Tamazight-NLP/NLLB-Seed_Tamasheq-Tifinagh-Script huggingface dataset:
English: In Proofs and Refutations, Lakatos gave several basic rules for finding proofs and counterexamples to conjectures.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵍⴰⴽⴰⵜⵓⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵣ
English: This may explain why scientists so often express that they were lucky.
Tamasheq: ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵎⴰⵅⵅ ⵍⵍⵉⵖⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵖ ⵜⵓⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵃⵢⴰⵏⵏ
English: Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Tamasheq: ⵎⴰⵀⵡⴰⵀ ⵏⵊ: ⵍⵓⵔⴰⵏⵙ ⵉⵔⵍⴱⴰⵓⵎ ⵉⵎⵛⵛⵔⴽⵏ.
English: This is what Nassim Nicholas Taleb calls "Anti-fragility"; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of human error, human bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough – it actually benefits from such randomness in many ways (it is anti-fragile).
Tamasheq: « ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵟⴰⵍⴱ ⴽⴰⵍⵍⵙ » «ⴰⵙⵏⴽⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⴽⴹ” ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⴽⵓⴽⴹⵏ ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵚⴰⵃⴰ ⵖ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⵉ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴽⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ.
English: These unexpected results lead researchers to try to fix what they think is an error in their method.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵏⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵜⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.
English: A scientific theory is an explanation of an aspect of the natural world and universe that has been repeatedly tested and verified in accordance with the scientific method, using accepted protocols of observation, measurement, and evaluation of results.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵖ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⵉⵣ ⵔⵣⵣⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⴽⵓⵍ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵏⵥⴹⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵍ ⵏⵥⵕ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ.
English: Established scientific theories have withstood rigorous scrutiny and embody scientific knowledge.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ.
English: Stephen Jay Gould wrote that "...facts and theories are different things, not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty.
Tamasheq: ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏ ⵊⴰⵢ ⴳⵓⵍⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ « ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵖ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ.
English: The meaning of the term scientific theory (often contracted to theory for brevity) as used in the disciplines of science is significantly different from the common vernacular usage of theory.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ( ⵍⵍⵉ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵃⵛⴰⵏ ⵖ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ) ⵎⴽ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⴰⵡⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵖ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵖ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ.
English: In everyday speech, theory can imply an explanation that represents an unsubstantiated and speculative guess, whereas in science it describes an explanation that has been tested and is widely accepted as valid.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵜ, ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵟⵟⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵏⵇⵇⴷⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⴼ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⵛ ⵖ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏⵚⵚⵃⵓⵜ ⵏⵣⵍⵓⵣⵓⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⴷ.
English: Some theories are so well-established that they are unlikely ever to be fundamentally changed (for example, scientific theories such as evolution, heliocentric theory, cell theory, theory of plate tectonics, germ theory of disease, etc.).
Tamasheq: ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵊⵊ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ (ⵙ ⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴰⴽⵜⵓⵏⵢⵢⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵅⵛⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ).
English: Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ.
English: The defining characteristic of all scientific knowledge, including theories, is the ability to make falsifiable or testable predictions.
Tamasheq: ⴷ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴳⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ.
English: It is well-supported by many independent strands of evidence, rather than a single foundation.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ.
English: The theory of biological evolution is more than "just a theory".
Tamasheq: ‘’ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ''ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ''.
English: This provides evidence either for or against the hypothesis.
Tamasheq: ⵖⵉⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏⵙⵡⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ.
English: This can take many years, as it can be difficult or complicated to gather sufficient evidence.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⴽ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⵓ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⴰⵏ.
English: The strength of the evidence is evaluated by the scientific community, and the most important experiments will have been replicated by multiple independent groups.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵔ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵉ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵍⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ.
English: In chemistry, there are many acid-base theories providing highly divergent explanations of the underlying nature of acidic and basic compounds, but they are very useful for predicting their chemical behavior.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵓⴽⵉⵎⵉ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵃⵉⵎⴹⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵃⵉⵎⴹⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ.
English: Acceptance of a theory does not require that all of its major predictions be tested, if it is already supported by sufficiently strong evidence.
Tamasheq: ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵃⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ, ⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⴳⵔⴰ.
English: Solutions may require minor or major changes to the theory, or none at all if a satisfactory explanation is found within the theory's existing framework.
Tamasheq: ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴽ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ.
English: If modifications to the theory or other explanations seem to be insufficient to account for the new results, then a new theory may be required.
Tamasheq: ⵎⴽ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵢⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⵉⴷⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵃⵜⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ.
English: This is because it is still the best available explanation for many other phenomena, as verified by its predictive power in other contexts.
Tamasheq: ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
English: After the changes, the accepted theory will explain more phenomena and have greater predictive power (if it did not, the changes would not be adopted); this new explanation will then be open to further replacement or modification.
Tamasheq: ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ (ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ); ⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵃⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴷⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵏ.
English: For example, electricity and magnetism are now known to be two aspects of the same phenomenon, referred to as electromagnetism.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵀⵕⵓⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙⵉ.
English: This was resolved by the discovery of nuclear fusion, the main energy source of the Sun.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ, ⴰⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ.
English: By omitting from special relativity the luminiferous aether, Einstein stated that time dilation and length contraction measured in an object in relative motion is inertial—that is, the object exhibits constant velocity, which is speed with direction, when measured by its observer.
Tamasheq: ⵙⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵉⴱⴷⵔ ⵉⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵇⵓⴹⴻⴹ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ- ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⵉⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⵉⴽⵍ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⵉⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ, ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ.
English: Einstein sought to generalize the invariance principle to all reference frames, whether inertial or accelerating.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵉⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵢⵓⵣⵣⵍⴰⵏ.
English: Even massless energy exerts gravitational motion on local objects by "curving" the geometrical "surface" of 4D space-time.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵎⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ''ⵉⵃⵓⴷⵔⵏ'' ''ⴰⵣⵓⵔ'' ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ 4ⴷ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ.
English: However, scientific laws are descriptive accounts of how nature will behave under certain conditions.
Tamasheq: ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ/ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵟⵟⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ.
English: A common misconception is that scientific theories are rudimentary ideas that will eventually graduate into scientific laws when enough data and evidence have been accumulated.
Tamasheq: ⵙⴳ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⵎⵏ.
English: Both theories and laws could potentially be falsified by countervailing evidence.
Tamasheq: ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏⵙ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵔⵔⴰⵣⵏ.
English: First-order logic is an example of a formal language.
Tamasheq: ⴷ ⵓⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ.
English: The phenomena explained by the theories, if they could not be directly observed by the senses (for example, atoms and radio waves), were treated as theoretical concepts.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ/ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⴼⵏⵓⵣⵜⴰⵙⵙⵡⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⴰⵢ), ⵜⵓⵖⴰ ⵜⵏⵜ (ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ) ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵏ.
English: The phrase "the received view of theories" is used to describe this approach.
Tamasheq: “ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ “ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ “ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴰⴷ’’.
English: One can use language to describe a model; however, the theory is the model (or a collection of similar models), and not the description of the model.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ, ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ (ⵏⵉⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ) ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ.
English: The model parameters, e.g., Newton's Law of Gravitation, determine how the positions and velocities change with time.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏⵜ ⵍⴱⴰⵕⴰⵎⵉⵜⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜⵏ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵏⵓⵣⵖⴰ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ.
English: The word "semantic" refers to the way that a model represents the real world.
Tamasheq: ‘’ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ''ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ'' ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ''.
English: Engineering practice makes a distinction between "mathematical models" and "physical models"; the cost of fabricating a physical model can be minimized by first creating a mathematical model using a computer software package, such as a computer aided design tool.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ “ ⵜⴱⴹⴹⵓ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴳⵔ “ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵏⵓⵏⵜ “ ⴷ “ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ “, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵇⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏ.
English: Certain assumptions are necessary for all empirical claims (e.g. the assumption that reality exists).
Tamasheq: ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵣⴰⵣⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ).
English: This may be as simple as observing that the theory makes accurate predictions, which is evidence that any assumptions made at the outset are correct or approximately correct under the conditions tested.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ, ⵡⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵜⵓⵍⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ.
English: The theory makes accurate predictions when the assumption is valid, and does not make accurate predictions when the assumption is not valid.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵜⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵓⵎⵔⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ.
English: The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and online Wiktionary indicate its Latin source as assumere ("accept, to take to oneself, adopt, usurp"), which is a conjunction of ad- ("to, towards, at") and sumere (to take).
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵜⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ ⵓⴽⵙⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵡⵉⴽ ⵅⴼ (OED) ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⴷⵓ (“ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ”), ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⴽ ⵉ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴳⵔ (“ⵖⵔ”, “ⵙ” ⴷ (ⵙⵓⵎⵉⵔⵉ).
English: The term was originally employed in religious contexts as in "to receive up into heaven", especially "the reception of the Virgin Mary into heaven, with body preserved from corruption", (1297 CE) but it was also simply used to refer to "receive into association" or "adopt into partnership".
Tamasheq: ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵔⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ « ⴰⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ », ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ « ⴰⵙⵏⵓⴱⴳ ⵏ ⵎⵔⵢⴰⵎ ⵍⵄⴰⴷⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵃⴹⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ », (1297) ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ « ⴰⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ » ⵏⵉⵖ « ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ».
English: Confirmations should count only if they are the result of risky predictions; that is to say, if, unenlightened by the theory in question, we should have expected an event which was incompatible with the theory—an event which would have refuted the theory.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⵟⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵅⵙ ⵎⴽ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵢⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵥⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ, ⵜⵓⵖⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴷⵎⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵣⵣⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ - ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵏⵜ.
English: A theory which is not refutable by any conceivable event is non-scientific.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏⵜ.
English: Some genuinely testable theories, when found to be false, might still be upheld by their admirers—for example by introducing post hoc (after the fact) some auxiliary hypothesis or assumption, or by reinterpreting the theory post hoc in such a way that it escapes refutation.
Tamasheq: ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ, ⵉⴳ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⴼⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⵙⵎⵏⵜ- ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵏⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ (ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ), ⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⴳ ⵏⵓⵍⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴽⵜⴰⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ.
English: Popper summarized these statements by saying that the central criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its "falsifiability, or refutability, or testability".
Tamasheq: ⵉⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ «ⴰⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ «ⵎⵉ ⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵔⵊⴰⵏ, ⵏⵉⵖ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ.
English: Several philosophers and historians of science have, however, argued that Popper's definition of theory as a set of falsifiable statements is wrong because, as Philip Kitcher has pointed out, if one took a strictly Popperian view of "theory", observations of Uranus when first discovered in 1781 would have "falsified" Newton's celestial mechanics.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵅⵙ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵚ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏ ⵡⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⴱ ⴽⵉⵜⵛⵉⵔ, ⵎⴽ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵥⵕⵕⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵟⵟ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵏⵓⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1781 ⵇⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵉ « ⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ’’.
English: Fecundity: "A great scientific theory, like Newton's, opens up new areas of research….
Tamasheq: ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ, ⵜⴰⵏⵏⵓⵕⵥⵎⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ.
English: At any time, it raises more questions than it can currently answer.
Tamasheq: ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵖⵉ.
English: Like other definitions of theories, including Popper's, Kitcher makes it clear that a theory must include statements that have observational consequences.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴽⵉⵜⵛⵉⵔ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵉ.
English: It may be set out on paper as a system of rules, and it is the more truly a theory the more completely it can be put down in such terms.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ.
English: The specific mathematical aspects of classical electromagnetic theory are termed "laws of electromagnetism," reflecting the level of consistent and reproducible evidence that supports them.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉ « ⵉⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ-ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵚⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ » ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵙⵏⵜⵉ-ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵚⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙⵏ.
English: An example of the latter might be the radiation reaction force.
Tamasheq: ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵥⵏⵥⵕ.
English: A scientist is a person who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ.
English: Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the social norms, ethical values, and epistemic virtues associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well.
Tamasheq: ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ (ⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵣⴰⴳⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ) ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⴰⵍⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴼⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ-ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⵙⵏ- ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ.
English: Many proto-scientists from the Islamic Golden Age are considered polymaths, in part because of the lack of anything corresponding to modern scientific disciplines.
Tamasheq: ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴰⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⴱⵉⵍⵓⵎⵜⵔⴰⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵡⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ.
English: Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴽⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.
English: Descartes was not only a pioneer of analytic geometry but formulated a theory of mechanics and advanced ideas about the origins of animal movement and perception.
Tamasheq: ⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⴽⵉ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵕⵜ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.
English: He provided a comprehensive formulation of classical mechanics and investigated light and optics.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴼⴽ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵍⵉⵏ.
English: He discovered that a charge applied to the spinal cord of a frog could generate muscular spasms throughout its body.
Tamasheq: ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵖⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴱⴱⴰⵊⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ.
English: Lazzaro Spallanzani is one of the most influential figures in experimental physiology and the natural sciences.
Tamasheq: ⵍⴰⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵙⴱⵍⴰⵏⵣⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⵙⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ.
English: However, there is no formal process to determine who is a scientist and who is not a scientist.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵏ.
English: A little over half of the respondents wanted to pursue a career in academia, with smaller proportions hoping to work in industry, government, and nonprofit environments.
Tamasheq: ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴹⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴽⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⵟⵟ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⵟⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⴰ.
English: They exhibit a strong curiosity about reality.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.
English: Some scientists have a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of people's health, the nations, the world, nature, or industries (academic scientist and industrial scientist).
Tamasheq: ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ (ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ).
English: These include cosmology and biology, especially molecular biology and the human genome project.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵙⵙⵓⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.
English: The figure included twice as many men as women.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵍ.
English: Relevant phenomena include supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts, quasars, blazars, pulsars, and cosmic microwave background radiation.
Tamasheq: ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵓⴱⵉⵔ ⵏⵓⵖⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⵔⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵇⵇⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴽⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵕⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵔⴰⵏ.
English: Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵙⵟⵔⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ.
English: In the past, astronomy included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, and the making of calendars.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵟⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⴰⵢ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⴼⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵟⵔⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵙⵉ.
English: Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵟⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵎⵥ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵏ
English: These two fields complement each other.
Tamasheq: ⴷ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ .
English: Based on strict dictionary definitions, "astronomy" refers to "the study of objects and matter outside the Earth's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties," while "astrophysics" refers to the branch of astronomy dealing with "the behavior, physical properties, and dynamic processes of celestial objects and phenomena".
Tamasheq: ‘’ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵓⵇⵊⵉⵔ'' ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ''ⴰⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ'' ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵉⵎⴰⵡⵉ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ''ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⵜ.
English: Some fields, such as astrometry, are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics.
Tamasheq: ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ.
English: From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon and the Earth in the Universe were explored philosophically.
Tamasheq: ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵥⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴼⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ.
English: A particularly important early development was the beginning of mathematical and scientific astronomy, which began among the Babylonians, who laid the foundations for the later astronomical traditions that developed in many other civilizations.
Tamasheq: ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵢⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵉⵏ.
English: Greek astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial phenomena.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ.
English: Hipparchus also created a comprehensive catalog of 1020 stars, and most of the constellations of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy.
Tamasheq: ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵀⵉⴱⴰⵕⵛⵓⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ 1020 ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ.
English: Georg von Peuerbach (1423–1461) and Regiomontanus (1436–1476) helped make astronomical progress instrumental to Copernicus's development of the heliocentric model decades later.
Tamasheq: ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⴼⵓⵏ ⴱⵉⵕⵓⴱⴰⵅ (1423-1461) ⴷ ⵕⵉⵊⵢⵓ ⵎⵓⵏⵟⴰⵏⵓⵙ(1436-1476) ⴰⴷ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴱⵔⵏⵉⴽⵓⵚ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ.
English: In 964, the Andromeda Galaxy, the largest galaxy in the Local Group, was described by the Persian Muslim astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi in his Book of Fixed Stars.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 964, ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵙⵍⵎ ⵄⴰⴱⴷ ⵕⵕⴰⵃⵎⴰⵏ ⵚⵚⵓⴼⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⵕⵓⵎⵉⴷⴰ, ⴷ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ.
English: Astronomers during that time introduced many Arabic names now used for individual stars.
Tamasheq: ⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵄⵕⴰⴱⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴷⵉⵢⵏ.
English: Songhai historian Mahmud Kati documented a meteor shower in August 1583.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵏⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵙⵓⵏⵖⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵃⵎⵓⴷ ⴽⴰⵜⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⵢⵣⴰⴽ ⴳ ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 1583.
English: Kepler was the first to devise a system that correctly described the details of the motion of the planets around the Sun.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴱⵍⵕ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ.
English: The English astronomer John Flamsteed catalogued over 3000 stars, More extensive star catalogues were produced by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵊⵍⵉⵣⵉ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⴼⵍⴰⵎⵙⵜⵉⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵜⵓⵔ ⵉ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 3000 ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ, ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵙⴽⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵚ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⴷⵓ ⵍⴰⴽⴰⵢ.
English: This work was further refined by Joseph-Louis Lagrange and Pierre Simon Laplace, allowing the masses of the planets and moons to be estimated from their perturbations.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴷⵊⵓⵥⵉⴼ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⵍⴰⴳⵔⴰⵏⵊ ⴷ ⴱⵢⵉⵕ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⵍⴰⴱⵍⴰⵚ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
English: Stars were proven to be similar to the Earth's own Sun, but with a wide range of temperatures, masses, and sizes.
Tamasheq: ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵉⵏⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⵛ ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵣⵖⵍⵜ, ⴰⵏⴷⴷⵓⵔ, ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ.
English: Theoretical astronomy led to speculations on the existence of objects such as black holes and neutron stars, which have been used to explain such observed phenomena as quasars, pulsars, blazars, and radio galaxies.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵡⵢ ⵜⵚⵟⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵙ ⵢⵉⴽⵙ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⴳⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵜⵔⵓⵢⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵊⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴽⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵣⴰⵕⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵥⵍⴰⵡ ⴰⵕⴰⴷⵢⵓ.
English: Observational astronomy may be categorized according to the corresponding region of the electromagnetic spectrum on which the observations are made.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵉⵜⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵎⴰⵊⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵏⵏⵇ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢ.
English: Although some radio waves are emitted directly by astronomical objects, a product of thermal emission, most of the radio emission that is observed is the result of synchrotron radiation, which is produced when electrons orbit magnetic fields.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴰⴷⵢⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⴰⵕⴰⴷⵢⵓ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⵓⴽⵕⵓⵜⵕⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⴹ ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙⵉ.
English: Observations from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) have been particularly effective at unveiling numerous galactic protostars and their host star clusters.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⵉⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵖⵉ ⵉⵏⵖⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵕⴱⵥⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉⵏ.
English: Images of observations were originally drawn by hand.
Tamasheq: ⵙⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⵉⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ.
English: Ultraviolet astronomy is best suited to the study of thermal radiation and spectral emission lines from hot blue stars (OB stars) that are very bright in this wave band.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⴽⵥⴰⵢ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⵔⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⴰ.
English: Gamma rays may be observed directly by satellites such as the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory or by specialized telescopes called atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⵕⵏ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⴹⴰⴼ ⴽⵓⵎⴱⵜⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵖⵕⵕⵓⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵛⵉⵕⵓⵏⴽⵓⴼ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵏⵓⵜ.
English: Gravitational-wave astronomy is an emerging field of astronomy that employs gravitational-wave detectors to collect observational data about distant massive objects.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴷⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴷⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ.
English: Historically, accurate knowledge of the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets and stars has been essential in celestial navigation (the use of celestial objects to guide navigation) and in the making of calendars.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⴼⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ( ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵔⵉⵟ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴼⴽⴰ) ⴷ ⵜⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⴽⵓⴷⵜ.
English: The measurement of stellar parallax of nearby stars provides a fundamental baseline in the cosmic distance ladder that is used to measure the scale of the Universe.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵔ ⵉⵊⴱⴱⵕ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⴰⵎⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⴰⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⴰⵙⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ.
English: Analytical models of a process are better for giving broader insight into the heart of what is going on.
Tamasheq: ⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⴰⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵅⴼ ⵎⵓⵎⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵚⵕⵓⵏ.
English: The observation of a phenomenon predicted by a model allows astronomers to select between several alternate or conflicting models as the one best able to describe the phenomena.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ ⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵎⵎⵔⴽⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ.
English: In some cases, a large amount of inconsistent data over time may lead to the total abandonment of a model.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵉⵊⵊ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ.
English: Because astrophysics is a very broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵡⵔⵉⵡ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵀⵕⵓⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ
English: The word "astrochemistry" may be applied to both the Solar System and the interstellar medium.
Tamasheq: “ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ““ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ”” ⵅⴼ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ.”
English: The term exobiology is similar.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴰⵖ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰ (exobiology).
English: Observations of the large-scale structure of the Universe, a branch known as physical cosmology, have provided a deep understanding of the formation and evolution of the cosmos.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵖⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵣⵡⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵖⵓⴱ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ.
English: A hierarchical structure of matter began to form from minute variations in the mass density of space.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⴰⵡⵍⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴳⵜⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ.
English: Gravitational aggregations clustered into filaments, leaving voids in the gaps.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵣⵖⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ, ⵣⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵅⴱⵢⵉⵏ.
English: Various fields of physics are crucial to studying the universe.
Tamasheq: ⵛⵉⵍⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ.
English: Finally, the latter is important for the understanding of the large-scale structure of the cosmos.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ.
English: As the name suggests, an elliptical galaxy has the cross-sectional shape of an ellipse.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵉ, ⵉⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴳⵣⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
English: Elliptical galaxies are more commonly found at the core of galactic clusters, and may have been formed through mergers of large galaxies.
Tamasheq: ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ.
English: Spiral galaxies are typically surrounded by a halo of older stars.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵀⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ.
English: About a quarter of all galaxies are irregular, and the peculiar shapes of such galaxies may be the result of gravitational interaction.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵣⵖⴰ.
English: A radio galaxy is an active galaxy that is very luminous in the radio portion of the spectrum, and is emitting immense plumes or lobes of gas.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵕⴰⴷⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⴰⵏⵙⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵕⴰⴷⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ, ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴼⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⵔⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ.
English: The large-scale structure of the cosmos is represented by groups and clusters of galaxies.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ.
English: In the center of the Milky Way is the core, a bar-shaped bulge with what is believed to be a supermassive black hole at its center.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⴽⴼⴼⴰⵢ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵣⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵖⴱⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ.
English: The disk is surrounded by a spheroid halo of older, population II stars, as well as relatively dense concentrations of stars known as globular clusters.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵇⴰⵔⵉⴹ ⵜⵀⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵓⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⵙⵙⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵜⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵥⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵙⵙⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵓⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ.
English: These begin as a compact pre-stellar core or dark nebulae, which concentrate and collapse (in volumes determined by the Jeans length) to form compact protostars.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴷ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⵡⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⵎⵎⵥⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵍⵍⵓⵙ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵔⴷⴰⵍ ( ⵙ ⵉⴽⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵏⵣ) ⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⵎⵎⵥⵏ.
English: These clusters gradually disperse, and the stars join the population of the Milky Way.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴼⵣⵣⴰⵄⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⴽⴼⴼⴰⵢ.
English: 7–18 Star formation occurs in dense regions of dust and gas, known as giant molecular clouds.
Tamasheq: 7–18 ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵥⵥⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵏⵖⵔ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴳⵏⵉⵡ ⵉⵏⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⵕⵓⴹⵏ.
English: Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were created inside the cores of stars.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ.
English: Over time, this hydrogen fuel is completely converted into helium, and the star begins to evolve.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴰⵀⵉⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ.
English: The ejection of the outer layers forms a planetary nebula.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵥⵥⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴳⵏⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ.
English: This is an 11-year oscillation in sunspot number.
Tamasheq: ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵣ ⵏ 11 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵉⵄⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ.
English: The Sun has also undergone periodic changes in luminosity that can have a significant impact on the Earth.
Tamasheq: ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⴰⵜⵜⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⴽⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
English: Above this layer is a thin region known as the chromosphere.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵓⵕⵓⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵔ.
English: Above the core is the radiation zone, where the plasma conveys the energy flux by means of radiation.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵜⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⴰⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⵜ.
English: A solar wind of plasma particles constantly streams outward from the Sun until, at the outermost limit of the Solar System, it reaches the heliopause.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵓⴹ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵙ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⴹ,ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵉ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ.
English: The planets were formed 4.6 billion years ago in the protoplanetary disk that surrounded the early Sun.
Tamasheq: ⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ 4.6 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵇⴰⵔⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ.
English: The planets continued to sweep up, or eject, the remaining matter during a period of intense bombardment, evidenced by the many impact craters on the Moon.
Tamasheq: ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵥⵉⵜ, ⵙ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴱⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ.
English: This process can form a stony or metallic core, surrounded by a mantle and an outer crust.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵓ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ, ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢ ⵓⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵜ.
English: Some planets and moons accumulate enough heat to drive geologic processes such as volcanism and tectonics.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵢⵓⵊⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵣⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⴽⵜⵓⵏⵉⵜ.
English: Astrostatistics is the application of statistics to astrophysics to the analysis of a vast amount of observational astrophysical data.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⵔ.
English: Cosmochemistry is the study of the chemicals found within the Solar System, including the origins of the elements and variations in the isotope ratios.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ.
English: Astronomy clubs are located throughout the world and many have programs to help their members set up and complete observational programs including those to observe all the objects in the Messier (110 objects) or Herschel 400 catalogues of points of interest in the night sky.
Tamasheq: ⵎⴼⵣⵣⴰⵄⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵃⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵙⵢⵉ (110 ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉ) ⵏⵖ ⵀⵉⵔⵛⵍ 400 ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵜⴰⵍⵓⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴹ.
English: Most amateurs work at visible wavelengths, but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵎⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢⵏ.
English: A number of amateur astronomers use either homemade telescopes or use radio telescopes which were originally built for astronomy research but which are now available to amateurs (e.g. the One-Mile Telescope).
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⵔⴰⵎⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵢⴰ ⵉⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱⵏ ⵉⵕⴰⴷⵢⴰⵡⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⴰⵎⵙⵓⵜⵏ (ⴰⵎ ⵓⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍ).
English: Answers to these may require the construction of new ground- and space-based instruments, and possibly new developments in theoretical and experimental physics.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ.
English: A deeper understanding of the formation of stars and planets is needed.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵏⵓⵔⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
English: If so, what is the explanation for the Fermi paradox?
Tamasheq: ⵎⴽ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⴰ, ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⵎⵉ?
English: What is the nature of dark matter and dark energy?
Tamasheq: ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⵓⵙⵏ?
English: How did the first galaxies form?
Tamasheq: ⵎⴰ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ?
English: Astrobiology, formerly known as exobiology, is an interdisciplinary scientific field that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵜⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⵖⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ.
English: The origin and early evolution of life is an inseparable part of the discipline of astrobiology.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵥⵖⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ.
English: Biochemistry may have begun shortly after the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years ago, during a habitable epoch when the Universe was only 10–17 million years old.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⴹⵉⵇⵇⵙ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ 13.8 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵕⵡⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵡⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵏ 10-17 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵢⵢ.
English: Nonetheless, Earth is the only place in the universe humans know to harbor life.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵖⴰⵔ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ.
English: The term exobiology was coined by molecular biologist and Nobel Prize winner Joshua Lederberg.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵜⵏ (exobiology) ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵓⴱⵍ ⵊⵓⵛⵡⴰ ⵍⵉⴷⵔⴱⵉⵔⴳ.
English: The term xenobiology is now used in a more specialized sense, to mean "biology based on foreign chemistry", whether of extraterrestrial or terrestrial (possibly synthetic) origin.
Tamasheq: “ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵜⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ, ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ““ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵜ””, ⵙⵡ ⵉⵍⵍ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵥⵖⵕ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ (ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ).”
English: Though once considered outside the mainstream of scientific inquiry, astrobiology has become a formalized field of study.
Tamasheq: ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ.
English: In 1959, NASA funded its first exobiology project, and in 1960, NASA founded an Exobiology Program, which is now one of four main elements of NASA's current Astrobiology Program.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1959, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ (NASA) ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1960, ⵜⵙⴽⴰ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ.
English: Advancements in the fields of astrobiology, observational astronomy and discovery of large varieties of extremophiles with extraordinary capability to thrive in the harshest environments on Earth, have led to speculation that life may possibly be thriving on many of the extraterrestrial bodies in the universe.
Tamasheq: ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⴼ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵡⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ.
English: Missions specifically designed to search for current life on Mars were the Viking program and Beagle 2 probes.
Tamasheq: ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵢⴽⵉⵏⴳ ⴷ ⴱⵉⴳⵍ 2.
English: In late 2008, the Phoenix lander probed the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars, and researched the history of water there.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2008, ⵉⵔⵣⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵀⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ, ⵜⵔⴻⵓ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ.
English: In November 2011, NASA launched the Mars Science Laboratory mission carrying the Curiosity rover, which landed on Mars at Gale Crater in August 2012.
Tamasheq: ⴳ ⵏⵓⵡⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 2011, ⵜⵕⵥⵎ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⴰⵥⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ ⵢⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜ ⴽⵓⵔⵢⵓⵙⵉⵜⵉ (Curiosity), ⵉⴳⴳⵣⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ ⴳ ⴳⵉⵍ ⴽⵔⵉⵜⵔ (Gale Crater) ⴳ ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 2012.
English: One is the informed assumption that the vast majority of life forms in our galaxy are based on carbon chemistries, as are all life forms on Earth.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ, ⴰⵎ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
English: The fact that carbon atoms bond readily to other carbon atoms allows for the building of extremely long and complex molecules.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ.
English: A third assumption is to focus on planets orbiting Sun-like stars for increased probabilities of planetary habitability.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵙⵓⵔⴷ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
English: To that end, a number of instruments designed to detect Earth-sized exoplanets have been considered, most notably NASA's Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) and ESA's Darwin programs, both of which have been cancelled.
Tamasheq: ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵔ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵙⴳ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ (Terrestrial Planet Finder) (TPF) ⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵕⵡⵉⵏ ESA, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⵙⵏ.
English: Drake originally formulated the equation merely as an agenda for discussion at the Green Bank conference, but some applications of the formula had been taken literally and related to simplistic or pseudoscientific arguments.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⴷⵔⵉⴽ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵏⴽ ⴰⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡ (Green Bank), ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ.
English: The discovery of extremophiles, organisms able to survive in extreme environments, became a core research element for astrobiologists, as they are important to understand four areas in the limits of life in planetary context: the potential for panspermia, forward contamination due to human exploration ventures, planetary colonization by humans, and the exploration of extinct and extant extraterrestrial life.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵔⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ: ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴱⴰⵏⵙⴱⵉⵔⵎⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵓⴼ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
English: Even life in the ocean depths, where sunlight cannot reach, was thought to obtain its nourishment either from consuming organic detritus rained down from the surface waters or from eating animals that did.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⵏⵓⴹ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵥⵉⵏⵥⵕ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⵙ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⵕⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ.
English: This chemosynthesis revolutionized the study of biology and astrobiology by revealing that life need not be sun-dependent; it only requires water and an energy gradient in order to exist.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ; ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵜⵔ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.
English: Ten hardy organisms selected for the LIFE project, by Amir Alexander Deinococcus radiodurans, Bacillus subtilis, yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, seeds from Arabidopsis thaliana ('mouse-ear cress'), as well as the invertebrate animal Tardigrade.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⵜⵢ ⴰⵎⵉⵔ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔ ⴷⵉⵏⵓⴽⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵖⵏⵓ ⵍⴰⵢⴼ (LIFE), ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵓⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴷⴰⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵓⵏⵜ (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), ⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⵉⴷⵓⴱⵙⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵔⴱⵓⵅⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵔⴷⵉⴳⵔⴰⴷ (Tardigrade).
English: Jupiter's moon, Europa, and Saturn's moon, Enceladus, are now considered the most likely locations for extant extraterrestrial life in the Solar System due to their subsurface water oceans where radiogenic and tidal heating enables liquid water to exist.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵣⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵓⵛⵜⴰⵔⵉ, ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵣⵓⵃⴰⵍ , ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵍⴰⴷⵓⵙ, ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴱⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⵏⵓⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵔⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵎⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵟⵟⵉⵜⵏ.
English: The cosmic dust permeating the universe contains complex organic compounds ("amorphous organic solids with a mixed aromatic-aliphatic structure") that could be created naturally, and rapidly, by stars.
Tamasheq: “ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵏⵖⵔ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵎⵔⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ (““ⵜⵉⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵓⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵎⵎ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⴽⵙⵏ””) ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⵙⴽⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ.”
English: PAHs seem to have been formed shortly after the Big Bang, are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with new stars and exoplanets.
Tamasheq: ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵅⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵉⵇⵇⵙ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ, ⵎⵣⵍⵍⴰⵄⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ, ⵜⵣⴷⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵣⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵜⵉⵏ.
English: Experimental astroecology investigates resources in planetary soils, using actual space materials in meteorites.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵏⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⵢⵣⴰⴽⵏ.
English: On the largest scale, cosmoecology concerns life in the universe over cosmological times.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵏ.
English: Specializations include cosmochemistry, biochemistry and organic geochemistry.
Tamasheq: ⵙⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ.
English: Some regions on Earth, such as the Pilbara in Western Australia and the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica, are also considered to be geological analogs to regions of Mars, and as such, might be able to provide clues on how to search for past life on Mars.
Tamasheq: ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵍⴱⴰⵕⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴽⵎⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⴷⵔⴰⵢ ⴼⴰⵍⵍⵉⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵔⴽⵜⵉⴽⴰ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵕⵚ.