adsabs/FOCAL huggingface dataset:
Rocky planets are the only harbour for life form in the Solar system, so unravelling their origin and history is fundamental for understanding the habitability of planets other than Earth (Lineweaver & Chopra 2012; Cockell et al. 2016). For example, mantle–crust differentiation on Earth has set boundary conditions through redox conditions and early degassing processes that liquid water can occur on the surface of Earth. Geochemical studies, mainly elemental and isotopic compositions, on the specimens from these planets provide significant information about differentiation processes and their timing. Sample-return missions represent one way to obtain these specimens from the differentiated planets (e.g. Anand et al. 2020), but at great time and expense. Non-chondrite meteorites (including achondrites) also originate from differentiated asteroids and planets, e.g. from Moon, Mars, and Vesta, and the angrite and ureilite parent bodies (Binzel & Xu 1993; Weiss et al. 2008; Agee et al. 2013; Marchi et al. 2013; Bischoff et al. 2014). Some non-chondritic meteorites have a unique mineralogy and bulk composition, indicative of core, mantle, and crustal domains of their parent bodies, and thus, these samples record large-scale early planetary differentiation events. For instance, ureilites (Mg-rich, dominated by olivine and pyroxene) and iron meteorites (Fe–Ni metal) are from the mantle and core of asteroids, respectively, and record planetary mantle differentiation and core formation (Goodrich, Scott & Fioretti 2004; Goldstein, Scott & Chabot 2009). In contrast, shergottite and howardite–eucrite–diogenite meteorites, which are inferred to have derived from Mars, 4 Vesta, and related bodies, reflect a variety of crustal compositions and processes (Mezger, Debaille & Kleine 2013; Mittlefehldt 2015). In addition to the well-known achondrite groups with numerous members, ungrouped achondrites, e.g. Northwest Africa (NWA) 011 (Yamaguchi et al. 2002), Graves Nunatak (GRA) 06128/06129 (Day et al. 2009), NWA 11119 (Srinivasan et al. 2018), and NWA 7325 (Koefoed et al. 2016) expand the compositional range of achondrites towards chemically more evolved compositions (e.g. higher SiO2 contents), and thus, showcase the diversity of planetary and asteroidal crusts in the Solar system. Some achondrites, e.g. NWA 11119 and NWA 7325, yield evidence for their accretion and differentiation within the first ∼5 Myr after the formation of Ca–Al-rich inclusions (CAIs); (Koefoed et al. 2016; Srinivasan et al. 2018; Zhu et al. 2019b; Barrat et al. 2021). Hence, dating more achondrites is beneficial to map the early history of Solar system.
Citation: Weiss et al. 2008
Citation function: Background
As shown in Fig. 3, the differences in metallicity between different SN subclasses are not significant. This is in contradiction with what is expected from single-star evolution theory, where metallicity-driven winds are crucial: type Ic SNe, which are the most highly stripped, would show the highest metallicity, followed by type Ib, and finally the H-rich type II SNe. The observations, on the other hand, reveals that this is not the case. Some SNe Ic are even located in the low-metallicity part of the distribution in the current sample. This result strengthens the notion that metallicity may not play an important role in deciding theresulting SN type, in agreement with other works based on SN environments (Anderson et al. 2010, 2015; Leloudas et al. 2011; Galbany et al. 2016a). The environments of broad-lined SNe IcBL are found to be relatively metal poor compared to the normal CCSNe, in agreement with previous studies (Modjaz et al. 2011; Galbany et al. 2016a). However, we note that there are only two such SNe in the current sample. The explosion site of SN 1998bw (the first SN to be associated with a GRB: 980425; Galama et al. 1998; Krühler et al. 2017) in this study shows a lower metallicity of 12 + log(O/H) = 8.30 dex compared to the GRB-less SN 2009bb (Pignata et al. 2011), 12 + log(O/H) = 8.49 dex. Levesque et al. (2010a), using slit spectroscopy of the explosion site, concluded that the high metallicity of SN 2009bb site is consistent with typical GRB-less SNe IcBL and not with GRB hosts. Their metallicity value recalculated on the Marino et al. (2013) N2 scale is 12 + log(O/H) = 8.52 dex. These two different cases illustrate the importance of metallicity in deciding whether an SN IcBL progenitor would also produce GRB or not (Modjaz et al. 2008; Levesque et al. 2010b). Progenitors with higher metallicity are not able to spin fast enough and thus produce high angular momentum essential for GRB jet production, eventually producing a GRB-less SN IcBL (Woosley & Bloom 2006).
Citation: Leloudas et al. 2011
Citation function: Similarities
Citation: Anderson et al. 2010
Citation function: Similarities
One of the most astonishing characteristics of Liller 1 is the extremely large value of the collision rate parameter. Verbunt & Hut (1987) showed that Liller 1 has the second-highest value of stellar encounter rate (after Terzan 5; see also Lanzoni et al. 2010) among all star clusters in the Galaxy, thus suggesting that it represents an ideal environment where exotic objects, generated by collisions, can form. In fact, it is commonly believed that dynamical interactions in GCs facilitate the formation of close binary systems and exotic objects such as cataclysmic variables (CVs), low-mass X-ray binaries (LMXBs), millisecond pulsars (MSPs), and blue straggler stars (BSSs) (e.g., Bailyn 1992; Paresce et al. 1992; Ferraro et al. 2001, 2009a, 2012; Ransom et al. 2005; Pooley & Hut 2006). Moreover, Hui et al. (2010) found that clusters with large collisional parameters and high metallicity (see also Bellazzini et al. 1995) usually host more MSPs. Indeed, Terzan 5 hosts the largest population of MSPs among all Galactic GCs (Ransom et al. 2005).
6



6

Note that Terzan 5 is suspected to not be a genuine GC, because it harbors at least three stellar populations with different iron abundances (Ferraro et al. 2009a; Origlia et al. 2011, 2013; Massari et al. 2014).
 A strong γ-ray emission has been recently detected in the direction of Liller 1 by the Large Area Telescope (LAT) on board Fermi (Tam et al. 2011). This is the most intense emission detected so far from a Galactic GC, again suggesting the presence of a large number of MSPs. However, no direct radio detection of these objects has been obtained so far in this system (Ransom et al. 2005). The only exotic object identified in the cluster is the rapid burster MXB 1730-335, an LMXB observed to emit radio waves and type I and type II X-ray bursts (Hoffman et al. 1978). It seems to be located in the central region of Liller 1, but no optical/IR counterpart of this object has been found so far (Homer et al. 2001).
Citation: Ferraro et al. 2001
Citation function: Background
Citation: Ransom et al. 2005
Citation function: Motivation
Citation: Ransom et al. 2005
Citation function: Background
Citation: Ransom et al. 2005
Citation function: Motivation
Half a century ago, a series of theorems laid the ground for the Kerr hypothesis (Israel 1967; Carter 1971; Robinson 1975); according to these no-hair theorems, the only stationary, axisymmetric, asymptotically flat, regular outside of the horizon solution to four-dimensional GR when the matter fields feature the same isometries as the spacetime is the Kerr BH. Notwithstanding their significance, there are many ways with which to circumvent them and discover different solutions. Still, in four dimensions, hairy BHs have been described in different theories of gravity, such as Einstein–Yang–Mills (Bizon 1990; Künzle & Masood-ul-Alam 1990; Volkov & Galtsov 1990; Breitenlohner et al. 1992; Kleihaus & Kunz 1998, 2001; Kleihaus et al. 2004), scalar-tensor (Bocharova et al. 1970; Bekenstein 1974; Kleihaus et al. 2015; Collodel et al. 2020a), and Gauss–Bonnet theories (Kanti et al. 1996; Kleihaus et al. 2011, 2016; Antoniou et al. 2018; Doneva & Yazadjiev 2018; Silva et al. 2018; Cunha et al. 2019; Collodel et al. 2020b; Herdeiro et al. 2021; Berti et al. 2021). Remarkably, by dropping the assumption that the matter fields must be stationary and axisymmetric, Herdeiro and Radu found solutions in the context of GR where BHs have hair (Herdeiro & Radu 2014b, 2015), by minimally coupling to gravity a complex scalar field that depends on time and on the axial coordinate while its energy-momentum tensor still possesses the respective isometries; see Herdeiro et al. (2015, 2016a, 2016b), Brihaye et al. (2016), and Delgado et al. (2016) for generalizations. These are known as scalarized Kerr black holes (KBHsSH) and they are the object of study of this paper. In their domain of existence, they connect Kerr BHs (that is, with no hair) with pure solitonic solutions, also known as boson stars (BS), which are regular everywhere and feature no horizons. In this sense, one can think of the KBHsSH indeed as a combined system of a BS with a horizon at its center, and therefore it shares traits of both objects.
Citation: Kleihaus et al. 2004
Citation function: Background
The high interaction rates in globular clusters, especially at their centres, lead to the efficient formation of exotic binaries like accreting compact objects – cataclysmic variables (white dwarfs) and X-ray binaries (neutron stars and black holes; Clark, Markert & Li 1975). Soon after the first X-ray missions, it was recognized that X-ray transients in globular clusters were disproportionately associated with neutron stars, with no confirmed black holes (Verbunt et al. 1995), a fact that remains true to this day (Bahramian et al. 2014). In contrast, about a third of the X-ray transients in the rest of the Galaxy contain black holes (Miller-Jones et al. 2015; Tetarenko et al. 2016). Originally it was proposed that due to mutual gravitational interactions that all black holes would have been ejected from globular clusters (Kulkarni, Hut & McMillan 1993; Sigurdsson & Hernquist 1993). However, there are several recent indications that a number of black holes may still exist within clusters, based on X-ray observations of extragalactic clusters (Maccarone et al. 2007; Brassington et al. 2010; Irwin et al. 2010; Shih et al. 2010; Maccarone et al. 2011), radio/X-ray observations of Galactic clusters (Maccarone & Knigge 2007; Strader et al. 2012; Chomiuk et al. 2013; Miller-Jones et al. 2015), as well as theoretical simulations (Sippel & Hurley 2013; Morscher et al. 2015; Peuten et al. 2016). The reason why these black holes are so elusive could perhaps be due to the nature of the X-ray binaries they form, rather than their number. If the majority of accreting black holes in globular clusters have very low-mass, possibly degenerate, donors, they will have short, faint outbursts, making them undetectable by current and past all-sky X-ray surveys (Knevitt et al. 2014). Indeed, the dynamics in globular clusters are thought to effectively produce ultracompact X-ray binaries (Verbunt 1987; Deutsch et al. 1996; Deutsch, Margon & Anderson 2000; Ivanova et al. 2005, 2010), in which a black hole or neutron star accretes matter from an H-poor donor in a system with a very short orbital period (≲1  h; Nelson, Rappaport & Joss 1986).
Citation: Kulkarni, Hut & McMillan 1993
Citation function: Background
Major nearby galaxy cold gas mapping surveys (Regan et al. 2001; Wilson et al. 2009; Rahman et al. 2011; Leroy et al. 2009; Donovan Meyer et al. 2013; Bolatto et al. 2017; Sorai et al. 2019; Sun et al. 2018) have focused on observations of the molecular gas (through CO lines). Despite a few notable exceptions (e.g. Alatalo et al. 2013; Saintonge et al. 2017), these surveys observed mainly spiral or infrared-bright galaxies (i.e. galaxies with significant star formation) and have furthered our understanding of how star formation happens, rather than how it stops. This boils down to quantifying the relation between molecular gas and star formation rate (SFR), which appears nearly linear in nearby discs (Kennicutt 1998; Bigiel et al. 2008; Leroy et al. 2013; Lin et al. 2019). This relationship is often parametrised via the ratio between the SFR and the molecular gas mass (Mmol), which is called the molecular star formation efficiency (SFE = SFR/Mmol = 1∕τdep), where the inverse of the SFE is the depletion time, τdep. The depletion time indicates how much time is necessary to convert all the available molecular gas into stars at the current star formation rate. On kpc scales and in the discs of nearby star-forming galaxies, τdep is approximately constant around 1–2 Gyr (Bigiel et al. 2011; Rahman et al. 2012; Leroy et al. 2013; Utomo et al. 2017), and it appears to weakly correlate with many galactic properties such as stellar mass surface density or environmental hydrostatic pressure (Leroy et al. 2008; Rahman et al. 2012). Nevertheless, small but important deviations for a constant SFE have been noticed, which can be the first hints of star formation quenching. In some galaxies, the depletion time in the centres appear shorter (Leroy et al. 2013; Utomo et al. 2017) or longer (Utomo et al. 2017) with respectto their discs. These differences may correlate with the presence of a bar or with galaxy mergers (Utomo et al. 2017; see also Muraoka et al. 2019) and do not seem to be related to unaccounted variation in the CO-to-H2 conversion factor (Leroy et al. 2013; Utomo et al. 2017). Spiral arm streaming motions have also been observed to lengthen depletion times (Meidt et al. 2013; Leroy et al. 2015).
Citation: Leroy et al. 2013
Citation function: Background
Citation: Leroy et al. 2013
Citation function: Background
Citation: Leroy et al. 2013
Citation function: Background
Citation: Leroy et al. 2013
Citation function: Background; Background
Silicon monoxide (SiO) is predicted to be the most abundant Si-bearing molecule in the entire 1–10 R* range in the atmospheres of M stars. In S-type atmospheres, the calculated abundance of SiO decreases by two orders of magnitude in the 1–5 R* but retains a very high abundance beyond, and the same occurs in C-rich atmospheres, although in this case, the abundance drop in the 1–5 R* is even more pronounced (see Fig. 2; see also Agúndez & Cernicharo 2006). Observations indicate that the abundance of SiO does not differ significantly between envelopes around M-, S-, and C-type stars, although in all them the SiO abundance decreases with increasing mass-loss rate (González Delgado et al. 2003; Schöier et al. 2006; Ramstedt et al. 2009; Massalkhi et al. 2019, 2020). This decline in the SiO abundance with increasing envelope density is not a consequence of chemical equilibrium (Massalkhi et al. 2019), but has been interpreted as evidence that SiO disappears from the gas phase at high densities to be incorporated into dust grains (González Delgado et al. 2003; Schöier et al. 2006; Ramstedt et al. 2009; Massalkhi et al. 2019, 2020). It therefore appears that the gradual abundance decline calculated for SiO in the 1–5 R* region from stellar type in the sense M → S → C does not have a direct consequence in the SiO abundance that is injected into the expanding wind. However, this behavior predicted by chemical equilibrium probably explains why SiO masers are observed in M-type stars but not toward carbon stars (e.g., Pardo et al. 2004). Except for these details, chemical equilibrium and observations agree in the fact that SiO is one of the most abundant carriers of silicon in the atmospheres of M-, S-, and C-type stars. Calculations and observations also agree for SiS in that it is an abundant molecule regardless of the C/O. However, observations indicate a differentiation between C- and O-rich envelopes, with SiS being on average one order of magnitude more abundant in carbon-rich sources (Schöier et al. 2007; Danilovich et al. 2018; Massalkhi et al. 2019, 2020). Moreover, in some oxygen-rich envelopes, the fractional abundance of SiS relative to H2 is as low as ~10−8, which is well below the predictions of chemical equilibrium (Danilovich et al. 2019; Massalkhi et al. 2020).
Citation: Massalkhi et al. 2019
Citation function: Compare/Contrast
Citation: Massalkhi et al. 2019
Citation function: Compare/Contrast
At this juncture in cosmology, independent and complementary probes with considerable precision are very helpful for providing clues about the origin of the abovementioned crises. Strong-lensing systems are one of the most promising probes for investigating these issues. The time delay between images of strongly lensed time-variable sources was proposed to directly determine H0 (Refsdal 1964; Treu 2010). Recently, with elaborate time-delay measurements and lens modeling for five selected strongly lensed quasar systems, the H0 Lenses in COSMOGRAIL’s Wellspring (H0LiCOW) team yielded an estimation of H0 that is also 2.3σ higher than the Planck-calibrated value (Birrer et al. 2019). It should be mentioned that this result is completely independent of all rungs of the distance ladder. Moreover, on the basis of the distance sum rule (DSR), distance ratios derived from angular separation measurements of images in strong-lensing systems were proposed to test the FLRW metric and model-independently determine ΩK (Räsänen et al. 2015). This method has been intensively implemented with updated observations (Xia et al. 2017; Li et al. 2018a; Liu et al. 2020; Zhou & Li 2020). In order to reduce the systematics resulting from oversimplified lensing modeling in the distance ratio method, Liao et al. (2017b) reformulated the DSR in terms of the time-delay distance, which is a combination of three angular diameter distances in a strong-lensing system. With the latest strongly lensed quasar observations and type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) luminosity distance measurements, H0 and ΩK were simultaneously and model-independently determined to a precision of ∼6% and ∼0.3 (Collett et al. 2019), respectively. Meanwhile, strongly lensed gravitational waves (GWs) and their electromagnetic (EM) counterparts from the binary of compact object coalescence are proposed as a powerful tool for precision cosmology since the time delay between images in these systems can be precisely measured (Liao et al. 2017a; Li et al. 2019). However, both traditional strongly lensed quasar and proposed strongly lensed GW systems face shortages. For lensed quasars, the precision of time-delay measurements is limited to ∼3% and lens modeling is difficult to improve because of the bright active-galactic nuclei (AGNs) contamination in the source host galaxy. For the expected lensed GWs, the main challenges may be the event rate and localization ability for images of GW signals, which is crucial for lens modeling.
Citation: Liu et al. 2020
Citation function: Background
Swift J1734.5-3027 was detected by INTEGRAL for the first time during the observations performed toward the Galactic bulge in the satellite revolution 1329, i.e., about half a day before the BAT discovery (from 56 535.85950 MJD to 56 536.01338 MJD; see Table 1). It remained within the field of view (FoV) of the instruments on-board INTEGRAL until satellite revolution 1348 (from 56 592.54664 MJD to 56 593.31612 MJD), when the window of seasonal visibility toward the Galactic center closed. We analyzed all INTEGRAL data by using version 10.1 of the Off-line Scientific Analysis software (OSA) distributed by the ISDC (Courvoisier et al. 2003). INTEGRAL observations are divided into science windows (SCWs), i.e., pointings with typical durations of ~2−3 ks. To limit the ISGRI calibration uncertainties (Lebrun et al. 2003), we made use of all public SCWs from the Galactic bulge, Scutum/Sagittarium, and Perseus/Norma monitoring programs during which the source was located to within 12 deg from the center of the IBIS FoV (Ubertini et al. 2003). We also included in our dataset the observations of the Galactic center and 4U 1728-34 for which our group was awarded data rights in revolutions 1329−1348. A summary of the total exposure-time available in each revolution is provided in Table 1 for IBIS/ISGRI and the two JEM-X telescopes (Lund et al. 2003). We extracted the mosaics and spectra in each revolution for the two JEM-X and ISGRI. All JEM-X spectra were extracted by using the standard 16-channel response matrix, while a customized 37 energy bin response matrix was created for ISGRI in order to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) in the energy range (20−50 keV). Only in revolution 1329, was the ISGRI spectrum extracted with a reduced energy binning (8 channels), as the source was relatively faint (see Sect. 3). JEM-X lightcurves with a time resolution of 2 s were extracted from all observations to search for Type-I X-ray bursts, but none was found. We did not perform other timing analyses of the INTEGRAL data as the source was too faint to extract meaningful power spectra. In Fig. 1 we show the ISGRI mosaic realized by using all available data.
Citation: Lebrun et al. 2003
Citation function: Uses
To derive the equipartition magnetic field of J1146+4037, we predict the rest-frame 8.4 GHz (redshifted to 1.4 GHz at z = 5.0059) flux density from our spectral model. However, there is no source size measurement at 1.4 GHz. We make use of the full width at half maximum (FWHM) source size of 0.74 ± 0.01 mas derived by the Gaussian fit from 5 GHz VLBI mas angular resolution observations (Frey et al. 2010). We note that in our calculations, we assume a source size that is 1.8 times larger than the FWHM, following the approach of Readhead (1994) and Orienti & Dallacasa (2008). The derived equipartition magnetic field is 



34

−
7


+
8



$ 34^{+8}_{-7} $


 mG. This is within the range of the equipartition magnetic fields of 17 HFP radio sources (7–60 mG; quasars and galaxies at 0.22   z   2.91; Orienti & Dallacasa 2012) and 5 HFPs at 0.084   z   1.887 (18–160 mG; Orienti & Dallacasa 2008). The magnetic field calculated from the turnover information listed in Table 4 is 



1
.

8

−
2.7


+
2.3




$ 1.8^{+2.3}_{-2.7} $


 G assuming an SSA origin with Eq. (3), however the uncertainty is very large. The large uncertainty is caused by the fact that we only have four data points to constrain the turnover information and we do not have source size measurements at the turnover frequency, but rather we assume the source size measured at another frequency. More data taken in other wavelength bands are needed to meaningfully constrain the turnover peak, and mas resolution observations at the peak frequency are needed to give reliable magnetic field strength measurements. This may indicate that the turnover is not caused by SSA, by comparing the large magnetic field strength measured from the spectral turnover (



1
.

8

−
2.7


+
2.3




$ 1.8^{+2.3}_{-2.7} $


 G) with the equipartition magnetic field strength (



34

−
7


+
8



$ 34^{+8}_{-7} $


 mG). As J1146+4037 is a strong blazar, the turnover may be caused by its strong variability. Another possible explanation for the spectral turnover is that high-density plasma in the nuclear region attenuates the radio emission from the central active BH. High-resolution, interstellar medium observations of the nuclear region of this target may address the latter issue.
Citation: Orienti & Dallacasa (2008)
Citation function: Uses
Citation: Orienti & Dallacasa 2008
Citation function: Similarities; Similarities