liga Filipina, which was being resuscitated after the arrest of its founder José Rizal in 1892. Mabini was made secretary of its new Supreme Council. This was Mabini's first time to join an explicitly patriotic organization. Mabini, whose advocacies favored the reformist movement, pushed for the organization to continue its goals of supporting La Solidaridad and the reforms it advocated. When more revolutionary members of the Liga indicated that they did not think the reform movement was getting results and wanted to more openly support revolution, La Liga Filipina split into two factions: the moderate Cuerpo de Compromisarios, which wanted simply to continue to support the revolution, and the explicitly revolutionary Katipunan. Mabini joined the Cuerpo de Compromisarios. When José Rizal, part of the "La Liga Filipina", was executed in December that year, however, he changed his mind and gave the revolution his wholehearted support. Polio and eventual paralysis Mabini was struck by polio in 1895, and the disease gradually incapacitated him until January 1896, when he finally lost the use of both his legs. 1896 Revolution and Arrest When the plans of the Katipunan were discovered by Spanish authorities, and the first active phase of the 1896 Philippine Revolution began in earnest, Mabini, still ill, was arrested along with numerous other members of La Liga Filipina. Thirteen patriots, later known as the "Thirteen Martyrs of Cavite", were arrested in Cavite, tried and eventually executed. José Rizal himself was accused of being party to the revolution, and would eventually be executed in December that year. When the Spanish authorities saw that Mabini was paralyzed, however, they decided to release him. Adviser to the Revolutionary Government Sent to the hospital after his arrest, Mabini remained in ill health for a considerable time. He was seeking the curative properties of the hot springs in Los Baños, Laguna in 1898 when Emilio Aguinaldo sent for him, asking him to serve as advisor to the revolution. During this convalescent period, Mabini wrote the pamphlets "El Verdadero Decálogo" and "Ordenanzas de la Revolución". Aguinaldo was impressed by these works and by Mabini's role as a leading figure in La Liga Filipina, and made arrangements for Mabini to be brought from Los Baños to Kawit, Cavite. It took hundreds of men taking turns carrying his hammock to portage Mabini to Kawit. He continued to serve as the chief adviser for General Aguinaldo after the Philippine Declaration of Independence on June 12. He drafted decrees and edited the constitution for the First Philippine Republic, including the framework of the revolutionary government which was implemented in Malolos in 1899. Prime Minister of the Philippines Shortly after Aguinaldo's return to the Philippines from exile in Hong Kong in May 1898, he tasked Mabini with helping him establish a government. Mabini authored the June 18, 1898, decree which established the Dictatorial Government of the Philippines. After the Malolos Constitution, the basic law of the First Philippine Republic, was promulgated on January 21, 1899, Mabini was appointed Prime Minister and also Foreign Minister. He then led the first cabinet of the republic. Mabini found himself in the center of the most critical period in the new country's history, grappling with problems until then unimagined. Most notable of these were his negotiations with Americans, which began on March 6, 1899. The United States and the Philippine Republic were embroiled in extremely contentious and eventually violent confrontations. During the negotiations for peace, Americans proffered Mabini autonomy for Aguinaldo's new government, but the talks failed because Mabini's conditions included a ceasefire, which was rejected. Mabini negotiated once again, seeking for an armistice instead, but the talks failed yet again. Eventually, feeling that the Americans were not negotiating 'bona fide,' he forswore the Americans and supported war. He resigned from government on May 7, 1899. Philippine American War, exile, and return The Philippine–American War saw Mabini taken more seriously as a threat by the Americans than he was under the Spanish: Says National Artist for Literature F. Sionil Jose: "The Spaniards underestimated Mabini primarily because he was a cripple. Had they known of his intellectual perspicacity, they would have killed him earlier. The Americans did not. They were aware of his superior intelligence, his tenacity when he faced them in negotiations for autonomy and ceasefire. On December 10, 1899, he was captured by Americans at Cuyapo, Nueva Ecija. He was captured by troopers of the 4th Cavalry Regiment. He was imprisoned after his capture, though he was in bad health, and was exiled to the island of Guam for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to the United States along with other revolutionists Americans referred to as insurrectos (rebels) or Irreconcilables. Mabini returned to the Philippines after agreeing to take the Oath of Allegiance to the United States on February 26, 1903, before the Collector of Customs. On the day he sailed, he issued this statement to the press: Mabini resumed his work of agitating for independence for the Philippines soon after his return from exile. Death Not long after his return, Mabini died of cholera at home along Nagtahan, Manila on May 13, 1903, at the age of 38, after consuming an unpasteurized and contaminated carabao milk. His funeral at the Binondo Church was attended by around 8,000 people including members of the Iglesia Filipina Independiente who took over and occupied the Binondo Church at the time. Historical Remembrance Mabini's complex contributions to Philippine History are often distilled into two historical monikers - "Brains of the Revolution," and "Sublime Paralytic". Contemporary historians such as Ambeth Ocampo point out, though, that these two monikers are reductionist and simplistic, and "do not do justice to the hero's life and legacy." "Brains of the Revolution" Because of his role as advisor during the formation of the revolutionary government, and his contributions as statesman thereafter, Mabini is often referred to as the "Brains of the Revolution", a historical moniker he sometimes shares with Emilio Jacinto, who served in a similar capacity for the earlier revolutionary movement, the Katipunan. "Sublime Paralytic" Mabini is also famous for having achieved all this despite having lost the use of his legs to polio just prior to the Philippine revolution. This has made Mabini one of the Philippines' most visually iconic national heroes, such that he is often referred to as "The Sublime Paralytic" (Tagalog: Dakilang Lumpo). Controversy about Mabini's paralysis Even during his lifetime, there were controversial rumors regarding the cause of Mabini's paralysis. Infighting among members of the Malolos congress led to the spread of rumors that Mabini's paralysis had been caused by venereal disease - specifically, syphilis. This was finally debunked in 1980, when Mabini's bones were exhumed and the autopsy proved conclusively that the cause of his paralysis was polio. This information reached National Artist F. Sionil José too late, however. By the time the historian Ambeth Ocampo told him about the autopsy results, he had already published Po-on, the first novel of his Rosales Saga. That novel contained plot points based on the premise that Mabini had indeed become a paralytic due to syphilis. In later editions of the book, the novelist corrected the error and issued an apology, which reads in part: In the later editions, Mabini's disease - an important plot point - was changed to an undefined liver ailment. The ailing Mabini takes pride in the fact that his symptoms are definitely not those of syphilis, despite the rumors spread by his detractors in the Philippine Revolutionary government. Tributes Shrines Two sites related to Mabini have been chosen to host shrines in his honor: The house where Mabini died is now located in the campus of the Polytechnic University of the Philippines (PUP) in Santa Mesa, Manila, having been moved twice. The original location was within the PSG Compound inside the Malacanang Park. The simple nipa retains the original furniture, and some of the books he wrote, and also contains souvenir items, while hosting the municipal library and reading facilities. Mabini was buried in his town of birth - what is now Barangay Talaga, Tanauan City, Batangas. An interactive museum containing historical artifacts, his personal properties, books he wrote, and it also provides historical information about him, the Philippines during his time, and some of his town's historical background was constructed, and was recently renovated and improved, on this site. It also sells books about him and souvenir items. A replica of the house Mabini was born in was also constructed on the site. Two monuments to Mabini and the 41 other insurrectos imprisoned in Agat, Guam are located at the site of their prison camp, now part of the War in the Pacific National Historical Park. Place names Four Philippine municipalities are named after Mabini: Mabini, Batangas, Mabini, Bohol, Mabini, Davao de Oro, and Mabini, Pangasinan The main campus of the Polytechnic University of the Philippines (PUP) in Santa Mesa, Manila was named after Apolinario Mabini by Dr. Nemesio Prudente, when he reorganized the university in 1988. The Mabini Academy is a school in Lipa City, Batangas named after Mabini. The school logo carries Mabini's Image. Southern Tagalog Arterial Road or Apolinario Mabini Superhighway is an expressway that connect the province of Batangas to the SLEX. Mabini Bridge, formerly known as Nagtahan Bridge in the city of Manila, was renamed in his honor. Mabini reef, also referred to as Johnson South Reef, is a reef claimed by the Philippines in the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea. It is currently controlled by the People's Republic of China (PRC). In addition to the Philippines and China, its ownership is also disputed by Brunei, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Naval Vessels The Philippine Navy's Jacinto class corvette, BRP Apolinario Mabini (PS-36), is also named after Mabini. Philippine Peso Mabini's face adorns the Philippine ten peso coin, previously alongside Andrés Bonifacio. The newer series (New Generation Currency Series) only has Mabini. He was also featured on the ten peso bill that circulated or printed starting with the Pilipino Series in 1972 and continued until the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas stopped printing these notes (New Design series version) in 2001. From 1972 to 1997, he was the only one to portray on the front of the banknote until it added Andrés Bonifacio that were printed from 1997 to 2001. Government Awards and Citations The Gawad Mabini is awarded to Filipinos for distinguished foreign service, or promoting the interests and prestige of the Philippines abroad. It was established by Presidential Decree No. 490, s. 1974 in Mabini's honor since he was the first Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the First Philippine Republic. The Philippine government presents the annual Apolinario Mabini Awards to outstanding persons with disabilities. Media portrayals Ronnie Quizon in the film, El Presidente (2012). Delphine Buencamino (2015), Liesl Batucan (2016), Monique Wilson (2019) in the musical "Mabining Mandirigma" Epi Quizon in the film, Heneral Luna (2015), and its sequel, Goyo: Ang Batang Heneral (2018). At the height of the film Heneral Luna popularity, reports of numerous incidents - including one during a Q&A with actor Epi Quizon - in which school-age youths asked why Mabini just sat in a chair throughout the film, implying a lack of familiarity with the famously paralytic statesman. Even President Benigno Aquino III remarked on the implications of the lack of awareness among students, saying "even if only a few students said this, we can say that this is a reflection of how little some of the youth know about history. Later, I will call up (Education Secretary) Armin (Luistro) to act on this." Po-on (in English: "Dusk"): In this abstract and enigmatic novel, Apolinario Mabini visited Rosales, Pangasinan, which was adapted by writer F. Sionil Jose into an intricate miasma of a novel wherein his visit was intertwined with bona fide and phantasmic people and events alike.Editorial Reviews, Amazon.com, retrieved on: April 17, 2008"Dusk", About this Book , Random House, Inc., RandomHouse.ca, retrieved on: April 17, 2008Gibney Frank, Everybody's Colony (page 1), A book review about F. Sionil Jose's Dusk, New York: The Modern Library. 323 pp., The New York Times, NYTimes.com, August 2, 1998Po-on has since been described by famed essayist, poet and playwright Ricaredo Demetillo as "the first great Filipino novels written in English". It is mentioned by American book reviews as --Ian Buruma, New York Review of Books and --Chicago TribuneAbout this book and Backcover details, Amazon.com in addition to being described by Random House as Selected works The True Decalogue (El Verdadero Decalogo'', June 24, 1898) Contestaciones y Consideraciones Al Pueblo y Congreso Norte-Americanos Ordenanzas de la Revolucion Programa Constitucional dela Republica Filipina (The Constitutional Program of the Philippine Republic) (circa., 1898) La Revolución Filipina (The Philippine Revolution, 1931) Quotes From Mabini Describing his cabinet: On Emilio Aguinaldo and his cabinet members: About Mabini By former Military Governor of the Philippines, Gen. Arthur MacArthur, describing Mabini before the US Senate's Lodge Committee of 1902: By President Benigno Aquino III, reacting to Philippine students' apparent lack of familiarity with Mabini in 2015, when Mabini was portrayed in the film Heneral Luna: References Further reading External links The Philippine Revolution, by Apolinario Mabini at the Austrian-Philippine Page at Institute of Social Anthropology, University of Vienna Msc.edu Mabini link Short biography Apolinario Mabini essays Apolinario Mabini's essays on the 1898 Philippine government |- |- 1864 births 1903 deaths Colegio de San Juan de Letran alumni Filipino Resistance activists 19th-century Filipino lawyers Paramilitary Filipinos People from Batangas People of the Philippine–American War People of the Spanish–American War Politicians with paraplegia People of the Philippine Revolution Prime Ministers of the Philippines University of Santo Tomas alumni Secretaries of Foreign Affairs of the Philippines Deaths from cholera Aguinaldo administration cabinet members Filipino independence activists Spanish-language writers of the Philippines Filipino Freemasons Infectious disease deaths in the Philippines Lawyers with disabilities People from the Spanish East Indies

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안드레스 보니파시오

안드레스 보니파시오(Andrés Bonifacio, 1863년 11월 30일 ~ 1897년 5월 10일) 필리핀의 독립운동가 겸 정치인이다. 필리핀 독립의 아버지로 부른다. 무장 독립운동 단체 카티푸난(Katipunan)의 설립자이자 초대 수령이었다. 그는 필리핀 독립운동가 중 무장항쟁론자에 속한다. 스페인 식민 통치 말기, 무거운 세금과 중노동에 시달리고 있었으나 1892년 안드레스 보니파시오가 중심이 되어 비밀결사 단체인 카티푸난이 결성되고 1896년 8월에 카티푸난을 이끌고 '푸가드 라윈의 통곡'이라는 이름의 무장 봉기를 일으키게 된다. 이는 대 스페인 항쟁과 대 미국 항쟁의 기원이 된다. 아기날도 역시 그가 만든 카티푸난에 참가했으며 1897년 카티푸난의 내부 항쟁에서 아기날도가 승리하여 보니파시오를 총살하고 지도권을 잡게 된다. 민족주의 시인이자 소설가인 호세 리살이 필리핀에서 스페인 통치의 개혁과 자치 운동을 바란 것과는 달리, 보니파시오는 처음부터 스페인으로부터의 완전 독립을 주장했다. 그는 무장 단체를 조직하여 대 스페인 무장 투쟁을 하다가 1892년 마닐라에서 비밀결사단체 카티푸난을 결성했다. 그 뒤 홍콩에 망명중이던 에밀리오 아기날도 등을 영입하여 필리핀 해방 운동을 꾀했으나, 스페인 군과의 교전에서 패배하여 지도력을 잃었다. 1897년 독립한 혁명정부에서 아기날도를 대통령으로 추대하자 이에 반발하여 독자적으로 새 정부를 구성하려다가 에밀리오 아기날도에 의해 반역죄로 총살되었다. 생애 생애 초반 안드레스 보니파시오는 1863년 11월 30일 스페인령 필리핀 마닐라 톤토의 가난한 빈농 집안의 오두막에서 산티아고 보니파시오와 카탈리나 데 카스트로의 아들로 태어났다. 아버지 산티아고 보니파시오는 평민이었고, 집안 환경이 가난하여 그는 정규 교육을 거의 받지 못했다. 그가 태어날 무렵은 필리핀이 스페인의 식민지로 있을 때로 무거운 세금과 중노동에 시달리고 있었고, 각지에서 스페인 통치에 항거하는 시위와 반 스페인 여론이 나타났다. 독립 운동과 혁명활동에 참여하기 전 그는 독학으로 수학했고, 생계를 위해 배달부와 상점 점원 생활을 하였다. 14세에 부모를 다 병으로 잃고 4명의 동생을 부양해야 했다. 부채나 지팡이를 팔기도 하고 노동을 하였으며, 심부름꾼과 포스터를 그리는 화가로도 활동했다. 정규 교육을 받지 못하였으나 스스로 독서를 한 까닭에 매우 박식했다고 한다. 청소년기 무렵 첫 부인 모니카(Monica)와 결혼했으나 일찍 사별하고, 30세 때인 1893년 칼로오칸 출신의 카티푸난의 멤버인 18세의 그레고리아 데 헤수스와 재혼하였다. 그레고리아 데 헤수스에게서는 아들 한명을 두었지만 이듬해 병으로 잃고 만다. 독립 운동 이후 독립운동에 참여했는데 그는 필리핀의 민족 해방운동가 중 무장 독립운동파에 속하게 되었다. 한편 필리핀 독립운동의 지도자이자 언론인, 민족주의 시인이며 소설가인 호세 리살은 필리핀에서의 스페인 통치의 개혁과 자치 운동을 요구하였다. 그러나 리살의 개혁, 자치운동과는 달리, 보니파시오는 스페인으로부터의 완전 독립을 주장했다. 그는 수많은 애국적인 글을 쓰고 필리핀의 역사 의식을 고취하는 글을 칼럼으로 기고하였다. 이 무렵 필리핀 총독부는 반스페인 운동을 조장한다는 이유로 호세 리살 박사를 체포했는데, 리살은 개혁은 부르짖었지만 그의 혁명은 동의하지 않았다. 무장 독립 투쟁 1892년 안드레아스는 마닐라에서 아폴리나리오 마비니 등과 함께 비밀결사단체 카티푸난을 결성했다. 이것은 프리메이슨주의의 의식과 조직체계를 본뜬 것이었다. 민족주의 무장 투쟁 결사단체인 카티푸난(Katipunan)의 창설자이자 지도자로서 1896년 8월 스페인에 대한 봉기를 선언했다. 훗날 아기날도 역시 카티푸난에 영입했는데, 1897년 카티푸난의 내부 항쟁에서 아기날도가 승리하여 보니파시오를 총살하고 지도권을 잡게 된다. 1892년 7월 3일 톤도에서 호세 리살 등과 함께 독립운동 단체 라 리가 필리피나(La Liga Filipina)의 창립에 참여했다. 리살은 참정권과 시민권, 비폭력 저항 등을 목적으로 했다. 그러나 이에 반발한 안드레스 보니파시오는 무장 독립을 주장하고, 그가 중심이 되어 다시 비밀결사 카티푸난이 결성되었다. 1896년 8월 보니파시오는 카티푸난을 이끌고 '푸가드 라윈의 통곡'이라는 이름의 무장 봉기를 일으키고 독립 전쟁을 선언했다. 이후 그는 스페인의 눈을 피하기 위해 그는 서서히 비밀리에 회원을 모집하고 독립 준비를 했다. 이 중 아폴리나리오 마비니는 카티푸난의 브레인이자 그의 핵심 참모였다. 카티푸난은 처음에는 서서히 성장했다. 1896년까지 그는 스페인의 압제에 반발하는 필리핀 시민과 지식인 등 20만 명의 회원을 확보하고 마닐라와 중부 루손섬, 파나이섬, 민도로섬, 민다나오섬 등 필리핀 외곽의 섬 지방에도 지부를 두었다. 회원들은 대부분 노동자와 농민들, 스페인에 의해 강제로 착취당하던 빈민, 실직자 등도 포섭하였다. 한편 도시의 중산계층은 혁명보다는 개혁을 원했다. 그는 중산층 이상의 시민에게도 협력을 요청했지만 이들은 협력을 거부한다. 8월 23일 그는 정식으로 스페인을 외세로 규정하고 타갈로그 공화국을 선포, 임시 대통령에 취임한다. 전쟁 패배와 혁명 실패 1896년 8월 루손에서 오랜 계획 끝에 반란을 일으키고, 스페인에 대한 봉기를 선언했다. 그러나 정식 훈련을 받지 못한 의용군은 스페인 군대와의 교전에서 거듭 패배하여 북부의 몬탈반으로 퇴각하지 않을 수 없었다. 그러나 그의 부관 가운데 에밀리오 아기날도는 저항을 계속했다. 1896년 12월 30일 호세 리살 박사가 마닐라에서 공개 처형을 당하자 필리핀인을 격분시켰고 보니파시오는 호세 리살의 원수를 갚겠다며 항전을 계속해 나갔다. 그는 호세 리살이 처형당하기 전에 남긴 '마지막 작별의 글'을 필리핀어와 타갈로그어로 번역하였다. 계속 산악 지대로 이동해다니며 스페인의 필리핀 총독부 군대와 교전했지만 29회의 교전에서 거듭 패배하였다. 그러나 스페인이 반란자들을 체계적으로 색출해내고 이들의 근거지와 새 계획까지 미리 탐지함에 따라 오히려 보니파시오가 무능한 군사지도자인 것이 드러났다. 결국 카티푸난의 회의에서 그는 점차 부관들 사이에서 신망을 잃어갔다. 1897년 3월 카티푸난의 테제로스에서 열린 회의에서 보니파시오 대신 아기날도를 필리핀 공화국의 새로운 대통령으로 추대했다. 최후 에밀리오 아기날도의 새 대통령 선출과 카티푸난 회의의 결정을 인정하지 않은 보니파시오는 독자적인 반란 정부를 추진하려고 했다. 그러나 스페인 군과 적으로 돌변한 카티푸난 양측의 공세에 그의 세력은 위축되었고 1897년 4월 에밀리오 아기날도군에 의해 체포되었다. 그해 5월 보니파시오는 카티푸난에 의해 반역죄로 재판에 회부되었고, 1897년 5월 10일 필리핀 분티스 산에서 동생과 함께 총살되었다. 그의 나이 34세였다. 사후 그의 시신과 동생의 시신은 방치되었고 안드레스 보니파치오에게는 합당한 장례조차 치러지지 않았다. 안드레스 보니파치오가 죽은 뒤 그의 부인 그레고리아 데 헤수스는 30일간 산 속에서 그의 시신을 찾아 헤맸으나 찾지 못했다. 이는 훗날 영화화되어 <위대한 행방불명자>라는 영화의 소재가 된다. 1946년 필리핀의 독립 이후, 필리핀의 독립 영웅이자 필리핀 독립의 아버지의 한사람으로 추앙되었다. 1969년 필리핀 지폐 5페소의 주인공으로 도완되었고, 1978년의 필리핀 지폐 5페소의 주인공으로도 도완되었다. 2007년 글로리아 아로요 대통령에 의해 그의 생일인 11월 30일은 보니파시오 데이(보니파시오의 날)로 정하고 공식 필리핀 국경일로 정하였다. 같이 보기 카티푸난 민족 해방 운동 에밀리오 아기날도 아폴리나리오 마비노 호세 리잘 역대 선거 결과 외부 링크 101년 전 34세의 짧은 생을 살다 간 독립운동가 ‘안드레스 보니파시오’ 코리아포스트 2008-12-05 Ang Supremo – Filipino Culture by The Pinoy Warrior and What if Andres Bonifacio had a Facebook Page? The Records of the Court Martial of Andres and Procopio Bonifacio Full text and online collection of court documents in Spanish and old Tagalog with regards to the Andres and Procopio Bonifacio trial. The Courtmartial of Andres Bonifacio English translation of the historical court documents and testimonies in the trial and execution of Andres and Procopio Bonifacio processed by Filipiniana.net Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog Summary and full text of an article written by Andres Bonifacio in the Katipunan newspaper Kalayaan posted in Filipiniana.net Andres Bonifacio: 1863–1897. United States Library of Congress. 1863년 출생 1897년 사망 필리핀의 혁명가 필리핀의 독립운동가 필리핀의 정치인 필리핀의 대통령 필리핀의 혁명가 필리핀의 군인 암살된 사람 총살형된 사람 혁명가 필리핀의 장군 마닐라 출신 카푸티난 스페인계 필리핀인 중국계 필리핀인 필리핀의 로마 가톨릭교도 사형된 필리핀 사람 필리핀에서 사형된 사람 쿠데타로 축출된 지도자

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s%20Bonifacio

Andrés Bonifacio

Andrés Bonifacio y de Castro (, ; November 30, 1863May 10, 1897) was a Filipino revolutionary leader. He is often called "The Father of the Philippine Revolution", and considered one of the national heroes of the Philippines. He was one of the founders and later the Kataastaasang Pangulo (Supreme President, Presidente Supremo in Spanish, often shortened by contemporaries and historians to just Supremo) of the Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan or more commonly known as the "Katipunan", a movement that sought the independence of the Philippines from Spanish colonial rule and started the Philippine Revolution. With the onset of the revolution, Bonifacio reorganized the Katipunan into a revolutionary government, with himself as President (Pangulo) of a nation-state called "Haring Bayang Katagalugan" ("Sovereign Nation of the Tagalog People" or "Sovereign Tagalog Nation"), also "Republika ng Katagaluguan" ("Tagalog Republic", Republica Tagala in Spanish), where in "Tagalog" referred to all those born in the Philippine islands and not merely the Tagalog ethnic group. Hence, some historians have argued that he should be considered the First President of the Tagalogs instead of the Philippines; that is why he is not included in the current official line of succession. Bonifacio was executed by Major Lazaro Makapagal under the order of the Consejo dela Guerra (Council of War) headed by General Mariano Noriel in 1897 on the basis of committing sedition and treason against the government. Early life and education Andrés Bonifacio y de Castro was born on November 30, 1863, in Tondo, Manila, and was the first of six children of Catalina de Castro, a European Spanish Mestiza, and Santiago Bonifacio, an Alcalde of Tondo, a Chinese Hoklo Mestizo. His parents named him after Saint Andrew the Apostle, the patron saint of Manila whose feast day falls on his birth date. He learned the alphabet through his aunt. He was later enrolled in Guillermo Osmeña's private school, and learned English while employed as a clerk-messenger by a British firm. Some sources assert that he was orphaned at an early age, but, considering the existence of an 1881 record that has Bonifacio's parents listed as living in Tondo, it is disputed by others. To support his family financially, Bonifacio made canes and paper fans which he and his young siblings sold (after they were orphaned, according to the traditional view). He also made posters for business firms. This became their thriving family business that continued when the men of the family, namely Andres, Ciriaco, Procopio, and Troadio, were employed with private and government companies, which provided them with decent living conditions. In his late teens, he worked as a mandatario (agent) for the British trading firm Fleming and Company, where he rose to become a corredor (broker) of tar, rattan and other goods. He later transferred to Fressell and Company, a German trading firm, where he worked as a bodeguero (storehouse keeper) responsible for warehouse inventory. He was also a theater actor and often played the role of Bernardo Carpio, a fictional character in Tagalog folklore. Not finishing his formal education, Bonifacio turned to self-education by reading books. He read books about the French Revolution, biographies of the presidents of the United States, books about contemporary Philippine penal and civil codes, and novels such as Victor Hugo's Les Misérables, Eugène Sue's Le Juif errant and José Rizal's Noli Me Tángere and El filibusterismo. Aside from Tagalog and Spanish, he could speak and understand English, which he learned while working at J.M. Fleming and Co. Marriages Bonifacio's first wife, Monica (surname unknown), was his neighbor in Palomar, Tondo. She died of leprosy and they had no recorded children. In 1892, Bonifacio, a 29-year-old widower, met the 18-year-old Gregoria de Jesús through his friend Teodoro Plata, who was her cousin. Gregoria, also called Oriang, was the daughter of a prominent citizen and landowner from Caloocan. Gregoria's parents did not agree at first to their relationship, for Andrés was a Freemason, and Freemasons were at that time considered enemies of the Catholic Church. Her parents eventually acquiesced, and Andrés and Gregoria were married in a Catholic ceremony at Binondo Church in March 1893 or 1894. The couple were also married through Katipunan rites in a friend's house in Santa Cruz, Manila on the same day of their church wedding. They had one son, born in early 1896, who died of smallpox in infancy. Early political activism In 1892, Bonifacio was one of the founding members of José Rizal's La Liga Filipina, an organization that called for political reforms in Spain's colonial government of the Philippines. However, La Liga disbanded after only one meeting, for Rizal was arrested and deported to Dapitan in the Western Mindanao region. Bonifacio, Apolinario Mabini and others revived La Liga in Rizal's absence and Bonifacio was active at organizing local chapters in Manila. He would become the chief propagandist of the revived Liga. La Liga Filipina contributed moral and financial support to the Propaganda Movement of Filipino reformists in Spain. Katipunan On the night of July 7, 1892, the day after Rizal's deportation was announced, Bonifacio and others officially "founded" the Katipunan, or in full, Kataas-taasan, Kagalang-galang na Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan ("Highest and Most Respected Society of the Country's Children"; Bayan can also denote community, people, and nation). The secret society sought independence from Spain through armed revolt. It was influenced by Freemasonry through its rituals and organization, and several members including Bonifacio were also Freemasons. Within the society Bonifacio used the pseudonym May pag-asa (). Newly found documents though suggest that Katipunan has already been existing as early as January 1892. For a time, Bonifacio worked with both the Katipunan and La Liga Filipina. La Liga eventually split because some members like Bonifacio lost hope for peaceful reform and stopped their monetary aid. The more conservative members, mostly wealthy members, who still believed in peaceful reforms set up the Cuerpo de Compromisarios, which pledged continued support to the reformists in Spain. The radicals were subsumed into the Katipunan. From Manila, the Katipunan expanded to several provinces, including Batangas, Laguna, Cavite, Bulacan, Pampanga, and Nueva Ecija. Most of its members, called Katipuneros, came from the lower and middle classes, and many of its local leaders were prominent figures in their municipalities. At first exclusively male, membership was later extended to females, with Bonifacio's wife Gregoria de Jesús as a leading member. From the beginning, Bonifacio was one of the chief Katipunan officers, although he did not become its Presidente Supremo (Supreme President) until 1895. He was the third head of the Katipunan after Deodato Arellano and Román Basa. Prior to this, he served as the society's comptroller and then as its "fiscal" (advocate/procurator). The society had its own laws, bureaucratic structure and elective leadership. For each province involved, the Katipunan Supreme Council coordinated with provincial councils in charge of public administration and military affairs, and with local councils in charge of affairs on the district or barrio level. Within the society, Bonifacio developed a strong friendship with Emilio Jacinto, who served as his adviser and confidant, as well as a member of the Supreme Council. Bonifacio adopted Jacinto's Kartilya primer as the official teachings of the society in place of his own Decalogue, which he judged as inferior. Bonifacio, Jacinto and Pío Valenzuela collaborated on the society's organ, Kalayaan (Freedom), which had only one printed issue. Bonifacio wrote several pieces for the paper, including the poem Pag-ibig sa Tinubúang Lupà (approx. "Love for One's Homeland") under the pseudonym Agapito Bagumbayan. The publication of Kalayaan in March 1896 led to a great increase in the society's membership. The Katipunan movement spread throughout Luzon, to Panay in the Visayas and even as far as Mindanao. From less than 300 members in January 1896, it had 30,000 to 40,000 by August 1896. The rapid increase in Katipunan activity drew the suspicion of the Spanish authorities. By early 1896, Spanish intelligence was aware of the existence of a seditious secret society, and suspects were kept under surveillance and arrests were made. On May 3, Bonifacio held a general assembly of Katipunan leaders in Pasig, where they debated when to start the revolution. While some officers, especially Bonifacio, believed a revolution was inevitable, some members, especially Santiago Alvarez and Emilio Aguinaldo both of Cavite, expressed reservations and disagreement regarding the planned revolt due to lack of firearms. The consensus was to consult José Rizal in Dapitan before launching armed action, so Bonifacio sent Pío Valenzuela to Rizal. Rizal turned out to be against the revolution, believing it to be premature. He recommended more preparation, but suggested that, in the event the revolution did break out, they should seek the leadership of Antonio Luna, who was widely regarded as a brilliant military leader. Philippine Revolution Start of the uprising The Spanish authorities confirmed the existence of the Katipunan on August 19, 1896. Hundreds of Filipino suspects, both innocent and guilty, were arrested and imprisoned for treason. José Rizal (José Protasio Rizal Mercado y Realonda) was then on his way to Cuba to serve as a doctor in the Spanish colonial army in exchange for his release from Dapitan. When the news broke, Bonifacio first tried to convince Rizal, quarantined aboard a ship in Manila Bay, to escape and join the imminent revolt. Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto and disguised themselves as sailors and went to the pier where Rizal's ship was anchored. Jacinto personally met with Rizal, who rejected their rescue offer. Rizal himself was later arrested, tried and executed. Eluding an intensive manhunt, Bonifacio called thousands of Katipunan members to a mass gathering in Caloocan, where they decided to start their uprising. The event, marked by the tearing of cedulas (personal identity documents) was later called the "Cry of Balintawak" or "Cry of Pugad Lawin"; the exact location and date of the Cry are disputed. The Supreme Council of the Katipunan declared a nationwide armed revolution against Spain and called for a simultaneous coordinated attack on the capital Manila on August 29. Bonifacio appointed generals to lead rebel forces to Manila. Other Katipunan councils were also informed of their plans. Before hostilities erupted, Bonifacio reorganized the Katipunan into an open de facto revolutionary government with him as Supremo of the rebel army and the Supreme Council as his cabinet. On August 28, Bonifacio issued the following general proclamation: This manifesto is for all of you. It is absolutely necessary for us to stop at the earliest possible time the nameless oppositions being perpetrated on the sons of the country who are now suffering the brutal punishment and tortures in jails, and because of this please let all the brethren know that on Saturday, the 29th of the current month, the revolution shall commence according to our agreement. For this purpose, it is necessary for all towns to rise simultaneously and attack Manila at the same time. Anybody who obstructs this sacred ideal of the people will be considered a traitor and an enemy, except if he is ill; or is not physically fit, in which case he shall be tried according to the regulations we have put in force. Mount of Liberty, 28 August 1896 – ANDRÉS BONIFACIO. On August 30, 1896, Bonifacio personally led an attack on San Juan del Monte to capture the town's powder magazine and water station (which supplied Manila). The defending Spaniards, outnumbered, fought a delaying battle until reinforcements arrived. Once reinforced, the Spaniards drove Bonifacio's forces back with heavy casualties. Bonifacio and his troops regrouped near Mariquina (now Marikina), San Mateo and Montalban (now Rodriguez). Elsewhere, fighting between rebels and Spanish forces occurred in San Felipe Neri (now Mandaluyong), Sampaloc, Santa Ana, Pandacan, Pateros, Mariquina, Caloocan, San Pedro Macati (now Makati) and Taguig. The conventional view among Filipino historians is that the planned general Katipunan offensive on Manila was aborted in favor of Bonifacio's attack on San Juan del Monte, which sparked a general state of rebellion in the area. However, more recent studies have advanced the view that the planned offensive did push through and the rebel attacks were integrated; according to this view, Bonifacio's San Juan del Monte battle was only a part of a bigger whole – an unrecognized "Battle for Manila". Despite his reverses, Bonifacio was not completely defeated and was still considered a threat. Further, the revolt had spread to the surrounding provinces by the end of August. Haring Bayang Katagalugan Influenced by Freemasonry, the Katipunan had been organized with "its own laws, bureaucratic structure and elective leadership". For each province it involved, the Supreme Council coordinated provincial councils which were in charge of "public administration and military affairs on the supra-municipal or quasi-provincial level" and local councils, in charge of affairs "on the district or barrio level". In the last days of August, the Katipunan members met in Caloocan and decided to start their revolt (the event was later called the "Cry of Balintawak" or "Cry of Pugad Lawin"; the exact location and date are disputed). A day after the Cry, the Supreme Council of the Katipunan held elections, with the following results: The above was divulged to the Spanish by the Katipunan member Pío Valenzuela while in captivity. Teodoro Agoncillo thus wrote: Milagros C. Guerrero and others have described Bonifacio as "effectively" the commander-in-chief of the revolutionaries. They assert: One name for Bonifacio's concept of the Philippine nation-state appears in surviving Katipunan documents: Haring Bayang Katagalugan ("Sovereign Nation of Katagalugan", or "Sovereign Tagalog Nation") – sometimes shortened into Haring Bayan ("Sovereign Nation"). Bayan may be rendered as "nation" or "people". Bonifacio is named as the president of the "Tagalog Republic" in an issue of the Spanish periodical La Ilustración Española y Americana published in February 1897 ("Andrés Bonifacio – Titulado "Presidente" de la República Tagala"). Another name for Bonifacio's government was Repúblika ng Katagalugan (another form of "Tagalog Republic") as evidenced by a picture of a rebel seal published in the same periodical the next month. Official letters and one appointment paper of Bonifacio addressed to Emilio Jacinto reveal Bonifacio's various titles and designations, as follows: President of the Supreme Council Supreme President President of the Sovereign Nation of Katagalugan / Sovereign Tagalog Nation President of the Sovereign Nation, Founder of the Katipunan, Initiator of the Revolution Office of the Supreme President, Government of the Revolution Later, in November 1896, while encamped at Balara, Bonifacio commissioned Julio Nakpil to compose a national anthem. Nakpil produced a hymn called Marangal na Dalit ng Katagalugan ("Honorable Hymn of the Tagalog Nation/People"). Eventually, an 1897 power struggle in Cavite led to command of the revolution shifting to Emilio Aguinaldo at the Tejeros Convention, where a new government was formed. Bonifacio was executed after he refused to recognize the new government. The Aguinaldo-headed Philippine Republic (), usually considered the "First Philippine Republic", was formally established in 1899, after a succession of revolutionary and dictatorial governments (e.g. the Tejeros government, the Biak-na-Bato Republic) also headed by Aguinaldo. Campaigns around Manila By December 1896, the Spanish government recognized three major centers of rebellion: Cavite (under Mariano Alvarez, Emilio Aguinaldo and others), Bulacan (under Mariano Llanera) and Morong (under Bonifacio). The revolt was most successful in Cavite, which mostly fell under rebel control by September–October 1896. While Cavite is traditionally regarded as the "Heartland of the Philippine Revolution", Manila and its surrounding municipalities bore the brunt of the Spanish military campaign, becoming a no man's land. Rebels in the area were generally engaged in hit-and-run guerrilla warfare against Spanish positions in Manila, Morong, Nueva Ecija and Pampanga. From Morong, Bonifacio served as tactician for rebel guerrillas and issued commands to areas other than his personal sector, though his reputation suffered when he lost battles he personally led. From September to October 1896, Bonifacio supervised the establishment of Katipunan mountain and hill bases like Balara in Mariquina, Pantayanin in Antipolo, Ugong in Pasig and Tungko in Bulacan. Bonifacio appointing generals for these areas, or approving selections the troops themselves made. On November 7, 1896, Bonifacio led an assault on San Mateo, Mariquina and Montalban. The Spanish were forced to retreat, leaving these areas to the rebels, except for the municipal hall of San Mateo where some Spanish troops had barricaded. While Bonifacio's troops laid siege to the hall, other Katipunan forces set up defensive lines along the nearby Langka (or Nangka) river against Spanish reinforcements coming from the direction of Mariquina. After three days, Spanish counterattacks broke through the Nangka river lines. The Spanish troops thus recaptured the rebel positions and surprised Bonifacio in San Mateo, who ordered a general retreat to Balara. They were pursued, and Bonifacio was nearly killed shielding Emilio Jacinto from a Spanish bullet which grazed his collar. Bonifacio in Cavite In late 1896, Bonifacio, as the recognized overall leader of the revolution, was invited to Cavite province by rebel leaders to mediate between them and unify their efforts. There were two Katipunan provincial chapters in Cavite that became rival factions: the Magdalo, headed by Emilio Aguinaldo's cousin Baldomero Aguinaldo, and the Magdiwang, headed by Mariano Álvarez, uncle of Bonifacio's wife. Leaders of both factions came from the upper class, in contrast to Bonifacio, who came from the lower middle class. After initial successes, Emilio Aguinaldo issued a manifesto in the name of the Magdalo ruling council which proclaimed a provisional and revolutionary government – despite the existence of the Katipunan government. Emilio Aguinaldo in particular had won fame for victories in the province. The Magdalo and Magdiwang clashed over authority and jurisdiction and did not help each other in battle. After multiple letters were sent to Bonifacio urging him to come, in December 1896 he traveled to Cavite accompanied by his wife, his brothers Procopio and Ciriaco, and some troops, including Emilio Jacinto, Bonifacio's secretary and right-hand man. Jacinto was said to be against Bonifacio's expedition to Cavite. The Bonifacio brothers stayed in San Francisco de Malabon (present-day General Trias) during this time. Upon his arrival at Cavite, friction grew between Bonifacio and the Magdalo leaders. Apolinario Mabini, who later served as Emilio Aguinaldo's adviser, writes that at this point the Magdalo leaders "already paid little heed to his authority and orders." Bonifacio was partial to the Magdiwang, perhaps due to his kinship ties with Mariano Álvarez, or more importantly, due to their stronger recognition of his authority. When Aguinaldo and Edilberto Evangelista went to receive Bonifacio at Zapote, they were irritated with what they regarded as his attitude of superiority. In his memoirs Aguinaldo wrote that Bonifacio acted "as if he were a king". Another time, Bonifacio ordered the arrest of one Katipunan general from Laguna named Vicente Fernandez, who was accompanying the Magdalo leaders in paying their respect to Bonifacio, for failing to support his attack in Manila, but the other Magdalo leaders refused to surrender him. Townspeople in Noveleta (a Magdiwang town) acclaimed Bonifacio as the ruler of the Philippines, to the chagrin of the Magdalo leaders, (Bonifacio replied: "Long live Philippine liberty!"). Aguinaldo disputed with Bonifacio over strategic troop placements and blamed him for the capture of the town of Silang. The Spanish, through Jesuit Superior Pio Pi, wrote to Aguinaldo about the possibility of peace negotiations. When Bonifacio found out, he and the Magdiwang council rejected the proposed peace talks. Bonifacio was also angered that the Spanish considered Aguinaldo the "chief of the rebellion" instead of him. However, Aguinaldo continued to arrange negotiations which never took place. Bonifacio believed Aguinaldo was willing to surrender the revolution. Bonifacio was also subject to rumors that he had stolen Katipunan funds, his sister was the mistress of a priest, and he was an agent provocateur paid by friars to foment unrest. Also circulated were anonymous letters which told the people of Cavite not to idolize Bonifacio because he was a Mason, a mere Manila employee, allegedly an atheist, and uneducated. According to these letters, Bonifacio did not deserve the title of Supremo since only God was supreme. This last allegation was made despite the fact that Supremo was meant to be used in conjunction with Presidente, i.e. Presidente Supremo (Supreme President, Kataas-taasang Pangulo) to distinguish the president of the Katipunan Supreme Council from council presidents of subordinate Katipunan chapters like the Magdalo and Magdiwang; in other words, while Mariano Álvarez was the Magdiwang president, and Baldomero Aguinaldo was the Magdalo president, Bonifacio was the Supreme President. Bonifacio suspected the rumor-mongering to be the work of the Magdalo leader Daniel Tirona. He confronted Tirona, whose airy reply provoked Bonifacio to such anger that he drew a gun and would have shot Tirona if others had not intervened. On December 31, Bonifacio and the Magdalo and Magdiwang leaders held a meeting in Imus, ostensibly to determine the leadership of Cavite in order to end the rivalry between the two factions. The issue of whether the Katipunan should be replaced by a revolutionary government was brought up by the Magdalo, and this eclipsed the rivalry issue. The Magdalo argued that the Katipunan, as a secret society, should have ceased to exist once the Revolution was underway. They also held that Cavite should not be divided. Bonifacio and the Magdiwang contended that the Katipunan served as their revolutionary government since it had its own constitution, laws, and provincial and municipal governments. Edilberto Evangelista presented a draft constitution for the proposed government to Bonifacio but he rejected it as it was too similar to the Spanish Maura Law. Upon the event of restructuring, Bonifacio was given carte blanche to appoint a committee tasked with setting up a new government; he would also be in charge of this committee. He tasked Emilio Aguinaldo to record the minutes of the meeting and requested for it to establish this authority, but these were never done and never provided. The Tejeros Convention On March 22, 1897, the revolutionary leaders held an important meeting in a Friar Estate Residence at Tejeros to resume their discussions regarding the escalating tension between the Magdalo and Magdiwang forces; And also to settle once-and-for-all the issue of governance within the Katipunan through an election. Amidst implications on whether the government of the "Katipunan" should be established as a monarchy or as a republic, Bonifacio maintained that it should be established as a republic. According to him, they were all in opposition to the King of Spain, and all of the government's members of any given rank should serve under the principle of liberty, equality, and fraternity, upon which republicanism was founded. Despite Bonifacio's concern on the lack of officials and representatives from other provinces, he was obliged to proceed with the election. Before the election began, he asked that the results be respected by everyone, and all agreed. The Magdalo faction voted their own Emilio Aguinaldo President in absentia, as he was involved in the battle of Perez Dasmariñas, which was then ongoing. The resulting revolutionary government established at Tejeros, calling itself the Republica de Filipinas (Republic of the Philippines) around a month later, was later superseded by a number of reorganized revolutionary governments also headed by Aguinaldo. These included the Republica de Filipinas of November 1897, commonly known today as the "Republic of Biak-na-Bato", the Hong Kong Junta government-in-exile, the dictatorial government under which Philippine independence was proclaimed on June 12, 1898, and the revolutionary government now commonly known as the First Philippine Republic or "Malolos Republic", inaugurated on January 23, 1899 as the Republica Filipina (Philippine Republic). The 1899 government is now officially considered to be the true "first" Republic of the Philippines, with the present-day government of the Philippines thus being the "fifth" Republic. Bonifacio received the second-highest number of votes for president. Though it was suggested that he be automatically be awarded the Vice Presidency, no one seconded the motion and the Election continued. Mariano Trías of the Magdiwang was elected vice president. Bonifacio was the last to be elected, as Director of the Interior. Daniel Tirona, protested Bonifacio being appointed as Director of the Interior on the grounds that the position should not be occupied by a person without a lawyer's diploma. Tirona suggested a prominent lawyer for the position such as Jose del Rosario. Insulted and angered, Bonifacio demanded an apology, since the voters had agreed to respect the election results. Tirona ignored Bonifacio's demand for apology which drove Bonifacio to draw his gun and again he nearly shot Tirona, who hid among the people, but he was restrained by Artemio Ricarte of the Magdiwang, who had been elected Captain-General. Bonifacio declared: "In my capacity as chairman of this convention, and as Presidente Supremo of the Most Venerable Katipunan of the Sons of the People, which association is known and acknowledged by all, I hereby declare null and void all matters approved in this meeting." He then promptly left the premises. Repudiation of Tejeros election results On March 23, 1897, the day after the Tejeros convention, Aguinaldo surreptitiously took his oath of office as president in a chapel officiated by a Catholic priest Cenon Villafranca who was under the authority of the Pope in Rome. According to Gen. Santiago Alvarez, guards were posted outside with strict instructions not to let in any unwanted partisan from the Magdiwang faction while the oath-taking took place. Artemio Ricarte also took his office "with great reluctance" and made a declaration that he found the Tejeros elections "dirty or shady" and "not been in conformity with the true will of the people." Meanwhile, Bonifacio met with his remaining supporters and drew up the Acta de Tejeros, wherein they gave their reasons for not accepting the election results. Bonifacio alleged the election was fraudulent due to cheating and accused Aguinaldo of treason for his negotiations with the Spanish. In their memoirs Santiago Álvarez (son of Mariano) and Gregoria de Jesús both alleged that many ballots were already filled out before being distributed, and Guillermo Masangkay contended there were more ballots prepared than voters present. Álvarez writes that Bonifacio had been warned by a Cavite leader Diego Mojica of the rigged ballots before the votes were canvassed, but he had done nothing. The Acta de Tejeros was signed by Bonifacio and 44 others, including Artemio Ricarte, Mariano Alvarez and Pascual Alvarez. Then, in a later meeting on April 19 in Naic, another document, the Naic Military Agreement, was drawn up which declared that its 41 signatories, "... having discovered the treason committed by certain officers who have been sowing discord and conniving with the Spaniards [and other offensive acts]", had "agreed to deliver the people from this grave danger" by raising an army corps "by persuasion or force" under the command of General Pio del Pilar. The document's 41 signatories included Bonifacio, Ricarte and del Pilar. The meeting was interrupted by Aguinaldo and del Pilar. Mariano Noriel and others present then promptly returned to Aguinaldo's fold. Aguinaldo attempted to persuade Bonifacio to cooperate with his government, but Bonifacio refused and proceeded to Indang, Cavite planning to get out of Cavite and proceed back to Morong. Arrest, trial and execution In late April, Aguinaldo fully assumed the presidential office after consolidating his position among the Cavite elite – most of Bonifacio's Magdiwang supporters shifting allegiance to Aguinaldo. Aguinaldo's government then ordered the arrest of Bonifacio, who was then moving out of Cavite. In April 1897, Aguinaldo ordered the arrest of Bonifacio after he received a letter that Bonifacio had burned down a village and ordered the burning of the parish house and church of Indang when the townspeople was unable to provide the required supplies and provisions. Many of the principal men of Indang, among them Severino de las Alas (a loyalist and supporter of Bonifacio), presented Emilio Aguinaldo with several complaints against Bonifacio that the Supremo's men stole carabaos and other work animals by force and butchered them for food. On April 25, a party of Aguinaldo's men led by Colonel Agapito Bonzón and Major José Ignacio "Intsik" Paua caught up with Bonifacio at his camp in barrio Limbon, Indang. The unsuspecting Bonifacio received them cordially. Early the next day, Bonzón and Paua attacked Bonifacio's camp. Bonifacio was surprised and refused to fight against "fellow Tagalogs", ordering his men to hold their fire, but shots were nevertheless exchanged. Bonifacio was shot in the arm by Bonzón, and Paua stabbed him in the neck but was prevented from striking further by one of Bonifacio's men, who offered to die in Bonifacio's place. Andrés's brother Ciriaco was shot dead, while his other brother Procopio was beaten, and his wife Gregoria may have been raped by Bonzón. From Indang, a half-starved and wounded Bonifacio was carried by hammock to Naic, which had become President Aguinaldo's headquarters. Bonifacio's party was brought to Naic initially and then to Maragondon, Cavite, where he and Procopio stood trial on May 5, 1897, on charges of sedition and treason against Aguinaldo's government and conspiracy to murder Aguinaldo. The jury was composed entirely of Aguinaldo's men and even Bonifacio's defence lawyer himself declared his client's guilt. Bonifacio was barred from confronting the state witness on the charge of conspiracy to murder on the grounds that the latter had been killed in battle. However, after the trial the witness was seen alive with the prosecutors. The Bonifacio brothers were found guilty, despite insufficient evidence, and were recommended to be executed. Aguinaldo commuted the sentence to deportation on May 8, 1897, but Pío del Pilar and Mariano Noriel persuaded him to withdraw the order for the sake of preserving unity. In this they were seconded by Mamerto Natividád and other bona fide supporters of Aguinaldo. The Bonifacio brothers were executed on May 10, 1897, in the mountains of Maragondon. Apolinario Mabini wrote that Bonifacio's death demoralized many rebels from Manila, Laguna and Batangas who had come to help those in Cavite, and caused them to quit. In other areas, Bonifacio's close associates like Emilio Jacinto and Macario Sakay continued the Katipunan and never recognized Aguinaldo's authority. Historical controversies The historical assessment of Bonifacio involves several controversial points. His death is alternately viewed as a justified execution for treason, and a "legal murder" fueled by politics. Some historians consider him to be the rightful first President of the Philippines instead of Aguinaldo. Some historians have also advocated that Bonifacio share or even take the place of José Rizal as the (foremost) Philippine national hero. The purported discovery of Bonifacio's remains has also been questioned. Trial and sentencing Historians have condemned the trial of the Bonifacio brothers as unjust. The jury was entirely composed of Aguinaldo's men; Bonifacio's defense lawyer acted more like a prosecutor as he himself declared Bonifacio's guilt and instead appealed for less punishment; and Bonifacio was not allowed to confront the state witness for the charge of conspiracy on the grounds that the latter had been killed in battle, but later the witness was seen with the prosecutors. Teodoro Agoncillo writes that Bonifacio's declaration of authority in opposition to Aguinaldo posed a danger to the revolution, because a split in the rebel forces would result in almost certain defeat by their united and well-armed Spanish foe. In contrast, Renato Constantino contends that Bonifacio was neither a danger to the revolution in general for he still planned to fight the Spanish, nor to the revolution in Cavite since he was leaving; but Bonifacio was definitely a threat to the Cavite leaders who wanted control of the Revolution, so he was eliminated. Constantino contrasts Bonifacio who had no record of compromise with the Spanish with the Cavite leaders who did compromise, resulting in the Pact of Biak-na-Bato whereas the revolution was officially halted and its leaders exiled, though many Filipinos continued to fight especially Katipunan leaders used to be close to Bonifacio (Aguinaldo eventually, unofficially allied with the United States, did return to take charge of the revolution during the Spanish–American War). Historians have also discussed the motives of the Cavite government to replace Bonifacio, and whether it had the right to do so. The Magdalo provincial council which helped establish a republican government led by one of their own was only one of many such councils in the pre-existing Katipunan government. Therefore, Constantino and Alejo Villanueva write that Aguinaldo and his faction may be considered counter-revolutionary as well – as guilty of violating Bonifacio's constituted authority just as they considered Bonifacio to violate theirs. Aguinaldo's own adviser and official Apolinario Mabini writes that he was "primarily answerable for insubordination against the head of the Katipunan of which he was a member". Aguinaldo's authority was not immediately recognized by all rebels. If Bonifacio had escaped Cavite, he would have had the right as the Katipunan leader to prosecute Aguinaldo for treason instead of the other way around. Constantino and Villanueva also interpret the Tejeros Convention as the culmination of a movement by members of the upper class represented by Aguinaldo to wrest power from Bonifacio who represented the middle and lower classes. Regionalism among the Cavite rebels, dubbed "Cavitismo" by Constantino, has also been put forward as motivation for the replacement of Bonifacio. Mabini considered the execution as criminal and "assassination...the first victory of personal ambition over true patriotism." He also noted that "All the electors [at the Tejeros Convention] were friends of Don Emilio Aguinaldo and Don Mariano Trías, who were united, while Bonifacio, although he had established his integrity, was looked upon with distrust only because he was not a native of the province: this explains his resentment." Writing retrospectively in 1948, Aguinaldo explained that he initially commuted the sentence of death but rescinded his commutation from the pressure of the Consejo dela Guerra (Council of War) including Generals Mariano Noriel, Pio del Pilar, Severino de las Alas, all of which are supporters and loyalist of Bonifacio, among with General Mamerto Natividad, Sr. Anastacio Francisco together with the poet and historian Jose Clemente Zulueta among many others Execution There are differing accounts of Bonifacio's manner of execution. The commanding officer of the execution party, Lazaro Macapagal, said in two separate accounts that the Bonifacio brothers were shot to death, which is the orthodox interpretation. Macapagal's second account has Bonifacio attempting to escape after his brother is shot, but he is also killed while running away. Macapagal writes that they buried the brothers in shallow graves dug with bayonets and marked by twigs. However, another account states that after his brother was shot, Bonifacio was stabbed and hacked to death. This was allegedly done while he lay prone in a hammock in which he was carried to the site, being too weak to walk. This version was maintained by Guillermo Masangkay, who claimed to have gotten this information from one of Macapagal's men. Also, one account used to corroborate this version is of an alleged eyewitness, a farmer who claimed he saw five men hacking a man in a hammock. Historian Milagros Guerrero also says Bonifacio was bayoneted, and that the brothers were left unburied. After bones said to be Bonifacio's – including a fractured skull – were discovered in 1918, Masangkay claimed the forensic evidence supported his version of events. Writer Adrian Cristobal notes that accounts of Bonifacio's captivity and trial state he was very weak due to his wounds being left untreated; he thus doubts that Bonifacio was strong enough to make a last dash for freedom as Macapagal claimed. Historian Ambeth Ocampo, who doubts the Bonifacio bones were authentic, thus also doubts the possibility of Bonifacio's death by this manner. Bonifacio as first Philippine President Some historians such as Milagros Guerrero, Emmanuel Encarnación, Ramón Villegas and Michael Charleston Chua have pushed for the recognition of Bonifacio as the first President of the Philippines instead of Aguinaldo, the officially recognized one. This view emphasizes that Bonifacio was not just the leader of the Katipunan as a revolutionary secret society, as traditional historiography has emphasized, but that he also established and headed a revolutionary government through the Katipunan from 1896 to 1897, before a revolutionary government headed by Aguinaldo was first formed at the Tejeros Convention. Guerrero writes that Bonifacio had a concept of the Philippine nation called Haring Bayang Katagalugan ("Sovereign Tagalog Nation") which was displaced by Aguinaldo's concept of Filipinas. In documents predating Tejeros and the First Philippine Republic of 1899, Bonifacio is called the president of the "Sovereign [Tagalog] Nation" and the "Tagalog Republic". The term Tagalog historically refers to an ethnic group, their language, and script. Historians have thus viewed Bonifacio's concept of the Philippine nation as restricted to the Tagalog-speaking regions of Luzon, as compared to Aguinaldo's view of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao (comprising the modern Philippines). In their memoirs, Emilio Aguinaldo and other Magdalo people claim Bonifacio became the head of the Magdiwang, receiving the title Harì ng Bayan ("King of the Nation") with Mariano Álvarez as his second-in-command. Historians such as Carlos Quirino and Michael Charleston Chua suggest these claims stem from a misunderstanding or misrepresentation of Bonifacio's neologism Haring Bayan ("Sovereign Nation") as referring to Bonifacio himself instead of his concept of the nation, as was in truth reflected in his title Pangulo ng Haring Bayang Katagalugan ("President of the Sovereign Tagalog Nation"), sometimes shortened to Pangulo ng Haring Bayan ("President of the Sovereign Nation"). Santiago Álvarez (son of Mariano) distinguishes between the Magdiwang government and the Katipunan Supreme Council headed by Bonifacio. According to historian Chua, the "first President" issue has been confounded by over a century of Philippine historiography most often referring to Bonifacio as "The Supremo" and taking it to mean "The Supreme Leader", thus ultimately taking him to have had dictatorial or monarchist ambitions as opposed to the later democratic and republican Philippine Presidents, when in fact "Supremo" was only a contraction of Spanish Presidente Supremo - a translation of Bonifacio's actual title as head of the Katipunan in Tagalog, Kataas-taasang Pangulo (Supreme President) - and based on surviving documents, Bonifacio generally did not call himself by the plain term "Supremo" despite other people's usage, but instead styled himself "Pangulo", i.e. President. Chua further writes: ...even inside the Katipunan, Bonifacio struggled to make people understand his concept of the Haring Bayan not as an individual or a King, but as something else... Haring Bayan really meant the King, or the power, is the people (Haring Bayan), which is basically "The Sovereign Nation"... So when he signed himself as Pangulo ng Haring Bayan past 24 August 1896, that means he intended to be president of a national revolutionary government which aimed to be a democracy. Bonifacio as national hero José Rizal is generally considered the foremost of the national heroes of the Philippines and often "the" national hero, albeit not in law, but Bonifacio has been suggested as a more worthy candidate on the grounds of having started the Philippine Revolution. Teodoro Agoncillo notes that the Philippine national hero, unlike those of other countries, is not "the leader of its liberation forces". Renato Constantino writes that Rizal is a "United States-sponsored hero" who was promoted as the greatest Filipino hero during the American Occupation period of the Philippines – after Aguinaldo lost the Philippine–American War. The United States promoted Rizal, who was taken to represent peaceful political advocacy, instead of more radical figures whose ideas could inspire resistance against American rule. Specifically, Rizal was selected over Bonifacio who was viewed as "too radical" and Apolinario Mabini who was "unregenerate." Historian Ambeth Ocampo gives the opinion that arguing for Bonifacio as the "better" hero on the grounds that he, not Rizal, began the Philippine Revolution, is moot since Rizal inspired Bonifacio, the Katipunan, and the Revolution. Even prior to his banishment to Dapitan, Rizal was already regarded by the Filipino people as a national hero, having been elected as honorary president by the Katipunan. Other historians also detail that Bonifacio was a follower of Rizal's La Liga Filipina. León María Guerrero notes that while Rizal did not give his blessing to the Katipunan because he believed the time was premature, he did not condemn the aim of independence per se. Teodoro Agoncillo gives the opinion that Bonifacio should not replace Rizal as national hero, but they should be honored "side by side". Despite popular recognition of Rizal as "the Philippine national hero", the title itself has no explicit legal definition in present Philippine law. Rizal and Bonifacio, however, are given the implied recognition of being national heroes because they are commemorated annually nationwide – Rizal Day on December 30 and Bonifacio Day on November 30. According to the website of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts: Despite the lack of any official declaration explicitly proclaiming them as national heroes, [Rizal and Bonifacio] remain admired and revered for their roles in Philippine history. Heroes, according to historians, should not be legislated. Their appreciation should be better left to academics. Acclamation for heroes, they felt, would be recognition enough. Bonifacio's bones In 1918, the American occupational government of the Philippines mounted a search for Bonifacio's remains in Maragondon. A group consisting of government officials, former rebels, and a man reputed to be Bonifacio's servant found bones which they claimed were Bonifacio's in a sugarcane field on March 17. The bones were placed in an urn and put into the care of the National Library of the Philippines. They were housed at the Library's headquarters in the Legislative Building in Ermita, Manila, together with some of Bonifacio's papers and personal belongings. The authenticity of the bones was much disputed at the time and has been challenged as late as 2001 by Ambeth Ocampo. When Emilio Aguinaldo ran for President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines in 1935, his opponent Manuel L. Quezon (the eventual victor) invoked the memory of Bonifacio against him, the bones being the result of Bonifacio's execution by the judiciary branch of the revolutionary government headed by Aguinaldo. During World War II, the Philippines was invaded by Japan beginning on December 8, 1941. The bones were lost due to the widespread destruction and looting during the Allied capture of Manila in February 1945. Portrayal in the media Portrayed by Eddie del Mar in the film Andres Bonifacio (Ang Supremo) (1964) Portrayed by Julio Diaz in the film Bayani (1992) and the unrelated TV series Bayani (1995). Portrayed by Gardo Versoza in the film José Rizal (1998). Portrayed by Alfred Vargas in the film The Trial of Andres Bonifacio (2010) and in the film Supremo (2012). Portrayed by Mark Anthony Fernandez in GMA Lupang Hinirang music video in 2010 Portrayed by Cesar Montano in the film El Presidente (2012). Portrayed by Jolo Revilla in the TV series Indio (2013). Portrayed by Sid Lucero in the TV series Katipunan (2013) and Ilustrado (2014). Portrayed by Robin Padilla in the film Bonifacio: Ang Unang Pangulo (2014). Portrayed by Nico Antonio in the film Heneral Luna (2015). Portrayed by Jhong Hilario in the film Unli Life (2018). Notes References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External links Andres Bonifacio: 1863–1897. United States Library of Congress The Records of the Court Martial of Andres and Procopio Bonifacio Full text and online collection of court documents in Spanish and old Tagalog with regards to the Andres and Procopio Bonifacio trial. The Court-Martial of Andres Bonifacio English translation of the historical court documents and testimonies in the trial and execution of Andres and Procopio Bonifacio processed by Filipiniana.net Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog Summary and full text of an article written by Andrés Bonifacio in the Katipunan newspaper Kalayaan posted in Filipiniana.net 1863 births 1897 deaths Executed Filipino people Filipino Freemasons Filipino nationalists Filipino Resistance activists Filipino revolutionaries Katipunan members Leaders ousted by a coup Paramilitary Filipinos People executed for treason People executed by the Philippines People who were court-martialed People from Tondo, Manila People of the Philippine Revolution People from the Spanish colonial Philippines Tagalog people

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수 (불교)

수(受, 느낌지각정서영납(領納)감수(感受), , , )는 다음의 분류, 그룹 또는 체계의 한 요소이다. 초기불교의 5온설의 2번째 요소인 수온(受蘊)에 해당한다. 초기불교의 12연기설의 7번째 지분이다. 부파불교의 설일체유부의 5위 75법의 법체계에서 심소법(心所法: 46가지) 중 대지법(大地法: 10가지) 가운데 하나이다. 대승불교의 유식유가행파와 법상종의 5위 100법의 법체계에서 심소법(心所法: 51가지) 중 변행심소(遍行心所: 5가지) 가운데 하나이다. 부파불교와 대승불교의 22근 가운데 낙근고근희근우근사근의 5수근(五受根)에 해당한다. 수(受)는 신역(新譯)의 번역어로, 관련 구역어는 다음과 같다. 구역(舊譯)에서는 수(受)라고 번역된 경우도 있고 통(痛) 또는 각(覺)이라고 번역된 경우도 있다. 예를 들어, 3수(三受)는 《증일아함경》에서는 3통(三痛)이라 번역되어 있고 《중아함경》에서는 3각(三覺)이라 번역되어 있다. 번뇌를 뜻하는 취(取, )가 구역(舊譯)에서는 수(受)로 번역되기도 한다. 예를 들어, 5취온(五取蘊)이 구역에서는 5수음(五受陰)으로 되어 있는데 수(受)는 취(取)의, 음(陰)은 온(蘊)의 구역어이다. 수(受)는 다음의 여러 형태로 세분된다. 1수(一受) 2수(二受): 신수심수 2수(二受): 유미착수무미착수 3수(三受): 고수낙수불고불락수 4수(四受): 욕계계수(欲界繫受)색계계수무색계계수불계수(不繫受) 5수(五受) 또는 5수근(五受根): 낙수고수희수우수사수 또는 낙근고근희근우근사근 6수(六受) 또는 6수신(六受身): 안촉소생수이촉소생수비촉소생수설촉소생수신촉소생수의촉소생수 18수(十八受) 또는 18의근행수(十八意近行受): 6희의근행6우의근행6사의근행 36수(三十六受) 또는 36사구(三十六師句) 108수(百八受) 무량수(無量受) 초기불교의 5온설의 2번째 요소인 수온(受蘊)은 느낌지각정서의 적집, 집합 또는 무더기라는 뜻으로, 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)의 여러 작용 중 감수작용(感受作用)과 그 세력을 뜻한다. 초기불교의 12연기설에 따르면, 7번째 지분인 수(受)는 6번째 지분인 촉(觸, , )을 바탕으로 4번째 지분인 명색(名色), 즉 정신적물질적 인식대상에 대해 고(苦)와 낙(樂) 등의 느낌지각 또는 정서를 느끼는 감수작용(感受作用)이다. 부파불교의 설일체유부와 대승불교의 유식유가행파와 법상종에 따르면, 수(受)는 다른 마음작용인 촉(觸, , )이 발생할 때 촉을 바탕으로 하여 동시에, 즉 1찰나 내에 생겨나는 마음작용으로, 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 대상에 대해 '괴롭다[苦], 즐겁다[樂], 괴롭지도 않고 즐겁지도 않다[不苦不樂]' 또는 '나쁘다[苦], 좋다[樂], 나쁘지도 않고 좋지도 않다[不苦不樂]'고 느끼게 하는 마음작용이다. 부파불교와 대승불교는 모두 수(受)의 마음작용이 5온의 수온(受蘊)에 해당한다고 말하고 있다. 초기불교 5온설 초기불교의 5온설의 2번째 요소인 수온(受蘊, , , , aggregates of feeling)은 지각(知覺)의 적집, 집합 또는 무더기라는 뜻으로, 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)의 여러 작용 중 감수작용(感受作用)과 그 세력을 뜻한다. 지각(知覺)의 대상이라는 면에서 볼 때, 수온(受蘊)은 전5식을 통해 육체적물질적 대상을 지각(知覺, 즉 受, 즉 느낌)하는 것만을 의미하지 않으며 제6식(부파불교의 경우) 또는 후3식(대승불교의 경우)을 통해 정신적 대상을 지각(知覺, 즉 受, 즉 느낌)하는 것도 함께 의미한다. 12연기설에 따르면 생사윤회의 출발점은 무명(無明: 인과의 도리에 미혹하는 것, 즉, 사성제를 자각적으로 실천적으로 알지 못하는 것)인데, 무명을 일으켜 생사를 윤회하게 하는 실제적인 가장 큰 두 가지 원인은 유루에 통한 수온(受蘊: 지각 작용), 즉 수취온(受取蘊)과 유루에 통한 상온(想蘊: 표상 작용), 즉 상취온(想取蘊)이다. 즉, 수취온(受取蘊: 유루에 통한 지각 작용)에 의해 온갖 유루의 욕망에 탐착하고 상취온(想取蘊: 유루에 통한 표상작용)에 의해 온갖 전도된 생각, 개념 또는 관념을 일으켜 그것에 탐착하게 되면, 사성제를 망각하게 되고 생사윤회가 끝나는 지점인 무위 무루법의 열반에 이르는 길인 유위 무루법의 도제(팔정도)로부터 멀어지게 된다. 이와 같이 유루에 통한 수온(受蘊: 지각 작용)과 상온(想蘊: 표상 작용)은 생사윤회의 가장 큰 두 가지 원인이 되기 때문에, 수온과 상온은 행온과는 별도의 두 요소[支分]로 설정되어 있다. 12연기설 초기불교의 12연기설에 따르면, 7번째 지분인 수(受)는 5번째 지분인 6입(六入: 감관, 즉 根, 즉 六根)과 4번째 지분인 명색(名色: 정신과 물질, 모든 정신적물질적 사물, 즉 대상, 즉 境, 즉 무위법을 제외한 六境)과 3번째 지분인 식(識: 마음, 6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)의 3가지의 접촉인 6번째 지분인 촉(觸, , , )을 바탕으로 명색(名色), 즉 정신적물질적 인식대상에 대해 고(苦)와 낙(樂) 등의 느낌을 느끼는 감수작용(感受作用)이다. 그리고 수(受)를 바탕으로 8번째 지분인 애(愛, , , ), 갈애(渴愛) 또는 애탐(愛貪)이 생긴다. 5온은 유루와 무루에 모두 통하는데, 유루에 통한 5온을 5취온(五取蘊)이라 하며, 《잡아함경》 등의 고타마 붓다의 가르침에 따르면, 5온으로 하여금 5취온이 되게 하는 근본 요인은 욕탐(欲貪: 욕계의 탐), 즉 욕계(欲界)의 색성향미촉의 5경(五境)에 대한 탐욕, 갈망 또는 집착으로서의 5욕(五欲)이다. 즉, 5욕(五欲) 즉 애, 갈애 또는 애탐에 의해 12연기설의 9번째 지분인 취(取,, , ), 즉 번뇌와 집착에 빠진 5취온(五取蘊)의 존재 상태에 있게 되는데, 이러한 연기관계의 보다 실제적인 출발점이 7번째 지분인 수(受)이다. 부파불교 부파불교의 설일체유부의 교학을 비판적으로 집대성한 《구사론》에 따르면, 수(受)는 마음(6식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 대상에 대해 3수(三受), 즉 고(苦)낙(樂)불고불락(不苦不樂)의 느낌을 느끼게[感受, 領納] 하는 마음작용이다. 그리고 설일체유부에서는 수(受)가 다른 마음작용인 촉(觸, , )이 발생할 때 그것과 동시에 생겨나는 마음작용으로 작용으로 본다. 그리고 이와 같이 촉(觸)과 함께 동시에 생겨나는 마음작용들의 통칭하여 설일체유부의 5위 75법의 체계에서 대지법(大地法: 10가지)이라 한다. 그리고 이러한 해석은 《잡아함경》 등의 초기불교 경전에 나오는 고타마 붓다의 가르침을 토대로 한 것으로, 부파불교 또는 아비달마불교의 교학은 고타마 붓다의 가르침에 대한 1차 해석체계라고 할 수 있다. 설일체유부를 비롯한 부파불교에서는 수(受)의 마음작용이 5온의 수온에 해당한다고 보는데, 초기불교의 《아함경》 등에서와 마찬가지로 수(受)가 안촉소생수(眼觸所生受: 안촉에 의해 생겨난 수, 즉 안촉에 의해 생겨난 고낙불고불락의 느낌) 내지 의촉소생수(眼觸所生受: 의촉에 의해 생겨난 수, 즉 의촉에 의해 생겨난 고낙불고불락의 느낌)의 6수신(六受身), 즉 6수(六受)로 나뉜다고 말하고 있다. 대승불교 대승불교에서도 부파불교의 설일체유부와 마찬가지로, 수(受)는 마음(8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 대상에 대해 3수(三受), 즉 고(苦)낙(樂)불고불락(不苦不樂)의 느낌을 느끼게[感受, 領納] 하는 마음작용이라고 정의하고 있다. 《성유식론》에서는 다음과 같이 수(受)를 정의하고 있다. 위의 《성유식론》의 인용문에서 성(性) 또는 체성(體性)은 본질적인 성질 또는 직접적인 작용을 뜻하고, 업(業) 또는 업용(業用)은 본질적인 작용 또는 간접적인 작용을 뜻한다. 위의 《성유식론》의 인용문에서는 3수(三受), 즉 고(苦)낙(樂)불고불락(不苦不樂)의 느낌을 각각 수순함[順]거슬림[違]수순도 거슬림도 아닌[俱非] 대상의 모습[境相]이라고 표현하고 있다. 그리고 마음(8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 인식대상에 대해 3수(三受)를 느끼게[感受, 領納] 하는 것이 수(受)의 마음작용의 본질적 성질[性]이라고 진술하고 있다. 위의 《성유식론》의 인용문에서는 '애착[愛]을 일으키는 것을 업(業)으로 삼는다'라고 말함으로써 마음(8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 인식대상에 대해 애착[愛]을 일으키케 하는 것이 수(受)의 마음작용의 본질적 작용[業]이라고 진술하고 있다. 그리고 이 진술을 통해 12연기설에서 7번째 지분인 수(受)를 바탕으로 8번째 지분인 애(愛, , , ), 갈애(渴愛) 또는 애탐(愛貪)이 발생한다는 초기불교의 연기(緣起)의 교의를 그대로 나타내고 있다. 위의 《성유식론》의 인용문에서는 '능히 화합[合]과 떠남[離] 및 화합도 떠남도 아닌 것의 욕구[非二欲]를 일으키기 때문이다'라고 말함으로써 고(苦)낙(樂)불고불락(不苦不樂)의 3수(三受)에 대해 좀 더 자세한 설명을 하고 있다. 이 설명은 세친이 《대승오온론(大乘五蘊論)》에서 3수(三受)에 대해 정의하고 있는 것과 동일한 것이다. 세친은 괴로움[苦]과 즐거움[樂]의 본질을 다른 마음작용인 촉(觸: 근경식의 3사의 화합)과 욕(欲: 욕구 또는 욕망)과의 상관관계 하에서 다음과 같이 정의하고 있다. 참고 문헌 각주 불교 용어 불교 사상

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedan%C4%81

Vedanā

Vedanā (Pāli and Sanskrit: वेदना) is an ancient term traditionally translated as either "feeling" or "sensation." In general, vedanā refers to the pleasant, unpleasant and neutral sensations that occur when our internal sense organs come into contact with external sense objects and the associated consciousness. Vedanā is identified as valence or "hedonic tone" in psychology. Vedanā is identified within the Buddhist teaching as follows: One of the seven universal mental factors in the Theravāda Abhidharma. One of the five universal mental factors in the Mahāyāna Abhidharma. One of the twelve links of dependent origination (in both Theravāda and Mahāyāna traditions). One of the five skandas (in both Theravāda and Mahāyāna traditions). One of the objects of focus within the four foundations of mindfulness practice. In the context of the twelve links, craving for and attachment to vedanā leads to suffering; reciprocally, concentrated awareness and clear comprehension of vedanā can lead to Enlightenment and the extinction of the causes of suffering. Definitions Theravada Bhikkhu Bodhi states: Feeling is the mental factor which feels the object. It is the affective mode in which the object is experienced. The Pali word vedanā does not signify emotion (which appears to be a complex phenomenon involving a variety of concomitant mental factors), but the bare affective quality of an experience, which may be either pleasant, painful or neutral.... Nina van Gorkom states: When we study the Abhidhamma we learn that 'vedanā' is not the same as what we mean by feeling in conventional language. Feeling is nāma, it experiences something. Feeling never arises alone; it accompanies citta and other cetasikas and it is conditioned by them. Thus, feeling is a conditioned nāma. Citta does not feel, it cognizes the object and vedanā feels... All feelings have the function of experiencing the taste, the flavour of an object (Atthasālinī, I, Part IV, Chapter I, 109). The Atthasālinī uses a simile in order to illustrate that feeling experiences the taste of an object and that citta and the other cetasikas which arise together with feeling experience the taste only partially. A cook who has prepared a meal for the king merely tests the food and then offers it to the king who enjoys the taste of it: ...and the king, being lord, expert, and master, eats whatever he likes, even so the mere testing of the food by the cook is like the partial enjoyment of the object by the remaining dhammas (the citta and the other cetasikas), and as the cook tests a portion of the food, so the remaining dhammas enjoy a portion of the object, and as the king, being lord, expert and master, eats the meal according to his pleasure, so feeling, being lord, expert and master, enjoys the taste of the object, and therefore it is said that enjoyment or experience is its function. Thus, all feelings have in common that they experience the 'taste' of an object. Citta and the other accompanying cetasikas also experience the object, but feeling experiences it in its own characteristic way. Mahayana The Abhidharma-samuccaya states: What is the absolutely specific characteristic of vedana? It is to experience. That is to say, in any experience, what we experience is the individual maturation of any positive or negative action as its final result. Mipham Rinpoche states: Sensations are defined as impressions. The aggregate of sensations can be divided into three: pleasant, painful, and neutral. Alternatively, there are five: pleasure and mental pleasure, pain and mental pain, and neutral sensation. In terms of support, there are six sensations resulting from contact... Alexander Berzin describes this mental factors as feeling (tshor-ba, Skt. vedanā) some level of happiness. He states: When we hear the word “feeling” in a Buddhist context, it’s only referring to this: feeling some level of happy or unhappy, somewhere on the spectrum. So, on the basis of pleasant contacting awareness—it comes easily to mind—we feel happy. Happiness is: we would like it to continue. And, on the basis of unpleasant contacting awareness—it doesn’t come easily to the mind, we basically want to get rid of it—we feel unhappiness. “Unhappiness” is the same word as “suffering” (mi-bde-ba, Skt. duhkha). Unhappiness is: I don’t want to continue this; I want to be parted from this. And neutral contacting awareness. We feel neutral about it—neither want to continue it nor to discontinue it... Relation to "emotions" Vedanā is the distinct valence or "hedonic tone" of emotional psychology, neurologically identified and isolated. Contemporary teachers Bhikkhu Bodhi and Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche clarify the relationship between vedanā (often translated as "feelings") and Western notions of "emotions." Bhikkhu Bodhi writes: "The Pali word vedanā does not signify emotion (which appears to be a complex phenomenon involving a variety of concomitant mental factors), but the bare affective quality of an experience, which may be either pleasant, painful or neutral." Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche writes: "In case [i.e. within the Buddhist teachings] 'feeling' is not quite our ordinary notion of feeling. It is not the feeling we take so seriously as, for instance, when we say, 'He hurt my feelings.' This kind of feeling that we take so seriously belongs to the fourth and fifth skandhas of concept and consciousness." Attributes In general, the Pali canon describes vedanā in terms of three "modes" and six "classes." Some discourses discuss alternate enumerations including up to 108 kinds. Three modes, six classes Throughout canonical discourses (Sutta Pitaka), the Buddha teaches that there are three modes of vedanā: pleasant (sukhā) unpleasant (dukkhā) neither pleasant nor unpleasant (adukkham-asukhā, "ambivalent", sometimes referred to as "neutral" in translation) Elsewhere in the Pali canon it is stated that there are six classes of vedanā, corresponding to sensations arising from contact (Skt: sparśa; Pali: phassa) between an internal sense organ (āyatana; that is, the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body or mind), an external sense object and the associated consciousness (Skt.: vijnana; Pali: viññāna). (See Figure 1.) In other words: feeling arising from the contact of eye, visible form and eye-consciousness feeling arising from the contact of ear, sound and ear-consciousness feeling arising from the contact of nose, smell and nose-consciousness feeling arising from the contact of tongue, taste and tongue-consciousness feeling arising from the contact of body, touch and body-consciousness feeling arising from the contact of mind (mano), thoughts (dhamma) and mind-consciousness Two, three, five, six, 18, 36, 108 kinds In a few discourses, a multitude of kinds of vedana are alluded to ranging from two to 108, as follows: two kinds of feeling: physical and mental three kinds: pleasant, painful, neutral five kinds: physical pleasant, physical painful, mental pleasant, mental painful, equanimous six kinds: one for each sense faculty (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, mind) 18 kinds: explorations of the aforementioned three mental kinds of feelings (mental pleasant, mental painful, equanimous) each in terms of each of the aforementioned six sense faculties 36 kinds: the aforementioned 18 kinds of feeling for the householder and the aforementioned 18 kinds for the renunciate 108 kinds: the aforementioned 36 kinds for the past, for the present and for the future In the wider Pali literature, of the above enumerations, the post-canonical Visuddhimagga highlights the five types of vedanā: physical pleasure (sukha); physical displeasure (dukkha); mental happiness (somanassa); mental unhappiness (domanassa); and, equanimity (upekkhā). Canonical frameworks Vedanā is a pivotal phenomenon in the following frequently identified frameworks of the Pali canon: the "five aggregates" the twelve conditions of "dependent origination" the four "foundations of mindfulness" Mental aggregate Vedanā is one of the five aggregates (Skt.: skandha; Pali: khandha) of clinging (Skt., Pali: upādāna; see Figure 2 to the right). In the canon, as indicated above, feeling arises from the contact of a sense organ, sense object and consciousness. Central condition In the Chain of Conditioned Arising (Skt: pratītyasamutpāda; Pali: ), the Buddha explains that: vedanā arises with contact (phassa) as its condition vedanā acts as a condition for craving (Pali: ; Skt.: ). In the post-canonical 5th-century Visuddhimagga, feeling (vedana) is identified as simultaneously and inseparably arising from consciousness (viññāṇa) and the mind-and-body (nāmarūpa). On the other hand, while this text identifies feeling as decisive to craving and its mental sequelae leading to suffering, the conditional relationship between feeling and craving is not identified as simultaneous nor as being karmically necessary. Mindfulness base Throughout the canon, there are references to the four "foundations of mindfulness" (satipaṭṭhāna): the body (kāya), feelings (vedanā), mind states (citta) and mental experiences (dhammā). These four foundations are recognized among the seven sets of qualities conducive to enlightenment (bodhipakkhiyādhammā). The use of vedanā and the other satipaṭṭhāna in Buddhist meditation practices can be found in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta and the Ānāpānasati Sutta. Wisdom practices Each mode of vedanā is accompanied by its corresponding underlying tendency or obsession (anusaya). The underlying tendency for pleasant vedanā is the tendency toward lust, for unpleasant, the tendency toward aversion, and for neither pleasant nor unpleasant, the tendency toward ignorance. In the Canon it is stated that meditating with concentration (samādhi) on vedanā can lead to deep mindfulness (sati) and clear comprehension () (see Table to the right). With this development, one can experience directly within oneself the reality of impermanence (anicca) and the nature of attachment (upādāna). This in turn can ultimately lead to liberation of the mind (nibbāna). Alternate translations Alternate translations for the term vedana are: Feeling (Nina van Gorkom, Bhikkhu Bodhi, Alexander Berzin) Feeling some level of happiness (Alexander Berzin) Feeling-tone (Herbert Guenther) Sensation (Erik Kunsang) See also Affect (psychology) (Skt.; Pali: ) - six sense bases (Pali; Skt.: ) - foundations of mindfulness Skandha (Skt.; Pali: khandha) - aggregates Valence (psychology) Notes Sources Berzin, Alexander (2006), Primary Minds and the 51 Mental Factors Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed.) (2000). A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma: The Abhidhammattha Sangaha of Ācariya Anuruddha. Seattle, WA: BPS Pariyatti Editions. . Bhikkhu Bodhi (2003), A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, Pariyatti Publishing Dalai Lama (1992). The Meaning of Life, translated and edited by Jeffrey Hopkins, Boston: Wisdom. Guenther, Herbert V. & Leslie S. Kawamura (1975), Mind in Buddhist Psychology: A Translation of Ye-shes rgyal-mtshan's "The Necklace of Clear Understanding" Dharma Publishing. Kindle Edition. Kunsang, Erik Pema (translator) (2004). Gateway to Knowledge, Vol. 1. North Atlantic Books. Nina van Gorkom (2010), Cetasikas, Zolag Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997). Paticca-samuppada-vibhanga Sutta: Analysis of Dependent Co-arising, Access to Insight Hamilton, Sue (2001). Identity and Experience: The Constitution of the Human Being according to Early Buddhism. Oxford: Luzac Oriental. . Nyanaponika Thera (trans.) (1983). Datthabba Sutta: To Be Known (SN 36.5). Retrieved 2007-06-08 from "Access to Insight" at: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn36/sn36.005.nypo.html. Nyanaponika Thera & Bhikkhu Bodhi (trans.) (1999). Numerical Discourses of the Buddha: An Anthology of Suttas from the Anguttara Nikaya. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. . Rhys Davids, T.W. & William Stede (eds.) (1921-5). The Pali Text Society’s Pali–English Dictionary. Chipstead: Pali Text Society. A general on-line search engine for the PED is available at http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/. Sri Lanka Buddha Jayanti Tipitaka Series (SLTP) (n.d.). (AN AN 4.1.5.1, in Pali). Retrieved 2007-06-08 from "MettaNet-Lanka" at: http://www.metta.lk/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/4Anguttara-Nikaya/Anguttara2/4-catukkanipata/005-rohitassavaggo-p.html. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997a). Samadhi Sutta: Concentration (AN 4.41). Retrieved on 2007-06-08 from "Access to Insight" at: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.041.than.html. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997b). Sattatthana Sutta: Seven Bases (SN 22.57). Retrieved 2007-06-08 from "Access to Insight" at: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn22/sn22.057.than.html. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998). Chachakka Sutta: The Six Sextets (MN 148). Retrieved 2007-06-08 from "Access to Insight" at: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.148.than.html. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2004). Vedana Sutta: Feeling (SN 25.5). Retrieved 2007-06-08 from "Access to Insight" at: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn25/sn25.005.than.html. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2005a). Atthasata Sutta: The One-hundred-and-eight Exposition (SN 36.22). Retrieved 2008-03-31 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn36/sn36.022.than.html. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2005b). Bahuvedaniya Sutta: Many Things to be Experienced (MN 59). Retrieved 2008-03-31 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.059.than.html. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2005c). Pañcakanga Sutta: With Pañcakanga (SN 36.19). Retrieved 2008-03-31 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn36/sn36.019.than.html. Trungpa, Chögyam (2001). Glimpses of Abhidharma. Boston: Shambhala. . Upalavanna, Sister (n.d.). – Developments of concentration (AN AN 4.5.1). Retrieved 2007-06-08 from "MettaNet-Lanka" at: http://www.metta.lk/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/4Anguttara-Nikaya/Anguttara2/4-catukkanipata/005-rohitassavaggo-e.html. External links Nyanaponika Thera (ed., trans.) (1983). Contemplation of Feeling: The Discourse-Grouping on the Feelings (Vedana-Samyutta) (The Wheel, No. 303/304). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. Transcribed by Joe Crea (1995). Retrieved 2007-06-08 from "Access to Insight" at: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/nyanaponika/wheel303.html. Buddhist meditation Twelve nidānas Mental factors in Buddhism Sanskrit words and phrases Pali words and phrases

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8E%98%EC%9D%B4%EC%A7%80%20%EB%A0%88%EC%9D%B4%EC%95%84%EC%9B%83

페이지 레이아웃

페이지 레이아웃(page layout)은 여백, 색상, 크기 등의 구성요소들을 고려하여 타이포그래피, 사진, 일러스트 등 여러 종류의 그래픽들을 배열하는 것이다. 보는 사람의 시각을 고려해 계획에 맞춰 내용이 쉽고 정확하게 메시지가 전달되어야 하는 목적을 두고있으며 오늘날에는 심미적 목적으로 다양한 레이아웃을 추구하기도 한다. 기본적으로 그리드 시스템을 활용하는데 이는 구성요소를 질서 있게 분할하고 통일감을 부여하는 수단으로 어디에 위치하고, 어떻게 공간을 분할하고, 지면을 분할할 것인가 등의 문제를 해소할 수 있는 체계적인 방법이다. 주로 편집자, 그래픽디자이너 등이 담당한다. 구성 요소 타이포그래피 타이포그래피는 의사소통의 수단으로 메세지 전달에 있어 레이아웃의 가장 중요한 요소중 하나이다. 서체, 글줄의 넓이, 낱말 간격, 강조, 가독성 등을 고려하여 독자들에게 더 쉬운 정보 전달을 도울 수 있다. 글 내용에 따라 알맞은 서체와 크기 선택이 중요하며, 차이를 줌으로 글의 중요도와 순서를 결정할 수 있다. 현대의 타이포그래피는 이미지, 타입, 색상, 레이아웃, 도형 등 디자인과 관련한 모든 요소를 포함한다. 한 지면에 다양한 서체를 사용하거나 행간과 자간의 변화를 주어 개성을 표현하기도 한다. 낱자 및 낱말 자음과 모음을 따로 사용해 색상을 부여하여 리듬감을 부여하거나, 대문자 소문자를 선택해 지면 내용의 성격을 나타내거나, 글의 내용을 고려하여 서체를 선택해 특징을 나타내는 등 자폭, 자간, 어간, 무게, 서체, 대문자와 소문자 등을 고려하여 지면의 강조, 내용전달, 지면의 인상을 결정할 수 있다. 행과 문단 행의 길이가 길어지면 독자가 부담스럽고 지루해하며 다음 행을 찾기에 어려움을 느낄 수 있다. 반면 너무 짧은 행폭도 빈번한 시선의 좌우 운동을 유도해 혼란을 준다. 서체 종류에 따라 행간의 차이를 주어야 하며 지나치게 좁은 행간은 답답함을 주어 가독성을 떨어뜨린다. 일반적으로 세리프(명조) 서체보다 산세리프(고딕) 서체가더 넓은 행간을 필요로 한다. 독자의 이해를 돕기 위해 문단은 명확히 구분되어야하며 딩벳, 이니셜, 색상 등의 방법들이 있다. 정렬 정렬은 다른 디자인 요소와 어울릴 수 있도록 텍스트 박스 안에 글자들을 배치하는 작업이다. 텍스트의 양, 느낌, 형태, 가독성 등을 고려하여 지면 내용과 형식에 맞게 양끝, 왼쪽, 오른쪽, 중앙, 비대칭 정렬 등을 사용한다. 이미지 이미지는 글의 내용과 기능을 보완해줄 수 있는 역할을 하는 동시에 독자의 시선을 집중시켜 본문과 다른 구성 요소에 관심과 흥미를 갖도록 유도한다. 또한 이미지를 통해 독자들에게 글의 내용을 상기시키는 역할을 한다. 이미지는 크게 사진과 일러스트로 분류할 수 있는데, 사진은 글의 중요한 내용을 분명하고 쉽게 전달되게 돕는 역할을 한다. 사실적인 방법으로 의미를 전달하는 사진과 다르게 일러스트는 풍자적 표현, 만화적 표현, 시점을 다양하게 사용하는 등 상상력을 통해 지면에 개성을 부여할 수 있다. 여백 글의 텍스트 박스를 감싸고 공간을 만드는 여백은 독자들에게 정보를 더 쉽게 받아들이게 하는 역할을 한다. 편집자 및 디자이너의 의도적인 공간으로 독자의 시선을 집중시키고 주목시킬 수 있다. 다른 요소들로만 꽉 채운 지면은 답답함과 산만함을 줄 수 있어 시선 이탈 요인이 될 수 있으며 읽고싶지 않게 만들 수 있다. 적절한 여백은 눈의 편안함과 각 요소들의 주목성을 높여 준다. 여백과 다른 구성요소들의 균형이 안정적으로 이루어질 때 전체적인 지면이 통일되어 보인다. 색상 색상 부여로 지면의 중요도를 구분하고 정돈해주어 독자가 이해하기 쉽게 하여 가독성을 높여준다. 다른 요소와 색상을 동일하게 사용하여 통일감을 부여하거나, 원톤의 색상으로 차분하고 안정된 분위기를 연출할 수 있다. 적색 계열의 색상은 강하고 세찬 느낌을, 세피아와 검정 색상은 차분한 느낌 등 색상을 이용해 분위기를 표현하기도 한다. 다양한 배색을 통해 구성요소들의 관계를 만들어주어 하나로 묶어주고 지면 전체의 통일성을 부여해준다. 밋밋했던 지면의 개성을 부여하여 생동감과 율동감이 느껴지도록 한다. 그리드 그리드(Grid)는 타이포그래피, 사진, 일러스트 등 레이아웃 요소들의 질서를 갖춰주고 통일감을 부여하는 도구로 지면에 보이지 않는 수직 수평의 격자를 말한다. 1950년 디자인 요소들을 수학적인 그리드에 맞춰 비대칭적으로 구성하는 특징을 가진 국제 타이포그래픽 양식(International Typographic Style)에서 발생하였으며, 오늘날 타이포그래피에 많은 영향을 주고 있다. 그리드는 공간을 체계적으로 분할하여 독자에게 지면의 통일성과 정보를 명확하게 나타내주고 안정감을 느끼게 한다. 그리드를 사용함으로써 제작 과정의 시간과 비용이 단축되는 장점이 있다. 각주 그래픽 디자인 커뮤니케이션 디자인

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Page%20layout

Page layout

In graphic design, page layout is the arrangement of visual elements on a page. It generally involves organizational principles of composition to achieve specific communication objectives. The high-level page layout involves deciding on the overall arrangement of text and images, and possibly on the size or shape of the medium. It requires intelligence, sentience, and creativity, and is informed by culture, psychology, and what the document authors and editors wish to communicate and emphasize. Low-level pagination and typesetting are more mechanical processes. Given certain parameters such as boundaries of text areas, the typeface, and font size, justification preference can be done in a straightforward way. Until desktop publishing became dominant, these processes were still done by people, but in modern publishing, they are almost always automated. The result might be published as-is (as for a residential phone book interior) or might be tweaked by a graphic designer (as for a highly polished, expensive publication). Beginning from early illuminated pages in hand-copied books of the Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalog layouts, proper page design has long been a consideration in printed material. With print media, elements usually consist of type (text), images (pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing. The term page furniture may be used for items on a page other than the main text and images, such as headlines, bylines or image captions. History and layout technologies Direct physical page setting With manuscripts, all of the elements are added by hand, so the creator can determine the layout directly as they create the work, perhaps with an advanced sketch as a guide. With ancient woodblock printing, all elements of the page were carved directly into the wood, though later layout decisions might need to be made if the printing was transferred onto a larger work, such as a large piece of fabric, potentially with multiple block impressions. With the Renaissance invention of letterpress printing and cold-metal moveable type, typesetting was accomplished by physically assembling characters using a composing stick into a galley—a long tray. Any images would be created by engraving. The original document would be a hand-written manuscript; if the typesetting was performed by someone other than the layout artist, markup would be added to the manuscript with instructions as to typeface, font size, and so on. (Even after authors began to use typewriters in the 1860s, originals were still called "manuscripts" and the markup process was the same.) After the first round of typesetting, a galley proof might be printed in order for proofreading to be performed, either to correct errors in the original, or to make sure that the typesetter had copied the manuscript properly, and correctly interpreted the markup. The final layout would be constructed in a "form" or "forme" using pieces of wood or metal ("furniture") to space out the text and images as desired, a frame known as a chase, and objects which lock down the frame known as quoins. This process is called imposition, and potentially includes arranging multiple pages to be printed on the same sheet of paper which will later be folded and possibly trimmed. An "imposition proof" (essentially a short run of the press) might be created to check the final placement. The invention of hot metal typesetting in 1884 sped up the typesetting process by allowing workers to produce slugs—entire lines of text—using a keyboard. The slugs were the result of molten metal being poured into molds temporarily assembled by the typesetting machine. The layout process remained the same as with cold metal type, however: assembly into physical galleys. Paste-up era Offset lithography allows the bright and dark areas of an image (at first captured on film) to control ink placement on the printing press. This means that if a single copy of the page can be created on paper and photographed, then any number of copies could be printed. The type could be set with a typewriter, or to achieve professional results comparable to letterpress, a specialized typesetting machine. The IBM Selectric Composer, for example, could produce type of different size, different fonts (including proportional fonts), and with text justification. With photoengraving and halftone, physical photographs could be transferred into print directly, rather than relying on hand-made engravings. The layout process then became the task of creating the paste up, so named because rubber cement or another adhesive would be used to physically paste images and columns of text onto a rigid sheet of paper. Completed pages become known as camera-ready, "mechanical" or "mechanical art". Phototypesetting was invented in 1945; after keyboard input, characters were shot one-by-one onto a photographic negative, which could then be sent to the print shop directly, or shot onto photographic paper for paste-up. These machines became increasingly sophisticated, with computer-driven models able to store text on magnetic tape. Computer-aided publishing As the graphics capabilities of computers matured, they began to be used to render characters, columns, pages, and even multi-page signatures directly, rather than simply summoning a photographic template from a pre-supplied set. In addition to being used as display devices for computer operators, cathode ray tubes were used to render text for phototypesetting. The curved nature of the CRT display, however, led to distortions of text and art on the screen towards the outer edges of the screens. The advent of "flat screen" monitors (LCD, LED, and more recently OLED) in 1997 eliminated the distortion problems caused by older CRT displays. flat-panel displays have almost completely replaced CRT displays. Printers attached directly to computers allowed them to print documents directly, in multiple copies, or as an original which could be copied on a ditto machine or photocopier. WYSIWYG word processors made it possible for general office users and consumers to make more sophisticated page layouts, use text justification, and use more fonts than were possible with typewriters. Early dot matrix printing was sufficient for office documents but was of too low a quality for professional typesetting. Inkjet printing and laser printing did produce sufficient quality type, and so computers with these types of printers quickly replaced phototypesetting machines. With modern desktop publishing software such as flagship software Adobe InDesign and cloud-based Lucidpress, the layout process can occur entirely on-screen. (Similar layout options that would be available to a professional print shop making a paste-up are supported by desktop publishing software; in contrast, "word processing" software usually has a much more limited set of layout and typography choices available, trading off flexibility for ease of use for more common applications.) A finished document can be directly printed as the camera-ready version, with no physical assembly required (given a big enough printer). Greyscale images must be either half-toned digitally if being sent to an offset press or sent separately for the print shop to insert into marked areas. Completed works can also be transmitted digitally to the print shop, who may print it themselves, shoot it directly to film, or use computer to plate technology to skip the physical original entirely. PostScript and Portable Document Format (PDF) have become standard file formats for digital transmission. Digital media (non-paper) Since the advent of personal computing, page layout skills have expanded to electronic media as well as print media. E-books, PDF documents, and static web pages mirror paper documents relatively closely, but computers can also add multimedia animation, and interactivity. Page layout for interactive media overlaps with interface design and user experience design; an interactive "page" is better known as a graphical user interface (GUI). Modern web pages are typically produced using HTML for content and general structure, cascading style sheets to control presentation details such as typography and spacing, and JavaScript for interactivity. Since these languages are all text-based, this work can be done in a text editor, or a special HTML editor which may have WYSIWYG features or other aids. Additional technologies such as Macromedia Flash may be used for multimedia content. Web developers are responsible for actually creating a finished document using these technologies, but a separate web designer may be responsible for establishing the layout. A given web designer might be a fluent web developer as well, or may merely be familiar with the general capabilities of the technologies and merely visualize the desired result for the development team. Projected pages Projected slides used in presentations or entertainment often have similar layout considerations to printed pages. The magic lantern and opaque projector were used during lectures in the 1800s, using printed, typed, photographed, or hand-drawn originals. Two sets of photographic film (one negative and one positive) or one reversal film can be used to create positive images that can be projected with light passing through. Intertitles were used extensively in the earliest motion pictures when sound was not available; they are still used occasionally in addition to the ubiquitous vanity cards and credits. It became popular to use transparent film for presentations (with opaque text and images) using overhead projectors in the 1940s, and slide projectors in the 1950s. Transparencies for overhead projectors could be printed by some photocopiers. Computer presentation programs became available in the 1980s, making it possible to layout a presentation digitally. Computer-developed presentations could be printed to a transparency with some laser printers, transferred to slides, or projected directly using LCD overhead projectors. Modern presentations are often displayed digitally using a video projector, computer monitor, or large-screen television. Laying out a presentation presents slightly different challenges than a print document, especially because a person will typically be speaking and referring to the projected pages. Consideration might be given to: Editing the information presented so it either repeats what the speaker is saying (so the audience can pay attention to either) or only presents information that cannot be conveyed verbally (to avoid dividing audience attention or simply reading slides directly) Making the slides useful for later reference if printed as handouts or posted online Pacing, so slides are changed at comfortable intervals, fit the length of the talk, and content order matches the speaker's expectation Providing a way for the speaker to refer to specific items on the page, such as with color, verbal labels, or a laser pointer Sizing text and graphics so they can be seen from the back of the room, which limits the amount of information that can be presented on a single slide Use of animation to add emphasis, introduce information slowly, or be entertaining Using headers, footers, or repeated elements to make all pages similar so they feel cohesive, or indicate progress Using titles to introduce new topics or segments Grids versus templates Grids and templates are page layout design patterns used in advertising campaigns and multiple-page publications, including websites. A grid is a set of guidelines, able to be seen in the design process and invisible to the end-user/audience, for aligning and repeating elements on a page. A page layout may or may not stay within those guidelines, depending on how much repetition or variety the design style in the series calls for. Grids are meant to be flexible. Using a grid to layout elements on the page may require just as much or more graphic design skill than that which was required to design the grid. In contrast, a template is more rigid. A template involves repeated elements mostly visible to the end-user/audience. Using a template to layout elements usually involves less graphic design skill than that which was required to design the template. Templates are used for minimal modification of background elements and frequent modification (or swapping) of foreground content. Most desktop publishing software allows for grids in the form of a page filled with coloured lines or dots placed at a specified equal horizontal and vertical distance apart. Automatic margins and booklet spine (gutter) lines may be specified for global use throughout the document. Multiple additional horizontal and vertical lines may be placed at any point on the page. Invisible to the end-user/audience shapes may be placed on the page as guidelines for page layout and print processing as well. Software templates are achieved by duplicating a template data file, or with master page features in a multiple-page document. Master pages may include both grid elements and template elements such as header and footer elements, automatic page numbering, and automatic table of contents features. Static versus dynamic layouts Static layouts allow for more control over the aesthetics, and thorough optimization of space around and overlapping irregular-shaped content than dynamic layouts. In web design, this is sometimes referred to as a fixed width layout; but the entire layout may be scalable in size while still maintaining the original proportions, static placement, and style of the content. All raster image formats are static layouts in effect, but a static layout may include searchable text by separating the text from the graphics. In contrast, electronic pages allow for dynamic layouts with swapping content, personalization of styles, text scaling, image scaling, or reflowable content with variable page sizes often referred to as fluid or liquid layout. Dynamic layouts are more likely to separate presentation from content, which comes with its own advantages. A dynamic layout lays out all text and images into rectangular areas of rows and columns. As these areas' widths and heights are defined to be percentages of the available screen, they are responsive to varying screen dimensions. They will automatically ensure maximized use of available space while always staying adapted optimally both on-screen resizes and hardware-given restrictions. Text may freely be resized to provide users' individual needs on legibility while never disturbing a given layout's proportions. The content's overall arrangement on screen this way may always remain as it was originally designed. Static layout design may involve more graphic design and visual art skills, whereas dynamic layout design may involve more interactive design and content management skills to thoroughly anticipate content variation. Motion graphics do not fit neatly into either category, but may involve layout skills or careful consideration of how the motion may affect the layout. In either case, the element of motion makes it a dynamic layout, but one that warrants motion graphic design more than static graphic design or interactive design. Electronic pages may utilize both static and dynamic layout features by dividing the pages or by combining the effects. For example, a section of the page such as a web banner may contain static or motion graphics contained within a swapping content area. Dynamic or live text may be wrapped around irregularly shaped images by using invisible spacers to push the text away from the edges. Some computer algorithms can detect the edges of an object that contain transparency and flow content around contours. Front-end versus back-end With modern media content retrieval and output technology, there is much overlap between visual communications (front-end) and information technology (back-end). Large print publications (thick books, especially instructional in nature) and electronic pages (web pages) require meta data for automatic indexing, automatic reformatting, database publishing, dynamic page display, and end-user interactivity. Much of the metadata (meta tags) must be hand-coded or specified during the page layout process. This divides the task of page layout between artists and engineers, or tasks the artist/engineer to do both. More complex projects may require two separate designs: page layout design as the front-end, and function coding as the back-end. In this case, the front-end may be designed using an alternative page layout technology such as image editing software or on paper with hand rendering methods. Most image editing software includes features for converting a page layout for use in a "What You See Is What You Get" (WYSIWYG) editor or features to export graphics for desktop publishing software. WYSIWYG editors and desktop publishing software allow front-end design prior to back-end coding in most cases. Interface design and database publishing may involve more technical knowledge or collaboration with information technology engineering in the front-end. Sometimes, a function on the back-end is to automate the retrieval and arrangement of content on the front end. Design elements and choices Page layout might be prescribed to a greater or lesser degree by a house style which might be implemented in a specific desktop publishing template. There might also be relatively little layout to do in comparison to the amount of pagination (as in novels and other books with no figures). Typical page layout decisions include: Deciding on the number and size of columns and gutters (gaps between columns) Placement of intentional whitespace Size and position of images and figures Size of page margins Use of color printing or spot color for emphasis Use of special effects like overlaying text on an image, runaround and intrusions, or bleeding an image over the page margin Specific elements to be laid out might include: Boxouts and sidebars, which present information as asides from the main text flow Chapter or section titles, or headlines and subheads Image captions Notes like footnotes and end notes; bibliography, for example in academic journals or textbooks Page headers and page footers, the contents of which are usually uniform across content pages and thus automatically duplicated by layout software. The page number is usually included in the header or footer, and the software automatically increments it for each page. Pull quotes and nut graphs which might be added out of course or to make a short story fit the layout Table of contents In newspaper production, final selection and cropping of photographs accompanying stories might be left to the layout editor (since the choice of photo could affect the shape of the area needed, and thus the rest of the layout), or there might be a separate photo editor. Likewise, headlines might be written by the layout editor, a copy editor, or the original author. To make stories fit the final layout, relatively inconsequential copy tweaks might be made (for example, rephrasing for brevity), or the layout editor might make slight adjustments to typography elements like font size or leading. Floating block A floating block in writing and publishing is any graphic, text, table, or other representation that is unaligned from the main flow of text. The use of floating blocks to present pictures and tables is a typical feature of academic writing and technical writing, including scientific articles and books. Floating blocks are normally labeled with a caption or title that describes its contents and a number that is used to refer to the figure from the main text. A common system divides floating block into two separately numbered series, labeled figure (for pictures, diagrams, plots, etc.) and table. An alternative name for figure is image or graphic. Floating blocks are said to be floating because they are not fixed in position on the page at the place, but rather drift to the side of the page. By placing pictures or other large items on the sides of pages rather than embedding them in the middle of the main flow of text, typesetting is more flexible and interruption to the flow of the narrative is avoided. For example, an article on geography might have "Figure 1: Map of the world", "Figure 2: Map of Europe", "Table 1: Population of continents", "Table 2: Population of European countries", and so on. Some books will have a table of figures—in addition to the table of contents—that lists centrally all the figures appearing in the work. Other kinds of floating blocks may be differentiated as well, for example: Sidebar: For digressions from the main narrative. For example, a technical manual on the usage of a product might include examples of how various people have employed the product in their work in sidebars. Also called an intermezzo. See sidebar (publishing). Program: Articles and books on computer programming often place code and algorithms in a figure. Equation: Writing on mathematics may place large blocks of mathematical notation in numbered blocks set apart from the main text. Presenting layouts under development A mockup of a layout might be created to get early feedback, usually before all the content is actually ready. Whether for paper or electronic media, the first draft of a layout might be simply a rough paper and pencil sketch. A comprehensive layout for a new magazine might show placeholders for text and images, but demonstrate placement, typographic style, and other idioms intended to set the pattern for actual issues or a particular unfinished issue. A website wireframe is a low-cost way to show layout without doing all the work of creating the final HTML and CSS, and without writing the copy or creating any images. Lorem ipsum text is often used to avoid the embarrassment any improvised sample copy might cause if accidentally published. Likewise, placeholder images are often labeled "for position only". See also Aesthetics Book design Canons of page construction Database publishing Desktop publishing Editing Layout engine News design Page layout Page margin Publishing Interchange Language Slicing Swiss Style (design) Web design References External links SGML page at www.xml.org Symbols – All articles categorized as relating to typographical symbols TeX Users Group XML page at www.W3C.org Book arts Communication design Graphic design Composition in visual art

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%90%ED%8C%90%20%EB%B0%B0%EC%97%B4

자판 배열

자판 배열(字板配列), 키보드 레이아웃()은 타자기, 전신 인자기, 컴퓨터 등의 자판의 문자 시퀀스이다. 키 배열은 키보드에 어떤 위치 관계에 키를 설치 하느냐 "물리적 배열", 설정된 물리적 배열에 어떤 문자 (기능 키 등)를 어떤 순서로 배열 할 것인가의 "논리적 배열"로 대별된다. 라틴계 자판 배열 영어 IBM의 PC-XT에서 채용된 84키에서 AT용의 101키로 변하며 이것이 표준으로 채용됐다. 최근에는 여기에 윈도 키 3개가 더 붙은 104키 형태의 영문 키보드가 표준화되어 있다. 쿼티 자판: QWERTY 자판(QWERTY keyboard)은 왼쪽 상단의 키보드의 글자 배열이 , , , , , 로 되어 있기 때문에 불리는 이름이다. 흥미롭게도 이 배열은 사용성 면에서 속도의 최적화를 위해 만든 것이 아니라, 오히려 좀 느리게 만들기 위해 배치되었다고 한다. 이것은 초기 기계식 타자기가 너무 빠른 속도에 의해 엉키는 문제점을 고려한 것이었다. 드보락 자판: 영어 낱말을 분석해서 출현 빈도와 빨리 입력할 수 있는 구조를 연구해 만든 자판이다. 콜맥 자판: 드보락 자판의 단점을 보완하기 위해 개발되었으며 일부 키 배열은 기존 퀴티 자판과 같은 것도 있다. 유럽식 독일어, 프랑스어, 스페인어, 이탈리아어, 스웨덴어 등의 다양한 배열이 있지만, 키보드의 모양 자체는 모두 같다. 왼쪽 시프트를 짧게 만들어 미국 배열보다 키가 하나 더 많으며, 일본 키보드처럼 세로가 긴 형태의 엔터 글쇠를 쓴다. 영국 배열도 여기에 들어간다. 부호 배열도 영국은 미국 배열과는 다르다. 예컨대 £이 배열된 등이다. 키의 형태나 개수 외에도 미국 배열이나 일본 배열처럼 QWERTY 배열이 아니라 약간씩 차이가 있다. 독일어 자판을 예로 들면, 첫 줄이 QWERTY···가 아닌 QWERTZ 자판으로 되어 있다. 액센트 문자(Ä,Ö,Ü,ß)를 배열함으로써 쿼티자판보다 문자 영역이 늘어났다. 또 몇 글자들은 멈춤키(dead key)로 정의되어 =á로 구현된다. it's처럼 자리차지하는 '표는 (Alt Graph; 우측 Alt키)와 함께 입력하여 구현한다. 프랑스 자판은 AZERTY 자판이라고 하는데 QWERTY 대신 AZERTY로 시작하며 액센트 문자 등(ç,è,é,ê 등)을 제1열(숫자열)에 배열하고 대신 숫자는 윗글자로 올렸다. 프랑스 자판은 특이하게 CapsLock을 ShiftLock으로 정의하여 윗글자 잠금을 한다. 그러면 제1열의 숫자를 치는데 용이해진다. 유럽의 라틴계 문자들은 영어 모드로 전환하지 않고 영어를 완벽하게 구현한다. 키와 함께 윗첨자 2라든지 기타 재배열된 기호문자를 구현하는데 사용된다. 비 라틴계 문자는 종종 영어 모드로 전환하는 불편함이 있다. 한글 자판에서는 altGr 키가 한/영 모드 전환에 사용된다. 비라틴계 자판 배열 동아시아 자판 배열 한글 기본적으로 미국 표준 배열인 101키와 같으며, 여기에 한/영, 한자 글쇠가 추가되어 103개의 글쇠를 가진다. 최근에는 여기에 윈도 키 3개가 더 붙은 106키 형태의 한글 키보드가 표준화되어 있다. 자모 배열에 대해서는 한글 자판을 참고한다. 두벌식: 자음, 모음의 두 벌로 되어 있다. 표준으로 쓰는 한국어 키보드 종류이다. 세벌식에 비해 글쇠의 개수가 적다. 세벌식: 세벌식 자판은 주로 공병우가 만든 자판을 말하며, 모든 세벌식 자판은 초성, 중성, 종성의 세 벌로 되어 있다. 한글의 특성을 반영하였으며 오토마타가 간단해진다. 표준이 아니지만, 키보드 키를 넓은 영역에 걸쳐 골고루 누를 수 있어 두벌식에 비해 효율적이고 빠르다고 주장된다. 중국어 중국어 관화발음을 표현하기 위해 만든 주음부호나 로마자로 구성된 한어병음을 쳐서 한자나 중국어(관화)를 입력하는 방식과 창힐수입법, 오필화수입법, 대이(大易) 등과 같은 한자의 부분이나 부수를 입력하는 방식 등이 있다. 한어병음 주음부호 창힐수입법 오필(五筆) 대이(大易) 일본어 일반적으로 JIS 배열 키보드라 부르며 일본 IBM의 5576-A01 키보드의 106키 배열이 표준으로 정착된 것이다. 최근에는 여기에 윈도 키 3개가 더 붙은 109키 형태의 일본어 키보드가 표준화되어 있다. JIS 106, 109키보드: 이 형태의 키보드에서 일본어 입력 방법은 가나 입력과 로마자 입력 두 가지이며 알파벳으로 일본어를 입력하는 로마자 입력 방식이 가장 많이 쓰인다. 영어나 한글 입력과 달리 일본어의 가나 입력과 로마자 입력을 위한 IME의 종류는 상당히 많은데, 윈도에 기본으로 내장돼 있는 MS-IME 외에 ‘이치타로’로 잘 알려진 Just System의 ATOK가 유명하다. 엄지 시프트(): 후지쓰에서 더 효율적인 일본어 입력을 위해 고안한 일본어 입력 방식. 이 방식의 입력에 특화된 전용 키보드와 엄지 시프트 배열의 키보드를 탑재한 노트북도 있다. 기본적으로 스페이스바 양 옆에 가 있다. 같이 보기 한글 자판 두벌식 세벌식 쿼티 자판 드보락 자판 콜맥 자판 QWERTZ 자판 AZERTY 자판

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyboard%20layout

Keyboard layout

A keyboard layout is any specific physical, visual or functional arrangement of the keys, legends, or key-meaning associations (respectively) of a computer keyboard, mobile phone, or other computer-controlled typographic keyboard. is the actual positioning of keys on a keyboard. is the arrangement of the legends (labels, markings, engravings) that appear on those keys. is the arrangement of the key-meaning association or keyboard mapping, determined in software, of all the keys of a keyboard; it is this (rather than the legends) that determines the actual response to a key press. Modern computer keyboards are designed to send a scancode to the operating system (OS) when a key is pressed or released: this code reports only the key's row and column, not the specific character engraved on that key. The OS converts the scancode into a specific binary character code using a "scancode to character" conversion table, called the keyboard mapping table. This means that a physical keyboard may be dynamically mapped to any layout without switching hardware components—merely by changing the software that interprets the keystrokes. Often, a user can change keyboard mapping in system settings. In addition, software may be available to modify or extend keyboard functionality. Thus the symbol shown on the physical key-top need not be the same as appears on the screen or goes into a document being typed. Some settings enable the user to type supplementary symbols that are not engraved on the keys used to invoke them. Modern USB keyboards are plug-and-play; they communicate their (default) visual layout to the OS when connected (though the user is still able to reset this at will). Key types A computer keyboard consists of alphanumeric or character keys for typing, modifier keys for altering the functions of other keys, navigation keys for moving the text cursor on the screen, function keys and system command keys—such as and —for special actions, and often a numeric keypad to facilitate calculations. There is some variation between different keyboard models in the physical layout—i.e., how many keys there are and how they are positioned on the keyboard. However, differences between national layouts are mostly due to different selections and placements of symbols on the character keys. Character keys The core section of a keyboard consists of character keys, which can be used to type letters and other characters. Typically, there are three rows of keys for typing letters and punctuation, an upper row for typing digits and special symbols, and the on the bottom row. The positioning of the character keys is similar to the keyboard of a typewriter. Modifier keys Besides the character keys, a keyboard incorporates special keys that do nothing by themselves but modify the functions of other keys. For example, the key can be used to alter the output of character keys, whereas the (control), (alternate) and (alternative graphic) keys trigger special operations when used in concert with other keys. (Apple keyboards have differently labelled but equivalent keys, see below). Typically, a modifier key is held down while another key is struck. To facilitate this, modifier keys usually come in pairs, one functionally identical key for each hand, so holding a modifier key with one hand leaves the other hand free to strike another key. An alphanumeric key labelled with only a single letter (usually the capital form) can generally be struck to type either a lower case or capital letter, the latter requiring the simultaneous holding of the key. The key is also used to type the upper of two symbols engraved on a given key, the lower being typed without using the modifier key. The Latin alphabet keyboard has a dedicated key for each of the letters A–Z, keys for punctuation and other symbols, usually a row of function keys, often a numeric keypad and some system control keys. In most languages except English, additional letters (some with diacritics) are required and some are present as standard on each national keyboard, as appropriate for its national language. These keyboards have another modified key, labelled (alternative graphic), to the right of the space bar. (US keyboards just have a second key in this position). It can be used to type an extra symbol in addition to the two otherwise available with an alphanumeric key, and using it simultaneously with the key usually gives access to a fourth symbol. These third-level and fourth-level symbols may be engraved on the right half of the key top, or they may be unmarked. Cyrillic alphabet and Greek alphabet keyboards have similar arrangements. Instead of the , and keys seen on commodity keyboards, Apple Keyboards have (command) and keys. The key is used much like the , and the key like the and , to access menu options and shortcuts. Macs have a key for compatibility with programs that expect a more traditional keyboard layout. It is especially useful when using a terminal, X11 (a Unix environment included with OS X as an install option) or MS Windows. The key can generally be used to produce a secondary mouse click as well. There is also a key on modern Mac keyboards, which is used for switching between use of the , , etc. keys either as function keys or for other functions like media control, accessing Spotlight, controlling the volume, or handling Mission Control. key can be also found on smaller Windows and Linux laptops and tablets, where it serves a similar purpose. Many Unix workstations (and also home computers like the Amiga) keyboards placed the key to the left of the letter , and the key in the bottom left. This position of the key is also used on the XO laptop, which does not have a . The UNIX keyboard layout also differs in the placement of the key, which is to the left of . Some early keyboards experimented with using large numbers of modifier keys. The most extreme example of such a keyboard, the so-called "space-cadet keyboard" found on MIT LISP machines, had no fewer than seven modifier keys: four control keys, , , , and , along with three shift keys, , , and . This allowed the user to type over 8000 possible characters by playing suitable "chords" with many modifier keys pressed simultaneously. Dead keys A dead key is a special kind of a modifier key that, instead of being held while another key is struck, is pressed and released before the other key. The dead key does not generate a character by itself, but it modifies the character generated by the key struck immediately after, typically making it possible to type a letter with a specific diacritic. For example, on some keyboard layouts, the grave accent key is a dead key: in this case, striking and then results in (a with grave accent); followed by results in (E with grave accent). A grave accent in isolated form can be typed by striking and then . A key may function as a dead key by default, or sometimes a normal key can temporarily be altered to function as a dead key by simultaneously holding down the secondary-shift key— or : a typical example might be will produce (assuming the "6" key is also the "^" key). In some systems, there is no indication to the user that a dead key has been struck, so the key appears dead, but in some text-entry systems the diacritical mark is displayed along with an indication that the system is waiting for another keystroke: either the base character to be marked, an additional diacritical mark, or to produce the diacritical mark in isolation. Compared with the secondary-shift modifier key, the dead-key approach may be a little more complicated, but it allows more additional letters. Using AltGr, only one or (if used simultaneously with the normal shift key) two additional letters with each key, whereas using a dead key, a specific diacritic can be attached to a range of different base letters. Compose key A Compose key can be characterized as a generic dead key that may in some systems be available instead of or in addition to the more specific dead keys. It allows access to a wide range of predefined extra characters by interpreting a whole sequence of keystrokes following it. For example, striking followed by (apostrophe) and then results in á (a with acute accent), followed by and then results in æ (ae ligature), and followed by and then results in © (circled c, copyright symbol). The key is supported by the X Window System (used by most Unix-like operating systems, including most Linux distributions). Some keyboards have a key labeled "Compose", but any key can be configured to serve this function. For example, the otherwise redundant right-hand key may, when available, be used for this purpose. This can be emulated in Windows with third party programs, for example WinCompose. System command keys Depending on the application, some keyboard keys are not used to enter a printable character but instead are interpreted by the system as a formatting, mode shift, or special commands to the system. The following examples are found on personal computer keyboards. SysRq and PrtSc The system request () and print screen ( or on some keyboards e.g. ) commands often share the same key. SysRq was used in earlier computers as a "panic" button to recover from crashes (and it is still used in this sense to some extent by the Linux kernel; see Magic SysRq key). The print screen command is used to capture the entire screen and send it to the printer, but in the present, it usually puts a screenshot in the clipboard. Break key The Break key/Pause key no longer has a well-defined purpose. Its origins go back to teleprinter users, who wanted a key that would temporarily interrupt the communications line. The Break key can be used by software in several different ways, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or to interrupt a modem connection. In programming, especially old DOS-style BASIC, Pascal and C, Break is used (in conjunction with Ctrl) to stop program execution. In addition to this, Linux and variants, as well as many DOS programs, treat this combination the same as Ctrl+C. On modern keyboards, the break key is usually labeled Pause/Break. In most Microsoft Windows environments, the key combination brings up the system properties. Escape key The escape key (often abbreviated Esc) "nearly all of the time" signals Stop, QUIT, or let me "get out of a dialog" (or pop-up window). Another common application today of the key is to trigger the Stop button in many web browsers. ESC was part of the standard keyboard of the Teletype Model 33 (introduced in 1964 and used with many early minicomputers). The DEC VT50, introduced July 1974, also had an Esc key. The TECO text editor (c. 1963) and its descendant Emacs () use the Esc key extensively. Historically it also served as a type of shift key, such that one or more following characters were interpreted differently, hence the term escape sequence, which refers to a series of characters, usually preceded by the escape character. On machines running Microsoft Windows, prior to the implementation of the Windows key on keyboards, the typical practice for invoking the "start" button was to hold down the control key and press escape. This process still works in Windows 95, 98, Me, NT 4, 2000, XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10. Enter key An "enter" key may terminate a paragraph of text and advance an editing cursor to the start of the next available line, similar to the "carriage return" key of a typewriter. When the attached system is processing a user command line, pressing "enter" may signal that the command has been completely entered and that the system may now process it. Shift key Shift key: when one presses shift and a letter, it will capitalize the letter pressed with the shift key. Another use is to type more symbols than appear to be available, for instance the semi-colon key is accompanied with a colon symbol on the top. To type a semi-colon, the key is pressed without pressing any other key. To type a colon, both this key and the Shift key are pressed concurrently. (Some systems make provision for users with mobility impairment by allowing the Shift key to be pressed first and then the desired symbol key). Menu key, Command key, Windows key The Menu key or Application key is a key found on Windows-oriented computer keyboards: on Apple keyboard the same function is provided by the Command key (labelled ⌘). It is used to launch a context menu with the keyboard rather than with the usual right mouse button. The key's symbol is usually a small icon depicting a cursor hovering above a menu. On some Samsung keyboards the cursor in the icon is not present, showing the menu only. This key was created at the same time as the Windows key. This key is normally used when the right mouse button is not present on the mouse. Some Windows public terminals do not have a Menu key on their keyboard to prevent users from right-clicking (however, in many Windows applications, a similar functionality can be invoked with the Shift+F10 keyboard shortcut). The Windows key opens the 'Start' (applications) menu. History Keyboard layouts have evolved over time, usually alongside major technology changes. Particularly influential have been: the Sholes and Glidden typewriter (1874, also known as Remington No. 1), the first commercially successful typewriter, which introduced QWERTY; its successor, the Remington No. 2 (1878), which introduced the shift key; the IBM Selectric (1961), a very influential electric typewriter, which was imitated by computer keyboards; and the IBM PC (1981), namely the Model M (1985), which is the basis for many modern keyboard layouts. Within a community, keyboard layout is generally quite stable, due to the high training cost of touch-typing, and the resulting network effect of having a standard layout and high switching cost of retraining, and the suboptimal QWERTY layout is a case study in switching costs. Nevertheless, significant market forces can result in changes (as in Turkish adoption of QWERTY), and non-core keys are more prone to change, as they are less frequently used and less subject to the lock-in of touch-typing. The main, alphanumeric portion is typically stable, while symbol keys and shifted key values change somewhat, modifier keys more so, and function keys most of all: QWERTY dates to the No. 1 (1874)—though 1 and 0 were added later—shifted keys date in some cases to the No. 2 (1878), in other cases to the Selectric (1961), and modifier key placement largely dates to the Model M (1985); function key placement typically dates to the Model M, but varies significantly, particularly on laptops. The earliest mechanical keyboards were used in musical instruments to play particular notes. With the advent of the printing telegraph, a keyboard was needed to select characters. Some of the earliest printing telegraph machines either used a piano keyboard outright or a layout similar to a piano keyboard. The Hughes-Phelps printing telegraph piano keyboard laid keys A-N in left-to-right order on the black piano keys, and keys O-Z in right-to-left order on the white piano keys below. In countries using the Latin script, the center, alphanumeric portion of the modern keyboard is most often based on the QWERTY design by Christopher Sholes. Sholes' layout was long thought to have been laid out in such a way that common two-letter combinations were placed on opposite sides of the keyboard so that his mechanical keyboard would not jam. However, evidence for this claim has often been contested. In 2012, an argument was advanced by two Japanese historians of technology showing that the key order on the earliest Sholes prototypes in fact followed the left-right and right-left arrangement of the contemporary Hughes-Phelps printing telegraph, described above. Later iterations diverged progressively for various technical reasons, and strong vestiges of the left-right A-N, right-left O-Z arrangement can still be seen in the modern QWERTY layout. Sholes' chief improvement was thus to lay out the keys in rows offset horizontally from each other by three-eighths, three-sixteenths, and three-eighths inches to provide room for the levers and to reduce hand-movement distance. Although it has been demonstrated that the QWERTY layout is not the most efficient layout for typing, it remains the standard. Sholes chose the size of the keys to be on three-quarter [, or 0.75] inch centers (about 19 mm, versus musical piano keys which are 23.5 mm or about 0.93 inches wide). 0.75 inches has turned out to be optimum for fast key entry by the average-size hand, and keyboards with this key size are called "full-sized keyboards". On a manual typewriter, the operator could press the key down with a lighter touch for such characters as the period or comma, which did not occupy as much area on the paper. Since an electric typewriter supplied the force to the typebar itself after the typist merely touched the key, the typewriter itself had to be designed to supply different forces for different characters. To simplify this, the most common layout for electric typewriters in the United States differed from that for the one most common on manual typewriters. Single-quote and double-quote, instead of being above the keys for the digits 2 and 8 respectively, were placed together on a key of their own. The underscore, another light character, replaced the asterisk above the hyphen. The ASCII communications code was designed so that characters on a mechanical teletypewriter keyboard could be laid out in a manner somewhat resembling that of a manual typewriter. This was imperfect, as some shifted special characters were moved one key to the left, as the number zero, although on the right, was low in code sequence. Later, when computer terminals were designed from less expensive electronic components, it was not necessary to have any bits in common between the shifted and unshifted characters on a given key. This eventually led to standards being adopted for the "bit-pairing" and "typewriter-pairing" forms of keyboards for computer terminals. The typewriter-pairing standard came under reconsideration, on the basis that typewriters have many different keyboard arrangements. The U.S. keyboard for the IBM PC, although it resembles the typewriter-pairing standard in most respects, differs in one significant respect: the braces are on the same two keys as the brackets, as their shifts. This innovation predated the IBM Personal Computer by several years. IBM adopted the 101/102 key layout on the PS/2 in 1987 (after previously using an 84-key keyboard that did not have a separate cursor and numeric keypads). Most modern keyboards basically conform to the layout specifications contained in parts 1, 2, and 5 of the international standard series ISO/IEC 9995. These specifications were first defined by the user group at AFNOR in 1984 working under the direction of Alain Souloumiac. Based on this work, a well-known ergonomic expert wrote a report which was adopted at the ISO Berlin meeting in 1985 and became the reference for keyboard layouts. The 104/105-key PC keyboard was born when two keys and a key were added on the bottom row (originally for the Microsoft Windows operating system). Newer keyboards may incorporate even further additions, such as Internet access (World Wide Web navigation) keys and multimedia (access to media players) buttons. Physical, visual, and functional layouts As noted before, the layout of a keyboard may refer to its physical (arrangement of keys), visual (physical labeling of keys), or functional (software response to a key press or release) layout. Physical layouts Physical layouts only address tangible differences among keyboards. When a key is pressed, the keyboard does not send a message such as the A-key is depressed but rather the left-most main key of the home row is depressed. (Technically, each key has an internal reference number, the scan code, and these numbers are what is sent to the computer when a key is pressed or released.) The keyboard and the computer each have no information about what is marked on that key, and it could equally well be the letter A or the digit 9. Historically, the user of the computer was requested to identify the functional layout of the keyboard when installing or customizing the operating system. Modern USB keyboards are plug-and-play; they communicate their visual layout to the OS when connected (though the user is still able to reset this at will). Today, most keyboards use one of three different physical layouts, usually referred to as simply ISO (ISO/IEC 9995-2), ANSI (ANSI-INCITS 154-1988), and JIS (JIS X 6002-1980), referring roughly to the organizations issuing the relevant worldwide, United States, and Japanese standards, respectively. (In fact, the physical layouts referred such as "ISO" and "ANSI" comply with the primary recommendations in the named standards, while each of these standards in fact also allows the other.) Keyboard layout in this sense may refer either to this broad categorization or to finer distinctions within these categories. For example, , Apple Inc. produces ISO, ANSI, and JIS desktop keyboards, each in both extended and compact forms. The extended keyboards have 110, 109, and 112 keys (ISO, ANSI, and JIS, respectively), and the compact models have 79, 78, and 80. Visual layouts The visual layout includes the symbols printed on the physical keycaps. Visual layouts vary by language, country, and user preference, and any one physical and functional layout can be employed with a number of different visual layouts. For example, the "ISO" keyboard layout is used throughout Europe, but typical French, German, and UK variants of physically identical keyboards appear different because they bear different legends on their keys. Even blank keyboards—with no legends—are sometimes used to learn typing skills or by user preference. Some users choose to attach custom labels on top of their keycaps. This can be, e.g., for masking foreign layouts, adding additional information such as shortcuts, learning aids, gaming controls, or solely for decorational purposes. Functional layouts The functional layout of the keyboard refers to the mapping between the physical keys, such as the key, and software events, such as the letter "A" appearing on the screen. Usually the functional layout is set (in the system configuration) to match the visual layout of the keyboard being used, so that pressing a key will produce the expected result, corresponding to the legends on the keyboard. However, most operating systems have software that allow the user to easily switch between functional layouts, such as the language bar in Microsoft Windows. For example, a user with a Swedish keyboard who wishes to type more easily in German may switch to a functional layout intended for German—without regard to key markings—just as a Dvorak touch typist may choose a Dvorak layout regardless of the visual layout of the keyboard used. Customized functional layouts Functional layouts can be redefined or customized within the operating system, by reconfiguring the operating system keyboard driver, or with the use of a separate software application. Transliteration is one example of that whereby letters in other languages get matched to visible Latin letters on the keyboard by the way they sound. Thus, a touch typist can type in various foreign languages with a visible English-language keyboard only. Mixed hardware-to-software keyboard extensions exist to overcome the above discrepancies between functional and visual layouts. A keyboard overlay is a plastic or paper masks that can be placed over the empty space between the keys, providing the user with the functional use of various keys. Alternatively, a user applies keyboard stickers with an extra imprinted language alphabet and adds another keyboard layout via language support options in the operating system. The visual layout of any keyboard can also be changed by simply replacing its keys or attaching labels to them, such as to change an English-language keyboard from the common QWERTY to the Dvorak layout, although for touch typists, the placement of the tactile bumps on the home keys is of more practical importance than that of the visual markings. In the past, complex software that mapped many non-standard functions to the keys (such as a flight simulator) would be shipped with a "keyboard overlay", a large sheet of paper with pre-cut holes matching the key layout of a particular model of computer. When placed over the keyboard, the overlay provided a quick visual reference as to what each key's new function was, without blocking the keys or permanently modifying their appearance. The overlay was often made from good-quality laminated paper and was designed to fold up and fit in the game's packaging when not in use. National variants The U.S. IBM PC keyboard has 104 keys, while the PC keyboards for most other countries have 105 keys. In an operating system configured for a non-English language, the keys are placed differently. For example, keyboards designed for typing in Spanish have some characters shifted, to make room for Ñ/ñ; similarly those for French or Portuguese may have a special key for the character Ç/ç. Keyboards designed for Japanese may have special keys to switch between Japanese and Latin scripts, and the character (yen and yuan sign) instead of (backslash which itself additionally may be displayed as a ¥ or a ₩ in some renditions). Using the same keyboard for alternative languages leads to a conflict: the image on the key may not correspond to the character displayed on screen because of different keyboard mappings. In such cases, each new language may require an additional label on the key, because the national standard keyboard layouts may not share similar characters of different languages or even lay them out in different ways. The United States keyboard layout is used as default in some Linux distributions. Most operating systems allow switching between functional keyboard layouts, using a key combination involving register keys that are not used for normal operations (e.g. Microsoft reserve or register control keys for sequential layout switching; those keys were inherited from old DOS keyboard drivers). There are keyboards with two parallel sets of characters labeled on the keys, representing alternate alphabets or scripts. It is also possible to add a second set of characters to a keyboard with keyboard stickers manufactured by third parties. Size variation Modern keyboard models contain a set number of total keys according to their given standard, described as 104, 105, etc., and sold as "full-size" keyboards. This number is not always followed, and individual keys or whole sections are commonly skipped for the sake of compactness or user preference. Consequently, generic keyboard mappings may not be completely effective on unusual layouts. Latin-script keyboard layouts Although there are a large number of keyboard layouts used for languages written with Latin-script alphabets, most of these layouts are quite similar. They can be divided into three main families according to where the , , , , and keys are placed on the keyboard. These layouts are usually named after the first six letters on the first row: AZERTY, QWERTY, QWERTZ, QZERTY and national variants thereof. While the central area of the keyboard, the alphabetic section, remains fairly constant, and the numbers from 1–9 are almost invariably on the row above, keyboards may differ in: the placement of punctuation, typographic and other special characters, and which of these characters are included, whether numbers are accessible directly or in a shift-state, the presence and placement of letters with diacritics (in some layouts, diacritics are applied using dead keys but these are rarely engraved). the presence and placement of a row of function keys above the number row the presence and placement of one or two Alt keys, an AltGr key or Option key, a backspace or delete key, a control key or command key, a compose key, an Esc key, and OS-specific keys like the Windows key. The physical keyboard is of the basic ISO, ANSI, or JIS type; pressing a key sends a scan code to the operating-system or other software, which in turn determines the character to be generated: this arrangement is known as the keyboard mapping. It is customary for keyboards to be engraved appropriately to the local default mapping. For example, when the and numeric keys are pressed simultaneously on a US keyboard; "@" is generated, and the key is engraved appropriately. On a UK keyboard this key combination generates the double-quote character, and UK keyboards are so engraved. In the keyboard charts listed below, the primary letters or characters available with each alphanumeric key are often shown in black in the left half of the key, whereas characters accessed using the key appear in blue in the right half of the corresponding key. Symbols representing dead keys usually appear in red. QWERTY The QWERTY layout is, by far, the most widespread layout in use, and the only one that is not confined to a particular geographical area. In some territories, keys like and are not translated to the language of the territory in question. In other varieties such keys have been translated, like and , on Spanish computer keyboards respectively for the example above. On Macintosh computers these keys are usually just represented by symbols without the word "Enter", "Shift", "Command", "Option/Alt" or "Control", with the exception of keyboards distributed in the US and East Asia. QÜERTY (Azerbaijani) Azerbaijani keyboards use a layout known as QÜERTY, where Ü appears in place of W above S, with W not being accessible at all. It is supported by Microsoft Windows. ÄWERTY (Turkmen) Turkmen keyboards use a layout known as ÄWERTY, where Ä appears in place of Q above A, Ü appears in place of X below S, Ç appears in place of C, and Ý appears in place of V, with C, Q, V, and X not being accessible at all. It is supported by Microsoft Windows (Vista and later only). QWERTZ The QWERTZ layout is the normal keyboard layout in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. It is also fairly widely used in Czechia, Slovakia and other parts of Central Europe. The main difference between it and QWERTY is that and are swapped, and some special characters such as brackets are replaced by diacritical characters like Ä, Ö, Ü, ß. In Czechia and Slovakia diacritical characters like Ě, Š, Č, Ř, Ž, Ý, Á, Í also replace numbers. Caps lock can be a shift lock as in AZERTY (see below). AZERTY The AZERTY layout is used in France, Belgium, and some African countries. It differs from the QWERTY layout thus: and are swapped, and are swapped, is moved to the right of , (taking place of the / or colon/semicolon key on a US keyboard), The digits 0 to 9 are on the same keys, but to be typed the shift key must be pressed. The unshifted positions are used for accented characters, Caps lock is replaced by Shift lock, thus affecting non-letter keys as well. However, there is an ongoing evolution towards a Caps lock key instead of a Shift lock. ĄŽERTY (Lithuanian) As standardized in LST 1582, Lithuanian keyboards have a defined layout known as ĄŽERTY, where Ą appears in place of Q above A, Ž in place of W above S, and Ū in place of X below S, with Q, W, and X being available either on the far right-hand side or by use of the AltGr key. However instead of ĄŽERTY, the Lithuanian QWERTY keyboard is universally used. QZERTY The QZERTY layout was used mostly in Italy, where it was the traditional typewriter layout. In recent years, however, a modified QWERTY layout with stressed keys such as à, è, ò, has gained widespread usage throughout Italy. Computer keyboards usually have QWERTY, although non-alphanumeric characters vary. and are swapped is moved from the right of to the right of , as in AZERTY Number keys are shifted Apple supported QZERTY layout in its early Italian keyboards, and currently iPod Touch also has it available. Sámi Extended Sámi keyboards use a layout known as the Sámi Extended, where Á appears in place of Q above A, Š appears in place of W above S, Č appears in place of X to the left of C, and Ŧ appears in place of Y to the right of T, with Q, W, X, and Y being available by use of the AltGr key. Also, Å is to the right of P (to match the Norwegian and Swedish/Finnish keyboards), Ŋ is to the right of Å, and Đ is to the right of Ŋ. It is different in Norway than in Sweden and Finland, because of the placement of the letters different between Norwegian and Swedish/Finnish (Ä, Æ, Ö, and Ø), which are placed where they match the standard keyboard for the main language spoken in the country. It is supported by Microsoft Windows (Windows XP SP2 and later only). Microsoft Windows also has Swedish with Sami, Norwegian with Sami and Finnish with Sami layouts, which match the normal Swedish, Norwegian, or Finnish keyboards, but has additional Sami characters as AltGr-combinations. Other Latin-script keyboard layouts There are also keyboard layouts that do not resemble traditional typewriter layouts very closely, if at all. These are designed to reduce finger movement and are claimed by some proponents to offer higher typing speed along with ergonomic benefits. Dvorak The Dvorak layout was named after its inventor, August Dvorak. There are also numerous adaptations for languages other than English and single-handed variants. Dvorak's original layout had the numerals rearranged, but the present-day layout had them in numerical order. Dvorak has numerous properties designed to increase typing speed, decrease errors, and increase comfort. Research has found a 4% average advantage to the end user in typing speed. The layout concentrates the most used English letters in the home row where the fingers rest, thus having 70% of typing done in the home row (compared to 32% in QWERTY). The layout came before computers came to be, so it challenges programmers and power users because keyboard shortcuts, like copy-paste are in totally different locations, punctuation symbols are significantly affected, while common commands like ls -ls result in strenuous use of the pinky finger. The Dvorak layout is available out-of-the-box on most operating systems, making switching through software very easy. "Hardwired" Dvorak keyboards are also available, though only from specialized hardware companies. Colemak The Colemak layout is another popular alternative to the standard QWERTY layout, offering a more familiar change for users already accustomed to the standard layout. It builds upon the QWERTY layout as a base, changing the positions of 17 keys while retaining the QWERTY positions of most non-alphabetic characters and many popular keyboard shortcuts, supposedly making it easier to learn than Dvorak for people who already type in QWERTY without sacrificing efficiency. It shares several design goals with the Dvorak layout, such as minimizing finger path distance and making heavy use of the home row. An additional defining (albeit optional) feature of the Colemak layout is the lack of a caps lock key; an additional backspace key occupies the position typically occupied by Caps Lock on modern keyboards. Operating systems such as macOS, Linux, Android, ChromeOS, and BSD allow a user to switch to the Colemak layout. A program to install the layout is available for Microsoft Windows, as well as a portable AutoHotKey implementation. Colemak variants exist, including Colemak Mod-DH, which seeks to rectify concerns that the layout places too much emphasis on the middle-row centre-column keys (D and H), leading to awkward lateral hand movements for certain common English bigrams such as HE. Others seek to have more compatibility with other keyboard layouts. Workman Workman is an English layout supported out-of-the-box in Linux/X11 systems. The Workman layout employs a hypothesis about the preferential movement of each finger rather than categorically considering the lowest letter row to be least accessible. Specifically, the index finger prefers to curl inwards rather than stretch outwards. So for the index finger, the position of second preference goes to the bottom row rather than the top row. Contrarily, the middle and ring fingers are relatively long and prefer to stretch out rather than curl in. Based on this, weighting is allotted to each key specifically rather than each row generically. Another principle applied is that it is more natural and less effort to curl in or stretch out fingers rather than rotate one's wrist inwards or outwards. Thus the Workman layout allots a lower priority to the two innermost columns between the home keys (G and H columns on a QWERTY layout), similarly to the Colemak-DH or "Curl" mods. Workman also balances the load quite evenly between both hands. The Workman layout is found to achieve overall less travel distance of the fingers for the English language than even Colemak. It does however generally incur higher same-finger n-gram frequencies; or in other words, one finger will need to hit two keys in succession more often than in other layouts. Other English layouts There are many other layouts for English, each developed with differing basic principles. The Norman Layout, like Workman, deprioritizes the central columns but gives more load to the right hand with the assumption that the right hand is more capable than the left. It also gives importance to retaining letters in the same position or at least the same finger as QWERTY. MTGAP's Layout for a Standard Keyboard / an Ergonomic Keyboard has the lowest finger travel for a standard keyboard, and travel distance for an ergonomic keyboard second only to Arensito's keyboard layout. Further variations were created using the keyboard layout optimizer. Other layouts lay importance on minimal key deviation from QWERTY to give a reasonable increase in typing speed and ergonomics with minimal relearning of keys. Qwpr is a layout that changes only 11 basic keys from their QWERTY positions, with only 2 keys typed with different fingers. Minimak has versions that changes four, six, eight, or twelve keys, all have only 3 keys to change finger. These intend to offer much of the reduced finger movement of Dvorak without the steep learning curve and with an increased ability to remain proficient with a QWERTY keyboard. The Qwpr layout is also designed for programmers and multilingual users, as it uses Caps Lock as a "punctuation shift", offering quicker access to ASCII symbols and arrow keys, as well as to 15 dead keys for typing hundreds of different glyphs such as accented characters, mathematical symbols, or emoji. In Canada, the CSA keyboard is designed to write several languages, especially French. Sholes 2nd Layout Christopher Latham Sholes, inventor of the QWERTY layout, created his own alternative, and patented it in 1896. Similar to Dvorak, he placed all the vowels on the home row, but in this case on the right hand. The layout is right-hand biased with both the vowels and many of the most common consonants on the right side of the layout. JCUKEN (Latin) The JCUKEN layout was used in the USSR for all computers (both domestically produced and imported such as Japan-made MSX-compatible systems) except IBM-compatible ES PEVM due to its phonetic compatibility with Russian ЙЦУКЕН layout (see right). The layout has the advantage of having punctuation marks on Latin and Cyrillic layouts mapped on the same keys. Neo The Neo layout is an optimized German keyboard layout developed in 2004 by the Neo Users Group, supporting nearly all Latin-based alphabets, including the International Phonetic Alphabet, the Vietnamese language and some African languages. The positions of the letters are not only optimized for German letter frequency, but also for typical groups of two or three letters. English is considered a major target as well. The design tries to enforce the alternating usage of both hands to increase typing speed. It is based on ideas from de-ergo and other ergonomic layouts. The high frequency keys are placed in the home row. The current layout, Neo 2.0, has unique features not present in other layouts, making it suited for many target groups such as programmers, mathematicians, scientists or LaTeX authors. Neo is grouped in different layers, each designed for a special purpose. Most special characters inherit the meaning of the lower layers—the character is one layer above the , or the Greek is above the character. Neo uses a total of six layers with the following general use: Lowercase characters Uppercase characters, typographical characters Special characters for programming, etc. WASD-like movement keys and number block Greek characters Mathematical symbols and Greek uppercase characters BÉPO The BÉPO layout is an optimized French keyboard layout developed by the BÉPO community, supporting all Latin-based alphabets of the European Union, Greek and Esperanto. It is also designed to ease programming. It is based on ideas from the Dvorak and other ergonomic layouts. Typing with it is usually easier due to the high frequency keys being in the home row. Typing tutors exist to ease the transition. In 2019, a slightly modified version of the BÉPO layout is featured in a French standard developed by AFNOR, along with an improved version of the traditional AZERTY layout. Dvorak-fr The Dvorak-fr layout is a Dvorak like layout specific to the French language, without concession to the use of programming languages, and published in 2002 by Francis Leboutte. Version 2 was released in June 2020. Its design meets the need to maximize comfort and prevent risks when typing in French. Unlike AZERTY, the characters needed for good French typography are easily accessible: for example, the quotation marks (« ») and the curved apostrophe are available directly. More than 150 additional characters are available via dead keys. Turkish (F-keyboard) The Turkish language uses the Turkish Latin alphabet, and a dedicated keyboard layout was designed in 1955 by İhsan Sıtkı Yener (tr). During its design, letter frequencies in the Turkish language were investigated with the aid of Turkish Language Association. These statistics were then combined with studies on bone and muscle anatomy of the fingers to design the Turkish F-keyboard (). The keyboard provides a balanced distribution of typing effort between the hands: 49% for the left hand and 51% for the right. With this scientific preparation, Turkey has broken 14 world records in typewriting championships between 1957 and 1995. In 2009, Recep Ertaş and in 2011, Hakan Kurt from Turkey came in first in the text production event of the 47th (Beijing) and 48th (Paris) Intersteno congresses respectively. Despite the greater efficiency of the Turkish F-keyboard however, the modified QWERTY keyboard ("Q-keyboard") is the one that is used on most computers in Turkey. The reason for the popularity of QWERTY in Turkey is that they were overwhelmingly imported since the beginning of the 1990s. ŪGJRMV The ŪGJRMV layout is specifically designed for the Latvian language. HCESAR The HCESAR layout was a layout created in 1937 for typewriters during Portugal's Estado Novo. It was specifically designed for the Portuguese language. It is no longer used. Malt The Malt layout—named for its inventor, South African-born Lilian Malt—is best known for its use on molded, ergonomic Maltron keyboards. Nevertheless, it has been adapted as well for flat keyboards, with a compromise involved: a flat keyboard has a single, wide space-bar, rather than a space button as on Maltron keyboards, so the E key was moved to the bottom row. Modified Blickensderfer The Blickensderfer typewriter, designed by George Canfield Blickensderfer in 1892, was known for its novel keyboard layout, its interchangeable font, and its suitability for travel. The Blickensderfer keyboard had three banks (rows of keys), with special characters being entered using a separate Shift key; the home row was, uniquely, the bottom one (i.e., the typist kept her hands on the bottom row). A computer or standard typewriter keyboard, on the other hand, has four banks of keys, with home row being second from bottom. To fit on a Sholes-patterned (typewriter or computer) keyboard, the Blickensderfer layout was modified by Nick Matavka in 2012, and released for both Mac OS X and Windows. To accommodate the differences between Blickensderfer and Sholes keyboards (not the layouts, but the keyboards themselves), the order of the rows was changed and special characters were given their own keys. The keyboard drivers created by Nick Matavka for the modified Blickensderfer layout (nicknamed the 'Blick') have several variations, including one that includes the option of switching between Blick and another keyboard layout and one that is internationalised, allowing the entry of diacritics. Hexagon The honeycomb layout has hexagon keys and was invented by Typewise in cooperation with the ETH Zurich in 2015 for smartphones. It exists for 40+ languages including English, German, Spanish, French and Afrikaans. The keys are arranged like those of the respective traditional keyboard with a few changes. Instead of the there are two smaller space bars in the middle of the keyboard. The is replaced by swiping up on keys and by swiping to the left on the keyboard. Diacritic characters can be accessed by holding on a key. Alphabetical layout A few companies offer "ABC" (alphabetical) layout keyboards. The layout can also be useful for people who do not type often or where using both hands is not practical, such as touchscreens. Chorded keyboards and mobile devices Chorded keyboards, such as the Stenotype and Velotype, allow letters and words to be entered using combinations of keys in a single stroke. Users of stenotype machines regularly reach rates of 225 words per minute. These systems are commonly used for real-time transcription by court reporters and in live closed captioning systems. Ordinary keyboards may be adapted for this purpose using Plover. However, due to hardware constraints, chording three or more keys may not work as expected. Many high-end keyboards support n-key rollover and so do not have this limitation. The multi-touch screens of mobile devices allow implementation of virtual on-screen chorded keyboards. Buttons are fewer, so they can be made larger. Symbols on the keys can be changed dynamically depending on what other keys are pressed, thus eliminating the need to memorize combos for characters and functions before use. For example, in the chorded GKOS keyboard which has been adapted for the Google Android, Apple iPhone, MS Windows Phone, and Intel MeeGo/Harmattan platforms, thumbs are used for chording by pressing one or two keys at the same time. The layout divides the keys into two separate pads which are positioned near the sides of the screen, while text appears in the middle. The most frequent letters have dedicated keys and do not require chording. Some other layouts have also been designed specifically for use with mobile devices. The FITALY layout is optimized for use with a stylus by placing the most commonly used letters closest to the centre and thus minimizing the distance travelled when entering words. A similar concept was followed to research and develop the MessagEase keyboard layout for fast text entry with stylus or finger. The ATOMIK layout, designed for stylus use, was developed by IBM using the Metropolis Algorithm to mathematically minimize the movement necessary to spell words in English. The ATOMIK keyboard layout is an alternative to QWERTY in ShapeWriter's WritingPad software. ASETNIOP is a keyboard layout designed for tablet computers that uses 10 input points, eight of them on the home row. Other original layouts and layout design software Several other alternative keyboard layouts have been designed either for use with specialist commercial keyboards (e.g. Maltron and PLUM) or by hobbyists (e.g. Asset, Arensito, Minimak, Norman, Qwpr, Workman as well as symmetric typing layouts Niro and Soul); however, none of them are in widespread use, and many of them are merely proofs of concept. Principles commonly used in their design include maximizing use of the home row, minimizing finger movement, maximizing hand alternation or inward rolls (where successive letters are typed moving towards the center of the keyboard), minimizing changes from QWERTY to ease the learning curve, and so on. Maltron also has a single-handed keyboard layout. Programs such as the Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator (basic editor, free, for use on MS Windows), SIL Ukelele (advanced editor, free, for use on Apple's Mac OS X), KbdEdit (commercial editor, for Windows) and Keyman Developer (free, open source editor for Windows, macOS, iOS, Android, or for sites on the web as virtual keyboards) make it easy to create custom keyboard layouts for regular keyboards; users may satisfy their own typing patterns or specific needs by creating new ones from scratch (like the IPA or pan-Iberian layouts) or modify existing ones (for example, the Latin American Extended or Gaelic layouts). Such editors can also construct complex key sequences using dead keys or the key. Certain virtual keyboards and keyboard layouts are accessible online. With no hardware limitations, those online keyboards can display custom layouts, or allow the user to pre-configure or try out different language layouts. Resulting text can then be pasted into other websites or applications flexibly with no need to reprogram keyboard mappings at all. Some high-end keyboards allow users flexibility to reprogram keyboard mappings at the hardware level. For example, the Kinesis Advantage contoured keyboard allows for reprogramming single keys (not key combinations), as well as creating macros for remapping combinations of keys (this however includes more processing from the keyboard hardware, and can therefore be slightly slower, with a lag that may be noticed in daily use). Non-QWERTY layouts were also used with specialized machines such as the 90-key Linotype type setting machine. Keyboard layouts for non-Latin alphabetic scripts Some keyboard layouts for non-Latin alphabetic scripts, most notably the Greek layout, are based on the QWERTY layout, in that glyphs are assigned as far as possible to keys that bear similar-sounding or appearing glyphs in QWERTY. This saves learning time for those familiar with QWERTY, and eases entry of Latin characters (with QWERTY) as well for Greek users. This is not a general rule, and many non-Latin keyboard layouts have been invented from scratch. All non-Latin computer keyboard layouts can also input Latin letters as well as the script of the language, for example, when typing in URLs or names. This may be done through a special key on the keyboard devoted to this task, or through some special combination of keys, or through software programs that do not interact with the keyboard much. Abugida Brahmic scripts Baybayin It is possible to type directly from one's keyboard without the need to use web applications which implement an input method. The Philippines Unicode Keyboard Layout includes different sets of layout for different keyboard users: QWERTY, Capewell-Dvorak, Capewell-QWERF 2006, Colemak, and Dvorak, all of which work in both Microsoft Windows and Linux. This keyboard layout with can be downloaded here. Bengali There are many different systems developed to type Bengali language characters using a typewriter or a computer keyboard and mobile device. There were efforts taken to standardize the input system for Bengali in Bangladesh ( Jatiyo layout), but still no input method has still been effectively adopted widely. Dhivehi Dhivehi Keyboards have two layouts. Both are supported by Microsoft Windows (Windows XP and later only). InScript InScript is the standard keyboard for 12 Indian scripts including Devanagari, Bengali, Gujarati, Gurmukhi, Kannada, Malayalam, Oriya, Tamil, and Telugu etc. Most Indian scripts are derived from Brahmi, therefore their alphabetic order is identical. On the basis of this property, the InScript keyboard layout scheme was prepared. So a person who knows InScript typing in one language can type in other scripts using dictation even without knowledge of that script. An InScript keyboard is inbuilt in most modern operating systems including Windows, Linux, and Mac OS. It is also available in some mobile phones. Khmer Khmer uses its own layout designed to correspond, to the extent practicable, to its QWERTY counterpart, thus easing the learning curve in either direction. For example, the letter is typed on the same key as the letter L on the English-based QWERTY. It also has many specifics due to its record number of vowels, consonants and punctuation signs as well as its cluster structure which bundles letters together in one. Thai The Thai Kedmanee keyboard layout predominates. The Thai Pattachote keyboard layout is also used, though it is much less common. Infrequently used characters are accessed via the Shift key. Despite their wide usage in Thai, Arabic numerals are not present on the main section of the keyboard. Instead they are accessed via the numeric keypad or by switching to the Latin character set on keyboards without dedicated numeric keys. Lao The keyboard layout used for Lao language. Sinhala The Sinhala keyboard layout is based on the Wijesekara typewriter for Sinhala script. Tibetan Tibetan (China) The Chinese National Standard on Tibetan Keyboard Layout standardizes a layout for the Tibetan language in China. The first version of Microsoft Windows to support the Tibetan keyboard layout is MS Windows Vista. The layout has been available in Linux since September 2007. Tibetan (International) Mac OS-X introduced Tibetan Unicode support with OS-X version 10.5 and later, now with three different keyboard layouts available: Tibetan-Wylie, Tibetan QWERTY and Tibetan-Otani. Dzongkha (Bhutan) The Bhutanese Standard for a Dzongkha keyboard layout standardizes the layout for typing Dzongkha, and other languages using the Tibetan script, in Bhutan. This standard layout was formulated by the Dzongkha Development Commission and Department of Information Technology in Bhutan. The Dzongkha keyboard layout is very easy to learn as the key sequence essentially follows the order of letters in the Dzongkha and Tibetan alphabet. The layout has been available in Linux since 2004. Inuktitut Inuktitut has two similar, though not identical, commonly available keyboard layouts for Windows. Both contain a basic Latin layout in its base and shift states, with a few Latin characters in the AltGr shift states. The Canadian Aboriginal syllabics can be found in the Capslock and AltGr shift states in both layouts as well. The difference between the two layouts lies in the use of as an alternate to AltGr to create the dotted, long vowel syllables, and the mapping of the small plain consonants to the Caps + number keys in the "Naqittaut" layout, while the "Latin" layout does not have access to the plain consonants, and can only access the long vowel syllables through the AltGr shift states. Abjad Arabic This layout was developed by Microsoft from the classic Arabic typewriter layout and is used by . There is also a 102-key variant and a 102-key phonetic variant that maps to AZERTY. For Apple keyboards there is a different layout. For Chrome a 1:1 layout also exists. Hebrew All keyboards in Israel are fitted with both Latin and Hebrew letters. Trilingual editions including either Arabic or Cyrillic also exist. Note that in the standard layout (but not all keyboards), paired delimiters—parentheses (), brackets [], and braces {}, as well as less/greater than <>—are in the opposite order from the standard in other left-to-right languages. This results in "open"/"close" being consistent with right-to-left languages (Shift-9 always gives "close parenthesis" U+0029, which visually looks like "open parenthesis" in left-to-right languages). This is shared with Arabic keyboards. Certain Hebrew layouts are extended with niqqud symbols (vowel points), which require Alt+Shift or similar key combination in order to be typed. Tifinagh The Royal institute of the Amazigh culture (IRCAM) developed a national standard Tifinagh layout for Tamazight (Berber) in Morocco. It is included in Linux and Windows 8, and is available from IRCAM for the Mac and older versions of Windows. A compatible, international version of this layout, called "Tifinagh (International)" exists for typing a wide range of Tamazight (Berber) language variants, and includes support for Tuareg variants. It was designed by the Universal Amazigh Keyboard Project and is available from its page on SourceForge. Urdu Urdu has a standardized layout present, developed by the National Authority Language. More commonly, however, the phonetic keyboard is used on smartphones and desktops which align the Urdu letters with their Latin counterparts (for example, pressing Q will write ق) Another version of the keyboard, developed by Designer and Engineer Zeerak Ahmed, has witnessed an increase in usage among the younger generations. The keyboard, Matnsāz, is currently under development and available for beta testing in iOS. Alphabetic Armenian The Armenian language keyboard is similar to the Greek in that in most (but not all) cases, a given Armenian letter is at the same location as the corresponding Latin letter on the QWERTY keyboard. The illustrated keyboard layout can be enabled on Linux with: . Western and Eastern Armenian have different layouts. In the pre-computer times, Armenian keyboards had quite a different layout, more suitable for producing letter combinations inherent to the language. Several attempts have been made to create innovative ergonomic layouts, some of them inspired by Dvorak. Cyrillic Bulgarian The current official Bulgarian keyboard layout for both typewriters and computer keyboards is described in BDS (Bulgarian State/National Standard) 5237:1978. It superseded the old standard, BDS 5237:1968, on 1 January 1978. Like the Dvorak layout, it has been designed to optimize typing speed and efficiency, placing the most common letters in the Bulgarian language—О, Н, Т, and А—under the strongest fingers. In addition to the standard 30 letters of the Bulgarian alphabet, the layout includes the non-Bulgarian Cyrillic symbols Э and ы and the Roman numerals I and V (the X is supposed to be represented by the Cyrillic capital Х, which is acceptable in typewriters but problematic in computers). There is also a second, informal layout in widespread use—the so-called "phonetic" layout, in which Cyrillic letters are mapped to the QWERTY keys for Latin letters that "sound" or "look" the same, with several exceptions (Я is mapped to Q, Ж is mapped to V, etc.—see the layout and compare it to the standard QWERTY layout). This layout is available as an alternative to the BDS one in some operating systems, including Microsoft Windows, Apple Mac OS X and Ubuntu Linux. Normally, the layouts are set up so that the user can switch between Latin and Cyrillic script by pressing Shift + Alt, and between BDS and Phonetic by pressing Shift + Ctrl. In 2006, Prof. Dimiter Skordev from the Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics of Sofia University and Dimitar Dobrev from the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences proposed a new standard, prBDS 5237:2006, including a revised version of the old BDS layout, which includes the letter Ѝ and the capital Ы and replaces the letters I and V with the currency symbols of $ and € respectively, and a standardization of the informal "phonetic" layout. After some controversy and a public discussion in 2008, the proposal was not accepted, although it had been already used in several places—the "Bulgarian Phonetic" layout in MS Windows Vista is based on it. There is a new "Bulgarian Phonetic" layout in MS Windows 7. Macedonian The Macedonian keyboard layout is phonetic. The Latin letters that have a phonetic equivalent in Macedonian are used for the corresponding Cyrillic letters. The letters in the Macedonian alphabet and characters used in the Macedonian orthography that do not have any phonetic equivalent are Љ, Њ, Ѕ, Ш, Ѓ, Ж, Ч, Ќ, Ѝ, Ѐ. Even though they are not part of the Macedonian alphabet, and are not used in the Macedonian language, the first Macedonian keyboard layout supported by Windows uses Alt Gr to type the glyphs Ћ and Ђ, where their capital forms are next to the small forms. This keyboard does not include the glyphs Ѝ and Ѐ. A new revised standard version of the layout was supported with Windows Vista. This version includes the glyphs Ѝ and Ѐ and uses Alt Gr to add an acute accent, which is not included in the original Macedonian layout. Russian JCUKEN The most common keyboard layout in modern Russia is the so-called Windows layout, which is the default Russian layout used in the MS Windows operating system. The layout was designed to be compatible with the hardware standard in many other countries, but introduced compromises to accommodate the larger alphabet. The full stop and comma symbols share a key, requiring the shift key to be held to produce a comma, despite the high relative frequency of comma in the language. There are some other Russian keyboard layouts in use: in particular, the traditional Russian Typewriter layout (punctuation symbols are placed on numerical keys, one needs to press Shift to enter numbers) and the Russian DOS layout (similar to the Russian Typewriter layout with common punctuation symbols on numerical keys, but numbers are entered without Shift). The Russian Typewriter layout can be found on many Russian typewriters produced before the 1990s, and it is the default Russian keyboard layout in the OpenSolaris operating system. Keyboards in Russia always have Cyrillic letters on the keytops as well as Latin letters. Usually Cyrillic and Latin letters are labeled with different colors. Russian QWERTY/QWERTZ-based phonetic layouts The Russian phonetic keyboard layout (also called homophonic or transliterated) is widely used outside Russia, where normally there are no Russian letters drawn on keyboard buttons. This layout is made for typists who are more familiar with other layouts, like the common English QWERTY keyboard, and follows the Greek and Armenian layouts in placing most letters at the corresponding Latin letter locations. It is famous among both native speakers and people who use, teach, or are learning Russian, and is recommended—along with the Standard Layout—by the linguists, translators, teachers and students of AATSEEL.org. The earliest known implementation of the Cyrillic-to-QWERTY homophonic keyboard was by former AATSEEL officer Constance Curtin between 1972 and 1976, for the PLATO education system's Russian Language curriculum developed at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Curtin's design sought to map phonetically related Russian sounds to QWERTY keys, to map proximate phonetic and visual cues nearby one another, as well as to map unused positions in a mnemonically ideal way. Peter Zelchenko worked under Curtin at UIUC, and his later modifications to the number row for Windows and Macintosh keyboards follow Curtin's original design intent. There are several different Russian phonetic layouts, for example YaZhERT (яжерт), YaWERT (яверт), and YaShERT (яшерт) suggested by AATSEEL.org and called "Student" layout. They are named after the first several letters that take over the 'QWERTY' row on the Latin keyboard. They differ by where a few of the letters are placed. For example, some have Cyrillic 'B' (which is pronounced 'V') on the Latin 'W' key (after the German transliteration of B), while others have it on the Latin 'V' key. The images of AATSEEL "Student", YaZhERT (яжерт) and YaWERT (яверт) are shown on this page. There are also variations within these variations; for example the Mac OS X Phonetic Russian layout is YaShERT but differs in placement of ж and э. Windows 10 includes its own implementation of a mnemonic QWERTY-based input method for Russian, which does not fully rely on assigning a key to every Russian letter, but uses the sh, sc, ch, ya (ja), yu (ju), ye (je), yo (jo) combinations to input ш, щ, ч, я, ю, э, and ё respectively. Virtual (on-screen) keyboards allow entering Cyrillic directly in a browser without activating the system layout. Serbian (Cyrillic) Apart from a set of characters common to most Cyrillic alphabets, the Serbian Cyrillic layout uses six additional special characters unique or nearly unique to the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet: Љ, Њ, Ћ, Ђ, Џ, and Ј. The Macedonian Ѕ is on this keyboard despite not being used in Serbian Cyrillic. Due to the bialphabetic nature of the language, actual physical keyboards with the Serbian Cyrillic layout printed on the keys are uncommon today. Typical keyboards sold in Serbian-speaking markets are marked with Serbian Latin characters and used with both the Latin (QWERTZ) and Cyrillic layout configured in the software. What makes the two layouts this readily interchangeable is that the non-alphabetic keys are identical between them, and alphabetic keys always correspond directly to their counterparts (except the Latin letters Q, W, X, and Y that have no Cyrillic equivalents, and the Cyrillic letters Љ, Њ and Џ whose Latin counterparts are digraphs LJ, NJ and DŽ). This also makes the Serbian Cyrillic layout a rare example of a non-Latin layout based on QWERTZ. Ukrainian Ukrainian keyboards, based on a slight modification of Russian Standard Layout, often also have the Russian Standard ("Windows") layout marked on them, making it easy to switch from one language to another. This keyboard layout had several problems, one of which was the omission of the letter Ґ, which does not exist in Russian. The other long-standing problem was the omission of the apostrophe, which is used in Ukrainian almost as commonly as in English (though with a different meaning), but which also does not exist in Russian. Both of these problems were resolved with the "improved Ukrainian" keyboard layout for Windows available with Vista and subsequent Windows versions. There also exists an adapted keyboard for Westerners learning Ukrainian (mostly in the diaspora) which closely matches the QWERTY keyboard, so that the letters either have the same sound or same shape, for example pressing the "v" on the Latin QWERTY produces the Cyrillic в (which makes roughly the same sound) and pressing the QWERTY "w" key gives the Cyrillic ш (based on the similar shape). This is usually called a homophonic or phonetic layout. Georgian All keyboards in Georgia are fitted with both Latin and Georgian letters. As with the Armenian, Greek, and phonetic Russian layouts, most Georgian letters are on the same keys as their Latin equivalents. During the Soviet era, the Georgian alphabet was adapted to the Russian JCUKEN layout, mainly for typewriters. Soviet computers did not support Georgian keyboards. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union a large variety of computers were introduced to post-Soviet countries. The keyboards had QWERTY layout for Latin alphabet and JCUKEN for Cyrillic both printed on keys. Georgia started to adopt the QWERTY pattern. In both cases the letters which did not exist in the Cyrillic or Latin alphabets were substituted by letters that did not exist in Georgian alphabet. Today the most commonly used layout follows the QWERTY pattern with some changes. Greek The usual Greek layout follows the US layout for letters related to Latin letters (ABDEHIKLMNOPRSTXYZ, ΑΒΔΕΗΙΚΛΜΝΟΠΡΣΤΧΥΖ, respectively), substitutes phonetically similar letters (Φ at F; Γ at G) and uses the remaining slots for the remaining Greek letters: Ξ at J; Ψ at C; Ω at V; Θ at U). Greek has two fewer letters than English, but has two diacritic marks which, because of their frequency, are placed on the home row at the U.K. ";" position; they are dead keys. Word-final sigma has its own position as well, replacing W, and semicolon (which is used as a question mark in Greek) and colon move to the position of Q. The Greek Polytonic layout has various dead keys to input the accented letters. There is also the Greek 220 layout and the Greek 319 layout. Syllabic Cherokee The Cherokee language uses an 86-character syllabary. The keyboard is available for the iPhone and iPad and is supported by Google. East Asian languages The orthography used for Chinese, Japanese, and Korean ("CJK characters") require special input methods, due to the thousands of possible characters in these languages. Various methods have been invented to fit every possibility into a QWERTY keyboard, so East Asian keyboards are essentially the same as those in other countries. However, their input methods are considerably more complex, without one-to-one mappings between keys and characters. In general, the range of possibilities is first narrowed down (often by entering the desired character's pronunciation). Then, if there remains more than one possibility, the desired ideogram is selected, either by typing the number before the character, or using a graphical menu to select it. The computer assists the typist by using heuristics to guess which character is most likely desired. Although this may seem painstaking, East Asian input methods are today sufficient in that, even for beginners, typing in these languages is only slightly slower than typing an alphabetic language like English (where each phoneme is represented by one grapheme). In Japanese, the QWERTY-based JIS keyboard layout is used, and the pronunciation of each character is entered using various approximations to Hepburn romanization or Kunrei-shiki romanization. There are several kana-based typing methods. . Of the three, Chinese has the most varied input options. Characters can either be entered by pronunciation (like Japanese and Hanja in Korean), or by structure. Most of the structural methods are very difficult to learn but extremely efficient for experienced typists, as there is no need to select characters from a menu. There exist a variety of other, slower methods in which a character may be entered. If the pronunciation of a character is not known, the selection can be narrowed down by giving its component shapes, radicals, and stroke count. Also, many input systems include a "drawing pad" permitting "handwriting" of a character using a mouse. Finally, if the computer does not have CJK software installed, it may be possible to enter a character directly through its encoding number (e.g., Unicode). In contrast to Chinese and Japanese, Korean is typed similarly to Western languages. There exist two major forms of keyboard layouts: Dubeolsik (두벌식), and Sebeolsik (세벌식). Dubeolsik, which shares its symbol layout with the QWERTY keyboard, is much more commonly used. While Korean consonants and vowels (jamo) are grouped together into syllabic grids when written, the script is essentially alphabetical, and therefore typing in Korean is quite simple for those who understand the Korean alphabet Hangul. Each jamo is assigned to a single key. As the user types letters, the computer automatically groups them into syllabic characters. Given a sequence of jamo, there is only one unambiguous way letters can be validly grouped into syllables, so the computer groups them together as the user types. Hangul (for Korean) Pressing the Han/Eng () key once switches between Hangul as shown, and QWERTY. There is another key to the left of the space bar for Hanja ( or ) input. If using an ordinary keyboard without the two extra keys, the right Alt key will become the Ha/En key, and the right Ctrl key will become the Hanja key. Apple Keyboards do not have the two extra keys. Dubeolsik Dubeolsik (두벌식; 2-set) is by far the most common and the sole national standard of Hangul keyboard layout in use in South Korea since 1969. Consonants occupy the left side of the layout, while vowels are on the right. Sebeolsik 390 Sebeolsik 390 (세벌식 390; 3-set 390) was released in 1990. It is based on Dr. Kong Byung Woo's earlier work. This layout is notable for its compatibility with the QWERTY layout; almost all QWERTY symbols that are not alphanumeric are available in Hangul mode. Numbers are placed in three rows. Syllable-initial consonants are on the right (shown green in the picture), and syllable-final consonants and consonant clusters are on the left (shown red). Some consonant clusters are not printed on the keyboard; the user has to press multiple consonant keys to input some consonant clusters, unlike Sebeolsik Final. It is more ergonomic than the dubeolsik, but is not in wide use. Sebeolsik Final Sebeolsik Final (세벌식 최종; 3-set Final) is another Hangul keyboard layout in use in South Korea. It is the final Sebulsik layout designed by Dr. Kong Byung Woo, hence the name. Numbers are placed on two rows. Syllable-initial consonants are on the right, and syllable-final consonants and consonant clusters are on the left. Vowels are in the middle. All consonant clusters are available on the keyboard, unlike the Sebeolsik 390 which does not include all of them. It is more ergonomic than the dubeolsik, but is not in wide use. Sebeolsik Noshift Sebeolsik Noshift is a variant of sebeolsik which can be used without pressing the shift key. Its advantage is that people with disabilities who cannot press two keys at the same time will still be able to use it to type in Hangul. Chinese Chinese keyboards are usually in US layout with/without Chinese input method labels printed on keys. Without an input method handler activated, these keyboards would simply respond to Latin characters as physically labelled, provided that the US keyboard layout is selected correctly in the operating system. Most modern input methods allow input of both simplified and traditional characters, and will simply default to one or the other based on the locale setting. People's Republic of China Keyboards used in the People's Republic of China are standard or slightly modified English US (QWERTY) ones without extra labelling, while various IMEs are employed to input Chinese characters. The most common IMEs are Hanyu pinyin-based, representing the pronunciation of characters using Latin letters. However, keyboards with labels for alternative structural input methods such as Wubi method can also be found, although those are usually very old products and are extremely rare, as of 2015. Taiwan Computers in Taiwan often use Zhuyin (bopomofo) style keyboards (US keyboards with bopomofo labels), many also with Cangjie method key labels, as Cangjie is a popular method for typing in traditional Chinese characters. The bopomofo style keyboards are in lexicographical order, top-to-bottom left-to-right. The codes of three input methods are typically printed on the Chinese (traditional) keyboard: Zhuyin (upper right); Cangjie (lower left); and Dayi (lower right). Hong Kong and Macau In Hong Kong, both Chinese (Taiwan) and US keyboards are found. Japanese keyboards are occasionally found, and UK keyboards are rare. For Chinese input, Shape-based input methods such as Cangjie (pronounced cong1 kit3 in Cantonese) or Chinese handwriting recognition are the most common input method. The use of phonetic-based input method is uncommon due to the lack of official standard for Cantonese romanisation and people in Hong Kong almost never learn any romanisation schemes in schools. An advantage of phonetic-based input method is that most Cantonese speakers are able to input Traditional Chinese characters with no particular training at all where they spell out the Cantonese sound of each character without tone marks, e.g. 'heung gong' for 香港 (; Hong Kong) and to choose the characters from a list. However, Microsoft Windows, which is the most popular operating system used in desktops, does not provide any Cantonese phonetic input method, requiring users to find and install third-party input method software. Also, most people find the process of picking characters from a list being too slow due to homonyms so the Cangjie method is generally preferred. Although thorough training and practice are required to use Cangjie, many Cantonese speakers have taken Cangjie input courses because of the fast typing speed availed by the input method. This method is the fastest because it has the capability to fetch the exact, unambiguous Chinese character which the user has in mind to input, pinpointing to only one character in most cases. This is also the reason why no provision for an input of phonetic accent is needed to complement this Input Method. The Cangjie character feature is available on both Mac OS X and Windows. On Mac OS X, handwriting recognition input method is bundled with the OS. Macau utilizes the same layouts as Hong Kong, with the addition of the Portuguese layout used in Portugal. Japanese The JIS standard layout includes Japanese kana in addition to a QWERTY style layout. The shifted values of many keys (digits, together with ) are a legacy of bit-paired keyboards, dating to ASCII telex machines and terminals of the 1960s and 1970s. For entering Japanese, the most common method is entering text phonetically, as romanized (transliterated) kana, which are then converted to kanji as appropriate by an input method editor. It is also possible to type kana directly, depending on the mode used. To type , "Takahashi", a Japanese name, one could type either () in Romanized (Rōmaji) input mode, or in kana input mode. Then the user can proceed to the conversion step to convert the input into the appropriate kanji. The extra keys in the bottom row (muhenkan, henkan, and the Hiragana/Katakana switch key), and the special keys in the leftmost column (the hankaku/zenkaku key at the upper left corner, and the eisū key at the Caps Lock position), control various aspects of the conversion process and select different modes of input. The Oyayubi Shifuto (Thumb Shift) layout is based on kana input, but uses two modifying keys replacing the space bar. When a key is pressed simultaneously with one of the keys, it yields another letter. Letters with the "dakuten" diacritic are typed with the opposite side "thumb shift". Letters with "handakuten" are either typed while the conventional pinky-operated shift key is pressed (that is, each key corresponds to a maximum of 4 letters), or, on the "NICOLA" variation, on a key which does not have a dakuten counterpart. The key in the QWERTY layout individually yields は, but with the () key, yields み. Simultaneous input with () yields ば, which is the individually mapped letter with the aforementioned dakuten. While the pinky-operated key is pressed, the same key yields ぱ. (This same letter must be typed with () + on the NICOLA variant.) Layout changing software The character code produced by any key press is determined by the keyboard driver software. A key press generates a scancode which is interpreted as an alphanumeric character or control function. Depending on operating systems, various application programs are available to create, add and switch among keyboard layouts. Many programs are available, some of which are language specific. The arrangement of symbols of specific language can be customized. An existing keyboard layout can be edited, and a new layout can be created using this type of software. For example, for Mac, AutoHotkey or The Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator for Windows, and open-source Avro Keyboard provide the ability to customize the keyboard layout as desired. See also Half-keyboard Telephone keypad letter mapping Notes References External links How to identify an Apple keyboard layout by country or region

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%91%EC%9D%98

작의

작의(作意)에는 2가지 뜻이 있다. 첫 번째는 문자 그대로는 '뜻한 바[意]를 지음[作]' 또는 '마음먹은 것[意]을 행함[作]'을 뜻하는데, 무언가를 결심하고 실행하는 것을 의미한다. 두 번째는 경각(警覺)을 의미한다. 첫 번째의 경우, 예를 들어, 무상천(無想天)이 번뇌를 벗어난 해탈의 경지라고 보아 번뇌에 속박된 현재 상태를 벗어나 무상천의 경지에 도달하려는 생각, 의도 또는 의지를 가지는 것을 '무상천에 대해 출리상을 일으킨다[於無想天起出離想]'고 표현하는데, 이러한 생각, 의도 또는 의지를 일으키고 그에 따라 그것을 실현시킬 수 있는 방편(수단 또는 수행)을 행하는 것을 출리상을 작의[出離想作意]한다라고 표현한다. 여기서, 무상천의 경지에 도달하기 위해 닦는 모든 방편(특히, 선정)을 통칭하여 무상정(無想定)이라 이름한다. 한편, 모든 번뇌를 벗어나 마음이 적정의 상태에 있는 멸진(滅盡)의 상태에 도달하려는 생각, 의도 또는 의지를 가지고 그에 따라 그것을 실현시킬 수 있는 방편을 행하는 것을 지식상을 작의[止息想作意]한다라고 표현하거나 식상을 작의[息想作意]한다라고 표현한다. 그리고 멸진의 경지에 도달하기 위해 닦는 모든 방편(특히, 선정)을 통칭하여 멸진정(無想定)이라 이름한다. 이 문서의 이하의 내용은 두 번째의 경각(警覺)의 의미로서의 작의(作意, , , , ego-centric demanding)에 대해 다룬다. 작의는 다음의 분류, 그룹 또는 체계의 한 요소이다. 부파불교의 설일체유부의 5위 75법에서 심소법(心所法: 46가지) 중 대지법(大地法: 10가지) 가운데 하나이다. 대승불교의 유식유가행파와 법상종의 5위 100법에서 심소법(心所法: 51가지) 중 변행심소(遍行心所: 5가지) 가운데 하나이다. 작의(作意)는 유의(留意)라고도 하는데, 마음(6식 또는 8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 경각(警覺: 정신을 가다듬어 경계함, 정신을 차리고 주의 깊게 살피어 경계함)하게 하여서 인식대상[所緣境]에 주의(注意: 관심을 집중하여 기울임)하게 하는 마음작용이다. 작의(作意)가 대지법 또는 변행심소에 속한다는 것은 작의가 없이는 인식대상에 대한 경험이 불완전해진다는 것을 의미한다. 작의가 없으면 인식대상에 관심을 두거나 인식대상을 경험 가운데 계속 유지하는 것이 불가능하게 되고 이렇게 되면 그 인식대상을 제대로 경험할 수 없게 된다. 즉 그 인식대상을 제대로 향유(享有)할 수 없으며 또한 그 인식대상에 대한 제대로 된 경험적 지식을 얻을 수 없게 된다. 정의 부파불교 부파불교의 설일체유부의 교학을 비판적으로 집대성한 《구사론》에 따르면, 작의(作意)는 마음(6식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 경각(警覺: 정신을 가다듬어 경계함, 정신을 차리고 주의 깊게 살피어 경계함)하게 하는 마음작용이다. 즉, 작의(作意)는 마음(6식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)을 경각(警覺)시키고 마음의 주의(注意)를 일깨우는 마음작용으로, 마음을 자극하고 일깨워 인식대상[所緣境]에 유의(留意)하게 즉 관심을 기울이게 한다. 대승불교 《성유식론》에 따르면, 작의(作意)는 마음(8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 경각(警覺: 정신을 가다듬어 경계함, 정신을 차리고 주의 깊게 살피어 경계함)하게 하는 것을 본질적 성질[性]로 하고, 마음을 인식대상[所緣境] 쪽으로 이끄는 것을 그 작용[業]으로 하는 마음작용이다. 한편, 미륵과 더불어 유식학의 시조 또는 주창자라고 할 수 있는 무착은 《대승아비달마집론》 에서, 작의(作意)는 마음(8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)을 발동(發動)시키는 것을 그 본질적 성질[體]로 하고, 인식대상[所緣境]에 마음을 유지[持]시키는 것을 그 본질적 작용[業]으로 한다고 말하고 있다. 즉, 작의(作意)라는 명칭은 이 마음작용이 인연이 갖추어져 마주하게 된 인식대상에 합당하게 일어나야 할 마음(8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)의 종자(種子, bīja)를 경각(警覺)시킨 후 해당 종자를 이끌어서 해당 인식대상으로 나아가게 하기 때문에 붙여진 이름이다. 작의(作意)는 아뢰야식(阿賴耶識)에 있는 종자(種子, bīja)로부터 생겨나는 마음작용으로, 마음(8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)에 의해 일어나 마음과 함께 전변(轉變)하고 현행(現行)하여 인식대상과 상응(相應)하는 마음작용이다. 그리고 이 작의(作意)의 마음작용의 본질적 성질은 마음을 움직[發動, 警覺]이는 것이며 본질적 작용은 마음을 해당 인식대상으로 이끄는 것으로, 그 결과 마음과 더불어 동일한 인식대상을 반연(攀緣)한다. 즉, 마음과 작의(作意)의 마음작용이 동일한 인식대상을 각자의 활동의 조건[緣] 또는 대상으로 삼게 되며, 이를 바탕으로 마음은 새로운 선, 불선 또는 무기의 업을 낳는 이후의 활동[行]을 펼치게 된다. 성질·작용: 경각 유식학에 따르면, 작의(作意)의 본질적인 성질은 마음(8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)으로 하여금 경각(警覺: 정신을 가다듬어 경계함, 정신을 차리고 주의 깊게 살피어 경계함)하게 하는 것이다. 그리고, 작의(作意)에 말할 때면 주로 마음(8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)에 대해서 경각시키는 것으로 말하지만, 사실 작의는 다른 마음작용(심소법)도 경각시키는 작용을 한다. 다만, 마음이 주체이기 때문에 주로 마음에 대해 말하는 것이다. 경각(警覺)은 다시 종자경각(種子警覺)과 현행경각(現行警覺)으로 나뉜다. 종자경각(種子警覺)은 작의(作意)의 종자가 다른 마음(8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)과 마음작용의 종자를 경각시켜 현행(現行)하게 하는 것을 말한다. 현행경각(現行警覺)은 종자경각에 의해 현행하는 상태가 된 다른 마음(8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)과 마음작용을 하여금 인식대상[所緣境, 마음과 마음작용의 대상]에게로 나아가게 하는 것을 말한다. 달리 말하면, 종자경각은 작의(作意)의 본질적 성질[性, 性用]이고, 현행경각은 작의(作意)의 본질적 작용[業, 業用]이다. 작의(作意)는 종자경각을 통해 다른 마음(8식, 즉 심왕, 즉 심법)과 마음작용의 종자를 경각시켜 현행하게 하고, 현행경각을 통해 현행하는 마음과 마음작용으로 하여금 인식대상에 나아가게 한다. 즉, 작의(作意)는 종자경각을 통해 종자 상태의 마음과 마음작용을 각성시키고, 현행경각을 통해, 각성된 마음과 마음작용으로 하여금 인식대상에 관심을 두게 하고 또한 관심을 계속 유지하게 하는 마음작용이다. 참고 문헌 각주 불교 용어

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manasik%C4%81ra

Manasikāra

Manasikara (Sanskrit and Pali, also manasikāra; Tibetan Wylie: yid la byed pa or yid byed) is a Buddhist term that is translated as "attention" or "mental advertence". It is defined as the process of the mind fixating upon an object. Manasikara is identified within the Buddhist Abhidharma teachings as follows: One of the seven universal mental factors in the Theravada Abhidharma. One of the five universal mental factors in the Mahayana Abhidharma Definitions Theravada Bhikkhu Bodhi states: The Pali word literally means “making in the mind.” Attention is the mental factor responsible for the mind’s advertence to the object, by virtue of which the object is made present to consciousness. Its characteristic is the conducting (sāraṇa) of the associated mental states towards the object. Its function is to yoke the associated states to the object. It is manifested as confrontation with an object, and its proximate cause is the object. Attention is like the rudder of a ship, which directs it to its destination, or like a charioteer who sends the well-trained horses (i.e. the associated states) towards their destination (the object). Manasikāra should be distinguished from vitakka: while the former turns its concomitants towards the object, the latter applies them onto the object. Manasikāra is an indispensable cognitive factor present in all states of consciousness; vitakka is a specialized factor which is not indispensable to cognition. The Atthasālinī (I, Part IV, Chapter 1, 133) and the Visuddhimagga (XIV, 152) define manasikāra as follows: ...It has the characteristic of driving associated states towards the object, the function of joining (yoking) associated states to the object, the manifestation of facing the object. It is included in the saṅkhārakkhandha, and should be regarded as the charioteer of associated states because it regulates the object. Mahayana The Abhidharma-samuccaya states: What is manasikara? It is a continuity having the function of holding the mind to what has become its reference. Herbert Guenther states: It is a cognition that keeps the complex of mind in its specific objective reference. The difference between cetanā and manasikara is that cetanā brings the mind towards the object in a general move, while manasikara makes the mind fixate upon this particular objective reference. See also Mental factors (Buddhism) References Sources Guenther, Herbert V. & Leslie S. Kawamura (1975), Mind in Buddhist Psychology: A Translation of Ye-shes rgyal-mtshan's "The Necklace of Clear Understanding" Dharma Publishing. Kindle Edition. Kunsang, Erik Pema (translator) (2004). Gateway to Knowledge, Vol. 1. North Atlantic Books. Nina van Gorkom (2010), Cetasikas, Zolag External links Ranjung Yeshe wiki entry for yid_la_byed_pa Berzin Archives glossary entry for "yid-la byed-pa" Definitions of vitality (jīvitindriya) and attention (manasikara), Nina van Gorkom Mental factors in Buddhism

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%9C%EB%84%88%EB%9F%B4%20%EB%A7%A4%EB%8B%88%EC%A0%80

제너럴 매니저

제너럴 매니저(general manager)는 기업이나 스포츠 구단에서 총괄관리자 혹은 총감독을 의미한다. 기업 종합관리 종합관리(general management)란 경영조직의 최상층부에서 전조직의 종합적인 경영활동을 행하는 것을 말하면, 전반관리(全般管理)라고도 한다. 이는 대기업에 있어서는 일반적으로 개인적이라기보다는 집단적으로 톱 매니지먼트, 특히 사장 등에 의해 운영된다. 오늘날의 경영은 일반적으로 피라미드형의 경영조직구조(公式構造)를 취함으로써 기능별·지역별 등의 전문화를 수행한다. 많은 사람들은 각각 할당된 직무에 전문화하며, 다른 한편 이들 분화·전문화된 직무가 경영전체의 목적에 유기적인 역할을 하도록 종합·조정해야 한다. 이를 위해 작업자·감독자·관리자 등의 몇 개의 계층을 중복되게 이루며, 최종적으로 톱 매니지먼트층(최고경영자층)에서 전조직의 종합조정을 행하는 것이다. 이 최후의 조정 활동과 전조직적인 의사결정을 행하는 것이 종합관리이다. 이는 또한 감독자·관리자의 관리활동과 구별하여 경영활동(administration, policy-making)이라고도 부른다. 세분되고 전문화된 직무를 전체 목적에 유용하도록 종합조정하는 것은 단지 하부로부터 차례대로 상부로 향하여 통할(보고에 기초하는 통제)할 뿐만 아니라, 다른 한편으로는 미리 톱 매니지먼트층에서 전조직적인 경영목적·경영계획에 따라 부문계획을 세우게 한다. 즉, 기본적인 계획의 실행을 순차적으로 하부에 위임하는 것이 효과적이다. 계획의 실시를 상부에서 하부로 지시 또는 명령하고, 계획에 따른 실행을 위해서 하부에서 상부로 올라가 통할을 한다고 하는 두 방향의 활동이 서로 어울려서 효과적인 관리가 되는 것이다. 따라서 목적설정·계획수립을 출발점으로 하고 종합조정을 최종점으로 하는 경영관리활동을 종합관리라 할 수 있다. 경영목적의 설정 종합관리의 출발점은 경영목적의 설정에 있다. 이 경영목적이 없으면 다수인의 노동이 성립되지 못하며, 노동에 방향을 제시할 수 없다. 다수인이 노동하는 것은 일정의 명확한 목적이 있어야만 비로소 가능하게 된다. 이것을 조직 또는 기업이라고 한다. 여기서 말하는 목적은 단지 자본에 대한 이익(이윤)을 높이려 하는 추상적인 것이 아니라, 어떤 종류의 재화 또는 서비스를 제공하기 위하여 일종의 자본 또는 설비를 사용하여 경영활동을 수행하는 구체적인 것이어야 한다. 따라서 이와 같은 경영 전체의 목적이 설정되면 이에 따른 자본조달·생산·판매·인사·연구개발 등의 모든 기능에 대하여 필요한 수단이 선택된다. 이들 수단이 선택되면, 각부문에 대하여 이것이 보다 하위의 목적으로 주어짐으로써 이에 대한 수단, 보다 구체적인 수단이 선택된다. 이와 같이 전조직적인 것으로부터 차례로 구체적·부분적인 것으로의 목적－수단의 연쇄가 존재함은 물론, 조직활동이 합리적으로 수행되는 것이다. 목적－수단의 연쇄의 정점에 있는 것이 종합관리에 있어 목적설정이며, 이것은 일종의 의사결정이다. 의사결정은 희망 혹은 주어진 목적으로부터 직접으로 유도되는 것이 아니라, 환경조건 속에는 작용을 가하여 변화시킬 수 있고 조직목적의 달성에 유용한 것과, 작용을 가해도 변화시킬 수 없는 것이 있다. 바너드(C. I. Barnard)는 전자를 전략적인 요인이라 불러 이를 올바르게 선택하는 것이 중요하다고 지적했다. 의사결정이 목적과 환경과를 종합적으로 판단하여 이행하여야 한다는 것은 경영자에 있어서나 관리자 이하에 있어서나 마찬가지이지만, 종합관리에 있어서, 톱 매니지먼트에 있어서의 의사결정은 특히 중요하고 동시에 어려운 것이라는 점에 주의하여야 한다. 종합관리에 있어서의 의사결정, 즉 목적의 설정은 전 경영활동에 방향을 주는 것이고, 목적－수단이란 연쇄의 출발점인 의미에서 중요할 뿐 아니라 의사결정을 위한 가치전제(價値前提)가 경영자의 경우에는 관리자 이하의 결정에 있어서처럼 주어지는 것이 아니라, 스스로 선정하는 것이다. 또 사실전제(事實前提)도 불확정의 것이 많고, 관련된 모든 사실이 이미 알려진 것이라고도 할 수 없다. 이런 의미에서도 종합관리의 의사결정은 특히 어려운 것이다. 이에 덧붙여서 근년과 같이 경영을 둘러싼 환경 조건의 끊임없는 격변 속에서는 경영자는 적시(適時)의 과감한 의사결정에 의하여 환경에 대해 끊임없이 적응해 나가도록 꾀하여야 한다. 따라서 목적의 수정도 필요하게 된다. 종합관리의 무엇보다 중요한 기능은 이와 같이 환경에 대한 적시의 창조적 적응이라 할 수 있다. 그래서 이러한 구체적인 목적의 설정은 부문관리 이하에 있어서 계획·종합하여, 장기·단기경영계획으로서 나타나는 것이다. 종합조정 경영관리는 위에서 말한 것처럼 전조직적 목적과 계획을 결정·지시함은 물론, 다른 면으로는 그 실행을 확실히 하기 위하여 결과의 보고를 받아 통제하여야 한다. 뒷 부분은 톱 매니지먼트에 있어서 각 부문을 종합적으로 보아, 이들 활동을 경영 전체의 목적으로 향하게 조정하는 것을 의미하며, 최종적 조정이라 할 수 있다. 이것 또한 의사결정이다. 본래부터 미리 제시된 경영계획은 실행활동의 귀감이 되는 것으로서 실행이 이것과 차질이 없도록 부문활동에 조정 내지 통제를 가하는 것이다. 따라서 종합조정은 부문별의 전문적 기능에 의해 실행될 수는 없다. 바너드가 셀즈니크(P. Selznick)가 말하는 조직의 전체감각·전체관(全體觀)이 요구되는 것이다. 근대적 대기업에 있어서는 분권적 관리방식이 취해져 많은 부분기능이 조직의 하부에 위양되지만, 자본구조 특히 투자계획이나 상층부 인사(上層部人事)와 같은 문제가 톱 매니지먼트에 유보되는 것은 이것들이 경영 전체에 중요한 의미를 갖는 의사결정이기 때문이다. 경영의 통일성과 연속성 경영은 다수인의 협동, 즉 조직에 의해 행하여지는 것이 일반적이다. 조직은 사람들의 협동시스템이라고 해석할 수 있다. 이는 통일성을 가진 시스템으로서 움직여지는 것이 이상적이나 때로는 내부의 대립과 경쟁에 의해 통일성이 파괴되는 경우도 있다. 이러한 때는 외부환경의 변화에 대해 저항력을 갖고 적응해 나가기가 어렵게 된다. 바꾸어 말하면, 협동하는 사람들이 공통의 의식 내지 가치기준을 갖는 경우에 조직은 변화에 대한 저항력을 갖고, 안정적인 활동을 유지할 수 있다. 이러한 조직의 통일성을 갖기 위하여 조직의 도덕준칙(道德準則)을 창조하는 것, 환언하면 집단정신 내지 경영이념을 세우는 것을 강조한 사람이 바너드이고, 또 이 영향을 받아 이것을 사회학적으로 전개한 사람이 셀즈니크이다. 대개 집단이 상호작용을 가질 때 공식조직이거나 비공식조직으로 무엇인가 행동기준을 갖게 됨은 당연하다. 따라서 경영자는 공식조직의 유지·발전에 유용한 행동기준(도덕기준)을 적극적으로 창조하여야 한다. 즉, 개인의 이익이더라도 조직의 목적을 우선해야 하는 태도를 취하여, 조직 성원에 납득이 갈 행동의 일반적 기준과 그 기초가 되는 가치의 체계를 창조해야 한다. 이러한 행동기준 내지 가치체계는 보통 경영이념이라 부르는 것으로, 이와 같은 가치체계가 확립되어 몸에 베어 있으면 조직 내의 각 성원이 서로 다른 기능을 담당하고 있더라도 그들의 행동에 일정한 방향이 주어져 조직의 통일성이 지속되기 쉽다. 그리하여 변화에의 적응력도 높아지게 된다. 이러한 상태로 된 때를 셀즈니크는 조직이 제도화되었다고 표현한다. 이러한 경영이념의 확립과 철저화는 종합관리의 중요한 내용의 하나이다. 경영자 개인의 생명은 한도가 있다. 이른바 경영의 영속성을 보존하려면 현재의 경영자가 경영이념을 확립해야 할 뿐 아니라 후계자나 후보자를 육성, 이념의 연속성을 보존해야 한다. 따라서 후계자에게 종합관리의 기능을 육성시킴과 동시에 또한 경영이념을 체득시킬 필요가 있다. 스포츠 특히 미국의 프로페셔널 스포츠 구단에서 제너럴 매니저 선수 영입 전권을 책임지고 있다. 대한민국에서는 단장으로 번역되기도 한다. 스포츠 관련 직업 경영직

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20manager

General manager

A general manager (GM) is an executive who has overall responsibility for managing both the revenue and cost elements of a company's income statement, known as profit & loss (P&L) responsibility. A general manager usually oversees most or all of the firm's marketing and sales functions as well as the day-to-day operations of the business. Frequently, the general manager is responsible for effective planning, delegating, coordinating, staffing, organizing, and decision making to attain desirable profit making results for an organization (Sayles 1979). In many cases, the general manager of a business is given a different formal title or titles. Most corporate managers holding the titles of chief executive officer (CEO) or president, for example, are the general managers of their respective businesses. More rarely, the chief financial officer (CFO), chief operating officer (COO), or chief marketing officer (CMO) will act as the general manager of the business. Depending on the company, individuals with the title managing director, regional vice president, country manager, product manager, branch manager, or segment manager may also have general management responsibilities. In large companies, many vice presidents will have the title of general manager when they have the full set of responsibility for the function in that particular area of the business and are often titled vice president and general manager. In consumer products companies, general managers are often given the title brand manager or category manager. In professional services firms, the general manager may hold titles such as managing partner, senior partner, or managing director. Industry-specific usages Hotels In the hotel industry, the general manager is the head executive responsible for the overall operation of an individual hotel establishment including financial profitability. The general manager holds ultimate managerial authority over the hotel operation and usually reports directly to a regional vice president, corporate office, and/or hotel ownership/investors. Some of the common duties of a general manager include are hiring and the management of an executive team, which consists of individual department heads, who oversee various hotel departments and functions, budgeting and financial management; creating and enforcing hotel business objectives and goals; sales management; marketing management; revenue management; project management; contract management; handling of emergencies and other major issues involving guests, employees, or the facility; public relations; labor relations; local government relations; and maintaining business partnerships. The extent of duties of an individual hotel general manager vary significantly depending on the size of the hotel and company organization; for example, general managers of smaller boutique-type hotels may be directly responsible for additional administrative duties such as accounting, human resources, payroll, purchasing, and other duties that would normally be handled by other subordinate managers or entire departments and divisions in a larger hotel operation. Sports teams In most professional sports, the general manager is the team executive responsible for acquiring the rights to player personnel, negotiating their contracts, and reassigning or dismissing players no longer desired on the team. The general manager may also have responsibility for hiring and firing the head coach of the team. For many years in U.S. professional sports, coaches often served as general managers for their teams as well, deciding which players would be kept on the team and which ones dismissed, and even negotiating the terms of their contracts in cooperation with the ownership of the team. In fact, many sports teams in the early years of U.S. professional sports were coached by the owner of the team, so in some cases the same individual served as owner, general manager and head coach. As the amount of money involved in professional sports increased, many prominent players began to hire agents to negotiate contracts on their behalf. This intensified contract negotiations to ensure that player contracts are in accordance with salary caps, as well as being consistent with the desires of the team's ownership and its ability to pay. General Managers are usually responsible for the selection of players in player drafts and work with the coaching staff and scouts to build a strong team. In sports with developmental or minor leagues, the general manager is usually the team executive with the overall responsibility for "sending down" and "calling up" players to and from these leagues, although the head coach may also have significant input into these decisions. Some of the most successful sports general managers have been former players and coaches, while others have backgrounds in ownership and business management. The term is not commonly used in Europe, especially in football, where the position of manager or coach is used instead to refer to the managing/coaching position. The position of director of football might be the most similar position on many European football clubs. See also Business manager Hotel management Hospitality management studies Managing Director Sports Illustrated Top 10 GMs/Executives of the Decade (in all sports) (2009) Sporting News Executive of the Year (MLB) Sporting News NFL Executive of the Year Award (NFL) NBA Executive of the Year Award Jim Gregory General Manager of the Year Award (NHL) National Lacrosse League GM of the Year Award References Management occupations Managers

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%B9%EC%83%81%EA%B5%B0

맹상군

맹상군(孟嘗君, ? ~ 기원전 279년)은 중국 전국 시대의 정치가로서, 전국 시대의 사군자(戰國四君)의 한 사람이다. 성은 규(嬀), 씨(氏)는 전(田), 휘(諱)는 문(文)이며, 맹상군은 그의 시호이다. 종횡가의 세계관을 기조로 전국 칠웅 간에 외교가로 활약하였다. 진나라에서 제나라로 돌아갈 때 재치를 보여준 “계명구도”의 고사는 유명하다. 약력 첫 등장 제(齊)의 위왕(威王)의 손자에 해당하는, 제의 고관이었다. 맹상군, 즉 전문(田文)의 아버지 전영(田嬰)은 제의 선왕(宣王)의 이복 동생으로 설(薛, 지금의 산동 성 등주滕州)에 영지를 가지고 있었다. 전영에게는 40명이나 되는 아이가 있었고, 전문의 어머니는 신분이 낮았다. 게다가 전문이 태어난 날은 5월 5일로 이 날에 태어난 아이는 자라서 부모를 해칠 것이라 여겨졌기에, 전영은 전문을 죽이려 했으나 전문의 어머니는 몰래 전문을 숨겨 키웠다(다만 이 일화는 사실 여부에 대해 의견이 엇갈린다). 전문이 장성한 뒤 처음으로 아버지에게 불려갔을 때, 전영은 “아아, 어째서 죽이지 않았더란 말인가!”라며 노하는 목소리를 냈다. 이에 전문이 “왜 죽여야 합니까?”라고 따지자, 전영은 “5월 5일에 태어난 아이는 문의 높이만큼 자라면, 부모를 죽일 것이기 때문이다”라고 대답했고, 전문은 “그럼 그 문을 높이면 되는 것 아닙니까?”라고 대답했다. 이 대답에 전영은 느낀 바가 있어 전문을 아들로 받아들였고, 전문은 전영의 저택에서 살게 되었지만, 예전까지의 경위도 있었기에 홀대받았다. 어느 날 전문은 전영에게 “현손(玄孫)의 손자는 무엇이라고 합니까?”라고 물었다. 전영이 모르겠다고 대답하자 전문은 “제의 영토는 전혀 늘지 않는데, 우리 집안은 부를 얻고 있습니다. 하지만 지금은 촌수가 어떻게 되는지도 모르는 친척이 많은데 그런 사람들 때문에 재산을 남긴다는 건 이상하지 않습니까?”라고 대답했다. 이에 전영은 식객(食客)을 집으로 불러 전문에게 그 대접을 맡겼다. 식객들 사이에서 전문의 평판은 매우 높아졌고 그것이 제후들에게까지 알려져, 전영은 전문을 후사로 세우기로 한 것이다. 아버지의 뒤를 이은 전문은 뭐든 한 가지라도 재주가 있으면 거부하지 않고 적극적으로 식객을 받아들여 그 수가 수천에 이르렀다고 한다. 한 번은 전문이 식사하면서 식객들 사이에 칸막이를 쳤는데, 식객 한 사람이 “자신과 손님의 음식에 차이를 두니 숨기는 것이다”라고 말했고, 이를 들은 전문은 그 식객에게 음식은 똑같다고 말했다. 의심한 것을 부끄러워한 손님은 스스로 목을 찔러 죽었다. 계명구도 이 일로 전문의 명성은 더욱 높아져, 기원전 299년에 진(秦)의 소양왕(昭襄王)이 전문을 재상으로 영입하고자 했다. 전문은 이에 호응해 진으로 들어갔으나, 어떤 사람이 소양왕에게 “전문이 이 시대의 일류 인재임은 분명합니다만 제의 사람으로 진의 재상이 되어도 제의 이익을 앞세울 것이 틀림없습니다. 그러나 돌려보낸다 해도 진의 위협이 될 것입니다.”라고 진언했고, 소양왕은 이를 받아들여 전문이 머무르던 저택을 포위하여 전문의 목숨이 위태롭게 되었다. 전문은 식객을 시켜 소양왕의 총희인 연희에게 목숨을 구걸했지만, 연희는 전문이 가지고 있던 보물 “호백구(狐白裘)”를 준다면 소양왕에게 구명을 부탁해 보겠다고 했다. 호백구는 여우의 겨드랑이 흰 털만 모아서 만든 옷으로 한 벌에 여우가 1만 마리는 필요할 정도로 희귀한 것이었고, 전문은 이미 진에 들어오면서 소양왕에게 이를 바쳐버린 뒤였던 것이다. 고민하던 중, 전문의 식객 중 한 명인 구도(狗盜, 개처럼 재빠른 도둑)가 나서서 소양왕의 곳간에 들어가 호백구를 훔쳐 왔다. 이를 총희에게 바쳤고, 그 중재에 따라 저택의 포위가 풀려 전문은 일단 위기를 벗어날 수 있었다. 그러나 소양왕의 마음이 언제 바뀔지 모르는 상황에서 전문은 서둘러 귀국길에 나섰고 한밤중에 국경 함곡관(函谷關)까지 당도했다. 그러나 관문은 밤이라 닫혀 있었고, 아침이 되어 닭이 울 때까지는 열지 않는 것이 규칙이었다. 이미 마음이 바뀐 소양왕은 추격자를 보낸 상태였다. 전문이 다시 곤란해하는 와중에, 식객 가운데 흉내 잘 하는 명인이 나섰다. 그리고 그가 닭의 울음소리를 흉내내자 그에 이끌려 진짜 닭들도 울기 시작했고, 닭 울음소리를 따라 열린 함곡관을 빠져나와 마침내 전문은 진을 탈출할 수 있었다. 소양왕의 추격자는 새벽녘에야 함곡관에 도착했지만, 전문이 밤중에 관문을 통과한 것을 알고 돌아서야 했다. 평소 학자와 무예가 등의 식객들은 전문이 도둑질, 흉내의 재주밖에 없는 같은 사람까지 식객으로 받아들이는 전문에게 불만을 품고 있었지만, 이때만은 “역시 사람은 쓸모가 있다”라며 전문의 선견지명에 감탄했다. “계명구도(鷄鳴狗盜)”의 고사는 여기서 유래하였다. 진에서 제로 돌아가는 길에 조의 마을에 들렀을 때 마을 사람들이 전문의 키가 작다며 놀리자, 이에 격분한 전문은 식객과 함께 마을 사람들을 모두 죽여버렸다(다만 이 일화는 사실인지 의견이 엇갈린다). 제의 재상과 풍환 귀국한 전문은 제의 재상이 되어, 기원전 298년에 광장(匡章)을 통수로 한, 위와의 연합군으로 진을 공격했다. 얼마 뒤에 풍환(馮驩)이라는 가난한 사람이 찾아왔다. 전문은 그를 식객으로 맞아들여 하급 숙소에 재웠다. 그러자 풍환은 차고 있던 검을 두드리며 “내 장검아, 돌아갈까? 밥상에 고기 하나 없구나!”라는 노래를 부르기 시작한다. 그것을 들은 전문은 그를 중급 숙소에 재웠다. 그러나 풍환은 다시 검을 두드리면서 “내 장검아, 돌아갈까? 밖에 나왔는데 가마도 없구나!”라는 노래를 불렀다. 전문은 다시 그를 고급 숙소에 재웠다. 이번에도 풍환은 또 다시 검을 두드리면서 “내 장검아, 돌아갈까? 이래서는 우리 가족도 못 먹여 살리겠다!”며 노래해 댔다. 여기에는 역시 전문도 질렸고, 1년 정도는 그를 쳐다보지도 않았다. 전문은 설 땅을 백성에게 빌려 주고 그 이자로 식객을 유지하고 있었는데, 이자를 내지 않는 백성도 있었다. 이를 독촉할 사람으로 풍환이 추대되었는데, 풍환은 이자를 내지 않는 백성을 한자리에 모아, 그들 중 이자를 낸 사람들에게서 거둔 그 돈으로 고기와 술을 사서 백성들과 연회를 열고, 그 자리에서 이자를 갚지 않는 자에게 상환할 가망이 있는지 물었다. 낼 수 있는 사람은 상환 기한을 연장하고 낼 수 없는 사람의 증서는 따로 모아, 그들의 빚문서를 태워 버리고는 “전문이 땅을 빌려 주고 있는 것은 백성들에게 일을 조달하기 때문이다. 그러나 전문은 이자를 못 갚을 정도로 가난한 사람에게 자비를 베풀어 증서를 불사르도록 명령을 받았다. 전문에 감사하라”라고 말했다. 그 자리에 있던 백성은 모두 감복했다. 그러나 전문은 분노하여 풍환에 따졌고, 풍환은 “이자를 못 갚을 정도로 빈궁한 사람들에게 이자를 내라고 해봤자 그들은 달아날 뿐 아니라 원망까지 할 것이며, ‘전문은 돈을 사랑하고 백성을 사랑하지 않는다. 그리고 백성도 전문을 배신하는 빚을 내지 않는다’는 악평이 퍼져 전문의 명성도 땅에 떨어지게 될 것입니다. 저는 받아낼 전망도 없는 증서 대신에, 영지 백성들에게 은혜를 팔아 천하에 전문의 덕의 높이를 알린 것입니다”라고 대답한다. 여기에는 전문도 감복할 수밖에 없었다. 그 뒤 전문은 민왕(湣王)을 섬기며 재상으로서 국내외 정치를 맡아 제의 국력을 높였다. 그러나 나라가 부강해지자 민왕은 다른 나라에 강압적인 외교를 행하게 되었고, 그것을 충고하는 전문과 “전문이 있기에 제가 있다”라는 소문을 불쾌해했다. 결국 전문은 제의 재상에서 파면되었고, 그것과 함께 전문 아래에 있던 3천 명의 식객도 떠나 갔다. 하지만 풍환만은 남았다. 풍환은 진에 가서 소양왕을 알현해 “제의 재상이었던 전문이 진에서 벼슬 하고 싶어 합니다”라고 고했다. 소양왕은 이즈음에는 전문의 지혜나 그가 제의 내정에 능통하다는 것을 알고 있었기에 곧바로 사신을 보냈고, 풍환은 서둘러 제로 돌아가 민왕을 알현해 “진이 전문을 제에서 빼내겠다고 하고 있지만, 그런 일이 일어나서는 안 될 일입니다. 전문을 제의 재상으로 복직시켜서 영지를 늘려주고 사과해야 합니다”라고 말했다. 마침 진의 사신이 제에 들어온 것을 알자마자 민왕은 전문을 제의 재상으로 복직시켜 영지를 늘려주고 그 잘못을 사과했다. 전문이 제의 재상으로 복직하자 풍환은 떠난 식객들을 불러들이도록 진언했다. 전문은 “내가 복직한 것은 오직 자네 도움이 있었기 때문이네. 내가 재상에서 파면된 것을 보고 떠나간 놈들을 어떻게 다시 불러들이라는 건가?”라고 화를 냈고, 풍환은 다시 “그들은 전 공이 빈궁해서 떠났을 뿐입니다. 부자의 주변에는 사람이 많고 가난하게 되면 줄어드는 것은 당연한 것입니다. 아침 시장에는 사람이 있지만 날이 저물면 사람이 드물게 되는 것은 파는 것이 적어지기 때문입니다. 식객들이 떠나 버린 것도 당신 개인을 싫어한 것이 아니라, 이래서는 생활할 수 없겠다고 느꼈기 때문입니다”라고 하자 전문도 납득하고 떠난 식객들을 불러들였다. 교토삼굴 어느 날 풍환이 전문에게 “교활한 토끼는 도망치기 위한 동굴을 세 개 둡니다. 하지만 전 공께는 도망칠 동굴이 영지 한 곳밖에 없습니다. 그러니 위와 제로 달아날 동굴을 두 개 만들어야 합니다.”라고 아뢰었다. 이에 전문은 풍환에게 돈을 주어 공작을 맡겼다. 풍환은 우선 위의 양왕(襄王)을 알현하여 “민왕은 일찍이 전문을 해임했던 적이 있습니다. 지금 명성이 높은 전문을 위로 부르면 부국강병으로 이어질 것입니다”라고 진언하였다. 양왕은 기뻐하며 전문을 위해 상석(上席)의 지위를 비워두었다. 전문은 위로 가겠다고 했지만, 풍환은 그것을 만류하며 “민왕께서 달려 오실 때까지 기다려야 합니다”라며 타일렀다. 위의 사신이 빈번히 전문에게 드나드는 것을 안 민왕은 풍환의 뜻대로 전문에게 “설 땅에 선대의 묘(廟)를 세우겠으니 부디 제에 머물러 주오”라고 사정했다. 풍환은 그 말을 듣고 “이제 겨우 동굴이 두 개 생겼구나”라고 대답했다. “교토삼굴”(狡兎三窟)의 고사성어는 여기에서 유래하였다. 그러나 민왕은 다시 전문에 싫증을 내기 시작했고, 민왕의 노여움을 산 전문은 스스로 은거하기로 결정했다. 그러나 백성이나 제후들의 평판은 여전히 높았고, 동시에 전문이 제에 있는 한 패자가 되기는 힘들다고 생각한 진이 강하게 공작을 해오면서 민왕의 의심은 나날이 커져 결국 살해 위협까지 받게 된다. 기원전 284년, 전문은 앞서 풍환이 마련해두었던 도망칠 길의 하나였던 위로 도망쳤고, 재상이 되었다. 그 뒤 민왕에게 원한을 품고 있던 연(燕)의 왕으로부터 사주를 받은 악의(樂毅)의 주도로 조 ・ 위 ・ 한 ・ 진 ・ 연의 5국 연합군이 성립되어, 민왕의 제군에 대승을 거두었고, 민왕은 악의에게 제거되었다. 멸망 직전까지 몰렸던 제는 전단(田單)의 지략으로 겨우 재건되었고, 전문도 다시 제로 맞이되었다. 전문은 기원전 279년에 사망하였고, 맹상군이라는 시호가 주어졌다. 그러나 그의 사후 아들들의 상속 다툼을 틈타 위와 제가 설 땅을 공격해, 맹상군의 자손은 끊어지고 말았다. 같이 보기 설종 각주 생년 미상 기원전 279년 사망 춘추 전국 시대의 군인 전국 시대의 정치인 제나라 사람 산둥성 출신 쯔보시 출신

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%20Mengchang

Lord Mengchang

Lord Mengchang (; died 279 BC), born Tian Wen, was an aristocrat and statesman of the Qi Kingdom of ancient China, one of the famed Four Lords of the Warring States period. He was a son of Tian Ying and grandson of King Wei of Qi. He succeeded to his father's fief in Xue. Lord Mengchang is well known for the size of his entourage. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, he had up to three thousand people in his retinue. Lord Mengchang would eventually become the Chancellor of Qi and of Wei. Early childhood Lord Mengchang was born as Tian Wen (). His father already had over 40 children by the time he was born and was prepared to let him to starve to death because he was born on the fifth day in the fifth month of the lunar calendar, which was considered a bad omen. Tian Wen was secretly brought up by his mother. At a very young age, he showed promising signs of talent and intelligence and persuaded his father to keep him. One day, the young Tian Wen warned his father that although their lives had dramatically improved over the years, the family clan was in a short supply of intelligent counsellors. His father took his advice and began to welcome commoners to join his clan. Everybody was welcomed, with no regard for age, physical appearance, background, or skill. The guests were given shelter, food and a salary. As a result, people flooded in from all over the province. Because the family treated everybody with respect and honour, the Tian family prospered and Tian Wen's name became well known. When Tian Ying died, Tian Wen became the ruler of the clan by popular demand. He then took the title of Lord Mengchang of Xue. Young Lord Mengchang As Lord Mengchang's name spread, people started to come in from all over China. Many had no specific skills or had criminal backgrounds. Lord Mengchang still treated them equally and welcomed them with open arms. The size of his entourage had become a burden for the family's livelihood over the years, but he was still determined to welcome everybody. Every night, Lord Mengchang would serve dinner in the hall with all his entourage in attendance. He would set scribes behind a screen to note every word that was said. He would then study the notes and learn from his advisers, and take care of any needs. One night, during dinner, one of the guests was upset that he could not see what Lord Mengchang was eating because of bad lighting, believing that the advisers were only eating leftovers. Lord Mengchang then stood up, walked to this person's seat and showed him his bowl. It turned out to be the same food. The guest was so ashamed that he killed himself on the spot. Lord Mengchang's praises reached the king of Qin, who sent a messenger to Qi to invite the young lord to meet him. Lord Mengchang wanted to go and meet the king. As he was about to depart, his advisers told him not to, including many natives of Qin, who dissuaded him by explaining the Qin king's questionable motives. First trip to Qin In 299 BC, Lord Mengchang was sent to Qin on an official journey. King Zhaoxiang had heard so much about the young lord that he wanted to appoint him as the new Chancellor of Qin. However, King Zhaoxiang was warned by his ministers that Lord Mengchang was still loyal to his homeland of Qi, and soon put Lord Mengchang under house arrest. Desperate, Lord Mengchang sent a messenger to the king of Qin's beloved concubine for help. In exchange for her aid, the woman asked for the snow fox fur coat which Lord Mengchang had already given to the king as a gift when he first arrived in Qin. It was worth a thousand pieces of gold and there was not its like anywhere. King Zhaoxiang kept it in the royal treasury. One of Lord Mengchang's entourage in Qin was a skilled thief. He disguised himself as a dog and sneaked into the treasury under cover of darkness and retrieved the coat. Within two days, Lord Mengchang was released thanks to the pleas of the concubine. Lord Mengchang hired a chariot, forged his documents and dashed to the borders. By midnight of the next day, he had reached Hangu Pass—the last checkpoint of Qin before entering the territories of Qi. King Zhaoxiang had immediately regretted letting Lord Mengchang go and a small army was chasing him to bring him back. The guards at Hangu Pass would not let anyone pass through until the cock-crow at dawn. Lord Mengchang turned to his entourage for help. One of his aides could imitate all types of sounds. He crowed like a rooster, and this woke up the rest of the roosters. Not knowing that Lord Mengchang was being hunted, the guards at the pass then allowed Lord Mengchang and his entourage to enter Qi territory to safety. Chancellor of Qi Out of guilt, the King of Qi appointed Lord Mengchang as the Chancellor of Qi after his return. Due to his experience in Qin, the new chancellor was gathering allies and asking neighbouring countries like Wei and Han to return past favours and prepare for war against Qin. His adviser warned him of growing power of Qi's neighbouring lands, which would eventually be dangerous for Qi if Qin were not in the equation. Instead, the adviser told the chancellor that it was in the interest of Qi to allow Qin to grow in power. This would maintain the balance of power against Han and Wei so they would still rely heavily on Qi, the most powerful of the three states. The chancellor agreed and proceeded as planned. As his adviser predicted, King Zhaoxiang gave Qi the land and not a single drop of blood was shed among the four states. (However, King Huai was not allowed to return home to Chu. He died in Qin.) A crafty hare has three burrows One of the well-known Chinese four-character proverbs is 狡兔三窟 (pinyin: jiǎo tù sān kū), or "a crafty rabbit has three burrows." It means that a smart rabbit should always have several ways to escape a predator; that is, people should have more than one plan to fall back on. This chengyu came directly from Lord Mengchang. A member of his entourage, Feng Xuan (simplified Chinese: 冯谖; traditional Chinese: 馮諼; pinyin Féng Xuān), had been destitute when he became Mengchang's retainer. One day, Lord Mengchang asked Feng Xuan to go to the local county to collect overdue taxes. Before he left, Lord Mengchang also asked Feng Xuan to buy and bring back some things needed for the lord's large household. In the county, Feng Xuan made all the wealthy people pay the overdue taxes, but burned all the I.O.U.s for the poor peasants. He told the peasants that Lord Mengchang cared for them and hoped that they would prosper in the coming years. Upon his return, Feng Xuan told Lord Mengchang that he had “bought” benevolence and righteousness (simplified Chinese: 仁义; traditional Chinese: 仁義; pinyin: rényì) for him, as those are the items that were most needed in his household. Lord Mengchang was not completely happy, but allowed the matter to drop. A few years later, when Lord Mengchang was forced to flee from the Qi, these people of Xue welcomed him with flowers and food. He was so touched that he turned to Feng Xuan and thanked him for “buying” him benevolence and righteousness. Feng replied he was just doing his job, and while having rényì on one's side is good, it was not enough. Feng Xuan now told Lord Mengchang that he needed to go to the kingdom of Wei. He would need a fast chariot and much gold. Lord Mengchang agreed and sent Feng Xuan off to see King Hui of Wei. He told King Hui that the young Lord Mengchang was an unparalleled talent, who was already being scouted by many other kings. King Hui was very impressed and told Feng that he could mobilize his army to protect Xue if the young lord were willing to come serve him. Feng then dashed back to Qi in his fast chariot to meet with King Min of Qi. He told King Min that the State of Wei was ready to mobilize its army to occupy Xue, and that if King Min wanted to keep Xue within the control of Qi, he needed to send more gold and troops to Lord Mengchang. Feeling pressured, King Min of Qi complied. Upon his return to Xue, Feng Xuan congratulated Lord Mengchang, saying, “My lord, now you can rest assured: you have three burrows.” Influence In Vietnamese, (Sino-Vietnamese for Mengchang Jun) is the term for a philanthropist. References External links Records of the Grand Historian, Memories of Lord Mengchang People from Zibo Zhou dynasty nobility 279 BC deaths Qi (state)

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%BC%EC%99%95%20%28%EB%93%9C%EB%9D%BC%EB%A7%88%29

야왕 (드라마)

《야왕》(野王)은 2013년 1월 14일부터 2013년 4월 2일까지 방영된 SBS 월화 미니시리즈로, 박인권 화백의 만화 《대물 - 야왕전》을 원작으로 하고 있는 두 번째 드라마이다. 줄거리 힘겨웠던 시절의 고통을 보상받기 위해 끊임없이 자신의 야망을 채우려는 한 여인과 그런 그녀로부터 버림받고서는 복수를 꿈꾸는 한 남자의 이야기를 다루고 있다. 등장인물 주요 인물 권상우 : 하류 역 (아역 채상우) 대통령 영부인 주다해의 비리사건을 담당한 특별검사팀의 검사 이고 과거에는 호스트 바 직원이자 장제사였다. 태어나면서부터 고아가 되어서 힘들고 괴로웠지만 밝게 자랐다. 그의 곁에는 언제나 다해가 있었고 그녀와 딸 하은별과 함께 가난하지만 행복한 가정을 꾸렸다. 그러나 숨겨진 욕망에 눈을 뜬 다해에게 버림을 받고 그의 인생은 나락으로 떨어졌다. 쌍둥이 형 차재웅으로 신분세탁하여 다해를 향한 복수를 시작한다. 그리고 백학그룹 고문변호사로 들어가 변호사 일을 맡다가 장우철의 조언으로 특검팀에 들어간다. 청와대 압수수색 도중 주다해에게 총상을 맞고 입원한 뒤 다해의 모든 자백을 밝혀냈다. 주양헌에 의해서 교통사고를 당하고 병원에 입원한 뒤 그 이후 달동네 철거촌으로 돌아간다. 수애 : 주다해 역 (아역 박민하, 김소연) 대통령 영부인. 돌아가신 어머니의 장례도 치르지 못할 정도 가난했고, 이혼이 반복되는 불우한 가정환경 속에서 자랐다. 그렇게 깨달은 건, 남보다 더 높은 지위에 올라야 하고 그러려면 공부를 해야 한다는 것이었다. 위로 올라가면 갈수록 그녀에게는 새로운 세상이 펼쳐졌고, 어느새 그녀는 마음 속에서 하류라는 존재를 지워버렸다. 백학그룹에 입사하면서 백도훈과 연인으로 발전하여 결혼에 성공한다. 백학의 백창학 며느리가 되면서 이사장직까지 올라가려 했지만 하류의 계략으로 이사장 직을 포기하자 백학에서 버림받고 도훈과 이혼한다. 그 이후 하류를 죽이려고 하지만 백도훈이 죽는다. 그 이후 석태일과 손을 잡고 영부인으로 등극하지만 하류와 석태일에 의해 파멸당하고 몰락한다. 양헌이 다해를 죽이려고 하지만 하류가 사고를 당한다. 그리고 하류에게 미안한다는 말을 하고 다해는 벌판에서 쓰러져 병원에 실려가지만 곧 사망한다. 정윤호 : 백도훈 역 호적에는 백창학의 아들로 되어 있으나 사실은 백도경의 숨겨진 아들. 촉망받는 아이스하키 선수 출신이었으나 교통사고로 인대가 파열되어 운동을 그만둬야 했다. 그에게는 가업을 이어야 한다는 책임이 주어졌고, 머나먼 미국 땅에서 공부할 때에 의지가 된 사람은 다해였다. 다해에게 있어 그는 사랑의 대상이기보다 화려한 미래로 이끌어 주는 존재이고 주다해와 결혼에 성공한다. 하지만 과거에 하류와 다해 사이에 은별이라는 아이가 있는걸 납골당에서 보고 충격받았고 그 이후로 다해와 이혼하게 되지만 주다해가 하류를 죽이려 하자 오히려 폭발사고로 사망한다. 김성령 : 백도경 역 백창학의 외동딸이고 백학그룹의 전무이사. 승마 국가대표 선수였다. 은퇴 후 일본으로 건너가 도훈을 낳고 남편 강지혁과 결별했으며, 호적에 도훈을 동생으로 올렸다. 그녀에게 아들 도훈은 삶의 전부였으나, 다해 때문에 자꾸만 도훈과 멀어지면서 답답해한다. 도훈이 폭발사고로 사망하자 다해를 더 증오하기 시작했고 차재웅 변호사가 하류라는 것을 알고 충격받는다. 하류와 손을 잡고 주다해에게 복수하기 시작하며 이후 백학그룹 회장이 된다. 하류의 사람들 김하유 → 박민하 : 하은별 역 (4세 → 6세) 하류와 다해의 외동딸. 어머니인 다해가 공부한다고 떠나자 그녀를 항상 그리워 했다. 하류가 교도소에서 복역하는 사이 덤프트럭에 치여 숨졌다 이일화 : 홍안심 역 하류를 어릴 적부터 키워줬다. 하류에게 있어서는 누나고 어머니다 엄삼도와 결혼한다. 권현상 : 양택배 역 고아원 때부터 하류에게는 가장 절친한 동생이다. 호스트 바에서 하류와 함께 일했고, 희생을 아끼지 않은 하류를 저버린 다해의 배신에 함께 분노한다. 성지루 : 엄삼도 역 하류의 사부. 제비계의 '살아있는 전설'이며 사기꾼들 사이에서는 '설계자'로 불린다. 교도소에서 처음 하류를 만나고 그의 옆에서 복수를 돕고 있다. 그 이후 홍안심과 결혼한다. 고인범 : 차심봉 역 재웅과 하류의 아버지이다. 가난한 형편 때문에 하류를 고아원에 버렸으나, 죄책감과 그리움으로 수십 년이 지나서 그를 찾고 있다. 심장병을 앓고 있다. 권상우 : 차재웅 역 하류의 쌍둥이 형. 변호사이며 환경운동단체에서 활동 중인 여자친구 석수정과 함께 홀아비인 아버지 차심봉을 모시고 지내고 있다. 아버지로부터 쌍둥이 동생이 있다는 사실을 듣게 된 뒤로 찾아다녔다. 하류 출소일 주다해의 의붓오빠 주양헌에게 오인받아 살해당한다. 고준희 : 석수정 역 재웅의 여자친구이며 환경운동단체인 초록마당의 간사로 일하고 있다. 석태일 전 서울시장의 딸이며 약혼자 차재웅이 죽은 후 그의 쌍둥이 동생인 하류와 손을 잡고 주다해를 향한 복수를 돕고 있다. 윤용현 : 박 부장 역 하류와 택배가 일했던 호스트바 지중해의 부장. 다해의 사람들 이재윤 : 주양헌 역 조직폭력배이지만 아버지 주형태로부터 성적 학대를 당하는 동생 다해를 지켜줬던 따뜻한 의붓오빠이다. 하류가 아버지를 살인함과 동시에 다해를 괴롭히고 있는 걸로 오해한다. 출소한 그에게 경고하려는 과정에서 실수로 그와 닮은 쌍둥이 형 재웅을 납치하고 살해한다. 아버지를 주다해가 죽였다는 얘기를 들으면서 충격받고 주다해를 차로 치어서 죽이려고 한다. 정호빈 : 석태일 역 다해의 세번째 남자이자 석수정의 아버지이며 최연소 서울시장으로 대선에 출마해 유력 후보를 누르고 대통령에 당선된 입지전적 인물이다. 주다해를 파멸로 이끄는데 일조하며 과거 정영호를 죽이고 정영호 살인을 자살로 위장했다. 이후 대통령직을 사퇴했다. 오나라 : 염 과장 역 백학그룹의 만년과장. 도훈과 도경의 사람들 이덕화 : 백창학 역 국내 굴지의 대기업 백학그룹의 회장이며 도경의 아버지고 도훈의 외할아버지다. 차화연 : 백지미 역 백창학의 여동생이며 도경과 도훈의 고모이다. 10년 전 남편 정영호를 죽게 만든 오빠 백창학에게 악감정을 가지고 있으며 다해를 이용하여 보복하려고 한다. 미상 : 강지혁 역 백도경과 같은 승마 국가대표 출신으로 과거 연인사이였다. 백도훈의 숨겨진 아버지이다. 그 외 인물 정수인 : 표은정 역 이주석 : 정영호 역 - 백지미의 남편. 백창학의 지시로 석태일에게 살해당함. 이경영 : 한영석 역 - 녹색희망당 대표. 석태일과 주다해를 도움. 기세형 : 주양헌의 부하 역 유상재 : 검사 역 류성훈 : 재소자 역 박초은 : 김 비서 역 허정은 김혜윤 : 친구와 버스 정류장에 있는 학생 역 함진성 : 도훈 선배 역 허정규 : 형사 역 강석철 허성태 특별출연 손태영 : 룸싸롱 손님 역 시청률 {| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" frame="hsides" rules="rows" style="font-size:100%; text-align:center" class="wikitable" |- !colspan="6" | 2013년 |- !rowspan="2"|회차 !rowspan="2"|방송일 !colspan="2"|TNmS 시청률 !colspan="2"|AGB 시청률 |- !대한민국(전국)!!서울(수도권)!!대한민국(전국)!!서울(수도권)|- !제1회 |1월 14일 || 8.7% || 9.8% || 8.0% || 9.3% |- !제2회 |1월 15일 || 7.8% || 8.5% || 8.1% || 8.8% |- !제3회 |1월 21일 || 8.2% || 9.2% || 10.2% || 11.1% |- !제4회 |1월 22일 || 9.7% || 10.6% || 9.9% || 10.6% |- !제5회 |1월 28일 || 10.4% || 11.7% || 10.1% || 11.2% |- !제6회 |1월 29일 || 12.0% || 13.5% || 12.3% || 13.6% |- !제7회 |2월 4일 || 13.4% || 14.7% || 12.7% || 14.0% |- !제8회 |2월 5일 || 16.4% || 18.4% || 15.3% || 16.4% |- !제9회 |2월 11일 || 16.4% || 18.7% || 15.2% || 16.1% |- !제10회 |2월 12일 || 20.1%|| 23.3% || 17.5% || 18.4% |- !제11회 |2월 18일 || 19.4% || 21.8% || 18.6% || 19.9% |- !제12회 |2월 19일 || 19.6% || 21.1% || 19.4% || 20.8% |- !제13회 |2월 25일 || 17.9% || 20.2% || 17.5% || 18.9% |- !제14회 |2월 26일 || 18.8% || 20.4% || 17.7% || 18.1% |- !제15회 |3월 4일 || 17.4% || 19.2% || 16.3% || 17.2% |- !제16회 |3월 5일 || 18.3% || 20.0% || 18.6% || 19.9% |- !제17회 |3월 11일 || 18.8% || 21.3% || 18.5% || 20.3% |- !제18회 |3월 12일 || 18.8% || 21.0% || 18.3% || 19.4% |- !제19회 |3월 18일 || 18.2% || 21.4% || 17.8% || 19.1% |- !제20회 |3월 19일 || 18.3% || 21.9% || 18.6% || 20.1% |- !제21회 |3월 25일 || 17.0% || 20.0% || 18.0% || 19.9% |- !제22회 |3월 26일 || 22.8% || 26.1% || 22.9% || 24.3% |- !제23회 |4월 1일 || 23.1% || 25.9% || 22.5% || 24.5% |- !제24회 |4월 2일 || 26.7% || 30.7% || 25.8% || 27.5% |- !colspan="2"|평균 시청률 |16.6% |18.7% |16.2% |17.5% |- |} 사운드 트랙 Part.1 Part.2 Part.3 Part.4 Part.5 Part.6 Part.7 야왕 OST 수상 2013년 제8회 서울 드라마 어워즈 한류드라마 우수작품상 수상 2013년 대한민국 한류대상 드라마 부문 대중문화대상 수상 참고 사항 당초 백도경 역은 이미연이 낙점됐으나 사정으로 고사했다. 드라마 야왕의 스토리와 주다해 캐릭터와 비슷한 사건이 2022년 5월 10일 실제 발생하였다. 촬영 장소 SBS 탄현제작센터 : 주 촬영지. 경기도 고양시 일산서구 소재 베르아델승마클럽 : '비월승마클럽'의 촬영지. 경기도 안산시 단원구 소재 아일랜드리조트 코리아 : 도경과 도훈의 집. 경기도 안산시 단원구 소재 익산 교도소세트장 : 하류가 수감된 교도소. 전라북도 익산시 성당면 소재 동시간대 드라마 KBS 월화 미니시리즈 《학교 2013》 (2012년 12월 3일 ~ 2013년 1월 28일) 《광고천재 이태백》 (2013년 2월 4일 ~ 2013년 3월 26일) 《직장의 신》 (2013년 4월 1일 ~ 2013년 5월 21일) MBC 월화드라마''' 《마의》 (2012년 10월 1일 ~ 2013년 3월 25일) 같이 보기 《대물》 (SBS, 2010년 10월 6일 ~ 2010년 12월 23일) 박인권의 만화 《대물》을 원작으로 한 첫 번째 드라마. 대한민국 최초의 여성 대통령을 만들어가는 과정을 그렸다. 《세상 어디에도 없는 착한 남자》 (KBS 2TV, 2012년 9월 12일 ~ 2012년 11월 15일) 자신의 야망을 채우기 위해 끊임없이 신분상승을 노리는 한 여자와 그 여자로부터 버림받고 누명을 쓰게 된 한 남자의 복수를 다룬 드라마이다. 각주 외부 링크 야왕 홈페이지 2013년 드라마 SBS 월화드라마 이희명 시나리오 작품 복수를 소재로 한 드라마 인물의 뒤바뀜을 소재로 한 작품 쌍둥이 형제를 소재로 한 작품 쌍둥이를 소재로 한 텔레비전 드라마 대한민국의 만화의 텔레비전 드라마화 작품 2010년대 대한민국의 텔레비전 프로그램 2013년에 시작한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 2013년에 종료한 대한민국 TV 프로그램

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%20of%20Ambition

King of Ambition

King of Ambition () is a 2013 South Korean television series, starring Kwon Sang-woo, Soo Ae, Jung Yun-ho, Kim Sung-ryung, and Go Joon-hee. It aired on SBS TV from 14 January – 2 April 2013 on Mondays and Tuesdays at 21:55 for 24 episodes. Based on Park In-kwon's manhwa of the same title, the same source material as Daemul, the drama tells the tale of an ambitious woman born into poverty who will let nothing stand in her way as she tries to become the First Lady, and a hopeless romantic who will sacrifice anything for her. But when she betrays him, he takes his revenge. Plot The name Ha Ryu means "a child flown from heaven." He was given this name by the nun who first found him in front of an orphanage; it came to her immediately the moment she saw his pure, innocent face. Ha Ryu's life began in earnest when he first laid eyes on Da-hae at the orphanage. Ha Ryu was a simple boy who disliked chores; however, for Da-hae, there was nothing he would not do or any place he would not go. Whenever Da-hae cried, Ha Ryu became too restless to do anything. But when Da-hae was adopted, they had to part. Ten years later, Ha Ryu runs into Da-hae again. He feels electrified and like he is losing his mind. Then and there, he swears that nothing will ever come between them again. He also promises himself that he will do anything and everything to make her happy until the day he dies. Da-hae is a bright young woman and Ha Ryu works day and night with all his strength to earn money to pay her university tuition abroad. No matter how tired he is, all he requires to be happy is Da-hae's smile. But over time Da-hae changes. Ha Ryu thinks it cannot be permanent when he admires her beauty and sophistication, like a bright, shining star. Even when she frames him for a murder, he tries to understand her. However, when she loses their daughter, Eun-byul, he finally snaps and he cannot forgive her. Ha Ryu changes, too. His wrath erupts like a volcano because of the betrayal of his one true love and turns Ha Ryu into a beast. He, who was once a mere minion in a gang, makes his way to the top and becomes CEO of Baekhak Group, one of South Korea's leading corporations. "I will bring you down with my own two hands and put you back to where you first began. I will step on you and hurt you more than you can imagine," he promises her and his bitter revenge against Da-hae, the woman he, for so long, loved more than life itself, begins... in the end Da-hae becomes the first lady of South Korea, then she is exposed for her crimes after she shoots and injures Ha Ryu. Ha Ryu then chases after her when Da-hae's step brother escapes with her. He confronts Da-hae for killing his father and when she admits to it he tries to run her over. Ha-Ryu jumps in the away and then he and Da-hae are both hit by the car. Da-hae, still conscious, cries and apologizes to a severely injured Ha Ryu. Then they both pass out and end up in hospital beds. They both imagine having conversations with each other when they were young and finally understand why they grew into the people they became. Ha Ryu wakes up from his coma only to find out Da-hae has died. Ha Ryu continues to live his life and ends the series back at the old house he, Eun-Byul, and Da-hae lived. He looks at the portrait Eun-Byul drew and thinks about all he has lost trying to pursue revenge. Cast Kwon Sang-woo - Ha Ryu / Cha Jae-woong Chae Sang-woo - young Ha Ryu Soo Ae - Joo Da-hae Kim So-yeon - young Da-hae Park Min-ha - young Da-hae Jung Yun-ho - Baek Do-hoon Kim Sung-ryung - Baek Do-kyung Go Joon-hee - Seok Soo-jung Kwon Hyun-sang - Yang Taek-bae Lee Deok-hwa - Baek Chang-hak Cha Hwa-yeon - Baek Ji-mi Lee Jae-yoon - Joo Yang-heon Sung Ji-ru - Uhm Sam-do Lee Il-hwa - Hong Ahn-shim Go In-beom - Cha Shim-bong Jung Ho-bin - Seok Tae-il Yoon Yong-hyun - Director Park Park Min-ha - Ha Eun-byul (6 years old) Kim Ha-yoo - Ha Eun-byul (5 years old) Choi Hyun-seo - Eun-joo Jung Soo-in - Pyo Eun-jung Kim Sung-hoon - prisoner Son Tae-young - room salon customer (cameo, ep 2) Ratings Awards and nominations International broadcast It aired in Japan on cable channel KNTV from 10 May – 18 October 2013, and was re-aired on cable channel WOWOW. It aired in the Philippines on GMA Network from 15 April – 30 June 2015 at 10:05pm (PST), replacing Empress Ki. It was re-aired on GMA News TV from 15 August – 16 September 2016 at 11:00pm, replacing The Producers. It aired in Thailand on 3SD beginning on 2 May 2016 at 01:15pm References External links Yawang official SBS website 2013 South Korean television series debuts 2013 South Korean television series endings Seoul Broadcasting System television dramas Korean-language television shows Television shows based on manhwa South Korean melodrama television series

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%AD%EB%8B%B4%EB%8F%99%20%EC%95%A8%EB%A6%AC%EC%8A%A4

청담동 앨리스

《청담동 앨리스》는 2012년 12월 1일부터 2013년 1월 27일까지 SBS 주말 특별기획 드라마이다. 케이피앤쇼의 크리에이터 김영현, 박상연 작가의 세 번째 크리에이팅 작품으로 신인 김지운, 김진희 작가가 극본을 맡았다. 기획의도 연애, 결혼, 출산을 포기하는 2030, 이른바 삼포세대가 생겨나는 현실 속에 여기, 두 남녀가 있다. 부모복 없는 인생에, 남편복이라고 만들지 않는 이상 답이 없음을 깨달은 여자와, 남자를 사다리 삼아 신분상승하려는 여자들을 경멸하는 남자. 여자는 여자를 어쩔 수 없는 속물녀로 만드는 세상을 믿지 못하고, 남자는 세상에 넘쳐나는 속물녀들 때문에 여자를 믿지 못한다. 세상을 믿지 못해 사랑 따위 버리기로 한 여자와 여자를 믿지 못해 사랑을 거부하는 남자. 이 드라마는 이 두 사람의 '사랑'에 관한 이야기다. 더 정확히 말하자면 사랑보다 우선시 되는 것이 많은 이 시대에, 사랑이라는 환상에 관한 이야기다. 멜로 영화 같은 순수결정체의 사랑을 쫓는 남자의 진정한 사랑 찾기 프로젝트와 사랑을 가장한 비즈니스를 쫓는 여자의 시집 잘 가기 프로젝트라는 동상이몽. 하지만 그저 환상이라고 치부하기엔 여전히 신기루처럼 잡힐 듯 말 듯한 '사랑의 가치'에 대한 이야기다. 등장 인물 주요 인물 문근영 : 한세경 역 - 27세, 지앤의류 신입 디자이너 박시후 : 차승조 / 장띠엘샤 역 - 33세, 아르테미스 코리아 회장 소이현 : 서윤주 역 - 27세, 지앤의류 사모님 김지석 : 타미홍 역 - 35세, 디자이너 문근영 : 한세경 역 - 27세, 지앤의류 신입 디자이너 '노력이 나를 만든다!'는 신조를 굳게 믿고 사는 노력형 긍정녀. 전쟁 같은 취업전선에 온몸으로 부딪쳐, 천신만고 끝에 취업에 성공하는데.. 디자이너로 뽑힌 것이 아니라, 임시 계약직으로, 사모님 심부름하는 일이다. 충격적이고 더럽고 치사하지만 그만둘 수 없다. 열심히 하다 보면 언젠가 디자이너로 인정도 받고, 대출도 다 갚고, 집도 사겠지! 희망의 끈을 놓지 않는다. 정말로 그 희망을 믿어 서가 아니라, 다 잘 될 거라는 믿음으로 버텨야 하니깐. 그런데...! 사모님 심부름을 통해, 전형적인 청담동 며느리의 삶을 체험하게 되면서 그에 비해 초라하고 탈출구 없는 자신의 현실을 뼈저리게 깨닫는다. 가난에 끌려들어가지 않으려면 가난한 남자친구와 헤어져야 한다는 것도, 사모님이 기분 내키면 쉽게 사는 명품 백 하나 값이 내 현실에서는 10년이 걸려도 모을 수 없는 돈이라는 것도, 그리고 점점 사모님의 삶을 부러워하는, 내 안의 욕망을 깨닫는다. 그런데 더욱 충격적인 것은! 세경에게 처절한 깨달음을 안겨준 그 사모가 과거엔 나보다 한참 못했던 예고 동창 서윤주라는 사실! 세경을 이기기 위해, 남의 실력까지 서슴없이 이용하던 윤주를 멸시하고 조롱했었는데... 바로 그녀가, 내 비루한 현실과는 너무도 대조적인 삶을 살고 있다. 더구나 윤주는 지금의 모든 것을, 노력해서 얻은 것이란다. 노력해서... 그러자 오기가 생겼다. 아무리 노력해 살아도, 대출금 때문에 웃을 날이 없는 부모님, 아무리 노력해 살아도, 인생에 답이 없다는 가난한 남자친구, 아무리 노력해 살아도, 나 같은 스펙으론 세계적인 디자이너는커녕, 이름 날리는 국내 디자이너도 되기 힘들다는 처참한 현실. 노력해도 달라지는 것 없는 냉혹한 이 사회에서 정말로 노력해서 달라질 수 있는 것이 있는 거야? 좋아, 그렇다면 나라고 못할 게 뭐 있어? 알려줘. 네가 그 자리에 오를 수 있었던 비결. 대체 뭐야?! 박시후 : 차승조 / 장띠엘샤 역 - 33세, 아르테미스 코리아 회장 세계적인 명품 유통 회사 아르테미스의 최연소 한국 회장 프랑스 명 '쟝띠엘샤'로 불린다. 대한민국 여자들의 심리와 욕망을 꿰뚫는 통찰력으로, 자신만의 독특한 마케팅 방식으로 한국인 최초 아르테미스코리아 회장이 된 차승조! 강남 일대에서 가장 핫한 남자로 떠오르며 주목 받고 있는 그인데.. 사실은, 날마다 여초 사이트를 들락거리며 댓글을 달아대는 된장녀 경멸증에, 남자 돈에 빌붙는 여자에 대한 극한 거부 증에, 상처 준 사람에겐 반드시 복수를 하고야 마는 뒤끝 작렬 찌질이! 그것이 차승조의 실체다. 그리고 알려지지 않은 또 하나의 사실. 로열 그룹의 아들로, 집안과 의절한 지 6년째다. 프랑스 이름에서 '샤'라는 성도 사실 차씨 성을 쓰기 싫어 프랑스 식으로 발음한 거다. 그런 그가 한국에 돌아와 제일 먼저 한 일은, '복수'다. 복수의 대상은 아버지 차일남 회장과 지앤의류 대표의 아내 서윤주. 6년을 이를 갈며 철저하게 준비해 온 복수의 칼날을 사정 없이 휘두르는데... 지난 6년간, 승조에겐 무슨 일이 있었던 것일까? 6년만에, 최연소 아르테미스코리아 회장으로 발령 받아 귀국한 승조. 자신을 내친 아버지와 윤주, 두 사람 모두에게 보란 듯이 성공해 복수 해내지만, 승조는 별로 행복하지 가 않다. 성취감보다는 허탈함과 외로움이 밀려 든다. 가난할 때는 가난해서 자신을 사랑해줄 여자가 없었고 부자가 된 지금은 부자이기 때문에 있는 그대로의 자신을 사랑해줄 여자가 없다고 생각한다. 아니, 사실은 여자를 믿지 못하는 것이다. 여자들에게 사랑과 결혼은 비즈니스일 뿐이니까. 그럼에도 누구보다 '조건 없는 사랑'을 갈망하는 귀여운 로맨 티스트. 그런 그의 앞에 요즘 세상에 보기 힘든 노력 형 캔디, 한세경이 나타났다! 아직도 이런 여자가 있었어? 싶을 만큼 정직하고 허영기 없는 순수한 여자다. 사랑을 위해 모든 것을 바치는, 멜로 영화 속에나 존재한다고 생각했던 여자다! 닫혀 있던 승조의 마음 속에 어느 샌가 세경이 자리 잡기 시작하는데, 승조는 아직 모른다. 세경은 이미 캔디가 아니라 신데렐라가 되어, 탈출구로 삼을 왕자를 찾아 나섰다는 것을. 그리고 승조는 또 모른다. 세경이 승조를 바로 그 왕자로 삼고, 승조가 알고 있던 예전의 한세경, 순수한 노력 형 캔디를 '연기'하고 있다는 것을! 소이현 : 서윤주 역 - 27세, 지앤의류 사모님 우아하고 예의 바른 미소, 품격 있는 어조와 태도, 단정하면서도 센스 있는 스타일의 전형적인 청담동 며느리 우아하고 예의 바른 미소, 품격 있는 어조와 태도, 단정하면서도 센스 있는 스타일의 전형적인 청담동 며느리. 지금의 아름다운 가면 뒤에는 윤주가 참고 견뎌야 했던 인고의 세월이 있었다. 예고 시절, 갑자기 어려워진 집안 사정으로 대회 상금들이 필요했던 상황. 만년1등 세경을 이기고 픈 마음에, 세경의 남자친구를 빼앗아, 교내 경시 대회 그림을 대신 그리도록 했다. 세경은 그런다고 남자친구의 능력이 윤주의 것이 되지 않는다고 비난했지만, 그것이 바로 윤주의 능력이었다. 남자친구의 그림에 자신의 이름을 써 내는 것! 당당했다. 내게 부족한 것은 남의 능력을 이용해서라도 채우리라. 그렇게 윤주는 처절하게 신데렐라를 꿈꾸기 시작했다. 어려운 집안 형편에 몰리고 몰리다, 도망치듯 떠난 파리에서 승조를 만나 사랑에 빠졌다. 그러나 승조의 집안 반대는 상상을 초월했다. 온갖 멸시를 받으며 상처투성이가 되더라도 그를 포기하지 않을 작정이었으나, 승조가 먼저 자신의 집안을 포기해 버렸다. 집안, 배경, 재산 모든 것을 버리고 빈털터리가 된 승조를, 윤주는 거절해 버렸다. 그를 사랑했지만, 그 사랑에는 그의 집안, 배경, 재산도 포함돼 있었다. 그를 떠난 뒤, 윤주는 처절한 노력 끝에, 마침내 해냈다. 업계 1위의 패션 회사 지앤의류 안주인 자리에 오른 것이다. 하지만 남들 보기에 아름다운 그림처럼 살며 모든 것을 완벽하게 해내야 하는 안주인 자리가 고달프고 강박적으로 느껴지기도 한다. 스트레스와 우울증이 미친 쇼핑으로도 안 풀리던 중, 세경이 눈 앞에 나타났다. 오랜만에 재밌는 스트레스 해소 대상이 생긴 것! 예전에 자신을 비웃었던 세경을 실컷 비웃어 주리라, 재밌는 놀이를 시작하는데 그러나 그렇게 몇 년 만에 세경과 재회하면서, 그리고 옛 사랑 승조가 나타나면서, 견고해져 가던 그녀의 성이 흔들리기 시작한다. 김지석 : 타미홍 역 - 35세, 디자이너 청담동의 '뜨는' 디자이너. 청담동에 개인 샵을 가지고 있다. 지하에는 상류층 멤버십 클럽을 운영하고 있다. 젠틀 한 태도와 화려한 언변, 스타일 리쉬 한 외모를 갖춘 잘 나가는 디자이너지만 그에겐 또 하나의 '업'이 있다. 바로, 청담동에서 가장 핫한, 소위 마담 뚜. 성사 율 100프로를 자랑하는 것은 물론이요, 대기하고 있는 의뢰만 몇 십 건이다. 한창 잘 나가는 남자 디자이너인 그가, 어떻게 청담동 며느리들을 물색하는 마담뚜가 되었을까? 국내파 출신으로 패션 계에 들어온 후, 디자이너로 취업해도 맡겨지는 일은 잡무 혹은 판매, 영업 뿐이었고 그러다 깨닫게 됐다. 브랜드를 런칭 하거나, 탑 디자이너가 되거나, 패션쇼를 하는 디자이너가 되는 길은 본인이 돈이 많거나, 집안에 돈이 많거나, 돈 많은 스폰이 있거나, 셋 중 하나라는 것을. 그리고 그 세가지는 서로 유기적으로 얽혀 있어서 돈 많은 사람과, 집 안에 돈 많은 사람과, 돈 많은 스폰이 있는 사람들은 끼리끼리 정보를 공유하고 인맥을 소개하고 비밀을 나눈다는 것을. 아무런 빽도 인맥도 없던 타미홍이 그들만의 세계로 끼어들 수 있는 방법은 옷을 사러 온 사모님들의 취향을 간파하고, 그들의 입맛에 맞는 스타일 링을 권하고, 그들의 고민을 들어주고, 그들의 뒷이야기에 귀를 기울여 '부자 인맥'을 만드는 것이었다. 타고난 것처럼 만 보였던 화려한 언변도, 줄줄 꿰고 있는 사모님들의 속사정도, 전문가와 다름없는 상류층 남녀 매칭 센스도 사실은 부단한 트레이닝의 결과다. 그런 타미홍에게, 지앤의류 사주 딸인 인화의 혼사 의뢰가 들어오는데, 생각지도 못한 방해꾼이 나타난다. 바로 한세경. 처음엔 별 볼일 없는 집안의 세경을 쉽게 치워버릴 수 있을 거라 생각했으나 일이 점점 꼬이면서, 세경의 본심에 대해 알아가기 시작한다. 부잣집 남자를 공략할 수 밖에 없었던 세경의 처지에 격하게 공감하면서 어느새 세경을 응원하며 조언을 아끼지 않는 조력자로 나서게 되고, 그러는 사이 어느덧 세경에 대한 마음이 자리 잡게 되는데... 세경의 주변 인물 남궁민 : 소인찬 역 - 30세, 세경의 전 남자친구, 아르테미스코리아 마케팅 팀 대리 (특별출연) 정인기 : 한득기 역 - 50대 후반, 세경 부 이종남 : 정윤희 역 - 50대, 세경 모 혜정 : 한세진 역 - 23세, 세경의 동생 신소율 : 최아정 역 - 27세, 세경의 절친, 아르테미스코리아 MD 승조의 주변 인물 한진희 : 차일남 역 - 60대 중반, 승조부, 로열그룹 대표 박광현 : 허동욱 역 - 33세, 승조의 절친, 정신건강의학과 전문의 최성준 : 문재욱 역 - 30대 초반, 아르테미스코리아 회장 수행 비서 윤주의 주변 인물 김승수 : 신민혁 역 - 40세, 윤주의 남편, 지앤의류 대표 김유리 : 신인화 역 - 29세, 민혁의 동생, 지앤의류 디자인 팀장 구원 : 서호민 역 - 26세, 윤주의 동생, 로열크라상 청담점 사장 윤소정 : 정 여사 역 - 60대 후반, 윤주의 시모 박영지 : 신 회장 역 - 윤주의 시부 그 외 인물 정근 : 지앤의류 대리 역 오정원 : 지앤의류 집 가사도우미 역 허선행 : 차승조의 프리젠테이션 발표에 질문하는 남자 역 한영광 : 차승조의 프리젠테이션 발표에 질문하는 남자 역 임도윤 : 세경과 최아정의 친구 역 김서정 : 아르테미스코리아 직원 역 지승현 : 프리젠테이션 발표하는 남자 역 한창현 : 차일남의 수행비서 역 정두겸 : 로열그룹 임원 역 차성훈 : 의사 역 한동환 : 한대철 역 - 예일대 졸업생, 승조의 동문, 의사 정우석 : 아르테미스코리아 임원 역 육미라 : 로열그룹 행사에 참석한 여자 역 서광재 : 제사에 참석한 남자 역 강민정 : 의류매장 직원 역 홍재성 : 기자 역 최효현 : 갤러리카페 직원 역 조선옥 : 캐리 박 갤러리 직원 역 서진욱 : 아르테미스 코리아 신입사원 모집 면접관 역 최지연 : 신세경 역 - 아르테미스 코리아 신입사원 모집 면접자 공재원 : 휴럭어패럴 신입사원 모집 면접관 역 하수민 특별출연 이다 도시 : 지앤의류 면접관 역 (1회) 송선미 : 아르테미스 가방 불만고객 역 (2회) 전노민 : 장명호 역 - 타미홍 파티 초대 손님, 주류업체 '퍼스트 클래식'의 대표 (4~5회) 박상연 : 박상연 역 - 타미홍 파티 초대 손님, 드라마 작가 (4회) 에드워드 권 : 에드워드 권 역 - 타미홍 파티 초대 손님, 쉐프 (4회) 이종박 : 이종박 역 - 타미홍 파티 초대 손님, 가수 겸 탤런트 (4회) 박광수 : 박광수 역 - 타미홍 파티 초대 손님, 만화가 (4회) 시청률 경쟁 프로그램 대왕의 꿈 (KBS 1TV) 메이퀸 백년의 유산(MBC) 각주 외부 링크 <청담동 앨리스> 공식 홈페이지 <청담동 앨리스> 전회차 무료보기 2012년 드라마 2013년 드라마 SBS 주말 특별기획 드라마 강남구를 배경으로 한 작품 2010년대 대한민국의 텔레비전 프로그램 2012년에 시작한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 2013년에 종료한 대한민국 TV 프로그램

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheongdam-dong%20Alice

Cheongdam-dong Alice

Cheongdam-dong Alice () is a 2012 South Korean television series, starring Moon Geun-young, Park Si-hoo, So Yi-hyun and Kim Ji-seok. The series tell the story of a young woman's "journey" to Cheongdam-dong ― one of the wealthiest areas in Gangnam ― by seducing a second-generation chaebol into marriage. It aired on SBS from December 1, 2012 to January 27, 2013 on Saturdays and Sundays at 21:55 for 16 episodes. Synopsis Han Se-kyung (Moon Geun-young) believed in l'effort est ma force, meaning "hard work is my strength." The aspiring fashion designer couldn't afford to study overseas, but won many local design contests and mastered French on her own. She slowly begins to lose her positive outlook toward the world when her father's small bakery closes down after losing customers to larger retailers. Se-kyung's boyfriend of six years (Namkoong Min), who has to pay his sick mother's medical bills, runs away with her savings. After much struggling, Se-kyung finally lands a job as a designer at GN Fashion, an apparel company in ritzy, image-conscious Cheongdam-dong (a small, insular, and particularly posh neighborhood in Seoul's Gangnam District). She is stunned to find out, however, that her actual job is being a personal assistant to the president's wife ― who turns out to be her high school classmate and rival Seo Yoon-joo (So Yi-hyun). Her "official" boss In-hwa (Kim Yoo-ri) is the president's younger sister, at 29 only two years older than Se-kyung, who became the youngest person to be appointed to her position. "What sucks is your taste, not your resume," In-hwa bluntly tells Se-kyung. "Taste is an accumulation of what you see and think, as well as the kind of things you are exposed to, from the moment that you were born." What she says completely shatters Se-kyung's life philosophy rooted in hard work and consistent effort. Upon this despairing realization, Se-kyung changes her life's course. Seeing how Yoon-joo's life has changed compared to her own, Se-kyung decides to do exactly the same thing: marry a rich man. She enlists Yoon-joo's help and embarks on the project to become a "Cheongdam-dong daughter in-law," a term referring to stylish young married women of the upper crust living in that wealthy neighborhood. Her bitter disillusionment leads her to seduce Jean Thierry Cha (Park Si-hoo), the youngest CEO in the luxury-brand industry. Cha, whose real name is Cha Seung-jo, harbors a petty side and is determined to get back at the people who have hurt him in the past. And despite his line of business, he feels a strong hatred towards women who marry for money and are obsessed with designer labels. Seung-jo falls for the genuine, idealistic Se-kyung, but not knowing this, she gives up being the person she wanted to be, and decides to live like those she once despised. The title is a word play on Alice in Wonderland, referring to the heroine's fish-out-of-water status in said neighborhood, as she navigates the strange new world of designer clothes, gossip and consumerism, and learns the meaning of real love and happiness. Cast Moon Geun-young - Han Se-kyung Han Se-kyung is an optimistic girl living her life with the belief that "hard work is my strength." After countless job interviews, she finally gets hired by an apparel company. But not as a designer; instead, she becomes an errand girl for the president's wife. This makes her rethink her past and makes her determined to change her future. Park Si-hoo - Cha Seung-jo / Jean Thierry Cha The Korean president of Artemis, a famous luxury brand. Although he was born into a rich family, he is estranged from his father and built his company based on his own hard work. He says he will never trust women again after getting hurt by his first love Yoon-Joo; but actually, he desires true love more than anybody else. So Yi-hyun - Seo Yoon-joo Ever since she was a young girl, Seo Yoon-joo had wanted to enter Cheongdam-dong. After using several methods, she finally becomes a "Cheongdam-dong daughter-in-law." She was once Han Se-kyung's rival in high school, and used to be jealous of her. She is Seung-jo's first love. Kim Ji-seok - Tommy Hong A famous Korean designer, who moonlights as a matchmaker for upper crust families. At first, he schemes against Han Se-kyung for ruining his plans for an arranged marriage between Cha Seung-jo and Shin In-hwa. But later he admires her tenacity and helps her. Han Jin-hee - Cha Il-nam Cha Seung-jo's father, and president of Royal Department Store. He is estranged from his son and tries to reconcile with him. Kim Seung-soo - Shin Min-hyuk Seo Yoon-joo's husband and president of GN Fashion. Kim Yoo-ri - Shin In-hwa Shin Min-hyuk's younger sister. She is the youngest to become the leader of the team of designers at GN Fashion, and is Han Se-kyung's boss. In-hwa has beauty, talent, a strong personality, and an excellent background, and her pride is piqued when Cha Seung-jo chooses Se-kyung over her, so she tries to undermine their relationship. Shin So-yul - Choi Ah-jung Han Se-kyung's best friend. Park Gwang-hyun - Heo Dong-wook Cha Seung-jo's best friend, and shrink. Choi Sung-joon - Secretary Moon Jung In-gi - Han Deuk-ki Se-kyung's father, and a baker. Lee Jong-nam - Jung Yoon-hee Se-kyung's mother. Shin Hye-jeong - Han Se-jin Han Se-kyung's younger sister. She likes to be with her friends. Though she sometimes does not like to listen to adults, she has a kind and warm heart. Gu Won - Seo Ho-min Seo Yoon-joo's younger brother who is extremely loyal to her. Jo Kwang-min as Yeon Seo Hye-won as Seo kim-soo Namkoong Min - So In-chan (guest appearance, ep 1-3) Se-kyung's ex-boyfriend. Episode summary Episode 1 Cha Seung-jo, French name Jean Thierry Cha, is the youngest Korean president of a famous luxury brand called Artemis. He believes that women go after luxury brands because of their high prices. His strategy for management is to raise the price of products to achieve increased sales. Han Se-kyung is a person who tries her best in getting everything and lives by the motto of “Self-achievement generated from hard working”. Though she studies design, because of her family's financial problem, she doesn't have the opportunity to study design abroad. And for this reason, not having any abroad studying experiences, she is often rejected by job interviewers. After three years, surprisingly, she is offered a job as a temporary worker at a clothes designing company called GN Fashion. She doesn't become a designer in the company; she becomes an errand girl for the head lady. When she is delivering some bags once, she bumps into Cha Seung-jo's car. Cha seung-jo sees a full car of luxury brands and therefore insults HanSe-kyung as a “material girl”. He hides his identity as the president of Artemis and introduces himself as the secretary of the president of Artemis. Cha Seung-jo goes to see his father, president Cha ll-nam of Royal Company, and in a disdainful tone, tells him that Artemis will not be a shop in the Royal Company's shopping center. Seeing his son treats him poorly, Cha ll-nam leaves angrily. On the other hand, Han Se-kyung's boyfriend wants to break up with her because he thinks he cannot let Han Se-kyung stay with him in poverty. He gives her a famous brand's bag as their break up present. At the home of Cha Seung-jo, he shares his recording on the conversation between him and his father previously with his friend/psychological doctor. He takes out a picture of his ex-girlfriend, Seo Yoon-joo, remembering the time in France where he gives up his wealth and family in order to marry her secretly, but she breaks up with him instead because he isn't wealthy anymore. He decides to collaborate with GN Fashion, which is Seo Yoon-joo's husband's company. Seo Yoon-joo, aware of the collaboration, asks his husband, Shin Min-hyuk, if she can be in charge of setting up the dinner between Jan Thierry Cha and him. Shin Min-hyuk agrees. When Han Se-kyung is delivering a set of pearl ear rings, she loses the Certificate of Authenticity. When she goes back to the shop to look for it, she meets Cha Seung-jo, who insults her again. Returning to her company, she finds shockingly that the head lady is Seo Yoon-joo, who is her high school rival. Episode 2 When Han Se-kyung is about to quit her job, her team leader tells her that the reason she can't become a designer is that she doesn't have the taste for fashion, leading her to reconsider her decision. Han Se-kyung's best friend, Choi Ah-jung, helps her to find out the life of Seo Yoon-joo in order to know how to become a “Cheongdam -dong daughter-in-law”. She finds out that Seo Yoon-joo actually is called Cha Yoon-joo when she has lived in France because she has married a man there. Han Se-kyung guessed from this information and the words of Shin Min-hyuk, who is the president of GN Fashion, that she is accepted specially by Seo Yoon-joo. A customer has come to Artemis and complains that one of the bags she bought has detached spots on it. Cha Seung- jo gives her a new bag and then asks his secretary, Secretary Moon, to investigate in what has caused this problem. After investigations, they find out that Han Se-kyung's boyfriend, So In-chan, has sold uncertified bags outside the stores. After Han Se-kyung hears about this news, she immediately runs to So In-chan's house. She finds that in his mailbox, there are many collection letters from various banks. Han Se-kyung wants to get help from Artemis’ president. On her way, she meets Cha Seung-jo. Not know that Cha Seung-jo is actually the president of Artemis, they have an argument again and she goes away unhappily. Cha Seung-jo goes to Seo Yoon-joo's house because her husband has a dinner appointment with the president of Artemis. She is deliberately shocked when she sees that the president is her ex-boyfriend. On Han Se-kyung's side, her father tells her that the family is suffering from money-shortage. They cannot open their bakery anymore and they are under much debt. Hearing this, Han Se-kyung wants to change herself. She takes the piece of information that Seo Yoon-jo has married in France and goes to threaten her. She will not tell others this news only if Seo Yoon-jo helps her to become a “Cheongdam -dong daughter-in-law”. Episode 3 Seo Yoon-jo asks her brother, Seo Ho-min, to stalk Han Se-kyung secretly. From the pictures taken by Seo Ho-min of Han Se-kyung, she sees Cha Seung-jo is in it. On the other hand, Cha Seung-jo's doctor/best friend, Heo Dong-wook, says Cha Seung-jo cannot control his emotions mentally, he can never cry. Secretary moon finds Seo In-chan's location; he is at his mom's funeral at the time. Cha Seung-jo happens to witness the scene and he orders the company not to go after So In-chan anymore. Instead, he sends flowers to the funeral house to express his sorrow for his mother. Under the warning of his father that someone is secretly taking pictures of him, he catches Seo Ho-min and warns him not ever to do it again. Cha Seung-jo also moves to the same neighborhood where Seo Yoon-joo is living. Han Se-kyung has written a letter to the president of Artemis about she has to break up with So In-chan because of their financial situation. Along with the letter, she also puts in her check book, showing that she is willing to pay off the fee for So In-chan with all she has. As Cha Seung-jo is reading the letter, he cries for the first time in many years. He looks in the mirror and says, “You are wrong, Seo Yoon-joo, there is love in the world.” He immediately tells Secretary Moon to cancel his lawsuit against So In-chan, also imagining himself encouraging Han Se-kyung and So In-chan to continue their relationship. When he is about to head out, Secretary Moon brings in gifts from Han Se-kyung. When he sees that the present to Secretary Moon is better than the one to Artemis’ president, he runs out to catch up to Han Se-kyung to ask her why the President has the worse one. Han Se-kyung answers that the one to the President is hand made by her. That actually makes Cha Seung-joo very happy. Seo Yoon-joo pays an unexpected visit to Han Se-kyung's house. Her parents welcome her dearly. When Han Se-kyung gets back, Seo Yoon-joo drags her downstairs and gives her package, which inside is a diary. She says this is the key of becoming a “Cheongdam -dong daughter-in-law”, in return, she must keep her promise that she will never tell anyone of her marriage in France. Episode 4 Seo Yoon-joo tells Han Se-kyung that in order to go into Cheongdam –dong, she must find herself a “time rabbit” (a person who can introduce her into the upper class circle of Cheongdam-dong). Tommy Hong, the most popular domestic designer in Cheongdam-dong, is the perfect fit for being the “time rabbit”. So Han Se-kyung then decides to work part-time at the restaurant where Tommy Hong usually goes to in order to catch his attention. Meanwhile, Cha Seung-joo, full of tears, tells Heo Dong-wook what he has seen about Han Se-kyung. Heo Dong-wook tells Cha Seung-jo that he thinks he might like Han Se-kyung. Back when Seo Yoon-joo has wounded Cha Seung-jo deeply by leaving him, he changes. He tries to find a way that true love exist, that it does not need to be only maintained through money. Han Se-kyung's actions makes him believes that love truly does exists, proving that his thoughts are right. He then recommends Han Se-kyung to Tommy Hong. So Tommy Hong invites Han Se-kyung to an upper class dance ball. During the dance ball, Han Se-kyung meets Cha Seung-jo, still unaware of Cha Seung-jo's real identity; she asks to see the president of Artemis. Cha Seung-jo makes an excuse of having to answer the President's phone call and leaves. A rich businessman wants Tommy Hong to tell Han Se-kyung that he wants her as his outside lover. Hearing of this, Han Se-kyung feels she has been insulted; she then pours a cup of water onto Tommy Hong. In return, Tommy Hong pours a cup of soy sauce onto Han Se-kyung. Han Se-kyung leaves embarrassingly under the eyes of all guests. Cha Seung-jo sees Han Se-kyung leaving unhappily when he is about to go home. He catches up with her and asks what has happened. After knowing the whole matter, he goes back to the ball, and pours a cup of soy sauce onto Tommy Hong to revenge for Han Se-kyung. Episode 5 Han Se-kyung is not willing to give up her “time rabbit” after what has happened at the ball. She goes to Tommy Hong to reason with him. But instead, Tommy Hong sees her desire, what she wants in her heart. Seo Yoon-joo goes to see Tommy Hong; she learns that the person who he is trying to pair up with her husband's sister, Shin In-hwa, is actually Cha Seung-jo. Disguising himself as Secretary Jin of Artemis’ president, Cha Seung-jo asks Han Se-kyung to be the President's personal designer. After taking on the job as a personal designer, she takes Cha Seung-jo to her college and asks him to give the President the expression rabbits that she has made for the President. However, while they are getting ready to leave, Cha Seung-jo accidentally drinks a bottle of poisonous liquid. He is sent to the hospital immediately. When his close employees come to visit him, he tries very hard to hide his identity from Han Se-kyung. Episode 6 Han Se-kyung's best friend, Choi Ah-jung, accidentally sees her diary on how to get into Cheongdam-dong, and Han Se-kyung then confesses to her on what she is planning to do. Choi Ah-jung helps Han Se-kyung to look into Cha Seung-jo, at that time they know as Secretary Jin. Han Se-kyung got suspicious of Cha Seung-jo when Choi Ah-jung tells her that there is no one called Secretary Jin at all in Artemis. Han Se-kyung then asks Cha Seung-jo fiercely on whom he actually is. Under this moment of pressure, Cha Seung-jo makes a lame excuse that he is actually the President's personal “shadow ninja”. On the other hand, Tommy Hong finds out Cha Seung-jo's real identity. He is not only Artemis’ president, but also the son of Cha ll-nam, the president of Royal Corporation. Seo Yoon-joo goes and tells Cha Seung-jo of his possible future engagement with Shin In-hwa, which Cha Seung-jo has no clue about doesn't even consider it at all. Cha Seung-jo bumps into his father, Cha ll-nam, and they have a very unhappy conversation. Seeing the saddened Cha Seung-jo afterwards, Han Se-kyung encourages him by giving him a high-five. At the same time, she realizes she is in the danger of falling in love with the man in front of her. Episode 7 Han Se-kyung calls Seo Yoon-joo and asks her the answer of the first danger among the three she must encounter if she wants to go into Cheongdam-dong. Seo Yoon-joo replies that it is love. When Han Se-kyung returns home, she sees that her parents are chasing after her sister, Han Se-jin. Han Se kyung learns that her parents want her sister to quit school for a while and help out their shop. At first, Han Se-jin does not want to, but after Han Se-kyung promise to buy her a new bag, she agrees to do it. Choi Ah-jung and Secretary Moon are dining out together because Choi Ah-jung wants to gather more information about Artemis’ president. The next day, Choi Ah-jung wakes up and Han Se-kyung asks her if she has said anything unnecessary to Secretary Moon. But Choi Ah-jung cannot remember anything. While the Secretary is having a meeting, he seems to not be able to pay any attention to the meeting, but is trying hard to remember exactly what he said to Choi Ah-jung the night before. When Han Se-kyung meets Cha Seung-jo, Cha Seung-jo tries to close up their distance. They go to pick costumes together. He also put Han Se-kyung's shoes on her. When Han Se-kyung tries to stand up, she almost trip just as Cha Seung-jo catches her in his arms. He kisses Han Se-kyung then. Shocked, Han Se-kyung hurries out the door and gets on a bus immediately. Both Choi Ah-jung and Secretary Moon still cannot figure out what they said to each other. Choi Ah-jung asks Secretary Moon out to have cake together. They both admit that they cannot remember. Cha Seung-jo thinks about what happens between him and Han Se-kyung, and he is very nervous about it. He decides he is going to ask Han Se-kyung out the following day. Tommy Hong asks for Cha ll-nam's sponsorship at the upcoming Winter Olympic, using the marriage between Shin In-hwa and Cha Seung-jo. Seo Yoon-joo is in the hospital because she has had an accident. Han Se-kyung goes and visits her. Seo Yoon-joo tells her she must solve her first problem, which is love, or else she can never succeed. Cha Seung-joo meets up with Han Se-kyung. He apologizes for his rudeness the other day for kissing her. Han Se-kyung tells him she does not want this job anymore, unless she meets the president of Artemis. When Heo Dong-wook knows about this situation, he tells Cha Seung-jo to tell his true identity to Han Se-kyung honestly. Tommy Hong sees Shin In-hwa and asks her to collaborate with him on a project next season. Tommy Hong reassures Shin In-hwa it is no big deal when she says she hears that Cha Seung-jo has a girlfriend. Seo Yoon-jo goes to see Cha ll-nam, and tells him that she is the Seo Yoon-jo that he once knew. Artemis is having a party. Han Se-kyung tells Choi Ah-jung that she received an invitation, and the party dress has already been delivered to her. On the way to the party, both Han Se-kyung and Cha Seung-jo receive a message from Choi Ah-jung and Secretary Moon. The two of them have remembered what they said to each other on that night. Choi Ah-jung tells Han Se-kyung that Cha Seung-jo, the Secretary Jin that she knows him as, is actually the president of Artemis. On the other hand, Secretary Moon tells Cha Seung-jo that Han Se-kyung likes Secretary Jin, which is Cha Seung-jo himself. Cha Seung–jo is very happy to hear the news while Han Se-kyung is not as happy as Cha Seung-jo is. Episode 8 When meeting up with Cha ll-nam again, Seo Yoon-jo advises him to stop the planned marriage. Now at the party, after battling with his own will, he finally gains the courage and goes into the party. He is ready to indirectly confess to Han Se-kyung in his opening speech. But what he does not know is that Han Se-kyung has left the party because of her shock of the news. Han Se-kyung runs out, crying, and writes down what she must do in the future in order to marry a rich man. Seo Yoon-jo comes to visit Han Se-kyung late at night. Back to the party, Tommy Hong sees Han Se-kyung's phone that she accidentally leaves at the party and picks it up. He goes through her phone and finds out that she is somewhat using Cha Seung-jo. Han Se-kyung pretends she does not know Cha Seung-jo's real identity. She then writes a letter to Secretary Jin that she likes him. Seeing this, Cha Seung-jo starts to cry because he is so moved, but not realizing the fact that Han Se-kyung has written that letter with a purpose. Not knowing the truth, Cha Seung-jo finally tells Han Se-kyung who he really is. Han Se-kyung, already knowing that, pretends to be shocked. Production Loosely based on the chick lit novel Cheongdam-dong Audrey by Lee Hye-kyung, the series is written by Kim Ji-woon and Kim Jin-hee, who also wrote historical dramas Queen Seondeok (MBC, 2009) and Deep Rooted Tree (SBS, 2012). The writers wanted portray the splendor and vanity of the so-called "Beverly Hills of Seoul" realistically, saying, "We will question the terms of endearment through the youths living the life of dreams. We hope the viewers will ask themselves: Is wealth everything we need? Are we happy now?". Original soundtrack Volume 1 Daddy Long Legs (키다리 아저씨) - Baek A-yeon Love Like This (사랑은 이렇게) - K.Will It's Okay (괜찮아) - Luna Rain Shower (소나기) - Every Single Day Arcane Alice - Lee Kyung-shik Paris - Jung Cha-shik In Your Hands - Lee Kyung-shik Ivory Smile - Kang Hee-chan Blurry Leon - Jung Jae-woo Ache - Romanticisco Blue Moon - Moon Sung-nam Daddy Long Legs (키다리 아저씨) (Inst.) Love Like This (사랑은 이렇게) (Inst.) Volume 2 Sorry - Lee Seung-hwan feat. Yozoh Stop Hurting (그만 아파하자) - Melody Day Alice (앨리스) - Every Single Day Daddy Long Legs (키다리 아저씨) (Acoustic Ver.) - Baek A-yeon Dream - Lee Kyung-shik Gypsy - Jung Cha-shik Last Memory - Moon Sung-nam Fashion Work - Jung Jae-woo Farewell - Kang Hee-chan 3 and 4 - Romanticisco Crying Heart - Go Kyung-chun Sorry (Inst.) Daddy Long Legs (키다리 아저씨) (Guitar Ver.) Ratings According to AGB Nielsen Media Research, the first two episodes received a nationwide viewership rating of 8.6 percent, both of which were behind its rival May Queen on MBC, while KBS's The King's Dream did not air due to actors exiting because of injuries. The ratings for the third episode rose to double digits of 10.6% but ranked third for the timeslot. However, for the fifth episode, the series overtook The King's Dream and was ranked second for its timeslot, and for the ninth and tenth episodes it was ranked first ahead of MBC's new drama A Hundred Year Legacy. The series finale recorded its highest ratings with a viewership of 16.6 percent nationwide, and an average of 18.6 percent in the Seoul National Capital Area. References External links 2012 South Korean television series debuts 2013 South Korean television series endings Seoul Broadcasting System television dramas Korean-language television shows South Korean romantic comedy television series Television shows based on South Korean novels

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%88%EC%9D%98%20%28%EB%93%9C%EB%9D%BC%EB%A7%88%29

마의 (드라마)

《마의》(馬醫)는 2012년 10월 1일부터 2013년 3월 25일까지 MBC에서 방송된 50부작 창사 51주년 특별기획 드라마이다. 허준과 대장금을 잇는 이병훈 감독의 세 번째 의학 드라마이다. 드라마 방영에 앞서 스페셜 방송 '마의 100배 즐기기'를 10월 1일 오후 8시 30분에 편성하였다. 그리고 2019년 개국한 MBC ON에서 다시 방송 중이다. 기획 의도 조선 후기 조선 현종 당시, 조선 최초의 한방 외과의(外科醫)로서 독보적인 종기치료로 "신의"(神醫)라는 호칭을 얻은 의관(醫官) 백광현(白光玄, 1625~1697)의 생애와 심오한 의학세계를 드라마로 엮는다. 천민의 신분으로 마의(馬醫, 말을 돌보는 의사)에서 출발하여 명성을 얻고 뒤이어 내의원 의관이 되고 어의가 되어, 한방(韓方) 의학계에 사상 최초로 "한방의 외과적 시술(外科的 施術)"이라는 새로운 분야를 개척해 천하에 이름을 떨친 침의(鍼醫) 백광현! 백광현의 초반 의학 세계라고 볼 수 있는 조선시대 가축의 질병을 다룬 수의학의 세계를 통해 인간 질병 치료와는 전혀 다른 새로운 내용을 보여줄 전망이다. 또한 '병자가 있는 곳이면 어디라도 간다'는 좌우명 아래 가난한 백성들을 위해 평생 헌신적인 의술을 펼칠 백광현의 인술 휴머니즘을 통해 냉혹하고 각박한 오늘의 의료 현실에 크나큰 경종을 안겨주려 한다. 주요 내용 목장에서 날뛰는 말을 순식간에 제압하는 명환. 목장을 찾은 도준은 말을 빠르게 치료하는 마의들을 보고 호기심을 느낀다. 왕실 의료기관이자 의생교육기관인 전의감에서 만나게 되는 도준과 명환. 전의감에는 대제학 대감의 장남으로 반가 출신인 도준과 마의의 아들인 명환에 대한 소문이 퍼지는데... 12년 후, 외딴 섬에서 석구와 살아가는 광현. 광현은 도성에 가고싶어 수차례 도전하지만, 석구의 극심한 반대에 매번 실패한다. 한편, 효종은 12년 전 소현세자의 죽음에 대해 의문을 가지고 재수사를 명하는데... 고주만이 세상을 떠나고 그 뒤를 이어 수의 자리에 오른 이명환. 치종청의 현판을 내리고 그 자리에 특별시료청을 세우도록 명한다. 한편, 광현의 죽음을 믿지 못하는 사람들. 각자의 방법으로 광현을 기다리고 시간은 흐르는데... 몇 년 후, 남장을 하고 전국적인 약계를 만든 지녕. 영달이라는 이름으로 신분을 숨긴채 활동을 한다. 한편, 사암과 소가영을 따라 청국을 돌아다니며 병자들의 병을 돌보는 광현. 사암은 항주 관아 부태수의 부름을 받고 광현과 소가영과 함께 항주로 향하는데... 등장인물 주요 인물 조승우 (아역 - 안도규) - 백광현(白光炫) 역 미천한 신분의 마의에서 어의의 자리에까지 오르는 조선 최초의 한방 외과의이자 강도준의 친아들.본명은 강광현 이요원 (아역 - 노정의) - 강지녕(姜知寧)/영달 역 천민 노비인 석구 부부의 딸로 태어났으나 부모의 은인인 강도준이 역모사건에 휘말려 죽게 되자 은인의 아들 백광현을 살리기 위해 아비 석구가 자신과 바꿔치기 했다. 본명은 백지녕 손창민 - 이명환(李明煥) 역 주인공 백광현의 친아버지인 강도준의 친구. 이성하의 부. 강지녕의 후견인. 유선 - 장인주(張仁珠) 역 사암도인의 옛제자 고주만의 현제자 이자 백광현의 최측근 의녀. 이상우 (아역 - 남다름) - 이성하(李聖夏) 역 이명환의 아들 한상진 - 현종 역 조선의 제18대 왕. 인조의 손자이며, 효종의 맏아들. 아버지 효종이 봉림대군시절 청나라에 볼모로 잡혀가 있을 때 심양에서 태어났다 김소은 - 숙휘공주 역 효종의 넷째 딸이자 현종의 손아래 동생. 말괄량이에다 개구쟁이다운 기질을 숨기지 못하고 지녕 일행과 어울려 다니는 것을 좋아한다. 이순재 - 고주만(高朱萬) 역 전 혜민서 수의. 이명환이 악행을 하지 않도록 설득하며 백광현에게 의생의 길을 열어준 정신적 지주이다. 조보아 - 서은서(徐恩瑞) 역 정성조의 며느리. 왕실 인물 선우재덕 - 인조 역 조선 제16대 국왕. 소현세자와 효종의 아버지. 맏아들 소현세자가 청의 문물을 수용하였을 때 강하게 내처버린다. 서현진 - 조소용 역 인조의 총관후궁. 정겨운 - 소현세자 역 인조의 맏아들. 효종의 형. 민회빈 강씨와의 사이에서 이석철, 석린, 석견 3형제를 두었다. 경수진 - 민회빈 강씨 역 소현세자의 정비. 최덕문 - 효종 역 조선 제17대 국왕. 김혜선 - 인선왕후 역 효종의 정비이자 현종의 모후. 중신들의 입장을 배려하며 맞서나 나중에는 중신들을 설득하는 인물이다. 이가현 - 명성왕후 역 현종의 정비이자 숙종의 모후 경종과 영조의 조모. 강한별 - 세자 역 광현에게 치료를 받는 왕세자. 후일 조선 19대 국왕 숙종. 현종이 장옹을 앓아 쓰러지자 걱정한다. 내관 상궁 최예진 - 남상궁 역 인선왕후를 보필하는 대비전 상궁. 안여진 - 곽상궁 역 숙휘공주를 보필하는 공주전 상궁. 이관훈 - 마도흠 역 숙휘공주의 곁에서 그림자처럼 그녀를 묵묵하게 지키는 호위무사. 강신조 - 의금부도사 정동규 - 의금부 심문관 길금성 - 어린 백광현을 쫓는 관군대장 조정 인물 김창완 - 정성조(鄭成調) 역 좌의정이자 서은서의 시아버지. 박영지 - 좌의정 홍윤식 역 정성조 후임 좌의정. 권태원 - 김자점 역 김호영 - 우의정 오규태 역 탈저라는 병을 앓았으나 광현의 외과술로 목숨을 건지는 데 성공하고 백광현의 최측근 인물이 된다. 김태종 - 사헌부 지평 역 나재균 - 도승지 역 나성균 - 병조판서 박병주 역 서광재 내의원 , 사복시 인교진 - 권석철(權錫哲) 역 전의감 교수. 소속 의생들이 혜민서 의생들에게 밀리는 것을 인정하지 않는다. 장희웅 - 윤태주(尹泰周) 역 백광현의 친구. 백광현의 경쟁적 협력자. 윤봉길 - 박대망(朴大望) 역 주인옥의 아들. 백광현의 친구. 최범호 - 조정철(趙廷哲) 역 이명환에게 줄을 서다 나중에는 말단으로 밀려난 인물. 주진모 - 사암도인 역 백광현과 장인주의 스승. 한춘일 - 사복시 마의 역 전헌태 - 사복시 마의 역 서진욱 - 사복시 마의 역 김영임 - 조비 역 엄현경 - 소가영 역 오은호 - 홍미금 역 오인혜 - 정말금 역 허이슬 - 박은비 역 윤진호 - 사암의 옛 제자 최형욱 역 사암도인이 가르치다가 내처 버린 제자. 조덕현 - 이형익(李馨益) 역 무교탕반, 기타 인물 최수린 - 주인옥(朱仁鈺) 역 무교탕반 주인. 박대망의 모. 오장박의 부인. 맹상훈 - 오장박(吳張半) 역 어린 백광현의 스승. 무교탕반 숙수. 주인옥의 재혼남 이희도 - 추기배(處基北) 역 백광현의 정신적 후견인이자 부모같은 사람. 안상태 - 자봉(子福) 역 임채원 - 이명환의 처 역 서범식 - 강정두(姜廷斗) 역 이명환의 최측근. 유인석 - 농장주 역 신국 - 신병하 역 이숙 - 최가비 역 윤희석 - 서두식(徐斗植) 역 서은서의 친오빠이자 이성하의 동기 하은채 - 애종 역 김결 - 태수의 사위 역 백민 - 배역 미상 역 정윤석 - 수탉을 키우는 동생 역 청나라 인물 이현균 - 강희제 역 청나라의 황제, 몽골의 칸 이희진 - 우희 역 청나라의 황비(귀비) 임병기 - 수보 역 우희의 오빠 이창직 - 태의 역 광현의 스승 특별 출연 전노민 - 강도준(姜道準) 역 백광현의 친아버지. 과거에 급제했음에도 불구하고 의술에 관심을 가져 유의의 길을 걷는다. 소현세자의 일시 귀국때 우연히 만나 그의 통치철학에 깊은 감명을 받는다. 귀국 후 그가 독살당하자 그 진실을 파헤치다가 역모 누명을 쓴다. 장영남 - 강도준의 처 역 박혁권 - 백석구 역 백광현의 양부이자 강지녕의 생부. 황영희 - 백석구 처 역(강지녕의 친모) 이성호 - 석구를 치료하기 위해 백광현이 찾아간 의원 오정태 - 왈패 두목 양한열 - 어린 강영달(지녕)의 여리꾼 친구 김익태 - 효종 때 조선 관리. 현종 때 춘추관 수찬관. 이종구 - 이명환의 양부 송민형 - 절강성 부태수 정동규 조동희 김선은 이종래 최윤준 이재욱 공재원 양동재 이광세 구중림 이용진 이정성 전해룡 김광인 전일범 강신구 이현웅 박팔영 양승걸 고태진 김정수 - 전의감 소향 - 무교탕반에 시아버지와 남편을 찾으러 온 조선시대 양반집 규수 신준영 - 조선으로 돌아온 백광현에게 치료를 받는 병자 최은석 - 이명환을 유배지로 호송하는 관리 기연호 - 양반 행세를 한 강지녕에게 처벌을 요구하는 관리. 이후 홍윤식을 동조하는 관리 박기산 - 효종 때 조선 관리. 현종 때 홍윤식을 동조하는 관리 송용태 - 홍윤식을 동조하는 관리 정세형 - 정태섭 김율호 - 의학습독관. 이성하의 죽마고우 허정도 - 노복 역 장태민 - 노복 역 한국진 - 관군 역 이두석 - 의생 김주식 역 장문규 - 병자 역 주희중 - 오규태의 아들 역 김태영 전병덕 결방 및 연장 결정 및 취소 및 지연 방송 3회가 프로야구 포스트 시즌 중계로 인해 평소보다 1시간여 늦은 11시 20분에 방송되었다. 20회와 21회가 제18대 대통령 선거 후보자 토론회로 인해 평소보다 45분 늦은 10시 50분에 방송되었다. 2012년 12월 31일 : MBC 가요대제전 방송으로 결방하였다. 당초 50부작으로 기획되어 2012년 12월 31일 MBC 가요대제전 방송으로 1회 결방을 해 51부작으로 연장하려고 하였지만, 2013년 3월 26일에 2014년 FIFA 월드컵 아시아 지역 최종 예선 5차전 대한민국 VS 카타르 전 중계로 인해 50부작으로 최종 결정되었다. 수상 2012년 MBC 연기대상 대상 : 조승우 특별기획 부문 남자 최우수상 : 조승우 여자 신인연기상 : 김소은 특별기획 부문 남자 우수상 : 이상우 시청률 아래의 파란색 숫자는 '최저 시청률'이고, 빨간색 숫자는 '최고 시청률'입니다. 시청률조사회사와 지역별로 시청률에 차이가 있을 수 있습니다. 같이 보기 신의 (SBS, 2012년 8월 13일 ~ 2012년 10월 30일) 드라마의 제왕 (SBS, 2012년 11월 5일 ~ 2013년 1월 7일) 야왕 (SBS, 2013년 1월 14일 ~ 2013년 4월 2일) 울랄라 부부 (KBS2, 2012년 10월 1일 ~ 2012년 11월 27일) 학교 2013 (KBS2, 2012년 12월 3일 ~ 2013년 1월 28일) 광고천재 이태백 (KBS2, 2013년 2월 4일 ~ 2013년 3월 26일) 각주 외부 링크 마의 공식 웹사이트 마의 공식 블로그 2012년 드라마 2013년 드라마 문화방송 월화드라마 문화방송의 의학 드라마 문화방송의 역사 드라마 조선 역사 드라마 김이영 시나리오 작품 김종학 프로덕션 텔레비전 프로그램 조선을 배경으로 한 작품 2010년대 대한민국의 텔레비전 프로그램 2012년에 시작한 대한민국 TV 프로그램 2013년에 종료한 대한민국 TV 프로그램

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20King%27s%20Doctor

The King's Doctor

The King's Doctor (; lit. Horse Doctor) is a 2012 South Korean television series depicting Baek Gwang-hyeon (1625–1697), Joseon Dynasty veterinarian, starring Cho Seung-woo and Lee Yo-won. It aired on MBC from October 1, 2012 to March 25, 2013 on Mondays and Tuesdays at 21:55 for 50 episodes. The historical/period epic drama commemorated MBC's 51st anniversary. Filmed at MBC Dramia in Gyeonggi Province, The King's Doctor was directed by Lee Byung-hoon, known for his previous works Hur Jun, Jewel in the Palace, Yi San and Dong Yi. This marked the first television drama for actor Cho Seung-woo in his 13-year film and stage career. Plot The life of a Joseon-era low-class veterinarian specializing in the treatment of horses, who rises to become the royal physician in charge of the King's health. Cast Main characters Cho Seung-woo as Baek Kwang-hyun Ahn Do-gyu as young Kwang-hyun Lee Yo-won as Kang Ji-nyeong Roh Jeong-eui as young Ji-nyeong/Young-dal Son Chang-min as Lee Myung-hwan Yoo Sun as Jang In-joo Lee Sang-woo as Lee Sung-ha Nam Da-reum as young Lee Sung-ha Lee Soon-jae as Ko Joo-man Han Sang-jin as King Hyeonjong Kim So-eun as Princess Sukhwi Jo Bo-ah as Seo Eun-seo Supporting characters Kang Ki-young as Horse Doctor Kim Chang-wan as Jung Sung-jo Jeon No-min as Kang Do-joon, Kwang-hyun's father Choi Su-rin as Joo In-ok Kim Hyeseon as Queen Inseon Lee Hee-do as Choo Ki-bae Maeng Sang-hoon as Oh Jang-bak Ahn Sang-tae as Ja-bong In Gyo-jin as Kwon Suk-chul as Yoon Tae-joo as Park Dae-mang as Jo Jung-chul Shin Gook as Shin Byung-ha as Court Lady Kwak as Ma Do-heum Lee Ga-hyun as Queen Myeongseong Joo Jin-mo as Sa-am Uhm Hyun-kyung as So Ka-young Park Hyuk-kwon as Baek Seok-gu Hwang Young-hee as Baek Seok-gu's wife Yoon Hee-seok as Seo Doo-shik as Jo Bi as Hong Mi-geum Oh In-hye as Jung Mal-geum Seo Beom-shik as Kang Jung-doo Im Chae-won as Lee Myung-hwan Na Sung-kyun as Park Byung-joo as Choi Ga-bi Heo Yi-seul as Park Eun-bi Yoo In-suk as farmer Han Choon-il as doctor at royal horse stable as doctor at royal horse stable Kim Ho-young as Oh Kyu-tae as First Secretary So Hyang as Kyu-soo Jung Dong-gyu as Shim Moon-kwan as Ji-pyung Lee Jong-goo as Lee Myung-hwan's stepfather Yang Han-yeol as young Ji-nyeong's friend as Doo-mok as Guru Uigeumbu Shin Joon-young as Byun as Joseon's officer Choi Eun-seok as Joseon's officer as Joseon's officer Park Gi-san as Joseon's officer as Joseon's officer Guest appearances Jung Gyu-woon as Crown Prince Sohyeon Kyung Soo-jin as Crown Princess Minhoe of the Kang clan Sunwoo Jae-duk as King Injo Choi Deok-moon as King Hyojong as Kim Ja-jeom Jang Young-nam as Do-joon's wife and Kwang-hyun's mother Seo Hyun-jin as So-yong Jo, later Gwi-in Jo as Lee Hyung-ik as Boo Tae-soo Lee Hee-jin as Woo-hee as Soo-bo, Woo-hee's older brother as Choi Hyun-wook as Hong Yoon-shik Kang Han-byeol as little crown prince, later King Sukjong Jung Yoon-seok as the child (ep 8) Episode ratings In the table below, represent the lowest ratings and represent the highest ratings. NR denotes that the drama did not rank in the top 20 daily programs on that date. Awards and nominations International broadcast References External links Horse Doctor Official MBC website MBC TV television dramas Korean-language television shows 2012 South Korean television series debuts 2013 South Korean television series endings Television series set in the Joseon dynasty South Korean medical television series South Korean historical television series Television series by Kim Jong-hak Production Television series by AStory

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%B4%EB%A1%9C%EB%AA%AC%20%EB%A1%A0%EB%8F%88

살로몬 론돈

호세 살로몬 론돈 히메네스(, 스페인어 발음: [saloˈmon ronˈdon], 1989년 9월 16일 ~ )는 베네수엘라의 축구 선수로 현재 아르헨티나 프리메라 디비시온의 리버 플레이트와 베네수엘라 축구 국가대표팀에서 공격수로 활약하고 있으며 또한 현재 베네수엘라 국가대표팀 선수 가운데 국제 A매치 최다 득점 기록을 보유하고 있다. 선수 경력 클럽 1996년부터 2006년까지 유소년팀에서 활약하며 크게 성장했고 2006년 아라과 FC 성인팀에 입단하여 2008년까지 58경기에서 18골을 기록하며 팀의 2007-08 베네수엘라컵 우승을 이끌었고 2008년 스페인으로 건너가 2부 리그팀인 UD 라스팔마스로 이적하여 2010년까지 47경기에서 12골을 터뜨렸다. 그리고 2010년 스페인 프리메라리가의 말라가 CF로 이적하여 2012년까지 72경기에서 27골을 터뜨리는 맹활약을 펼친 뒤 4년간의 스페인 생활을 마친 후 2012년 러시아 프리미어리그 소속팀인 루빈 카잔으로 이적하여 2014년까지 56경기에서 25골을 터뜨렸고 이후 제니트 상트페테르부르크로 이적하여 2015년까지 58경기에서 28골을 터뜨려 팀의 2013-14 시즌 리그 준우승, 2014-15 시즌 리그 우승, 2015년 러시아 슈퍼컵 제패를 동시에 이끌어냈다. 4시즌동안의 러시아 리그 생활을 청산하고 2015년 잉글랜드 프리미어리그 웨스트브로미치 앨비언으로 이적하여 2019년까지 통산 120경기에서 28골을 기록했고 2018년에는 원 소속팀의 강등으로 인해 뉴캐슬 유나이티드로 임대 이적하여 2019년까지 33경기에서 12골을 터뜨리는 맹활약으로 뉴캐슬 유나이티드 구단에서 선정한 2019년 올해의 선수상에 이름을 올렸다. 이후 11년간의 유럽 생활을 잠시 정리하고 2019년 중국 슈퍼리그의 다롄 프로로 넘어가면서 생애 첫 아시아 무대를 밟은 뒤 2020 시즌까지 28경기 14골의 준수한 활약으로 2019년 중국 FA컵 4강의 저력을 이끌어냈다. 2020 시즌을 마친 뒤 러시아 프리미어리그의 CSKA 모스크바로 임대 이적하여 13경기 4골을 기록하며 팀의 2020-21년 러시아 컵 4강을 이끈 후 2021-22 시즌 개막을 앞두고 잉글랜드 프리미어리그의 에버턴 FC로 트레이드되었다. 국가대표팀 2008년 1월 3일 18세의 나이로 성인대표팀에 첫 발탁되어 아이티와의 친선 경기를 통해 국제 A매치 데뷔전을 치렀고 같은 해 3월 23일 엘살바도르와의 친선 경기에서 성인대표팀 데뷔골을 터뜨렸다. 이후 베네수엘라 U-20 대표팀 소속으로 2009년 FIFA U-20 월드컵 본선에 출전하여 타히티와의 B조 조별리그 2차전에서 해트트릭을 작성하며 팀의 8-0 대승과 함께 FIFA 주관 대회 사상 첫 16강 토너먼트 진출에 기여했다. 또한 2011년 코파 아메리카에서 비록 1골에 그쳤지만 팀의 사상 첫 메이저 대회 4강 진출에 일조했고 2016년 코파 아메리카 센테나리오에서도 2골을 기록하며 팀의 8강 진출을 이끌었다. 그리고 2019년 기린컵에서 홈팀 일본을 상대로 2009년 FIFA U-20 월드컵 이후 10년만에 2번째이자 성인대표팀으로는 사상 처음으로 해트트릭을 작성하며 팀 승리를 이끌었다. 국가대항전 득점 기록 수상 경력 아라과 코파 베네수엘라: 2007-08 제니트 상트페테르부르크 러시아 프리미어리그: 2014-15 러시아 슈퍼컵: 2015 베네수엘라 국가대표팀 코파 아메리카: 4위 (2011년) 기린컵: 우승 (2019년) 외부 링크 1989년 출생 살아있는 사람 베네수엘라의 남자 축구 선수 UD 라스팔마스의 축구 선수 말라가 CF의 축구 선수 러시아 프리미어리그의 축구 선수 프리미어리그의 축구 선수 러시아의 외국인 남자 축구 선수 잉글랜드의 외국인 남자 축구 선수 FC 루빈 카잔의 축구 선수 FC 제니트 상트페테르부르크의 축구 선수 웨스트브로미치 앨비언 FC의 축구 선수 뉴캐슬 유나이티드 FC의 축구 선수 2011년 코파 아메리카 참가 선수 2015년 코파 아메리카 참가 선수 베네수엘라 남자 축구 국가대표팀 선수 코파 아메리카 센테나리오 참가 선수 스페인의 외국인 남자 축구 선수 베네수엘라의 해외 진출 남자 축구 선수 콜롬비아계 베네수엘라인 라리가의 축구 선수 세군다 디비시온의 축구 선수 잉글랜드에 거주한 베네수엘라인 스페인에 거주한 베네수엘라인 다롄 프로의 축구 선수 중국의 외국인 남자 축구 선수 중국 슈퍼리그의 축구 선수 중국에 거주한 베네수엘라인 PFC CSKA 모스크바의 축구 선수 러시아에 거주한 베네수엘라인 2019년 코파 아메리카 참가 선수 에버턴 FC의 축구 선수 CA 리버 플레이트의 축구 선수 아르헨티나 프리메라 디비시온의 축구 선수 아르헨티나의 외국인 남자 축구 선수 아르헨티나에 거주한 베네수엘라인 베네수엘라 프리메라 디비시온의 축구 선수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salom%C3%B3n%20Rond%C3%B3n

Salomón Rondón

José Salomón Rondón Giménez (; born 16 September 1989) is a Venezuelan professional footballer who plays as a striker for Argentine Primera División club River Plate and the Venezuela national team. After starting out at Aragua, Rondón went on to spend most of his career in Europe, appearing in La Liga with Málaga, the Russian Premier League with Rubin Kazan, Zenit Saint Petersburg (winning the 2015 national championship with the latter club) and CSKA Moscow, and the Premier League with West Bromwich Albion, Newcastle United and Everton. A Venezuela international since 2008, Rondón is the country's all-time top goalscorer with 40 goals, representing his country in four Copa América tournaments. Club career Early years Born in Caracas, Rondón's sporting idols growing up were Ronaldo and Michael Jordan. He made his debut in the Venezuelan Primera División at the age of 17, appearing for Aragua FC against Carabobo FC on 8 October 2006; on 8 April of the following year he scored his first goal(s) for the club, in a 2–2 draw against Caracas FC. Las Palmas In the summer of 2008, Rondón was signed by UD Las Palmas in Spain, and made his official debut on 5 October in a 1–2 away loss against Deportivo Alavés in the Segunda División. Almost a year after his arrival, on 2 September 2009, he netted his first goal, in a Copa del Rey match against Cádiz CF – becoming the youngest foreign player to ever score for the club, at the age of 19 years, 11 months and 17 days – and finished the season with ten goals in 36 games, as the Canary Islands side narrowly avoided relegation. Málaga On 19 July 2010, Málaga CF signed Rondón for a record €3.5 million transfer fee. He scored his first goal for the Andalusians exactly two months later, in a 1–2 home defeat against Sevilla FC in La Liga. Four days later, he opened the score in a 2–0 win at Getafe CF, adding a third the following week in a 2–3 home loss to Villarreal CF. On 1 May 2011, Rondón contributed with one goal as Málaga came from behind at home to defeat Hércules CF 3–1. That was his 13th goal of the campaign, with which he surpassed the record of goals from a Venezuelan footballer in the Spanish top flight previously held by Juan Arango; the team finally escaped relegation, with the player finishing as their top scorer. Rondón started 2011–12 on the substitutes bench. He eventually beat competition from ageing Ruud van Nistelrooy, again finishing as Málaga's best scorer – this included goals in narrow home wins against RCD Espanyol (2–1) and Levante UD (1–0), and a brace against Rayo Vallecano (4–2 success, also at La Rosaleda Stadium). Rubin Kazan In August 2012, Rondón signed for Russian Premier League team FC Rubin Kazan, for a reported fee of €10 million which made him the most expensive Venezuelan player in history. He made his league debut on the 12th in a 2–0 home win over FC Dynamo Moscow, and he scored his first goal against FC Terek Grozny on 1 September, albeit in a 1–2 home defeat. Rondón made his first appearance in the UEFA Europa League against Inter Milan, and he scored once in a 2–2 group stage away draw, also playing the entire match. In the second match between the two sides he netted a brace in the final three minutes, helping his team to a 3–0 win. On 10 March 2013, following the winter break in the Russian Premier League, Rondón scored the only goal of the match as Rubin claimed a home victory over reigning champions FC Zenit Saint Petersburg. In continental competition, he opened up the scoring in the 100th minute of the round-of-16 clash against Levante, latching on to a cross from Bibras Natcho as the hosts won it 2–0 in that leg and on aggregate. On 19 April 2013, Rondón opened the scoring for Rubin, who could only manage a 1–1 draw at relegation-threatened FC Amkar Perm. In the club's next league match, against PFC CSKA Moscow, he netted the first goal in a 2–0 victory over the league leaders and eventual champions. On 1 September 2013, Rondón scored a hat-trick in a 3–0 win against recently promoted FC Ural Sverdlovsk Oblast. Zenit On 31 January 2014, Rondón underwent a medical and joined fellow league club Zenit Saint Petersburg, signing a five-year contract for a fee in the region of £15.8 million. He played his first game for his new team on 25 February, scoring in an eventual 2–1 away win against Borussia Dortmund in the UEFA Champions League's round of 16-second-leg (4–5 aggregate defeat). On 6 April 2014, again as a second-half substitute, Rondón scored a rare second-half hat-trick in a 6–2 home routing of former team Rubin. On 20 September he added another three, in a 5–0 win at FC Rostov. On 26 February 2015, Rondón scored a brace at home against PSV Eindhoven, being essential in a 3–0 home victory for the Europa League round of 32 and a 4–0 aggregate triumph. West Bromwich Albion On 10 August 2015, Rondón joined English club West Bromwich Albion on a four-year-deal for a club-record fee of £12 million. He made his debut in the Premier League five days later, replacing Craig Gardner in the 62nd minute of an eventual 0–0 away draw against Watford. On 23 August, he made his first start, at the expense of Tottenham Hotspur-linked Saido Berahino, in a 2–3 home defeat to Chelsea, assisting James Morrison in his first goal and later being brought down by John Terry who received a straight red card. Rondón scored his first goal for the Baggies on 29 August 2015, netting the game's only in stoppage time of the first half of the away fixture against nine-man Stoke City. On 19 December, he was sent off at the end of a 1–2 home loss to AFC Bournemouth for thrusting his head at Dan Gosling, with teammate James McClean also dismissed in the first half; he finished his first season in English football with ten goals. Rondón began the 2016–17 campaign strongly, scoring the winner in the opening match win over Crystal Palace, then continued his impressive form in September with goals in consecutive matches against West Ham United and Stoke. On 21 November he netted once and provided an assist in a 4–0 victory over Burnley, and on 14 December, against Swansea City, he scored his first Premier League hat-trick after netting three headers in a 3–1 win, which was only the second time this feat was achieved in the history of the competition, the first being Everton's Duncan Ferguson in 1997. Rondón's goal in a 1–1 draw with Tottenham, on 25 November 2017, made him the first Venezuelan to score at either the rebuilt Wembley Stadium or the original facilities, as well as the first Albion player to score at the new ground. The following 20 January, early into the second half of the away fixture against Everton, he accidentally broke James McCarthy's leg, and was reduced to tears upon realising the extent of McCarthy's injury; recalling the incident in an interview some months later also caused him to become upset. Newcastle United On 6 August 2018, Rondón joined Newcastle United on a one-year loan swap, with Dwight Gayle heading in the opposite direction. He made his debut five days later, in a 2–1 home loss against Tottenham on the opening day of the season. He scored his first goal in a 3–1 EFL Cup defeat at Nottingham Forest on 29 August. Rondón opened his league account on 10 November 2018, scoring twice to help the hosts defeat Bournemouth 2–1. In the second half of the season, his partnership up front with Ayoze Pérez began to take shape and the Venezuelan often assisted the Spaniard with his goals. He also maintained a steady record in terms of goalscoring and was neck-and-neck with Pérez until the latter stages of the campaign, finishing with eleven league goals—just one behind his teammate. In May 2019, Rondón was named Newcastle's player of the year, becoming the first forward to win the award since Alan Shearer in 2003. Dalian Professional On 19 July 2019, Rondón signed with Dalian Yifang of the Chinese Super League, reuniting with manager Rafael Benítez who had joined the club two weeks before and reportedly activated the player's release clause of £16.5 million. CSKA Moscow On 15 February 2021, Rondón joined Russian Premier League side CSKA Moscow on loan. In his first match at Arena CSKA, Rondón scored his first goal for the Moscow team and also gave an assist, merits that led him to be named the best player of the match. Furthermore, he was voted the best CSKA player of the month of March. Rondón ended his time at CSKA becoming one of the most valuable players in the Russian competition after participating in 37.5% of the team's goals since his arrival with four goals and two assists of the team's 16 goals in that time. Everton On 31 August 2021 Rondón joined Everton on a free transfer, reuniting with his former Newcastle and Dalian Pro manager Rafael Benítez. He signed a two-year contract with the option for a third season. He scored his first goal for the club in December 2021 against Crystal Palace in a 3–1 loss at Selhurst Park. In March 2022, he scored both goals in a 2–0 victory over National League side Boreham Wood at Goodison Park in the fifth round of the FA Cup. On 16 December 2022, Everton announced that Rondon had left "with immediate effect after reaching an agreement with the club to terminate his contract". River Plate On 31 January 2023, Rondon signed for River Plate in Argentina, signing a contract until December 2025. On October 1, he scored the opening goal in a Superclásico 0-2 away win at La Bombonera against Boca Juniors for the league cup. International career Youth Rondón appeared for the Venezuela under-20 side in the 2009 FIFA World Cup in Egypt. He scored four times during the competition – as teammate Yonathan del Valle, with both netting hat-tricks in the 8–0 group stage routing of Tahiti – as the former managed to qualify for the Round of 16 stage. Senior Previously, on 3 February 2008, 18-year-old Rondón made his debut for the senior team in a friendly with Haiti, scoring his first goal on 23 March against El Salvador (another exhibition match, another 1–0 win). In the 2011 Copa América, he took the 4th place. For this, the team received copper medals. Selected by manager Noel Sanvicente to the 2015 Copa América, he scored in La Vinotintos first game of the tournament to help defeat Colombia 1–0; later that year, he was among 15 national players who threatened to quit the team after the president of the Venezuelan Football Federation accused them of conspiring to get the manager sacked. On 5 June 2016, during the 2016 Copa América Centenario, Rondón earned his 50th cap, starting in a 1–0 group stage win against Jamaica in Chicago. He scored the only goal of the following game against Uruguay to become the first Venezuelan player to find the net at three tournaments, and repeated the feat in the quarter-finals, a 1–4 defeat to Argentina. On 9 June 2019, after his brace in a 3–0 friendly victory over the United States in Cincinnati, Rondón surpassed former holder Juan Arango to become Venezuela's all-time top scorer at 24 goals. In the 2026 FIFA World Cup qualification match on 17 October 2023, Rondón earned his 100th cap in which he scored a goal in a 3–0 win against Chile. Career statistics Club International Scores and results list Venezuela's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Rondón goal. HonoursAraguaCopa Venezuela: 2007–08ZenitRussian Premier League: 2014–15 Russian Super Cup: 2015River PlateArgentine Primera División: 2023Individual' Newcastle United Player of the Year: 2019 See also List of top international men's football goalscorers by country List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps References External links 1989 births Living people Venezuelan people of Colombian descent Footballers from Caracas Venezuelan men's footballers Men's association football forwards Aragua FC players La Liga players Segunda División players UD Las Palmas players Málaga CF players Russian Premier League players FC Rubin Kazan players FC Zenit Saint Petersburg players Premier League players West Bromwich Albion F.C. players Newcastle United F.C. players Everton F.C. players Chinese Super League players Dalian Professional F.C. players PFC CSKA Moscow players Club Atlético River Plate footballers Venezuela men's under-20 international footballers Venezuela men's international footballers 2011 Copa América players 2015 Copa América players Copa América Centenario players 2019 Copa América players Venezuelan expatriate men's footballers Expatriate men's footballers in Spain Expatriate men's footballers in Russia Expatriate men's footballers in England Expatriate men's footballers in China Expatriate men's footballers in Argentina Venezuelan expatriate sportspeople in Spain Venezuelan expatriate sportspeople in Russia Venezuelan expatriate sportspeople in England Venezuelan expatriate sportspeople in China Venezuelan expatriate sportspeople in Argentina Venezuelan Primera División players

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%8C%EB%A6%AC%20%EB%9D%BC%EC%9D%B4%ED%8A%B8%EB%B3%B4%EB%94%94

게리 라이트보디

게리 라이트바디(Gary Lightbody, 1976년 6월 15일 ~ )는 얼터너티브 락밴드 스노우 패트롤의 리드보컬이자 리듬 기타리스트로 가장 잘 알려진 아일랜드의 음악가이다. 생애 북아일랜드의 Bangor에서 태어났으며 Rockport School과 Campbell College를 다녔다. 1994년 스코틀랜드로 가서 Dundee대학에서 영어영문학을 공부했다. 성장하면서 Super Furry Animals, Quincy Jones, Kool & the Gang 그리고 Michael Jackson의 음악을 들었고 10대때는 AC/DC와 KISS 같은 하드락밴드에 빠졌다가 또 Sebadoh, Mudhoney, Pixies 그리고 Pavement의 음악을 들었다. 어렸을 때부터 Bono 같은 "지구에서 가장 큰 락스타"가 되는 꿈을 꿈을 꾸진 했지만 한번도 'cool'한 적은 없었다고 한다. 엑스맨, 특히 울버린의 팬이기도 하며 이와 관련된 만화책을 한무더기 가지고 있다. 어렸을 때 만화책을 여러권 사놨는데 그 중 몇개는 아예 열어보지도 않았다. 나중에 언젠가 그것들이 희귀해져서 수집할만한 것들이 될수도 있다는 희망을 품고있다. 나중에 인터뷰에서 그는 이 책들이 언젠가 그에게 연금을 벌어다줄지도 모른다고 말했다. 자신을 만화덕후(comics freak)라고 생각한다. Snow Patrol 게리는 1994년에 Mark McClelland와 드러머인 Michael Morrison과 함께 Shrug라고 하는 밴드를 결성했다. 이후 모리슨이 밴드를 떠났고 이미 같은 이름을 가진 다른 밴드가 있었기 때문에 어쩔 수 없이 밴드 이름을 "Polarbear"로 바꾸게 된다. 밴드 결성후 처음 7년간 그들은 드러머인 Jonny Quinn을 영입하여 앨범 2장(Songs for Polarbears와 When It's All Over We Still Have to Clear Up)을 발매했고 Levellers, Ash 와 Travis 같은 밴드와 함께 투어를 다녔다. 이 처음 2장의 앨범을 녹음하는 동안은 스노우 패트롤은 글래스고에서 머물렀다. 게리는 Sauchiehall Street에 있는 Nice n Sleazy's Bar에서 일을 했었다. 현재 게리는 Belfast에 거주하지만 글래스고에도 작은 집을 갖고있으며 절대 이곳을 뒤로하고 잊어버리지 않을것이라고 말한다. 글래스고가 그에게 최초로 성공의 맛을 느끼게 해주었기 때문에 게리는 이 곳에 대한 애착을 가지고 있다. 초창기 시절엔 게리가 술을 매우 많이 마셨으며 그의 표현으로는 "무개념에다가 성격이 이상하고 정신병자" 같았다고 한다. 스노우 패트롤의 금전적인 성공의 부재는 그를 좌절시켰으며 그는 목적없이 방황했었다. 그는 관객들을 욕하고 밴드의 장비들을 부수기 시작했으며 어느날은 그들이 감당할 수도 없는 기타들을 부수기도 했다. 이러한 상태는 2년간 지속되었다. 그는 후에 음주를 그만 두었고 현재는 그저 "즐기기 위해서" 정도만 술을 마신다고하며 이렇게 제정신을 차리게 된 것에 대해 밴드 동료들에게 고마움을 느낀다고 한다. "Disaster Button" (A Hundred Million Suns)라는 노래가 이 내용에 대한 노래이다. 뮤지션이긴 하지만 그는 악보를 읽을 수 없으며 코드를 통해서 그의 방식대로 "추측"한다고 말했다. 그의 목소리 타입은 바리톤이다. 2012년 7월 그는 Deryy(Londonderry)에 있는 Millennium Forum에서 Ulster 대학으로부터 문학분야의 명예 박사학위를 받아서 Gary Lightbody '박사'가 되었다. 작곡 게리는 15살때 집안 부엌 아래에 있는 작은 방에서 곡을 쓰기 시작하였다. 그는 짧은 기타 레슨을 받아서 기타의 기본을 배웠다. 그는 어떠한 악기를 마스터하면 안된다고 생각했기 때문에 레슨을 진행시키지 않았으며 공식대로 하는 것 보다는 자신만의 방식을 개발하는 것을 좋아했다. 오늘날 그는 그의 초창기 곡들을 그렇게 좋아하지는 않으며 그 노래들이 "구리다(sucked)"라고 생각한다. 그의 작곡 스타일은 대개 간단하고 기본적이며 그 자신도 "한번도 기본 이상으로 발전시킨적이 없다"라고 말하여 이를 인정하고 있다. 그는 솔직한 노래를 쓰는 가장 좋은 방법은 "심플"하게 하는 것이라며 복잡하게 하려고 하면 의도된 메시지를 왜곡하게 된다고 생각한다. 자신의 밴드는 항상 될 수 있는 한 가장 "간단하고 순수하게(simple and pure)" 하려고 노력중이며 마음으로부터 우러나온 작곡을 한다고 생각한다. 게리가 작곡을 시작하게끔 영감을 준 주요한 것들 중의 하나는 유명한 아일랜드 시인인 Seamus Heaney이며 이 내용은 스노우 패트롤의 싱글인 The Planets Bend Between Us의 'Reading Heaney To Me'라는 b-side 트랙곡에 나타나있다. 이 노래에는 Heaney의 시들이 가사 내내 나온다. 게리의 가사는 전형적으로 사랑이야기를 다루고 있다. 그는 그 스스로를 정치적인 사람이라고 생각하며 그런 주제로 노래를 써보려고 시도해왔으나 결국은 그 노래들이 모두 어색하다고 생각하게 되어서 노력을 그만 두었다. 게리는 처음 두개의 앨범(Songs for Polarbears 와 When It's All Over We Still Have to Clear Up)에 실린 모든 노래는 모두 개인적인 경험에서 나온 노래라고 말한다. 그의 가사들은 종종 스스로를 비판한다. 그는 여자친구를 두고 바람핀 후에 쓴 곡인 "Chocolate"라는 노래를 예로 들었다. 그는 또한 작곡을 일종의 스스로를 치유하는 방법이라고 생각한다. 게리의 작곡은 그에게 많은 찬사를 가져다주었다. 2009년 10월, 그는 이름은 밝히지 않겠지만 어떤 유명인사가 그에게 스노우 패트롤이 오늘날 세상의 상식이 되는 곡들을 썼으며 그들의 노래가 대중들의 의식의 일부가 되고 있다고 말했다고 밝혔다. 그는 그들의 작품을 Frank Sinatra 와The Beatles 같은 아티스트의 작품에 비유했다. 게리도 이를 느끼게 되었고 리얼리티 티비 프로그램에서 사람들이 자신의 노래로 공연하는 것을 그 예로 들었다. 외부 링크 스노우 패트롤 공식 웹사이트 1976년 출생 살아있는 사람 북아일랜드의 남자 가수 북아일랜드의 기타 연주자 20세기 북아일랜드 사람 21세기 북아일랜드 사람

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary%20Lightbody

Gary Lightbody

Gareth John Lightbody (born 15 June 1976) is a Northern Irish singer, songwriter, and musician. He is best known as the lead singer and rhythm guitarist of the alternative rock band Snow Patrol. He has also founded the musical supergroups The Reindeer Section and Tired Pony. Early life and education Gareth John Lightbody was born in Bangor, County Down, Northern Ireland, to Lynne (née Wray) and Jack Lightbody. Jack Lightbody has been an independent business owner and has roots in Rosemount, Derry. Gary Lightbody has one sister, Sarah, and attended Rathmore Primary School, Rockport School and Campbell College, where he was first introduced to the writings of Seamus Heaney which inspired him to write his own poetry and songs. In 1994, Lightbody left home for Scotland to study English literature at the University of Dundee, where he was a keen hockey player, often being dragged from his bed on a Saturday morning to play matches. Career Snow Patrol Lightbody formed a band with Mark McClelland and drummer Michael Morrison in 1994, called Shrug. Morrison left the band later, and the band were forced to change the name to Polarbear, as another band had claimed the name. In the band's first seven years of existence, they added drummer Jonny Quinn, released two albums (Songs for Polarbears, and When It's All Over We Still Have to Clear Up), and toured with bands such as Levellers, Ash and Travis. The band stayed in Glasgow during the recording of the first two albums. Lightbody used to hold a job at the Nice n Sleazy's Bar in Sauchiehall Street. Today, Lightbody owns a small place in Glasgow and says he will never leave the country behind, though he resides in Belfast. He feels an attachment to the place, as it gave him his first taste of success. In the early days, Lightbody used to drink very heavily, and in his words, was "irrational, erratic, neurotic". He had become frustrated by Snow Patrol's lack of financial success and felt lost and aimless. He started cursing at the audience and demolishing the band's equipment. He found himself breaking guitars they could not afford. This phase ran for two years. He later gave up drinking and now does it "for fun" and credits his bandmates for the turnaround. The song "Disaster Button" (A Hundred Million Suns) deals with this topic. Though a musician, he cannot read music and has said that he "guesses" his way through chords. He has a baritone vocal range. DJing When at the University of Dundee, Lightbody met Nick DeCosemo, a fellow student, and the two became friends. DeCosemo also moved in Lightbody's Springfield apartment when he moved out of his parents' house. Nick had formed a club night called The Spaceship at the Tay Hotel. Along with Lightbody, friends Roy Kerr, Tom Simpson, and Anu Pillai also used to DJ there. They mixed up various styles of music as house, rock, and hip hop. They gained a loyal following and socialised together for about two years. Lightbody later co-wrote "What Are You Waiting For" on the album Strangest Things, with Anu Pillai for Freeform Five. "What Are You Waiting For" was written before Snow Patrol released Final Straw, during a time when Lightbody was staying over at the band's place for a few days. Pillai had to literally drag a hungover Lightbody to the studio. Lightbody has filled in for DJ Zane Lowe on his BBC radio show on one occasion during the 2007 takeovers. He was subsequently voted the best fill-in DJ amongst them by the listeners. He has compiled two DJ mix albums, one in The Trip series: The Trip: Created by Snow Patrol, and another with bandmate Tom Simpson, called Late Night Tales: Snow Patrol on the Late Night Tales series. Other projects In addition to his work with Snow Patrol and DJing, Lightbody has contributed to other projects and works. He made a cameo appearance in the Game of Thrones episode, "Walk of Punishment", playing a Bolton soldier who begins singing, "The Bear and the Maiden Fair". Writing Lightbody writes as essayist articles or columns in variously music magazines and newspapers like Q magazine and previously wrote for The Irish Times music section as guest-editor. As an impassioned music fan and DJ, he recommends in his blogs or essays albums and artists of different and wide-ranging genres of music. In May 2009, Lightbody commenced writing his music column, Gary Lightbody's Band of the Week, in the magazine Q The Music.com. In 2011, he wrote as an essayist for The Huffington Post. Other musical projects As a songwriter/bandleader, Lightbody has written songs and lyrics for a wide variety of artists and genres. In 2000, he formed the Scottish supergroup The Reindeer Section, comprising 47 musicians from 20 different bands, including members of bands like Belle & Sebastian, Mogwai, Idlewild, Teenage Fanclub, Arab Strap and other musicians. The group released Y'All Get Scared Now, Ya Hear! in 2001 and Son of Evil Reindeer in 2002. 2000–2002 In addition to work on Snow Patrol and side project material, Lightbody lent his voice to the band Mogwai (one track on Rock Action). In 2001, he contributed to British breakbeat/electronica musician Cut La Roc's song "Fallen". 2005–2006 In 2005, Lightbody was included in another musical collective, The Cake Sale, formed by Brian Crosby to raise funds and awareness for Ireland's Make Trade Fair campaign. He partnered with Lisa Hannigan to perform "Some Surprise", a song written by Bell X1's Paul Noonan. The song reached No. 5 on Irish charts as a radio–single release. He contributed vocals to The Freelance Hellraisers Waiting for Clearance debut album in 2006 and for UK producer Kidda's debut album Going Up. 2007–2008 Lightbody was credited as songwriter for the track "Just Say Yes" for Nicole Scherzinger's debut solo album Her Name Is Nicole but due to the album being shelved the single was re-recorded by Pussycat Dolls and remains unreleased by Scherzinger. In 2009 Gary Lightbody announced in an interview that Snow Patrol would be releasing "Just Say Yes" as the first single from their Up to Now compilation record. In 2007, he lent his voice to British house musician and DJ Cut La Roc's track "Mishka" on his album Larger Than Life which is yet to be released. 2008–2009 In 2009, Lightbody announced that he had begun work on two solo side projects, a country group Tired Pony and an avant-garde group with Snow Patrol producer Jacknife Lee: Listen... Tanks!. August/September 2009: Lightbody joined with bandmates Johnny Quinn and Nathan Connolly to form Polar Music, a publishing music company "run by artists for artists" in co-operation with Universal Music Group and which will be administered by Kobalt Music in London. Polar Music's debut signing is artist Johnny McDaid from Northern Ireland who is writing with German electronica/trance DJ Paul van Dyk for an album due in 2010. 2010 In January, Lightbody recorded in Portland, Oregon the debut album of his side project Tired Pony, with title The Place We Ran From. The album's release was announced for 12 July 2010. This new supergroup he founded includes Jacknife Lee as producer and musicians like R.E.M.'s guitarist/co-founder Peter Buck, Editors singer Tom Smith, singer and songwriter Iain Archer, Belle & Sebastian's drummer Richard Colburn, The Young Fresh Fellows and The Minus 5 singer Scott McCaughey, She & Him singer Zooey Deschanel, Snow Patrol's touring member guitarist Troy Stewart and guitarist M. Ward. Lightbody and producer Jacknife Lee contributed to the original score for the Irish film My Brothers, which appeared in the 2010 Tribeca Film Festival. Lightbody lent his songwriting and vocal talents to "Mishka", a collaboration with Cut La Roc, released on La Roc's 2010 album, Larger Than Life. Collaboration with former Kinks singer Ray Davies on Davies' album See My Friends as song "Tired of Waiting for You". 2012 Featured on the track "The Last Time" on Taylor Swift's 2012 album Red. Performs with Ed Sheeran at the iTunes Festival singing a duet of "Chasing Cars". 2013 Along with Johnny McDaid, performs at the Derry City of Culture Sons and Daughters concert, plays a three-song acoustic set singing "Run", "Just Say Yes" (the festival's anthem) and "Chasing Cars". Appears in a cameo in the Game of Thrones episode "Walk of Punishment" Appeared on The X Factor UK Season 10 in a duet with Taylor Swift. They sang "The Last Time" to promote it as a UK single on 3 November 2013. 2015 Together with Johnny McDaid from Snow Patrol he composed several songs and the music for the film A Patch of Fog 2017 Together with Johnny McDaid from Snow Patrol he composed the music played during the credit of the film Gifted. 2021 Featured on the track "The Last Time (Taylor's Version)" on Taylor Swift's 2021 second re-recorded album Red (Taylor's Version). Musicianship Influences Growing up, Lightbody listened to artists like Super Furry Animals, Quincy Jones, Kool & the Gang, and Michael Jackson. He subsequently got into hard rock bands AC/DC and KISS as a teen, and then alternative acts like Sebadoh, Mudhoney, Pixies and Pavement. As a boy, he dreamed of becoming "the biggest rock star on the planet" like Bono, but he was never "cool". Songwriting Lightbody started writing songs at the age of 15, in a little room under the kitchen of the family's house. He had few guitar lessons where he learnt the basics of the instrument but did not continue them, as he felt that one should not know any instrument "inside-out". He preferred to invent rather than use a formula. Today, he is not too fond of his earliest songs and thinks they "sucked". His songwriting style is mostly simple and basic, and he acknowledges that, saying he "[never] advanced past rudimentary". He feels the best way to write an honest song is to be simple, and that trying to complicate matters distorts the intended message. He believes the band has always tried to keep things as "simple and pure" as possible and has written from the heart. One of Lightbody's major inspirations to begin writing was notable Irish poet Seamus Heaney; which is alluded to on the B-side track on Snow Patrol's "The Planets Bend Between Us" single, named 'Reading Heaney To Me'. It also refers extensively to Heaney's poems throughout the lyrics. Lightbody's lyrics typically deal with the topic of love. Although he considers himself a political person and has tried writing songs with such themes, he eventually abandoned his efforts as he found all of them awkward. Lightbody has said that all of the songs from the first two albums; Songs for Polarbears and When It's All Over We Still Have to Clear Up were written from personal experience. His lyrics often criticise himself or are self-deprecatory. He has cited "Chocolate" as an example, which he wrote after cheating on his girlfriend. He also considers writing a sort of "therapy" for himself. Lightbody's songwriting has earned him much praise. In October 2009, he revealed that a certain "public figure", whom he wanted to remain nameless, told him that the band had written songs that were standards in today's world, and that Snow Patrol songs had become a part of the public consciousness. He compared their work to that of artists like Frank Sinatra and The Beatles. Lightbody realises this and cites performances of their songs on reality TV shows as an example. Views on music industry Lightbody has held the view that Snow Patrol may have had an easier time succeeding in the music industry than a band forming at the present time and attempting to become successful, given the changed state of the music industry, specifically how music is obtained by consumers. He questions the public's motive to buy the songs which they have already listened to, and blames Myspace for it. Of Snow Patrol, Lightbody has said that all albums they managed to sell in the early days were from touring, as there were no unauthorized copies of their music available then. He believes if the current state of the industry continues, it would become impossible for bands starting out to become full-time. Despite this, he observes that the band might not have survived if they had been successful early in their career, as they would have subsequently taken that success for granted. Personal life Lightbody is a supporter of Manchester United and has been known to support both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland national football teams. This is supported by the song "Lifening", in which he sings the lyrics "Ireland in the World Cup, either North or South". He is a fan of the X-Men, particularly Wolverine, and owns a stack of comics. He bought several comics as a child and has some that he has never opened, hoping they would become rare collectibles someday; in a later interview, he light-heartedly mentioned that they could earn him a small pension. He considers himself a "comics freak". Despite having written several romantic songs, Lightbody has been reported as having had trouble talking to women. Lightbody has been in many doomed relationships, and he blames their failure on only himself, considering himself "rubbish with women". He attributes the failure partly to him "never being in the same place for very long", and admits that at times he has been hopelessly in love. Lightbody quit drinking alcohol in 2016 before recording the album Wildness. Philanthropy Lightbody has been involved in numerous causes, mostly related to music and football. He is on the board of directors of the Oh Yeah Music Centre in Northern Ireland, a project set up to give young artists a place where they can share ideas and kick-start their music careers, as often is the trend of talent leaving the country from lack of appraisal. He supported young bands from Northern Ireland and involved them as support bands to shows of Snow Patrol's UK & Ireland Arena Tour of February–March 2009. Lightbody is one of the supporting voices for the growing music-scene in Belfast in Northern Ireland and once stated in an interview to have grown up as an "Indie rock kid" inspired to become a musician through influences of artists and acts such as Kurt Cobain, Super Furry Animals, and Sebadoh. In July 2019, Lightbody set up the Lightbody Foundation to support charities across Northern Ireland and the rest of the world. In May 2020, he donated £50,000 to support musicians in Northern Ireland struggling in the aftermath of the coronavirus. Two months later, the foundation donated around $90,000 to nine different charities in America. Lightbody has worked with the aid organisation Save the Children in Uganda, an experience on which he has written in New Statesman. He has also been involved in raising awareness of depression, a condition that he himself has struggled with. Discography Singles As featured artist Recognition Honours In July 2012, Lightbody received an Honorary Doctorate in Letters from the University of Ulster at a ceremony in the Millennium Forum, Derry. See also Snow Patrol Awards. Lightbody was honoured in November 2018 at the Northern Ireland Music Prize with an award for outstanding contribution to music. Lightbody was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2020 New Year Honours for services to music and to charity in Northern Ireland. Lightbody was awarded the Freedom of the Borough of Ards and North Down on 30 August 2022. Awards and accolades Musical equipment Guitars Lightbody's main guitar is a Fender '72 Telecaster Deluxe reissue in black. His guitars are known for the 'CELT' sticker on them. Gretsch 6120 New Nashville – orange (seen during a 2008 performance on Later... with Jools Holland) Gretsch G6122-II Chet Atkins Country Gentleman (seen during the Snow Patrol European May – July 2010 tour) Gibson SG – black with white pickguard Fender Telecaster '72 Thinline Reissue – blonde Fender Telecaster (c)'77 Deluxe – blonde Fender Telecaster Standard – USA model in yellow Fender Telecaster Standard – black (seen in music video for "Spitting Games") Gibson Les Paul Deluxe – black (also bears the CELT sticker) Guild Acoustic Lowden Acoustic Amplifiers Diamond Decada Amp Head with Decada 4x12 Cab (uses two of the same) Mesa Boogie Dual Rectifier Solo Heads with Rectifier 4x12 Cabs Marshall JCM800 2203 with JCM 1960A 4x12 Cab Marshall 3315 Transistor Amp (originally used by Nathan Connolly) with 1960TV 4x12 Cab Vox AC30 Custom Classic Effects BOSS TU-2 Tuner BOSS TR-2 Tremolo BOSS CS-3 Compression Sustainer Two BOSS SD-1 Super Overdrives BOSS GE-7 Equalizer BOSS RE-20 Space Echo Boss DD6/7 Miscellaneous Picks: Dunlop Tortex Standard Orange .60mm Strings: Gauge .010 Pickup preference: Neck Position. Amplifier EQ set quite bright for jangly tone Vocal mic: Shure Beta 58 References External links Alumni of the University of Dundee Bloggers from Northern Ireland DJs from Northern Ireland Essayists from Northern Ireland Rock guitarists from Northern Ireland Ivor Novello Award winners Living people Male singers from Northern Ireland People educated at Campbell College People educated at Rockport School People from Bangor, County Down Pop singers from Northern Ireland Male songwriters from Northern Ireland Snow Patrol members Tired Pony members Ulster Scots people Male writers from Northern Ireland Alumni of Ulster University British male bloggers Officers of the Order of the British Empire 1976 births Musicians from County Down 20th-century songwriters from Northern Ireland 21st-century songwriters from Northern Ireland Male guitarists from Northern Ireland 20th-century guitarists from Northern Ireland 21st-century guitarists from Northern Ireland 20th-century male musicians from Northern Ireland 21st-century male musicians from Northern Ireland

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%99%B8%EB%8C%80%EC%88%98

외대수

추상대수학과 미분기하학에서 외대수(外代數, ) 또는 그라스만 대수(Graßmann代數, )는 어떤 주어진 벡터 공간에 대하여, 그 벡터들의 완전 반대칭 조합들로 구성된 벡터 공간 및 그 위에 정의된 이항 연산으로 구성되는 단위 결합 대수이자 호프 대수이다. 기하학적으로, 이는 부호수를 갖는 넓이 또는 부피를 나타낸다. 정의 가환환 위의 가군 가 주어졌다고 하자. 그렇다면, 그 텐서 대수 를 정의할 수 있다. 이 위에는 겹선형 이항 연산 이 정의되어 있으며, 이에 따라 는 이는 위의 자연수 등급을 갖는 등급 단위 결합 대수를 이룬다. 의 다음과 같은 아이디얼을 생각하자. 그렇다면, 이 아이디얼에 대하여 몫대수를 취할 수 있으며, 이를 외대수 라고 한다. 아이디얼에 대하여 몫을 취했으므로, 이 역시 위의 단위 결합 대수이다. 외대수에서의 이항 연산은 통상적으로 로 쓰며, 쐐기곱() 또는 외적(外積, )이라고 한다. 외대수의 차 원소 는 -블레이드() 또는 -벡터() 또는 -다중벡터() 따위로 불린다. 성질 체 위의 벡터 공간 위의 외대수 는 위의 단위 결합 대수이며, 자연수 등급을 갖는 등급 대수이다. 또한, 이항 연산은 등급 가환 법칙을 따른다. 즉, 임의의 에 대하여, 이다. 보다 일반적으로, 임의의 및 순열 에 대하여, 이다. (이는 의 표수가 2가 아니라면 쐐기곱의 등급 가환성과 동치이지만, 표수가 2일 경우에는 자명하지 않다.) 만약 가 유한 차원 벡터 공간이며 라면, 이다. 즉, 의 (자명하지 않은) 등급은 가 된다. 같은 체 위의 임의의 두 벡터 공간 , 에 대하여, 다음과 같은 표준적인 동형이 존재한다. 함자성 외대수는 벡터 공간의 범주 에서, 위의 단위 결합 대수의 범주 로 가는 함자를 정의한다. 구체적으로, 선형 변환 에 대응하는 외대수 준동형은 다음과 같다. 또한, 외대수 함자는 왼쪽 완전 함자이다. 즉, 벡터 공간의 아벨 범주에서의 짧은 완전열 이 주어졌을 때, 는 완전열이다. 또한, 역시 완전열이다. 호프 대수 구조 외대수는 단위 결합 대수의 구조뿐만 아니라, 호프 대수의 구조를 갖는다. 이 경우, 쌍대곱()은 다음과 같다. 여기서 은 -셔플 순열의 집합이다. 쌍대단위원()은 이다. 앤티포드()는 이다. (모든 연산들은 혼합 등급을 갖는 원소에 대하여 선형으로 정의된다.) 내적과 호지 쌍대 가 실수체 위의 유한 차원 내적 공간이라고 하자. 그렇다면 위에도 자연스러운 내적이 존재하며, 다음과 같다. 임의의 에 대하여, 이다. 에 추가로 방향이 주어졌다고 하자. 즉, 정규 직교 기저의 순서 가 주어졌다고 하자. 그렇다면, 위에는 다음과 같은 호지 쌍대를 정의할 수 있다. 기하학적 해석 가 실수체 위의 벡터 공간이라고 하자. 그렇다면 의 원소는 부호를 갖는 차원 초부피로 해석할 수 있다. 구체적으로, 일차 독립 벡터들의 열 이 주어졌을 때 는 을 변으로 하는 평행체()를 나타낸다. 가 내적을 가졌을 때, 내적으로 주어지는 노름 은 이 평행체의 초부피와 같다. 예를 들어, 일 경우 는 속의 방향을 가리키며, 그 내적은 벡터의 길이와 같다. 일 경우 는 와 를 변으로 하는 평행사변형을 나타내며, 노름을 취하면 평행사변형의 넓이를 얻는다. 3차원 벡터와의 관계 3차원 유클리드 공간 에서의 외대수를 생각하자. 이 경우, 이므로, 호지 쌍대에 따라 외대수의 1차 및 2차 원소를 둘 다 3차원 벡터로 여길 수 있다. 이 경우, 외대수의 쐐기곱을 벡터의 벡터곱으로 다음과 같이 나타낼 수 있다. 즉, 3차원 벡터의 벡터곱은 쐐기곱의 특수한 경우이다. 그러나 3차원이 아닌 다른 차원에서는 이므로, 두 벡터의 곱을 벡터로 여길 수 없다. 마찬가지로, 3차원 벡터의 삼중곱은 다음과 같이 쐐기곱으로 나타낼 수 있다. 역사 헤르만 그라스만이 1844년에 《선형 확장 이론: 수학의 새 분야》()에서 도입하였다. 그라스만은 자신의 이론을 "확장 이론"()이라고 불렀다. 이후 그라스만의 이론은 오랫동안 잊혀져 있다가, 1888년에 주세페 페아노가 그의 이론을 재발견하였고 재조명하였다. 이후, 앙리 푸앵카레 · 엘리 카르탕 · 가스통 다르부 등에 의해, 미분 형식의 형태로 현대 미분기하학의 핵심적인 위치를 차지하게 되었다. 응용 미분기하학에서는 접다발의 각 올인 접공간에 각각 외대수를 취하여 얻는 벡터 다발의 단면을 미분 형식이라고 한다. 미분 형식은 현대 미분기하학에서 핵심적인 위치를 차지한다. 물리학에서, 외대수는 페르미온 값을 갖는 장들을 나타내기 위하여 쓰인다. 이들은 반가환수의 값을 갖는데, 반가환수는 외대수의 원소로 정의할 수 있다. 또한, 초대칭 이론의 경우 초장들은 초다양체 위에 정의되는데, 이는 국소적으로 외대수를 갖춘 유클리드 공간 매끄러운 함수환과 동형인 층을 갖춘 위상 공간이다. 참고 문헌 외부 링크 같이 보기 클리퍼드 대수 리 대수 미분 형식 호지 쌍대 코쥘 복합체 다중선형대수학 미분 형식 대수

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exterior%20algebra

Exterior algebra

In mathematics, the exterior algebra of a vector space is a graded associative algebra Elements in ∧nV are called -multivectors, and are given by a sum of -blades ("products" of elements of ); it is an abstraction of oriented lengths, areas, volumes and more generally oriented n-volumes for n ≥ 0. The algebra product ∧ on ∧V is called the exterior product or wedge product; informally, it acts by taking the product of oriented volumes. Every element in ∧V is a sum of v1∧ ... ∧ vk where , and Such an element is called a k-blade, which in the above figure corresponds to the parallelotope spanned by them. This product satisfies the alternating property v∧v = 0 for all v ∈ V. This implies it is antisymmetric: u∧v = - v∧u. and more generally any blade flips sign whenever two of its constituent vectors are exchanged, corresponding to a parallelotope of opposite orientation. The exterior algebra is also called the Grassmann algebra, after Hermann Grassmann. Formal definitions There are several equivalent ways to define the exterior algebra of a vector space . Definition as a quotient of the tensor algebra Let V be a vector space over a field. Recall the tensor algebra TV. As a vector space it is spanned by symbols v1⊗ ... ⊗vk for k ≥ 0 and vi ∈ V, and the only relations are those specifying these objects be linear in each variable vi. ∧V inherits the structure of a graded algebra from TV. An element of ∧V may be written (non-uniquely) as a finite sum v1∧ ... ∧ vk1+ w1∧ ... ∧ wk2 + ... + z1∧ ... ∧ zkn where each letter is an element of V, and ki, n ≥ 0. It is called a k-vector if all ki = k, in which case its rank is the minimum n for which it can be written in the above form. Rank one k-vectors v1∧ ... ∧ vk are also called k-blades. Definition in terms of explicit basis Let e1, ..., en be a basis of V. Motivating examples The first two examples assume a metric tensor field and an orientation; the third example does not assume either. Areas in the plane The Cartesian plane is a real vector space equipped with a basis consisting of a pair of unit vectors with the orientation and with the metric Suppose that are a pair of given vectors in written in components. There is a unique parallelogram having v and w as two of its sides. The area of this parallelogram is given by the standard determinant formula: Consider now the exterior product of v and w: where the first step uses the distributive law for the exterior product, and the last uses the fact that the exterior product is an alternating map, and in particular (The fact that the exterior product is an alternating map also forces ) Note that the coefficient in this last expression is precisely the determinant of the matrix . The fact that this may be positive or negative has the intuitive meaning that v and w may be oriented in a counterclockwise or clockwise sense as the vertices of the parallelogram they define. Such an area is called the signed area of the parallelogram: the absolute value of the signed area is the ordinary area, and the sign determines its orientation. The fact that this coefficient is the signed area is not an accident. In fact, it is relatively easy to see that the exterior product should be related to the signed area if one tries to axiomatize this area as an algebraic construct. In detail, if denotes the signed area of the parallelogram of which the pair of vectors v and w form two adjacent sides, then A must satisfy the following properties: for any real numbers r and s, since rescaling either of the sides rescales the area by the same amount (and reversing the direction of one of the sides reverses the orientation of the parallelogram). , since the area of the degenerate parallelogram determined by v (i.e., a line segment) is zero. , since interchanging the roles of v and w reverses the orientation of the parallelogram. for any real number r, since adding a multiple of w to v affects neither the base nor the height of the parallelogram and consequently preserves its area. , since the area of the unit square is one. With the exception of the last property, the exterior product of two vectors satisfies the same properties as the area. In a certain sense, the exterior product generalizes the final property by allowing the area of a parallelogram to be compared to that of any chosen parallelogram in a parallel plane (here, the one with sides e1 and e2). In other words, the exterior product provides a basis-independent formulation of area. Oriented areas in space The power of linearity of the cross product, implicitly, of the exterior product, is seen in a simple geometric property, not that obvious: the total signed/oriented area of a non self overlapping polyhedron is zero. This is just the simplest linear algebra, if using exterior product, but quite a lot of work, using metric geometry: Each blade in the sum above is (twice) the oriented (either all inward, or all outward) surface area of the four faces of a tetrahedron with concurrent edges along vectors . Iterating this property for each and all tetrahedrons that build a non self overlapping polyhedron, we get the general statement. Oriented volume in affine space The natural setting for (oriented) -dimensional volume and exterior algebra is affine space. This is also the intimate connection between exterior algebra and differential forms, as to integrate we need a 'differential' object to measure infinitesimal volume. If is an affine space over the vector space , and a (simplex) collection of ordered points , we can define its oriented -dimensional volume as the exterior product of vectors (using concatenation to mean the displacement vector from point to if the order of the points is changed, the oriented volume changes by a sign, according to the parity of the permutation. In -dimensional space, the volume of any -dimensional simplex is a scalar multiple of any other. The sum of the -dimensional oriented areas of the boundary simplexes of a -dimensional simplex is zero, as for the sum of vectors around a triangle or the oriented triangles bounding the tetrahedron in the previous section. This remains true if the simplex is "flat" (is contained in an -dimensional affine subspace, as 4 points in a plane). The vector space structure on ∧V generalises addition of vectors in V: we have (u1+u2)∧v = u1∧v + u2∧v and similarly a k-blade v1∧ ... ∧ vk is linear in each factor. Cross and triple products Take a 3-dimensional vector space, e.g. R3, and choose a basis . The exterior product of a pair of vectors is If we use the basis to identify ∧2R3 ≅ R3, this becomes the usual formula for cross product of the two vectors. Bringing in a third vector the exterior product of three vectors is Using the basis to identify ∧2R3 ≅ R, this becomes the usual formula for triple product of the three vectors. Electromagnetic field In Einstein's theories of relativity, the electromagnetic field is generally given as a differential 2-form in 4-space or as the equivalent alternating tensor field the electromagnetic tensor. Then or the equivalent Bianchi identity None of this requires a metric. Adding the Lorentz metric and an orientation provides the Hodge star operator and thus makes it possible to define or the equivalent tensor divergence where Plücker embedding The wedge product was introduced originally as an algebraic construction to study k-dimensional subspaces of Rn, which forms a manifold Gr(k,n) called the Grassmannian. It lives inside the projectivisation of the space of multivectors This map is called the Plücker embedding, and its image is defined by the Plücker relations. Differential forms The definition of the exterior algebra can be extended to any module over a commutative ring, or more generally a sheaf of modules over a ringed space. For instance, differential forms over a manifold X is the exterior algebra on the sheaf of one-forms ΩX, which is a sheaf of modules over the sheaf of functions OX. Algebraic properties Alternating product The exterior product is by construction alternating on elements of which means that for all by the above construction. It follows that the product is also anticommutative on elements of for supposing that hence More generally, if σ is a permutation of the integers , and x1, x2, ..., xk are elements of V, it follows that where sgn(σ) is the signature of the permutation σ. In particular, if xi = xj for some , then the following generalization of the alternating property also holds: Together with the distributive property of the exterior product, one further generalization is that if and only if is a linearly dependent set of vectors, then Exterior power The kth exterior power of V, denoted is the vector subspace of spanned by elements of the form If then α is said to be a k-vector. If, furthermore, α can be expressed as an exterior product of k elements of V, then α is said to be decomposable (or simple, by some authors; or a blade, by others). Although decomposable k-vectors span not every element of is decomposable. For example, in the following 2-vector is not decomposable: (This is a symplectic form, since .). Note that being decomposable is crucial property in projective geometry and it is the outcome of the Plücker constraints (also see Plücker coordinates ). Basis and dimension If the dimension of is and is a basis for , then the set is a basis for The reason is the following: given any exterior product of the form every vector can be written as a linear combination of the basis vectors ; using the bilinearity of the exterior product, this can be expanded to a linear combination of exterior products of those basis vectors. Any exterior product in which the same basis vector appears more than once is zero; any exterior product in which the basis vectors do not appear in the proper order can be reordered, changing the sign whenever two basis vectors change places. In general, the resulting coefficients of the basis -vectors can be computed as the minors of the matrix that describes the vectors in terms of the basis . By counting the basis elements, the dimension of is equal to a binomial coefficient: where is the dimension of the vectors, and is the number of vectors in the product. The binomial coefficient produces the correct result, even for exceptional cases; in particular, for . Any element of the exterior algebra can be written as a sum of -vectors. Hence, as a vector space the exterior algebra is a direct sum (where by convention the field underlying , and ), and therefore its dimension is equal to the sum of the binomial coefficients, which is 2. Rank of a k-vector If then it is possible to express α as a linear combination of decomposable k-vectors: where each α(i) is decomposable, say The rank of the k-vector α is the minimal number of decomposable k-vectors in such an expansion of α. This is similar to the notion of tensor rank. Rank is particularly important in the study of 2-vectors . The rank of a 2-vector α can be identified with half the rank of the matrix of coefficients of α in a basis. Thus if ei is a basis for V, then α can be expressed uniquely as where (the matrix of coefficients is skew-symmetric). The rank of the matrix aij is therefore even, and is twice the rank of the form α. In characteristic 0, the 2-vector α has rank p if and only if and Graded structure The exterior product of a k-vector with a p-vector is a -vector, once again invoking bilinearity. As a consequence, the direct sum decomposition of the preceding section gives the exterior algebra the additional structure of a graded algebra, that is Moreover, if is the base field, we have and The exterior product is graded anticommutative, meaning that if and then In addition to studying the graded structure on the exterior algebra, studies additional graded structures on exterior algebras, such as those on the exterior algebra of a graded module (a module that already carries its own gradation). Universal property Let be a vector space over the field . Informally, multiplication in is performed by manipulating symbols and imposing a distributive law, an associative law, and using the identity for . Formally, is the "most general" algebra in which these rules hold for the multiplication, in the sense that any unital associative -algebra containing with alternating multiplication on must contain a homomorphic image of In other words, the exterior algebra has the following universal property: Given any unital associative -algebra and any -linear map such that for every in , then there exists precisely one unital algebra homomorphism such that for all in (here is the natural inclusion of in see above). To construct the most general algebra that contains and whose multiplication is alternating on , it is natural to start with the most general associative algebra that contains , the tensor algebra , and then enforce the alternating property by taking a suitable quotient. We thus take the two-sided ideal in generated by all elements of the form for in , and define as the quotient (and use as the symbol for multiplication in ). It is then straightforward to show that contains and satisfies the above universal property. As a consequence of this construction, the operation of assigning to a vector space its exterior algebra is a functor from the category of vector spaces to the category of algebras. Rather than defining first and then identifying the exterior powers as certain subspaces, one may alternatively define the spaces first and then combine them to form the algebra This approach is often used in differential geometry and is described in the next section. Generalizations Given a commutative ring R and an R-module M, we can define the exterior algebra just as above, as a suitable quotient of the tensor algebra T(M). It will satisfy the analogous universal property. Many of the properties of also require that M be a projective module. Where finite dimensionality is used, the properties further require that M be finitely generated and projective. Generalizations to the most common situations can be found in . Exterior algebras of vector bundles are frequently considered in geometry and topology. There are no essential differences between the algebraic properties of the exterior algebra of finite-dimensional vector bundles and those of the exterior algebra of finitely generated projective modules, by the Serre–Swan theorem. More general exterior algebras can be defined for sheaves of modules. Alternating tensor algebra Regardless the characteristic of the field (except characteristic 2), the exterior algebra of a vector space V over K can be canonically identified with the vector subspace of T(V) consisting of antisymmetric tensors. For characteristic 0 (or higher than the dimension of the vector space ), the vector space of -linear antisymmetric tensors is transversal to the ideal , hence, a good choice to represent the quotient. But for nonzero characteristic, the vector space of k-linear antisymmetric tensors could be not transversal to the ideal (actually, for the characteristic of the field, the vector space of k-linear antisymmetric tensors is contained in ); nevertheless, transversal or not, a product can be defined on this space such that the resulting algebra is isomorphic to the exterior algebra: in the first case the natural choice for the product is just the quotient product (using the available projection), in the second case, this product must be slightly modified as given below (along Arnold setting), but such that the algebra stays isomorphic with the exterior algebra , i.e. the quotient of T(V) by the ideal I generated by elements of the form . Of course, for characteristic 0 (or higher than the dimension of the vector space), one or the other definition of the product could be used, as the two algebras are isomorphic (see V. I. Arnold or Kobayashi-Nomizu). Let Tr(V) be the space of homogeneous tensors of degree r. This is spanned by decomposable tensors The antisymmetrization (or sometimes the skew-symmetrization) of a decomposable tensor is defined by and, when (for nonzero characteristic field might be 0): where the sum is taken over the symmetric group of permutations on the symbols This extends by linearity and homogeneity to an operation, also denoted by and , on the full tensor algebra T(V). Note that: Such that, when defined, is the projection for the exterior (quotient) algebra onto the r-homogeneous alternating tensor subspace. On the other hand, the image (T(V)) is always the alternating tensor graded subspace (not yet an algebra, as product is not yet defined), denoted . This is a vector subspace of T(V), and it inherits the structure of a graded vector space from that on T(V). Moreover, the kernel of is precisely I, the homogeneous subset of the ideal I, or the kernel of is I. When is defined, carries an associative graded product defined by (the same as the wedge product) Assuming K has characteristic 0, as is a supplement of I in T(V), with the above given product, there is a canonical isomorphism When the characteristic of the field is nonzero, will do what did before, but the product cannot be defined as above. In such a case, isomorphism still holds, in spite of not being a supplement of the ideal I, but then, the product should be modified as given below ( product , Arnold setting). Finally, we always get isomorphic with , but the product could (or should) be chosen in two ways (or only one). Actually, the product could be chosen in many ways, rescaling it on homogeneous spaces as for an arbitrary sequence in the field, as long as the division makes sense (this is such that the redefined product is also associative, i.e. defines an algebra on ). Also note, the interior product definition should be changed accordingly, in order to keep its skew derivation property. Index notation Suppose that V has finite dimension n, and that a basis of V is given. Then any alternating tensor can be written in index notation as where ti1⋅⋅⋅ir is completely antisymmetric in its indices. The exterior product of two alternating tensors t and s of ranks r and p is given by The components of this tensor are precisely the skew part of the components of the tensor product , denoted by square brackets on the indices: The interior product may also be described in index notation as follows. Let be an antisymmetric tensor of rank r. Then, for , iαt is an alternating tensor of rank , given by where n is the dimension of V. Duality Alternating operators Given two vector spaces V and X and a natural number k, an alternating operator from Vk to X is a multilinear map such that whenever v1, ..., vk are linearly dependent vectors in V, then The map which associates to vectors from their exterior product, i.e. their corresponding -vector, is also alternating. In fact, this map is the "most general" alternating operator defined on given any other alternating operator there exists a unique linear map with This universal property characterizes the space and can serve as its definition. Alternating multilinear forms The above discussion specializes to the case when , the base field. In this case an alternating multilinear function is called an alternating multilinear form. The set of all alternating multilinear forms is a vector space, as the sum of two such maps, or the product of such a map with a scalar, is again alternating. By the universal property of the exterior power, the space of alternating forms of degree k on V is naturally isomorphic with the dual vector space If V is finite-dimensional, then the latter is to In particular, if V is n-dimensional, the dimension of the space of alternating maps from Vk to K is the binomial coefficient Under such identification, the exterior product takes a concrete form: it produces a new anti-symmetric map from two given ones. Suppose and are two anti-symmetric maps. As in the case of tensor products of multilinear maps, the number of variables of their exterior product is the sum of the numbers of their variables. Depending on the choice of identification of elements of exterior power with multilinear forms, the exterior product is defined as or as where, if the characteristic of the base field K is 0, the alternation Alt of a multilinear map is defined to be the average of the sign-adjusted values over all the permutations of its variables: When the field K has finite characteristic, an equivalent version of the second expression without any factorials or any constants is well-defined: where here is the subset of (k,m) shuffles: permutations σ of the set such that , and . As this might look very specific and fine tuned, an equivalent raw version is to sum in the above formula over permutations in left cosets of . Interior product Suppose that V is finite-dimensional. If V∗ denotes the dual space to the vector space V, then for each , it is possible to define an antiderivation on the algebra This derivation is called the interior product with α, or sometimes the insertion operator, or contraction by α. Suppose that Then w is a multilinear mapping of V∗ to K, so it is defined by its values on the k-fold Cartesian product . If u1, u2, ..., uk−1 are elements of V∗, then define Additionally, let whenever f is a pure scalar (i.e., belonging to ). Axiomatic characterization and properties The interior product satisfies the following properties: For each k and each , (By convention, ) If v is an element of V (), then is the dual pairing between elements of V and elements of V∗. For each , iα is a graded derivation of degree −1: These three properties are sufficient to characterize the interior product as well as define it in the general infinite-dimensional case. Further properties of the interior product include: Hodge duality Suppose that V has finite dimension n. Then the interior product induces a canonical isomorphism of vector spaces by the recursive definition In the geometrical setting, a non-zero element of the top exterior power (which is a one-dimensional vector space) is sometimes called a volume form (or orientation form, although this term may sometimes lead to ambiguity). The name orientation form comes from the fact that a choice of preferred top element determines an orientation of the whole exterior algebra, since it is tantamount to fixing an ordered basis of the vector space. Relative to the preferred volume form σ, the isomorphism is given explicitly by If, in addition to a volume form, the vector space V is equipped with an inner product identifying V with V∗, then the resulting isomorphism is called the Hodge star operator, which maps an element to its Hodge dual: The composition of with itself maps and is always a scalar multiple of the identity map. In most applications, the volume form is compatible with the inner product in the sense that it is an exterior product of an orthonormal basis of V. In this case, where id is the identity mapping, and the inner product has metric signature — p pluses and q minuses. Inner product For V a finite-dimensional space, an inner product (or a pseudo-Euclidean inner product) on V defines an isomorphism of V with V∗, and so also an isomorphism of with The pairing between these two spaces also takes the form of an inner product. On decomposable k-vectors, the determinant of the matrix of inner products. In the special case , the inner product is the square norm of the k-vector, given by the determinant of the Gramian matrix . This is then extended bilinearly (or sesquilinearly in the complex case) to a non-degenerate inner product on If ei, , form an orthonormal basis of V, then the vectors of the form constitute an orthonormal basis for , a statement equivalent to the Cauchy–Binet formula. With respect to the inner product, exterior multiplication and the interior product are mutually adjoint. Specifically, for and where is the musical isomorphism, the linear functional defined by for all . This property completely characterizes the inner product on the exterior algebra. Indeed, more generally for and iteration of the above adjoint properties gives where now is the dual l-vector defined by for all Bialgebra structure There is a correspondence between the graded dual of the graded algebra and alternating multilinear forms on V. The exterior algebra (as well as the symmetric algebra) inherits a bialgebra structure, and, indeed, a Hopf algebra structure, from the tensor algebra. See the article on tensor algebras for a detailed treatment of the topic. The exterior product of multilinear forms defined above is dual to a coproduct defined on giving the structure of a coalgebra. The coproduct is a linear function which is given by on elements v∈V. The symbol 1 stands for the unit element of the field K. Recall that so that the above really does lie in This definition of the coproduct is lifted to the full space by (linear) homomorphism. The correct form of this homomorphism is not what one might naively write, but has to be the one carefully defined in the coalgebra article. In this case, one obtains Expanding this out in detail, one obtains the following expression on decomposable elements: where the second summation is taken over all -shuffles. The above is written with a notational trick, to keep track of the field element 1: the trick is to write and this is shuffled into various locations during the expansion of the sum over shuffles. The shuffle follows directly from the first axiom of a co-algebra: the relative order of the elements is preserved in the riffle shuffle: the riffle shuffle merely splits the ordered sequence into two ordered sequences, one on the left, and one on the right. Observe that the coproduct preserves the grading of the algebra. Extending to the full space one has The tensor symbol ⊗ used in this section should be understood with some caution: it is not the same tensor symbol as the one being used in the definition of the alternating product. Intuitively, it is perhaps easiest to think it as just another, but different, tensor product: it is still (bi-)linear, as tensor products should be, but it is the product that is appropriate for the definition of a bialgebra, that is, for creating the object Any lingering doubt can be shaken by pondering the equalities and , which follow from the definition of the coalgebra, as opposed to naive manipulations involving the tensor and wedge symbols. This distinction is developed in greater detail in the article on tensor algebras. Here, there is much less of a problem, in that the alternating product ∧ clearly corresponds to multiplication in the bialgebra, leaving the symbol ⊗ free for use in the definition of the bialgebra. In practice, this presents no particular problem, as long as one avoids the fatal trap of replacing alternating sums of ⊗ by the wedge symbol, with one exception. One can construct an alternating product from ⊗, with the understanding that it works in a different space. Immediately below, an example is given: the alternating product for the dual space can be given in terms of the coproduct. The construction of the bialgebra here parallels the construction in the tensor algebra article almost exactly, except for the need to correctly track the alternating signs for the exterior algebra. In terms of the coproduct, the exterior product on the dual space is just the graded dual of the coproduct: where the tensor product on the right-hand side is of multilinear linear maps (extended by zero on elements of incompatible homogeneous degree: more precisely, , where ε is the counit, as defined presently). The counit is the homomorphism that returns the 0-graded component of its argument. The coproduct and counit, along with the exterior product, define the structure of a bialgebra on the exterior algebra. With an antipode defined on homogeneous elements by the exterior algebra is furthermore a Hopf algebra. Functoriality Suppose that V and W are a pair of vector spaces and is a linear map. Then, by the universal property, there exists a unique homomorphism of graded algebras such that In particular, preserves homogeneous degree. The k-graded components of are given on decomposable elements by Let The components of the transformation relative to a basis of V and W is the matrix of minors of f. In particular, if and V is of finite dimension n, then is a mapping of a one-dimensional vector space to itself, and is therefore given by a scalar: the determinant of f. Exactness If is a short exact sequence of vector spaces, then is an exact sequence of graded vector spaces, as is Direct sums In particular, the exterior algebra of a direct sum is isomorphic to the tensor product of the exterior algebras: This is a graded isomorphism; i.e., In greater generality, for a short exact sequence of vector spaces there is a natural filtration where for is spanned by elements of the form for and The corresponding quotients admit a natural isomorphism given by In particular, if U is 1-dimensional then is exact, and if W is 1-dimensional then is exact. Applications Linear algebra In applications to linear algebra, the exterior product provides an abstract algebraic manner for describing the determinant and the minors of a matrix. For instance, it is well known that the determinant of a square matrix is equal to the volume of the parallelotope whose sides are the columns of the matrix (with a sign to track orientation). This suggests that the determinant can be defined in terms of the exterior product of the column vectors. Likewise, the minors of a matrix can be defined by looking at the exterior products of column vectors chosen k at a time. These ideas can be extended not just to matrices but to linear transformations as well: the determinant of a linear transformation is the factor by which it scales the oriented volume of any given reference parallelotope. So the determinant of a linear transformation can be defined in terms of what the transformation does to the top exterior power. The action of a transformation on the lesser exterior powers gives a basis-independent way to talk about the minors of the transformation. Technical details: Definitions Let be an n-dimensional vector space over field with basis For define on simple tensors by and expand the definition linearly to all tensors. More generally, we can define on simple tensors by i.e. choose k components on which A would act, then sum up all results obtained from different choices. For , this recovers the determinant of . For , this recovers the trace of . If define Since is 1-dimensional with basis we can identify with the unique number satisfying For define the exterior transpose to be the unique operator satisfying for any and For define These are equivalent to the previous definitions. Basic properties All results obtained from other definitions of the determinant, trace and adjoint can be obtained from this definition (since these definitions are equivalent). Here are some basic properties related to these new definitions: is -linear. We have a canonical isomorphism However, there is no canonical isomorphism between and The entries of the transposed matrix of are -minors of For all In particular, and hence In particular, The characteristic polynomial of can be given by Similarly, Leverrier's algorithm are the coefficients of the terms in the characteristic polynomial. They also appear in the expressions of and Leverrier's Algorithm is an economical way of computing and Set For Physics In physics, many quantities are naturally represented by alternating operators. For example, if the motion of a charged particle is described by velocity and acceleration vectors in four-dimensional spacetime, then normalization of the velocity vector requires that the electromagnetic force must be an alternating operator on the velocity. Its six degrees of freedom are identified with the electric and magnetic fields. Linear geometry The decomposable k-vectors have geometric interpretations: the bivector represents the plane spanned by the vectors, "weighted" with a number, given by the area of the oriented parallelogram with sides u and v. Analogously, the 3-vector represents the spanned 3-space weighted by the volume of the oriented parallelepiped with edges u, v, and w. Projective geometry Decomposable k-vectors in correspond to weighted k-dimensional linear subspaces of V. In particular, the Grassmannian of k-dimensional subspaces of V, denoted Grk(V), can be naturally identified with an algebraic subvariety of the projective space This is called the Plücker embedding. Differential geometry The exterior algebra has notable applications in differential geometry, where it is used to define differential forms. Differential forms are mathematical objects that evaluate the length of vectors, areas of parallelograms, and volumes of higher-dimensional bodies, so they can be integrated over curves, surfaces and higher dimensional manifolds in a way that generalizes the line integrals and surface integrals from calculus. A differential form at a point of a differentiable manifold is an alternating multilinear form on the tangent space at the point. Equivalently, a differential form of degree k is a linear functional on the k-th exterior power of the tangent space. As a consequence, the exterior product of multilinear forms defines a natural exterior product for differential forms. Differential forms play a major role in diverse areas of differential geometry. An alternate approach defines differential forms in terms of germs of functions. In particular, the exterior derivative gives the exterior algebra of differential forms on a manifold the structure of a differential graded algebra. The exterior derivative commutes with pullback along smooth mappings between manifolds, and it is therefore a natural differential operator. The exterior algebra of differential forms, equipped with the exterior derivative, is a cochain complex whose cohomology is called the de Rham cohomology of the underlying manifold and plays a vital role in the algebraic topology of differentiable manifolds. Representation theory In representation theory, the exterior algebra is one of the two fundamental Schur functors on the category of vector spaces, the other being the symmetric algebra. Together, these constructions are used to generate the irreducible representations of the general linear group; see fundamental representation. Superspace The exterior algebra over the complex numbers is the archetypal example of a superalgebra, which plays a fundamental role in physical theories pertaining to fermions and supersymmetry. A single element of the exterior algebra is called a supernumber or Grassmann number. The exterior algebra itself is then just a one-dimensional superspace: it is just the set of all of the points in the exterior algebra. The topology on this space is essentially the weak topology, the open sets being the cylinder sets. An -dimensional superspace is just the -fold product of exterior algebras. Lie algebra homology Let L be a Lie algebra over a field K, then it is possible to define the structure of a chain complex on the exterior algebra of L. This is a K-linear mapping defined on decomposable elements by The Jacobi identity holds if and only if , and so this is a necessary and sufficient condition for an anticommutative nonassociative algebra L to be a Lie algebra. Moreover, in that case is a chain complex with boundary operator ∂. The homology associated to this complex is the Lie algebra homology. Homological algebra The exterior algebra is the main ingredient in the construction of the Koszul complex, a fundamental object in homological algebra. History The exterior algebra was first introduced by Hermann Grassmann in 1844 under the blanket term of Ausdehnungslehre, or Theory of Extension. This referred more generally to an algebraic (or axiomatic) theory of extended quantities and was one of the early precursors to the modern notion of a vector space. Saint-Venant also published similar ideas of exterior calculus for which he claimed priority over Grassmann. The algebra itself was built from a set of rules, or axioms, capturing the formal aspects of Cayley and Sylvester's theory of multivectors. It was thus a calculus, much like the propositional calculus, except focused exclusively on the task of formal reasoning in geometrical terms. In particular, this new development allowed for an axiomatic characterization of dimension, a property that had previously only been examined from the coordinate point of view. The import of this new theory of vectors and multivectors was lost to mid 19th century mathematicians, until being thoroughly vetted by Giuseppe Peano in 1888. Peano's work also remained somewhat obscure until the turn of the century, when the subject was unified by members of the French geometry school (notably Henri Poincaré, Élie Cartan, and Gaston Darboux) who applied Grassmann's ideas to the calculus of differential forms. A short while later, Alfred North Whitehead, borrowing from the ideas of Peano and Grassmann, introduced his universal algebra. This then paved the way for the 20th century developments of abstract algebra by placing the axiomatic notion of an algebraic system on a firm logical footing. See also Alternating algebra Exterior calculus identities Clifford algebra, a generalization of exterior algebra using a nonzero quadratic form Geometric algebra Koszul complex Multilinear algebra Symmetric algebra, the symmetric analog Tensor algebra Weyl algebra, a quantum deformation of the symmetric algebra by a symplectic form Notes References Mathematical references Includes a treatment of alternating tensors and alternating forms, as well as a detailed discussion of Hodge duality from the perspective adopted in this article. This is the main mathematical reference for the article. It introduces the exterior algebra of a module over a commutative ring (although this article specializes primarily to the case when the ring is a field), including a discussion of the universal property, functoriality, duality, and the bialgebra structure. See §III.7 and §III.11. This book contains applications of exterior algebras to problems in partial differential equations. Rank and related concepts are developed in the early chapters. Chapter XVI sections 6–10 give a more elementary account of the exterior algebra, including duality, determinants and minors, and alternating forms. Contains a classical treatment of the exterior algebra as alternating tensors, and applications to differential geometry. Historical references (The Linear Extension Theory – A new Branch of Mathematics) alternative reference ; . Other references and further reading An introduction to the exterior algebra, and geometric algebra, with a focus on applications. Also includes a history section and bibliography. Includes applications of the exterior algebra to differential forms, specifically focused on integration and Stokes's theorem. The notation in this text is used to mean the space of alternating k-forms on V; i.e., for Spivak is what this article would call Spivak discusses this in Addendum 4. Includes an elementary treatment of the axiomatization of determinants as signed areas, volumes, and higher-dimensional volumes. This textbook in multivariate calculus introduces the exterior algebra of differential forms adroitly into the calculus sequence for colleges. An introduction to the coordinate-free approach in basic finite-dimensional linear algebra, using exterior products. Chapter 10: The Exterior Product and Exterior Algebras "The Grassmann method in projective geometry" A compilation of English translations of three notes by Cesare Burali-Forti on the application of exterior algebra to projective geometry C. Burali-Forti, "Introduction to Differential Geometry, following the method of H. Grassmann" An English translation of an early book on the geometric applications of exterior algebras "Mechanics, according to the principles of the theory of extension" An English translation of one Grassmann's papers on the applications of exterior algebra Algebras Multilinear algebra Differential forms

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추천 시스템

추천 시스템(推薦system)은 정보 필터링 (IF) 기술의 일종으로, 특정 사용자가 관심을 가질만한 정보 (영화, 음악, 책, 뉴스, 이미지, 웹 페이지 등)를 추천하는 것이다. 추천 시스템에는 협업 필터링 기법을 주로 사용한다. 소셜 북마크 사이트에서 링크를 사람들에게 추천하고 무비렌즈 데이터 세트에서 영화를 추천하는 방법등이 이에 속한다. 개요 추천 시스템은 일반적으로 Collaborative filtering 방식과 content-based filtering (personality-based approach라고도 불림) 방식을 통해 추천 목록을 만든다. Collaborative 와 Content-based의 차이점은 Last.fm 과 Pandora Radio과 같은 유명한 음악 추천시스템에 의해 잘 보여진다. Last.fm은 사용자가 주로 들어온 밴드와 각각의 음원이 무엇인지 관찰하고 다른 사용자와의 행동(behavior)을 비교하면서 추천된 음악의 “상태”를 만든다. 그 (추천 받을)사용자의 음악 목록에는 없지만 비슷한 취향을 가진 다른 사용자가 자주 들었던 음악을 추천해 준다. Pandora는 비슷한 특성이 있는 음악을 재생하는 “상태”를 만들기 위해 아티스트 또는 음악의 특성을 사용한다(약 400개의 특성을 가진 부분집합으로). 사용자의 피드백은 사용자가 특정한 음악에 싫어요를 눌렀을 때 그 특정한 속성을 약화하고 좋아요를 누른 음악을 강조하면서, 그 상태의 결과를 다듬기 위해 사용된다. 각각의 시스템은 모두 강점과 약점이 있다. 위에 예에서는, Last.fm은 정확한 추천을 만들기 위해 한 사용자에 대한 많은 양의 정보를 필요로 한다. Pandora는 시작할 때 매우 적게 정보를 필요로 하는 반면에, 범위(scope)가 더 한정적이다.(예를 들어, 판도라는 오직 원래의 정보에서 비슷한 추천만 만들 수 있다. 추천 시스템은 검색 알고리즘의 유용한 대안이다. 왜냐하면 사용자가 찾지 못한 것들을 다른 방법으로 발견하게 해 주기 때문이다. 아주 흥미롭게도, 추천 시스템은 종종 non-traditional data를 묶으면서(indexing) 검색 엔진을 사용할 때 시행(implement)되기 때문이다. 접근법 Collaborative filtering Collaborate filtering은 사용자 행동, 활동 또는 선호도에 대한 많은 정보를 분석하고 모으고 다른 사용자와의 비슷함에 기초를 두고 사용자들이 무엇을 좋아할 지를 예측하는 것에 기초를 두고 있다. Collaborative Filtering 접근법의 한 중요한 장점은 machine analyzable content에 의존하고 있지 않다는 것이다. 그래서 정확하게 아이템 그 자체를 이해하지 않고도 영화와 같은 복잡한 아이템들을 추천 할 수 있다. 많은 알고리즘은 추천 시스템에서 사용자나 아이템의 비슷함(similarity)을 측정하는 데 사용되고 있다. 예를 들어, KNN과 Pearson correlation이 있다.  KNN 분류할 때, 분류 대상과 가까운 k개를 뽑아 그 중 가장 많은 비율을 차지 한 쪽으로 분류 Pearson correlation 연속형 두 변수간의 선형관계(관련성)를 구하기 위해 사용된다. -1에서 +1사이의 범위값 Collaborate filtering은 과거에 동의한 사람들이 미래에도 동의하고 그들이 그들이 과거에 좋아했던 것들을 좋아할 것이라는 가정에 기초를 두고 있다. 사용자의 행동으로부터 모델을 만들 때, 특징(차이점)은 종종 data collection의 뚜렷하기도하고 암시적이도한 형태 사이에서 만들어진다. Explicit data collection의 예 사용자에게 item을 평가하게 하기, 검색하게 하기, 가장 선호하는 것과 가장 덜 선호하는 것을 순위매기게 하기 등  implicit data collection의 예 사용자가 본 item을 관찰하고 분석하기, 사용자가 구매한 item을 기록하기, 사용자의 SNS를 분석하고 비슷한 likes와 dislikes를 찾아내기 이 추천 시스템은 모아진 데이터를 다른 사람들로부터 모아진 비슷하고 안비슷한 데이터와 비교하고, 사용자의 추천된 items 목록을 계산한다. Linkedin, facebook과 같은 SNS는 collaboprative filtering을 친구 추천 등에 사용한다. Content-based filtering 또 다른 잘 알려진 접근법은 content-based filtering이다. 이는 item에 대한 설명(description)과 사용자 선호에 대한 profile을 기반으로 한다. Content-based 추천 시스템에서, 키워드는 item을 설명(describe)하는데 사용되고 사용자의 프로필은 이 사용자가 좋아하는 류(type)의 item을 가리키게(indicate) 만들어진다. 다른 말로하면, 이런 알고리즘들은 과거에 사용자가 좋아했던 것들(또는 현재 보고 있는 것들)과 비슷한 items을 추천하려고 한다. 구체적으로 말하면, 다양한 후보 items은 사용자에 의해 현재 평가되는 (rated) items과 비교되고 best-matching items은 추천된다. 이 접근법은 information retrieval과 information filtering에 뿌리를 두고 있다. Information retrieval 집합적 정보로부터 원하는 내용이나 관련되는 내용을 가져오는 것  Information filtering 필요 없는 정보를 제거하는 것          Items의 특징을 끌어내기 위해, tf-idf 알고리즘이 많이 사용된다.  Tf-idf: Term frequency-inverse document frequency 여러 문서로 이루어진 문서군이 있을 때 어떤 단어가 특정 문서 내에서 얼마나 중요한 것인지를 나타내는 통계적 수치이다. TF(term-frequency 단어 빈도)가 높을 수록 문서에서 중요하다고 생각될 수도 있지만 단순히 흔하게 등장하는 것일 수도 있음. 이를 DF(document frequency 문서 빈도)라고 하며, 이 값의 역수를 IDF(inverse)라고 한다. TF-IDF는 TF와 IDF를 곲한 값이다. 사용자의 profile을 만들기 위해서, 그 시스템은 대게 두가지 정보에 집중한다: 1.    사용자의 선호의 model 2.   추천시스템과 사용자의 상호작용 정보(history) 기본적으로 이런 방법들은 시스템 안에서 item에 특성을 부여하면서 item profile(이산적 features와 attributes)을 사용한다. 그 시스템은 item특성의 weighted vector을 기반으로 한 사용자의 content-based profile을 만든다. Weights는 사용자에게 각각의 feature의 중요도를 나타내고 개별적으로 점수 매겨진(rated) content vectors로부터 다양한 방법으로 계산될 수 있다. 사용자가 좋아할것 같은 확률(probability)을 계산하기 위해 다른 복잡한 방법들해 베이지안 분류, 클러스터 분석, 결정 트리 그리고 인공 신경망 네트워크와 같은 머신러닝 기술을 사용하는 반면에, 간단한 접근법들은 그 점수 매겨진 item vector의 평균 값을 사용한다. 보통 ‘좋아요’와 ‘싫어요’와 같은 형태로 사용자로부터 직접적인 피드백은 특정한 속성(attribute)의 중요도에 대한더 높거나 낮은 weight를 할당하는데 사용될 수 있다. Content-based filtering의 중요한 문제점은, 한 content source에 관련된 사용자들 행동으로부터 사용자 선호도를 배울 수 있고 다른 content 종류(type)을 넘어서 그것들을 사용할 수 있을지 아닌지이다. 그 시스템이 사용자가 이미 사용한 것과 같은 종류의 content를 추천하는 것에 한정돼 있을 때, 다른 서비스의 다른 종류의 content가 추천될 수 있을 때보다 추천 시스템의 가치는 상당히 낮다. 예를 들어, news browsing에 기반한 추천 뉴스 기사는 유용하지만, news browsing에 기반해 추천될 수 있는 다른 서비스의 음악, 비디오, 제품 토론에서 더 유용하다. Pandora Radio는 첫 seed와 같이 사용자에 의해 제공된 노래와 비슷한 특징의 음악을 재생해 주는 content-based 추천 시스템의 한 예이다. Hybrid recommender systems    최근 연구는 collaborate 과 content-based filtering을 섞은 hybrid 접근 법이 몇몇의 상황에서 더 효과적일 수 있다고 설명한다. Hybrid 접근법은 여러 가지 방법으로 사용(implement)될 수 있다: 한 접근 법을 다른 접근법에 더하거나, 하나의 model로 만들거나. 몇몇의 연구들은 두가지 접근법을 hybrid와 경험에 기인해서 비교하고 hybrid가 두 접근법들보다 훨씬 더 정확한 추천을 제공한다고 말한다. 이런 방법들은 cold start와 sparsity 문제와 같은 추천시스템에서 공통적인 문제의 몇몇을 극복할 수 있다고 한다. Cold start: 충분한 정보가 없어서 필요한 정보를 얻지 못하는 것 Netflix는 hybrid 추천 시스템의 좋은 예이다. 이 웹사이트는 사용자가 높게 평가했던(content-based)영화와 비슷한 특성을 띄는 영화를 추천 하고, 비슷한 사용자(collaborate)들의 검색 습관과 시청을 비교함으로서 추천을 한다. 다양한 기술들은 추천시스템의 기초로 제안되어 왔다: collaborative, content-based, knowledge-based 그리고 demographic 기술. 이 기술들은, 몇개의 평가(rating)을 한 새로운 사용자를 어떻게 하지와 같이 collaborative와 content-based의 유명한 cold-start문제와 knowledge-based 접근 법의 the knowledge engineering bottleneck(병목현상)과 같은 단점을 가지고 있다. Hybrid 추천 시스템은 그들 사이의 시너지를 얻기 위해서 여러 기술들을 합치는 것이다 Hybrid 추천 시스템이란 용어는 여기서 결과를 만들어 내기 위해 다중의 추천 기술을 함께 섞는 어떠한 추천 시스템을 설명하는데 사용된다. 같은 유형의 몇몇의 다른 기술들이 함께 되지(be hybridzed) 못하는지에 대한 이유는 없다. 예를 들어, 두개의 다른 content-based 추천은 함께 효과를 낼 수 있고 많은 프로젝트들이 이런 종류의 조합에 투자해 왔다: naïve bayes와 knn을 함께 사용한 NewsDude는 한 예다. 7개의 hybridization 기술들: 1.    Weighted: 다른 추천 요소들의 점수는 수학적으로 합쳐진다. 2.    Switching: 그 시스템은 추천 요소들 안에서 선택하고 고른 것을 적용한다. 3.    Mixed: 다른 추천자로부터의 추천들은 추천을 주기위해 함께 보여진다. 4.    Feature Combination: 다른 지식 sources로부터 나온 특징들은 함께 합쳐지고 하나의 추천 알고리즘에 쓰인다. 5.    Feature Augmentation: 하나의 추천 기술은 하나의 특징이나 다음 기술의 입력의 한 부분이 될 특징들의 세트에 사용된다. 6.    Cascade: 추천자는 더 낮은 우선 순위들이 더 높은 것들의 점수를 매기는 것이 단절되면서 엄격한 우선순위를 가진다. 7.    Meta-level: 한 추천 기술은 적용되고 다음 기술의 입력으로 사용되는 몇몇의 model을 만든다. 정확도를 넘어서 전형적으로, 추천 시스템에 대한 연구는 가장 정확한 추천 알고리즘을 찾는 것에 관심을 둔다. 하지만, 많은 중요한 요소들이 있다. Diversity – 사용자들은 다른 아티스트이 items와 같은 더 높은 intra-list 다양성이 있을 때 추천 시스템에 더 만족하는 경향을 보인다. Recommender persistence – 어떤 상황에서, 추천을 다시 보여주거나 사용자가 다시 items을 평가하게 하는 것이 더 효과적이다. Privacy – 추천 시스템은 대게 privacy 문제를 해결해야한다. 왜냐하면 사용자들은 민감한 정보를 공개해야하기 때문이다. Collaborative filtering을 사용해 사용자의 profiles을 만드는 것은 privacy의 관점에서 문제가 될 수 있다. 많은 유럽 국가들은 data privacy에 대한 강한 문화를 가지고 있고, 사용자의 profile을 만드는 어떠한 단계를 소개하려는 모든 시도는 부정적인 사용자 반응을 초래할 수 있다. Netflix Prize competition을 위해 Netflix에서 제공한 데이터 셋에 관련해서 많은 privacy 문제가 발생했었다. 그 데이터 셋이 고객의 개인정보를 지키기 위해 익명화 됐음에도 불구하고, 2007에 텍사스 대학의 두 연구자는 Internet Movie Database에 영화 평가 데이터 셋을 매칭함으로써 사용자 개개인을 식별할 수 있었다. 결과적으로, 2009년 12월, 한 익명의 Netflix사용자는 Netflix를 고소했다. 이건 2010의 두번째 Netflix Prize competition을 취소하는 데 부분적으로 영향을 끼쳤다. 많은 연구들은 이 영역의 진행중인 개인정보문제를 행하고 있다. Ramakrishnan 은 개인화와 정보보호 사이에서 교환의 확장적인 개요에 대해 행동했고, 다른 데이터 소스(sources)와 약한 연결들(우연히 발견한 추천을 제공하는 예상치 못한 연결)의 조합이 익명화된 데이터 셋에서 사용자의 정체를 발견하는데 사용될 수 있다는 것을 찾았다. User demographics- Beel 은 사용자 인구학이 얼마나 사용자가 추천에 만족해 하는 지에 대해 영향을 줄지도 모른다는 것을 발견했다. 그들의 연구에서, 그들은 나이가 많은 사용자들이 어린 사용자들보다 추천에 더 관심을 보이는 경향이 있다는 것을 증명했다. Robustness – 사용자가 추천 시스템에 참여할 수 있을 때, 속이는 문제(the issue of fraud)는 반드시 다뤄진다. Serendipity – Serendipity(우연히 발생, 발견됨)는 얼마나 추천시스템이 놀라운가에 대한 측정이다. 예를 들어, 마트에서 고객에게 우유를 추천하는 한 추천 시스템은 완벽하게 정확 할지라도, 이건 좋은 추천 시스템이 아니다. 왜냐하면 그 고객이 살 품목이 너무 명백하기 때문이다. 하지만, 뜻밖의 serendipity는 정확도에 부정적인 영향을 줄지도 모른다. Trust – 추천 시스템은 사용자가 시스템을 신뢰하지 않으면 사용자에게 가치가 없다. 신뢰는 어떻게 추천을 만들어 내는 지와 왜 이 item을 추천 했는지를 설명함으로써 쌓을 수 있다. Labelling – 추천 시스템에 대한 사용자의 만족은 추천의 labeling(그룹 짓기, 이름 짓기)에 따라 영향을 받을지도 모른다. 예를 들어, 한 인용된 연구에서, sponsored로 묶인 추천에 대한 Click Through Rate(CTR)은 Organic으로 묶인 동일한 추천에 대한 CTR보다 낮다. 그 연구에서 Label이 없는 추천이 가장 좋은 성능을 보였다. 같이 보기 협업 필터링 필터 버블 패턴 인식 각주 집단지성 전자 상거래 정보 시스템 응용통계학 플랫폼 경제

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recommender%20system

Recommender system

A recommender system, or a recommendation system (sometimes replacing 'system' with a synonym such as platform or engine), is a subclass of information filtering system that provide suggestions for items that are most pertinent to a particular user. Typically, the suggestions refer to various decision-making processes, such as what product to purchase, what music to listen to, or what online news to read. Recommender systems are particularly useful when an individual needs to choose an item from a potentially overwhelming number of items that a service may offer. Recommender systems are used in a variety of areas, with commonly recognised examples taking the form of playlist generators for video and music services, product recommenders for online stores, or content recommenders for social media platforms and open web content recommenders. These systems can operate using a single type of input, like music, or multiple inputs within and across platforms like news, books and search queries. There are also popular recommender systems for specific topics like restaurants and online dating. Recommender systems have also been developed to explore research articles and experts, collaborators, and financial services. Overview Recommender systems usually make use of either or both collaborative filtering and content-based filtering (also known as the personality-based approach), as well as other systems such as knowledge-based systems. Collaborative filtering approaches build a model from a user's past behavior (items previously purchased or selected and/or numerical ratings given to those items) as well as similar decisions made by other users. This model is then used to predict items (or ratings for items) that the user may have an interest in. Content-based filtering approaches utilize a series of discrete, pre-tagged characteristics of an item in order to recommend additional items with similar properties. We can demonstrate the differences between collaborative and content-based filtering by comparing two early music recommender systems – Last.fm and Pandora Radio. Last.fm creates a "station" of recommended songs by observing what bands and individual tracks the user has listened to on a regular basis and comparing those against the listening behavior of other users. Last.fm will play tracks that do not appear in the user's library, but are often played by other users with similar interests. As this approach leverages the behavior of users, it is an example of a collaborative filtering technique. Pandora uses the properties of a song or artist (a subset of the 400 attributes provided by the Music Genome Project) to seed a "station" that plays music with similar properties. User feedback is used to refine the station's results, deemphasizing certain attributes when a user "dislikes" a particular song and emphasizing other attributes when a user "likes" a song. This is an example of a content-based approach. Each type of system has its strengths and weaknesses. In the above example, Last.fm requires a large amount of information about a user to make accurate recommendations. This is an example of the cold start problem, and is common in collaborative filtering systems. Whereas Pandora needs very little information to start, it is far more limited in scope (for example, it can only make recommendations that are similar to the original seed). Recommender systems are a useful alternative to search algorithms since they help users discover items they might not have found otherwise. Of note, recommender systems are often implemented using search engines indexing non-traditional data. Recommender systems have been the focus of several granted patents. History Elaine Rich created the first recommender system in 1979, called Grundy. She looked for a way to recommend a user a book she might like. Her idea was to create a system that asks the user specific questions and assigns her stereotypes depending on her answers. Depending on a users stereotype, she would then get a recommendation for a book she might like. Another early recommender system, called a "digital bookshelf", was described in a 1990 technical report by Jussi Karlgren at Columbia University, and implemented at scale and worked through in technical reports and publications from 1994 onwards by Jussi Karlgren, then at SICS, and research groups led by Pattie Maes at MIT, Will Hill at Bellcore, and Paul Resnick, also at MIT whose work with GroupLens was awarded the 2010 ACM Software Systems Award. Montaner provided the first overview of recommender systems from an intelligent agent perspective. Adomavicius provided a new, alternate overview of recommender systems. Herlocker provides an additional overview of evaluation techniques for recommender systems, and Beel et al. discussed the problems of offline evaluations. Beel et al. have also provided literature surveys on available research paper recommender systems and existing challenges. Approaches Collaborative filtering One approach to the design of recommender systems that has wide use is collaborative filtering. Collaborative filtering is based on the assumption that people who agreed in the past will agree in the future, and that they will like similar kinds of items as they liked in the past. The system generates recommendations using only information about rating profiles for different users or items. By locating peer users/items with a rating history similar to the current user or item, they generate recommendations using this neighborhood. Collaborative filtering methods are classified as memory-based and model-based. A well-known example of memory-based approaches is the user-based algorithm, while that of model-based approaches is Matrix factorization (recommender systems). A key advantage of the collaborative filtering approach is that it does not rely on machine analyzable content and therefore it is capable of accurately recommending complex items such as movies without requiring an "understanding" of the item itself. Many algorithms have been used in measuring user similarity or item similarity in recommender systems. For example, the k-nearest neighbor (k-NN) approach and the Pearson Correlation as first implemented by Allen. When building a model from a user's behavior, a distinction is often made between explicit and implicit forms of data collection. Examples of explicit data collection include the following: Asking a user to rate an item on a sliding scale. Asking a user to search. Asking a user to rank a collection of items from favorite to least favorite. Presenting two items to a user and asking him/her to choose the better one of them. Asking a user to create a list of items that he/she likes (see Rocchio classification or other similar techniques). Examples of implicit data collection include the following: Observing the items that a user views in an online store. Analyzing item/user viewing times. Keeping a record of the items that a user purchases online. Obtaining a list of items that a user has listened to or watched on his/her computer. Analyzing the user's social network and discovering similar likes and dislikes. Collaborative filtering approaches often suffer from three problems: cold start, scalability, and sparsity. Cold start: For a new user or item, there is not enough data to make accurate recommendations. Note: one commonly implemented solution to this problem is the Multi-armed bandit algorithm. Scalability: There are millions of users and products in many of the environments in which these systems make recommendations. Thus, a large amount of computation power is often necessary to calculate recommendations. Sparsity: The number of items sold on major e-commerce sites is extremely large. The most active users will only have rated a small subset of the overall database. Thus, even the most popular items have very few ratings. One of the most famous examples of collaborative filtering is item-to-item collaborative filtering (people who buy x also buy y), an algorithm popularized by Amazon.com's recommender system. Many social networks originally used collaborative filtering to recommend new friends, groups, and other social connections by examining the network of connections between a user and their friends. Collaborative filtering is still used as part of hybrid systems. Content-based filtering Another common approach when designing recommender systems is content-based filtering. Content-based filtering methods are based on a description of the item and a profile of the user's preferences. These methods are best suited to situations where there is known data on an item (name, location, description, etc.), but not on the user. Content-based recommenders treat recommendation as a user-specific classification problem and learn a classifier for the user's likes and dislikes based on an item's features. In this system, keywords are used to describe the items, and a user profile is built to indicate the type of item this user likes. In other words, these algorithms try to recommend items similar to those that a user liked in the past or is examining in the present. It does not rely on a user sign-in mechanism to generate this often temporary profile. In particular, various candidate items are compared with items previously rated by the user, and the best-matching items are recommended. This approach has its roots in information retrieval and information filtering research. To create a user profile, the system mostly focuses on two types of information: 1. A model of the user's preference. 2. A history of the user's interaction with the recommender system. Basically, these methods use an item profile (i.e., a set of discrete attributes and features) characterizing the item within the system. To abstract the features of the items in the system, an item presentation algorithm is applied. A widely used algorithm is the tf–idf representation (also called vector space representation). The system creates a content-based profile of users based on a weighted vector of item features. The weights denote the importance of each feature to the user and can be computed from individually rated content vectors using a variety of techniques. Simple approaches use the average values of the rated item vector while other sophisticated methods use machine learning techniques such as Bayesian Classifiers, cluster analysis, decision trees, and artificial neural networks in order to estimate the probability that the user is going to like the item. A key issue with content-based filtering is whether the system can learn user preferences from users' actions regarding one content source and use them across other content types. When the system is limited to recommending content of the same type as the user is already using, the value from the recommendation system is significantly less than when other content types from other services can be recommended. For example, recommending news articles based on news browsing is useful. Still, it would be much more useful when music, videos, products, discussions, etc., from different services, can be recommended based on news browsing. To overcome this, most content-based recommender systems now use some form of the hybrid system. Content-based recommender systems can also include opinion-based recommender systems. In some cases, users are allowed to leave text reviews or feedback on the items. These user-generated texts are implicit data for the recommender system because they are potentially rich resources of both feature/aspects of the item and users' evaluation/sentiment to the item. Features extracted from the user-generated reviews are improved meta-data of items, because as they also reflect aspects of the item like meta-data, extracted features are widely concerned by the users. Sentiments extracted from the reviews can be seen as users' rating scores on the corresponding features. Popular approaches of opinion-based recommender system utilize various techniques including text mining, information retrieval, sentiment analysis (see also Multimodal sentiment analysis) and deep learning. Hybrid recommendations approaches Most recommender systems now use a hybrid approach, combining collaborative filtering, content-based filtering, and other approaches. There is no reason why several different techniques of the same type could not be hybridized. Hybrid approaches can be implemented in several ways: by making content-based and collaborative-based predictions separately and then combining them; by adding content-based capabilities to a collaborative-based approach (and vice versa); or by unifying the approaches into one model (see for a complete review of recommender systems). Several studies that empirically compare the performance of the hybrid with the pure collaborative and content-based methods and demonstrated that the hybrid methods can provide more accurate recommendations than pure approaches. These methods can also be used to overcome some of the common problems in recommender systems such as cold start and the sparsity problem, as well as the knowledge engineering bottleneck in knowledge-based approaches. Netflix is a good example of the use of hybrid recommender systems. The website makes recommendations by comparing the watching and searching habits of similar users (i.e., collaborative filtering) as well as by offering movies that share characteristics with films that a user has rated highly (content-based filtering). Some hybridization techniques include: Weighted: Combining the score of different recommendation components numerically. Switching: Choosing among recommendation components and applying the selected one. Mixed: Recommendations from different recommenders are presented together to give the recommendation. Feature Combination: Features derived from different knowledge sources are combined together and given to a single recommendation algorithm. Feature Augmentation: Computing a feature or set of features, which is then part of the input to the next technique. Cascade: Recommenders are given strict priority, with the lower priority ones breaking ties in the scoring of the higher ones. Meta-level: One recommendation technique is applied and produces some sort of model, which is then the input used by the next technique. Technologies Session-based recommender systems These recommender systems use the interactions of a user within a session to generate recommendations. Session-based recommender systems are used at Youtube and Amazon. These are particularly useful when history (such as past clicks, purchases) of a user is not available or not relevant in the current user session. Domains, where session-based recommendations are particularly relevant, include video, e-commerce, travel, music and more. Most instances of session-based recommender systems rely on the sequence of recent interactions within a session without requiring any additional details (historical, demographic) of the user. Techniques for session-based recommendations are mainly based on generative sequential models such as Recurrent Neural Networks, Transformers, and other deep learning based approaches Reinforcement learning for recommender systems The recommendation problem can be seen as a special instance of a reinforcement learning problem whereby the user is the environment upon which the agent, the recommendation system acts upon in order to receive a reward, for instance, a click or engagement by the user. One aspect of reinforcement learning that is of particular use in the area of recommender systems is the fact that the models or policies can be learned by providing a reward to the recommendation agent. This is in contrast to traditional learning techniques which rely on supervised learning approaches that are less flexible, reinforcement learning recommendation techniques allow to potentially train models that can be optimized directly on metrics of engagement, and user interest. Multi-criteria recommender systems Multi-criteria recommender systems (MCRS) can be defined as recommender systems that incorporate preference information upon multiple criteria. Instead of developing recommendation techniques based on a single criterion value, the overall preference of user u for the item i, these systems try to predict a rating for unexplored items of u by exploiting preference information on multiple criteria that affect this overall preference value. Several researchers approach MCRS as a multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) problem, and apply MCDM methods and techniques to implement MCRS systems. See this chapter for an extended introduction. Risk-aware recommender systems The majority of existing approaches to recommender systems focus on recommending the most relevant content to users using contextual information, yet do not take into account the risk of disturbing the user with unwanted notifications. It is important to consider the risk of upsetting the user by pushing recommendations in certain circumstances, for instance, during a professional meeting, early morning, or late at night. Therefore, the performance of the recommender system depends in part on the degree to which it has incorporated the risk into the recommendation process. One option to manage this issue is DRARS, a system which models the context-aware recommendation as a bandit problem. This system combines a content-based technique and a contextual bandit algorithm. Mobile recommender systems Mobile recommender systems make use of internet-accessing smart phones to offer personalized, context-sensitive recommendations. This is a particularly difficult area of research as mobile data is more complex than data that recommender systems often have to deal with. It is heterogeneous, noisy, requires spatial and temporal auto-correlation, and has validation and generality problems. There are three factors that could affect the mobile recommender systems and the accuracy of prediction results: the context, the recommendation method and privacy. Additionally, mobile recommender systems suffer from a transplantation problem – recommendations may not apply in all regions (for instance, it would be unwise to recommend a recipe in an area where all of the ingredients may not be available). One example of a mobile recommender system are the approaches taken by companies such as Uber and Lyft to generate driving routes for taxi drivers in a city. This system uses GPS data of the routes that taxi drivers take while working, which includes location (latitude and longitude), time stamps, and operational status (with or without passengers). It uses this data to recommend a list of pickup points along a route, with the goal of optimizing occupancy times and profits. The Netflix Prize One of the events that energized research in recommender systems was the Netflix Prize. From 2006 to 2009, Netflix sponsored a competition, offering a grand prize of $1,000,000 to the team that could take an offered dataset of over 100 million movie ratings and return recommendations that were 10% more accurate than those offered by the company's existing recommender system. This competition energized the search for new and more accurate algorithms. On 21 September 2009, the grand prize of US$1,000,000 was given to the BellKor's Pragmatic Chaos team using tiebreaking rules. The most accurate algorithm in 2007 used an ensemble method of 107 different algorithmic approaches, blended into a single prediction. As stated by the winners, Bell et al.: Predictive accuracy is substantially improved when blending multiple predictors. Our experience is that most efforts should be concentrated in deriving substantially different approaches, rather than refining a single technique. Consequently, our solution is an ensemble of many methods. Many benefits accrued to the web due to the Netflix project. Some teams have taken their technology and applied it to other markets. Some members from the team that finished second place founded Gravity R&D, a recommendation engine that's active in the RecSys community. 4-Tell, Inc. created a Netflix project–derived solution for ecommerce websites. A number of privacy issues arose around the dataset offered by Netflix for the Netflix Prize competition. Although the data sets were anonymized in order to preserve customer privacy, in 2007 two researchers from the University of Texas were able to identify individual users by matching the data sets with film ratings on the Internet Movie Database. As a result, in December 2009, an anonymous Netflix user sued Netflix in Doe v. Netflix, alleging that Netflix had violated United States fair trade laws and the Video Privacy Protection Act by releasing the datasets. This, as well as concerns from the Federal Trade Commission, led to the cancellation of a second Netflix Prize competition in 2010. Evaluation Performance measures Evaluation is important in assessing the effectiveness of recommendation algorithms. To measure the effectiveness of recommender systems, and compare different approaches, three types of evaluations are available: user studies, online evaluations (A/B tests), and offline evaluations. The commonly used metrics are the mean squared error and root mean squared error, the latter having been used in the Netflix Prize. The information retrieval metrics such as precision and recall or DCG are useful to assess the quality of a recommendation method. Diversity, novelty, and coverage are also considered as important aspects in evaluation. However, many of the classic evaluation measures are highly criticized. Evaluating the performance of a recommendation algorithm on a fixed test dataset will always be extremely challenging as it is impossible to accurately predict the reactions of real users to the recommendations. Hence any metric that computes the effectiveness of an algorithm in offline data will be imprecise. User studies are rather a small scale. A few dozens or hundreds of users are presented recommendations created by different recommendation approaches, and then the users judge which recommendations are best. In A/B tests, recommendations are shown to typically thousands of users of a real product, and the recommender system randomly picks at least two different recommendation approaches to generate recommendations. The effectiveness is measured with implicit measures of effectiveness such as conversion rate or click-through rate. Offline evaluations are based on historic data, e.g. a dataset that contains information about how users previously rated movies. The effectiveness of recommendation approaches is then measured based on how well a recommendation approach can predict the users' ratings in the dataset. While a rating is an explicit expression of whether a user liked a movie, such information is not available in all domains. For instance, in the domain of citation recommender systems, users typically do not rate a citation or recommended article. In such cases, offline evaluations may use implicit measures of effectiveness. For instance, it may be assumed that a recommender system is effective that is able to recommend as many articles as possible that are contained in a research article's reference list. However, this kind of offline evaluations is seen critical by many researchers. For instance, it has been shown that results of offline evaluations have low correlation with results from user studies or A/B tests. A dataset popular for offline evaluation has been shown to contain duplicate data and thus to lead to wrong conclusions in the evaluation of algorithms. Often, results of so-called offline evaluations do not correlate with actually assessed user-satisfaction. This is probably because offline training is highly biased toward the highly reachable items, and offline testing data is highly influenced by the outputs of the online recommendation module. Researchers have concluded that the results of offline evaluations should be viewed critically. Beyond accuracy Typically, research on recommender systems is concerned with finding the most accurate recommendation algorithms. However, there are a number of factors that are also important. Diversity – Users tend to be more satisfied with recommendations when there is a higher intra-list diversity, e.g. items from different artists. Recommender persistence – In some situations, it is more effective to re-show recommendations, or let users re-rate items, than showing new items. There are several reasons for this. Users may ignore items when they are shown for the first time, for instance, because they had no time to inspect the recommendations carefully. Privacy – Recommender systems usually have to deal with privacy concerns because users have to reveal sensitive information. Building user profiles using collaborative filtering can be problematic from a privacy point of view. Many European countries have a strong culture of data privacy, and every attempt to introduce any level of user profiling can result in a negative customer response. Much research has been conducted on ongoing privacy issues in this space. The Netflix Prize is particularly notable for the detailed personal information released in its dataset. Ramakrishnan et al. have conducted an extensive overview of the trade-offs between personalization and privacy and found that the combination of weak ties (an unexpected connection that provides serendipitous recommendations) and other data sources can be used to uncover identities of users in an anonymized dataset. User demographics – Beel et al. found that user demographics may influence how satisfied users are with recommendations. In their paper they show that elderly users tend to be more interested in recommendations than younger users. Robustness – When users can participate in the recommender system, the issue of fraud must be addressed. Serendipity – Serendipity is a measure of "how surprising the recommendations are". For instance, a recommender system that recommends milk to a customer in a grocery store might be perfectly accurate, but it is not a good recommendation because it is an obvious item for the customer to buy. "[Serendipity] serves two purposes: First, the chance that users lose interest because the choice set is too uniform decreases. Second, these items are needed for algorithms to learn and improve themselves". Trust – A recommender system is of little value for a user if the user does not trust the system. Trust can be built by a recommender system by explaining how it generates recommendations, and why it recommends an item. Labelling – User satisfaction with recommendations may be influenced by the labeling of the recommendations. For instance, in the cited study click-through rate (CTR) for recommendations labeled as "Sponsored" were lower (CTR=5.93%) than CTR for identical recommendations labeled as "Organic" (CTR=8.86%). Recommendations with no label performed best (CTR=9.87%) in that study. Reproducibility Recommender systems are notoriously difficult to evaluate offline, with some researchers claiming that this has led to a reproducibility crisis in recommender systems publications. The topic of reproducibility seems to be a recurrent issue in some Machine Learning publication venues, but does not have a considerable effect beyond the world of scientific publication. In the context of recommender systems a 2019 paper surveyed a small number of hand-picked publications applying deep learning or neural methods to the top-k recommendation problem, published in top conferences (SIGIR, KDD, WWW, RecSys, IJCAI), has shown that on average less than 40% of articles could be reproduced by the authors of the survey, with as little as 14% in some conferences. The articles considers a number of potential problems in today's research scholarship and suggests improved scientific practices in that area. More recent work on benchmarking a set of the same methods came to qualitatively very different results whereby neural methods were found to be among the best performing methods. Deep learning and neural methods for recommender systems have been used in the winning solutions in several recent recommender system challenges, WSDM, RecSys Challenge. Moreover neural and deep learning methods are widely used in industry where they are extensively tested. The topic of reproducibility is not new in recommender systems. By 2011, Ekstrand, Konstan, et al. criticized that "it is currently difficult to reproduce and extend recommender systems research results," and that evaluations are "not handled consistently". Konstan and Adomavicius conclude that "the Recommender Systems research community is facing a crisis where a significant number of papers present results that contribute little to collective knowledge […] often because the research lacks the […] evaluation to be properly judged and, hence, to provide meaningful contributions." As a consequence, much research about recommender systems can be considered as not reproducible. Hence, operators of recommender systems find little guidance in the current research for answering the question, which recommendation approaches to use in a recommender systems. Said & Bellogín conducted a study of papers published in the field, as well as benchmarked some of the most popular frameworks for recommendation and found large inconsistencies in results, even when the same algorithms and data sets were used. Some researchers demonstrated that minor variations in the recommendation algorithms or scenarios led to strong changes in the effectiveness of a recommender system. They conclude that seven actions are necessary to improve the current situation: "(1) survey other research fields and learn from them, (2) find a common understanding of reproducibility, (3) identify and understand the determinants that affect reproducibility, (4) conduct more comprehensive experiments (5) modernize publication practices, (6) foster the development and use of recommendation frameworks, and (7) establish best-practice guidelines for recommender-systems research." Artificial intelligence applications in recommendation Artificial intelligence (AI) applications in recommendation systems are the advanced methodologies that leverage AI technologies, to enhance the performance recommendation engines. The AI-based recommender can analyze complex data sets, learning from user behavior, preferences, and interactions to generate highly accurate and personalized content or product suggestions. The integration of AI in recommendation systems has marked a significant evolution from traditional recommendation methods. Traditional methods often relied on inflexible algorithms that could suggest items based on general user trends or apparent similarities in content. In comparison, AI-powered systems have the capability to detect patterns and subtle distinctions that may be overlooked by traditional methods. These systems can adapt to specific individual preferences, thereby offering recommendations that are more aligned with individual user needs. This approach marks a shift towards more personalized, user-centric suggestions. Recommendation systems widely adopt AI techniques such as machine learning, deep learning, and natural language processing. These advanced methods enhance system capabilities to predict user preferences and deliver personalized content more accurately. Each technique contributes uniquely. The following sections will introduce specific AI models utilized by a recommendation system by illustrating their theories and functionalities. AI-based approaches KNN-based collaborative filters Collaborative filtering (CF) is one of the most commonly used recommendation system algorithms. It generates personalized suggestions for users based on explicit or implicit behavioral patterns to form predictions. Specifically, it relies on external feedback such as star ratings, purchasing history and so on to make judgments. CF make predictions about users’ preference based on similarity measurements. Essentially, the underlying theory is: “if user A is similar to user B, and if A likes item C, then it is likely that B also likes item C.” There are many models available for collaborative filtering. For AI-applied collaborative filtering, a common model is called K-nearest neighbors. The ideas are as follows: Data Representation: Create a n-dimensional space where each axis represents a user’s trait (ratings, purchases, etc.). Represent the user as a point in that space. Statistical Distance: 'Distance' measures how far apart users are in this space. See statistical distance for computational details Identifying Neighbors: Based on the computed distances, find k nearest neighbors of the user to which we want to make recommendations Forming Predictive Recommendations: The system will analyze the similar preference of the k neighbors. The system will make recommendations based on that similarity Neural networks An artificial neural network (ANN), is a deep learning model structure which aims to mimic a human brain. They comprise a series of neurons, each responsible for receiving and processing information transmitted from other interconnected neurons. Similar to a human brain, these neurons will change activation state based on incoming signals (training input and backpropagated output), allowing the system to adjust activation weights during the network learning phase. ANN is usually designed to be a black-box model. Unlike regular machine learning where the underlying theoretical components are formal and rigid, the collaborative effects of neurons are not entirely clear, but modern experiments has shown the predictive power of ANN. ANN is widely used in recommendation systems for its power to utilize various data. Other than feedback data, ANN can incorporate non-feedback data which are too intricate for collaborative filtering to learn, and the unique structure allows ANN to identify extra signal from non-feedback data to boost user experience. Following are some examples: Time and Seasonality: what specify time and date or a season that a user interacts with the platform User Navigation Patterns: sequence of pages visited, time spent on different parts of a website, mouse movement, etc External Social Trends: information from outer social media Natural language processing Natural language processing is a series of AI algorithms to make natural human language accessible and analyzable to a machine. It is a fairly modern technique inspired by the growing amount of textual information. For application in recommendation system, a common case is the Amazon customer review. Amazon will analyze the feedbacks comments from each customer and report relevant data to other customers for reference. The recent years have witnessed the development of various text analysis models, including Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA), Singular value decomposition (SVD), Latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA), etc. Their uses have consistently aimed to provide customers with more precise and tailored recommendations. See also Rating site Cold start Collaborative filtering Collective intelligence Content discovery platform Enterprise bookmarking Filter bubble ACM Conference on Recommender Systems Personalized marketing Preference elicitation Product finder Configurator Pattern recognition References Further reading Books Kim Falk (January 2019), Practical Recommender Systems, Manning Publications, Seaver, Nick (2022). Computing Taste: Algorithms and the Makers of Music Recommendation. University of Chicago Press. Scientific articles Prem Melville, Raymond J. Mooney, and Ramadass Nagarajan. (2002) Content-Boosted Collaborative Filtering for Improved Recommendations. Proceedings of the Eighteenth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-2002), pp. 187–192, Edmonton, Canada, July 2002. . . External links Hangartner, Rick, "What is the Recommender Industry?", MSearchGroove, December 17, 2007. ACM Conference on Recommender Systems Recsys group at Politecnico di Milano Data Science: Data to Insights from MIT (recommendation systems) Information systems Mass media monitoring Social information processing

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국유화

국유화(國有化, ) 혹은 공유화(公有化)는 사유재산, 공유재산을 국유재산으로 전환하는 것 또는 그 과정을 말한다. 즉, 일반인, 법인, 단체의 재산을 국가의 것으로 하는 것을 말한다. 국유화는 그 나라의 국내법이 규율하고 국제 관계에 걸친 국유화는 국제법이 규율한다. 국유화의 반대 개념은 민영화로 이해된다. 국유 재산이 사유화되었을 경우를 민영화라고 지칭하며, 민간 재산이 국유 재산이 되었을 경우를 국유화라고 칭한다. 국유화의 대상은 여러 가지가 있으며, 대표적으로, 광업, 언론, 은행, 전력, 통신, 철도 그리고 항공이 있다. 국유화는 이전 민간 소유자에 대한 정당한 보상 여부와 무관하게 진행될 수 있다. 국유화는 정부가 해당 재산에 대한 통제권을 확립한다는 점에서 재산의 분배와 다르게 취급된다. 일부 국유화는 불법적으로 취득한 민간 재산을 징벌적 의미에서 정부가 압류할 때 발생하기도 한다. 예를 들어, 1945년 프랑스는 르노 자동차를 나치 협력 등을 이유로 하여 국유 재산으로 강제 압류하였다. 한편으로 국유화는 사회주의 경제 기반을 이루는 가장 기초적인 개념으로 평가받는다. 1917년 11월에 정권을 잡은 러시아의 공산주의자들은 적지 않은 민간 기업을 국유 기업으로 흡수하였으며, 특히, 1928년에 대대적인 국유화를 재차 실시하여 거의 모든 기업을 국영 재산으로 흡수하였다. 이러한 의미에서 국유화는 경제의 조직 구조, 제도, 심지어 경영 방식까지 변혁하는 과정으로도 이해되며, 대표적으로는 사회주의로의 변혁 과정으로 설명된다. 이 과정에서 국유화의 대상은 단순히 기반 시설에 관련된 재산만 아닌, 국가 내에서 경쟁력이 있는 상품을 생산하는 주요 기업까지 확대된다. 그러나, 국유화 자체는 사회주의 정부가 등장하기 전부터 생겨난 개념이기에 사회주의와 반드시 연계된 개념이라고 할 수 없다. 세계 경제사에서 국유화는 경제 약소국, 개발도상국의 성장에 일정 기여하였다. 제국주의를 통한 초과 착취에 기반하여 자본을 선점한 미국, 서유럽, 일본 등과 달리, 자본 규모가 낮은 개발도상국 특성상 산업 자본을 실질적으로 통제하여 파이를 키울 수 있는 유일한 방식이 국유화였기 때문이다. 제2차 세계 대전 이후 국유화를 통해 성장한 비(非)공산권 나라로는 대한민국, 말레이시아, 리비아, 싱가폴, 아르헨티나, 이란, 이집트 등이 존재한다. 국유 재산과 보상 국유화의 결과를 통해 생겨나는 재산의 형태는 국유 재산으로, 토지와 법인 등 수많은 요소를 포괄하고 있다. 국영 재산, 특히 국영 기업은 국가의 소유이기에 정부는 해당 기업의 모든 부채를 충당할 책임이 있다. 국유화를 통해 국유 재산이 되는 과정에서, 원 소유자에게 금전적 보상을 하는 과정 및 행위를 보상(compensation)이라고 한다. 몇 가지 특별한 경우를 제외하면, 보상은 시장 경제를 원리로 하고 있는 자본주의 국가에서 일반적으로 국가가 지켜야 할 원칙이다. 이러한 보상의 원칙이 보편적인 것으로 되어야 한다고 주장한 대표적인 법학자로는 카를로스 칼보가 있는데, 보상의 원칙을 명시한 독트린인 칼보 독트린(Calvo Doctrine)은 이 학자의 이름을 딴 것이다. 반면, 마르크스주의 경제학자들은 사유 재산의 형성 자체가 타인에 대한 착취를 정당화하는 것으로 이해하고 있기에 보상의 원칙을 거부하며, 그 어떠한 보상이 없이 재산이 국유화되어야 함을 강조한다. 이러한 경우 모든 재산에 대한 무상몰수라고 한다. 1962년 UN은 〈국가 자원에서 선행되는 영구적 주권에 관한 결의안〉을 통해 국유화 과정에서 해당 재산의 민간 소유자에 대한 적절한 보상이 이루어져야 함을 명시하였다. 기업 회생의 수단으로서 국유화 시장 경제와 자본주의 경제 원리를 받아들인 대부분의 국가에서 국유화는 기업 도산을 막기 위해 실시된다. 그 주요한 방식은, 해당 기업에서 정부가 차지하는 주식을 통해 긴급 수용을 결정하고, 이후 정부 자금을 통해 기업 자본을 회생하는 방식이다. 정부 자금을 통해 회생된 기업은 이후 다시 민영화 과정을 거쳐서 민간 자본에 매각된다. 공산국가 공산국가에서 국유화는 사회주의 경제 조직의 세포를 이룬다. 러시아 10월 혁명을 주도한 볼셰비키당은 “약탈자를 약탈하라!”(грабь награбленное!)라는 구호를 내걸었고, 그 구체적 방법으로 대대적인 국유화를 실시하였다. 이 시기 사회간접자본은 물론이고, 주요 기업, 농촌의 소기업, 토지, 유통업 등 적지 않은 분야가 국유화되었다. 이 과정에서 본래의 민간 소유자는 정당한 보상을 받지 못 하였는데, 이러한 과정을 경제학에서 무상몰수(無償沒收) 또는 무상수용(無償收用, expropriation and no compensation)이라고 한다. 20세기의 역사에서 등장한 수많은 공산국가는 모두 예외가 없이 무상몰수를 수반한 대대적 국유화 과정을 거쳤으며, 그 대상은 매우 광범위하였다. 공산국가에서 국유화는 단순히 특정 기업의 자본에 대한 국가 소유가 아닌, 근로자, 지역 공동체, 지역 집행위원회, 각급 당세포의 다중적인 통제와 지도, 그리고 피드백을 받는 형태로 이루어진다. 따라서, 자본주의 사회에서 실시되는 국유화와 사회주의 사회에서 실시되는 국유화는 본질적인 차이점을 갖고 있다. 중화인민공화국은 1981년에 경제 분야에서 대대적인 개혁개방 조치를 실시하였고, 1989년에는 지방의 국유 생산 조직은 인민공사를 해체하면서 경제 분야에서 부분적인 민영화를 추진하였다. 그러나, 중화인민공화국은 현재도 국영기업에 기초한 산업 발전을 지향한다. 2019년 기준으로 중화인민공화국의 20대 기업 중 12개 기업이 국영기업이며, 2018년 기준으로 세계 500대 기업에 들어간 98개 중화인민공화국 기업 중 약 90%가 국영기업이다. 조선민주주의인민공화국 역시 2016년 기준으로 기업 비중의 95% 이상이 국영기업이다. 이를 통해 국영기업을 통한 산업집산화는 공산국가의 원칙적인 경제 운영 방식이자, 일반적인 운영 원리라고 할 수 있다. 경제적 효과 국유화는 긍정적인 영향과 부정적인 영향을 동시에 갖고 있다. 장점 이론적으로 국유화는 국가가 산업 자본을 일원적으로 운용하여 경제적 이기주의를 극복하고, 전체 경제 발전에 매진하게 할 수 있다는 점, 생산 및 가계의 경제적 활동에 필요한 비용 감면 효과가 크다는 점, 그리고 외부의 공격적인 투자를 막아낼 수 있다는 점에서 선호되기도 한다. 부차적으로는 기업 운영에서 노동자의 생활 수준을 쉽고 빠르게 개선할 수 있고, 동시에 국유화의 정도가 일정 수준에 다다르면, 소득 재분배에도 매우 탁월하며, 경영상 위험 요인을 쉽게 제어할 수 있다는 점에서 이론적 장점으로 꼽힌다. 자본의 규모가 한정적이라서 시장 원리에 따른 민간 투자로 개별 기업의 생존이 확보되지 않을 때 국유화는 강력한 해결책으로 기능할 수 있다. 국가의 경제를 담당하는 주요 기업들에 대한 국유화는 단일 주주인 정부의 통일적인 경제 운용을 가능하게 하고, 규모의 경제에서 매우 유리한 지점을 선점할 수 있다. 그리하여 외부의 경쟁자에 대항할 때 자본 경쟁력 차원에서 유리한 위치를 점할 수 있는 것이다. 2018년 스탠퍼드 대학교의 한 연구는 국영 기업이 경제적 생산성 증대에 더욱 효과적이라는 결과를 내놓았다. 2018년 그리니치 대학교의 연구에 따르면, 기타 사회 기반 시설에 관한 국유화는 민영화보다 더 높은 수준의 경제적 시너지 효과를 일으킬 수 있으며, 매년 130억 파운드의 예산도 절약할 수 있다는 결과를 내놓았다. 단점 국유화의 단점을 지적하는 이론적 설명도 또한 존재한다. 이러한 이론적 설명에 따르면, 국유화는 기업의 관료주의적 비효율성을 누적되게 할 수 있으며, 이로 인해 방만 경영이 범람하게 될 수 있다는 점을 강조한다. 국영 기업은 정부의 정치적 목적에 의해 운영될 수도 있으며, 이는 대규모 ‘경제 실패’를 야기할 수 있는 치명적인 단점으로 이어진다. 일부 재정 연구 기관은 국영 기업의 증가가 국가 부채를 증가시키는 요인이 될 수 있다고 지적한다. 그리고 이는 특정 부문에 대한 부정적인 인플레이션을 유발하는 원인이 된다. 또한, 기후 변화 요건에 알맞는 기업 구조 개편에 악영향을 준다는 보고서도 존재한다. 같이 보기 계획 경제 국방물자생산법 국유재산 몰수 사회간접자본 소비에트 연방의 제1차 경제 개발 5개년 계획 수에즈 운하 중앙은행 집산주의 철강업 각주 공공 정책 공공경제학 독점

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalization

Nationalization

Nationalization (nationalisation in British English) is the process of transforming privately-owned assets into public assets by bringing them under the public ownership of a national government or state. Nationalization contrasts with privatization and with demutualization. When previously nationalized assets are privatized and subsequently returned to public ownership at a later stage, they are said to have undergone renationalization. Industries often subject to nationalization include telecommunications, electric power, fossil fuels, railways, airlines, iron ore, media, postal services, banks, and water (sometimes called the commanding heights of the economy), and in many jurisdictions such entities have no history of private ownership. Nationalization may occur with or without financial compensation to the former owners. Nationalization is distinguished from property redistribution in that the government retains control of nationalized property. Some nationalizations take place when a government seizes property acquired illegally. For example, in 1945 the French government seized the car-maker Renault because its owners had collaborated with the 1940–1944 Nazi occupiers of France. In September 2021, Berliners voted to expropriate over 240,000 housing units, many of which were being held unoccupied as investment property. Economists distinguish between nationalization and socialization, which refers to the process of restructuring the economic framework, organizational structure, and institutions of an economy on a socialist basis. By contrast, nationalization does not necessarily imply social ownership and the restructuring of the economic system. Historically, states have carried out nationalizations for various different purposes under a wide variety of different political systems and economic systems. Political support Nationalization was one of the major mechanisms advocated by reformist socialists and social democrats for gradually transitioning to socialism. In this context, the goals of nationalization were to dispossess large capitalists, redirect the profits of industry to the public purse, and establish some form of workers' self-management as a precursor to the establishment of a socialist economic system. Although sometimes undertaken as part of a strategy to build socialism, more commonly nationalization was also undertaken and used to protect and develop industries perceived as being vital to a nation's competitiveness (such as aerospace and shipbuilding), or to protect jobs in certain industries. Nationalization has had varying levels of support throughout history. After the Second World War, nationalization was supported by some social democratic parties throughout Western Europe, such as the British Labour Party. In the United States, potentially nationalizing healthcare is often a topic of political disagreement and makes frequent appearances in debates between political candidates. A 2019 poll found that about half of residents support the measure. A re-nationalization occurs when state-owned assets are privatized and later nationalized again, often when a different political party or faction is in power. A re-nationalization process may also be called "reverse privatization". Nationalization has been used to refer to either direct state-ownership and management of an enterprise or to a government acquiring a large controlling share of a publicly listed corporation. According to research by Paasha Mahdavi, leaders who consider nationalization face a dilemma: "nationalize and reap immediate gains while risking future prosperity, or maintain private operations, thereby passing on revenue windfalls but securing long-term fiscal streams." He argues that leaders "nationalize extractive resources to extend the duration of their power" by using "this increased capital to secure political support." Economic analysis Nationalization can have positive and negative effects. In 2019 research based on studies from Greenwich University found that the nationalization of key services such as water, bus, railways and broadband in the United Kingdom could save £13bn every year. Conversely, a 2019 assessment from the Institute for Fiscal Studies found that the Labour Party's proposed policies for nationalization would add at least £150bn to the national debt and make it harder for the United Kingdom to hit its climate change targets. This analysis was based on the assumption that the UK Government would have to pay the market rate for these industries. Nationalization can produce adverse effects, such as reducing competition in the marketplace, which in turn reduces incentives to innovation and maintains high prices. In the short run, nationalization can provide a larger revenue stream for government but can cause the industry to falter in the longer run. The collapse of the Venezuelan oil industry, due to government mismanagement, is a case in point. Expropriation Expropriation is the seizure of private property by a public agency for a purpose deemed to be in the public interest. It may also be used as a penalty for criminal proceedings. Expropriation differs from eminent domain in that the property owner is not compensated for the seized property. Unlike eminent domain, expropriation may also refer to the taking of private property by a private entity authorized by a government to take property in certain situations. Due to political risks that are involved when countries engage in international business, it is important to understand the expropriation risks and laws within each of the countries in which business is conducted in order to understand the risks as an investor in that country. Trends Studies have found that nationalization follows a cyclical trend. Nationalization rose in the 1960s and 1970s, followed by an increase in privatization in the 80s and 90s, followed again by an increase in nationalization in the 2000s and 2010s. Marxist theory The term appears as "expropriation of expropriators (ruling classes)" in Marxist theory, and also as the slogan "Loot the looters!" ("грабь награбленное"), which was very popular during the Russian October Revolution. The term is also used to describe nationalization campaigns by communist states, such as dekulakization and collectivization in the USSR. However, nationalization is not a specifically socialist strategy, and Marxism's founders were skeptical of its value. As Engels put it: Nikolai Bukharin also criticised the term nationalisation, preferring the term statisation instead. See also Compulsory purchase Constitutional economics Confiscation Eminent domain List of nationalizations by country List of privatizations by country Municipalization Nationalization of oil supplies Planned economy Privatization Public ownership Railway nationalization Sequestration State ownership State capitalism State socialism State sector Statism References External links , article on Indian public sector banks Time for Permanent Nationalization by economist Fred Moseley in Dollars & Sense, January/February 2009 The Corporate Governance of Banks – a concise discussion of concepts and evidence Economic policy Economic systems Ownership Social democracy

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%BC%EB%94%B0

염따

염따(YumDDa, , 1984년 4월 20일 ~ )는 대한민국의 래퍼 겸 프로듀서 및 방송인 및 사업가이다. 랩네임의 뜻은 본명 염현수와 왕따의 합성어이다. 또 티셔츠와 의류를 판매해 캐딜락을 구매했다. 이후 딩고와 함께 Don't call me를 내어 큰 인기를 얻었다. 그 뒤에도 팔로알토, 사이먼 도미닉, 딥플로우, 더 콰이엇과 힙합 그룹 다모임 (DAMOIM)을 결성하여 아마두와 같이 여러 곡을 발매하며 인기를 얻었다. 2020년 11월 28일, 저녁 6시에 자신의 정규 4집 음반인 《살아숨셔 3》을 발매했다. 《쇼미더머니 9》에 출연하여 파이널 라운드 릴보이의 《Credit》에서 피처링을 하기도 했다. (Feat. 염따, 기리보이, Zion.T) 출신 학교 호서대학교 디지털음악학과 생애 염따는 서울에서 출생하여, 유치원 때까지 서울에서 지내다가, 경상남도 진주로 이사하였고, 초등학교 5학년 때 서울로 다시 이사하였다. 중학교 재학 때부터 랩을 시작하였고, 급우 중 누군가가 "염따"라고 부른 것에서 현재 랩네임이 유래하였다. 고등학교 재학 당시에 음악 그룹 "집시의 템버린"의 멤버들을 만나, 그들의 도움을 받아 2006년에 첫 번째 싱글인 《Where Is My Radio》를 발표하였다. 싱글 발표 후 피타입(P-Type)과 쿤타가 소속되어 있던 파운데이션(Foundation)과 계약하였고, 쿤타의 소개로 방송 프로그램에 출연하기 시작하여, MBC의 《무한도전》, SBS MTV의 《모스트 원티드》, 온게임넷의 《켠김에 왕까지》 등에 출연하였다. 하하가 주도하던 메이저 데뷔가 무산된 이후, 방송 활동을 중단하였다가, 2016년 정규 1집 《살아숨셔》를 발표하였다. 유튜브와 인스타그램을 활용하여 "랩과 돈을 좋아하는 30대 아저씨" 캐릭터를 구축하였고, 2019년 3월 티셔츠를 판매하기 시작하여 4일 만에 6,000만 원의 매출을 기록하였다. 같은 해 10월 3일에 더콰이엇의 벤틀리 차량을 치어 수리비를 벌기 위해 굿즈 판매를 재개하였고, 하루 만에 4억 원의 매출을 올렸으며, 5일에 예정보다 일찍 굿즈 판매를 중단하였다. 같은 해 5월 딩고와의 합작으로 발표한 〈돈 Call Me〉가 멜론 차트에 진입하였으며. 2020년 한국 힙합 어워즈에서 올해의 아티스트로 선정되었다. 염따는 2020년 11월에 인스타그램 계정을 통해 더콰이엇과 공동으로 데이토나 엔터테인먼트를 설립했음을 알렸다. 음반 정규 앨범 《살아숨셔》 (2016년) 《MINA》 (2017년) 《살아숨셔 2》 (2019년) 《살아숨셔 3》 (2020년) 싱글 앨범 《Where Is My Radio》 (2006년) 《위로 오른다》 (2011년) 《I'm Back》 (2011년) 《사랑한다고 해줘》 (2012년) 《이미 늦은 밤》 (2013년) 《스타렉스》 (2015년) 《쏘나타》 (2016년) 《너무 좋아》 (with 숨셔) (2016년) 《그녀를 원해》 (2017년) 《Honey Family BeeHive Project Vol. 5》 (with 주라, 11호, 에코) (2017년) 《가고있어》 (2017년) 《넌 나의 12시야》 (2018년) 《사랑해줘 (trust me) REMIX》 (2019년) 《sold out》 (2019년) 《Dingo X 염따》 (2019년) 《zoom (dani REMIX)》 (2019년) 《돈 Touch My Phone》(with 창모) (2019년) 《Dingo X DAMOIM (Part 1)》 (with 딥플로우, 팔로알토) (2019년) 《Dingo X DAMOIM (Part 2)》 (with 딥플로우, 팔로알토, 더 콰이엇, 사이먼 도미닉) (2019년) 《Amanda》 (2019년) 《Dingo X DAMOIM (Part 3)》 (with 딥플로우, 팔로알토, 더 콰이엇, 사이먼 도미닉) (2019년) 《Dingo X DAMOIM (Part 4)》 (with 딥플로우, 팔로알토, 더 콰이엇, 사이먼 도미닉) (2020년) 《염BORGHINI》 (2020년) 《좋아한다니까》 (2020년) 《새벽에 잠깐이라도 좋아》 (2020년) 《BENTLEY 1.5》 (2020년) 《9ucci》 (2021년) 참여 앨범 《Schedule 1 - Fight 4 Right》 (2007년) 《Drive Me Crazy (Feat. 염따, 체코만도)》 《Lyrical D - Lyrical Harmonics》 (2007년) 《Check it ! (Feat. 백화, 염따, 체코만도)》 《BAHNUS VACUUM - 2009 1st Project Album Divas` Special》 (2009년) 《The Club(Club Remix) (Feat. 길미, 염따)》 《김정민 - Innocence》 (2009년) 《넌 아냐 (Feat. 염따)》 《Schedule 1 - I Am The Club》 (2009년) 《En-Clip #1(Feat. 염따)》 《알 수 없는음악가 - My Love Which Only One Person Is And Is More Beautiful Than Someone Only In The World She Love》 (2009년) 《내 사랑 (Feat. 타우, 수호, 후니훈, 소향(Pos), 염따)》 《DJ Wegun - SCHOOL For Dummies》 (2009년) 《멋쟁이 Style (Feat. 염따)》 《리오케이코아 - 보물섬》 (2010년) 《Old school 2 new skool (Feat. 낯선, 비프리, 염따)》 《낯선 - NASSUNOVA (Disc 1)》 (2011년) 《RANDOM (Bonus track) (Feat. 로보, 45RPM, 베이식, Beatbox DG, 비프리, Bigtone, Bizzy, Boltrix, 딥플로우, 다이나마이트, ELI, 제이독, J-Kyun, Kikaflo, 쿤타, 리오케이코아, 마이티 마우스, 마이노스, 스윙스, Von, Woo-Side, 만성, 염따, 오반장, 호현)》 《숨셔 - U Guys (Part.1)》 (2013년) 《했네 했어 (Feat. 전성현, 염따)》 《Forever 84》(DAMOIM) 《아마두 (Feat. 우원재, 김효은, 넉살, 허클베리 피)》(DAMOIM) 《중2병》(DAMOIM) 《달려》(DAMOIM) 존시나 OST 《미스터 기간제 OST Part 1》 (2019년) 가수 외 활동 방송 《희망나눔 무지개》 (MBC) 《무한도전》 (MBC) 《켠김에 왕까지》 (Ongamenet) 《모스트 원티드》 (SBS MTV) 《타임 어택》 (MTV KOREA) 《슈퍼스타K4》 (Mnet) 《수상한 쇼》 (SBS MTV) 《채널 피에스타》 (SBS MTV) 《대배틀 The Contender》 《쇼미더머니 9》 (Mnet) - 릴보이 Credit 피쳐링 (10회) 《고등래퍼 4》 (Mnet) - 멘토 《쇼미더머니 10》 (Mnet) - 심사위원 광고 처음처럼 FLEX 기타 FLEX 후드 티셔츠 및 슬리퍼 판매 수상 경력 한국 힙합 어워즈 올해의 아티스트 (2020) 같이 보기 데프콘 하하 쿤타 팔로알토 사이먼 도미닉 딥플로우 더 콰이엇 송민영 (래퍼) 숨셔 각주 외부 링크 1984년 출생 살아있는 사람 대한민국의 남자 래퍼 대한민국의 래퍼 대한민국의 힙합 음악가 호서대학교 동문 서울특별시 출신 서울특별시 출신 래퍼 서울특별시 출신 음악가 Show Me The Money 참가자

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yumdda

Yumdda

Yeom Hyeon-su (; born April 20, 1984), better known as Yumdda (), is a South Korean rapper and former VJ for MTV Korea. On November 25, 2020, he and former Illionaire Records artist The Quiett established their new record label Daytona Entertainment, after the closure of Illionaire Records. Discography Studio albums Charted songs Filmography Television Awards and nominations References 1984 births Living people South Korean male rappers South Korean television presenters

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A4%EC%8B%9C%EA%B0%84%20%EC%A4%91%ED%95%A9%ED%9A%A8%EC%86%8C%20%EC%97%B0%EC%87%84%20%EB%B0%98%EC%9D%91

실시간 중합효소 연쇄 반응

실시간 중합효소 연쇄 반응(, real-time PCR, , qPCR)은 분자생물학에서 중합효소 연쇄 반응을 기반으로 한 실험 방법이다. 실시간 중합효소 연쇄 반응은 표적 DNA분자의 증폭과 양의 측정을 동시에 한다. DNA 샘플의 특정 서열의 검출, 수량 측정 등을 한다. 계량은 실제 복제량 또는 상대적인 비율을 셀 수 있다. 이름 실시간 중합효소 연쇄 반응의 줄임말로 qPCR(quantitative PCR)이란 용어도 쓰인다. 실시간 중합효소 연쇄 반응은 종종 qRT-PCR로 불리기도 한다. 한편 "RT-PCR"로 일반적으로 불리는 것은 역전사 중합효소 연쇄 반응(reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction)을 말하며, 실시간 중합효소 연쇄 반응(real-time PCR)이 아니다. 그러나 모든 저자들이 이 관습에 집착하지는 않는다. 실험 과정 실험 과정은 일반적인 중합효소 연쇄 반응을 따른다. 중요한 특징은, 증폭된 DNA가 실시간으로 측정된다는 것이다. 이 점이 마지막에서 DNA가 관측이 되는 기본적인 중합효소 연쇄 반응과의 차이점이다. 두 가지의 일반적인 방법이 실시간 중합효소 연쇄 반응에서 사용된다. 아무 DNA 이중 나선에 끼어들어갈 수 있는 불특정한 형광염색. 상보적인 DNA 목표에 결합한 뒤 검출된다. 올리고뉴클레오타이드로 이루어진 서열-특이적 DNA 탐침. 형광으로 탐침이 라벨되어 있고, 이 또한 상보적인 DNA 목표에 결합한 뒤 검출된다. 종종, 실시간 중합효소 연쇄 반응은 세포 또는 조직의 mRNA와 비번역 RNA를 수량화하기 위해 역전사 중합효소 연쇄 반응과 결합되어 행해진다. 주기 실시간 PCR은 적어도 하나의 지정된 파장의 광선으로 각 샘플을 조명하고 여기된 형광단에서 방출되는 형광을 감지하는 기능을 갖춘 열 순환 주기에서 수행된다. Thermal Cycler는 또한 샘플을 빠르게 가열 및 냉각할 수 있으므로 핵산 및 DNA 중합효소의 물리화학적 특성을 활용할 수 있다. PCR 과정은 일반적으로 25~50회 반복되는 일련의 온도 변화로 구성된다. 이러한 주기는 일반적으로 3단계로 구성된다. 약 95°C에서 핵산의 이중 사슬을 분리한다. 약 50–60 °C의 온도에서 프라이머가 DNA 주형과 결합하도록 한다. 68–72 °C에서 DNA 중합효소에 의해 수행되는 중합을 촉진한다. 단편의 작은 크기로 인해 이러한 유형의 PCR에서는 일반적으로 효소가 정렬 단계와 변성 단계 사이의 변화 동안 DNA 앰플리콘을 복제할 수 있기 때문에 마지막 단계가 생략된다. PCR에서 사용하는 특정 형광 염료는 약 80°C의 온도로 각 주기에서 몇 초만 지속되는 짧은 온도 단계에서 측정된다. 각 주기에 사용되는 온도와 타이밍은 DNA 합성에 사용되는 효소, 반응에서 2가 이온 및 디옥시리보뉴클레오타이드 삼인산(dNTP)의 농도 및 프라이머의 결합 온도와 같은 다양한 매개변수에 따라 다르다. 활용 실험실에서 정량적 중합효소 연쇄 반응에 대한 수많은 응용 프로그램이 있다. 진단 및 기초 연구 모두에 일반적으로 사용된다. 산업에서 이 기술의 사용에는 식품 또는 식물성 물질의 미생물 부하 정량화, GMO(유전자 변형 유기체) 검출, 인간 바이러스 병원체의 정량화 및 유전형 분석이 포함된다. 유전자 발현량 측정 전통적인 DNA 검출 방법으로 유전자 발현을 정량화하는 것은 신뢰할 수 없다. 겔 또는 서던 블롯에서 노던 블롯 또는 PCR 산물에서 mRNA의 검출은 정확한 정량을 허용하지 않는다. 예를 들어, 일반적인 PCR의 20~40주기 동안 DNA 산물의 양은 초기 PCR에서 표적 DNA의 양과 직접적인 상관관계가 없는 안정기에 도달한다. Real-time PCR은 상대적 정량화와 절대 정량화의 두 가지 일반적인 방법으로 핵산을 정량화하는 데 사용할 수 있다. 절대 정량화는 검량선을 사용하여 DNA 표준과 비교하여 표적 DNA 분자의 정확한 수를 제공한다. 따라서 시료의 PCR과 표준물질의 증폭 효율이 동일해야 한다. 상대 정량화는 내부 참조 유전자를 기반으로 하여 표적 유전자 발현의 배수 차이를 결정한다. 정량화는 상보적 DNA(cDNA, mRNA의 역전사에 의해 생성됨)로 해석되는 mRNA의 발현 수준의 변화로 표현된다. 상대적 정량화는 연구된 유전자의 양을 대조 참조 유전자의 양과 비교하기 때문에 보정 곡선이 필요하지 않기 때문에 수행하기가 더 쉽다. 상대 정량화의 결과를 표현하는 데 사용되는 단위가 중요하지 않기 때문에 결과는 여러 다른 RTqPCR에서 비교할 수 있다. 하나 이상의 하우스키핑 유전자를 사용하는 이유는 역전사 및 전체 PCR 과정의 효율성에 영향을 미칠 수 있는 사용된 RNA의 양과 품질의 차이와 같은 비특이적 변이를 수정하기 위함이다. 그러나 이 과정의 가장 중요한 측면은 참조 유전자가 안정적이어야 한다는 것이다. 이러한 참조 유전자의 선택은 전통적으로 RNA 겔의 육안 검사, 노던 블롯 농도 측정 또는 반정량적 PCR(PCR 모방)과 같은 정성적 또는 반정량적 연구를 사용하여 분자 생물학에서 수행되었다. 이제 게놈 시대에는 전사체 기술을 사용하여 많은 유기체에 대해 보다 상세한 추정을 수행하는 것이 가능하다. 그러나 mRNA의 발현을 정량화하는 데 사용되는 대부분의 참조 유전자의 증폭은 실험 조건에 따라 다르다는 연구 결과가 있다. 따라서 가장 적합한 참조 유전자를 선택하기 위해서는 초기에 통계적으로 건전한 방법론적 연구를 수행할 필요가 있다. 주어진 조건에서 사용하기에 가장 적합한 유전자를 검출할 수 있는 많은 통계적 알고리즘이 개발되었다. geNORM 또는 BestKeeper와 같은 것들은 서로 다른 참조 유전자 및 조직의 매트릭스에 대한 쌍 또는 기하학적 평균을 비교할 수 있다. 진단 진단 정성적 PCR은 예를 들어 감염성 질환, 암 및 유전적 이상을 진단하는 핵산을 신속하게 검출하기 위해 적용된다. 임상 미생물학 연구실에 정성적 PCR 분석법을 도입함으로써 감염성 질병 진단이 크게 향상되었으며, 진단 테스트에서 신종 인플루엔자 및 코로나바이러스와 같이 새롭게 등장하는 질병을 감지하는 도구로 활용되고 있다. 미생물학 정량적 PCR은 식품 안전, 식품 부패 및 발효 분야에서 일하는 미생물학자와 수질(음용수 및 레크리에이션 용수) 및 공중 보건 보호의 미생물 위험 평가에도 사용된다. qPCR은 또한 환경 샘플에서 채취한 DNA에 있는 유전자의 분류학적 또는 기능적 마커를 증폭하는 데 사용할 수 있다. 마커는 DNA 또는 상보적 DNA의 유전적 단편으로 표시된다. 특정 유전 요소를 증폭함으로써 증폭 전에 샘플에서 요소의 양을 정량화할 수 있다. 분류학적 마커(리보솜 유전자)와 qPCR을 사용하면 샘플에서 미생물의 양을 결정하는 데 도움이 될 수 있으며 마커의 특이성을 기반으로 다른 과, 속 또는 종을 식별할 수 있다. 기능적 마커(단백질 코딩 유전자)를 사용하면 커뮤니티 내에서 유전자 발현을 표시할 수 있으며 이는 환경에 대한 정보를 나타낼 수 있다. 식물 병원체 검출 농업 업계는 경제적 손실을 방지하고 건강을 보호하기 위해 병원균이 없는 식물 번식체 또는 묘목을 생산하기 위해 끊임없이 노력하고 있다. 참나무와 다른 종을 죽이는 난균류인 Phytophthora ramorum의 소량의 DNA를 숙주 식물의 DNA와 혼합하여 검출할 수 있는 시스템이 개발되었다. 병원체의 DNA와 식물체의 구별은 각 분류군에 특징적인 리보솜 RNA 유전자의 코딩 영역에 위치한 스페이서인 ITS 염기서열의 증폭에 기초한다. 이 기술의 현장 기반 버전도 동일한 병원체를 식별하기 위해 개발되었다. GMO 검출 역전사를 사용하는 qPCR(RT-qPCR)은 DNA 검출 시 감도와 동적 범위를 감안할 때 GMO를 검출하는 데 사용할 수 있다. DNA 또는 단백질 분석과 같은 대안은 일반적으로 덜 민감한다. 형질전환 유전자가 아니라 벡터를 조작하는 과정에서 사용되는 프로모터, 터미네이터 또는 중간 서열을 증폭시키는 특정 프라이머가 사용된다. 형질전환 식물을 생성하는 과정은 일반적으로 하나 이상의 형질전환 유전자 사본의 삽입으로 이어지기 때문에 그 양도 일반적으로 평가된다. 이것은 종종 단일 사본으로만 존재하는 처리된 종의 대조군 유전자를 사용하여 상대적 정량화에 의해 수행된다. 같이 보기 중합효소 연쇄 반응 (PCR) 역전사 중합효소 연쇄 반응 (RT-PCR) 각주 분자생물학 중합효소연쇄반응 중합효소 연쇄 반응

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time%20polymerase%20chain%20reaction

Real-time polymerase chain reaction

A real-time polymerase chain reaction (real-time PCR, or qPCR when used quantitatively) is a laboratory technique of molecular biology based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). It monitors the amplification of a targeted DNA molecule during the PCR (i.e., in real time), not at its end, as in conventional PCR. Real-time PCR can be used quantitatively and semi-quantitatively (i.e., above/below a certain amount of DNA molecules). Two common methods for the detection of PCR products in real-time PCR are (1) non-specific fluorescent dyes that intercalate with any double-stranded DNA and (2) sequence-specific DNA probes consisting of oligonucleotides that are labelled with a fluorescent reporter, which permits detection only after hybridization of the probe with its complementary sequence. The Minimum Information for Publication of Quantitative Real-Time PCR Experiments (MIQE) guidelines propose that the abbreviation qPCR be used for quantitative real-time PCR and that RT-qPCR be used for reverse transcription–qPCR. The acronym "RT-PCR" commonly denotes reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and not real-time PCR, but not all authors adhere to this convention. Background Cells in all organisms regulate gene expression by turnover of gene transcripts (single stranded RNA): The amount of an expressed gene in a cell can be measured by the number of copies of an RNA transcript of that gene present in a sample. In order to robustly detect and quantify gene expression from small amounts of RNA, amplification of the gene transcript is necessary. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a common method for amplifying DNA; for RNA-based PCR the RNA sample is first reverse-transcribed to complementary DNA (cDNA) with reverse transcriptase. In order to amplify small amounts of DNA, the same methodology is used as in conventional PCR using a DNA template, at least one pair of specific primers, deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates, a suitable buffer solution and a thermo-stable DNA polymerase. A substance marked with a fluorophore is added to this mixture in a thermal cycler that contains sensors for measuring the fluorescence of the fluorophore after it has been excited at the required wavelength allowing the generation rate to be measured for one or more specific products. This allows the rate of generation of the amplified product to be measured at each PCR cycle. The data thus generated can be analysed by computer software to calculate relative gene expression (or mRNA copy number) in several samples. Quantitative PCR can also be applied to the detection and quantification of DNA in samples to determine the presence and abundance of a particular DNA sequence in these samples. This measurement is made after each amplification cycle, and this is the reason why this method is called real time PCR (that is, immediate or simultaneous PCR). Quantitative PCR and DNA microarray are modern methodologies for studying gene expression. Older methods were used to measure mRNA abundance: differential display, RNase protection assay and northern blot. Northern blotting is often used to estimate the expression level of a gene by visualizing the abundance of its mRNA transcript in a sample. In this method, purified RNA is separated by agarose gel electrophoresis, transferred to a solid matrix (such as a nylon membrane), and probed with a specific DNA or RNA probe that is complementary to the gene of interest. Although this technique is still used to assess gene expression, it requires relatively large amounts of RNA and provides only qualitative or semi quantitative information of mRNA levels. Estimation errors arising from variations in the quantification method can be the result of DNA integrity, enzyme efficiency and many other factors. For this reason a number of standardization systems (often called normalization methods) have been developed. Some have been developed for quantifying total gene expression, but the most common are aimed at quantifying the specific gene being studied in relation to another gene called a normalizing gene, which is selected for its almost constant level of expression. These genes are often selected from housekeeping genes as their functions related to basic cellular survival normally imply constitutive gene expression. This enables researchers to report a ratio for the expression of the genes of interest divided by the expression of the selected normalizer, thereby allowing comparison of the former without actually knowing its absolute level of expression. The most commonly used normalizing genes are those that code for the following molecules: tubulin, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, albumin, cyclophilin, and ribosomal RNAs. Basic principles Real-time PCR is carried out in a thermal cycler with the capacity to illuminate each sample with a beam of light of at least one specified wavelength and detect the fluorescence emitted by the excited fluorophore. The thermal cycler is also able to rapidly heat and chill samples, thereby taking advantage of the physicochemical properties of the nucleic acids and DNA polymerase. The PCR process generally consists of a series of temperature changes that are repeated 25–50 times. These cycles normally consist of three stages: the first, at around 95 °C, allows the separation of the nucleic acid's double chain; the second, at a temperature of around 50–60 °C, allows the binding of the primers with the DNA template; the third, at between 68 and 72 °C, facilitates the polymerization carried out by the DNA polymerase. Due to the small size of the fragments the last step is usually omitted in this type of PCR as the enzyme is able to replicate the DNA amplicon during the change between the alignment stage and the denaturing stage. In addition, in four-step PCR the fluorescence is measured during short temperature phases lasting only a few seconds in each cycle, with a temperature of, for example, 80 °C, in order to reduce the signal caused by the presence of primer dimers when a non-specific dye is used. The temperatures and the timings used for each cycle depend on a wide variety of parameters, such as: the enzyme used to synthesize the DNA, the concentration of divalent ions and deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs) in the reaction and the bonding temperature of the primers. Chemical classification Real-time PCR technique can be classified by the chemistry used to detect the PCR product, specific or non-specific fluorochromes. Non-specific detection: real-time PCR with double-stranded DNA-binding dyes as reporters A DNA-binding dye binds to all double-stranded (ds) DNA in PCR, increasing the fluorescence quantum yield of the dye. An increase in DNA product during PCR therefore leads to an increase in fluorescence intensity measured at each cycle. However, dsDNA dyes such as SYBR Green will bind to all dsDNA PCR products, including nonspecific PCR products (such as primer dimer). This can potentially interfere with, or prevent, accurate monitoring of the intended target sequence. In real-time PCR with dsDNA dyes the reaction is prepared as usual, with the addition of fluorescent dsDNA dye. Then the reaction is run in a real-time PCR instrument, and after each cycle, the intensity of fluorescence is measured with a detector; the dye only fluoresces when bound to the dsDNA (i.e., the PCR product). This method has the advantage of only needing a pair of primers to carry out the amplification, which keeps costs down; multiple target sequences can be monitored in a tube by using different types of dyes. Specific detection: fluorescent reporter probe method Fluorescent reporter probes detect only the DNA containing the sequence complementary to the probe; therefore, use of the reporter probe significantly increases specificity, and enables performing the technique even in the presence of other dsDNA. Using different-coloured labels, fluorescent probes can be used in multiplex assays for monitoring several target sequences in the same tube. The specificity of fluorescent reporter probes also prevents interference of measurements caused by primer dimers, which are undesirable potential by-products in PCR. However, fluorescent reporter probes do not prevent the inhibitory effect of the primer dimers, which may depress accumulation of the desired products in the reaction. The method relies on a DNA-based probe with a fluorescent reporter at one end and a quencher of fluorescence at the opposite end of the probe. The close proximity of the reporter to the quencher prevents detection of its fluorescence; breakdown of the probe by the 5' to 3' exonuclease activity of the Taq polymerase breaks the reporter-quencher proximity and thus allows unquenched emission of fluorescence, which can be detected after excitation with a laser. An increase in the product targeted by the reporter probe at each PCR cycle therefore causes a proportional increase in fluorescence due to the breakdown of the probe and release of the reporter. The PCR is prepared as usual (see PCR), and the reporter probe is added. As the reaction commences, during the annealing stage of the PCR both probe and primers anneal to the DNA target. Polymerisation of a new DNA strand is initiated from the primers, and once the polymerase reaches the probe, its 5'-3'-exonuclease degrades the probe, physically separating the fluorescent reporter from the quencher, resulting in an increase in fluorescence. Fluorescence is detected and measured in a real-time PCR machine, and its geometric increase corresponding to exponential increase of the product is used to determine the quantification cycle (Cq) in each reaction. Fusion temperature analysis Real-time PCR permits the identification of specific, amplified DNA fragments using analysis of their melting temperature (also called Tm value, from melting temperature). The method used is usually PCR with double-stranded DNA-binding dyes as reporters and the dye used is usually SYBR Green. The DNA melting temperature is specific to the amplified fragment. The results of this technique are obtained by comparing the dissociation curves of the analysed DNA samples. Unlike conventional PCR, this method avoids the previous use of electrophoresis techniques to demonstrate the results of all the samples. This is because, despite being a kinetic technique, quantitative PCR is usually evaluated at a distinct end point. The technique therefore usually provides more rapid results and/or uses fewer reactants than electrophoresis. If subsequent electrophoresis is required it is only necessary to test those samples that real time PCR has shown to be doubtful and/or to ratify the results for samples that have tested positive for a specific determinant. Modeling Unlike end point PCR (conventional PCR), real time PCR allows monitoring of the desired product at any point in the amplification process by measuring fluorescence (in real time frame, measurement is made of its level over a given threshold). A commonly employed method of DNA quantification by real-time PCR relies on plotting fluorescence against the number of cycles on a logarithmic scale. A threshold for detection of DNA-based fluorescence is set 3–5 times of the standard deviation of the signal noise above background. The number of cycles at which the fluorescence exceeds the threshold is called the threshold cycle (Ct) or, according to the MIQE guidelines, quantification cycle (Cq). During the exponential amplification phase, the quantity of the target DNA template (amplicon) doubles every cycle. For example, a DNA sample whose Cq precedes that of another sample by 3 cycles contained 23 = 8 times more template. However, the efficiency of amplification is often variable among primers and templates. Therefore, the efficiency of a primer-template combination is assessed in a titration experiment with serial dilutions of DNA template to create a standard curve of the change in (Cq) with each dilution. The slope of the linear regression is then used to determine the efficiency of amplification, which is 100% if a dilution of 1:2 results in a (Cq) difference of 1. The cycle threshold method makes several assumptions of reaction mechanism and has a reliance on data from low signal-to-noise regions of the amplification profile that can introduce substantial variance during the data analysis. To quantify gene expression, the (Cq) for an RNA or DNA from the gene of interest is subtracted from the (Cq) of RNA/DNA from a housekeeping gene in the same sample to normalize for variation in the amount and quality of RNA between different samples. This normalization procedure is commonly called the ΔCt-method and permits comparison of expression of a gene of interest among different samples. However, for such comparison, expression of the normalizing reference gene needs to be very similar across all the samples. Choosing a reference gene fulfilling this criterion is therefore of high importance, and often challenging, because only very few genes show equal levels of expression across a range of different conditions or tissues. Although cycle threshold analysis is integrated with many commercial software systems, there are more accurate and reliable methods of analysing amplification profile data that should be considered in cases where reproducibility is a concern. Mechanism-based qPCR quantification methods have also been suggested, and have the advantage that they do not require a standard curve for quantification. Methods such as MAK2 have been shown to have equal or better quantitative performance to standard curve methods. These mechanism-based methods use knowledge about the polymerase amplification process to generate estimates of the original sample concentration. An extension of this approach includes an accurate model of the entire PCR reaction profile, which allows for the use of high signal-to-noise data and the ability to validate data quality prior to analysis. According to research of Ruijter et al. MAK2 assumes constant amplification efficiency during the PCR reaction. However, theoretical analysis of polymerase chain reaction, from which MAK2 was derived, has revealed that amplification efficiency is not constant throughout PCR. While MAK2 quantification provides reliable estimates of target DNA concentration in a sample under normal qPCR conditions, MAK2 does not reliably quantify target concentration for qPCR assays with competimeters. Applications There are numerous applications for quantitative polymerase chain reaction in the laboratory. It is commonly used for both diagnostic and basic research. Uses of the technique in industry include the quantification of microbial load in foods or on vegetable matter, the detection of GMOs (genetically modified organisms) and the quantification and genotyping of human viral pathogens. Quantification of gene expression Quantifying gene expression by traditional DNA detection methods is unreliable. Detection of mRNA on a northern blot or PCR products on a gel or Southern blot does not allow precise quantification. For example, over the 20–40 cycles of a typical PCR, the amount of DNA product reaches a plateau that is not directly correlated with the amount of target DNA in the initial PCR. Real-time PCR can be used to quantify nucleic acids by two common methods: relative quantification and absolute quantification. Absolute quantification gives the exact number of target DNA molecules by comparison with DNA standards using a calibration curve. It is therefore essential that the PCR of the sample and the standard have the same amplification efficiency. Relative quantification is based on internal reference genes to determine fold-differences in expression of the target gene. The quantification is expressed as the change in expression levels of mRNA interpreted as complementary DNA (cDNA, generated by reverse transcription of mRNA). Relative quantification is easier to carry out as it does not require a calibration curve as the amount of the studied gene is compared to the amount of a control reference gene. As the units used to express the results of relative quantification are unimportant the results can be compared across a number of different RTqPCR. The reason for using one or more housekeeping genes is to correct non-specific variation, such as the differences in the quantity and quality of RNA used, which can affect the efficiency of reverse transcription and therefore that of the whole PCR process. However, the most crucial aspect of the process is that the reference gene must be stable. The selection of these reference genes was traditionally carried out in molecular biology using qualitative or semi-quantitative studies such as the visual examination of RNA gels, northern blot densitometry or semi-quantitative PCR (PCR mimics). Now, in the genome era, it is possible to carry out a more detailed estimate for many organisms using transcriptomic technologies. However, research has shown that amplification of the majority of reference genes used in quantifying the expression of mRNA varies according to experimental conditions. It is therefore necessary to carry out an initial statistically sound methodological study in order to select the most suitable reference gene. A number of statistical algorithms have been developed that can detect which gene or genes are most suitable for use under given conditions. Those like geNORM or BestKeeper can compare pairs or geometric means for a matrix of different reference genes and tissues. Diagnostic uses Diagnostic qualitative PCR is applied to rapidly detect nucleic acids that are diagnostic of, for example, infectious diseases, cancer and genetic abnormalities. The introduction of qualitative PCR assays to the clinical microbiology laboratory has significantly improved the diagnosis of infectious diseases, and is deployed as a tool to detect newly emerging diseases, such as new strains of flu and coronavirus, in diagnostic tests. Microbiological uses Quantitative PCR is also used by microbiologists working in the fields of food safety, food spoilage and fermentation and for the microbial risk assessment of water quality (drinking and recreational waters) and in public health protection. qPCR may also be used to amplify taxonomic or functional markers of genes in DNA taken from environmental samples. Markers are represented by genetic fragments of DNA or complementary DNA. By amplifying a certain genetic element, one can quantify the amount of the element in the sample prior to amplification. Using taxonomic markers (ribosomal genes) and qPCR can help determine the amount of microorganisms in a sample, and can identify different families, genera, or species based on the specificity of the marker. Using functional markers (protein-coding genes) can show gene expression within a community, which may reveal information about the environment. Detection of phytopathogens The agricultural industry is constantly striving to produce plant propagules or seedlings that are free of pathogens in order to prevent economic losses and safeguard health. Systems have been developed that allow detection of small amounts of the DNA of Phytophthora ramorum, an oomycete that kills oaks and other species, mixed in with the DNA of the host plant. Discrimination between the DNA of the pathogen and the plant is based on the amplification of ITS sequences, spacers located in ribosomal RNA gene's coding area, which are characteristic for each taxon. Field-based versions of this technique have also been developed for identifying the same pathogen. Detection of genetically modified organisms qPCR using reverse transcription (RT-qPCR) can be used to detect GMOs given its sensitivity and dynamic range in detecting DNA. Alternatives such as DNA or protein analysis are usually less sensitive. Specific primers are used that amplify not the transgene but the promoter, terminator or even intermediate sequences used during the process of engineering the vector. As the process of creating a transgenic plant normally leads to the insertion of more than one copy of the transgene its quantity is also commonly assessed. This is often carried out by relative quantification using a control gene from the treated species that is only present as a single copy. Clinical quantification and genotyping Viruses can be present in humans due to direct infection or co-infections which makes diagnosis difficult using classical techniques and can result in an incorrect prognosis and treatment. The use of qPCR allows both the quantification and genotyping (characterization of the strain, carried out using melting curves) of a virus such as the hepatitis B virus. The degree of infection, quantified as the copies of the viral genome per unit of the patient's tissue, is relevant in many cases; for example, the probability that the type 1 herpes simplex virus reactivates is related to the number of infected neurons in the ganglia. This quantification is carried out either with reverse transcription or without it, as occurs if the virus becomes integrated in the human genome at any point in its cycle, such as happens in the case of HPV (human papillomavirus), where some of its variants are associated with the appearance of cervical cancer. Real-time PCR has also brought the quantization of human cytomegalovirus (CMV) which is seen in patients who are immunosuppressed following solid organ or bone marrow transplantation. References Bibliography Molecular biology Laboratory techniques Polymerase chain reaction Real-time technology

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블루 화이트 스크린

블루 화이트 스크린(Blue–white screen)은 스크리닝 기술로 벡터의 성공적인 DNA접합을 검출하는 기술이다. 관심있는 DNA가 벡터에 들어가면 벡터는 형질전환되어 수용성세포(受容性細胞, competent cell)(박테리아)에 들어간다. 수용성세포들은 X-gal이 있는 평판에서 자라난다. 만약 접합이 성공적이라면, 박테리아 콜로니는 흰색이 될 것이고, 성공적이지 않다면, 파란색이 될 것이다. 이 기술은 DNA접합을 검출하는데 있어서 빠르고 쉬운 기술이다. 배경지식 분자복제는 분자생물학에 있어서 가장 흔하게 사용되는 기술이다. 관심있는 유전자는 DNA접합을 통해 플라스미드 벡터에 삽입된다. 그리고 플라스미드는 E.coli세포에 형질전환된다. 그러나, 모든 세포들에 관심있는 유전자가 삽입된 플라스미드가 들어가는 것은 아니다. 그리고 하나씩 콜로니에서 플라스미드가 들어갔는지 확인하는 것은 시간이 많이 걸린다. 그래서 초기의 방법들 중 하나가 blue white screening 의 방법이다. 이 기술을 통해 박테리아 콜로니의 색을 통해 반응을 알아볼 수 있다. 이 방법은 β-galactosidase의 유전자에 α-complementation(상보성)에 기반한다. α-complementation의 현상은 François Jacob과 Jacques Monod의 실험실에서 처음 발견되었는데, 그들은 유전자가 지워진 돌연변이로 작동하지 않는 β-galactosidase가 β-galactosidase와 같은 서열을 가진 α-donor peptide로부터 작동이 살아난 것을 보았다. Langley et al. β-galactosidase가 작동하지 않는 돌연변이는 N-말단 잔기의 11-41이 삭제되어있다. β-galactosidase가 작동하려면 3-90 잔기들에 의해 펩티드가 만들어져야한다. 145개의 아미노산을 코딩하는 M13사상파지(filamentous phage)가 만들어졌고 Messing et al., X-gal을 포함한 평판에서, 파지에 감염되어 작동하지 않는 단백질을 포함한 세포들은 파란 플라크를 만든다. pUC 플라스미드 복제 벡터는 M13 시스템으로부터 개발되었고, 스크리닝 방법에 처음으로 득을 본 플라스미드이다. 이 방법에서 DNA는 플라스미드로 접합이 되고, α peptide를 방해한다. 그래서 기능을 하는 β-galactosidase 가 만들어질 수 없다. 플라스미드를 포함한 형질전환된 세포들은 그러므로 흰색 콜로니를 만들고, 형질전환되지 않은 세포들은 파란 콜로니를 만든다. 분자생물학적 기작 β-galactosidase는 lacZ유전자로부터 단백질 암호화된 것으로 Lac오페론의 일부이다. β-galactosidase는 활성화 상태에서 homotetramer로 존재한다. 그러나, M15 균주로부터 나온 E. coli 돌연변이 β-galactosidase는 N-말단의 11-41잔기가 삭제되었고, 이 돌연변이체의 ω-peptide는 사량체(tetramer) 형성할 수 없기에 불활성상태이다. 그러나 α-peptide가 있는 상태에서 온전한 활성화 사량체로 전환될 수 있다. 이렇게 α-peptide가 돌연변이 β-galactosidase의 기능을 살리는 것을 "α-complementation" 이라 부른다. 이 방법으로, 숙주 E. coli균주는 lacZ가 삭제되어 ω-peptide를 만드는 돌연변이(lacZΔM15)를 가지고 다닌다. 플라스미드는 lacZα를 가지고 다니는데, β-galactosidase의 처음 59잔기를 암호화하는 서열이 포함되는 α-peptide이다. 돌연변이 E. coli와 플라스미드 모두 홀로 작용할 수 없다. 그러나, 두개의 단백질들이 함께 발현되면, 플라스미드의 lacZα 서열이 lacZΔM15로 형질전환되어 세포로 들어가게되면, 그들은 기능을 하는 β-galactosidase 효소를 만들 수 있다. blue white screen 방법은 이 α-complementation 과정을 방해하는 것이다. 플라스미드는 다복제구역 (multiple cloning site, MCS)에 lacZα서열을 들고다닌다. MCS안의 lacZα 서열은 제한효소로 잘릴 수 있으며, 외부 DNA가 들어 갈 수 있어서 기능을 하지 않는 β-galactosidase가 형성 될 수 있다. 활성화 형태의 β-galactosidase는 X-gal에 의해서 검출 될 수 있다. 색이 없는 젖당은 β-galactosidase에 의해 잘리게 되면 5-bromo-4-chloro-indoxyl을 형성하게 되는데, 저절로 이량체가 되고 산화되어 밝은 색을 내는 녹지 않는 색소인 5,5'-dibromo-4,4'-dichloro-indigo를 형성한다. 이 결과는 왜 기능을 하는 β-galactosidase가 있는 세포가 파란색을 띠게 되는지에 대한 이유이다. 파란 콜로니들은 그러므로 방해되지 않은, 즉 삽입되지 않은 lacZα가 있다는 것을 말해주고, 반면에 흰색 콜로니들은, X-gal이 수화되지 않았음을 말하며, lacZα에 삽입된 서열이 있어서 활성화된 β-galactosidase를 만들 수 없었음을 말한다. 실제적 고려 옳은 형태의 벡터와 컴피턴트세포들은 blue white screen을 할 때 중요한 고려대상이다. 플라스미드는 반드시 lacZα를 포함하여야한다. 예를 들어 pUC19와 pBluescript 플라스미드는 lacZα를 포함한다. E. coli세포는 lacZ유전자의 일부 서열이 지워진 돌연변이 lacZ유전자(즉, lacZΔM15)를 포함하여야한다. 또한 오페론이 포도당에도 영향을 받는 것도 생각해야한다. 포도당은 cAMP(cyclic adenosine monophsphate)의 양을 줄이고, cAMP는 CRP-cAMP복합체의 형성에도 중요하다. CRP-cAMP는 젖당오페론의 전사의 초기에 필요하다. 포도당의 존재는 젖당오페론을 불활성화시키고, 젖당 유전자는 포도당의 농도가 CRP-cAMP가 충분히 낮을 때 작동한다. 그래서 배지는 포도당을 포함하면 안 된다. X-gal은 빛에 민감하여, X-gal은 암실에서 보관되어야한다. Isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside(IPTG)는 젖당오페론의 유도자로 역할을 하는데, 배지에서 LacZ의 생산을 증가시키는데 사용한다. 각주 생명공학

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%E2%80%93white%20screen

Blue–white screen

The blue–white screen is a screening technique that allows for the rapid and convenient detection of recombinant bacteria in vector-based molecular cloning experiments. This method of screening is usually performed using a suitable bacterial strain, but other organisms such as yeast may also be used. DNA of transformation is ligated into a vector. The vector is then inserted into a competent host cell viable for transformation, which are then grown in the presence of X-gal. Cells transformed with vectors containing recombinant DNA will produce white colonies; cells transformed with non-recombinant plasmids (i.e. only the vector) grow into blue colonies. Background Molecular cloning is one of the most commonly used procedures in molecular biology. A gene of interest may be inserted into a plasmid vector via ligation, and the plasmid is then transformed into Escherichia coli cells. However, not all the plasmids transformed into cells may contain the desired gene insert, and checking each individual colony for the presence of the insert is time-consuming. Therefore, a method for the detection of the insert would be useful for making this procedure less time- and labor-intensive. One of the early methods developed for the detection of insert is blue–white screening which allows for identification of successful products of cloning reactions through the colour of the bacterial colony. The method is based on the principle of α-complementation of the β-galactosidase gene. This phenomenon of α-complementation was first demonstrated in work done by Agnes Ullmann in the laboratory of François Jacob and Jacques Monod, where the function of an inactive mutant β-galactosidase with deleted sequence was shown to be rescued by a fragment of β-galactosidase in which that same sequence, the α-donor peptide, is still intact. Langley et al. showed that the mutant non-functional β-galactosidase was lacking in part of its N-terminus with its residues 11—41 deleted, but it may be complemented by a peptide formed of residues 3—90 of β-galactosidase. M13 filamentous phage containing sequence coding for the first 145 amino acid was later constructed by Messing et al., and α-complementation via the use of a vector was demonstrated by the formation of blue plaques when cells containing the inactive protein were infected by the phage and then grown in plates containing X-gal. The pUC series of plasmid cloning vectors by Vieira and Messing was developed from the M13 system and were the first plasmids constructed to take advantage of this screening method. In this method, DNA ligated into the plasmid disrupts the α peptide and therefore the complementation process, and no functional β-galactosidase can form. Cells transformed with plasmid containing an insert therefore form white colonies, while cells transformed with plasmid without an insert form blue colonies; result of a successful ligation can thus be easily identified by the white coloration of cells formed from the unsuccessful blue ones. Molecular mechanism β-galactosidase is a protein encoded by the lacZ gene of the lac operon, and it exists as a homotetramer in its active state. However, a mutant β-galactosidase derived from the M15 strain of E. coli has its N-terminal residues 11—41 deleted and this mutant, the ω-peptide, is unable to form a tetramer and is inactive. This mutant form of protein however may return fully to its active tetrameric state in the presence of an N-terminal fragment of the protein, the α-peptide. The rescue of function of the mutant β-galactosidase by the α-peptide is called α-complementation. In this method of screening, the host E. coli strain carries the lacZ deletion mutant (lacZΔM15) which contains the ω-peptide, while the plasmids used carry the lacZα sequence which encodes the first 59 residues of β-galactosidase, the α-peptide. Neither is functional by itself. However, when the two peptides are expressed together, as when a plasmid containing the lacZα sequence is transformed into a lacZΔM15 cells, they form a functional β-galactosidase enzyme. The blue–white screening method works by disrupting this α-complementation process. The plasmid carries within the lacZα sequence an internal multiple cloning site (MCS). This MCS within the lacZα sequence can be cut by restriction enzymes so that the foreign DNA may be inserted within the lacZα gene, thereby disrupting the gene that produces α-peptide. Consequently, in cells containing the plasmid with an insert, no functional β-galactosidase may be formed. The presence of an active β-galactosidase can be detected by X-gal, a colourless analog of lactose that may be cleaved by β-galactosidase to form 5-bromo-4-chloro-indoxyl, which then spontaneously dimerizes and oxidizes to form a bright blue insoluble pigment 5,5'-dibromo-4,4'-dichloro-indigo. This results in a characteristic blue colour in cells containing a functional β-galactosidase. Blue colonies therefore show that they may contain a vector with an uninterrupted lacZα (therefore no insert), while white colonies, where X-gal is not hydrolyzed, indicate the presence of an insert in lacZα which disrupts the formation of an active β-galactosidase. The recombinant clones can be further analyzed by isolating and purifying small amounts of plasmid DNA from the transformed colonies and restriction enzymes can be used to cut the clone and determine if it has the fragment of interest. If the DNA is necessary to be sequenced, the plasmids from the colonies will need to be isolated at a point, whether to cut using restriction enzymes or performing other assays. Practical considerations The correct type of vector and competent cells are important considerations when planning a blue–white screen. The plasmid must contain the lacZα, and examples of such plasmids are pUC19 and pBluescript. The E. coli cell should contain the mutant lacZ gene with deleted sequence (i.e. lacZΔM15), and some of the commonly used cells with such genotype are JM109, DH5α, and XL1-Blue. It should also be understood that the lac operon is affected by the presence of glucose. The protein EIIAGlc, which is involved in glucose import, shuts down lactose permease when glucose is being transported into the cell. The media used in agar plate therefore should not include glucose. X-gal is light-sensitive and therefore its solution and plates containing X-gal should be stored in the dark. Isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG), which functions as the inducer of the lac operon, may be used in the media to enhance the expression of LacZ. X-gal is an expensive material, thus other methods have been developed in order to screen bacteria. GFP has been developed as an alternative to help screen bacteria. The concept is similar to α-complementation in which a DNA insert can disrupt the coding sequence within a vector and thus disrupt the GFP production resulting in non-fluorescing bacteria. Bacteria that have recombinant vectors (vector + insert), will be white and not express the GFP protein, while non-recombinant (vector), will and fluoresce under UV light. GFP in general has been used as a reporter gene where individuals can definitively determine if a clone carries a gene that researchers are analyzing. On occasion, the medium in which the colonies grow can influence the screen and introduce false-positive results. X-gal on the medium can occasionally degrade to produce a blue color or GFP can lose its fluorescence because of the medium and can impact researchers capabilities to determine colonies with the desire recombinant and those that do not possess it. Drawbacks Some white colonies may not contain the desired recombinant plasmid for a number of reasons. The ligated DNA may not be the correct one or not properly ligated, and it is possible for some linearized vector to be transformed, its ends "repaired" and ligated together such that no LacZα is produced and no blue colonies may be formed. Mutation can also lead to the α-fragment not being expressed. A colony with no vector at all will also appear white, and may sometimes appear as satellite colonies after the antibiotic used has been depleted. It is also possible that blue colonies may contain the insert. This occurs when the insert is "in frame" with the LacZα gene and a STOP codon is absent in the insert. This can lead to the expression of a fusion protein that has a functional LacZα if its structure is not disrupted. The correct recombinant construct can sometimes give lighter blue colonies which may complicate its identification. See also Complementation test pBLU pGreen pUC19 Recombinant DNA References Genetic engineering Genetics techniques

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%B0%EC%B6%94%ED%9D%B0%EB%82%98%EB%B9%84

배추흰나비

배추흰나비()는 흰나비과에 속하는 백색 소형 나비의 일종으로서, 작은흰나비라고도 한다. 석주명 선생이 애벌레 때에 배추를 먹는다 해서 배추흰나비라고 이름을 붙였다. 유럽·북아프리카·아시아·남아메리카·영국 등지에서 발견되며, 북아메리카·오스트레일리아·뉴질랜드 등 원래는 살았고 있지 않았던 지역에도 활발하게 도입되어 현재는 기후가 극도로 척박하지 않은 곳이라면 지구 어디에서라도 잘 발견되는 종이 되었다. 아종은 유럽배추흰나비(P. r. rapae)와 아시아배추흰나비(P. r. crucivora)로 크게 나뉘며, 그 세부적 2종류는 총 9종이다. 외형 큰배추흰나비(Pieris brassicae)에 비하여 몸이 작고 거동이 가벼우며, 날개가 더 작다. 잔털이 많은 몸에서 돋아나는 날개 겉면은 뿌연 흰색으로 돋아나는 자리 근처와 앞날개 끝부분에 거뭇거뭇한 테가 있으며 마찬가지로 앞날개 윗부분에는 2~3개, 뒷날개에는 1개 정도의 작은 반점 모양 무늬가 분포한다. 날개 뒷면은 탁한 노란색을 띄고, 작은 검은색 점 무늬들이 전재하며 시맥이 드러나 보인다. 날개의 길이는 성체가 32~47mm 정도이다. 전체적으로 수컷이 암컷보다 더 몸통이 작고 날개폭도 좁으며, 길고 뾰족한 더듬이는 몸통의 ⅔ 정도 길이를 가지고 있다. 분포와 서식 유라시아 대륙 및 북아프리카 등지에 전체적으로 널리 분포하며 1860년대 우연히 캐나다 퀘벡주에 도입된 이후 북아메리카에서도 흔히 관찰되는 종이 되었다. 현재는 소노라 사막 이북에서부터 캐나다에까지 이르는 넓은 분포 지역을 가지게 됐다. 북아메리카에서는 유라시아로부터 옮겨온 단 한 마리의 암컷으로부터 몇 세대만에 백만 마리로 불어났을 가능성이 제기되었다. 산지와 초원, 소택지, 삼림지에서는 잘 적응하나 식물이 거의 없는 사막 및 반사막 지대에서는 보기 드물며, 유콘 준주와 같은 캐나다 및 러시아의 극북 지역과 캘리포니아 근해 군도 지역에서는 찾아볼 수 없다. 1898년에는 하와이에, 1929년에는 뉴질랜드에 도입되었으며, 현재는 호주의 멜버른과 퍼스에 이르는 서식 지역을 가지고 있다. 영국에서는 4-5월, 7-8월에 볼 수 있는 나비이지만 북아메리카에서는 봄부터 가을까지라면 언제라도 볼 수 있는 나비이다. 다양한 식생이 분포하는 곳이라면 어디든지 찾을 수 있는 곤충이며, 대부분 촌락이나 도시 근교에서 볼 수 있으나 가장 많이 서식하는 지역은 골짜기와 계곡이 발달한 곳이다. 개활된 장소를 선호하나 개간된 지 얼마 안 된 숲지에서도 다소 찾아볼 수 있다. 생태와 한살이 세계 각지에서 아주 흔하게 볼 수 있는 나비로, 보통 4-10월에 어른벌레로 변태하는 것을 볼 수 있다. 배추·양배추·무 등을 기르는 밭과 그 주변의 양지바른 곳 및 습지가 발달한 곳에서 주로 눈에 띈다. 식물 잎사귀 위에 단 한 개의 노랗고 불룩한 기둥 모양의 알을 낳으며, 알껍질을 먹고 허물을 벗으며 다 자란 유충은 몸 길이가 약 3cm으로 몸은 갓태어났을 때에는 노란색이지만 자라면서 연두색을 띠며, 잔털이 몸 표면에 빽빽이 나 있다. 유충은 잎 뒷면이나 근처에서 번데기가 된다. 번데기로 겨울을 나며, 곤충이 활동할 수 있는 봄에 어른벌레가 깨어나온다. 어른벌레는 같은 계통에 속하는 나비들과 비교했을 때 작은 편이며, 수컷보다 암컷이 날개를 비롯한 몸집이 더 크다. 배추흰나비의 유충은 배추벌레라고 하여 농작물의 잎을 먹어치우는 해충으로 분류되지만, 어른벌레가 되면 꽃가루를 수정하여 식물의 번식을 돕는 익충이 된다. 밭 근처에서 많이 관찰되며 산지에서 번식하는 경우는 드물다. 수명은 약 1~6개월 정도이다. 아종 다음과 같이 9종의 아종이 존재한다. 유럽배추흰나비 (P. r. rapae) 아시아배추흰나비 (P. r. crucivora) P. r. atomaria P. r. eumorpha P. r. leucosoma P. r. mauretanica P. r. napi P. r. novangliae P. r. orientalis 사진 곤충기 곤충학자 김진일이 한국어로 옮긴 《파브르 곤충기》 전집 중 10권 미완성본에는 한국에 사는 배추흰나비와 다른 양배추흰나비 이야기가 있는데(김진일의 주석에 따르면, 한국에 사는 배추흰나비와 알과 애벌레의 생김새가 다르다 한다.), 양배추흰나비의 알과 유충에 기생곤충인 알벌과 고치벌이 기생하는 이야기를 적었다. 고치벌 애벌레들에게 체액을 착취당한 애벌레가 나비가 되려고 애써 번데기가 되려고 하건만, 고치벌 애벌레들이 숙주의 몸을 뚫고 나와 고치를 짓는 바람에 죽어가는 이야기에는 자그마한 생명이라도 소중히 대하는 파브르의 깊은 연민이 담겨 있다. 위치 찾기 배추흰나비는 항해능력이 있는 것으로 알려졌다. 배추흰나비는 항해능력중 위치정보에 해당하는 방향을 아는 능력이 있는 것으로 보고된바있다. 같이 보기 십자화과 글루코시놀레이트 각주 참고 문헌 배추와 배추흰나비의 ‘9천만년 전쟁’, 한겨레신문 외부 링크 흰나비과 1758년 기재된 곤충 아이슬란드의 곤충 뉴질랜드의 곤충 미국의 곤충 한국의 곤충 캐나다의 곤충 북아메리카의 나비목 아시아의 나비목 오세아니아의 나비목 유럽의 나비목 아프리카의 나비목 칼 폰 린네가 명명한 분류군

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieris%20rapae

Pieris rapae

Pieris rapae is a small- to medium-sized butterfly species of the whites-and-yellows family Pieridae. It is known in Europe as the small white, in North America as the cabbage white or cabbage butterfly, on several continents as the small cabbage white, and in New Zealand as the white butterfly. The butterfly is recognizable by its white color with small black dots on its wings, and it can be distinguished from P. brassicae by its larger size and the black band at the tip of its forewings. The caterpillar of this species, often referred to as the "imported cabbageworm", is a pest to crucifer crops such as cabbage, kale, bok choy and broccoli. Pieris rapae is widespread in Europe and Asia; it is believed to have originated in the Eastern Mediterranean region of Europe, and to have spread across Eurasia thanks to the diversification of brassicaceous crops and the development of human trade routes. Over the past two centuries, it spread to North Africa, North America, New Zealand, and Australia, as a result of accidental introductions. Description In appearance it looks like a smaller version of the large white (Pieris brassicae). The upperside is creamy white with black tips on the forewings. Females also have two black spots in the center of the forewings. Its underwings are yellowish with black speckles. It is sometimes mistaken for a moth due to its plain appearance. The wingspan of adults is roughly . Pieris rapae has a wingbeat frequency averaging 12.8 flaps per second. Distribution and habitat The species has a natural range across Europe, Asia, and North Africa. It was accidentally introduced to Quebec, Canada, around 1860 and spread rapidly throughout North America. The species has spread to all North American life zones from Lower Austral/Lower Sonoran to Canada. Estimates show that a single female of this species might be the progenitor in a few generations of millions. It is absent or scarce in desert and semidesert regions (except for irrigated areas). It is not found north of Canadian life zone, nor on Channel Islands off the coast of southern California. By 1898, the small white had spread to Hawaii; by 1929, it had reached New Zealand and the area around Melbourne, Australia, and found its way to Perth as early as 1943. It does not seem to have made it to South America. In Britain, it has two flight periods, April–May and July–August, but is continuously brooded in North America, being one of the first butterflies to emerge from the chrysalis in the spring and flying until hard freeze in the fall. The species can be found in any open area with diverse plant association. It can be seen usually in towns, but also in natural habitats, mostly in valley bottoms. Although an affinity towards open areas is shown, the small white is found to have entered even small forest clearings in recent years. The nominate subspecies P. r. rapae is found in Europe, while Asian populations are placed in the subspecies P. r. crucivora. Other subspecies include atomaria, eumorpha, leucosoma, mauretanica, napi, novangliae, and orientalis. Life cycle The small white will readily lay eggs on both cultivated and wild members of the cabbage family, such as charlock (Sinapis arvensis) and hedge mustard (Sisymbrium officinale). P. rapae is known to lay eggs singularly on the host plant. The egg is characterized by a yellowish color and 12 longitudinal ridges. The egg production peaks about a week after adulthood in lab and the female can live up to 3 weeks. Females tend to lay fewer eggs on plants in clumps than on isolated plants. It has been suggested that isothiocyanate compounds in the family Brassicaceae may have been evolved to reduce herbivory by caterpillars of the small white. However, this suggestion is not generally accepted because the small white has later been shown to be immune to the isothiocyanate forming reaction due to a specific biochemical adaptation. In contrast, the small white and relatives seem to have evolved as a consequence of this biochemical adaptation to the isothiocyanate-forming glucosinolates. Traditionally known in the United States as the imported cabbage worm, now more commonly the cabbage white, the caterpillars are bluish-green, with tiny black pints, a black ring around the spiracles, and a lateral row of yellow dashes, and a yellow middorsal line. Caterpillars rest on the undersides of the leaves, making them less visible to predators. Although the larval instars have not been fully studied, different instars are easily differentiated simply by comparing sizes, especially the head alone. During the first and second instar the head is entirely black; third instar has the clypeus yellow but the rest of the head black. In the fourth and fifth instar, there is a dark greenish-yellow dot behind each eye but with rest of the head black. However, the color of the caterpillar head does not necessarily indicate specific instar, as the time of color change is not fixed. In the larval stage, the small white can be a pest on cultivated cabbages, kale, radish, broccoli, and horseradish. The larva is considered a serious pest for commercial growth of cabbage and other Brassicaceae. The pupa of P. rapae is very similar to that of P. napi. It is brown to mottled-gray or yellowish, matching the background color. It has a large head cone, with a vertical abdomen and flared subdorsal ridge. The two (pupa of P. rapae and P. napi) can be easily distinguished by comparing the proboscis sheath. In P. rapae, the proboscis sheath extends far beyond the antennal sheath while in P. napi, only a very short distance. Like its close relative the large white, the small white is a strong flyer and the British population is increased by continental immigrants in most years. Adults are diurnal and fly throughout the day, except for early morning and evening. Although there is occasional activity during the later part of the night, it ceases as dawn breaks. Adult P. rapae can move many kilometers in individual flights. Adults have been observed to fly as much as 12 km in one flight. On average, a female flies about 0.7 km per day and moves 0.45 km from where she starts. Males patrol all day around host plants to mate with females. Behavior and ecology Larva feeding The P. rapae larva is voracious. Once it hatches from the egg, it eats its own eggshell and then moves to eat the leaves of the host plant. It bores into the interior of the cabbage, feeding on the new sprouts. The larvae adjust their feeding rate to maintain a constant rate of nitrogen uptake. They will feed faster in low nitrogen environment and utilize the nitrogen more efficiently (at the cost of efficiency in other nutrients) than larvae hatched on nitrogen high host plant. However, no significant difference in growth rate was observed between larvae in the two environments. Considered a serious pest, the caterpillar is known to be responsible for annual damage worth hundreds of thousands of dollars. The larvae are shown to disperse their damage on the plant. Larvae are shown to feed mostly during the day. They move around the plant mostly spending their time feeding. A feeding bout is immediately followed by a change in position, either to a new leaf or to another part of the same leaf. This dispersal of damage is seen as an adaptive behavior to hide the visual cues from predators that rely on vision. Even though P. rapae larvae are cryptic, they remain in the sun for the majority of the day, rather than hiding on the underside of the leaf. The condition of the host plant influences the larval growth significantly. Larval duration, pupal weights, adult weights, and larval growth rates were significantly altered by both plant nutrient availability and plant species. Larvae preferred Brassicaceae plants over other host plants. Larvae that have previously fed on crucifers will refuse nasturtium leaves to the point of starving to death. Within the family Brassicaceae, larvae show no significant difference in feeding behavior; larvae placed on kale show no difference from larvae placed on Brussels sprouts. Survival rates do not differ depending on nutrition availability of host plant. Elevated plant nutrient levels decrease larval duration and increase larval growth rate. The elevated nutrition level also decreased the fourth instar's consumption rate and increased its food utilization efficiencies. Larvae on cultivated host plant was observed to have higher growth efficiency than those fed in foliage of wild species. In short, larvae fed on high nutrition foliage show shorter duration of development, less consumption rate, higher growth rate and food processing efficiency. Adult feeding Adult P. rapae use both visual and olfactory cues to identify flowers in their foraging flight. The cabbage butterfly prefers purple, blue and yellow flowers over other floral colors. Some flowers, like Brassica rapa, have a UV guide for aiding nectar search for the butterfly where the petals reflect near UV light whereas the center of the flower absorbs UV light, creating a visible dark center in the flower when seen in UV condition. This UV guide plays a significant role in P. rapae foraging. The adult flies around feeding from nectars of the plant. The adult looks for certain colors among green vegetation (purple, blue, and yellow preferred to white, red and green) and extend the proboscis before landing. It probes for nectar after landing. The butterfly identifies the flower through vision and odor. Chemical compounds such as Phenylacetaldehyde or 2-Phenylethanol was shown to provoke reflex proboscis extension. The search for nectar is also limited by the memory constraint. An adult butterfly shows a flower constancy in foraging, visiting flower species that it has already experienced. The ability to find nectar from the flower increased over time, showing a certain learning curve. Furthermore, the ability to find nectar from the first flower species decreased if the adult butterfly started to feed nectar from other plant species. Courtship and reproduction The male, when it spots a female, zigzags up, down, below, and in front of her, flying until she lands. The male flutters, catches her closed forewings with his legs, and spreads his wings. This causes her to lean over. He usually flies a short distance with her dangling beneath him. An unreceptive female may fly vertically or spread her wings and raise the abdomen to reject the male. Most host plants of P. rapae contain mustard oils and females use these oils to locate the plants. Females then lay the eggs singly on host leaves. In the northern hemisphere, adults appear as early as March and they continue to brood well into October. Spring adults have smaller black spots on its wings and are generally smaller than summer adults. Host selection All known host plants contain natural chemicals called glucosinolates, that are cues for egg laying. Host plants are: herb Cruciferae – Arabis glabra, Armoracia lapthifolia, Armoracia aquatica, Barbarea vulgaris, Barbarea orthoceras, Barbarea verna, Brassica oleracea, Brassica rapa, Brassica caulorapa, Brassica napus, Brassica juncea, Brassica hirta, Brassica nigra, Brassica tula, Cardaria draba, Capsella bursa-pastoris (females oviposit but larvae refuse it), Dentaria diphylla, Descurainia Sophia, Eruca sativa, Erysimum perenne, Lobularia maritima, Lunaria annua (retards larval growth), Matthiola incana, Nasturtium officinale, Raphanus sativus, Raphanus raphanistrum, Rorippa curvisiliqua, Rorippa islandica, Sisymbrium irio, Sisymbrium altissimum, Sisymbrium officinale (and var. leicocarpum), Streptanthus tortuosus, Thlaspi arvense (larvae grow slowly or refuse it); Capparidaceae: Cleome serrulata, Capparis sandwichiana; Tropaeolaceae: Tropaeolum majus; Resedaceae: Reseda odorata. There are three phases to host selection by the P. rapae adult female butterfly: searching, landing, and contact evaluation. A gravid female adult will first locate suitable habitats, and then identify patches of vegetation that contain potential host plants. The cabbage butterflies seem to limit their search to open areas and avoid cool, shaded woodlands even when host plants are available in these areas. Furthermore, gravid females will not oviposit during overcast or rainy weather. In laboratory conditions, high light intensity is required to promote oviposition. The females fly in a linear path independent of wind direction or position of the sun. Host plant searching behavior Pre-mating females do not display host plant searching behavior. The behavior starts soon after mating. Flight behavior of an ovipositing female of P. rapae follows the Markov process. Females foraging for nectar will readily abandon a linear path; they will show tight turns concentrating on flower patches. Females searching for host plant, however, will follow a linear route. As a result of directionality, the number of eggs laid per plant declines with increases in host plant density. The average move length declined as host plant density increases, but the decline is not enough to concentrate eggs on a dense host plant. Although females avoid laying eggs on plants or leaves with other eggs or larvae in a lab condition; this discrimination is not shown in field conditions. Adult females may search for a suitable Brassicaceae over a range of 500 m to several kilometers. Small differences in flight patterns have been observed in Canadian and Australian P. rapae, indicating that there may be slight variation among different geographic populations. Plant preference Landing appears to be mediated primarily by visual cues, of which color is the most important. P. rapae in a lab environment showed no significant preference for the shape or size of the oviposition substrate. Gravid females responded most positively to green and blue/green colors for oviposition. The preference was shown for surfaces with maximal reflectance of 550 nm. In natural conditions, oviposition was preferred on larger plants, but this was not reflected in laboratory conditions. Younger plants often had yellow/green color while older plants display a darker and stronger green. Female butterflies preferred the older plants due to the attraction to the darker green color. However, larvae perform better on younger plants. Behavior on plant Once a gravid female lands on a plant, tactile and contact chemical stimuli are major factors affecting acceptance or rejection of the site for egg deposition. Once a female lands on a host plant, it will go through a "drumming reaction" or a rapid movement of the forelegs across the surface of a leaf. This behavior is believed to provide physical and chemical information about the suitability of a plant. P. rapae is shown to prefer smooth hard surfaces similar to a surface of an index card over rougher softer textures like blotting paper or felt. P. rapae use their chemoreceptors on their tarsi to search for chemical cues from the host plant. An adult female will be sensitive to number of glucosinolates, gluconasturtiin being the most effective glucosinolate stimulants for these sensilla. Egg-laying behavior A gravid female adult will lay disproportionate number of eggs on peripheral or isolated plants. A single larva is less likely to exhaust the whole plant, therefore laying eggs singly prevents the likelihood of larval starvation from resource exhaustion. This behavior may have evolved to exploit the original vegetation in the eastern Mediterranean where brassica plants originated. Age of butterflies appears to have no effect on their ability to select the source of highest concentration of oviposition stimulant. Additionally, it has been shown that the weather has a large impact on the eggs of P. rapae. The main issues with the weather are that strong winds can blow eggs from the leaves and strong rains can drown the caterpillars. Larval growth Larvae feeding and growth is highly dependent on their body temperature. While the larvae survives from as low as 10 °C, the growth of larvae changes with changing temperature. From 10 °C to 35 °C, growth increases, but declines rapidly at temperatures higher than 35 °C. Past 40 °C, larvae start showing substantial mortality. The diurnal variation of temperature can be extensive with daily range of more than 20 °C on some sunny days and clear nights. Larvae are able to respond well to a wide range of temperature condition, which allows them to inhabit various locations in the world. In natural conditions, larvae shows fastest growth at temperatures close to 35 °C. however, in constant temperature conditions in laboratory, larvae shows mortality at 35 °C. In this lab condition, larvae grows between 10 °C to 30.5 °C while showing maximal developmental rate at 30.5 °C. The difference between lab and natural condition is due to routine temperature changes on the scale of minutes to hours under field conditions. Predation Studies in Britain showed that birds are a major predator in British town and city environments (such as in gardens) while arthropods had larger influence in rural areas. Bird predators include the house sparrow (Passer domesticus), goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis) and skylark (Alauda arvensis). Caterpillars are cryptic, coloured as green as the host plant leaves and they rest on the undersides of the leaves, thus making them less visible to predators. Unlike the large white, they are not distasteful to predators like birds. Like many other "white" butterflies, they overwinter as a pupa. Bird predation is usually evident only in late-instar larvae or on overwintering pupae. Parasitism P. rapae caterpillars are commonly parasitized by a variety of insects. The four main parasitoids are bracconid wasps Cotesia rubecula and Cotesia glomerata, and flies Phryxe vulgaris, and Epicampocera succinata. Cotesia rubecula and Cotesia glomerata, previously in the genus Apanteles, were introduced in North America from Asia as biocontrols. C. rubecula lays its eggs in the 1st and 2nd instar caterpillars. The larva then grows within the caterpillar and continues to feed on the caterpillar until it is almost fully grown, and at that point the caterpillar is killed. It is important to note that only one larva develops per host and the rate of C. rubecula is largely independent of P. rapae population size. C. glomerata is similar to C. rubecula in that both parasitize the host in either the 1st or 2nd instar. The main difference is that C. glomerata always kill the host in the 5th instar and multiple larvae can be raised within one host. P. rapae pupae are frequently parasitized by Pteromalus puparum. Notes References Further reading Asher, Jim et al.: The Millennium Atlas of Britain and Ireland. Oxford University Press. External links Pieris project A worldwide citizen science project undertaking research on Pieris rapae Pieris rapae on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures website Cabbage white, Butterflies of Canada rapae Butterflies of Africa Butterflies of Asia Butterflies of Europe Pieridae of South America Butterflies of Indochina Butterflies of Oceania Butterflies described in 1758 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012%EB%85%84%20%EC%9D%BC%EB%B3%B8%20%EC%8B%9C%EB%A6%AC%EC%A6%88

2012년 일본 시리즈

2012년 일본 시리즈(, ) 또는 코나미 일본 시리즈 2012()는 2012년 10월 27일부터 11월 3일까지 열린 제63회 일본 프로 야구 일본 시리즈 경기이다. 센트럴 리그 클라이맥스 시리즈 우승팀인 요미우리 자이언츠가 총 6차례의 접전을 펼친 끝에 퍼시픽 리그 클라이맥스 시리즈 우승팀 홋카이도 닛폰햄 파이터스를 누르고 4승 2패의 성적을 기록, 2009년 이후 3년 만에 22번째 우승을 차지했다. 개요 요미우리와 닛폰햄이 2009년 이후 3년 만이자 세 번째로 맞대결하게 됐고 과거 두 차례의 일본 시리즈에서는 모두 닛폰햄이 홈팀으로서 첫 경기를 치렀지만 이 시리즈에서는 처음으로 요미우리가 홈팀으로서 첫 경기를 치렀다. 작년과 마찬가지로 모든 경기가 돔 구장에서 개최됐다. 경기 결과는 과거 2차례의 승패와 같은 4승 2패로 요미우리가 승리하면서 3년 만에 통산 22번째의 일본 시리즈 우승을 달성했는데 요미우리의 하라 다쓰노리 감독은 감독으로서의 3번째이자 일본 시리즈 통산 4번째로 출전하여 처음으로 요미우리의 홈구장인 도쿄 돔에서 일본 시리즈 우승을 이끌었다. 한편 닛폰햄의 구리야마 히데키 감독은 일본 시리즈 10번째가 되는 신인 감독으로서의 일본 시리즈 우승을 노렸지만 요미우리의 강한 조직력과 빈틈없는 야구를 넘어서지 못했고 팀으로서는 2006년 이후 6년 만에 우승 달성에는 실패했다. 일본 시리즈 우승 팀이 2연승 → 2연패 → 2연승의 패턴은 1998년에 요코하마 베이스타스가 기록한 이후 14년 만이었는데 이 시리즈에서는 전체 6경기 모두 역전승은 없었지만 4차전에서 닛폰햄이 끝내기 승리를 포함한 모든 경기에서 선취점을 얻은 팀이 그대로 승리했다. 우승 팀인 요미우리는 11월 8일부터 대한민국 부산 사직야구장에서 개최되는 2012년 아시아 시리즈의 출전권이 주어졌다. 감독 개최 구장 클라이맥스 시리즈 경기 결과 ☆·★=클라이맥스 시리즈·파이널의 어드밴티지 1승 1패분 경기 일정 1차전 : 10월 27일(도쿄 돔) 2차전 : 10월 28일(도쿄 돔) 3차전 : 10월 30일(삿포로 돔) 4차전 : 10월 31일(삿포로 돔) 5차전 : 11월 1일(삿포로 돔) 6차전 : 11월 3일(도쿄 돔) 모든 경기에서는 요미우리가 1루쪽, 닛폰햄이 3루쪽 벤치를 사용했다. 삿포로 돔에서 개최되는 3·4·5차전은 지명 타자제가 채택됐다. 연장전은 15회까지이며, 금년도 정규 시즌에 채택된 시간 제한에 관한 특례 조치(소위 ‘3시간 30분 룰’)는 채택되지 않았다. 예고 선발은 시행하지 않았다. 경기 기록 일본 시리즈 경기 결과 1차전 10월 27일 - 도쿄 돔 2차전 10월 28일 - 도쿄 돔 3차전 10월 30일 - 삿포로 돔 4차전 10월 31일 - 삿포로 돔(연장 12회) 5차전 11월 1일 - 삿포로 돔 6차전 11월 3일 - 도쿄 돔 수상 선수 MVP 우쓰미 데쓰야(요미우리) 1차전과 5차전에 선발 등판하면서 2승 무패, 1.20(투구 이닝 15이닝, 2자책점)의 평균자책점으로 좋은 성적을 남겼다. 감투상 이나바 아쓰노리(닛폰햄) 타율 0.391(23타수 9안타)와 2타점을 기록하면서 일본 시리즈 수위 타자가 됐고 3차전에서는 홀튼으로부터 홈런을 때려냈다. 우수 선수상 아베 신노스케(요미우리) 타율 0.250(12타수 3안타)을 기록하였고 1차전에서의 선제타를 포함한 2개의 적시타, 일본 시리즈 우승을 결정짓는 6차전에서도 결승점이 되는 적시타를 때려냈다. 존 바우커(요미우리) 타율 0.176(17타수 3안타)를 기록하였고 1차전과 5차전에서 요시카와로부터 홈런을 때려내는 등 7타점을 올리며 맹활약했다. 조노 히사요시(요미우리) 2차전과 6차전에 다케다 마사루로부터 홈런을 때려냈고 타율 0.375(24타수 9안타), 2타점, 그리고 6경기 연속 안타를 기록했다. MVP와 감투 선수상, 우수 선수상에 이어 일본 야구 기구의 스폰서인 코나미에서 아래 5개의 개인상이 추가됐는데 수상 선수에게는 코나미로부터 상금이 수여됐다. 그리고 ‘특별상’의 수상 선수는 대회 기간 중 코나미 홈페이지를 통해서 팬 투표로 결정됐다. 모두가 선택하는 코나미상 : 아베 신노스케(요미우리) 드림 나인상 : 이나바 아쓰노리(닛폰햄) BASEBALL HEROES상 : 마쓰모토 데쓰야(요미우리) 3차전과 4차전에서 팀을 구해내는 호수비를 보여주면서 타율 0.357(14타수 5안타), 1타점, 6개의 희생타를 기록했다(일본 시리즈에서의 신기록). 파워풀 프로 야구상 : 조노 히사요시(요미우리) 프로 야구 스피리츠상 : 우쓰미 데쓰야(요미우리) 각주 같이 보기 2012년 퍼시픽 리그 클라이맥스 시리즈 2012년 센트럴 리그 클라이맥스 시리즈 2012년 아시아 시리즈 2009년 일본 시리즈 1981년 일본 시리즈 외부 링크 2012년 일본 시리즈 - 일본야구기구 홈페이지 2012년 일본 시리즈 경기 결과(일본야구기구 공식 기록) 2012년 야구 프로 야구 일본 시리즈 요미우리 자이언츠 홋카이도 닛폰햄 파이터스 2012년 10월 2012년 11월

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012%20Japan%20Series

2012 Japan Series

The 2012 Japan Series (known as the Konami Nippon Series 2012 for sponsorship reasons) was the 63rd edition of Nippon Professional Baseball's (NPB) championship series known colloquially as the Japan Series. The best-of-seven playoff was won by the Central League champion Yomiuri Giants in six games over the Pacific League champion Hokkaido Nippon-Ham Fighters. It was the Giants' 22nd Japan Series title, second in the last four years. The series began on Saturday, October 27, 2012 and ended on Saturday, November 3, 2012 at the Tokyo Dome in Bunkyō, Tokyo. Giants starting pitcher Tetsuya Utsumi, who was the winning pitcher in Games 1 and 5, was named the Japan Series Most Valuable Player (MVP). Giants players Shinnosuke Abe, Hisayoshi Chono and John Bowker were also recognized with Outstanding Player awards. Climax Series Summary Game summaries Game 1 After three scoreless innings, the Giants scored the first run of the series in the bottom of the fourth with an RBI single off the bat of catcher Shinnosuke Abe. Later in the same inning, former Major League Baseball (MLB) player John Bowker hit a two-out, three-run home run to put the Giants up 4–0. Fighters' starter Mitsuo Yoshikawa was taken out of the game following the inning. He gave up four runs on seven hits. The next inning, the Giants added two runs to their total with RBIs from Abe and outfielder Yoshinobu Takahashi. After a scoreless sixth inning, Bowker struck again in the seventh. He hit a double to right field with the bases loaded, driving in two more runs. Bowker finished the game with five RBIs, one shy of tying the Japan Series record. All eight of the Giants' starting position players finished the game with at least one hit. The 2012 season was Bowker's first season playing in NPB. He performed poorly during the 69 regular season games in which he appeared, hitting three home runs, ten RBIs and a .196 batting average. In August and September, Bowker was sent away to play on the Giants farm team; however, he was brought back near the end of the regular season. He made his NPB postseason debut in Game 3 of the final stage of the Central League Climax Series. After going 2-for-4 in that game, he played in the three remaining games of the series recording a hit in each. Giants' starter Tetsuya Utsumi kept the Fighters scoreless through the seven innings he pitched. He struck out eight and allowed only two hits with no walks; however, he did hit two batters. The Fighters managed to avoid a shutout when outfielder Daikan Yoh hit a solo home run off of Giants pitcher Dicky Gonzalez. Game 2 Second-year pitcher Hirokazu Sawamura started Game 2 for the Giants, marking his first Japan Series appearance. In the first pitch of the night, Sawamura hit Daikan Yoh. After recording two outs, Sawamura hit a second batter, outfielder Sho Nakata. He retired the next batter and finished the inning without allowing any runs. After being hit, Yoh continued to play; however, Nakata was removed from the game after the fourth inning to be taken to a hospital for X-rays on his hand. No bones were broken and Nakata returned for Game 3. Fighters starter Masaru Takeda took the mound in the bottom half of the inning and gave up a lead-off, solo home run to outfielder Hisayoshi Chono. It was the 12th lead-off home run in Japan Series history. Chono's lead-off home run proved to be the difference in the game. After the first inning, Takeda allowed only three more hits over five scoreless innings. He struck out a total of ten batters. Sawamura went on to pitch through eight scoreless innings, allowing only three hits and striking out seven. With two outs in the ninth inning, the Fighters had a chance to score after Giants reliever Tetsuya Yamaguchi allowed two singles. Yamaguchi was replaced by Scott Mathieson who threw one pitch to Tomohiro Nioka to record an out and secure the Giants' win. Mathieson's save was the first one-pitch save and the sixth one-batter save in Japan Series history. Also, for only the second time in Japan Series history, no walks were allowed by any pitcher used by either team in the game. Game 3 In Game 3, the Fighters found themselves starting their potential three-game homestand down two-games-to-none. Fighters designated hitter Atsunori Inaba got the scoring started in the second inning with a solo home run, giving the Fighters their first lead of the series. Shortstop Makoto Kaneko added to the lead with an RBI single later in the inning. The scoring continued for the Fighters in the third. Giants starter D. J. Houlton was quickly replaced after walking two batters and then allowing Inaba and third baseman Eiichi Koyano to collect back-to-back RBI hits. The next batter, first baseman Micah Hoffpauir, batted in another run before the end of the third inning. Fighters starter Brian Wolfe pitched through five innings allowing five hits, striking out three, walking three and hitting a batter. He allowed two runs, both in the fifth inning. For the bottom of the fifth, Shinnosuke Abe was replaced at catcher. Abe felt discomfort in his leg when he attempted to get on base during the top of the inning. Because of this injury, the Giants captain was missing from the line up for Game 4 and Game 5. With the Fighters up 6-2, the Giants threatened to score in the top of the eighth inning. They loaded the bases with three consecutive no-out singles off of Fighters reliever Hirotoshi Masui. Masui forced the next two batters to pop out and ground out before allowing an RBI single. He escaped the inning with only one run scored when he got the next batter to fly out. The Fighters' entire starting lineup finished the game with at least one hit. Their total of 12 hits surpassed their total of eight hits from Games 1 and 2 combined. Game 4 Game 4 started as a pitcher's duel between Fighters pitcher Masaru Nakamura and Giants pitcher Ryosuke Miyaguni. Both young starters took a scoreless game through seven innings before being relieved. Nakamura allowed five hits, struck out three and walked none, while Miyaguni allowed three hits, striking out four and walking two. The game went into extra innings and remained scoreless until the bottom of the 12th. Eiichi Koyano led off the bottom of the 12th with a single. He was thrown out at second by Giants reliever Kentaro Nishimura on Takuya Nakashima's sacrifice bunt attempt. Next, Shota Ono bunted and again Nishimura fielded the ball; however, second baseman Daisuke Fujimura, then covering first base, could not handle Nishimura's throw. Fujimura's error left runners safe on first and second. With only one out, Yuji Iiyama was given the go-ahead to hit instead of laying down another sacrifice bunt. Iiyama hit a walkoff double to drive the game-winning run home. Game 5 John Bowker had another memorable night in Game 5. His two-run home run in the second inning put the Giants up 2–0. The Fighters cut the deficit in half in bottom of the inning. Fighters starter Mitsuo Yoshikawa continued to struggle to get batters out in the third. After giving up three more RBIs, Yoshikawa was relieved by Kazuhito Tadano after just 2 innings. Giants backup catcher Ken Kato was at the center of a controversial call the next inning. With a runner on first base, Kato was preparing to lay down a sacrifice bunt. After Tadano's first pitch, Kato dropped to the ground holding his head, apparently indicating that he had been hit. Home plate umpire Koichi Yanada awarded Kato first base and ejected Tadano for a dangerous pitch. He was the first player in Japan Series history to be removed from a game for a dangerous pitch. Replays clearly showed, however, that the pitch did not hit Kato, who sold the umpire on a hit by pitch in a move similar to simulation in football, flopping in basketball, or embellishment in ice hockey, all of which are punishable in their respective sports. The game taking place in Hokkaido, Fighters fans booed intensely during Kato's remaining two at-bats later in the game. Fighters manager Hideki Kuriyama ran onto the field and argued with Yanada that Kato had not been hit, but the call stood. In the top half of the fifth inning, a pitch hit Hisayoshi Chono on the knee and he had to leave the game. Tetsuya Utsumi earned his second win of the series with a strong, eight-inning outing. He allowed two runs on seven hits and struck out seven without walking a batter. The Giants continued to score throughout the game, eventually routing the Fighters 10–2. Game 6 The Giants took a quick lead in Game 6 with outfielder Kenji Yano's bases-loaded single which produced two runs in the bottom of the first inning. Fighters starter Masaru Takeda was quickly pulled from the game after the second inning in which he allowed a third Giants run off of Hisayoshi Chono's solo home run, his second of the series. Heading into the top of the sixth inning, the Fighters were down 3–0 when Sho Nakata hit a three-run home run to tie the game. The tie was broken, however, in the bottom of the seventh. Chono led off the inning with a walk and was quickly advanced to second on a sacrifice bunt from Tetsuya Matsumoto. Two batters later, Shinnosuke Abe hit a single up the middle of the field to earn what proved to be the game-winning RBI. Abe returned to the Giants roster for Game 6 after missing the previous two games because of discomfort in his right leg. Scott Mathieson then threw a scoreless eighth and Tetsuya Yamaguchi earned the save by keeping the Fighters from capitalizing on a hit and a walk in the ninth. See also 2012 Korean Series 2012 World Series References External links Official Website Japan Series Hokkaido Nippon-Ham Fighters Yomiuri Giants Japan Series

https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%88%EB%88%84%EC%97%98%20L.%20%EC%BC%80%EC%86%90

마누엘 L. 케손

마누엘 루이스 케손 이 몰리나(, 1878년 8월 19일 ~ 1944년 8월 1일)은 필리핀의 정치인, 독립운동가, 1935년부터 1944년까지 미국의 보호 아래 수립된 필리핀 자치 정부의 초대, 제2대 대통령이었다. 약칭으로 마누엘 케손, 마누엘 루이스 케손 등으로 불린다. 마닐라의 산토 토마스 대학을 고학으로 다니던 중 필리핀 독립 혁명에 참여, 카티푸난 혁명군에 참가하여 미국을 상대로 독립운동에 참여하여, 혁명전투에서 많은 공적을 세웠다. 필리핀이 미국 점령하에 들어간 뒤 1905년 타야바스 주지사로 선출되어 정계에 투신하였다. 1907년 제1차 국민의회 의원이 되면서 필리핀 정계의 중심인물이 되어 1909년부터 1916년까지 워싱턴 주재 판무관으로 활동하며 필리핀의 자치권 획득에 성공하였다. 귀국 후에도 외교와 홍보에 의한 독립 운동에 힘쓰다가 1935년에 미국의 지도, 감독하의 독립 정부인 필리핀 자치 정부를 수립하고 초대 대통령이 되었다. 1941년 대통령에 재선되었으나 제2차 세계 대전 후 1942년 필리핀이 일본군에게 점령당하자 오스트레일리아로 탈출했다가 미국으로 망명, 워싱턴에 망명 임시정부를 수립하였다. 필리핀의 완전독립을 보지 못한 채 뉴욕에서 결핵으로 죽었다. 사후 필리핀의 화폐 20페소의 주인공으로 도완되었다. 생애 출생과 초기 활동 마누엘 루이스 케손은1878년 8월 19일 필리핀 타야바스 주(현재의 케손 주) 발러에서 태어났다. 그는 아버지인 루시오 케손과 어머니인 마리아 돌로레스 몰리나 사이에서 장남으로 태어났다. 그의 아버지는 스페인 혈통을 물려받은 사람으로 마닐라 파코 출신이었다. 아버지 루시오는 교사이자 소(小)지주였는데, 그의 집안은 루손섬에 있는 타갈로크 가문이었다. 그가 태어날 무렵 그의 아버지 루시오나 어머니 돌로레스 몰리나는 모두 교사였다. 케손은 평범한 주위환경 속에서 상장했다. 마누엘의 부모는 가정교사로도 활동했는데, 또한 마누엘에게도 가정교사이기도 했다. 케손은 어려서부터 그의 부모로부터 종교, 문법, 화술, 역사, 라틴어, 지리 등에 관해 배웠다. 학창 시절과 독립 전쟁 참여 그는 마닐라에 있는 산토 토마스 대학에서 법학을 공부했으나 1899년 필리핀-미국 전쟁이 발발했을 때 케손은 나라를 위해 목숨을 바치기로 마음 먹었다. 그해 공부를 중단하고 학교를 중퇴, 에밀리오 아기날도, 아폴리나리오 마비니 등이 이끄는 독립운동에 참여했다. 1901년 아기날도가 미국에 항복하자 실망하여 다시 대학교로 돌아와 공부를 계속하였다. 케손은 자신의 학비를 조달하기 위해 계약직 은행원으로 일했다. 그는 항상 성적이 우수했으며 학우들에게는 언제나 모범을 보였다. 케손은 1903년 8월 16일 사법고시를 우수한 성적으로 합격하였다. 1903년에 산토 토마스 대학에서 법학박사 학위를 취득한 다음 마닐라 근처에 변호사 사무실을 개업하고 수년 동안 변호사로 활동했다. 변호사로 활동하며 무료 변호와 독립 운동가들을 변호하는 등 사회적으로 크게 인정받았다. 1905년 검사가 되었다. 필리핀이 독립할 수 있는 유일한 방법은 미국과 협상하는 것이라고 확신한 그는 젊은이들에게 토론하는 방법, 토론의 중요성을 역설하였다. 정치 활동 정계 입문과 자치권 운동 그 뒤 필리핀이 독립할 수 있는 유일한 방법은 미국과 협상하는 것이라는 확신에 따라 검사직을 사퇴하고 정계에 입문, 1905년 타야바스 주지사 선거에 출마해 출마했으며 돈 많고 영향력있는 상대 후보를 물리치고 당당히 주지사에 당선되었다. 2년 동안 타바야스 주지사로 재직했다. 1907년에는 새롭게 수립된 필리핀 의회의 의원으로 선출되었으며, 다수당의 지도자가 되었다. 1909년 케손은 발언권은 있지만 투표권이 없는 미국 연방하원의 필리핀 상주 대표로 임명되었다. 이어 필리핀을 대표하는 대표단의 한사람으로 미 의회에 파견되었다. 워싱턴 D. C.에 상주하는 수년 동안 미국 정부로부터 필리핀 독립을 조속히 승인받기 위해 정열적으로 투쟁했다. 그는 미국 상원과 하원의 정치인, 언론인, 유력 정치인들을 찾아다니며 필리핀의 독립을 도와줄 것을 호소하였다. 1916년에는 미국 의회 하원과 상원에서 〈존스 법〉안을 통과시키는 데 중요한 역할을 했는데, 이 법안은 구체적인 날짜는 지정하지 않았지만 필리핀의 독립을 약속했으며, 필리핀의 자치권을 확대하고 미국 의회제도를 모델로 필리핀에 양원제의 입법부를 구성할 것을 규정했다. 그는 미 의회에서 발언권을 가지고 있었지만 투표권은 없었다. 1916년 케손은 상주대표직을 사임하고 마닐라로 돌아와 새로 구성된 필리핀 상원의원으로 선출되었으며, 필리핀에 돌아온 케손은 〈존스 법〉 제정에 앞장섰다. 그해 상원의장에 선출되어 1935년까지 19년간 상원의장직을 역임했다. 1919년, 그는 독립사절단으로 미국 의회로 가서, 1934년, 타이딩스-맥더피 법이 통과되도록 보장을 받았다. 1922년에는 그의 정적인 세르히오 오스메냐가 이끌던 국민당의 당권을 장악했다. 자치권 획득 그는 미국이 필리핀에게 새로운 민주주의 제도를 익히게 해준 점을 감사히 여긴다며, 필리핀의 자치를 허락해줄 것을 요구했고 미국 상,하원은 필리핀에게 유예기간을 준 뒤 독립을 허락하겠다는 결론에 이르게 된다. 〈존스 법〉은 필리핀이 자치정부를 수립해 자치통치를 할 수 있을 때 미국이 필리핀을 독립시켜 준다는 것이다. 존스법이 제정된 후 필리핀을 필리핀인들로 구성된 의회를 가지게 되었다. 존스법 제정에 있어 큰 역할을 한 케손은 1916년 10월 상원의장에 선출되었다. 케손은 그 후 줄곧 미국에 필리핀을 완전독립 시켜줄 것을 요청했으며 마침내 필리핀에서 대통령 선거를 치르게끔 허락했다. 케손은 타이딩스-맥더피 법안(1934년)을 통과시키기 위해 설득과 홍보 활동 등을 하며 적극적으로 투쟁했는데, 이 법안의 골자는 헌법제정 후 10년이 지나면 필리핀의 완전독립을 보장하는 것과 필리핀 독립공화국의 전신이 될 자치 정부를 수립하여 무리없이 운영한다는 조건이었다. 1935년 9월 17일 선거에서 케손은 에밀리오 아기날도를 근소한 차로 이기고, 새로 수립된 필리핀 자치령의 대통령으로 선출되었다. 필리핀 자치정부 대통령 평등하고 공정한 정책 케손의 지도력은 탁월했다. 사람들은 그를 '정의의 아버지'라고 불렀다. 왜냐하면 그의 정부 시스템은 공정했으며 그는 빈부를 막론하고 국민들을 공평하게 대우했기 때문이다. 그는 국민의 권리를 존중했으며 국민들이 필요로 하는 것이 무엇인지 잘 알고 있었다. 그는 사심이 없었고, 사적으로 치부하지도 않았으며, 권력을 남용하지도 않았다. 자신의 가족과 친척들에게도 공정하게 법을 적용했다. 대통령으로 취임한 초기에 그는 감정적인 반미 시위를 자제하고 미국에 우호적인 분위기를 조성했다. 그리고 미국의 더글러스 맥아더 장군을 특별고문으로 하여 필리핀의 군대를 재조직하고 미군의 군사 훈련을 도입했다. 또한 대지주의 사유지에서 소작농으로 살아가는 무토지(無土地) 농민들의 문제를 해결하기 위한 작업에 착수했다. 필리핀 남부의 큰 섬인 민다나오에 주민들을 이주시켜 섬 개발작업을 적극 추진했으며 정부조직 내의 부정부패를 일소하기 위해 노력했다. 후에 케손 시라고 알려진 새 수도가 마닐라 근교에 건설되었다. 루손섬 중부 리살군 북동쪽에 있는 한 개인의 토지를 눈여겨본 마누엘 루이스 케손은 1939년 이곳을 매입, 수도 부지로 선택했으며, 그 이름을 따서 지명을 케손 시티라 정했다. 그는 케손 시티의 성장을 보지는 못하였지만, 그의 사후 1948년에는 한때 케손 시티가 마닐라를 대신해서 공식적으로 수도가 되기도 했다. 타갈로그어 국어 결정 그의 업적 중 괄목할 만한 것은 '타갈로그어'를 국어로 선언했다는 것이다. 그는 많이 쓰던 영어 대신 필리핀의 전통 언어 중 살아남은 타갈로그족의 언어인 타갈로그어를 국어로 채택케 했다. 영어 전용론자들의 반대에도 불구하고 그는 강하게 추진해 나갔다. 그는 국민들이 하나의 공통된 언어를 가짐으로 해서 더욱 단결할 수 있고, 사람들이 전국 어느 곳을 가거나 의사 소통에 아무 어려움이 없을 것이라 판단하였다. 타갈로그 어 사전을 만드는데는 어려움이 많이 따랐지만 그는 정력적으로 추진하여, 1940년 6월 19일 타갈로그어는 필리핀의 국어로 공식 선언되었다. 따라서 케손은 또한 '필리핀 국어의 아버지'라고도 불린다. 헌법이 개정되어 대통령의 임기는 4년으로 재임을 할 수 있게 되었다. 1941년 8월 16일 대통령 선거에서 마누엘 케손은 다시 대통령에 당선되어 커먼웰스 정부의 두 번째 대통령이 되었다. 부통령에는 세르히오 오스메냐가 당선되었다. 1941년 대통령에 재선되었으나 1941년 12월 8일 필리핀은 제2차 세계대전의 소용돌이 속으로 빠져 들게 되고 혼마 미시마루가 이끄는 일본군이 필리핀 전역을 점령하게 되면서 케손과 오스메냐는 미국으로 피신을 하게 된다. 망명과 최후 1942년 일본이 필리핀을 완전히 점령하자 마닐라가 함락되기 직전 탈출했다. 바로 오스트레일리아로 피신했다가 미군의 호송 하에 미국으로 망명, 미국 워싱턴에 망명정부를 수립했다. 일본 제국주의를 비판하는 동시에 미국과 자유 우방의 변함없는 신뢰를 호소하였다. 그의 지도력에 의심하던 미국 상,하원을 끈기 있게 설득하느라 노력했다. 그리고 태평양 전쟁위원회에 참여하여 반(反) 파시스트 국제연합(UN) 선언서에 서명했다. 그러나 필리핀의 완전독립을 보지 못하고 결핵으로 사망한다. 케손은 미국에서 망명정부를 이끌었지만 결핵에 걸려 병원에 입원, 1944년 8월 1일 미국 뉴욕주 새러낵 호 근처의 한 병원에서 폐결핵으로 사망하였다. 당시 케손의 나이는 65세였다. 케손는 좌절하지 않고 필리핀의 독립을 확신했다 한다. 만년에 쓴 그의 자서전 〈위대한 투쟁 The Good Fight〉은 1946년에 출간되었다. 그의 망명정부 대통령직은 호세 라우렐이 승계하였다. 사후 그의 독립 활동의 공적을 기려 필리핀 정부에서는 1949년 그의 고향 타야바스 주를 케손 주로 이름을 바꾸었다. 필리핀의 화폐 20페소의 주인공으로 도완되었다. 케손 시티에는 그를 기념한 케손 기념 성지가 세워졌다. 저서 〈위대한 투쟁 The Good Fight〉 가족 아버지 루시오 케손 어머니 마리아 돌로레스 몰리나 평가 진정한 필리핀 독립을 위해 평생을 헌신했던 점이 높이 평가되고 있다. 케손은 필리핀에서 가장 용감하고 정의롭고 당당한 대통령 중 한 사람이다. 케손은 경호원 없이 거리를 홀로 활보할 수 있는 유일한 대통령이었다 한다. 그는 대통령으로서 모든 사람들이 자신을 존경하며 그럼으로 해서 자신을 해칠 사람은 아무도 없다고 굳게 믿고 있었기 때문이다. 그의 정부 시스템은 공정했으며 그는 빈부를 막론하고 국민들을 공평하게 대우하였다. 같이 보기 필리핀의 대통령 필리핀 자치령 세르히오 오스메냐 마누엘 로하스 역대 선거 결과 각주 외부 링크 마누엘 케손, 네이버 Bonnie Harris, ''Cantor Joseph Cysner: From Zbaszyn to Manila. Online E-book of Future of the Philippines : interviews with Manuel Quezon by Edward Price Bell, The Chicago Daily News Co., 1925 Online E-book of Discursos del Hon. Manuel L. Quezon, comissionado residente de Filipinas, pronunciados en la cámara de representantes de la discusión del Bill Jones (26, Septiembre-14, Octubre, 1914), published in Manila, 1915 1878년 출생 1944년 사망 필리핀의 독립운동가 필리핀의 외교관 필리핀의 정치인 필리핀의 대통령 필리핀의 변호사 필리핀의 작가 필리핀의 법관 스페인계 필리핀인 필리핀의 망명자 미국에 거주한 필리핀인 아우로라주 출신 케손주 출신 필리핀의 혁명가 필리핀-미국 전쟁 관련자

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel%20L.%20Quezon

Manuel L. Quezon

Manuel Luis Quezon y Molina (, , , ; 19 August 1878 – 1 August 1944), also known by his initials MLQ, was a Filipino lawyer, statesman, soldier, and politician who was president of the Commonwealth of the Philippines from 1935 until his death in 1944. He was the first Filipino to head a government of the entire Philippines and is considered the second president of the Philippines after Emilio Aguinaldo (1899–1901), whom Quezon defeated in the 1935 presidential election. During his presidency, Quezon tackled the problem of landless peasants. Other major decisions included the reorganization of the islands' military defense, approval of a recommendation for government reorganization, the promotion of settlement and development in Mindanao, dealing with the foreign stranglehold on Philippine trade and commerce, proposals for land reform, and opposing graft and corruption within the government. He established a government in exile in the U.S. with the outbreak of World War II and the threat of Japanese invasion. Scholars have described Quezon's leadership as a "de facto dictatorship" and described him as "the first Filipino politician to integrate all levels of politics into a synergy of power" after removing his term limits as president and turning the Senate into an extension of the executive through constitutional amendments. Quezon died of tuberculosis in Saranac Lake, New York during his exile. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery until the end of World War II, when his remains were moved to Manila. and interred at Manila North Cemetery in 1946. His remains were finally transferred to his final resting place in 1979 inside the Quezon Memorial Circle. In 2015, the Board of the International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation bestowed a posthumous Wallenberg Medal on Quezon and the people of the Philippines for reaching out to victims of the Holocaust from 1937 to 1941. President Benigno Aquino III and then-94-year-old Maria Zenaida Quezon Avanceña, the daughter of the former president, were informed of this recognition. Early life and career Quezon was born on 19 August 1878 in Baler in the district of El Príncipe, then the capital of Nueva Ecija (now Baler, Aurora). His parents were Lucio Quezon y Velez (1850–1898) and María Dolores Molina (1840–1893). Both were primary-school teachers, although his father was a retired sargento de Guardia Civil (sergeant of the Civil Guard). According to historian Augusto de Viana in his timeline of Baler, Quezon's father was a Chinese mestizo who came from the Parián (a Chinatown outside Intramuros) in Paco, Manila. He spoke Spanish in the Civil Guard and married María, who was a Spanish mestiza born of Spanish priest Jose Urbina de Esparragosa; Urbina arrived in Baler from Esparragosa de la Serena, Cáceres Province, Spain in 1847 as the parish priest. Quezon told the U.S. House of Representatives during a 1914 discussion of the Jones Bill that he received most of his primary education at the village school established by the Spanish government as part of the Philippines' free public-education system. He later boarded at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran, where he graduated from secondary school in 1894. In 1899, Quezon left his law studies at the University of Santo Tomas to join the independence movement. During the Philippine–American War, he was an aide-de-camp to Emilio Aguinaldo. Quezon became a major, and fought in the Bataan sector. After surrendering in 1900, he returned to university and passed the bar examination in 1903. Quezon worked for a time as a clerk and surveyor, entering government service as treasurer for Mindoro and (later) Tayabas. He became a municipal councilor of Lucena, and was elected governor of Tayabas in 1906. Congressional career House of Representatives (1907–1916) Quezon was elected in 1907 to represent Tayabas's 1st district in the first Philippine Assembly (which later became the House of Representatives) during the 1st Philippine Legislature, where he was majority floor leader and chairman of the committees on rules and appropriations. Months before his term ended, he gave up his seat at the Philippine Assembly upon being appointed as one of the Philippines' two resident commissioners. Serving two terms from 1909 to 1916, he lobbied for the passage of the Philippine Autonomy Act (the Jones Law). Senate (1916–1935) Quezon returned to Manila in 1916, and was elected senator from the Fifth Senatorial District. He was later elected Senate President and served continuously until 1935 (19 years), the longest tenure in history until Senator Lorenzo Tañada's four consecutive terms (24 years, from 1947 to 1972). Quezon headed the first independent mission to the U.S. Congress in 1919, and secured passage of the Tydings–McDuffie Act in 1934. In 1922, he became leader of the Nacionalista Party alliance Partido Nacionalista-Colectivista. Presidency (1935–1944) Administration and cabinet First term (1935–1941) In 1935, Quezon won the Philippines' first national presidential election under the Nacionalista Party. He received nearly 68 percent of the vote against his two main rivals, Emilio Aguinaldo and Gregorio Aglipay. Quezon, inaugurated in November 1935, is recognized as the second President of the Philippines. In January 2008, however, House Representative Rodolfo Valencia of Oriental Mindoro filed a bill seeking to declare General Miguel Malvar the second Philippine President; Malvar succeeded Aguinaldo in 1901. Supreme Court appointments Under the Reorganization Act, Quezon was given the power to appoint the first all-Filipino cabinet in 1935. From 1901 to 1935, a Filipino was chief justice but most Supreme Court justices were Americans. Complete Filipinization was achieved with the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines in 1935. Claro M. Recto and José P. Laurel were among Quezon's first appointees to replace the American justices. Membership in the Supreme Court increased to 11: a chief justice and ten associate justices, who sat en banc or in two divisions of five members each. Ramón Avanceña – 1935 (Chief Justice) – 1935–1941 José Abad Santos – 1935 Claro M. Recto – 1935–1936 José P. Laurel – 1935 José Abad Santos (Chief Justice) – 1941–1942 Government reorganization To meet the demands of the newly-established government and comply with the Tydings-McDuffie Act and the Constitution, Quezon true to his pledge of "more government and less politics"initiated a reorganization of the government. He established a Government Survey Board to study existing institutions and, in light of changed circumstances, make necessary recommendations. Early results were seen with the revamping of the executive department; offices and bureaus were merged or abolished, and others were created. Quezon ordered the transfer of the Philippine Constabulary from the Department of the Interior to the Department of Finance. Other changes were made to the National Defense, Agriculture and Commerce, Public Works and Communications, and Health and Public Welfare departments. New offices and boards were created by executive order or legislation. Among these were the Council of National Defense, the Board of National Relief, the Mindanao and Sulu Commission, and the Civil Service Board of Appeals. Social-justice program Pledging to improve the conditions of the Philippine working class and inspired by the social doctrines of Pope Leo XIII and Pope Pius XI and treatises by the world's leading sociologists, Quezon began a program of social justice introduced with executive measures and legislation by the National Assembly. A court for industrial relations was established to mediate disputes, minimizing the impact of strikes and lockouts. A minimum-wage law was enacted, as well as a law providing an eight-hour workday and a tenancy law for Filipino farmers. The position of public defender was created to assist the poor. Commonwealth Act No. 20 enabled Quezon to acquire large, occupied estates to re-appropriate their lots and homes at a nominal cost and under terms affordable by their residents; one example was the Buenavista estate. He also began a cooperative system of agriculture among owners of the subdivided estates to increase their income. Quezon desired to follow the constitutional mandate on the promotion of social justice. Economy When the commonwealth was created, its economy was stable and promising. With foreign trade peaking at , the upward trend in business resembled a boom. Export crops were generally good and, except for tobacco, were in high demand. The value of Philippine exports reached , the highest since 1929. Government revenue was in 1936, compared to the 1935 revenue of . Government companies, except for the Manila Railroad Company, earned profits. Gold production increased about 37 percent, iron nearly doubled, and cement production increased by about 14 percent. The government had to address some economic problems, however, and the National Economic Council was created. It advised the government about economic and financial questions, including the promotion of industries, diversification of crops and enterprises, tariffs, taxation, and formulating an economic program in preparation for eventual independence. The National Development Company was reorganized by law, and the National Rice and Corn Company (NARIC) was created with a budget. Upon the recommendation of the National Economic Council, agricultural colonies were established in Koronadal, Malig, and other locations in Mindanao. The government encouraged migration and settlement in the colonies. The Agricultural and Industrial Bank was established to aid small farmers with convenient loans and affordable terms. Attention was paid to soil surveying and the disposition of public land. Land reform When the commonwealth government was established, Quezon implemented the Rice Share Tenancy Act of 1933 to regulate share-tenancy contracts by establishing minimum standards. The act provided a better tenant-landlord relationship, a 50–50 sharing of the crop, regulation of interest at 10 percent per agricultural year, and protected against arbitrary dismissal by the landlord. Because of a major flaw in the act, however, no petition to apply it was ever presented. The flaw was that it could be used only when the majority of municipal councils in a province petitioned for it. Since landowners usually controlled such councils, no province ever asked that the law be applied. Quezon ordered that the act be mandatory in all Central Luzon provinces. However, contracts were good for only one year; by refusing to renew their contract, landlords could eject tenants. Peasant organizations clamored in vain for a law which would make a contract automatically renewable as long as tenants fulfilled their obligations. The act was amended to eliminate this loophole in 1936, but it was never carried out; by 1939, thousands of peasants in Central Luzon were threatened with eviction. Quezon's desire to placate both landlords and tenants pleased neither. Thousands of tenants in Central Luzon were evicted from their farmlands by the early 1940s, and the rural conflict was more acute than ever. During the Commonwealth period, agrarian problems persisted. This motivated the government to incorporate a social-justice principle into the 1935 Constitution. Dictated by the government's social-justice program, expropriation of estates and other landholdings began. The National Land Settlement Administration (NLSA) began an orderly settlement of public agricultural lands. At the outbreak of the Second World War, settlement areas covering over had been established. Educational reforms With his Executive Order No. 19, dated 19 February 1936, Quezon created the National Council of Education. Rafael Palma, former president of the University of the Philippines, was its first chairman. Funds from the early Residence Certificate Law were devoted to maintaining public schools throughout the country and opening many more. There were 6,511 primary schools, 1,039 intermediate schools, 133 secondary and special schools, and five junior colleges by this time. Total enrollment was 1,262,353, with 28,485 teachers. The 1936 appropriation was . Private schools taught over 97,000 students, and the Office of Adult Education was created. Women's suffrage Quezon initiated women's suffrage during the Commonwealth era. As a result of prolonged debate between proponents and opponents of women's suffrage, the constitution provided that the issue be resolved by women in a plebiscite. If at least 300,000 women voted for the right to vote, it would be granted. The plebiscite was held on 3 April 1937; there were 447,725 affirmative votes, and 44,307 opposition votes. National language The Philippines' national language was another constitutional question. After a one-year study, the Institute of National Language recommended that Tagalog be the basis for a national language. The proposal was well-received, despite the fact that director Jaime C. de Veyra, was Waray. In December 1937, Quezon issued a proclamation approving the institute's recommendation and declaring that the national language would become effective in two years. With presidential approval, the INL began work on a Tagalog grammar text and dictionary. Visits to Japan (1937–1938) As Imperial Japan encroached on the Philippines, Quezon antagonized neither the American nor the Japanese officials. He travelled twice to Japan as president, from 31 January to 2 February 1937 and from 29 June to 10 July 1938, to meet with government officials. Quezon emphasized that he would remain loyal to the United States, assuring protection of the rights of the Japanese who resided in the Philippines. Quezon's visits may have signalled the Philippines' inclination to remain neutral in the event of a Japanese-American conflict if the U.S. disregarded the country's concerns. Council of State expansion In 1938, Quezon expanded the Council of State in Executive Order No. 144. This highest of advisory bodies to the president would be composed of the President, Vice President, Senate President, House Speaker, Senate President pro tempore, House Speaker pro tempore, the majority floor leaders of both chambers of Congress, former presidents, and three to five prominent citizens. 1938 midterm election The elections for the Second National Assembly were held on 8 November 1938 under a new law which allowed block voting and favored the governing Nacionalista Party. As expected, all 98 assembly seats went to the Nacionalistas. José Yulo, Quezon's Secretary of Justice from 1934 to 1938, was elected speaker. The Second National Assembly intended to pass legislation strengthening the economy, but the Second World War clouded the horizon; laws passed by the First National Assembly were modified or repealed to meet existing realities. A controversial immigration law which set an annual limit of 50 immigrants per country, primarily affecting Chinese and Japanese nationals escaping the Sino-Japanese War, was passed in 1940. Since the law affected foreign relations, it required the approval of the U.S. president. When the 1939 census was published, the National Assembly updated the apportionment of legislative districts; this became the basis for the 1941 elections. 1939 plebiscite On 7 August 1939, the United States Congress enacted a law in accordance with the recommendations of the Joint Preparatory Commission on Philippine Affairs. Because the new law required an amendment of the Ordinance appended to the Constitution, a plebiscite was held on 24 August 1939. The amendment received 1,339,453 votes in favor, and 49,633 against. Third official language Quezon had established the Institute of National Language (INL) to create a national language for the country. On 30 December 1937, in Executive Order No. 134, he declared Tagalog the Philippines' national language; it was taught in schools during the 1940–1941 academic year. The National Assembly later enacted Law No. 570, making the national language an official language with English and Spanish; this became effective on 4 July 1946, with the establishment of the Philippine Republic. 1940 plebiscites With the 1940 local elections, plebiscites were held for proposed amendments to the constitution about a bicameral legislature, the presidential term (four years, with one re-election, and the establishment of an independent Commission on Elections. The amendments were overwhelmingly ratified. Speaker José Yulo and Assemblyman Dominador Tan traveled to the United States to obtain President Franklin D. Roosevelt's approval, which they received on 2 December 1940. Two days later, Quezon proclaimed the amendments. 1941 presidential election Quezon was originally barred by the Philippine constitution from seeking re-election. In 1940, however, a constitutional amendment was ratified which allowed him to serve a second term ending in 1943. In the 1941 presidential election, Quezon was re-elected over former Senator Juan Sumulong with nearly 82 percent of the vote. Second term (1941–1944) Pre-war activity As crises mounted in the Pacific, the Philippines prepared for war. Youth military training under General Douglas MacArthur was intensified. The first blackout practice was held on the night of 10 July 1941 in Manila. First aid was taught in all schools and social clubs. Quezon established the Civilian Emergency Administration (CEA) on 1 April 1941, with branches in provinces and towns. Air-raid drills were also held. Jewish refugees In cooperation with U.S. High Commissioner Paul V. McNutt, Quezon facilitated the entry into the Philippines of Jewish refugees fleeing fascist regimes in Europe and took on critics who were convinced by propaganda that Jewish settlement was a threat to the country. Quezon and McNutt proposed 30,000 refugee families on Mindanao and 30,000-40,000 refugees on Polillo. Quezon made a 10-year loan to Manila's Jewish Refugee Committee of land adjacent to his family home in Marikina to house homeless refugees in Marikina Hall (the present-day Philippine School of Business Administration), which was dedicated on 23 April 1940. Government in exile After the Japanese invasion of the Philippines during World War II, Quezon evacuated to Corregidor (where he was inaugurated for his second term) and then to the Visayas and Mindanao. At the invitation of the U.S. government, he was evacuated to Australia, and then to the United States. Quezon established the Commonwealth government in exile, with its headquarters in Washington, D.C. He was a member of the Pacific War Council, signed the United Nations declaration against the Axis powers and wrote The Good Fight, his autobiography. To conduct government business in exile, Quezon hired the entire floor of one wing of the Shoreham Hotel to accommodate his family and his office. Government offices were established at the quarters of Philippine Resident Commissioner Joaquin Elizalde, who became a member of Quezon's wartime cabinet. Other cabinet appointees were Brigadier-General Carlos P. Romulo as Secretary of the Department of Information and Public Relations and Jaime Hernandez as Auditor General. Sitting under a canvas canopy outside the Malinta Tunnel on 22 January 1942, Quezon heard a fireside chat during which President Roosevelt said that the Allied forces were determined to defeat Berlin and Rome, followed by Tokyo. Quezon was infuriated, summoned General MacArthur and asked him if the U.S. would support the Philippines; if not, Quezon would return to Manila and allow himself to become a prisoner of war. MacArthur replied that if the Filipinos fighting the Japanese learned that he returned to Manila and became a Japanese puppet, they would consider him a turncoat. Quezon then heard another broadcast by former president Emilio Aguinaldo urging him and his fellow Filipino officials to yield to superior Japanese forces. Quezon wrote a message to Roosevelt saying that he and his people had been abandoned by the U.S. and it was Quezon's duty as president to stop fighting. MacArthur learned about the message, and ordered Major General Richard Marshall to counterbalance it with American propaganda whose purpose was the "glorification of Filipino loyalty and heroism". On 2 June 1942, Quezon addressed the United States House of Representatives about the necessity of relieving the Philippine front. He did the same to the Senate, urging the senators to adopt the slogan "Remember Bataan". Despite his declining health, Quezon traveled across the U.S. to remind the American people about the Philippine war. Wartime Quezon broadcast a radio message to Philippine residents in Hawaii, who purchased worth of war bonds, for his first birthday celebration in the United States. Indicating the Philippine government's cooperation with the war effort, he offered the U.S. Army a Philippine infantry regiment which was authorized by the War Department to train in California. Quezon had the Philippine government acquire Elizalde's yacht; renamed Bataan and crewed by Philippine officers and sailors, it was donated to the United States for use in the war. In early November 1942, Quezon conferred with Roosevelt on a plan for a joint commission to study the post-war Philippine economy. Eighteen months later, the United States Congress passed an act creating the Philippine Rehabilitation Commission. Quezon-Osmeña impasse By 1943, the Philippine government in exile was faced with a crisis. According to the 1935 constitution, Quezon's term would expire on 30 December 1943 and Vice-President Sergio Osmeña would succeed him as president. Osmeña wrote to Quezon advising him of this, and Quezon issued a press release and wrote to Osmeña that a change in leadership would be unwise at that time. Osmeña then requested the opinion of U.S. Attorney General Homer Cummings, who upheld Osmeña's view as consistent with the law. Quezon remained adamant, and sought President Roosevelt's decision. Roosevelt remained aloof from the controversy, suggesting that the Philippine officials resolve the impasse. Quezon convened a cabinet meeting with Osmeña, Resident Commissioner Joaquín Elizalde, Brigadier General Carlos P. Romulo and his cabinet secretaries, Andrés Soriano and Jaime Hernandez. After a discussion, the cabinet supported Elizalde's position in favor of the constitution, and Quezon announced his plan to retire in California. After the meeting, Osmeña approached Quezon and broached his plan to ask the United States Congress to suspend the constitutional provisions for presidential succession until after the Philippines had been liberated; this legal way out was agreeable to Quezon and his cabinet, and steps were taken to carry out the proposal. Sponsored by Senator Tydings and Congressman Bell, the resolution was unanimously approved by the Senate on a voice vote and passed the House of Representatives by a vote of 181 to 107 on 10 November 1943. Death and burial Quezon had developed tuberculosis and spent his last years in hospitals, including a Miami Beach Army hospital in April 1944. That summer, he was at a cure cottage in Saranac Lake, New York. Quezon died there at 10:05 a.m. ET on 1 August 1944, less than three weeks before his 66th birthday. His remains were initially buried in Arlington National Cemetery, but his body was brought by former Governor-General and High Commissioner Frank Murphy aboard the and re-interred in the Manila North Cemetery on 17 July 1946. Those were then moved to a miniature copy of Napoleon's tomb at the Quezon Memorial Shrine in Quezon City, on 1 August 1979. Electoral history Personal life Quezon was married to his first cousin, Aurora Aragón Quezon, on 17 December 1918. They had four children: María Aurora "Baby" Quezon (23 September 1919 – 28 April 1949), María Zenaida "Nini" Quezon-Avanceña (9 April 1921 – 12 July 2021), Luisa Corazón Paz "Nenita" Quezon (17 February – 14 December 1924) and Manuel L. "Nonong" Quezon, Jr. (23 June 1926 – 18 September 1998). His grandson, Manuel L. "Manolo" Quezon III (born 30 May 1970), a writer and former undersecretary of the Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office, was named after him. Awards and honors The Foreign Orders, Medals and Decorations of President Manuel L. Quezon: Foreign Awards : : Légion d'honneur, Officer : : Order of the Aztec Eagle, Collar : : Order of the Crown, Grand Cross Spain: : Orden de la República Española, Grand Cross : : Order of Brilliant Jade, Grand Cordon National Honors : Order of the Golden Heart, Grand Collar (Maringal na Kuwintas) - 19 August 1960 : Order of the Knights of Rizal, Knight Grand Cross of Rizal (KGCR) Manuel L. Quezon Day (19 August) – Celebrated throughout the Philippines as a working holiday, except for the provinces of Quezon and Aurora, Quezon City, and Lucena where it is a non-working holiday. Legacy Quezon City, the province of Quezon, Quezon Bridge in Manila, Manuel L. Quezon University, and many streets are named after him. The Quezon Service Cross is the Philippines' highest honor. Quezon is memorialized on Philippine currency, appearing on the Philippine twenty-peso note and two commemorative 1936 one-peso coins: one with Frank Murphy and another with Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Open Doors, a Holocaust memorial in Rishon LeZion, Israel, is a sculpture designed by Filipino artist Luis Lee Jr. It was erected in honor of Quezon and the Filipinos who saved over 1,200 Jews from Nazi Germany. Municipalities in six provinces are named after Quezon: Quezon, Bukidnon; Quezon, Isabela; Quezon, Nueva Ecija; Quezon, Nueva Vizcaya; Quezon, Palawan; and Quezon, Quezon. The Presidential Papers of Manuel L. Quezon was inscribed in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register in 2011. Quezon Island is the most developed island in the Hundred Islands National Park. In popular culture Quezon was played by Richard Gutierrez in the 2010 music video of the Philippine national anthem produced and aired by GMA Network. Arnold Reyes played him in the musical MLQ: Ang Buhay ni Manuel Luis Quezon (2015). Quezon was played by Benjamin Alves in the film, Heneral Luna (2015). Alves and TJ Trinidad played him in the 2018 film Goyo: Ang Batang Heneral (2018), and he was played by Raymond Bagatsing in the film Quezon's Game (2019). Speech recording A sample of Quezon's voice is preserved in a recorded speech, "Message to My People", which he delivered in English and Spanish. According to Manuel L. Quezon III, his grandfather's speech was recorded when he was President of the Senate "in the 1920s, when he was first diagnosed with tuberculosis and assumed he didn't have much longer to live." See also List of Asian Americans and Pacific Islands Americans in the United States Congress List of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States Congress Notes References Citations Bibliography External links Bonnie Harris, Cantor Joseph Cysner: From Zbaszyn to Manila. Online E-book of Future of the Philippines : interviews with Manuel Quezon by Edward Price Bell, The Chicago Daily News Co., 1925 Online E-book of Discursos del Manuel L. Quezon, comissionado residente de Filipinas, pronunciados en la cámara de representantes de la discusión del Bill Jones (26, Septiembre-14, Octubre, 1914), published in Manila, 1915 Manuel L. Quezon on the Presidential Museum and Library The Good Fight, autobiography, published 1946 1878 births 1944 deaths 20th-century deaths from tuberculosis Burials at Arlington National Cemetery Filipino city founders Colegio de San Juan de Letran alumni Exiled politicians Filipino exiles Filipino expatriates in the United States Filipino military leaders Filipino people of Spanish descent Filipino people of Chinese descent Filipino politicians of Chinese descent Filipino revolutionaries Governors of Quezon Hispanic and Latino American members of the United States Congress History of the Philippines (1898–1946) Tuberculosis deaths in New York (state) Majority leaders of the House of Representatives of the Philippines Members of the House of Representatives of the Philippines from Quezon Members of the United States Congress of Filipino descent Military history of the Philippines during World War II Nacionalista Party politicians People from Aurora (province) Candidates in the 1935 Philippine presidential election Candidates in the 1941 Philippine presidential election Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Cambodia Officers of the Legion of Honour People from Quezon People from Saranac Lake, New York People of the Philippine Revolution People of the Philippine–American War Presidents of the Nacionalista Party Presidents of the Philippines Presidents of the Senate of the Philippines Manuel Resident Commissioners of the Philippines Secretaries of National Defense of the Philippines Senators of the 5th Philippine Legislature Senators of the 6th Philippine Legislature Senators of the 7th Philippine Legislature Senators of the 8th Philippine Legislature Senators of the 9th Philippine Legislature Senators of the 10th Philippine Legislature Tagalog people University of Santo Tomas alumni World War II political leaders Filipino independence activists 20th-century presidents in Asia Members of the Senate of the Philippines from the 5th district

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스페인령 포르모사

에르모사() 혹은 스페인령 포르모사(Spanish Formosa, Formosa Española)는 1626년부터 1642년까지 대만(臺灣) 지역에 존재하던 스페인 제국의 식민지이다. 네덜란드 독립 전쟁(the Eighty Years' War) 동안 스페인에서 네덜란드로 양도되었다. 개요 1544년, 포르투갈인들이 유럽인 최초로 대만섬(臺灣島) 남방에 이르렀고, 바다에서 보는 섬의 전경이 아름다워서 포르투갈어로 '아름답다'를 뜻하는 '포르모사(Formosa)'라고 섬이름을 지었다. '포르모사'는 스페인어로 '에르모사(Hermosa)'에 해당된다. 1626년, 대만도 북부가 스페인의 식민지가 되어 마닐라(Manila)를 중심으로 한 스페인령동인도제도(Spanish East Indies)의 일부에 편입되었다. 스페인 식민지로서 대만도 남부에 주군한 네덜란드인들의 견제로부터 필리핀과의 역내무역(regional trade)을 보호하려는 것이었다. 그러나 전략정 중요성을 상실하고, 마닐라 주둔 스페인 당국이 마닐라 방어에 더 치중함에 따라, 스페인령대만 식민지는 단명하게 되었다. 17년 후인 1643년, 네덜란드인들이 스페인의 마지막 요새를 포위하고 함락시킴으로써 대만도 대부분은 네덜란드인들이 장악하게 되었다. 배경 1566년, 네덜란드인들이 합스부르크(Hapsburg) 왕가 출신 스페인 국왕 펠리페 2세(Felipe II)에 항거하여 봉기하였다. 네덜란드 독립 전쟁(the Eighty Years' War) 동안, 네덜란드공화국(the Dutch Republic)과 동맹국 잉글랜드(England), 프랑스(France)는 스페인의 해외 영토 일부를 공격하고 약탈하였다. 스페인인들은 포르투갈 리스본(Lisbon)에 기반을 둔 향료무역에서 네덜란드인들을 배척하였다. 네덜란드인들은 동인도제도(the Eas Indies)에서 직접 향료를 구하기 위하여 원정대를 파견하였다. 1580년, 스페인 국왕 펠리페2세가 포르투갈 왕위마저 계승•겸임하면서, 이베리아 스페인-포르투갈 통합 왕국이 수립된 가운데, 네덜란드 지역 17개 주가 포르투갈과 네덜란드-포르투갈 전쟁(the Dutch–Portuguese War)을 수행하고 있었다. 잉글랜드와 프랑스는 포르투갈과 스페인의 적이 되었다. 네덜란드의 대만도 식민화 과정은 필리핀을 포함한 아시아 내 스페인 식민 영토를 점령하기 위한 원정의 일부였으나, 큰 성과를 거두지는 못하였다. 네덜란드인들은 포르투갈인들이 아프리카와 아시아에 점한 성채들을 공격하였다. 성채들 중 일부는 병력이 부족하였다. 포르투갈인들의 정주지 중 일부는 고립되어 있었기에 공격을 받으면 병력 보강이 힘들었으며, 따라서 각개격파 당하기 쉬웠다. 하지만 네덜란드인들은 큰 성과를 거두진 못하였다. 1600년 12월 14일, 아시아로 가는 무역항로를 새로 개척하기 위하여, 해적 올리비어 반 노르트(Olivier van Noort)가 이끄는 사략선 함대가 필리핀에 도착하였다. 이들은 필리핀에 온 최초의 네덜란드 사략선 함대였다. 네덜란드인들은 동아시아 해양무역을 장악하고자, 해적질과 사략 행위를 자주 일삼았다. 이들은 마닐라만(Manila Bay)과 인근을 포위하여 선박 왕래를 방해하거나 중국과 일본에서 와서 마닐라에서 무역하려고 한 삼판선(sampan)과 정크선을 노략하였다. 이러한 무역 경쟁 하에, 네덜란드인들은 오늘날 대만 남부 안평(安平) 일대에 해당하는 타요완(Tayouan, '타이완'(대만)이라는 섬 이름의 유래가 되는 곳이다)에 식민지를 건설하였다. 이곳에서 네덜란드인들은 스페인인들의 무역을 방해하렸다. 이러한 위협에 대항하여, 마닐라 스페인 식민당국은 대만 북부에 식민지를 수립하기로 결정하였다. 초기(1626-1629) 스페인인들은 대만도 북동부 산티아고곶(Cape Santiago, 三貂角)에 상륙하였으나 방어에 적합하지 않음을 발견하고, 해안을 따라 서진하여 계롱(Keelong, 雞籠) 즉 오늘날 기륭(基隆)에 도착하였다. 항만이 깊고 방비가 잘 되어 있으며 어귀에 작은 섬이 하나 있어 정주하기에는 안성맞춤이었다. 이곳에서 스페인인들은 대만도 내 최초의 정주지를 세우고 산티시마 트리니다드(Santissima Trinidad, '성 삼위일체'라는 뜻)라고 명명하였다. 성채가 섬과 부두에 모두 건설되었다. 1629년, 스페인인들은 담수(淡水, Tamsui) 지역에 산도밍고성채(Fort San Domingo)를 중심으로 두번째 기지를 건설하였다. 네덜란드와의 첫 전투 1641년, 스페인 식민지에 거슬린 네덜란드인들은 무력 점거를 하기로 결정하였다. 결과적으로 이 시도는 실패하였다. 네덜란드대만총독(the Dutch Governor) 파울루스 트라우데니우스(Paulus Traudenius)는 스페인총독에게 자신들의 뜻을 전달하였다. 스페인 대만총독은 쉽게 항복하지 않았으며, 친절히 답장을 보내었다. 그 결과 네덜란드인들은 스페인인들이 통치하는 북부 지역을 공격하였으나, 방어가 견고하였으며 성채 성벽을 무너뜨리지 못하였다. 사기가 꺾인 네덜란드인들은 젤란아 성채(Fort Zeelandia)로 돌아갔다. 두번째 전투 1642년, 스페인 마닐라총독(the Spanish Governor of Manila)은 대만도 군대 대부분을 소환하려 필리핀 원정에 투입하였다. 같은해 8월, 비교적 방어가 허술한 스페인 진지를 공략하고자, 네덜란드인들은 전선 4척, 작은 선박 여러 척, 369명의 네덜란드인 병사를 거느리고 계롱으로 다시 갔다. 스페인인들은 현지인과 필리핀 카팜팡가(Kapampanga) 사람들로 구성된 군대로 6일동안 공세를 막아냈다. 그러나 결국 스페인군은 항복하였으며, 깃발과 포병대의 물건들을 버리고 필리핀으로 철수했다. 필리핀총독 세바스티안 우르타도 데 코르쿠에라(Sebastián Hurtado de Corcuera)는 대만도 상실의 책임으로 재판에 회부되었다. 선고 결과 그는 5년동안 필리핀에서 투옥되었다. 이때부터 역사가들은 대만도 상실에 대하여 코르쿠에라에게 책임을 돌렸지만, 당시 스페인 제국의 자원 부족도 대만도 상실에 기여한 바가 있다. 동아시아의 옛 나라 대만의 역사 스페인의 옛 식민지 스페인-중국 관계 신베이시의 역사 지룽시의 역사 이란현의 역사 누에바에스파냐 대만-스페인 관계 스페인령 동인도

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish%20Formosa

Spanish Formosa

Spanish Formosa () was a small colony of the Spanish Empire established in the northern tip of the island known to Europeans at the time as Formosa (now Taiwan) from 1626 to 1642. It was ceded to the Dutch Republic during the Eighty Years' War. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach the island off the southern coast of China in 1544, and named it Formosa (Portuguese for "beautiful") due to the beautiful landscape as seen from the sea. Northern Taiwan became a Spanish colony in 1626 and part of the Manila-based Spanish East Indies. As a Spanish colony, it was meant to protect the regional trade with the Philippines from interference by the Dutch base in the south of the island. The colony was short-lived due to the loss of its strategic importance and unwillingness by Spanish authorities in Manila to commit more resources to its defence. After seventeen years, the last fortress of the Spanish was besieged by Dutch forces and eventually fell, giving the Dutch control over much of the island. Spanish missionaries Christianized about 5,000 Taiwanese during the time of the Spanish governorate. The Spanish also settled hundreds of Spaniards, Filipinos, and Latin Americans as colonists in Spanish Formosa. Background In 1566, the Dutch rose up against the King Philip II in Hapsburg Netherlands. The Dutch Republic and its allies, England and France attacked and looted some of Spain's overseas territories, as part of the Eighty Years' War. The Spanish cut the Dutch rebels off from the spice trade based in Lisbon, making it necessary for the Dutch to send their own expeditions to the sources of these commodities to take control of the much desired spice trade in the East Indies. As a result of the Iberian Union of Portugal and Spain in 1580, the Dutch of the Seventeen Provinces fought the Dutch–Portuguese War. Allies England and France became enemies of both Portugal and Spain. The Dutch colonisation of Formosa was part of the unsuccessful campaign to seize the possessions of the Spanish Habsburgs in Asia, including the Philippines. The Dutch began to attack a string of often undermanned coastal fortresses that comprised the Habsburg's Portuguese African and Asian possessions. The settlements were sometimes isolated, difficult to reinforce if attacked, and prone to being picked off one by one. However, the Dutch were mostly unsuccessful in these attempts. Pursuing their quest for alternative routes to Asia for trade, the first Dutch privateer squadron to reach the Philippines on 14 December 1600 was led by pirate Olivier van Noort. The Dutch sought to dominate the commercial sea trade in Southeast Asia, often engaging in piracy and privateering. They attempted to disrupt trade by harassing the coasts of Manila Bay and its environs, and preyed on sampans and junks from China and Japan trading at Manila. In the context of this competition for trade, the Dutch established a colony at Tayouan, present-day Anping, in the south of Formosa. From there they tried threaten Spain's trade in the region. As a counter to this threat, the Spanish colonial authorities in Manila decided to establish their own colony in the north of the island. Political organisation Formosa was a governorate. The governor reported to the captain general in Manila. The captain general's superior was the viceroy of New Spain in Mexico City, who, in turn, was appointed by the king of Spain. The governors of Formosa were: Antonio Carreño Valdés, 1626–1629 Juan de Alcarazo, 1629–1632 Bartolomé Díaz Barrera, 1632–1634 Alonso García Romero, 1634–1635 Francisco Hernández, 1635–1637 Pedro Palomino, 1637–1639 Cristóbal Márquez, 1639–1640 Gonzalo Portillo, 1640–1642 The early years (1626–1629) Landing at Cape Santiago in the north-east of Formosa but finding it unsuitable for defensive purposes, the Spanish continued westwards along the coast until they arrived at Keelung. A deep and well-protected harbour plus a small island in the mouth of the harbour made it the ideal spot to build the first settlement, which they named Santissima Trinidad. Forts were built, both on the island and in the harbour itself. In 1629 the Spanish erected a second base, centred on Fort San Domingo, in Tamsui. First battle with the Dutch In 1641, the Spanish colony in the north had become such an irritant to the Dutch in the south that they decided to take northern Formosa by force. In courteous terms, the Dutch governor, Paulus Traudenius, informed the Spanish governor of their intentions. The Spanish governor was not inclined to give in so easily and replied in kind. Subsequently, the Dutch launched an assault on the northern regions held by the Spanish, but the positions were well-defended and the attacking troops were not able to breach the walls of the fortresses. They returned, thwarted and humiliated, to the Dutch base at Fort Zeelandia. Second battle with the Dutch In 1642, the Spanish governor in Manila recalled most of his Formosa troops for an expedition in the Philippines. In August that year, to profit from the relatively undefended Spanish position, the Dutch returned to Keelung with four large ships, several smaller ships, and approximately 369 Dutch soldiers. A combination of Spaniards, Latin Americans, Formosan natives, and Kapampangan from the Philippines attempted to hold off the larger Dutch force. After six days of battle, the small force surrendered the fort and was returned to Manila defeated, giving up their flags and what little artillery that had remained with them. Sebastián Hurtado de Corcuera, governor-general of the Philippines, was blamed for the loss of Formosa and was eventually tried in court for his actions. Upon conviction, he was imprisoned for five years in the Philippines. Historians since Corcuera's time have chastised him for the loss of the settlement in Formosa but other factors, such as the limited military resources available for the defence of the remote territory, played a role in the loss. See also Dutch Formosa Kingdom of Middag Kingdom of Tungning Spanish expedition to Formosa References Bibliography Spanish East Indies Former colonies in Asia Former Spanish colonies Spanish Formosa 1620s in the Spanish East Indies 1630s in the Spanish East Indies 1640s in the Spanish East Indies New Spain States and territories established in 1626 States and territories disestablished in 1642 1626 establishments in the Spanish East Indies 1626 establishments in New Spain 1642 disestablishments in New Spain 1626 establishments in Asia 1642 disestablishments in Asia Spain–Taiwan relations