Tamazight-NLP/NLLB-Seed_Tamasheq-Tifinagh-Script huggingface dataset:
English: Argued that an international organization was needed to preserve world peace.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵢⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⵍⵉⵎ
English: He departed from Hobbes in that, based on the assumption of a society in which moral values are independent of governmental authority and widely shared, he argued for a government with power limited to the protection of personal property.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⵓⴱⴱⵢⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵂⴰⵋⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⵜ , ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⴾⴾⵢⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
English: One of the founders of Western Marxism.
Tamasheq: Iⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵆⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ
English: Gave an account of statecraft in a realistic point of view instead of relying on idealism.
Tamasheq: Iⵆⴼ-ⴰ ⴾⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵢⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ
English: As a political theorist, he believed in separation of powers and proposed a comprehensive set of checks and balances that are necessary to protect the rights of an individual from the tyranny of the majority.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ , ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵛⵂⵢⵛⴾⵙ ⴰⵏⴷ ⴱⴰⵍⴰⵏⵛⵢⵙ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
English: Introduced the concept of "repressive desublimation", in which social control can operate not only by direct control, but also by manipulation of desire.
Tamasheq: “ ⵓⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⵔⵢⴱⵔⵙⵢⵙⵉⴱⵢ ⴷⵢⵙⵓⴱⵍⵉⵎⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ” ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵗⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵙ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴷⴻⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ “
English: Created the concept of ideology in the sense of (true or false) beliefs that shape and control social actions.
Tamasheq: ⵢⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏ (ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ) ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
English: Mencius: One of the most important thinkers in the Confucian school, he is the first theorist to make a coherent argument for an obligation of rulers to the ruled.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵢⵏⵛⵉⵓⵙ: Iⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵍⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴼⵉⵛⵉⵓⵙ , ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ
English: Montesquieu: Analyzed protection of the people by a "balance of powers" in the divisions of a state.
Tamasheq: “ ⵎⵓⵏⵙⵜⵢⵈⵓⵉⵢⵓ: ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵉⴰⵣ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ “ ⴱⴰⵍⴰⵏⵛⴻ ⵓⴼ ⴱⵓⵓⵢⵔⵙ” ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ”
English: His interpreters have debated the content of his political philosophy.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵋⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵏⴻⵜ
English: Plato: Wrote a lengthy dialog The Republic in which he laid out his political philosophy: citizens should be divided into three categories.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓ: Iⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⴷⵉⵓⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔⴻⵏ ⵔⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵢⵓⴼⵉ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵏⵢⵜ : ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⴻⵏ
English: Ayn Rand: Founder of Objectivism and prime mover of the Objectivist and Libertarian movements in mid-twentieth-century America.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵉⵏ ⵔⴰⵏⴷ: ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵗⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴱⵋⴻⵛⵜⵉⴱⵉⵙⵎ ⵜⴱⵍⴰⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵋⵢⵛⵜⵉⵓⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵍⵉⴱⵢⵔⴰⵔⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴻ ⵏ 1900 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵉⴾ
English: The government was to be separated from economics the same way and for the same reasons it was separated from religion.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ
English: Adam Smith: Often said to have founded modern economics; explained emergence of economic benefits from the self-interested behavior ("the invisible hand") of artisans and traders.
Tamasheq: “ⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵂ: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵢⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ; ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵣⴰⵋⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ (“”ⴰⴼⵓⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴼⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏ) ⵏ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⵙⴰⴱⴱⵉⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ”
English: Socrates: Widely considered the founder of Western political philosophy, via his spoken influence on Athenian contemporaries; since Socrates never wrote anything, much of what we know about him and his teachings comes through his most famous student, Plato.
Tamasheq: ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ: ⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵂⵢⵏ; ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ, ⵉⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵏ-ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ-ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ,ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ
English: Max Stirner: Important thinker within anarchism and the main representative of the anarchist current known as individualist anarchism.
Tamasheq: ⵎⴰⵆ ⵙⵜⵉⵔⵏⵢⵔ: ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ ⵢⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵉⴷⵓⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵙⵎ
English: Other forms of social philosophy include political philosophy and jurisprudence, which are largely concerned with the societies of state and government and their functioning.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵢⵂⵢⵜ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⵎⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴷⵉⵎⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
English: Pre-Socratic philosophy, also known as early Greek philosophy, is ancient Greek philosophy before Socrates.
Tamasheq: ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢ ⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵏ ⴶⵔⵢⴾ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ , ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵔⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ
English: Their work and writing has been almost entirely lost.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵋⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
English: Pre-Socratic philosophy began in the 6th century BCE with the three Milesians: Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes.
Tamasheq: ⴶⵉⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 600 ⴱⵛⵢⵎⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ: ⵟⵂⴰⵍⵢⵙ, ⴰⵏⴰⵆⵉⵎⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵆⵉⵎⵢⵏⵢⵙ
English: Xenophanes is known for his critique of the anthropomorphism of gods.
Tamasheq: ⵆⵢⵏⵓⴱⵂⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵎⵓⵔⴱⵂⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ
English: The Eleatic school (Parmenides, Zeno of Elea, and Melissus) followed in the 5th century BCE.
Tamasheq: ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵍⵢⴰⵜⵉⴾ (ⴱⴰⵔⵎⵢⵏⵉⴷⵢⵙ, ⵌⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵢⵍⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵍⵉⵙⵙⵓⵙ) ⵉⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 500 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ
English: Anaxagoras and Empedocles offered a pluralistic account of how the universe was created.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴰⴶⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵎⵓⵢⴷⴰⵛⵍⵢⵙ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
English: It was first used by the German philosopher J.A. Eberhard as "vorsokratische Philosophie''' in the late 18th century.
Tamasheq: “ⴷⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵜⵉ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵋ.ⴰ ⵢⴱⵢⵔⵂⴰⵔⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ""ⴱⵓⵔⵙⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜⵉⵙⵛⵂⵢ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⵓⵂⵉⵢ'' ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1700”
English: The term comes with drawbacks, as several of the pre-Socratics were highly interested in ethics and how to live the best life.
Tamasheq: Iⵙⵉⵎ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴷⵔⴰⵓⴱⴰⵛⴾⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ
English: According to James Warren, the distinction between the pre-Socratic philosophers and philosophers of the classical era is demarcated not so much by Socrates, but by geography and what texts survived.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵋⴰⵎⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵔⵔⵢⵏ, ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ
English: Scholar André Laks distinguishes two traditions of separating pre-Socratics from Socratics, dating back to the classical era and running through current times.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵎⴰⵗⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉ ⵍⴰⴾⵙ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⵂⴰ
English: Many of the works are titled Peri Physeos, or On Nature, a title probably attributed later by other authors.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵢⵔⵉ ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵢⵓⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⵔ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⵢ , ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵉⴱⴰⵏ
English: Adding more difficulty to their interpretation is the obscure language they used.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵜⵢⵔⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ
English: Theophrastus, Aristotle's successor, wrote an encyclopedic book Opinion of the Physicists that was the standard work about the pre-Socratics in ancient times.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵂⵢⵓⴱⵂⵔⴰⵙⵜⵓⵙ, ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍⵢ , ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵢⵏⵛⵉⵛⵍⵓⴱⵢⴷⵉⵛ ⵓⴱⵉⵏⵉⵓⵏ ⵓⴼ ⵜⵂⵢ ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⵉⵙⵜⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ
English: Scholars now use this book to reference the fragments using a coding scheme called Diels–Kranz numbering.
Tamasheq: Iⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵢⵉⵢⵍⵙ-ⵆⵔⴰⵏⵣ
English: After that is a code regarding whether the fragment is a testimonia, coded as "A", or "B" if is a direct quote from the philosopher.
Tamasheq: “ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴼⵔⵓⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏⵉⴰ, ⴰⴾⴾⵓⴷⵢⵏ ⵙ “”ⴰ”” ⵎⴻⵗ “”ⵓ”” ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ”
English: The pre-Socratic era lasted about two centuries, during which the expanding Persian Achaemenid Empire was stretching to the west, while the Greeks were advancing in trade and sea routes, reaching Cyprus and Syria.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ 200 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓ-ⵉⴷ ⴱⵢⵔⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵢⵎⵢⵏⵉⴷ Eⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵙ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵛⵉⴱⵔⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵔⵉⴰ
English: The Greeks revolted in 499 BCE, but ultimately were defeated in 494 BCE.
Tamasheq: ⴳⵔⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴾⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 499 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 494 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ
English: Several factors contributed to the birth of pre-Socratic philosophy in Ancient Greece.
Tamasheq: ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵢⵛⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ
English: Another factor was the ease and frequency of intra-Greek travel, which led to the blending and comparison of ideas.
Tamasheq: ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵗⵉⵙⴰⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵛⵢ ⵢⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎⴰⵏ
English: The democratic political system of independent poleis also contributed to the rise of philosophy.
Tamasheq: ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⵎⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⵢⵉⵙ ⵢⵆⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ
English: The philosophers' ideas, were, to a certain extent, answers to questions that were subtly present in the work of Homer and Hesiod.
Tamasheq: Iⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⵢⵔ ⴷ ⵂⵢⵙⵉⵓⴷ
English: They are considered predecessors of the pre-Socratics since they seek to address the origin of the world and to organize traditional folklore and legends systematically.
Tamasheq: Iⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵉⵛⵂⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⴻⵏ
English: The first pre-Socratic philosophers also traveled extensively to other lands, meaning that pre-Socratic thought had roots abroad as well as domestically.
Tamasheq: ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⵓⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⴱⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⴰⵎⴻⴷⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵢⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
English: The pre-Socratic philosophers shared the intuition that there was a single explanation that could explain both the plurality and the singularity of the whole – and that explanation would not be direct actions of the gods.
Tamasheq: ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⵢ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ
English: Many sought the material principle (arche) of things, and the method of their origin and disappearance.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍ (ⴰⵔⵛⵂⴻ) ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵋⵋⵉⵍ
English: In their effort to make sense of the cosmos they coined new terms and concepts such as rhythm, symmetry, analogy, deductionism, reductionism, mathematicazion of nature and others.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴰⵗⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵔⵂⵉⵜⵂⵎ, ⵙⵉⵎⵎⵢⵜⵔⵉ ,ⴰⵏⴰⵢⴶⵉ, ⴷⴻⴷⵓⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏⵏⵉⵙⵎ, ⵔⵢⴷⵓⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏⵉⵙⵎ, ⵎⴰⵜⵂⴻⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⴰⵣⵉⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ
English: It could mean the beginning or origin with the undertone that there is an effect on the things to follow.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵎⴰⵙⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⵢⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ
English: This may have been because of a lack of instruments, or because of a tendency to view the world as a unity, undeconstructable, so it would be impossible for an external eye to observe tiny fractions of nature under experimental control.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵙ ⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ, ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ
English: Systematic because they tried to universalize their findings.
Tamasheq: ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵉⴼⵓⴾⴾⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
English: The pre-Socratics were not atheists; however, they minimized the extent of the gods' involvement in natural phenomena such as thunder or totally eliminated the gods from the natural world.
Tamasheq: ⵙⵔⵢ-ⵔⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⵜⵂⵢⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ; ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵢⵏ , ⵙⴰⵎⵎⴰⴷⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵋⴰⵋ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⵎⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
English: The first phase of pre-Socratic philosophy, mainly the Milesians, Xenophanes, and Heraclitus, consisted of rejecting traditional cosmogony and attempting to explain nature based on empirical observations and interpretations.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⴾⴾⵢⵍⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏⵙ, ⵆⵢⵏⵓⴱⵂⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⴷ ⵂⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ, ⵢⵂⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⵋⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⴻⵗⴰⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵢⵔⵢⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ
English: The Eleatics were also monists (believing that only one thing exists and everything else is just a transformation of it).
Tamasheq: ⵜⵍⵢⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ (ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ)
English: He is considered the first western philosopher since he was the first to use reason, to use proof, and to generalize.
Tamasheq: Iⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵣ ⵏⵢⵜ
English: Thales may have been of Phoenician ancestry.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵂⴰⵍⵢⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⵉⵓⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴱⵂⵓⵢⵢⵏⵉⵛⵉⴰⵏ
English: Thales, though, advanced geometry with his abstract deductive reasoning reaching universal generalizations.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵂⴰⵍⵢⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⵢⴶⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵙⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
English: Thales visited Sardis, as many Greeks then, where astronomical records were kept and used astronomical observations for practical matters (oil harvesting).
Tamasheq: ⵜⵂⴰⵍⵢⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⴾⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵙⴰⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⵉⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ( ⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵙⵢⵏⵙ)
English: He attributed the origin of the world to an element instead of a divine being.
Tamasheq: Iⴾⴼ-ⴰ ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵉ ⵗⴰⵏⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ
English: He was a member of the elite of Miletus, wealthy and a statesman.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵜⵓⵙ , ⴾⵢⵍ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ
English: In response to Thales, he postulated as the first principle an undefined, unlimited substance without qualities (apeiron), out of which the primary opposites, hot and cold, moist and dry, became differentiated.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵟⵂⴰⵍⵢⵙ, ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵜⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⴱⵙⵜⴰⵏⵛⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ, ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵉⵣⴰⴾⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ (ⴰⴱⵢⵉⵔⵓⵏ) ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴾⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵙⴰⵎⵢⴷ, ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵓⵔⵜ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ
English: He is also known for speculating on the origin of mankind.
Tamasheq: Iⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵍ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
English: He also wrote a book on nature in prose.
Tamasheq: ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵙ ⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: He was a well-traveled poet whose primary interests were theology and epistemology.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⵜⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⴷ ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢ ⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ
English: He famously said that if oxen, horses, or lions could draw, they would draw their gods as oxen, horses, or lions.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵙⵓⴰⵏ, ⵉⴱⵉⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋ, ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵙⵓⴰⵏ, ⵉⴱⵉⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ
English: Xenophanes also offered naturalistic explanations for phenomena such as the sun, the rainbow and St. Elmo's fire.
Tamasheq: ⵆⵢⵏⵓⴱⵂⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾⵜ, ⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵢⴼⵢⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵜ. ⵢⵍⵎⵓ
English: While Xenophanes was a pessimist about the capability of humans to reach knowledge, he also believed in gradual progress through critical thinking.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵙ ⵆⵢⵏⵓⴱⵂⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵢⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵔⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴾⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ
English: Heraclitus posited that all things in nature are in a state of perpetual flux.
Tamasheq: ⵆⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ
English: Fire becomes water and earth and vice versa.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴼⵢⵓ ⵢⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ
English: There, Heraclitus claims we can not step into the same river twice, a position summarized with the slogan ta panta rhei (everything flows).
Tamasheq: ⵆⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵢⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ, ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⴾⵍⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵓ ⵜⴰ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵔⵂⵢⵉ ( ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⵉⴾⵉ)
English: Another key concept of Heraclitus is that opposites somehow mirror each other, a doctrine called unity of opposites.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵂⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵗⴰⴾⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵜ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ , ⵎⴰⵣⵂⴰⴱ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵗⴰⴾⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: Heraclitus' doctrine on the unity of opposites suggests that unity of the world and its various parts is kept through the tension produced by the opposites.
Tamasheq: ⵎⴰⵣⵂⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴼⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵗⴰⴾⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵜ ⵓⴶⴰⵣ ⵙ ⵜⵢⵏⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵗⴰⴾⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: A fundamental idea in Heraclitus is logos, an ancient Greek word with a variety of meanings; Heraclitus might have used a different meaning of the word with each usage in his book.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵍⵓⴶⵓⵙ, ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴶⵔⵢⵢⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ; ⵂⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴾⴼ-ⵓ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵏⵢⵜ
English: Some decades later he had to flee Croton and relocate to Metapontum.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵜⴰⴱⵓⵏⵜⵓⵎ
English: They advanced his ideas, reaching the claim that everything consists of numbers, the universe is made by numbers and everything is a reflection of analogies and geometrical relations.
Tamasheq: ⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵣⵋⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ,ⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴶⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⵜ
English: Their way of life was ascetic, restraining themselves from various pleasures and food.
Tamasheq: Iⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵛⵢⵜⵉⵛ, ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵛⵂⴰ
English: Other pre-Socratic philosophers mocked Pythagoras for his belief in reincarnation.
Tamasheq: ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵙⵆⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴱⵉⵜⵂⴰⴶⵓⵔⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴾⵔⴰ ⵢⵉⴰⵜ
English: Pythagoreanism influenced later Christian currents as Neoplatonism, and its pedagogical methods were adapted by Plato.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵉⵜⵂⵓⴶⵔⵢⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵓⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵉⴾⵏⵢⵏⴰⵜ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ
English: According to Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, Xenophanes was Parmenides' teacher, and it is debated whether Xenophanes should also be considered an Eleatic.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍⵢ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵓⴶⵢⵏⵢⵙ ⵍⴰⵢⵔⵜⵉⵓⵙ, ⵆⵢⵏⵓⴱⵂⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵎⴰⵙⴰⴱⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵎⵢⵏⵉⴷⵢⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵆⵢⵏⴱⵓⵂⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵢⵍⵢⴰⵜⵉⵛ
English: He was the first to deduce that the earth is spherical.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵏⵛⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵗ
English: Parmenides wrote a hard to interpret poem, named On Nature or On What-is, that substantially influenced later Greek philosophy.
Tamasheq: ⴱⴰⵔⵎⵢⵏⵉⴷⵢⵙ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵓⵉⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵏ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⵢ ⵎⴻ ⵓⵏ ⵓⵂⴰⵜ-ⵉⵙ, ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⴾ
English: The poem consists of three parts, the proem (i.e., preface), the Way of Truth and the Way of Opinion.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ , ⴱⵔⵓⵢⵎ ( ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴱⵔⵢⴼⴰⵛⵢ), ⵓⴰⵉ ⵓⴼ ⵟⵔⵓⵜⵂ ⴷ ⵟⵂⵢ ⵓⴰⵉ ⵓⴼ ⵓⵓⵉⵏⵉⵓⵏ
English: The Way of Truth was then, and is still today, considered of much more importance.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵂⵢ ⵓⴰⵉ ⵓⴼ ⵟⵔⵓⵜⵂ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ
English: Hence, all the things that we think to be true, even ourselves, are false representations.
Tamasheq: ⴾⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵏⴰⴾⴾⴰⵏⴻⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: The goddess teaches Kouros to use his reasoning to understand whether various claims are true or false, discarding senses as fallacious.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⵆⵓⵔⵓ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⵉⵉⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓ-ⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ
English: Zeno and Melissus continued Parmenides' thought on cosmology.
Tamasheq: ⵣⵢⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵍⵉⵙⵙⵓⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵏⴾⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵎⵢⵏⵉⴷⵢⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵆⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
English: He tried to explain why we think various non-existent objects exist.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵆⵍⵢⴾ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ
English: Anaxagoras was born in Ionia, but was the first major philosopher to emigrate to Athens.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴰⴶⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵓⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵎⵓⵛⵓⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⴰⵣⴰⴼ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵜⵂⵢⵏ
English: Anaxagoras was also a major influence on Socrates.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴰⴶⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⴾⵜⵓⴱ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ
English: Interpretations differ as to what he meant.
Tamasheq: Iⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⴰ ⴰ ⵓⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏ
English: All objects were mixtures of various elements, such as air, water, and others.
Tamasheq: ⵆⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵗⴰⵎⴱⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⵓ, ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ
English: Nous was also considered a building block of the cosmos, but it exists only in living objects.
Tamasheq: ⵏⵓⵓⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵢⴾⴰⴷⴻⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ
English: Anaxagoras advanced Milesian thought on epistemology, striving to establish an explanation that could be valid for all natural phenomena.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴰⴶⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵙⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵜ ⵓ ⴰⵗⴱⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ
English: According to Diogenes Laertius, Empedocles wrote two books in the form of poems: Peri Physeos (On nature) and the Katharmoi (Purifications).
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴻⵉⵓⴶⵢⵏⵢⵙ ⵍⴰⵢⵔⵜⵉⵓⵙ, ⵢⵎⴱⵢⴷⵓⵛⵍⵢⵙ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⵉ: ⴱⵢⵔⵉ ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵢⵏⵙ (ⵓⵏ ⵏⴰⵓⵜⵔⵢ) ⴷ ⵆⴰⵜⵂⴰⵔⵎⴱⵉ (ⴱⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵛⴰⵜⵉⴱⵏⵙ)
English: He also continues Anaxagoras' thought on the four "roots" (i.e., classical elements), that by intermixing, they create all things around us.
Tamasheq: “ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵏⴾⴰⵛⵂ ⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴰⴶⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ “””ⵉⴾⵢⵓⴰⵏ” ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣ (ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ) ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⵏⵉ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵂⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗ”
English: These two forces are opposite and by acting upon the material of the four roots unite in harmony or tear apart the four roots, with the resulting mixture being all things that exist.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵗⴰⴾⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣ ⵉⴾⵢⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⴱⴰⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵢⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵋ ⴰⵏⵎⵗⴰⵎⴱⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵏⵏ
English: They are most famous for their atomic cosmology even though their thought included many other fields of philosophy, such as ethics, mathematics, aesthetics, politics, and even embryology.
Tamasheq: Iⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⵛⵓⵙⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴾⵓⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ, ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ, ⴰⵢⵙⵜⵂⵢⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵎⴱⵔⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ
English: Democritus and Leucippus were skeptics regarding the reliability of our senses, but they were confident that motion exists.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵢⵎⵓⵛⵔⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵍⵢⵓⵛⵉⴱⴱⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⵍⵍ
English: Atoms move within the void, interact with each other, and form the plurality of the world we live in, in a purely mechanical manner.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵜⵓⵎⵙ ⵛⵂⵉⵓⴰⵏⴾⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵜⵉⵍ , ⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⴾⴱⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗ
English: Democritus concluded that since everything is atoms and void, several of our senses are not real but conventional.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵢⵎⵓⵛⵔⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵂⵎⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵓⵎⵙ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵜⵉⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⵓⵜⵜⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ
English: They attacked traditional thinking, from gods to morality, paving the way for further advances of philosophy and other disciplines such as drama, social sciences, mathematics, and history.
Tamasheq: Iⴷⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴻⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⵔⴰⵎⴰ, ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⴻⵏⵛⵢⵙ, ⵎⴰⵜⵂⴻⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ
English: The sophists taught rhetoric and how to address issues from multiple viewpoints.
Tamasheq: ⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ
English: Gorgias wrote a book named On Nature, in which he attacked the Eleatics' concepts of What-is and What-is-not.
Tamasheq: ⵗⵓⵔⴶⵉⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵏ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⴱⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵎ ⵢⵍⵢⴰⵛⵜⵉⴾⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵂⴰⵜ-ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵂⴰⵜ-ⵉⵙ-ⵏⵓⵜ
English: Antiphon placed natural law against the law of the city.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⵉⴱⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⵛⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ-ⵉⵍⴾⴻⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ
English: He attempted to explain both the variety and unity of the cosmos.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
English: Diogenes of Apollonia returned to Milesian monism, but with a rather more elegant thought.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵉⵓⴶⵢⵏⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵍⵍⵉⵏⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ
English: While Pythagoras and Empedocles linked their self-proclaimed wisdom to their divinely inspired status, they tried to teach or urge mortals to seek the truth about the natural realm—Pythagoras by means of mathematics and geometry and Empedocles by exposure to experiences.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵉⵜⵂⴰⴶⵓⵔⵢ ⴷ ⴻⵎⴱⵢⴷⵓⵛⵍⵢⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ , ⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵉⵔ ⵎⵢⵢⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⴶⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ - ⴱⵉⵜⵂⴰⴶⵓⵔ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵎⴱⵢⴷⵓⵛⵍⵢⵙ ⵙ ⴰⴱⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ
English: They attacked the traditional representations of gods that Homer and Hesiod had established and put Greek popular religion under scrutiny, initiating the schism between natural philosophy and theology.
Tamasheq: Iⴷⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙ ⵂⵓⵎⵢⵔ ⴷ ⵂⵢⵙⵉⵓⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⴾ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴶⵣⴰⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵛⵂⵉⵙⵎ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ
English: The theological thought starts with the Milesian philosophers.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏ
English: Xenophanes set three preconditions for God: he had to be all good, immortal and not resembling humans in appearance, which had a major impact on western religious thought.
Tamasheq: ⵆⵢⵏⵓⴱⵂⴰⵏⵢⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ:Iⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴱⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ , ⵏ ⵓⵗⵍⴰⵍ ⵜⴱⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴱⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵗ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵢⵍⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴱⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴻⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ
English: Anaxagoras asserted that cosmic intelligence (nous) gives life to things.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴰⴶⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵛⵓⵙⵎⵉⵛ ⵉⵏⵜⵢⵍⵍⵉⴶⵢⵏⵛ (ⵏⵓⵓⵙ) ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⵓⵏⴼⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ
English: It was Hippocrates (often hailed as the father of medicine) who separated – but not completely – the two domains.
Tamasheq: ⵆⵉⴱⴱⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ (ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵋ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⵢⵛⵉⵏ) ⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ
English: Ever-transforming nature is summarized by Heraclitus' axiom panta rhei (everything is in a state of flux).
Tamasheq: ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⴾⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵜⵉ ⵂⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⵆⵉⵓⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵔⵂⵢⵉ (ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉ)
English: The pre-Socratics sought to understand the various aspects of nature by means of rationalism, observations, and offering explanations that could be deemed as scientific, giving birth to what became Western rationalism.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵙ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ, ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙⵉⵛⵢⵏⵜⵉⴼⵉⴾ, ⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ
English: Anaximander offered the principle of sufficient reason, a revolutionary argument that would also yield the principle that nothing comes out of nothing.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⴰⵆⵉⵎⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔ ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵜⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵜ , ⴰⵎⵛⵂⵉⴾⴾⵉ ⵂ ⴰⴾⴼ-ⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵜⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ
English: Xenophanes also advanced a critique of anthropomorphic religion by highlighting in a rational way the inconsistency of depictions of the gods in Greek popular religion.
Tamasheq: ⵆⴻⵏⵓⴱⵂⴰⵏⴻⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵎⵓⵔⴱⵂⵉⵛ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵓⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⴷⴰⵔⴻⵔⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵗⵔⴻⴻⴾ
English: Other pre-Socratics also sought to answer the question of arche, offering various answers, but the first step towards scientific thought was already taken.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵢ, ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⵢⵍⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵛⴻⵜⵉⴼⵉⴾ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ
English: The philosophic thought produced by the pre-Socratics heavily influenced later philosophers, historians and playwrights.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⵔⴰⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ , ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴷ ⴱⵍⴰⵉⵓⵔⵉⴶⵂⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: The naturalists impressed young Socrates and he was interested in the quest for the substance of the cosmos, but his interest waned as he became steadily more focused on epistemology, virtue, and ethics rather than the natural world.
Tamasheq: ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵔⴰ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
English: Cicero analyzed his views on the pre-Socratics in his Tusculanae Disputationes, as he distinguished the theoretical nature of pre-Socratic thought from previous "sages" who were interested in more practical issues.
Tamasheq: “ ⵛⵉⵛⵢⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵉⴰⵣ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵟⵓⵙⵛⵓⵍⴰⵏⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⴱⵓⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵢⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴾⴾⴰⵜ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵢⵜⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ “ⵙⴰⴶⵢⵙ” ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ”
English: Aristotle discussed the pre-Socratics in the first book of Metaphysics, as an introduction to his own philosophy and the quest for arche.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵢⵜⴰⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵛⵂ
English: Francis Bacon, a 16th-century philosopher known for advancing the scientific method, was probably the first philosopher of the modern era to use pre-Socratic axioms extensively in his texts.
Tamasheq: ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉⵙ ⴱⴰⵛⵓⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1600 ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵜⵉⴼⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵂⴰ-ⵎⵉⵛⵂ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⴰⵆⵉⵓⵎⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ
English: Friedrich Nietzsche admired the pre-Socratics deeply, calling them "tyrants of the spirit" to mark their antithesis and his preference against Socrates and his successors.
Tamasheq: “ ⴼⵔⵉⵢⴷⵔⵉⵛⵂ ⵏⵉⵢⵜⵣⵛⵂ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ,ⵢⵗⴰⵔⵔⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “”ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵏⵜⵙ oⴼ ⵜⵂ ⵙⴱⵉⵔⵉⵜ” ⵉ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵜⵂⵢⵙⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ”
English: According to his narrative, limned in many of his books, the pre-Socratic era was the glorious era of Greece, while the so-called Golden Age that followed was an age of decay, according to Nietzsche.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ , ⵢⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ , ⴰⵣⵣⴰⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵢ-ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵔⵢⵛ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵍⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵢ ⵓⴰ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴾⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵜⴰⵜ ⵏⵉⵢⵜⵣⵛⵂ
English: Even though this period – known in its earlier part as the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period – in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely.
Tamasheq: ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵣⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵗⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ - ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵛⵂⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵗⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵏⵉ, ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵗⵓⵍⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵢ ⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⵎ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ
English: Taoism (also called Daoism), a philosophy which emphasizes the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion, moderation, and humility, while Taoist thought generally focuses on nature, the relationship between humanity and the cosmos; health and longevity; and wu wei (action through inaction).
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵓⵉⵙⵎ (ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵢⵓⵉⵙⵢⴰⵓⵉⵙⵎ) , ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵓⵗ- ⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵟⴰⵓ: ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏⵜ,ⵜⴰⵣⵉⴼⵏⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵓⴰⴷⵉⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⵓⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ, ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ : ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵓ ⵓⵢⵉ ( ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⴰⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ)
English: Agrarianism, or the School of Agrarianism, which advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵔⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵔⴰⵔⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵢⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵜⵓⴱⵉⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⴰⵏⵍⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵢⴶⴰⵍⵉⵜⴰⵔⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ
English: Scholars from this school were good orators, debaters and tacticians.
Tamasheq: Iⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ , ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵍⵋⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴾⴾⵓⵔⵙⴰ
English: The School of "Minor-talks", which was not a unique school of thought, but a philosophy constructed of all the thoughts which were discussed by and originated from normal people on the street.
Tamasheq: “ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⵎⵉⵏⵓⵔ-ⵜⴰⵍⴾⵙ” ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵎⵓⵂⴰⵎ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵉⵜ”
English: Confucianism was particularly strong during the Han Dynasty, whose greatest thinker was Dong Zhongshu, who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School and the theory of the Five Elements.
Tamasheq: ⵛⵓⵏⴼⵓⵛⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵙⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵢⵎⴰⵗⵔⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵢⵓⵏⴶ ⵌⵂⵓⵏⴶⵙⵂⵓ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴼⵉⵛⵉⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵌⵂⵓⵏⴶⵙⵂⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ
English: In particular, they refuted the assumption of Confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage, but simply a human and mortal.
Tamasheq: ⵓⵏⵋⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴼⵉⵛⵉⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰⴾ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵂⵢ ⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵍ
English: Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until the Northern and Southern, Sui and Tang Dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵓⴷⴷⵂⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⵙⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴰ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 100 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵔⵢⵓ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵉ ⴰⵏⴷ ⵟⴰⵏⴶ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵙⵜⵉⵢⵙ
English: This leads to the inquiry into the one being that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⵓⴾ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵢⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ
English: Seven Rishis — Atri, Bharadwaja, Gautama, Jamadagni, Kasyapa, Vasishtha, Viswamitra.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵔⵉⵙⵂⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ- ⴰⵜⵔⵉ, ⴱⵂⴰⵏⵔⴰⴷⵓⴰⵋⴰ, ⵗⴰⵓⵜⴰⵎⴰ, ⵋⴰⵎⴰⴷⴶⵏⵉ, ⵆⴰⵙⵉⴰⴱⴰ, ⴱⴰⵙⵉⵙⵂⵜⵂⴰ, ⴱⵉⵙⵓⴰⵎⵉⵜⵔⴰ
English: Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC, marking the end of the Greek Dark Ages.
Tamasheq: ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵜ-ⵓⵏⴾⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵓⵜⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 600 ⴷⵓⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ,ⵢⵈⵈⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⴰⴾⵓⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⵎⵓⵏⵓⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴾⵓⵓⵓⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ
English: It dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including astronomy, epistemology, mathematics, political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, biology, rhetoric and aesthetics.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵜⵢⵗⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵜⵔⴰ, ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ, ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ, ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ, ⵎⵢⵜⴰⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⵙ, ⵓⵏⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛ, ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⵔⵂⵢⵜⵓⵔⵉⵛ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵙⵜⵂⵢⵜⵉⵛⵙ
English: Clear, unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers to Roman philosophy, Early Islamic philosophy, Medieval Scholasticism, the European Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.
Tamasheq: Iⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵢⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵂⵢⵍⵍⵢⵏⵉⵙⵜⵉⵛ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ, ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵢⴱⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵂⵓⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⵛⵉⵙⵎ, ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⵢⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵛ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵔ
English: But they taught themselves to reason.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ
English: Thales inspired the Milesian school of philosophy and was followed by Anaximander, who argued that the substratum or arche could not be water or any of the classical elements but was instead something "unlimited" or "indefinite" (in Greek, the apeiron).
Tamasheq: “ ⵜⵂⴰⵍⵢⵙ ⵓⵔⴰⵎ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵆⵉⵎⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⴱⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⵢ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ “ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴱⴷⴰⵜ’ ⵎⵢⵗ “ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵓⵜ” ( ⴷⴰⵗ ⴶⵔⵢⴾ , ⴰⴱⵢⵉⵔⵓⵏ)
English: Contrary to the Milesian school, which posits one stable element as the arche, Heraclitus taught that panta rhei ("everything flows"), the closest element to this eternal flux being fire.
Tamasheq: “ ⴰⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵛⵂ , ⵂⵢⵔⴰⵛⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵔⵂⵢⵉ ⵓⵢⵏ (“ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵜⵉⴾⵉ) , ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⵉ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵗⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵜⵉ ⵢⴼⵢⵓ”
English: Being, he argued, by definition implies eternality, while only that which is can be thought; a thing which is, moreover, cannot be more or less, and so the rarefaction and condensation of the Milesians is impossible regarding Being; lastly, as movement requires that something exist apart from the thing moving (viz.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵓⵗⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ, ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵔ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴼⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵗⵉⵙⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵗⴰⵎⴰⵎ ⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵉ ,ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵉⵛⵂⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵓⵉⵏⴾⵉ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵓⴰⵏⴾⵢⵏ (ⴱⵉⵣ
English: In support of this, Parmenides' pupil Zeno of Elea attempted to prove that the concept of motion was absurd and as such motion did not exist.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢ ,ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵌⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵢⵍⵢⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵎⵢⵏⵉⴷⵢ ⵢⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵓⵉⵏⴾⵉ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵓⵉⵏⴾⵉ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵆⵍⵢⴾ
English: Leucippus also proposed an ontological pluralism with a cosmogony based on two main elements: the vacuum and atoms.
Tamasheq: ⵍⵢⵓⵛⵉⴱⴱⵓⵙ ⵀⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴱⵍⵓⵔⴰⵉⵙⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ: ⴱⴰⵛⵓⵓⵎ ⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⵎⵙ
English: While philosophy was an established pursuit prior to Socrates, Cicero credits him as "the first who brought philosophy down from the heavens, placed it in cities, introduced it into families, and obliged it to examine into life and morals, and good and evil."
Tamasheq: “ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ, ⵛⵉⵛⵢⵔⵓ ⵉⵋⵋ “ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵣⴰⵏⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⵉⵋⵋⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴶⵉⴷⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵢⴶⴰⵣⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⴷ ⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰⵈ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵙ””
English: The fact that many conversations involving Socrates (as recounted by Plato and Xenophon) end without having reached a firm conclusion, or aporetically, has stimulated debate over the meaning of the Socratic method.
Tamasheq: ⵆⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ( ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵆⵢⵏⵓⴱⵂⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ) ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵓⵢⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜ
English: Socrates taught that no one desires what is bad, and so if anyone does something that truly is bad, it must be unwillingly or out of ignorance; consequently, all virtue is knowledge.
Tamasheq: ⵔⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵙ ⴰⴷⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⴰⵏ ,ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜ ⵓⵜⵢⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵋⵂⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ: ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ
English: The great statesman Pericles was closely associated with this new learning and a friend of Anaxagoras, however, and his political opponents struck at him by taking advantage of a conservative reaction against the philosophers; it became a crime to investigate the things above the heavens or below the earth, subjects considered impious.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴱⵢⵔⵉⵛⵍⵢⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵓⵙⴰⵗ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵆⴰⴶⵓⵔⴰⵙ, ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵆⴰⵙⴰⵎ ⵜⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴼoⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ; ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵉⵎⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵣⴰⵏⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
English: Socrates, however, is the only subject recorded as charged under this law, convicted, and sentenced to death in 399 BCE (see Trial of Socrates).
Tamasheq: ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵗⵣⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⵢⵏ , ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵔⵎⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 399 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ (ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ)
English: Plato casts Socrates as the main interlocutor in his dialogues, deriving from them the basis of Platonism (and by extension, Neoplatonism).
Tamasheq: ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⵉⵓⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ , ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏⵉⵙⵎ ( ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ,ⵏⵢⵓⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏⵉⵙⵎ)
English: Zeno of Citium in turn adapted the ethics of Cynicism to articulate Stoicism.
Tamasheq: ⵣⵢⵏⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵜⵉⵓⵎ ⵉⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵏⵉⵛⵉⵙⵎ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵙⵜⵓⵉⵛⵉⵙⵎ
English: Along with Xenophon, Plato is the primary source of information about Socrates' life and beliefs and it is not always easy to distinguish between the two.
Tamasheq: Iⴷ ⵓⴻⵏⵓⴱⵂⵓⵏ, ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⴻⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴻⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ
English: Although rule by a wise man would be preferable to rule by law, the wise cannot help but be judged by the unwise, and so in practice, rule by law is deemed necessary.
Tamasheq: ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ , ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵗⴰⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ
English: Plato's dialogues also have metaphysical themes, the most famous of which is his theory of forms.
Tamasheq: ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⵓⴷⵓⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵢⵜⴰⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⵙ, ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴱⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⴼ ⴼⵓⵔⵎⵙ
English: It likens most humans to people tied up in a cave, who look only at shadows on the walls and have no other conception of reality.
Tamasheq: ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵆⵍⵓⴾⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵛⵂⴷⵢⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ
English: If these travelers then re-entered the cave, the people inside (who are still only familiar with the shadows) would not be equipped to believe reports of this 'outside world'.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵛⵂⴷⵢⵉⵜ , ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ (ⵓⵉ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵓⵢⵏ ) ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵔⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎ”
English: Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972).
Tamasheq: ⴱⵢⵜⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵢⵍ, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ (ⵏⵢⵓ ⵗⵓⵔ: ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵛⵂⵓⵜⵜⵢⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1972)
English: He criticizes the regimes described in Plato's Republic and Laws, and refers to the theory of forms as "empty words and poetic metaphors."
Tamasheq: “ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵔⵢⴶⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⴰⵎⴰⵂⵉⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ‘”ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵜⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⴰⵍⵢⵏ”””
English: Antisthenes was inspired by the ascetism of Socrates, and accused Plato of pride and conceit.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵙⵜⵂⵢⵏⵢⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵛⵢⵏⵜⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋ
English: It was founded by Euclides of Megara, one of the pupils of Socrates.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵗⵏⴰⵉ Eⵓⵛⵍⵉⴷⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴶⴰⵔⴰ, ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ
English: Pyrrhonism places the attainment of ataraxia (a state of equanimity) as the way to achieve eudaimonia.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵉⵔⵔⵂⵓⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵆⵉⴰ (ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ) ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⴰⵉⵎⵓⵏⵉⴰ
English: His ethics were based on "the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain".
Tamasheq: “ ⴷⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ “”ⵉⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣ ⴷ ⴶⴰⴷⴷⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵔⵜ”’”
English: Their logical contributions still feature in contemporary propositional calculus.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⴷⵂⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵛⴰⵍⵛⵓⵍⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ
English: This skeptical period of ancient Platonism, from Arcesilaus to Philo of Larissa, became known as the New Academy, although some ancient authors added further subdivisions, such as a Middle Academy.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ, ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵔⵛⵢⵙⵉⵍⵍⴰⵓⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵔⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵏⵢⵓ ⴰⵛⴰⴷⵢⵎⵉ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵍ ⴰⵛⴰⴷⵢⵎⵉ
English: While the objective of the Pyrrhonists was the attainment of ataraxia, after Arcesilaus the Academic skeptics did not hold up ataraxia as the central objective.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵔⵂⵓⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵆⵉⴰ , ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵛⵢⵙⵉⵍⴰⵓⵙ ⴰⵛⴰⴷⵢⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⵙⴾⵢⴱⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴼ ⵙ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵆⵉⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ
English: In the Byzantine Empire Greek ideas were preserved and studied, and not long after the first major expansion of Islam, however, the Abbasid caliphs authorized the gathering of Greek manuscripts and hired translators to increase their prestige.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⴻ ⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵜ ⵓ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵂⵓⵋ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ , ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ,ⴰⴱⴱⴰⵙⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⴰⵍⵉⴼⴰ ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵙⵉⵔ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵓⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ
English: Medieval philosophy is the philosophy that existed through the Middle Ages, the period roughly extending from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century to the Renaissance in the 15th century.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵢⴷⵉⵢⴱⴰⵍ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⵢⵂⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵍ ⴰⴶⵢⵙ, ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 500 ⵂⴰⵔ ⵔⵢⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1500
English: With the possible exceptions of Avicenna and Averroes, medieval thinkers did not consider themselves philosophers at all: for them, the philosophers were the ancient pagan writers such as Plato and Aristotle.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵓⵉⵛⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵢⵔⵔⵓⵢⵙ , ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ; ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ, ⴼⵉⵍoⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍⴻ
English: One of the most heavily debated things of the period was that of faith versus reason.
Tamasheq: Iⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜ
English: It is generally agreed that it begins with Augustine (354–430) who strictly belongs to the classical period, and ends with the lasting revival of learning in the late eleventh century, at the beginning of the high medieval period.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏ (354 ⵂⴰⵔ 430) ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴷⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴾⴾⵔⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵢⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵂⵓⵋⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1100 ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ
English: In later periods, monks were used for training administrators and churchmen.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ, ⴱⵓⵎⴱⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴱ ⴷ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: Much of the work of Aristotle was unknown in the West in this period.
Tamasheq: Iⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ Iⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ
English: Augustine is regarded as the greatest of the Church Fathers.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏⵢ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵓⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵔⵛⵂ ⴼⴰⵜⵂⵢⵔⵙ
English: For over a thousand years, there was hardly a Latin work of theology or philosophy that did not quote his writing, or invoke his authority.
Tamasheq: Iⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ 1000 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ , ⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⴰⵆⵍⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ
English: He became consul in 510 in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 501 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⵓⴶⵓⵜⵂⵙ
English: He wrote commentaries on these works, and on the Isagoge by Porphyry (a commentary on the Categories).
Tamasheq: Iⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ Iⵙⴰⴶⵓⴶⵢ ⵙ ⴱⵓⵔⴱⵂⵉⵔⵉ ( ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ)
English: Around this period several doctrinal controversies emerged, such as the question of whether God had predestined some for salvation and some for damnation.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵣⵂⴰⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵓⵉ ⵢⵗⵍⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵂⵢ ⵉⵣⴰⵈⵈⵉⵣⵣⴰⴱ
English: Is the host the same as Christ's historical body?
Tamasheq: ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷⵉⴼⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ?
English: This period also witnessed a revival of scholarship.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⵓⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴾⴾⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⵙⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ
English: Later, under St. Abbo of Fleury (abbot 988–1004), head of the reformed abbey school, Fleury enjoyed a second golden age.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ, ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴱⵓ ⵏ ⴼⵍⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ (ⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 988 ⵂⴰⵔ 1004) ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⴼⵓⵔⵎⵢⴷ ⴰⴱⴱⵢⵉ ⵙⵛⵂⵓⵓⵍ , ⴼⵢⵍⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵣ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴶⵓⵍⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ
English: The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1300 ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴶⵓⵂⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ