Tamazight-NLP/NLLB-Seed_Tamasheq-Tifinagh-Script huggingface dataset:
English: Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ Iⵜⴰⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵛⴰⵎⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ
English: The universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the Church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life.
Tamasheq: ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ
English: The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were Albertus Magnus and (especially) Thomas Aquinas, whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy.
Tamasheq: Iⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵎⵉⵏⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵢⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⴶⵏⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵟⵂⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵓⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵙ ⴰⴾⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵔⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵣⵂⴰⴱ ⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the "errors" of the Commentator Averroes.
Tamasheq: “ⴰⵈⵓⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵓⵛ ⵏ ⴰⵋⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵈⵢⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ "ⵆⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ” ⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵙ”
English: The problem of evil: The classical philosophers had speculated on the nature of evil, but the problem of how an all-powerful, all-knowing, loving God could create a system of things in which evil exists first arose in the medieval period.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵛⵉⵍ: ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵍⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵗ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵛⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵎ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ, ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵗⵏⵓ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵍⵛⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ
English: However, from the fourteenth century onward, the increasing use of mathematical reasoning in natural philosophy prepared the way for the rise of science in the early modern period.
Tamasheq: ⵆⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1400, ⴰⵜⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ
English: In the earlier period, writers such as Peter Abelard wrote commentaries on the works of the Old logic (Aristotle's Categories, On interpretation, and the Isagoge of Porphyry).
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⵓⵜⵓⵔ ⴰⴱⵢⵍⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵍⴷ ⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛ (ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍⵢ ⵛⴰⵜⵓⴶⵓⵔⵉⵢⵙ, ⵓⵏ Iⵏⵜ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴷ Iⵙⴰⴶⵓⴶⵢ ⵓⴼ ⵏⵓⵔⴱⵂⵉⵔⵉ)
English: (The word 'intentionality' was revived by Franz Brentano, who was intending to reflect medieval usage).
Tamasheq: ( Iⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵉⵔⵔⴰⴱ’ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵣ ⴱⵔⵢⵏⵜⴰⵏⵓ ⵓⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ- ⴰⵍⴰⵂ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵔⵓ)
English: The designation "Renaissance philosophy" is used by scholars of intellectual history to refer to the thought of the period running in Europe roughly between 1355 and 1650 (the dates shift forward for central and northern Europe and for areas such as Spanish America, India, Japan, and China under European influence).
Tamasheq: “ Iⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⵔⵢⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵙ ⴱⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ” ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵛⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ Eⵎⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1355 ⵂⴰⵔ 1650 ( ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵢⵔⵓ ⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ, ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ, Iⵏⴷⵉⴰ, ⵋⴰⴱⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢ )
English: The assumption that Aristotle's works were foundational to an understanding of philosophy did not wane during the Renaissance, which saw a flourishing of new translations, commentaries, and other interpretations of his works, both in Latin and in the vernacular.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴼⵏⵣⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵢⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵛⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ
English: The latter, similar in some ways to modern debates, examined the pros and cons of particular philosophical positions or interpretations.
Tamasheq: ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ, ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵉⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵢⵆⵆⴰⵉ ⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴱⵓⵓⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ
English: Plato, known directly only through two and a half dialogues in the Middle Ages, came to be known through numerous Latin translations in fifteenth century Italy, culminating in the hugely influential translation of his complete works by Marsilio Ficino in Florence in 1484.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵓ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵍ ⴰⴶⵢⵙ, ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵣⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ Lⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1500 ⵏ Iⵜⴰⵍⵉ ⵉⴾⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⵉⵍⵉⵓ ⴼⵉⵛⵉⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⵢⵏⵛⴻ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1484
English: Not all Renaissance humanists followed his example in all things, but Petrarch contributed to a broadening of his time's 'canon' (pagan poetry had previously been considered frivolous and dangerous), something that happened in philosophy as well.
Tamasheq: ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵢⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵛ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴱⵢⵜⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵏⵢⵜ “ⵛⴰⵏⵓⵏ” (ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵓⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⴰⵏ), ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ
English: Other movements from ancient philosophy also re-entered the mainstream.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜⵢⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ
English: This position came under increasing strain in the Renaissance, as various thinkers claimed that Thomas's classifications were inaccurate, and that ethics were the most important part of morality.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵛ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵟⵂⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵗⵢⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ
English: As we have seen, they believed that philosophy could be brought under the wing of rhetoric.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵉⵍⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⴷⴰⵓ ⴰⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵂⵢⵜⵓⵔⵉⵛ
English: In 1416–1417, Leonardo Bruni, the pre-eminent humanist of his time and chancellor of Florence, re-translated Aristotle's Ethics into a more flowing, idiomatic and classical Latin.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵗ ⴰⴰⵜⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1416 ⵂⴰⵔ 1417, ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵔⴷⵓ ⴱⵔⵓⵏⵉ, ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵛⵂⴰⵏⵛⵢⵍⵍⵓⵔ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⴰⵏⵛ, ⵓⵍⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ
English: The driving conviction was that philosophy should be freed of its technical jargon so that more people would be able to read it.
Tamasheq: ⴼⵢⵍⵍⴰⵂ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⴷⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵗ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴷⴰⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏⵢⵜ
English: Desiderius Erasmus, the great Dutch humanist, even prepared a Greek edition of Aristotle, and eventually those teaching philosophy in the universities had to at least pretend that they knew Greek.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵢⵙⵉⴷⵢⵔⵉⵓⵙ ⵢⴰⵔⵙⵎⵓⵙ , ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵢⴰⵏⵢⵎⴰⵔⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⴷⵉⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜⵍ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵢⴾ
English: Once it had been determined, however, that Italian was a language with literary merit and that it could carry the weight of philosophical discussion, numerous efforts in this direction started to appear, particularly from the 1540s onward.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏ , Iⵜⴰⵍⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⵉⵉ ⴰⵣⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ, ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵣⵋⵓⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1540
English: We know that debates about the freedom of the will continued to flare up (for instance, in the famous exchanges between Erasmus and Martin Luther), that Spanish thinkers were increasingly obsessed with the notion of nobility, that duelling was a practice that generated a large literature in the sixteenth century (was it permissible or not?).
Tamasheq: ⵏⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵓ-ⴰⴷⴰⵏ (ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⵔⴰⵙⵎⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵓⵜⵂⵢⵔ) ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ Eⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⵓⵋⴰⵗⴰ , ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⴾⵉ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⵜⵢⵔⴰⵜⵓⵔⵢ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1600 (ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴱⵓ?)
English: We must not forget that most philosophers of the time were at least nominal, if not devout, Christians, that the sixteenth century saw both the Protestant and the Catholic reformations, and that Renaissance philosophy culminates with the period of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648).
Tamasheq: Iⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⴰⵂ ⵙ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ, ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1600 ⵔⵢⴼⵓⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵎⴱⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵢⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵆⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵓⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ (1618 ⵂⴰⵔ 1648)
English: In conclusion, like any other moment in the history of thought Renaissance philosophy cannot be considered to have provided something entirely new nor to have continued for centuries to repeat the conclusions of its predecessors.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ, ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⵏⴰⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵛ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⵎⵎⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ
English: Modern philosophy is philosophy developed in the modern era and associated with modernity.
Tamasheq: ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵗ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵓⴷⵢⵔⵏⵉⵜⵉ
English: By the 17th and 18th centuries the major figures in philosophy of mind, epistemology, and metaphysics were roughly divided into two main groups.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1700 ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 ⴾⵢⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜ , ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵜⴰⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⵙ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ
English: The "Empiricists," by contrast, held that knowledge must begin with sensory experience.
Tamasheq: “ⴷⵎⵏⵉⵔⵉⵛⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵙ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ”
English: Other important figures in political philosophy include Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
Tamasheq: ⵆⵢⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵢⵂⵢⵏ ⵟⵂⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⴱⴱⵢⵙ ⴷ ⵋⵢⴰⵏ-ⵋⴰⵛⵈⵓⵢⵙ ⴱⵓⵓⵙⵙⵢⴰⵓ
English: Kant sparked a storm of philosophical work in Germany in the early nineteenth century, beginning with German idealism.
Tamasheq: ⵆⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⴾⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵍⵢⵎⴰⴶⵏⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵢⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ
English: Karl Marx appropriated both Hegel's philosophy of history and the empirical ethics dominant in Britain, transforming Hegel's ideas into a strictly materialist form, setting the grounds for the development of a science of society.
Tamasheq: ⵆⴰⵍⵔ ⵎⴰⵔⵆ ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴷ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵢⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ , ⵉⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⴶⵢⵍ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵜⵢⵔⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴼⵓⵔⵎ, ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵢⵏⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
English: Arthur Schopenhauer took idealism to the conclusion that the world was nothing but the futile endless interplay of images and desires, and advocated atheism and pessimism.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵔⵜⵂⵓⵔ ⵙⵛⵂⵓⴱⵢⵏⵂⴰⵓⵢⵔ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵢⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵗⵔ ⵙ ⴰⵜⵂⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ ⴱⵢⵙⵙⵉⵎⵉⵙⵎ
English: Descartes argued that many predominant Scholastic metaphysical doctrines were meaningless or false.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵢⵙⵛⴰⵔⵜⵢⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵣⵂⴰⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵛⵓⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵜⴰⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵂⵓ
English: He tries to set aside as much as he possibly can of all his beliefs, to determine what if anything he knows for certain.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵋ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴻⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵎⵉⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ
English: From this basis he builds his knowledge back up again.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ
English: While historicism also acknowledges the role of experience, it differs from empiricism by assuming that sensory data cannot be understood without considering the historical and cultural circumstances in which observations are made.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵂⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉⵙⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ , ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵉⵙⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵆⵉⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴼⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ
English: As such empiricism is first and foremost characterized by the ideal to let observational data "speak for themselves", while the competing views are opposed to this ideal.
Tamasheq: “ Iⵛⵂⵎⴰⴷ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵉⵛⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵥⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵉⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ “ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ”, ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵎⵉⵛⵂⵓⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵏⵋⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ”
English: In other words: Empiricism as a concept has to be constructed along with other concepts, which together make it possible to make important discriminations between different ideals underlying contemporary science.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ: ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵉⵙⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵢⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ
English: Epistemologically, idealism manifests as a skepticism about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, Iⴷⵢⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵙ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜ
English: It describes a process where theory is extracted from practice, and applied back to practice to form what is called intelligent practice.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴾⵉⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜ
English: Brian Leiter (2006) webpage “Analytic” and “Continental” Philosophy.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵔⵉⴰⵏ ⵍⵢⵉⵜⵢⵔ (2006) ⵓⵢⴱⴱⴰⴶⵢ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ “ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ” ⴷ “ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏⴻⵏⵜⴰⵍ”
English: Contemporary philosophy is the present period in the history of Western philosophy beginning at the early 20th century with the increasing professionalization of the discipline and the rise of analytic and continental philosophy.
Tamasheq: ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000 ⵙ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ
English: Germany was the first country to professionalize philosophy.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ
English: Furthermore, unlike many of the sciences for which there has come to be a healthy industry of books, magazines, and television shows meant to popularize science and communicate the technical results of a scientific field to the general populace, works by professional philosophers directed at an audience outside the profession remain rare.
Tamasheq: ⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⴰ ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙⵜⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴶⴰⵣⵉⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⵉⵣⵉⵓⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ
English: Each division organises a large annual conference.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ
English: Among its many other tasks, the association is responsible for administering many of the profession's top honors.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⵢⵏ , ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ
English: This development was roughly contemporaneous with work by Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell inaugurating a new philosophical method based on the analysis of language via modern logic (hence the term "analytic philosophy").
Tamasheq: “ ⴷⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵏⵂⴰⵉ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵜⵜⵍⵓⴱ ⴼⵔⵢⴶⵢ ⴷ ⴱⵢⵔⵜⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵢⵍ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵎⵓⴷⵢⵔⵏ ⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛ (ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ “ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ’’’)
English: Some philosophers, such as Richard Rorty and Simon Glendinning, argue that this "analytic–continental" divide is inimical to the discipline as a whole.
Tamasheq: “” ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵔⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴷ ⵔⵓⵔⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⵗⵍⵢⵏⴷⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏⴶ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ “”ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ-ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍ’’’ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵎⵢⴷⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⴼⵓⴾ
English: Afterwards, analytic and continental philosophers differ on the importance and influence of subsequent philosophers on their respective traditions.
Tamasheq: ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
English: Although, since analytic and continental philosophy have such starkly different views of philosophy after Kant, continental philosophy is also often understood in an extended sense to include any post-Kant philosophers or movements important to continental philosophy but not analytic philosophy.
Tamasheq: ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵆⴰⵏⵜ, ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵢⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔⵢⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵆⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉ ⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ
English: Thus continental philosophy tends toward historicism, where analytic philosophy tends to treat philosophy in terms of discrete problems, capable of being analyzed apart from their historical origins.
Tamasheq: ⵛⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏⵢⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵂⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉⵛⵉⵙⵎ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛ ⴱⵂⵉⵍ ⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉ ⵙ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⴰⵣ ⵢⵓⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ
English: The major orthodox schools arose sometime between the start of the Common Era and the Gupta Empire.
Tamasheq: ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵜⵂⵓⴷⵓⵆ ⴰⵏⴾⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏ ⵢⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵗⵓⴱⵜⴰ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ
English: These religio-philosophical traditions were later grouped under the label Hinduism.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵢⵓ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵓ ⵍⴰⴱⵢⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⵏⴷⵓⵉⵣⵎ
English: Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no single founder.
Tamasheq: Iⵎⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⴼⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵂⵉⵏⴷⵓⵉⵙⵣⵎ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⴷ ⴰⴾⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵢⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ
English: Indian philosophers developed a system of epistemological reasoning (pramana) and logic and investigated topics such as Ontology (metaphysics, Brahman-Atman, Sunyata-Anatta), reliable means of knowledge (epistemology, Pramanas), value system (axiology) and other topics.
Tamasheq: ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ Iⵏⴷⵉⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵢⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵔⵢⴰⵙⵓⵏⵉⵏⴶ (ⴱⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰ) ⴷ ⵎⵓⴷⵓⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵏⵜⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ (ⵎⴻⵜⴰⵏⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⵙ, ⴱⵔⴰⵂⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵎⴰⵏ, ⵙⵓⵏⵉⵜⴰ-ⴰⵏⴰⵜⵜⴰ) ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵙ (ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⴱⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵙ), ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ (ⴰⵆⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ) ⴷ ⵎⵓⴷⵓⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵉⴰⴷ
English: Later developments include the development of Tantra and Iranian-Islamic influences.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵟⴰⵏⵜⵔⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ Iⵔⴰⵏ
English: Nyāya traditionally accepts four Pramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).
Tamasheq: ⵏⵉⴰⵉⴰ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣ ⴱⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ - ⴱⵔⴰⵜⵉⴰⴾⵙⴰ (ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ), ⴰⵏⵓⵎⴰⵏⴰ (ⵉⵏⴼⵢⵔⵢⵏⵛⵢ), ⵓⴱⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰ (ⵢⴾⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵜ) ⴷ ⵙⴰⴱⴷⴰ ( ⵉⵙⵉⵎ, ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ)
English: This philosophy held that the universe was reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), which are indestructible (anitya), indivisible, and have a special kind of dimension, called “small” (aṇu).
Tamasheq: ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓ (ⴰⵜⵓⵎⵙ) ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵔⴰⵣⵣⵢ (ⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⴰ), ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ , ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ‘ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ’’ (ⴰⵏⵓ)
English: Later Vaiśeṣikas (Śrīdhara and Udayana and Śivāditya) added one more category abhava (non-existence).
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴱⴰⵉⵙⵢⵔⵉⴾⴰⵙ (ⵙⵔⵉⴷⵂⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⴷ Uⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏⴰ ⴰⵏⴷ ⵙⵉⴱⴰⴷⵉⵜⵉⴰ) ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵂⴰⴱⴰ (ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ)
English: Because of their focus on textual study and interpretation, Mīmāṃsā also developed theories of philology and the philosophy of language which influenced other Indian schools.
Tamasheq: ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵆⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⴱⴰⵉⵙⵢⵙⵉⴾⴰⵙ (ⵙⵔⵉⴷⵂⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⴷ ⵓⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏⴰ ⴰⵏⴷ ⴼⵉⴱⴰⴷⵉⵜⵉⴰ)ⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ,ⵎⵉⵎⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ Iⵏⴷⵉⴰ
English: The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy include a mind-body dualism, denial of a creative and omnipotent God, karma, an eternal and uncreated universe, non-violence, the theory of the multiple facets of truth, and morality based on liberation of the soul.
Tamasheq: ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵋⴰⵉⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⵉⴾⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ , ⴰⵙⴰⴱⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ, ⵆⴰⵔⵎⴰ, ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵢⵗⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵢⴾ, ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵜⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⴼⴰ, ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵆⴰⵍⴰⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵢⵉⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ
English: It has also been called a model of philosophical liberalism for its insistence that truth is relative and multifaceted and for its willingness to accommodate all possible view-points of the rival philosophies.
Tamasheq: Iⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵙⵓⴱⵂⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵍⵉⴱⵢⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵎⴷⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ
English: Cārvāka philosophers like Brihaspati were extremely critical of other schools of philosophy of the time.
Tamasheq: ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵔⴱⴰⴾⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⴷ ⴱⵔⵉⵂⴰⵙⴱⴰⵜⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ
English: It is the dominant philosophical tradition in Tibet and Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka and Burma.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵟⵉⴱⵢⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ-ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵔⵉ ⵍⴰⵏⴾⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵔⵎⴰ
English: Later Buddhist philosophical traditions developed complex phenomenological psychologies termed 'Abhidharma'.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴷⴷⵂⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵏⵂⵢⵏⵓⵎⵢⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴱⵙⵉⵛⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵢⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ “ⴰⴱⵂⵉⴷⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰ”
English: This tradition contributed to what has been called an "epistemological turn" in Indian philosophy.
Tamasheq: “ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ “ⵢⴱⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵔⵏ”” ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵉⵍ ⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ Iⵏⴷⵉⴰ
English: Important exponents of Buddhist modernism include Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933) and the American convert Henry Steel Olcott, the Chinese modernists Taixu (1890–1947) and Yin Shun (1906–2005), Zen scholar D.T. Suzuki, and the Tibetan Gendün Chöphel (1903–1951).
Tamasheq: Iⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴷⴷⵂⵉⵙⵜ ⵎⵓⴷⵢⵔⵏⵉⵙⵎ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴶⵔⵉⴾⴰ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⴱⴰⵍⴰ (1864-1933) ⵂⵓⵏⵔⵉ ⵙⵜⵢⵢⵍ Oⵍⵛⵓⵜⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ Aⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ, ⵎⵓⴷⵢⵔⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⵉⵆⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢ (1890 ⵂⴰⵔ 1947) ⴷ ⵗⵉⵏ ⵙⵂⵓⵏ (1906 ⵂⴰⵔ 2005), Iⵎⴰⵗⵔⵉ ⵌⵢⵏ ⵢ.ⵟ ⵙⵓⵣⵓⴾⵉ ⴷ ⵗⴻⵏⴷⵓⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⴱⵂⵢⵍ (1903–1951) ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵉⴱⵢⵜ
English: Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures and societies, in both the present and past, including past human species.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⵢⵏⴷⵓⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⴱⵂⵢⵍ (1903–1951).ⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵢⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵆⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ, ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ, ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ
English: Biological or physical anthropology studies the biological development of humans.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵗⴰⵔ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⴱⴰⵜ
English: Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⵢⵛⵂ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵛⵂⴰⵋⵔⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴶⴰⵂ
English: When slavery was abolished in France in 1848, the Société was abandoned.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴾⵉⵍⵓⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵔⴰⵏⵛⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1848, ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⵢ ⵜ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵉⴰ
English: For them, the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect.
Tamasheq: ⵗⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⵍⵢⵙ ⵢⴰⵔⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴱⵉⴱⵂⴰⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ
English: There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences.
Tamasheq: Iⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⵍ ⵢⵔⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢⵙ
English: His definition now became "the study of the human group, considered as a whole, in its details, and in relation to the rest of nature".
Tamasheq: “ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ “”ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ”””
English: He discovered the speech center of the human brain, today called Broca's area after him.
Tamasheq: Iⵙⴰⴼⴼⴰⴾⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴱⵔⵓⵛⴰ
English: The last two volumes were published posthumously.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵢⵍⵓⵎⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ
English: He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⴾⵢⵜ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⴷⴰⵓ ⵢⵔⵢⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ
English: Waitz was influential among the British ethnologists.
Tamasheq: ⵓⴰⵉⵜⵣ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ
English: Representatives from the French Société were present, though not Broca.
Tamasheq: Iⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵙⵉⵢⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵢ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵛⴰ
English: Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist; subsequently, an anthropologist.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵢⵗⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰ-ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵜⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉⵙⵜ
English: One notable exception was the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory (1869) founded by Rudolph Virchow, known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵢⵔⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜⵉ ⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ , ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⴱⵔⵢⵂⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉ (1869) ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵔⵓⴷⵓⵍⵢⵂ ⴱⵉⵔⵛⵂⵓⵓ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵉⵎⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵢⴱⵓⵍⵓⵜⵉⵓⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: The major theorists belonged to these organizations.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ
English: Practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵔⴰⵛⵜⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⴰⵉ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ , ⵓⵙⴰ ⵉⴷ, ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷoⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴼⵓⵔⵢⵏⵙⵉⵛ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⴰⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵉ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵢⵏⵢ
English: This has been particularly prominent in the United States, from Boas' arguments against 19th-century racial ideology, through Margaret Mead's advocacy for gender equality and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of post-colonial oppression and promotion of multiculturalism.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⵉⵋⵉⵉⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⵉⵓⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵔⴰⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⵙ ⵜⵢⴱⴰⴷⴷⴻ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵔⴶⴰⵔⵢⵜ ⵎⵢⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵋⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵗⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵍⵜⵉⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ
English: In Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of social anthropology tends to dominate.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏ ⴱⵢⴰⵍⵜⵂ, ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵔ
English: Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people make sense of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the relationships among individuals and groups.
Tamasheq: ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵢⴾⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵂⴰⵙ- ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ
English: There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them, and these categories overlap to a considerable degree.
Tamasheq: ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⴰⵙⵙoⵂⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⵢⴶⵔⵢ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ
English: This project is often accommodated in the field of ethnography.
Tamasheq: ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴼⵔⵓⵋⴻ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⵍⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵉⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ
English: Participant observation is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ
English: The study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a human universal.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⵜⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⵍⵉⵎ*
English: Ethnography views first-hand experience and social context as important.
Tamasheq: Iⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴰⵜ
English: Ethnomusicology can be used in a wide variety of fields, such as teaching, politics, cultural anthropology etc.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵜⵂⵏⵓⵎⵓⵙⵛⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ, ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ, ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ
English: Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵍ
English: The first of these areas was concerned with the "pre-capitalist" societies that were subject to evolutionary "tribal" stereotypes.
Tamasheq: “ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ“”ⴱⵔⵢⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ’’ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⵜ ‘’ⵜⵔⵉⴱⴰⵍ ⵙⵜⵢⵔⵢⵓⵜⵉⴱⵢⵙ””
English: Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer?
Tamasheq: ⵎⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴾⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⴷ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜ ⴻⴾⴼ-ⵓ?
English: Within kinship you have two different families.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴶⵉⴷⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ
English: Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white feminists of Europe, America, and elsewhere.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜ ⴰⵏ-ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵢⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴼⵢⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ, ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ
English: Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more "complex" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena.
Tamasheq: “ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1960 ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ: ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ “ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ” ⵙ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⵜⵂⵏⵢⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ”
English: Secondly, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions).
Tamasheq: ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵜⵢⵔⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ (ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⵜ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ)
English: It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural anthropology, and sometimes considered part of material culture.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜ-ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⵓⴱ ⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜ-ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⵙⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜ-ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ
English: It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ
English: Various social processes in the Western World as well as in the "Third World" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of "specialists in 'other cultures'" closer to their homes.
Tamasheq: “ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴾⵉⵜⵓⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴱ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ “ⵟⵂⵉⵔⴷ ⵓⵓⵔⴷⵍ” (ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ) ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ “”ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ”” ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ”
English: It is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, ethology, medicine, psychology, veterinary medicine and zoology.
Tamasheq: ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵜ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⵢⵜⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⵎⵢⴷⵢⵛⵉⵏⵢ, ⴱⵙⵉⵛⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ, ⴱⵢⵜⵢⵔⵉⵏⴰⵔⵉ ⵎⵢⴷⵢⵛⵉⵏⵢ ⴷ ⵣⵓⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ
English: It is the study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵎⵉⵏⵉⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵉⵔⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ
English: In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the European Association of Social Anthropologists (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1989, ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⴱⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵛⵉⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵓⴼ ⵙⴰⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜⵙ (ⵢⴰⵙⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ
English: This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by another's values or viewpoints, but be examined dispassionately on their own terms.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⵢⵗ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⵋ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵗ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵋ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⴰⵣ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ
English: Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists.
Tamasheq: ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵣ ⴱⵓⴰⵙ ⵓⵏⵋⴰⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵔⴰⴼ ⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⴰⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴾⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵆⵉⵈⵓⵢ ⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵛⵢⵏⵜⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: At the same time, David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies.
Tamasheq: ⵔ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ, ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⴱⵉⴷ H. ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵍⴷ Wⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵛⵂⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴱ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴷⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association (AAA).
Tamasheq: ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼ ⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⴾⴰⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴾⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ (ⴰⴰⴰ)
English: The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth (ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵂ ⵓⵏⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⴰⵉⵓⵎ ⵓⵏⵉ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵓⵢⵍⴰⵜⵂ (ⴰⵙⴰ) ⵜⴰⵗⵔⴰ ⴱⵓⵔⵙⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⵏⵢⵏ
English: One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more holistic account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⵜ ⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵉⵛⴰⵍ
English: These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.
Tamasheq: IIⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ, ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ, ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⴰⵢⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵛⴰⵍ
English: On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾoⵜ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ, ⵉⴾⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⵗⴰ-ⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵜⵔⵉ, ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵙⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵋⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵍⴼⵉⵙⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵎⵓⵏⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levalloisian help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past.
Tamasheq: I ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⵍⴷⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵎⵓⵓⵜⵢⵔⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵍⵢⴱⴰⵍⵍⵓⵉⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵂⴰⵢⵢⵍⵢⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵓⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴾⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ
English: A cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⴾⴾⵢⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵗⴱⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ; ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ , ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵙⵙⵢ, ⴰⵓⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵜ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵉ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
English: These include expressive forms like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing.
Tamasheq: ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⵗ, ⴷⴰⵍⵍⵓⵍ, ⵜⴰⵈⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⴷ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ , ⴰⵏⵙⴰⵗ, ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⵙⴰⵏ
English: The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been used to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵉⴱⵉⵍⵉⵣⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜ-ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⴰⵜ
English: Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎoⵙ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵓⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000
English: In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢⵙ, ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵜⵢⵔⵉⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵆⴰⵍⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ
English: In this sense, multiculturalism values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ, ⵎⵓⵍⵜⵉⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⴾⴼ-ⴰ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵢⵔ ⴷ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ
English: In 1986, philosopher Edward S. Casey wrote, "The very word culture meant 'place tilled' in Middle English, and the same word goes back to Latin colere, 'to inhabit, care for, till, worship' and cultus, 'A cult, especially a religious one.'
Tamasheq: “ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1968, ⵢⴷⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵙ. ⵛⴰⵙⵢⵉ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ “ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵙ ⵢⵗⴰⴼ ⵏⵢⵜ: ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵍⵢ ⵢⵏⴶⵍⵉⵙⵂ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ Lⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵛⵓⵍⵢⵔⵢ, ‘ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ, ⴰⵓⵉⴾⴾⴰⵍ, ⵂⴰⵔ, ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵙ’ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⴷ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ”
English: Thus a contrast between "culture" and "civilization" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such.
Tamasheq: “ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ “”ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ‘’ ⴷ ‘’ⵛⵉⴱⵉⵍⵉⵣⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ’’ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⵜⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⴰⵍⵜ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴾⴾ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ”
English: This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago and is often thought to be unique to humans.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⵢⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴾⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵢⵂⴰⴱⵉⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⴷⵢⵔⵏⵉⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ 50.000 ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
English: Rein Raud, building on the work of Umberto Eco, Pierre Bourdieu and Jeffrey C. Alexander, has proposed a model of cultural change based on claims and bids, which are judged by their cognitive adequacy and endorsed or not endorsed by the symbolic authority of the cultural community in question.
Tamasheq: ⵔⵢⵉⵏ ⵔⴰⵓⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴱⵢⵔⵜⵓ ⵢⵛⵓ, ⴱⵉⵢⵔⵔⵢ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴷⵉⵢⵓ ⴷ ⵋⵢⴼⴼⵔⵢⵉ ⵛ. ⴰⵍⵢⵆⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵛⵍⴰⵉⵎⵙ ⴰⵏⴷ ⴱⵉⴷⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⵢⵎ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ
English: Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⴶⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
English: Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴷ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴷ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵛⵂⵗⴰⵍ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵉⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵓⴰⵜ
English: Environmental conditions may also enter as factors.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵢⴷ ⴷⵢⵗ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ
English: War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴾⵎⵓ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
English: For example, Western restaurant chains and culinary brands sparked curiosity and fascination to the Chinese as China opened its economy to international trade in the late 20th-century. "
Tamasheq: “ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⵢⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵆⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⵓⵣⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵋⴰⵔⵔⵓⵣⴰⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⵢ ⴰⵎⵎⵢⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2000””
English: He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵏⴰⵏⵗⵢ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔ ⵎⵓⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ
English: Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of Bildung: "For Herder, Bildung was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people."
Tamasheq: “ⴾⵢⴷⵢⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵍⴷⵓⵏⴶ “”ⵉ ⵂⵢⵔⴷⵢⵔ, ⴱⵉⵍⴷⵓⵏⴶ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵂⴰⴾⴾⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ”””
English: According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵉ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ
English: He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements.
Tamasheq: Iⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵈ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵙⴰⴾⵉⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ
English: """a particular way of life, whether of a people, period or a group."""
Tamasheq: “””Iⵎⵉⴾ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ,ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ””
English: In other words, the idea of "culture" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies.
Tamasheq: “” ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ “”ⴰⴶⵏⴰ’’ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 ⴷ 900 ⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵎⵉⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ””
English: According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⴰⵔⵔⵉ ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ
English: Other 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵔⵉⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵓⵉⵏ 1900, ⵓⵙⵙⵢⴰⵓ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵍⵗⴰⵓ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵆⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵜⵉⵂⴰⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵗ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
English: In 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1870 ⴰⵏⵜⵂⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵢⴷⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵟⵉⵍⵢⵔ (1832 ⵂⴰⵔ 1917) ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵋ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ
English: For sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history."
Tamasheq: “ I ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵗⵢⵓⵔⴶ ⵙⵉⵎⵎⵢⵍ (1858 ⵂⴰⵔ 1918), ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ‘ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⴶⵢⵏⵛⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵜⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ””
English: Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵆⵍⵓⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ,ⴰⵓⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⵓⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵋⵋ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ
English: Cultural sociology was then "reinvented" in the English-speaking world as a product of the "cultural turn" of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science.
Tamasheq: “ ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ “”ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵗⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ” ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴶⵉⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ “ⵛⵓⵍⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵔⵏ” ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1960 ⵜⵉⵉⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵎⵓⴷⵢⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵢ”
English: Culture" has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis.
Tamasheq: “”ⴰⴶⵏⴰ” ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵍⵉⴾⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵛⵉⵓⵏⵛⵢ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⴼⵉⵛⴰⵜⵉⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
English: They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production.
Tamasheq: Iⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵉⵋⵔⵣ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵋ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ
English: It has since become strongly associated with Stuart Hall, who succeeded Hoggart as Director.
Tamasheq: ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵗ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵜⵓⴰⵔⵜ ⵂⴰⵍⵍ ⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⴶⴶⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵢⴾⵜⵢⵔ
English: These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television or eating out) in a given culture.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ (ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⵉⵣⵉⵓⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ), ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⵏ
English: Watching television to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends to "fit in" certainly qualifies since there is no grounded reason for one's participation in this practice.
Tamasheq: “ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⴱⵉⵣⵉⵓⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⵢⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵓⵉⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ; ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵓⵉ ⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ” ⴰⴷ “”ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵋⴰⵏ” ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ”
English: Culture" for a cultural-studies researcher not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups) and popular culture, but also everyday meanings and practices.
Tamasheq: “ⴰⴶⵏⴰ” ⴰⵓ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ (ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ) ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ”
English: Scholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s.
Tamasheq: Iⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵓⴰⵉⵓⵎ ⵓⵏⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1970
English: The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ, ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵉ
English: The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵜⵂⵓⴷⵓⵆ ⵎⴰⵔⵆⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ
English: Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵋⵉⵛⵂⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵢⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵔⵉⴾⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵋⴰⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ
English: Culture psychologists began to try to explore the relationship between emotions and culture, and answer whether the human mind is independent from culture.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵙⵉⵛⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵔⵢⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵗ ⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴾⵓⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ
English: On the other hand, some researchers try to look for differences between people's personalities across cultures.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴰⵔ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: For example, people who are raised in a culture with an abacus are trained with distinctive reasoning style.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷⵓⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴱⴰⵛⵓⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵓⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ