Tamazight-NLP/NLLB-Seed_Tamasheq-Tifinagh-Script huggingface dataset:
English: They are involved in the promotion of germination and dormancy-breaking in seeds, in regulation of plant height by controlling stem elongation and the control of flowering.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵖⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵕⵓⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵣⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵎⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ.
English: It was so named because it was originally thought to control abscission.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵉⵄⴰⵢⴷ.
English: Another class of phytohormones is the jasmonates, first isolated from the oil of Jasminum grandiflorum which regulates wound responses in plants by unblocking the expression of genes required in the systemic acquired resistance response to pathogen attack.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵀⵓⵕⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵊⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏⴰⵜⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵊⴰⵙⵎⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴳⵔⴰⴷⵉⴼⵍⵓⵕⵉⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵄⵟⵟⵉⴱⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵄⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵓⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵏⴼ.
English: Non-vascular plants, the liverworts, hornworts and mosses do not produce ground-penetrating vascular roots and most of the plant participates in photosynthesis.
Tamasheq: ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ, ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰ, ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵀⵇⴰⵕⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵀⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ.
English: Cells in each system are capable of creating cells of the other and producing adventitious shoots or roots.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴷⴷⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ.
English: In the event that one of the systems is lost, the other can often regrow it.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴳ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴳⵎ.
English: In vascular plants, the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ, ⴰⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵍⵓⵡⵉⵎ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵟⵟⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵡⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵖⴷⴷⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ.
English: Leaves gather sunlight and carry out photosynthesis.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ.
English: Angiosperms are seed-producing plants that produce flowers and have enclosed seeds.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵎⵖⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ.
English: Some plants reproduce sexually, some asexually, and some via both means.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ.
English: Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ.
English: While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions along evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ.
English: The nomenclature of botanical organisms is codified in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and administered by the International Botanical Congress.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ, ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ (ICN) ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
English: The scientific name of a plant represents its genus and its species within the genus, resulting in a single worldwide name for each organism.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵓⴷⵔ.
English: The combination is the name of the species.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
English: The evolutionary relationships and heredity of a group of organisms is called its phylogeny.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.
English: As an example, species of Pereskia are trees or bushes with prominent leaves.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵙⴽⵉⵢⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⵯⵍⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ.
English: Judging relationships based on shared characters requires care, since plants may resemble one another through convergent evolution in which characters have arisen independently.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵉⴱⴹⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵚⴽⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴷ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ.
English: Only derived characters, such as the spine-producing areoles of cacti, provide evidence for descent from a common ancestor.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵉⵍ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴰⵔ.
English: The difference is that the genetic code itself is used to decide evolutionary relationships, instead of being used indirectly via the characters it gives rise to.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵔⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ.
English: Genetic evidence suggests that the true evolutionary relationship of multicelled organisms is as shown in the cladogram below – fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ ⴽⵍⴰⴷⵓⴳⵔⴰⵎ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ – ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
English: Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ.
English: Although humans have always been interested in the natural history of the animals they saw around them, and made use of this knowledge to domesticate certain species, the formal study of zoology can be said to have originated with Aristotle.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ, ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵜⴳⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ.
English: Modern zoology has its origins during the Renaissance and early modern period, with Carl Linnaeus, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Robert Hooke, Charles Darwin, Gregor Mendel and many others.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵍⵉⵏⵢⵓⵙ, ⴰⵏⵜⵓⵏⵉ ⴼⴰⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏⵀⵓⴽ, ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵀⵓⴽ, ⵛⴰⵕⵍⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ, ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
English: There are cave paintings, engravings and sculptures in France dating back 15,000 years showing bison, horses and deer in carefully rendered detail.
Tamasheq: ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ 15,000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵉⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ.
English: Ancient knowledge of wildlife is illustrated by the realistic depictions of wild and domestic animals in the Near East, Mesopotamia and Egypt, including husbandry practices and techniques, hunting and fishing.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵎⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵢⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵚⵕ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ.
English: Aristotle, in the fourth century BC, looked at animals as living organisms, studying their structure, development and vital phenomena.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ, ⵉⵖⵔ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ.
English: Four hundred years later, Roman physician Galen dissected animals to study their anatomy and the function of the different parts, because the dissection of human cadavers was prohibited at the time.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⴼⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵏⴼ ⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵔ ⵉⴼⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ.
English: In Europe, Galen's work on anatomy remained largely unsurpassed and unchallenged up until the 16th century.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵎ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 16.
English: Having previously been the realm of gentlemen naturalists, over the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ 18, 19 ⴷ 20, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵜⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ.
English: These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in the 1859 publication of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection; in this Darwin placed the theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by explaining the processes by which it can occur, and providing observational evidence that it had done so.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴹ 1859 ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ; ⴳ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⵕⵓ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵕⵕⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
English: Darwin gave a new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a common biological theory: the theory of organic evolution.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ: ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
English: An early necessity was to identify the organisms and group them according to their characteristics, differences and relationships, and this is the field of the taxonomist.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ.
English: His ideas were centered on the morphology of animals.
Tamasheq: ⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴼⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ.
English: These groupings have since been revised to improve consistency with the Darwinian principle of common descent.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ.
English: Homo is the genus, and sapiens the specific epithet, both of them combined make up the species name.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⴰⵙⴰⴱⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ.
English: The dominant classification system is called the Linnaean taxonomy.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ.
English: Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ.
English: It focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ.
English: Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ.
English: For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, herpetology, or entomology, but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵃⵔⵓⵔⴷⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ.
English: Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the evolution of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of natural selection.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
English: While researchers practice techniques specific to molecular biology, it is common to combine these with methods from genetics and biochemistry.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵜ.
English: Biological systematics is the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ.
English: Phylogenetic trees of species and higher taxa are used to study the evolution of traits (e.g., anatomical or molecular characteristics) and the distribution of organisms (biogeography).
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵉⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ) ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ (ⵜⴰⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵏⵜ).
English: Biological systematics classifies species by using three specific branches.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
English: Experimental systematics identifies and classifies animals based on the evolutionary units that comprise a species, as well as their importance in evolution itself.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵜⵜⵉ ⵜⵎⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ.
English: Explaining the biodiversity of the planet and its organisms.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ.
English: Taxonomy is that part of Systematics concerned with topics (a) to (d) above.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ (a) ⴰⵔ (d).
English: However, in modern usage, they can all be considered synonyms of each other.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵏⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵏⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ.
English: Some claim systematics alone deals specifically with relationships through time, and that it can be synonymous with phylogenetics, broadly dealing with the inferred hierarchy of organisms.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵙⵎⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ.
English: Scientific classifications are aids in recording and reporting information to other scientists and to laymen.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵡⴹ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ.
English: In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ, ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ.
English: In addition, paleontologists use the concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵢⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵕⵓⵏⵓⵙⴱⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⴷⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⴰⵣ.
English: All species (except viruses) are given a two-part name, a "binomial".
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ (ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ) ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ, "ⵎ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⴰⵡⵏ".
English: For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the genus Boa, with constrictor being the species's epithet.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴱⵡⴰ ⴽⵓⵏⵙⵜⵔⵉⴽⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵡⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⴱⵓⵜⵜⵍ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ.
English: Also, among organisms that reproduce only asexually, the concept of a reproductive species breaks down, and each clone is potentially a microspecies.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵡⴷ, ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⵔ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵇⵇⵓ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⵙⴽⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢ.
English: Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed categories that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 18 ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ.
English: That understanding was greatly extended in the 20th century through genetics and population ecology.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ.
English: Ernst Mayr emphasised reproductive isolation, but this, like other species concepts, is hard or even impossible to test.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵕⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵢⵕ ⵢⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵎ.
English: This method was used as a "classical" method of determining species, such as with Linnaeus early in evolutionary theory.
Tamasheq: "ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ""ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ"" ⵉ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴰⵎ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏⴰⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓ"ⵍⵓ."
English: As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that kinds of Bacteria or Archaea with 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by DNA-DNA hybridisation to decide if they belong to the same species or not.
Tamasheq: ⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴳⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵢ, ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵛⵢⴰⵜⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ RNA ⴰⵕⵉⴱⵓⵣⵓⵎⵉ 16S ⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 97% ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⵙⵏ ⵣⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎ ⵏ DNA-DNA ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵓⵀⵓ.
English: Modern approaches compare sequence similarity using computational methods.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵟⵟⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
English: A database, Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD), contains DNA barcode sequences from over 190,000 species.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ, ⴱⴰⵕⴽⵓⴷ ⵓⴼ ⵍⴰⵢⴼ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵉⵎ (BOLD), ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵙⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵕⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ DNA ⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 190,000 ⵏ ⵡⵏⴰⵡ.
English: For example, in a study done on fungi, studying the nucleotide characters using cladistic species produced the most accurate results in recognising the numerous fungi species of all the concepts studied.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ, ⵜⵓⵡⵉ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⴽⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⴷⵉⵙⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ.
English: Yet others defend this approach, considering "taxonomic inflation" pejorative and labelling the opposing view as "taxonomic conservatism"; claiming it is politically expedient to split species and recognise smaller populations at the species level, because this means they can more easily be included as endangered in the IUCN red list and can attract conservation legislation and funding.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ "ⴰⴱⵣⵣⵓⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ" ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵓⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ "ⵜⴰⵙⵃⴹⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ"; ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵙⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵃⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵛⵛⴽ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵍⴷⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵥⵕⴼ.
English: If scientists mean that something applies to all species within a genus, they use the genus name without the specific name or epithet.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵇⵇⵓⴱⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ.
English: As further information comes to hand, the hypothesis may be corroborated or refuted.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵡⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴳⵉ.
English: Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxa is called splitting.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ.
English: The term quasispecies is sometimes used for rapidly mutating entities like viruses.
Tamasheq: ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵣⵉⵙⴱⴱⵉⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ.
English: In ring species, when members of adjacent populations in a widely continuous distribution range interbreed successfully but members of more distant populations do not.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵅⵕⵚⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵟⵟⵔⴼ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵄⵔⵇⵇⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ.
English: Ring species thus present a difficulty for any species concept that relies on reproductive isolation.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵅⵕⵚⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵏⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ.
English: Speciation depends on a measure of reproductive isolation, a reduced gene flow.
Tamasheq: ⵢⵓⴳⵍ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ.
English: Bacteria can exchange plasmids with bacteria of other species, including some apparently distantly related ones in different phylogenetic domains, making analysis of their relationships difficult, and weakening the concept of a bacterial species.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵖⵉ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴱⵍⴰⵙⵎⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵏ.
English: Mass extinctions had a variety of causes including volcanic activity, climate change, and changes in oceanic and atmospheric chemistry, and they in turn had major effects on Earth's ecology, atmosphere, land surface and waters.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵛⵛⴽⵉ ⴰⵎⴳⵔⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⴱⵓⵕⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵓ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
English: Some observers claim that there is an inherent conflict between the desire to understand the processes of speciation and the need to identify and to categorise.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ.
English: One of the classic cases in North America is that of the protected northern spotted owl which hybridises with the unprotected California spotted owl and the barred owl; this has led to legal debates.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵃⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵕⵇⵇⵟ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵃⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵕⵇⵇⵟ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵕⵏⵢⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵃⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵕⴰⵕⵜ; ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ.
English: A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, the young inheriting any variations they might have from their parents.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵎⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
English: He established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ.
English: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in a radical departure from Aristotelian thinking.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵊⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵜⵉⵙⵜ ⵍⴰⵎⴰⵕⴽ, ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1809, ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵉⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴳ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ.
English: Genus (plural genera) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ (ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ) ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙ!ⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵖⴰⵣ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ.
English: E.g. Panthera leo (lion) and Panthera onca (jaguar) are two species within the genus Panthera.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵉⵕⴰ ⵍⵢⵓ (ⵉⵣⵎ) ⴷ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵉⵕⴰ ⵓⵏⴽⴰ (ⴰⴽⵙⵉⵍ) ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵉⵕⴰ.
English: A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus, a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii.
Tamasheq: ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵀⵉⴱⵉⵙⴽⵓⵙ ⴰⵕⵏⵓⵜⵢⴰⵏⵓⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵢⵉⵙⴽ ⵎⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵀⴰⵡⴰⵢ.
English: Available names are those published in accordance with the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and not otherwise suppressed by subsequent decisions of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN); the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the "valid" (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⵙⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⴰⵎⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ (ICZN); ⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ) ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎ "ⵉⵙⵖⵣⵏⵏ" (ⵏⵖⴷ, ⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰ) ⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ.
English: In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ.
English: However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ (ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵅⴰⵙ) ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.
English: A name that means two different things is a homonym.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡ.
English: However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ) ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ.
English: For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles, which have about 1180 genera, the most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵃⵔⵓⵔⴷⵏ (ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1180 ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ (>300) ⴷⵉⴳⵙ 1 ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷⴰⵢ, ~360 ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵏ 2 ⴷ 4 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, 260 ⴷⵉⴳⵙ 5–10 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ~200 ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ 11–50 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴷ 27 ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 50 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ.
English: Which species are assigned to a genus is somewhat arbitrary.
Tamasheq: ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵜⵜⴼ.
English: What belongs to a family—or if a described family should be recognized at all—are proposed and determined by practicing taxonomists.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ—ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ—ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ.
English: Often there is no exact agreement, with different taxonomists each taking a different position.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵣ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵅⵓⵍⴼⵏ.
English: Michael Novacek (1986) inserted them at the same position.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⴽⵛⵎⵜⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⵏⵓⴼⴰⵙⴽ (1986) ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ.
English: There are no objective rules for describing a class, but for well-known animals there is likely to be consensus.
Tamasheq: ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ.
English: In botany, classes are now rarely discussed.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵍⴰⵏⵏ.
English: Informally, phyla can be thought of as groupings of organisms based on general specialization of body plan.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷⵜ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ.
English: So phyla can be merged or split if it becomes apparent that they are related to one another or not.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵏⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⵉⵙ ⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵀⵓ.
English: By Budd and Jensen's definition, a phylum is defined by a set of characters shared by all its living representatives.
Tamasheq: ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵏⵙⵏⵙ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ.
English: However, as it is character based, it is easy to apply to the fossil record.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ, ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣ.
English: However, proving that a fossil belongs to the crown group of a phylum is difficult, as it must display a character unique to a sub-set of the crown group.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵜⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵓⵎ, ⴳ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵓⵎ.
English: The table below follows the influential (though contentious) Cavalier-Smith system in equating "Plantae" with Archaeplastida, a group containing Viridiplantae and the algal Rhodophyta and Glaucophyta divisions.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⴰⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵓⵚ (ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⴰⵏ) ⵏ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵍⵢⵉ-ⵙⵎⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵙⵍ ⵏ "ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜⴰ" ⴷ ⴰⵔⵛⴰⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴼⵉⵔⵉⴷⵉⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵓⴹⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴳⵍⵓⴽⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰ.
English: The division Pinophyta may be used for all gymnosperms (i.e. including cycads, ginkgos and gnetophytes), or for conifers alone as below.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵎ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⵜⵉⵍⵏ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵍⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴽⴰⴷⵙⵏ, ⴳⵉⵏⴽⴳⵓⵙ ⴷ ⴳⵏⵉⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜⵙ), ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵃⴷⵔⵉⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴷ.
English: Protista is a polyphyletic taxon, which is less acceptable to present-day biologists than in the past.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴳⴰ ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ.
English: Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) laid the foundations for modern biological nomenclature, now regulated by the Nomenclature Codes, in 1735.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵍⵉⵏⵢⵓⵙ (1707–1778) ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ, ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1735.
English: In 1937 Édouard Chatton introduced the terms "prokaryote" and "eukaryote" to differentiate these organisms.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1937, ⵉⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⵛⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ "ⵎ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ" ⴷ "ⵎ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ" ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ.
English: Robert Whittaker recognized an additional kingdom for the Fungi.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵡⵉⵜⴰⴽⵕ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ.
English: The remaining two kingdoms, Protista and Monera, included unicellular and simple cellular colonies.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵕⴰ, ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ.
English: In other systems, such as Lynn Margulis's system of five kingdoms, the plants included just the land plants (Embryophyta), and Protoctista has a broader definition.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⴳⵓⵍⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ (ⵓⵎⴱⵕⵢⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰ), ⴷ ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵓⴽⵜⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ.
English: Technological advances in electron microscopy allowed the separation of the Chromista from the Plantae kingdom.
Tamasheq: ⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜⴰⵢ.
English: Finally, some protists lacking mitochondria were discovered.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⵓⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉ.
English: This superkingdom was opposed to the Metakaryota superkingdom, grouping together the five other eukaryotic kingdoms (Animalia, Protozoa, Fungi, Plantae and Chromista).
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⵢⵓⵜⴰ, ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ (ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵢⴰ, ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵓⵣⵡⴰ, ⴼⵓⵏⴳⵉ, ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵛⵔⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜⴰ).
English: Cavalier-Smith no longer accepted the importance of the fundamental Eubacteria–Archaebacteria divide put forward by Woese and others and supported by recent research.
Tamasheq: ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵍⵢⵉⵔ-ⵙⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵓⴱⴰⵛⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ–ⴰⵔⵛⴰⵢⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵡⵓⵢⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵜⵜⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵡⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ.
English: Cavalier-Smith does not accept the requirement for taxa to be monophyletic ("holophyletic" in his terminology) to be valid.
Tamasheq: ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵍⵢⵉⵔ-ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵜ ⴰⵛⵔⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴱⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ("ⵀⵓⵍⵓⴼⵉⵍⵜⵉⴽ" ⴳ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ) ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵣⵏ.
English: The advances of phylogenetic studies allowed Cavalier-Smith to realize that all the phyla thought to be archezoans (i.e. primitively amitochondriate eukaryotes) had in fact secondarily lost their mitochondria, typically by transforming them into new organelles: Hydrogenosomes.
Tamasheq: ⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵍⵢⵉⵔ-ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵎ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⵓⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⵜⵏ) ⵜⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⵓⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⵓⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ: ⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵙⵓⵎⵙ.
English: Based on such RNA studies, Carl Woese thought life could be divided into three large divisions and referred to them as the "three primary kingdom" model or "urkingdom" model.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵔⵉⴱⵉⵢ RNA, ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵡⵓⵥ ⵉⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ, ""ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ"" ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ ""ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ""."
English: Woese divided the prokaryotes (previously classified as the Kingdom Monera) into two groups, called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria, stressing that there was as much genetic difference between these two groups as between either of them and all eukaryotes.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵡⵓⵥ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵕⴰ) ⵅⴼ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵓⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵛⴰⵢⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ.
English: They held that only monophyletic groups should be accepted as formal ranks in a classification and that – while this approach had been impractical previously (necessitating "literally dozens of eukaryotic 'kingdoms) – it had now become possible to divide the eukaryotes into "just a few major groups that are probably all monophyletic".
Tamasheq: ⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵣⵣⵓⵔⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷ– ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ (ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵖⵏ "ⵉⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ) – ⵉⵖⵢ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ "ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ".
English: It divided the eukaryotes into the same six "supergroups".
Tamasheq: ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ "ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ".
English: Plants are thought to be more distantly related to animals and fungi.
Tamasheq: ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ.
English: The ten arguments against include the fact that they are obligate intracellular parasites that lack metabolism and are not capable of replication outside of a host cell.
Tamasheq: ⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵕⴰⵥⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵛⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴳⵉⴷⵉⵢ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉⵏ.
English: The first two are all prokaryotic microorganisms, or mostly single-celled organisms whose cells have a distorted or non-membrane bound nucleus.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵎⵉⵉⴼⵔⵖ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵣⴷⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⴼⵜ.
English: Halophiles, organisms that thrive in highly salty environments, and hyperthermophiles, organisms that thrive in extremely hot environments, are examples of Archaea.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⴰⵍⵓⴼⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵖⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵢⴰ.
English: Cyanobacteria and mycoplasmas are two examples of bacteria.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵏⵊⴰⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⴽⵓⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ.
English: Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴹⴼⴰⵔⵏ.
English: Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection (including sexual selection) and genetic drift act on this variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more common or rare within a population.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ (ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ) ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⵔⵓⵖ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ.
English: The scientific theory of evolution by natural selection was conceived independently by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the mid-19th century and was set out in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵛⴰⵕⵍⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵕⴰⵙⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵚ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 19 ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
English: Thus, in successive generations members of a population are more likely to be replaced by the progenies of parents with favourable characteristics that have enabled them to survive and reproduce in their respective environments.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⴳⴳⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵙⵏ.
English: The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, to fossilised multicellular organisms.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ, ⵙ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱⵉⵢ, ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ.
English: It sought explanations of natural phenomena in terms of physical laws that were the same for all visible things and that did not require the existence of any fixed natural categories or divine cosmic order.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵕⴱⴱⴰⵏⵉⵢ.
English: The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognised the hierarchical nature of species relationships, but still viewed species as fixed according to a divine plan.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵍⵉⵏⵢⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1735 ⵙ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵕⴱⴱⵉ.
English: These ideas were condemned by established naturalists as speculation lacking empirical support.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵜⵓⵏⴽⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ.
English: Partly influenced by An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) by Thomas Robert Malthus, Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a "struggle for existence" in which favourable variations prevailed as others perished.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚ ⵛⵡⵉⵢⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⵥⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ (1798) ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵍⵜⵓⵙ, ⵉⵙⵏⵄⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ "ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ" ⴳ ⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵎⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ.
English: Darwin developed his theory of "natural selection" from 1838 onwards and was writing up his "big book" on the subject when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ "ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ" ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1838 ⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵓ "ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ" ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵓⵣⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵕⴰⵙⵍ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1858.
English: Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of pangenesis.
Tamasheq: ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵟⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ.
English: To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴷⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵅⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵟⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙ.
English: The publication of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick with contribution of Rosalind Franklin in 1953 demonstrated a physical mechanism for inheritance.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴽⵔⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1953 ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ.
English: In 1973, evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky penned that "nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution," because it has brought to light the relations of what first seemed disjointed facts in natural history into a coherent explanatory body of knowledge that describes and predicts many observable facts about life on this planet.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1973, ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⴷⵓⵙⵢⵓⵙ ⴷⵓⴱⵣⴰⵏⵙⴽⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ "ⴰⵡⴷ ⵃⴰⵃ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ," ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵥⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵥⵕ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
English: The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism is called its phenotype.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵥⵕ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ.
English: For example, suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children.
Tamasheq: ⵙⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵢⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵓⵏⵣⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ; ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵓⵣⵏⵣⵍ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ.
English: DNA is a long biopolymer composed of four types of bases.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵢⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⵎⵔ ⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ.
English: Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes; different genes have different sequences of bases.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵇⵛⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ DNA ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ; ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵙⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ.
English: If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ.
English: However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by quantitative trait loci (multiple interacting genes).
Tamasheq: ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵎⴽ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ (ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ).
English: DNA methylation marking chromatin, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by RNA interference and the three-dimensional conformation of proteins (such as prions) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ DNA ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵓⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵅⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵀⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵓⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ RNA ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⵢⵓⵏⵏ) ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ.
English: For example, ecological inheritance through the process of niche construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.
English: Despite the constant introduction of new variation through mutation and gene flow, most of the genome of a species is identical in all individuals of that species.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ.
English: A substantial part of the phenotypic variation in a population is caused by genotypic variation.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ.
English: Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of fixation—when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵛⴽⴰ ⵉⵖ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵣⵣⴳⵓ—ⵉⴳ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴹⵕ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ.
English: When mutations occur, they may alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning, or have no effect.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴳ ⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵙⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ.
English: Extra copies of genes are a major source of the raw material needed for new genes to evolve.
Tamasheq: ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⵖⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ.
English: New genes can be generated from an ancestral gene when a duplicate copy mutates and acquires a new function.
Tamasheq: ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ.
English: The generation of new genes can also involve small parts of several genes being duplicated, with these fragments then recombining to form new combinations with new functions.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ.
English: Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies, but instead change which alleles are associated with each other, producing offspring with new combinations of alleles.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳ ⴰⵙⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ.
English: The first cost is that in sexually dimorphic species only one of the two sexes can bear young.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵙⵢ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵏ.
English: Yet sexual reproduction is the more common means of reproduction among eukaryotes and multicellular organisms.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ.
English: Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer.
Tamasheq: ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ.
English: Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the adzuki bean weevil Callosobruchus chinensis has occurred.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵊⵕⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵛⴰⵕⵓⵎⵉⵙⵉⵣ ⵙⵉⵔⵉⴼⵉⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷⵣⵓⴽⵉ ⴽⴰⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵕⵓⵛⵓⵙ ⵛⵉⵏⵉⵏⵙⵉⵙ.
English: Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness).
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⵉⵜ (ⴰⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ).
English: Consequently, organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors are more likely to pass on their traits to the next generation than those with traits that do not confer an advantage.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ.
English: The central concept of natural selection is the evolutionary fitness of an organism.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ.
English: For example, if an organism could survive well and reproduce rapidly, but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive, this organism would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have low fitness.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵡ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⴰⴼⵕⵕⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵣⵏ.
English: Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival and increased fecundity.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ.
English: However, even if the direction of selection does reverse in this way, traits that were lost in the past may not re-evolve in an identical form (see Dollo's law).
Tamasheq: ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴷⴰ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵡⵉⵜ (ⵥⵕ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵓ).
English: The first is directional selection, which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time—for example, organisms slowly getting taller.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵏⵉⴷⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ—ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ.
English: Finally, in stabilising selection there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends, which causes a decrease in variance around the average value and less diversity.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵣⴳⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵟⵟⵓⵕⴼⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ.
English: This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which, together, comprise natural selection.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵉ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
English: However, the rate of recombination is low (approximately two events per chromosome per generation).
Tamasheq: ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵣ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ (ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ).
English: A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a haplotype.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷ.