adsabs/FOCAL huggingface dataset:
We then used the fxcor task to determine the redshifts of selected objects in the field. This task allows to calculate the radial velocity through Fourier cross-correlation between the spectrum of the object under analysis and a reference (template) spectrum (Tonry & Davis 1979). Both spectra are continuum subtracted and Fourier filtered before doing the correlation, while dispersions are equalized by rebinning to the smallest dispersion. For this work, we used two reference spectra: that of NGC 4449 (Kennicutt 1992), an irregular galaxy that has well-defined emissions, and the spectrum of NGC 4387 (Gavazzi et al. 2004), an elliptical galaxy showing strong absorptions. Both templates were downloaded from NED. For those spectra where it was possible to establish a tentative redshift value, typical emission lines were identified, such as H γ, [O ii] (3727 Å), H β, [O iii] (4959 Å) and [O iii] (5007 Å), and/or absorptions, like Ca ii (H+K), Ca+Fe, Na i and H α. Finally, the redshift adopted for each object was computed from Gaussian fits to two or more such features in its spectrum. Three objects (slits #6, #19 and #23) turned out to be Galactic stars5 (we give their radial velocities in Table 1), while no reliable redshift value could be obtained for other five objects (slits #5, #11, #13, #17 and #20), due to the low S/N ratio of their spectra (we will return to objects #5 and #11 in Section 3.2). Tentative redshifts for two of them (slits #17 and #20) were measured through just one emission line each, which we assumed to be [O ii] (3727 Å) and H δ, respectively (based on their colours and spiral morphology). So, their tentative redshift values would be $z_{\#17} \simeq 0.476$ and $z_{\#20} \simeq 0.479$. No clear emission or absorption lines could be identified in the blazar's spectrum, besides telluric lines and diffuse interstellar bands (DIBs), so no definite redshift value could be established in this way for 3C 66A (see, however, Section 3.3 for our analysis on probable foreground absorptions on the blazar's spectrum). Redshifts were thus established for 15 (plus two just tentative) out of the 24 selected objects. Our results are shown in Table 1, where we also include the only galaxy with a previously published redshift within our GMOS field (G2 in Bow97).
Citation: Gavazzi et al. 2004
Citation function: Uses; Uses; Uses
Here, we present new Very Large Telescope (VLT) VIMOS (Le Févre et al. 2003) observations of two star-forming dwarf galaxies using the integral field unit (IFU) spectroscopy mode (hereafter VIMOS-IFU). UM 461 (the upper panel in Fig. 1) is a well-studied H ii/BCD galaxy (e.g. Taylor et al. 1995; van Zee, Skillman & Salzer 1998; Lagos et al. 2011). This galaxy has been described as formed by two compact and off-centre giant H ii regions (GH iiR), some smaller star-forming regions spread across the galaxy disc and an external stellar envelope that is strongly skewed towards the south-west (Lagos et al. 2011). It has been classified as having a cometary-like morphology with an integrated subsolar metallicity of 12 + log(O/H) = 7.73–7.78 (Masegosa, Moles & Campos-Aguilar 1994; Izotov & Thuan 1998; Pérez-Montero & Díaz 2003). As in most H ii/BCD galaxies, UM 461 has an underlying component of old stars (Telles & Terlevich 1997; Lagos et al. 2011) that exhibits an elliptical outer morphology. Deep Near-Infrared observations with the Gemini/NIRI camera (Lagos et al. 2011) revealed that the star-formation activity in this galaxy is taking place in several star clusters with masses typically between ∼104 M⊙ and ∼106 M⊙. Fig. 1 shows the Kp band image of UM 461 obtained by Lagos et al. (2011). Using the same notation as Lagos et al. (2011), the main GH iiR (the brightest one in Fig. 1) in our study is composed of the star clusters nos. 2 and 3, while the faintest one is formed by star clusters nos. 5–7. Taylor et al. (1995) proposed that the SE tail in their H i image of UM 461 was formed as a result of a tidal interaction with UM 462. However, higher resolution H i maps of UM 461 by van Zee, Skillman & Salzer (1998) did not show the extended SE H i tail seen in the Taylor H i map. This discrepancy is attributed to solar interference in the Taylor map (van Zee, Skillman & Salzer 1998). Moreover, the age distribution of the star cluster population in UM 461 indicates that the current starburst has begun within the last few million years (Lagos et al. 2011). This current starburst time-scale is too short to realistically be attributed to a UM 461/UM 462 interaction.
Citation: Izotov & Thuan 1998
Citation function: Background
Theoretically, the production, propagation, and escape of LyC photons are related to the physical properties of the galaxies. Firstly, the production of LyC radiation implies the presence of young, massive stars, and therefore of on-going star formation. Because of the fast recombination timescale of the HI atoms, previous episodes of star formation have no significant impact on the production of ionizing photons eventually escaping the galaxy (e.g. Paardekooper et al. 2015). Secondly, the propagation of LyC photons within the ISM is favoured by a negligible amount of dust and low column density of HI (N(HI) ≤ 1018 cm-2) in a 10-pc scale region around the emitting star clusters. This could be the case for galaxies embedded in dark-matter halos with masses less than 108 M⊙ (Yajima et al. 2011; Wise et al. 2014; Paardekooper et al. 2015). However, even galaxies residing in more massive halos can have lines of sight favourable to the propagation and the escape of LyC photons (Gnedin et al. 2008; Roy et al. 2015). Supernova explosions could have cleared their ISM, and star-formation episodes could occur in their outskirts. In addition, “runaway” OB stars up to 1 kpc away from the initial-origin regions are proposed to significantly contribute to the amount of LyC photons finally emitted into the IGM (Conroy & Kratter 2012). Thirdly, LyC photons emitted into the IGM can affect the galaxy environment, changing the ratio of neutral vs ionized gas, eventually fuelling the ISM (e.g. Martin et al. 2012, for a study of ionized-metal outflows and inflows). Simulations at intermediate redshift have shown that the LyC escape fraction (fesc(LyC)) steeply decreases as the dark-matter halo mass (Mh) increases at 3 z 6 (e.g. Yajima et al. 2011) and that the median fesc(LyC) also changes with redshift at z = 4−6 (e.g., Cen & Kimm 2015). It is worth stressing that while some authors find that the LyC escape fraction decreases with the increase in the halo mass (see also Ferrara & Loeb 2013), other works find the opposite trend: fesc(LyC) is found to range from a few percent (e.g. Gnedin et al. 2008) up to 
        20−30% (e.g. Mitra et al. 2013) or even higher (e.g. Wise & Cen 2009).
Citation: Wise et al. 2014
Citation function: Background
How does the propagation of radiation and the ISM composition affect ISM observables in low-metallicity galaxies? Addressing this question is important to understand the evolution of low-metallicity galaxies, which undergo more bursty star formation than normal galaxies. Nearby star-forming dwarf galaxies present distinct observational signatures compared to well-studied disk galaxies. Dwarfs are usually metal poor, H i rich, and molecule poor as a result of large-scale photodissociation (e.g., Kunth & Östlin 2000; Hunter et al. 2012; Schruba et al. 2012). Mid-IR (MIR) and far-IR (FIR) observations have revealed bright atomic lines from H ii regions ([S iii], [Ne iii], [Ne ii], [O iii], etc.) and PDRs ([C ii], [O i]) (e.g., Hunter et al. 2001; Madden et al. 2006; Wu et al. 2008; Hunt et al. 2010; Cormier et al. 2015). Their spectral energy distributions (SEDs) are also different from spiral and elliptical galaxies and indicative of altered dust properties, with a relatively low abundance of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and perhaps a different dust composition (e.g., Madden et al. 2006; Galliano et al. 2008; Rémy-Ruyer et al. 2013). It is still unknown, however, whether these differences between dwarf and disk galaxies are the direct result of recent star formation activity shaping the ISM or instead a consequence of the low-metallicity ISM that is independent of star formation activity. To answer this, one needs to observe tracers of the interplay between the ISM and various stages of star formation activity. While there are now a number of important studies available on PDR properties modeling FIR lines on large scales in various extragalactic environments (e.g., Kaufman et al. 2006; Vasta et al. 2010; Graciá-Carpio et al. 2011; Cormier et al. 2012; Parkin et al. 2013) or in our Galaxy under solar-metallicity conditions (e.g., Cubick et al. 2008; Bernard-Salas et al. 2012, 2015), only a few studies are published on individual extragalactic regions (Mookerjea et al. 2011; Lebouteiller et al. 2012). Of particular interest are dwarf galaxies, where the effect due to radiative feedback is expected to be most significant. The goal of this paper is to investigate how the low-metallicity ISM reacts under the effects of star formation in regions that have undergone different histories. The nearby low-metallicity galaxy NGC 4214 provides an excellent environment to perform this experiment because it has well-separated star-forming centers, one hosting a super star cluster, which allows us to study the effects of extreme star-forming conditions on the surrounding ISM.
Citation: Hunt et al. 2010
Citation function: Background
Citation: Cormier et al. 2015
Citation function: Background
This work improves the efficiency of component by component modelling that has been successful in recovering the physical conditions for various individual absorbers (e.g. Churchill & Charlton 1999; Charlton et al. 2000, 2003; Ding et al. 2003a, 2003b; Zonak et al. 2004; Ding, Charlton & Churchill 2005; Masiero et al. 2005; Lynch & Charlton 2007; Misawa et al. 2008; Jones et al. 2010; Lacki & Charlton 2010; Muzahid et al. 2015; Richter et al. 2018; Rosenwasser et al. 2018). Rather than averaging over components and phases, it is possible to determine how much of the H i is associated with these different phases in order to derive separate metallicities for various clouds. Resolving the individual clouds allows us to break the degeneracy for components on the flat part of the Lyα curve of growth, even with coverage of just saturated H i lines, and derive metallicity constraints for different parcels of gas along the line of sight. It is important to do so because different processes, e.g. outflows (Bouché et al. 2012; Bordoloi et al. 2014; Rubin et al. 2014; Schroetter et al. 2016), pristine accretion (Martin et al. 2012; Rubin et al. 2012; Danovich et al. 2015), recycled accretion (Ford et al. 2014), minor and major mergers (Martin et al. 2012; Anglés-Alcázar et al. 2017), are surely contributing to the same system, and it is expected that conditions will vary significantly along a line of sight which can span hundreds of kpc spatially (Churchill et al. 2015; Peeples et al. 2019). This will lead to a more meaningful comparison to galaxy properties. For example, Pointon et al. (2019) did not find a difference between the metallicities of absorbers found within an impact parameter of 200 kpc along the major and the minor axes of isolated galaxies. Based on cosmological hydrodynamic simulations, a larger metallicity is expected along the minor axis due to outflows and a lower metallicity along the major axis due to inflows (Peroux et al. 2020). However, an observational trend could exist, for example, for the minor axis to have some, but not all, high metallicity components, or for the minor axis to have one or more low metallicity components. Such results would be ‘washed out’ by deriving an average metallicity for all gas along a line of sight, which clearly often has multiple complex origins. For some data sets/projects, the new analysis could be transformative, however, to make it feasible to use for large statistical studies it is important that the analysis is semi-automated and robust.
Citation: Rubin et al. 2012
Citation function: Motivation; Motivation; Motivation
The question whether electrons are able to penetrate into deep and dense layers of the solar atmosphere is currently under scrutiny. Calculations by Emslie (1978) showed that for electrons and/or protons to reach the 





 level, their energy has to be of the order of a few MeV, while electron energy in the strongest flares only reaches several hundreds of keV. Considering the continuity equation for electron precipitation, Syrovatskii & Shmeleva (1972) and Dobranskis & Zharkova (2015) calculated that beam electrons with energies above 100 keV can reach the lower chromosphere with a column depth of 2 × 1021 cm−2, while those with energies of the order of 200 keV are even capable of penetrating to the photosphere (1022 cm−2; see also Zharkova & Gordovskyy 2006). Works by other authors seem to support the idea that power-law beam electrons may precipitate throughout the entire flaring atmosphere down to the photosphere (Brown 1971; Syrovatskii & Shmeleva 1972), causing its heating via inelastic collisions with the ambient plasma via a hydrodynamic response (Somov et al. 1981; Nagai & Emslie 1984; Fisher et al. 1985; Zharkova & Zharkov 2007). These power-law electrons also cause nonthermal excitation and ionization of hydrogen and other elements, combined with radiative transfer, leading to occurrence of emission in the lines and continua during flaring events (Aboudarham & Henoux 1986; Zharkova & Kobylinskii 1993). Observations indicate that CE may be a combination of radiation that originates (i) in an optically thin chromospheric layer owing to heating caused by beam electrons (thermal model), with subsequent recombination producing enhanced Balmer and Paschen continuum, and (ii) in the photosphere and TMR, where the plasmas are excited and ionized directly by collisions with high-energy electrons, resulting in radiative transfer processes in spectral lines and continua, combined with backwarming radiation supplied by the heated chromosphere and corona (e.g., Hudson 1972; Metcalf et al. 1990; Babin et al. 2016; Kleint et al. 2016). Indeed, since the early 1980s the enhanced Balmer continuum has been observed close to the Balmer cutoff at 3646 Å (Neidig 1989; Kerr & Fletcher 2014), and more recently a strong increase of Balmer continuum has been detected over a wide spectral range using IRIS data (Heinzel & Kleint 2014; Kleint et al. 2016).
Citation: Somov et al. 1981
Citation function: Compare/Contrast; Compare/Contrast
The origin of kiloparsec scale magnetic fields observed in the nearby galaxies through the polarized radio synchrotron emission (e.g. Fletcher 2010; Beck 2012, etc.) is attributed to the large-scale dynamo operating in the interstellar medium (ISM). This is driven mainly via the helical turbulent motions in the interstellar medium, coupled with the differential shear and vertical density stratification. This mechanism, along with some phenomenological approximations about the properties of background turbulence, in principle explains the growth of magnetic fields from small initial strengths to large-scale equipartition strengths against the diffusive losses (Beck et al. 1996; Shukurov 2005; Beck & Wielebinski 2013), and the characteristic times it takes for the field to reach the equipartition strength turn out to be of the order of $\sim \, {\rm Gyr}\,$. This is perhaps a much too slow to account for the strong equipartition strength magnetic fields observed in the high-redshift galaxies with z > 1 (e.g. Bernet et al. 2008) or even for that in the slowly rotating nearby galaxies. This discrepancy leads one to invoke some additional mechanism such as cosmic rays (CRs) boosting the typical dynamo action. The idea of CR driven dynamo was initially discussed by Parker (1992), this predicted the possibility of enhanced dynamo action by the virtue of additional CR buoyant instability, that inflates the magnetic field structures (see also Brandenburg 2018). Based on the conventional dynamo formulation Parker further suggested a simple model for the flux loss through the gaseous disc due to buoyancy by substituting the transport terms Bϕ/td. These terms are supposed to encapsulate the non advective flux transport associated with the buoyant instability, and leads to the fast dynamo action in characteristic field mixing times. Hanasz & Lesch (2000) indirectly verified such a dynamo action via the numerical simulations of rising magnetic flux tubes and found e-folding times of mean field of the order of $100\, {\rm Myr}\,$. Supplementing this Hanasz, Wóltański & Kowalik (2009), Siejkowski et al. (2010), Kulpa-Dybeł et al. (2015), Girichidis et al. (2016), etc. also demonstrated the fast amplification of regular magnetic fields via the direct magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulation of global galactic ISM including CR driven turbulence, along with the differential shear (but excluding the viscous term). To complement this, we aim here to extend our previous analysis of dynamo mechanism in SN driven ISM turbulence (Bendre, Gressel & Elstner 2015) by including the CR component and investigate the influence of magnetic field dependent propagation of CR on the dynamo. Here we focus on estimating the dynamo coefficients from the direct MHD simulations and effect CR component has on them by comparing with our previous analysis without the CR.
Citation: Bernet et al. 2008
Citation function: Motivation; Motivation
Submillimetre galaxies (SMGs) are ultraluminous dusty star-forming galaxies (SFGs) with the vast majority of radiation energy in the far-infrared (FIR) and submillimetre bands (Smail, Ivison & Blain 1997; Barger et al. 1998; Hughes et al. 1998; Michałowski et al. 2012; Casey, Narayanan & Cooray 2014). They are extreme starbursts with high star formation rate (SFR) of $\sim 10^2\, -\, 10^3$ M⊙ yr−1 and high stellar mass of ∼1010–11 M⊙, located preferentially at z ∼ 2–3 (Chapman et al. 2005; Wardlow et al. 2011; Smolčić et al. 2012; Simpson et al. 2014; Brisbin et al. 2017; Danielson et al. 2017; Michałowski et al. 2017; Smith et al. 2017; Hodge & da Cunha 2020, and references therein). The physical properties of SMGs derived from detailed studies of individual sources and large sky area submillimetre surveys suggest that SMGs represent an early evolutionary phase of all local ellipticals (Smail et al. 2002; Swinbank et al. 2006; Fu et al. 2013; Toft et al. 2014; Ikarashi et al. 2015; Miettinen et al. 2017; An et al. 2019; Gullberg et al. 2019; Dudzevičiūtė et al. 2020; Rennehan et al. 2020). Although SMGs are a rare population (∼400 deg−2 down to S850 = 4 mJy; Simpson et al. 2019; Shim et al. 2020), they contribute a significant fraction (∼20 per cent) of the cosmic SFR density at z > 2 (Bourne et al. 2017; Koprowski et al. 2017; Zavala et al. 2021). Their extreme SFRs are correlated with higher gas fractions compared to normal SFGs at the same epoch (Bothwell et al. 2013; Scoville et al. 2016; Decarli et al. 2016; Tacconi et al. 2018). The large amount gas is thought to be supplied by gas infall via cold streams from surrounding gas reservoirs (Narayanan et al. 2015; Ginolfi et al. 2017). The extreme starbursts of this population are partially triggered by galaxy major mergers (Tacconi et al. 2008; Engel et al. 2010, but see Davé et al. 2010; Narayanan et al. 2015; McAlpine et al. 2019), while a diversity of morphologies unveiled from the rest-frame ultraviolet (UV) and optical imaging indicate galaxy interactions and disc instabilities to be important mechanisms for enhancing star formation in SMGs (Swinbank et al. 2010; Kartaltepe et al. 2012; Chen et al. 2015), as well as AGN activities (Chapman et al. 2005; Wang et al. 2013). Because the rarity and high SFR of SMGs are sensitive to the physical processes governing galaxy formation (e.g. star formation, stellar and AGN feedback, gas infall, metal enrichment, and galaxy merging/interactions), the SMG population is used to constrain cosmological models. It remains challenging to reproduce the SMG population with high SFRs matching observations at high z (Davé et al. 2010; McAlpine et al. 2019; Hayward et al. 2021; Lovell et al. 2021).
Citation: Toft et al. 2014
Citation function: Background
This analysis searches for a GW signal compatible with the inspiral of a BNS or NSBH binary—collectively NS binaries—within 6 s of data associated with an observed short GRB. This stretch of data is the on-source window and runs from −5 s to +1 s around the start of the GRB emission (i.e., the GRB trigger time). The surrounding ∼30–90 minutes of data are split into 6 s off-source trials which are also analyzed in order to build a background. Around 30 minutes allows the modeled search to accurately estimate the power spectral density of the available instruments and ensures that it can assess at sub-percent level accuracy the significance of any candidate events found in the on-source window. All the data are processed using PyGRB (Harry & Fairhurst 2011; Williamson et al. 2014), a coherent matched filtering pipeline that is part of the general open-source software PyCBC (Nitz et al. 2020) and has core elements in the LALSuite software library (LIGO Scientific Collaboration 2018). We scan each trial of data and the on-source window in the 30–1000 Hz frequency band using a predefined bank of waveform templates (Owen & Sathyaprakash 1999) created with a hybrid geometric–stochastic method (Capano et al. 2016; Dal Canton & Harry 2017) and using a phenomenological inspiral-merger-ringdown waveform model for non-precessing point-particle binaries (IMRPhenomD; Husa et al. 2016; Khan et al. 2016).210

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All waveforms mentioned in this section are generated with the LALSimulation package that is part of the LALSuite software library (LIGO Scientific Collaboration 2018).
 The waveform template bank includes waveforms corresponding to a range of masses ([1.0, 2.8]M for NSs, [1.0, 25.0]M for BHs) and dimensionless spin magnitudes ([0, 0.05] for NSs, [0, 0.998] for BHs) for aligned-spin, zero-eccentricity BNS or NSBH systems that may produce an electromagnetic counterpart via the tidal disruption of the NS (Pannarale & Ohme 2014). Aside from the updated sensitivity of our detectors, the only difference with respect to the second LIGO–Virgo observing run (Abbott et al. 2019b) is that the generation of the bank has been updated to apply more accurate physics to determine whether an NSBH system could produce an accretion disk from this disruption (Foucart et al. 2018). We only search for circularly polarized GWs, which may be emitted by binaries with inclinations of 0° or 180°: such systems have GW amplitudes that are consistent (Williamson et al. 2014) with those of binary progenitors with inclination angles over the full range of viewing angles that we expect for typical brightness GRBs (≲30°; Fong et al. 2015), such as those in our sample.
Citation: Owen & Sathyaprakash 1999
Citation function: Uses