adsabs/FOCAL huggingface dataset:
The study of cometary plasma composition has been subjected to a great interest after the ion mass spectrometer onboard Giotto spacecraft detected many peaks in the mass range 12 and 120 amu (Balsiger et al. 1986; Krankowsky et al. 1986; Mitchell et al. 1987; Altwegg et al. 1993). By developing photochemical models, numerous studies focused on comet 1P/Halley explained the observed ion distribution in a water-dominated coma (Allen et al. 1987; Wegmann et al. 1987; Schmidt et al. 1988; Cravens 1989; Bhardwaj, Haider & Singhal 1990, 1996; Gan & Cravens 1990; Ip et al. 1990; Haider, Bhardwaj & Singhal 1993; Häberli et al. 1995; Haider & Bhardwaj 1997, 2005; Bhardwaj 1999; Rubin et al. 2009; Cordiner & Charnley 2014). By making 2 yr of observations, the recent Rosetta space mission on comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko has revolutionized our understanding of the activity of the cometary coma. During the Rosetta observation period, continuous measurements around the nucleus were helpful to study the evolution of ion and neutral distribution and also the driving photochemical processes in the coma. Several modelling works on this comet have shown that ion composition in the coma varies based on the sublimation rate of the nucleus (Vigren & Galand 2013; Fuselier et al. 2015, 2016; Galand et al. 2016; Heritier et al. 2017, 2018; Vigren et al. 2017; Beth, Galand & Heritier 2019). All these studies show that solar photons are the primary energy source that determines the ion composition in the inner coma. Solar extreme ultraviolet photons having an energy more than 12 eV ionize H2O and produce H2O+, and the collisions among these species quickly lead to the formation of H3O+. The sublimated parent species such as CH3OH, NH3, HCN, HCOOH, and CH3CHO, have high proton affinities compared to that of H2O, causing the loss of H3O+ in the inner coma. Haider & Bhardwaj (2005) developed a comprehensive chemical network to study the ion distribution in comet 1P/Halley. Their calculations show that NH$_4^+$ is the most dominant ion in the inner coma followed by H3O+ and CH3OH$_2^+$ ions. Similarly, the model calculations of Heritier et al. (2017) on comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko showed that NH$_4^+$, CH3OH$_2^+$, H3O+, H3S+, and HCNH+ are the important ions in the inner coma. They also showed that the densities of these ions vary with the relative mixing ratios of corresponding proton affinity species coming from the nucleus. Even if the mixing ratios of parent species, which have high proton affinity, are very low (2 per cent), they can play a significant role in modifying the ionospheric composition of the inner coma. Hence, the ion distribution in the cometary coma essentially depends on the neutral composition and photochemical reactions.
Citation: Vigren & Galand 2013
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As for the ETGs, which are spheroid-dominated, most of these that are more massive than ∼2 × 1010 M⊙ are old, implying that the SF has strongly declined long time ago and no recent bursts of SF have occurred. Early formation and rapid quenching mechanisms are expected for those galaxies, where the quenching mechanisms are likely to be associated with their morphological transformation through wet major mergers and disc instabilities. These processes lead to compaction and strong bursts of SF that consume the gas (e.g. Hopkins et al. 2008; Barro et al. 2013; Dekel & Burkert 2014), as well as strong AGN/QSO and Supernova feedback that will heat and expel the gas (e.g. Granato et al. 2004; Sijacki et al. 2007; Somerville et al. 2008; Vogelsberger et al. 2014). At intermediate and low masses, the environment-driven quenching mechanisms (e.g. ram-pressure and tidal striping, strangulation, etc.) can also be relevant (e.g. Kauffmann et al. 2004; Peng et al. 2010; Schawinski et al. 2014). Note that these mechanisms are expected to lead also to morphological transformation (e.g. Gunn & Gott 1972; Moore et al. 1996; Abadi, Moore & Bower 1999; Bekki, Couch & Shioya 2002; Aragón-Salamanca, Bedregal & Merrifield 2006). However, as M* is lower there is an increasing fraction of ETGs with intermediate values of Agelw, or even low values (Table 3), though not as low as in the case of low-mass LTGs (see Fig. 16). This population of ETGs is partially associated to the Blue Star-forming and Recently Quenched Early-type galaxies, for which rejuvenation processes (Thomas et al. 2010) by gas infall or late gas-rich mergers were proposed in Lacerna et al. (2016, 2020). In fact, the $Age_{\rm mw}/{Age_{\rm lw}}$ ratio of these galaxies is large, which implies that they did not form so late but they contain some (small) fractions of very young stellar populations. Finally, for the ITGs, the Agelw distribution in the ∼0.5–5 × 1010 M⊙ mass range is roughly bimodal (Fig. 16), with a large fraction of them in the intermediate age region (or green valley in the colour–M* diagram), showing that the quenching time-scales for these galaxies with a significant bulge are slow (quenching mechanisms like those driven by morphology, halo mass, and environment; see above). For the most massive S0–Sa galaxies, ${Age_{\rm lw}}\gt 4$ Gyr, that is, they are mostly quenched, while for the lest massive, ${Age_{\rm lw}}\lesssim 2$ Gyr, which imply some rejuvenation processes.
Citation: Granato et al. 2004
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The present analysis builds upon the macroscopic-kinetic model of the solar wind, originally formulated by Yoon & Seough (2014) for the proton temperatures. The same model was recently generalized to include collisional dissipation (Yoon 2016a, 2016b). The basic methodology is similar to that of Marsch & Tu (2001) and Jasperse et al. (2006), especially in regards to treating the particle aspect, but unlike earlier works (Marsch & Tu 2001; Jasperse et al. 2006), which do not treat the waves self-consistently, Yoon & Seough (2014) and Yoon (2016a, 2016b) discuss the wave generation in a self-consistent manner by solving the adiabatic dispersion relation and wave kinetic equation for each spatial location. We now extend the original formalism (Yoon & Seough 2014) in another direction. We include dynamic electrons, but unlike the two later works (Yoon 2016a, 2016b), we ignore collisional dissipation. For an inhomogeneous plasma immersed in a diverging or converging magnetic field, the kinetic equation for the particles subject to perturbations propagating in parallel direction, s, is given by
1





where, for cylindrical velocity coordinate system, the velocity diffusion coefficient tensor is given by
2





and where 





 is the complex angular frequency, which must be determined by the local dispersion relation,
3





In the above relation, ea and ma are unit electric charge and mass for particles species a (a = p for protons and a = e for electrons, 





 for protons and 





 for electrons); 





 stands for cyclotron frequency for species a, B0 and c being the ambient magnetic field intensity and the speed of light in vacuo; 





 is the square of the plasma frequency defined for species a, n0 being the ambient plasma density, and 





 being the perturbed electric field associated with the unstable transverse mode propagating parallel (and anti-parallel) to the ambient magnetic field, ± denoting the right/left-hand circular polarization. The spectral electric field wave energy density 





 must be determined by solving the wave kinetic equation, the simplest form of which is given by the quasilinear theory,
4
Citation: Yoon & Seough (2014); Yoon & Seough 2014
Citation function: Motivation; Extends; Extends
Micro-porosity is the porosity arising from the organisation of the condensate monomers (e.g. Mg2 SiO4 in Mg2 SiO4[s]) within a cloud particle during growth. This is different from the porosity that can be used to characterise aggregates that originate from particle-particle collision processes (coagulation, e.g. Dominik & Tielens 1997; Blum & Wurm 2000), which we do not considerhere. On Earth, the material density of water ice is dependent on the ambient temperature at formation. Snowflakes are known to form many types of crystal structures that can be up to 84% porous for millimetre-sized cloud particles when compared toice material density (Hales 2005), leading to the possibility of altitude-dependent porosity in terrestrial snow clouds. Earth-like exoplanets, mini-Neptunes, and T-type brown dwarfs may form water clouds, composed of liquid or solid particles, but warmer planets and brown dwarfs of L-type and later have been shown to form cloud particles made of a mix of materials that is dominated by Mg, Si, Fe, and O and to a lesser extent by Ti, Al, K and other elements (e.g. Witte et al. 2009; Lee et al. 2015; Helling et al. 2019a). There are many ways in which this micro-porosity might be incorporated into mineral cloud particles, for example lattice faults at the interfaces between two different condensation species owing to the different lattice structures. Even for homogeneous growth, single species often have multiple crystal structures (Sood & Gouma 2013), which can also generate lattice faults at their interfaces. For example, the TiO2 [s] rutile and anatase forms are both stable at atmospheric pressures for temperatures greater than 1100 K (Jung & Imaishi 2001; Hanaor & Sorrell 2010). Additionally, within crystal structures, there are many known types of defect that might further decrease material density (e.g. Schottky defects in TiO2 [s] and MgO[s] crystals Ménétrey et al. 2004). Furthermore, these cloud particles not only change their material composition when falling through the atmosphere, but their particle sizes will also change such that the largest cloud particles are forming the innermost part of the cloud, which often sits deep inside the optically thick part of the atmosphere. Because cloud particles made of a mix of many thermally stable materials fall into warmer atmospheric regions, the low-temperature materials (such as SiO[s], MgSiO3[s]) become thermally unstable, they evaporate and leave behind a skeleton made of high-temperature materials (such as Fe[s], TiO2[s], Al2O3[s]). Whilst this may be a source of micro-porosity of cloud particles, Juncher et al. (2017) noted that this may also lead to a reduction in micro-porosity because the structural integrity of the particle is weakened and dangling structures break off. These micro-porous mineral cloud particles we call “mineral snowflakes”.
Citation: Helling et al. 2019a
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Similarly to former works (e.g., Zhang et al. 2010, 2012; Kang et al. 2014, 2016; Yan et al. 2016), we neglect the low-frequency radio data and consider the data with 





 (or 





) in our SED fitting with the one-zone model due to the fact that radio emission should come from the large-scale jet and cannot be accounted for with a one-zone model. The variability correlation between millimeter, optical, X-ray, and γ-ray emission support the fact that they come from more or less the similar region (e.g., Sikora et al. 2008; León-Tavares et al. 2012; Wehrle et al. 2012; D’Ammando et al. 2013; Orienti et al. 2013). In four LSP blazars (0333 + 321, 0430 + 052, 2145 + 067, 2230 + 114), the putative UV excesses are not included in our SED fitting, as they should come from the cold accretion disk (Shakura & Sunyaev 1973; Ghisellini et al. 2013; Ajello et al. 2016). On average, there are 17 data points in our fitting. As an example, we show the multi-wavelength SED and its fitting for 2200 + 420 (BL Lac) in Figure 1 (left panel), where only the SSC process is considered due to the EC not being important in this source. In the right panel of Figure 1, we show the probability distributions of the model parameters, where 





 G, 





, 





, 





, 





, 





, and 





 (upper and lower limits represent 1σ errors, see also Table 1). The source of 1219+285 is also a BL Lac object, for which the EC component is negligible. For the remaining 23 LSP sources, both the SSC and EC component are considered, where the SEDs and the fitting are shown in Figures 2–6. For each source, the SED fitting with seed photons from the torus and BLR are presented in left and right panels, respectively. In our SED fitting, we find that most LSP blazars have 





 (20 of 23 sources, 





 for the two other sources and only one has the ratio ∼0.6, see Table 1), where the distribution of the ratio 





 is shown in Figure 7. Our results suggest that the SED fitting with the seed photons from torus are better than with those from the BLR, which supports the notion that the location of the γ-ray emitting region should stay outside of the BLR. In the following work, therefore, we consider the model parameters from the SED fittings with the torus seed photons.
Citation: Ghisellini et al. 2013
Citation function: Uses
The rotational spectrum of NaCl has been obtained using two different FTMW spectrometers constructed at the University of Valladolid. A solid rod was prepared by pressing the NaCl fine powder mixed with a small amount of commercial binder and was placed in the ablation nozzle (Alonso et al. 2009; Mata et al. 2012). A picosecond Nd:YAG laser (12 mJ per pulse, 20 ps pulse width) was used as a vaporization tool. Then, NaCl neutral molecules were supersonically expanded using the flow of a carrier gas (Ne at backing pressure of 15 bars) into the spectrometer chamber. NaCl was first investigated using a chirped-pulse Fourier transform microwave (CP-FTMW) spectrometer with a laser ablation source (Mata et al. 2012; Bermúdez et al. 2013) operating between 6.0 and 12.0 GHz to sample swiftly the rotational spectra of the different species present in the supersonic expansion. Chirped pulses of 4 μs directly generated by the 24 Gs s−1 AWG were amplified to about 300 W peak power using a traveling wave tube amplifier. The amplified pulse is broadcasted into the vacuum chamber through two microwave horns, interacting with the vaporized molecules in the pulsed jet. Finally, a total of 40,000 free induction decays (4 FID emissions per gas pulse), of 10 μs length duration, were averaged and digitized using a 50 Gs s−1 digital oscilloscope. Line widths of the order of 100 kHz FWHM were achieved. The sub-Doppler resolution LA-MB-FTMW spectrometer, described elsewhere (Alonso et al. 2009), operating from 4 to 26 GHz, was used to record the NaCl spectra with the resolution necessary to analyze the hyperfine structure due to the presence of two nuclei with I = 3/2 in the molecule. Microwave pulses of 0.3 μs duration with powers of 140 mW were applied to polarize the molecules in the jet. The free induction decay (FID) was recorded for 100 μs in the time domain at 40–100 ns sample intervals and then converted to the frequency domain by Fourier transformation. All the transitions appeared as Doppler doublets due to the parallel configuration of the molecular beam and the microwave radiation. The resonance frequency was determined as the arithmetic mean of the two Doppler components. The estimated accuracy of the frequency measurements is greater than 3 kHz. From 10 (in the case of the ground state and the lower vibrational states) to 2500 (for the higher vibrational states) averages were phase-coherently co-added to achieve reasonable signal-to-noise ratios.
Citation: Bermúdez et al. 2013
Citation function: Background; Background
In this study, we have outlined and successfully tested a refined technique to measure in contemporary lensing surveys the scale-dependent galaxy bias down to non-linear scales of k ~ 10 h−1 Mpc for lens galaxies at z ≲ 0.6. To test our reconstruction technique, we employ a fiducial survey with a sky coverage of ~ 1000 deg2, and a photometry and a survey depth as in CFHTLenS. To construct realistic samples of lenses and sources, we have prepared mock catalogues that are consistent with those used in SES13 and Saghiha et al. (2017). Despite some variations in survey depth and area, these survey parameters are similar to the ongoing Kilo-Degree Survey (KiDS), Dark Energy Survey (DES), or the survey with the Hyper Suprime-Cam (Kuijken et al. 2015; Becker et al. 2016; Aihara et al. 2018). If the galaxy-bias normalisation is perfect, our technique applied to these data can achieve a statistical precision within the range of 5–10% (68% CL), if similar lens and source samples are targeted, and a slightly better accuracy of 3−7% (68% CL; see Table 3). For the high-z samples, the accuracy will be somewhat higher with 3−5%. On the other hand, it is clear from our overview Table 4 that the accuracy of the galaxy-bias normalisation is in fact limited, mainly by our knowledge of the intrinsic alignment of sources, cosmological parameters, and the galaxy redshift distributions. With a broad knowledge of |Aia|≲ 2 and the specifications for the normalisation errors in Table 4, we conclude that systematic errors would potentially degrade the overall accuracy to approximately 15% for b(k) and 10% for r(k). For fully controlled intrinsic alignment of sources, these errors could be reduced by 5%. An additional reduction by 3% may be possible by controlling the redshift distributions (their mean and variance) in the normalisation to 1% accuracy. For the fiducial cosmology, the knowledge of Ωm is of most importance while the normalisation of the ratio statistics is less affected by σ8.
Citation: Becker et al. 2016
Citation function: Similarities
Recently, one of the hot topics in solar physics is the understanding of solar filaments in the corona, including their distribution, formation, eruption, and stability (Yang et al. 2008; Kong et al. 2015; Su et al. 2015; Yan et al. 2015). Martin (1998) and Gaizauskas (2002) have shown that convergence and cancellation of flux play an important role in the formation of filament channels and filaments. Flux ropes and magnetic dips represent the magnetic structures of filaments, which were reported by many authors (van Ballegooijen & Martens 1989; Mackay et al. 1999; Litvinenko & Wheatland 2005; Aulanier et al. 2006; Canou & Amari 2010). Many reports on the eruption of filaments are concerned with torus instability or/and kink instability (Török & Kliem 2003; Kliem & Török 2006; Török et al. 2010; Yan et al. 2014a, 2014b), and magnetic flux emergence and cancellation are also known to play a key role in these eruptions (Magara & Longcope 2003; Archontis & Török 2008; Yan et al. 2011). The transverse component of photospheric magnetic fields near the PIL increase after a filament’s eruption or flares (Liu et al. 2012; Sun et al. 2012; Wang et al. 2013). Sun et al. (2012) indicated that the substantial electric current increases with the emergence of flux during the formation of the filament. A downward collapse of coronal current after the eruption of the filament was also reported by Liu et al. (2012). Nonlinear force-free field (NLFFF) model extrapolation is the most powerful tool to reconstruct the magnetic field above the photosphere from photospheric vector magnetograms (VMs) thus far (Sakurai 1981; Wheatland et al. 2000; Amari et al. 2006; Canou & Amari 2010; Jiang et al. 2014), since the chromospheric and coronal magnetic fields are hard to measure exactly. Even so, it is still a long way to completely understand filaments. Regardless of its formative or eruptive process, and the variation of parameters including the electric current, magnetic field and plasma motion in the evolution of filament are not yet really clear. Investigating the electric current associated with the filament is helpful for understanding the characteristic of solar filaments.
Citation: Yan et al. 2014a
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Momentum and kinetic energy can be directly transferred to the gas, suppressing inflows. The fast-moving jets can also shock heat the surrounding gas. Many models have invoked kinetic jets to suppress cooling flows and SFRs in massive haloes (e.g. Dubois et al. 2010; Gaspari et al. 2012a; Li & Bryan 2014a; Prasad et al. 2015; Yang & Reynolds 2016a). Many models in the literature also invoke the idea that AGN can effectively drive strong pressure-driven outflows and offset cooling if a large fraction of the accretion energy is thermalized (Begelman 2004; Springel, Di Matteo & Hernquist 2005; Di Matteo, Springel & Hernquist 2005; Hopkins et al. 2006a, b, 2007, 2008; Johansson, Naab & Burkert 2009; Hopkins & Elvis 2010; Ostriker et al. 2010; Faucher-Giguère & Quataert 2012; Dubois et al. 2013; Barai et al. 2014; Weinberger et al. 2017a; Pillepich et al. 2018; Richings & Faucher-Giguère 2018a, b; Torrey et al. 2020). Physically, as the jet propagates, part of the kinetic energy can thermalize through shocks. Some studies have argued that the heat from those weak shocks can suppress cooling flows and SFRs in massive haloes (Yang & Reynolds 2016b; Li, Ruszkowski & Bryan 2017; Martizzi et al. 2019). The magnetic fields carried by the jet at its launch might also help suppress cooling flows by providing additional pressure support (Soker & Sarazin 1990; Beck et al. 1996, 2012), although our studies find that they have limited effects on global star formation properties of sub-L* galaxies (Su et al. 2017).1 Finally, CRs arise generically from processes that occur in fast shocks, so they could come from shocked winds or outflows. But they are particularly associated with relativistic jets from AGN (where they can make up the bulk of the jet energy; Berezinsky, Gazizov & Grigorieva 2006; Ruszkowski, Yang & Reynolds 2017b) and hot, relativistic plasma-filled ‘bubbles’ or ‘cavities’ (perhaps inflated by jets in the first place) around AGN. Different authors have argued that they could help suppress cooling flows by providing additional pressure support to the gas, driving pressurized outflows in the galaxy or CGM, or via heating the CGM/ICM directly via collisional (hadronic & Coulomb) and streaming-instability losses (Guo & Oh 2008; Sharma, Parrish & Quataert 2010; Enßlin et al. 2011; Fujita & Ohira 2011; Fujita, Kimura & Ohira 2013; Pfrommer 2013; Wiener, Oh & Guo 2013; Jacob & Pfrommer 2017a, b; Pfrommer et al. 2017; Ruszkowski et al. 2017a, b; Jacob et al. 2018).
Citation: Hopkins et al.; 2008
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