adsabs/FOCAL huggingface dataset:
It is widely accepted that an SN Ia is a thermonuclear explosion resulting from a binary system, of which one star is necessarily a degenerate carbon-oxygen (





) white dwarf (WD) (Hoyle & Fowler 1960) near the Chandrasekhar mass (





). Current research considers various progenitor configurations and final outcomes. Depending on whether or not both stars are WDs, the progenitor system is called double-degenerate (DD) or single-degenerate (SD). In addition to progenitor configuration, proposed scenarios are distinguishable by the ignition mechanism and other characteristics. In the case of a DD progenitor system, a dynamical merger or a violent collision between the WDs is capable of releasing enough heat to trigger an ignition. This process can end up as a SN Ia, a highly magnetized WD (MWD), or an accretion-induced collapse (AIC; Iben & Tutukov 1984; Webbink 1984; Benz et al. 1990; Rasio & Shapiro 1994; Segretain et al. 1997; Yoon et al. 2007; Lorén-Aguilar et al. 2009; Wang et al. 2009a, 2009b; Isern et al. 2011; Pakmor et al. 2011). Another class of SNe Ia scenarios is the double-detonation of a sub-





 WD with accretion from a helium (





) companion. A detonation in the surface helium layer causes a secondary detonation in the core (Weaver & Woosley 1980; Nomoto 1982a; Livne 1990; Woosley & Weaver 1994; Hoeflich & Khokhlov 1996; Kromer et al. 2010; Woosley & Kasen 2011). Finally, there is the 





 explosion scenario, where the WD progenitor accretes material from a companion star and nuclear surface burning to C/O leads to an increase of the WD mass. With increasing WD mass the electron gas in the central region becomes increasingly relativistic, which leads to faster compressional heat release, the rising of the central temperatures, and the triggering of a central C/O deflagration front when the mass of the progenitor approaches 





. (Hoyle & Fowler 1960; Sugimoto & Nomoto 1980; Nomoto 1982b; Hoeflich & Stein 2002; Piersanti et al. 2003). It is likely that the dynamical merger, 





 explosion, and double-detonation channels all contribute to the SN Ia population because of the “stellar amnesia” effect (Hoeflich (2006), and references therein). This can happen in either a SD system, where the donor star is a main-sequence star, a red giant, etc., or in a DD system with another WD being the donor (Whelan & Iben 1973; Piersanti et al. 2003).
Citation: Wang et al.; 2009b
Citation function: Background
Top left: the revised, CO(J = 1 → 0)-based Mgas from VLASPECS confirm that z = 2–3 galaxies detected in the ASPECS survey (green circles; tentative detections are marked with a plus sign) closely follow the “star formation law” (i.e., Mgas–SFR relation) at high redshift. CO-detected main-sequence galaxies at similar redshifts from the PHIBBS1/2 surveys (typically based on CO J = 3 → 2, but using a metallicity-dependent conversion factor; Tacconi et al. 2018) and local galaxies from the xCOLD GASS CO(J = 1 → 0) survey (Saintonge et al. 2017) are shown for comparison. Bottom left: same as the top left panel, but plotting the depletion time tdep against Mgas. All samples cover a similar range in tdep, but the average tdep for the (higher Mgas) high-z samples appear lower. Top right: the r31 brightness temperature ratio of VLASPECS galaxies (green circles) is similar to that of strongly lensed z ∼ 3 Lyman-break galaxies (red triangles; Riechers et al. 2010), z > 2 main-sequence galaxies from the PHIBSS survey (gray crosses; Bolatto et al. 2015), and z > 2 dusty star-forming galaxies (DSFGs; blue squares; compilation from Sharon et al. 2016; including data from Danielson et al. 2011; Ivison et al. 2011; Riechers et al. 2011a, 2011b, 2013; Thomson et al. 2012; Fu et al. 2013; Sharon et al. 2013, 2015; other DSFGs shown as light gray squares are from Nayyeri et al. 2017; Dannerbauer et al. 2019; Harrington et al. 2019; Leung et al. 2019; Sharon et al. 2019) and clustered DSFGs (dark gray squares; Bussmann et al. 2015; Gómez-Guijarro et al. 2019), but ∼2 times higher on average than BzK-selected main-sequence galaxies at z ∼ 1.5 (magenta crosses; Daddi et al. 2015). Nearby galaxy samples from the xCOLD GASS survey (Lamperti et al. 2020) and two studies of infrared-luminous galaxies (Yao et al. 2003; Papadopoulos et al. 2012) are shown for comparison. Dashed lines and shaded regions indicate mean/median values and spread for high-z samples with >2 galaxies or clusters, with the same color coding as the symbols. Dashed–dotted lines indicate mean values for the low-z samples. Bottom right: same as the top right panel, but shown as binned histograms in r31 (excluding upper limits) and across the full redshift range, and only including samples for which mean/median values are indicated in the top right panels.
Citation: Sharon et al.; 2015
Citation function: Similarities; Similarities
Several searches for high-frequency signals were performed in the past for WR stars, notably in the context of searches for compact companions (e.g. Marchenko et al. 1994). However, there were few cases of reported and confirmed periodicities. Focusing on our sample, the following detections were published. Blecha, Schaller & Maeder (1992) claimed a detection of pulsations with a 627-s period and a 5-mmag peak-to-peak amplitude in WR 40. However, at the corresponding frequency of 138 d−1, the TESS high-cadence data (sector 10) show no signs of such a signal, confirming previous negative reports (Gosset et al. 1994; Marchenko et al. 1994; Martinez et al. 1994; Schneider et al. 1994), including that by the discovery team itself (Bratschi & Blecha 1996). Other low-frequency detections for that star (e.g. Antokhin et al. 1995) certainly correspond to red-noise stochastic variability. Another photometric campaign detected a 6.828 d−1 signal in WR 66 (Antokhin et al. 1995), but with strong daily aliasing. It was subsequently confirmed in an independent, less aliased dataset (largest peak at 5.815 d−1: Rauw et al. 1996). These values are close (but not identical) to the frequency of the largest TESS peak, or its daily alias. To assess the compatibility between datasets, we have simulated a signal composed of the three main frequencies detected by TESS but sampled as in Rauw et al. (1996). The resulting periodogram appears similar to the one reported in the literature, even if the passbands are different6: the old and new datasets therefore appear fully compatible. Note also that the presence of several frequencies casts further doubt on the hypothesis of the literature signal being the orbital period of a compact companion (Antokhin et al. 1995). Finally, a 25-min signal with 2.6-mmag amplitude was reported by Bratschi & Blecha (1996) for WR 78 but considered as a transient event, as it was observed only during one night. Because WR 78 was not observed with a 2-min cadence, we cannot check for the presence of such a frequency in the TESS data.
Citation: Gosset et al. 1994
Citation function: Similarities
Theoretical quantum chemical calculations help in narrowing down candidates for much more expensive laboratory experiments. Considering the high cost, time consumption and other constraints faced in laboratory, theoretical computational study can propose selected PAHs for which laboratory spectroscopy can most usefully be performed. Density Functional Theory (DFT) has been used rigorously to calculate the harmonic frequencies and intensities of vibrational modes of PAHs in various forms including size, composition and charge states (Langhoff 1996; Bauschlicher & Langhoff 1997; Bauschlicher et al. 1997; Langhoff et al. 1998; Hudgins, Bauschlicher & Allamandola 2001; Hudgins, Bauschlicher & Sandford 2004; Pathak & Rastogi 2005, 2006, 2007; Pathak & Sarre 2008; Candian, Sarre & Tielens 2014). In this work, DFT in combination with a B3LYP functional and a 6–311G** basis set has been used to optimize the molecular structures of PAHs. The optimized geometry is used to obtain the vibrational frequencies of various modes at the same level of theory. Theoretical calculations tend to overestimate the frequency compared to experiments (Langhoff 1996). The use of a larger basis set, e.g. 6–311G**, generally reduces the overestimation compared to smaller basis sets (Langhoff 1996). Use of a larger basis set compared to a smaller one also shows good agreement with experiment. However, the use of a large basis set does not support use of a single scaling factor for all of the vibrational modes (Langhoff 1996). In order to evaluate the mode-dependent scaling factors, calibration calculations were made for selected PAHs, both neutral and ionized. On comparing the theoretical frequencies with matrix isolated spectroscopic experimental data (Hudgins & Allamandola 1995a,b; Hudgins & Sandford 1998a,b), three different scaling factors have been determined. The scaling factors obtained are 0.974 for the C–H out-of-plane (oop) mode, 0.972 for the C–H in-plane and C-C stretching modes and 0.965 for the C–H stretching mode. Gaussian line shapes of 30 cm− 1 FWHM are used to plot the computationally obtained spectra. Our sample includes deuteronated pyrene (DC16H$_{10}^+$), deuteronated perylene (DC20H$_{12}^+$) and deuteronated coronene (DC24H$_{12}^+$). Isomers of DC16H$_{10}^+$ and DC20H$_{12}^+$ have also been included. The data presented here were produced using gamess quantum chemistry suite of programs (Schmidt et al. 1993).
Citation: Langhoff et al. 1998
Citation function: Background
The extragalactic sky from any direction and at all frequencies is filled with radiation from discrete sources and from a diffuse (or unresolved) component known as the cosmic background. This pervasive radiation, discovered only in relatively recent times, is one of the most fundamental observables from the Universe, as it carries crucial information on the integrated radiation emitted over the entire cosmic history. The first extragalactic background to be detected was the cosmic X-ray background (CXB; Giacconi et al. 1962), a few years before the discovery of the cosmic microwave background (CMB; Penzias & Wilson 1965), which is much brighter in terms of energy density, and is truly diffuse. The extragalactic γ-ray background (EGB) was first detected by the SAS2 satellite in the 1970's (Fichtel et al. 1977), and for a long time its nature was poorly understood. The latest Fermi Large Area Telescope (Fermi-LAT) survey data are now providing strong evidence towards an origin mostly due to integrated radiation from blazars and radio galaxies (e.g. Inoue 2014; Ajello et al. 2015; Fornasa & Sánchez-Conde 2015). Blazars are a special type of extragalactic sources showing extreme observational properties, such as rapid and large amplitude variability, superluminal motion, and strong non-thermal emission across the entire electromagnetic spectrum. These sources are thought to be active galactic nuclei (AGN) that host a jet pointing almost directly to the observer, within which relativistic particles move and radiate by losing their energy in a magnetic field (Blandford & Rees 1978; Urry & Padovani 1995). Among extragalactic objects blazars are known to accelerate particles to the highest observed energies and therefore are considered as prime candidates for multimessenger astronomy. Padovani & Resconi (2014), on the basis of a joint positional and energetic diagnostic, have suggested a possible association between blazars (BL Lacs) and some neutrino events reported by the IceCube collaboration (IceCube Collaboration 2014). It has also been suggested that blazars could be sites where ultra-high energy cosmic rays are generated (e.g. Zhang, Zhao & Cao 2014), although a firm association has so far been elusive despite the continuous improvement of the available data (P. Auger Collaboration 2014).
Citation: Fornasa & Sánchez-Conde 2015
Citation function: Background
We initiated the H0LiCOW (H0 Lenses in COSMOGRAIL's Wellspring) program with the aim of measuring the Hubble constant with better than 3.5 per cent precision and accuracy (in most background cosmological models), through a sample of five time-delay lenses. We obtain the key ingredients to each of the lenses through observational follow-ups and novel analysis techniques. In particular, we have high-quality lensed quasar light curves, primarily obtained via optical monitoring by the COSMOGRAIL (COSmological MOnitoring of GRAvItational Lenses; e.g. Courbin et al. 2005; Vuissoz et al. 2008; Courbin et al. 2011; Tewes et al. 2013b) and Kochanek et al. (2006) teams but also via radio-wavelength monitoring (Fassnacht et al. 2002). COSMOGRAIL has been monitoring more than 20 lensed quasars for more than a decade. The unprecedented quality of the light curves combined with new curve-shifting algorithms (Tewes, Courbin & Meylan 2013a) lead to time delays with typically ∼3 per cent accuracy (Fassnacht et al. 2002; Courbin et al. 2011; Tewes et al. 2013b). In addition, we obtain HST imaging that reveal the ‘Einstein ring’ of the lens systems in high resolution, and develop state-of-the-art lens modelling techniques (Suyu et al. 2009; Suyu & Halkola 2010; Suyu et al. 2012b) and kinematic modelling methods (Auger et al. 2010; Sonnenfeld et al. 2012) to obtain the lens mass distribution with a few percent uncertainty (e.g. Suyu et al. 2013, 2014). We further obtain wide-field imaging and spectroscopy to characterize the environment of the field, as well as the spectroscopy of the lens galaxy to obtain the stellar velocity dispersion. The exquisite follow-up data set that we have acquired allow us not only to constrain cosmology but also to study lens galaxy and source properties for understanding galaxy evolution, including the dark matter distribution in galaxies, the stellar initial mass function of galaxies and the co-evolution between supermassive black holes and their host galaxies.
Citation: Fassnacht et al. 2002
Citation function: Uses; Uses
In active galactic nuclei (AGNs), the gaseous accretion disc around the SMBH may facilitate binary formation and mergers of stellar-mass compact objects (McKernan et al. 2014; Bellovary et al. 2016; Bartos et al. 2017; Stone, Metzger & Haiman 2017; Tagawa, Haiman & Kocsis 2020a). In this scenario, BHs form in situ in the vicinity of a GN and sink to the inner region due to mass segregation or they are delivered to these regions by infalling globular clusters (Morris 1993; Miralda-Escudé & Gould 2000; Freitag, Amaro-Seoane & Kalogera 2006; Hopman & Alexander 2006; O’Leary et al. 2009; Antonini 2014), then get captured in the disc by hydrodynamic drag as they cross the disc (e.g. Goldreich, Lithwick & Sari 2002; Bartos et al. 2017; Yang et al. 2019b; Tagawa et al. 2020a). Alternatively, some BHs may have formed in the disc itself (Levin 2007; Stone et al. 2017). Once in the disc, BHs get transported to the inner regions by exchanging angular momentum with the surrounding gas (Goldreich & Tremaine 1979). In certain regions, the BHs open an annular gap in the accretion disc and accumulate in a narrow range of radii, the so-called migration traps (Bellovary et al. 2016; Secunda et al. 2019, 2020, 2021). Bellovary et al. (2016) argue that migration traps may be expected to be close to the SMBH from ∼20 to ∼300 Schwarzschild radii (rS = 2GMSMBH/c2) from the central SMBH of mass MSMBH.6 However, they may exist in slim discs near the innermost stable circular orbit (ISCO; Peng & Chen 2021) or near the boundary of a gap region if a gap opens due to a heavy stellar-mass BH or an intermediate-mass BH (McKernan et al. 2014). Dynamical encounters frequently happen in migration traps leading to the formation and subsequent merger of binary black holes (BBHs) on short time-scales (Secunda et al. 2019, 2020; Yang et al. 2019a), where the binary separation is efficiently reduced by gas dynamical friction (Escala et al. 2004; Kim & Kim 2007; Baruteau, Cuadra & Lin 2011) to the point where GW emission drives the binaries together. Alternatively, BBHs may also form and merge in the disc outside migration traps (Tagawa et al. 2020a). Because of the deep potential barrier of the SMBH, the merger remnant BH remains near the migration trap and may undergo subsequent mergers with additional BHs, which leads to high BH masses, characteristic spin properties, and possibly non-zero eccentricity identifiable via GW observations (Yang et al. 2019a; Secunda et al. 2020; Tagawa et al. 2020b, 2021a,b; Samsing et al. 2022).
Citation: Tagawa et al. 2020a
Citation function: Background; Background
Ultraviolet observations of the hot Jupiter HD 209458 b have found up to a 15% occultation in the wings of hydrogen Lyα, with effective Doppler shifts of up to ±150 km s−1, significantly larger than the 5% occultation observed at optical (Vidal-Madjar et al. 2003, 2008; Ben-Jaffel 2007; Ehrenreich et al. 2008). The high occultation and large velocity are indicative of a fast and extended component of the atmosphere, interpreted as an escaping planetary wind. Similar outflows have been reported for another hot and one warm Jupiter, HD 189733 b (Lecavelier Des Etangs et al. 2010; Bourrier et al. 2013) and 55 Cnc b (Ehrenreich et al. 2012
)5

5
Along with a nondetection for a super Earth, 55 Cnc e, placing an upper limit on its mass loss.
, and for one hot Neptunian planet, GJ 435 b (Kulow et al. 2014; Ehrenreich et al. 2015; Bourrier et al. 2016; Lavie et al. 2017). Interestingly, the outflow from GJ 435 b is asymmetric both temporally and spectrally,6

6
Redshifted occultation of (0.7 ± 3.6)% pretransit and (8.0 ± 3.1)% posttransit. Blueshifted occultation of (17.6 ± 5.2)% pretransit and (47.2 ± 4.1)% posttransit (Ehrenreich et al. 2015).
 suggesting a cometary tail-like outflow moving rapidly away from the star. Tentative detections indicate that metals may be present in these escaping winds, including oxygen (Vidal-Madjar et al. 2004; Ben-Jaffel & Sona Hosseini 2010), magnesium (Vidal-Madjar et al. 2013), and carbon and silicon (Linsky et al. 2010; Loyd et al. 2017). Additionally, hydrogen Hα absorption has been seen in HD 189733 b’s transmission spectra (Jensen et al. 2012), but its relation to hydrodynamic escape is still uncertain (Barnes et al. 2016). Recently, the outflow from Wasp-107 b was detected in the 1083 nm line of excited neutral helium (Spake et al. 2018). This line, predicted for exoplanet atmospheres by Seager & Sasselov (2000), and in their outflows by Oklopčić & Hirata (2018), provides an opportunity for ground-based observations.
Citation: Bourrier et al. 2016
Citation function: Similarities; Similarities
In MS, the tidal tails host the formation of overdensities similar to TDGs (about 3 in each tail are visible in Fig. 3). Their associated phantom DM further favours their growth, while no such structure is visible in the stellar nor gaseous component of the NA model. The formation of TDGs in simulations is sensitive to the resolution (Wetzstein, Naab & Burkert 2007) and the truncation of the DM halo (Bournaud et al. 2003). By conducting our comparisons at the same resolution in Newton and MOND, and by testing the formation of substructures with much more extended haloes (Appendix C), we ensure that the differences we detect have a physical origin. Observations of the Antennae galaxies report only one TDG candidate, at the tip of the southern tail (Mirabel, Dottori & Lutz 1992), but the exact nature of this structure is still questioned (Hibbard et al. 2001, see also Bournaud et al. 2004). It could be either an unbound object or a forming TDG still out of equilibrium. For the models we consider, the Newtonian framework does not allow for the formation of TDGs, while the MOND does. However we note that, in the absence of efficient shielding from the rest of the galaxy, star-forming regions in the tidal tails are more sensitive to ultraviolet radiation of extragalactic origin. A stronger radiation, e.g. at higher redshift or in a denser galactic environment, could potentially prevent the formation of TDGs and thus reduce the differences (in the young stellar component) between Newtonian and Milgromian cases in this context. Our simulations show however that the old stellar component is likely to remain more clumpy in MOND, as long as the gaseous contribution to the local gravitational potential is negligible over the stellar one. Leaving this issue aside, with the specific models considered here, the Milgromian runs tend to slightly overproduce TDGs given the absence of unambiguously defined ones in the Antennae, whilst the Newtonian runs might potentially slightly underproduce them if the observed TDG candidate turns out to be real. However, the uniqueness of our initial conditions has not been established and it is possible that other sets of parameters could reproduce the same morphology with a different number of TDGs. A much larger simulation sample including more interacting systems would be necessary to reach a clear conclusion on this particular topic.
Citation: Mirabel, Dottori & Lutz 1992
Citation function: Motivation; Motivation
To classify the bursts in our models, we use the remaining mass in the envelope to define the boundary between the embedded and optically visible phases. Namely, we assume that the optically visible Class II begins when less than 10% of the initial core mass is left in the envelope. The boundary between the deeply embedded Class 0 phase and the partly embedded Class I phase is defined as the time when 50% of the initial core mass is left in the envelope. Our adopted classification scheme is based on physical properties of a young stellar object, such as envelope and disk masses (e.g., Robitaille et al. 2006; Dunham et al. 2010, 2014), rather than on observational signatures, such as submillimeter luminosities or effective temperatures (e.g., André et al. 1993; Chen et al. 1995). Classifications relying upon physical properties are usually referred in the literature as “stages”, whereas those using observational signatures are called “classes”. For simplicity here we use the term “class” to refer to both the physical stages and observational classes. Our adopted definition of physical stages was extensively investigated in Dunham et al. (2010). They found that there is not always a one-to-one correspondence between physical stage defined by the envelope mass and observational class defined by the submillimeter luminosity or effective temperature due to the effects of geometry and extinction. In reality the exact point at which to set the class boundaries is somewhat uncertain, which could shift the duration of the embedded phase in our models by a factor of order unity in either direction. We disentangle the disk and infalling envelope on our numerical grid using the algorithm described in Vorobyov (2011), which is based on the disk-to-envelope transition density of 





 g cm−2 and the velocity field in the infalling envelope. Varying the value of 





 by a factor of 5 results in changes of the estimated onset time of different phases by only a few per cent.
Citation: Robitaille et al. 2006
Citation function: Uses; Differences