adsabs/FOCAL huggingface dataset:
The spectral analysis above 3 keV allows us to characterise the hot corona and the relativistic reflection emission properties. The deep January 2017 NuSTAR observation was also included in the simultaneous fit (Ezhikode et al. 2020; Panagiotou & Walter 2020). From the RELXILL reflection model, and assuming a primary exponential cutoff power-law continuum, we find moderate reflection strengths, ℛ ∼ 0.1−0.2, and high cutoff energies, Ecut ∼ 110−120 keV. These values are in very good agreement with those measured from the average long-term Swift/BAT (Burst Alert Telescope) spectrum (Vincentelli et al. 2021). Applying relativistic reflection models that assume a primary Comptonisation continuum, we infer the hot corona temperature to be kThot ∼ 26−31 keV (kThot ∼ 21−22 keV) and the optical depth to be τhot ∼ 2 (τhot ∼ 6−7) for the slab (or spherical) geometry. From the spectral analysis, it is not possible to discriminate between either of the hot corona geometries, although the slab geometry provides a better fit. In the near future, X-ray polarimetry is expected to play an important role within such a framework (e.g. Schnittman & Krolik 2010; Beheshtipour et al. 2017; Tamborra et al. 2018; Marinucci et al. 2019) thanks to, for example, IXPE (Imaging X-Ray Polarimetry Explorer; Weisskopf et al. 2016) and eXTP (Enhanced X-ray Timing and Polarimetry observatory; Zhang et al. 2016). While the corona temperatures found for Mrk 110 are broadly consistent with the average ones found by Middei et al. (2019) from a sample of 26 AGN (with ⟨kThot⟩ = 50 ± 21 keV and ⟨kThot⟩ = 53 ± 23 keV for the slab and spherical geometry, respectively), it is likely to be located in the lower range of this distribution. However, its hot coronal temperature is not as low as the temperatures inferred for some AGN with much lower high-energy cutoffs, such as GRS 1734–292 (Tortosa et al. 2017), Ark 564 (Kara et al. 2017), and PDS 456 (Reeves et al. 2021b), where kT could be as low as 15 keV.
Citation: Vincentelli et al. 2021
Citation function: Similarities
Today, at least three known populations of gap transients are recognized in the luminoisty gap. These include classical luminous blue variable (LBV) outbursts, intermediate-luminosity red transients (ILRTs), and luminous red novae (LRNe). LBVs are thought to be related to eruptions of massive luminous stars (see Smith et al. 2011). As shown in greater detail in Stritzinger et al. (2020, hereafter Paper I), the ILRT subtype is well represented by NGC 300-2008-OT and SN 2008S, and has been linked to asymptotic giant branch (S-AGB) stars (Prieto et al. 2008, 2009; Thompson et al. 2009; Botticella et al. 2009; Kochanek 2011; Adams et al. 2016; Doherty et al. 2017) that die as electron-capture supernovae (Miyaji et al. 1980; Nomoto 1984; Miyaji & Nomoto 1987; Hashimoto et al. 1993; Kitaura et al. 2006; Poelarends et al. 2008). Other models appearing in the literature for ILRTs consist of moderately massive stars experiencing super-Eddington winds and/or giant outbursts (e.g., Smith et al. 2009; Humphreys et al. 2011), or massive stars donating material to a main-sequence star, leading to the release of gravitational energy (e.g., Kashi et al. 2010). Finally, a leading model for the origins of LRNe, which all display a ubiquitous double-humped light curve (Pastorello et al. 2019a), consists of the ejection of a common envelope by a massive binary system (e.g., Blagorodnova et al. 2017) upon coalescence (Smith et al. 2016; Metzger & Pejcha 2017; Lipunov et al. 2017; Mauerhan et al. 2018). However, other models have also been proposed in the past to account for LRNe, particularly within articles that have studied the Galactic LRN archetype V838 Mon. These include, among others, outbursts from massive stars (Tylenda 2005), accretion of low-mass stars onto solar-mass main-sequence companions (Soker & Tylenda 2003; Tylenda & Soker 2006; Kashi et al. 2010; Kashi & Soker 2016; Soker 2020), or even giant stars that accrete relatively massive planets (Retter & Marom 2003).
Citation: Kitaura et al. 2006
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Time domain structures (TDSs; electrostatic or electromagnetic electron holes, ion holes, solitary waves, double layers, nonlinear whistlers, etc.) are ∼1 ms pulses having significant electric fields parallel to the background magnetic field (Mozer et al. 2015). They are abundant through space, occurring along auroral zone magnetic field lines (Temerin et al. 1982; Mozer et al. 1997; Ergun et al. 1998), in the magnetospheric tail and plasma sheet (Cattell et al. 2005; Tong et al. 2018; Lotekar et al. 2020), at reconnection sites (Cattell et al. 2005; Steinvall et al. 2019; Lotekar et al. 2020), in the solar wind (Mangeney et al. 1999; Malaspina et al. 2013), in collisionless shocks (Wilson et al. 2010; Vasko et al. 2020; Wang et al. 2020), and in the magnetospheres of other planets (Pickett et al. 2015). TDSs are also expected along the Parker Solar Probe orbit (Mozer et al. 2020a). According to theoretical estimates and simulations (Cranmer & van Ballegooijen 2003; Valentini et al. 2011, 2014), these nonlinear structures can provide thermalization of electron and ion beams produced in the course of the turbulence cascade development at scales the order of the electron inertial length and down to the Debye length. This paper discusses such observations at a heliocentric distance of 35 solar radii. The electric field experiment on the Parker Solar Probe measures electric fields from DC to 20 MHz. A general description of the instrument and its electronics appears elsewhere (Bale et al. 2016). In this paper, the data from DC to 2 MHz are discussed. These measurements are obtained from the potentials of the four antennas, V1 through V4, that are located in the plane perpendicular to the Sun–satellite line. They produce E12 = (V1−V2)/3.5 and E34 = (V3−V4)/3.5, which are then rotated into the spacecraft coordinate system to produce EX and EY. The direction, X, is perpendicular to the Sun–spacecraft line, in the ecliptic plane, and pointing in the direction of solar rotation (against the ram direction), Y is perpendicular to the ecliptic plane, pointing southward, and Z points toward the Sun. The numerical factor, 3.5, is the effective antenna length (Mozer et al. 2020a). The uncertainties of the amplitudes of the waves and time domain structures reported in this paper are estimated to be about a factor of 2. These amplitudes are underestimated because the capacitive divider that couples the antennas to the electronics decreases the measured electric field relative to that on the antennas. They are often overestimated because short antennas produce overestimates of the electric field by factors of 2–4, as was observed during antenna deployment on the Cluster satellite and as is observed on the Parker Solar Probe from the ratio of the electric field to the magnetic field in whistlers.
Citation: Mozer et al. 2020a
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Citation: Mozer et al. 2020a
Citation function: Uses
NGC 2110. NGC 2110 is another nearby (z = 0.00779, Gallimore et al. 1999), X-ray bright Seyfert galaxy. Diniz et al. (2015) report a black hole mass of 



2
.

7

−
2.1


+
3.5


×

10
8



M
⊙



$ 2.7^{+ 3.5}_{- 2.1} \times 10^{8}\,{{M}_{\odot}} $


, from the relation with the stellar velocity dispersion. From BeppoSAX data, Malaguti et al. (1999) found the X-ray spectrum to be affected by complex absorption. This has been later confirmed by Evans et al. (2007), who find the Chandra+XMM–Newton data to be well fitted with a neutral, three-zone, partial-covering absorber. Rivers et al. (2014) find the Suzaku data to be well fitted with a stable full-covering absorber plus a variable partial-covering absorber. A soft excess below 1.5 keV is also present (Evans et al. 2007), and possibly due to extended circumnuclear emission seen with Chandra (Evans et al. 2006). No Compton reflection hump has been detected with Suzaku (Rivers et al. 2014) or NuSTAR (Marinucci et al. 2015), despite the presence of a complex Fe Kα line. According to the multi-epoch analysis of Marinucci et al. (2015), the Fe Kα line is likely the sum of a constant component (from distant, Compton-thick material) and a variable one (from Compton-thin material). Concerning the high-energy cut-off, ambiguous results have been reported in literature (see Table 1). Ricci et al. (2017) report a value of 



448

−
55


+
63



$ 448^{+63}_{-55} $


 keV, while Lubiński et al. (2016) report a coronal temperature of 



230

−
57


+
51



$ 230^{+51}_{-57} $


 keV and an optical depth of 



0
.

52

−
0.13


+
0.14




$ 0.52^{+ 0.14}_{- 0.13} $


. From 2008–2009 INTEGRAL data, Beckmann & Do Cao (2010) report a cut-off of ∼80 keV with a hard photon index, but these results are not confirmed by NuSTAR (Marinucci et al. 2015). Indeed, only lower limits to the high-energy cut-off have been found with NuSTAR (210 keV: Marinucci et al. 2015), Suzaku (250 keV: Rivers et al. 2014) and BeppoSAX (143 keV: Risaliti 2002). No hard X-ray spectral variability has been detected by Caballero-Garcia et al. (2012) and Soldi et al. (2014) from BAT data, despite the significant flux variability.
Citation: Marinucci et al. 2015
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Citation: Evans et al. 2007
Citation function: Background
Citation: Marinucci et al. 2015
Citation function: Compare/Contrast
Citation: Marinucci et al. 2015
Citation function: Compare/Contrast; Compare/Contrast; Compare/Contrast
As the most luminous persistent sources in the Universe, quasars are bright enough to be detected up to redshifts z > 7 (Mortlock et al. 2011; Banados et al. 2018; Wang et al. 2018; Yang et al. 2020). According to the currently accepted model, quasars are extremely luminous active galactic nuclei (AGNs), where the observed intense energy release are related to the accretion of a gaseous disk onto a supermassive black hole (SMBH). Quasars have a wide spectral energy distribution, which normally contains a significant emission component in the optical-UV band LUV, the so-called big blue bump, with a softening at higher energies (Sanders et al. 1989; Elvis et al. 1994; Trammell et al. 2007; Shang et al. 2011). It has long been discussed that there is a nonlinear relationship between LUV and the quasar’s X-ray luminosity LX, parametrized as log(LX) = γlog(LUV)+β (Vignali et al. 2003; Strateva et al. 2005; Steffen et al. 2006; Just et al. 2007; Green et al. 2009; Young et al. 2010; Jin et al. 2012). From the theoretical point of view, this relation could be intrinsic since the UV emission is usually thought to originate from the optically thick disk surrounding the SMBH and the X-ray photons are thought to be generated through the inverse-Compton scattering of these disk UV photons by a plasma of hot relativistic electrons (the so-called corona) around the accretion disk. Such a relation is found to be independent of redshift (Lusso & Risaliti 2016), so that it could be used as a distance indicator to estimate cosmological parameters. The initial dispersion of the LUV − LX relation is relatively large (δ ∼ 0.35−0.4, Just et al. 2007; Young et al. 2010), but after a detailed study, Lusso & Risaliti (2016) suggest that most of the observed dispersion is not intrinsic, but it is rather due to observational effects. By gradually refining the selection technique and flux measurements, Risaliti & Lusso (2019) collected a complete sample of quasars, whose dispersion of the LUV − LX relation is smaller than 0.15 dex. The sample of main quasars is composed of 1598 data points in the range from 0.036  z  5.1. With this sample, they constructed a Hubble diagram of quasars in redshift range of 0.5  z  5.5, which is in excellent agreement with the analogous Hubble diagram for SNIa in the redshift range of 0.5  z  1.4. Moreover, this Hubble diagram of quasars has been studied in cosmological applications (Zheng et al. 2020, 2021). Considering that objects at the same redshift should have the same luminosity distance in any cosmology, here we first fit the model-independent cosmography formula that reflects the Hubble relation between the luminosity distance and redshif using the quasar sample, and then we obtained the distance moduli (also the luminosity distance) for GRBs at a given redshift with the best fit results.
Citation: Just et al. 2007
Citation function: Compare/Contrast; Compare/Contrast
Recent technological advances related to 3D Integral Field Spectroscopy (IFS), which produces data cubes where each pixel on the image has a spectrum, have opened a new window for examining the CGM gas. This approach combines the information gathered in absorption against background sources (whose lines of sight pass through a galaxy’s CGM) with traditional emission-based properties of galaxies. Following at least two decades of limited success in identifying the galaxies associated with quasar absorbers, IFS have open a new era in establishing the relation between absorption and emission with high success rates. Early efforts with near-infrared IFS VLT/SINFONI (Bouché et al. 2007; Péroux et al. 2011; Péroux et al. 2013, 2016) led to efficient discoveries of star-forming galaxies associated with Mg ii and H i absorbers at z ∼ 2 (see also Rudie, Newman & Murphy 2017; Joshi et al. 2021). The optical IFS VLT/MUSE (Bacon et al. 2010) has proved to be a true game-changer in the field. Early on, the MUSE Guaranteed Time Observations (GTO) team established surveys including MUSE-QuBES (Muzahid et al. 2020) and MEGAFLOW (Bouché et al. 2016; Schroetter et al. 2016; Schroetter et al. 2019; Zabl et al. 2019) to relate gas traced by absorbers to galaxies. In a parallel effort, the MAGG survey targets higher redshift galaxies (Fumagalli, O’Meara & Prochaska 2016; Dutta et al. 2020; Lofthouse et al. 2020). The Cosmic Ultraviolet Baryon Survey CUBS instead is absorption-blind and uncovers new quasar absorbers in a wide range of column densities (ranging from few times 16.0  $\rm{log}\,\,{\it N}(\rm{H\,\,{\small I}})$20.1) at z1 (Chen et al. 2020; Boettcher et al. 2021; Cooper et al. 2021; Zahedy et al. 2021). By extending to bluer wavelengths, the optical IFS Keck/KCWI (Martin et al. 2010) has enabled similar studies at higher spectral resolution (Martin et al. 2019; Nielsen et al. 2020). BlueMUSE, a blue-optimized, medium spectral resolution IFS based on the MUSE concept and proposed for the Very Large Telescope is also under planning (Richard et al. 2019). Contemporary to these works, ALMA - which can be viewed as an IFS at mm-wavelengths - has enabled the detections of both CO and [CII] emission in galaxies associated with strong quasar absorbers at intermediate and high redshifts, respectively (Neeleman et al. 2016; Kanekar et al. 2018; Klitsch et al. 2018; Neeleman et al. 2018; Neeleman et al. 2019; Péroux et al. 2019; Klitsch et al. 2021; Szakacs et al. 2021a). These lines enable us to trace the colder (∼100K) and denser phase of the neutral gas: the molecular hydrogen, H2. The molecular gas constitutes the ultimate phase of the gas reservoir from which stars form and hence is an essential link to the baryon cycle. Together, these IFS observations have provided unique information on the resolved galaxy kinematics which can then be combined with the gas dynamics to probe gas flows in the CGM regions (Bouché et al. 2013; Rahmani et al. 2018a; Schroetter et al. 2019; Zabl et al. 2019; Neeleman et al. 2020; Szakacs et al. 2021a).
Citation: Muzahid et al. 2020
Citation function: Background; Background
Topological estimators such as the Minkowski functionals (MFs) are also important diagnostics in this direction as they carry information at all orders. The MFs have been extensively developed as a statistical tool in a cosmological setting for both two-dimensional (2D; projected) and 3D (redshift) surveys. The MFs have analytically known results for a Gaussian random field, making them suitable for studies of non-Gaussianity. Examples of such studies include CMB data (Schmalzing & Górski 1998; Novikov, Schmalzing & Mukhanov 2000; Hikage et al. 2008; Natoli et al. 2010; Ducout et al. 2013; Planck Collaboration 2016b; Planck Collaboration IX, 2020a), LSS (Gott, Mellot & Dickinson 1986; Coles 1988; Gott et al. 1989, 1992; Melott 1990; Moore et al. 1992; Canavezes et al. 1998; Schmalzing & Diaferio 2000; Kerscher et al. 2001; Hikage et al. 2002, 2008 Park et al. 2005; Hikage, Komatsu & Mastubara 2006), weak lensing (Matsubara & Jain 2001; Sato et al. 2001; Taruya et al. 2002; Munshi et al. 2011d), Sunyaev–Zel’dovich maps (Munshi et al. 2011c), 21cm (Gleser et al. 2006), and N-body simulations (Schmalzing & Diaferio 2000; Kerscher et al. 2001). Note that this is an incomplete list of references and we have selected a sample of representative papers from the literature. The MFs are spatially defined topological statistics and, by definition, contain statistical information of all orders. This makes them complementary to the polyspectra methods that are defined in Fourier space. It is also possible that the two approaches will be sensitive to different aspects of non-Gaussianity and systematic effects, although in the weakly non-Gaussian limit it has been shown that the MFs reduce to a weighted probe of the bispectrum (Hikage et al. 2006). In addition to providing cosmological information, MFs can also be useful diagnostics of any unknown systematics as well as baryonic contamination which are expected to affect weak lensing observables (Herenois-Deraps et al. 2016).
Citation: Novikov, Schmalzing & Mukhanov 2000
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We use the microlensing magnification estimates for 27 quasar image pairs in 19 lens systems from MED09. In order to have the largest possible sample, but with a similar range of observed rest wavelengths, we include all of the objects from MED09 with magnifications measured in the wavelength range between LyÎ± (1216âÃ) and Mgâii (2798âÃ). With this choice, the average rest wavelength is Î» = 1736 Â± 373âÃ, but we still keep 27 out of 29 image pairs from 19 out of 20 lensed quasars. Only the system RXS J1131â1231 is excluded, as it was observed in [Oâiii] at a much larger wavelength of â¼5000âÃ. These microlensing magnification estimates are calculated after subtracting the emission line flux ratios, which are little affected by microlensing (see, e.g., Guerras etÂ al. 2013), from the continuum flux ratios, and are therefore virtually free from extinction, substructure, and macro model effects (as these affect the line and continuum flux ratios equally). Our strategy is to compare the observed microlensing magnification for a given image pair  with a statistical sample of simulated values for that measurement as a function of the source size (rs) and the fraction of surface mass density in stars (Î±). This will allow us to calculate the likelihood of the parameters (rs, Î±) given the observations . The procedure is repeated for each of the 27 image pairs. We calculate magnification maps for each image using a grid with 11 values for the fraction of the surface mass density in stars, Î±, logarithmically distributed between 0.025 and 0.8 as Î±j = 0.025 Ã 2j/2 with j = 0, â¦, 10. The 517 magnification maps were created using the Inverse Polygon Mapping algorithm described by Mediavilla etÂ al. (2006, 2011a). We used equal mass microlenses of 1âM. All of the linear sizes can be scaled for a different microlens mass as . The maps have a size of 2000 Ã 2000 pixels with a pixel size of 0.5 light-days. The maps therefore span 1000 lt-days. The individual sizes of maps and pixels in (more natural) units of Einstein radii for microlenses of 1âM are given in TableÂ 1. On average, the maps span approximately 50 Einstein radii with a pixel scale of roughly 0.025 Einstein radii.
Citation: Guerras etÂ al. 2013
Citation function: Uses; Uses
The stochastic accretion of gas and galaxy merger-driven gas inflows are both known triggers of supermassive black hole (SMBH) growth and nuclear activity, but the relative contributions of each is still unclear. Simulations of galaxy mergers show that they drive gas to the centers of merger-remnant galaxies (e.g., Springel et al. 2005; Hopkins & Hernquist 2009), predicting that merger-driven SMBH mass growth occurs when the black hole nears the center of the merger remnant. Observations have shown that the AGN fraction does increase with decreasing distance between two merging galaxies (Ellison et al. 2011; Koss et al. 2012; Ellison et al. 2013), but this has not been well tested at the very centers of merger-remnant galaxies because of the observational difficulty of detecting and resolving two AGNs with separations 10 kpc. This is known as the “dual AGN” phase.4

4
The separation scale expected for dual AGNs is between 0.1 and 10 kpc. The SMBHs in a merger stay at these separations for a few hundred megayears before evolving into a gravitationally bound, parsec-scale separation binary AGN system (Begelman et al. 1980).
 Hundreds of AGN pairs with >10 kpc separations have been discovered (Myers et al. 2008; Hennawi et al. 2010; Liu et al. 2011). However, there are only a few confirmed kiloparsec-scale dual AGNs (Junkkarinen et al. 2001; Komossa et al. 2003; Hudson et al. 2006; Rodriguez et al. 2006; Bianchi et al. 2008; Fu et al. 2011b; Koss et al. 2011, 2012; Mazzarella et al. 2012; Liu et al. 2013; Comerford et al. 2015). Dual AGNs are an intermediate evolutionary stage between first encounter and final coalescence of two merging gas-rich galaxies (e.g., Comerford et al. 2009; Liu et al. 2012), in which strong tidal interactions are more likely to influence the nuclear accretion and star formation in both galaxies (Barnes & Hernquist 1996). Indeed, galaxy merger simulations and observations clearly show that the dual AGN phase is the critical stage when SMBH growth and star formation activity are the most vigorous (e.g., Koss et al. 2012; Van Wassenhove et al. 2012; Blecha et al. 2013).
Citation: Koss et al. 2012
Citation function: Background; Motivation
Hydrocarbons also show a variety of deuterated molecules in L483. We detected C4D, with an isotopic ratio of 1.9 ± 0.6%, which is slightly above that found in TMC-1 (0.43; Turner 1989) and similar to that derived in L1527 (1.8; Sakai et al. 2009b). We also detected the singly and doubly deuterated forms of c-C3H2, with isotopic ratios of 5.1 ± 1.5% and 0.97 ± 0.29%, respectively, which are similar to the values found in L1544 (Spezzano et al. 2013) and L1527 (Sakai et al. 2009b; Yoshida et al. 2019). Moreover, c-C3HD and c-C3D2 have been surveyed in a sample of low-mass prestellar and protostellar cores (Chantzos et al. 2018), finding that the corresponding isotopic ratios are relatively uniform, within a factor of a few, and similar to those in L1544 and L483. Thanks to the high sensitivity of our line survey, we detected the different deuterated forms of the two 13C substituted isotopologs of c-C3H2, that is, c-H13CCCD, c-HCC13CD, and c-HC13CCD; the latter only tentatively. This is to our knowledge the first time these species have been detected in space. The deuterium ratios derived for c-H13CCCD and c-HCC13CD are in line with that found for c-C3HD. We also detected the deuterated form of the linear isomer of C3H2, l-C3HD, which was recently observed for the first time toward TMC-1 and L1544 (Spezzano et al. 2016). The isotopic ratio we find in L483, 3.8 ± 1.1%, is similar to the values derived in TMC-1 and L1544. Moreover, it seems that the linear isomer of C3H2 shows very similar levels of deuterium fractionation to the cyclic isomer in both low-mass prestellar and protostellar cores. The two deuterated forms of methyl acetylene, CH2DCCH and CH3CCD, which have previously been observed in TMC-1 with isotopic ratios of a few percent (Gerin et al. 1992a; Markwick et al. 2005), are also detected in L483 with slightly higher deuterium ratios (~6%). The deuterium ratio found for CH2DCCH in L483, 6.5 ± 1.9%, is similar to that derived in L1527 (4.7%; Yoshida et al. 2019).
Citation: Chantzos et al. 2018
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