Tamazight-NLP/NLLB-Seed_Tamasheq-Tifinagh-Script huggingface dataset:
English: The Code of Hammurabi dates back to about 1772 BC for example and contains provisions that relate, among other matters, to shipping costs and dealings between merchants and brokers.
Tamasheq: ⵛⵓⴷⵢⵓⴼ ⵂⴰⵎⵎⵓⵔⴰⴱⵉ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ 1772 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⵗⵉⵙⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴱⵉⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵗⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⵙⴰⴱⴱⵉⴱ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: Local jurisdictions may also require special licenses and taxes just to operate a business.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵆⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵓⵛⵂⵢ
English: Most countries with capital markets have at least one.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵔⴾⵢⵜⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
English: Other western nations have comparable regulatory bodies.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴱⴰⵔⵏⴰⵎⵉⵛⵂⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ
English: The proliferation and increasing complexity of the laws governing business have forced increasing specialization in corporate law.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵆⴾⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵗⵓⵛⵂⵢ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⵉⵋⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵓⵔⴰⵜⵢⵍⴰⵓ
English: Most businesses have names, logos, and similar branding techniques that could benefit from trademarking.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵗⵓⵛⵂⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ, ⵍⵓⴶⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ ⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⴷⵢⵎⴰⵔⴾⵉⵏⴶ
English: Economics is the social science that studies how people interact with value; in particular, the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ, ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ, ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ
English: He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth: how wealth is created (production), distributed, and consumed; and how wealth can grow.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⴰⴷⵓⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵗⵓⵔⵜ , ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵗⵓⵔⵜ (ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ), ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵓ-ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵗⵓⵔⵜ
English: If the war is not winnable or if the expected costs outweigh the benefits, the deciding actors (assuming they are rational) may never go to war (a decision) but rather explore other alternatives.
Tamasheq: ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ, ⴾⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴾⵢⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ (ⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔⴰ) ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴷⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ “ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵏ ⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵢⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⵙⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⵉ ⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵙⵉⵓⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵜ “”ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ”
English: Economic precepts occur throughout the writings of the Boeotian poet Hesiod and several economic historians have described Hesiod himself as the "first economist".
Tamasheq: “ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵏ ⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵢⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⵙⵉⵓⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⵉ ⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵂⵢⵙⵉⵓⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ “”ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ”
English: Two groups, who later were called "mercantilists" and "physiocrats", more directly influenced the subsequent development of the subject.
Tamasheq: “ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ “”ⵎⵢⵔⵛⴰⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⵜ”^ⴷ “”ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵙ”, ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⴰⵍ ⵜⵢⵏ”
English: It held that a nation's wealth depended on its accumulation of gold and silver.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵗⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵉⵙⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ
English: Physiocrats, a group of 18th-century French thinkers and writers, developed the idea of the economy as a circular flow of income and output.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵙ, ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵉ ⴰⵏⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ
English: Physiocrats advocated replacing administratively costly tax collections with a single tax on income of land owners.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵂⵉⵙⵉⵓⵛⵔⴰⵜⵙ ⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴷⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
English: Smith discusses potential benefits of specialization by division of labour, including increased labour productivity and gains from trade, whether between town and country or across countries.
Tamasheq: ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵂ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵣⴰⵔⴰⵋ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: The force of a rapidly growing population against a limited amount of land meant diminishing returns to labour.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵙ ⵢⵔⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ
English: While Adam Smith emphasized the production of income, David Ricardo (1817) focused on the distribution of income among landowners, workers, and capitalists.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵂ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ , ⵢⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⵔⵉⵛⴰⵔⴷⵓ (1817) ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: Ricardo was the first to state and prove the principle of comparative advantage, according to which each country should specialize in producing and exporting goods in that it has a lower relative cost of production, rather relying only on its own production.
Tamasheq: ⵔⵉⵛⴰⵔⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⴷⵓⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ, ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙ ⵢⵋ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴼⵢⵍⵍⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ
English: Mill pointed to a distinct difference between the market's two roles: allocation of resources and distribution of income.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵉⵍⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⴾⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⵓⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ: ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ
English: Smith wrote that the "real price of every thing ... is the toil and trouble of acquiring it".
Tamasheq: “ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵂ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵙ “ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵗⴰⵜⵢⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏⵢⵜ””
English: Say's definition has prevailed up to our time, saved by substituting the word "wealth" for "goods and services" meaning that wealth may include non-material objects as well.
Tamasheq: “”ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ, ⵢⵗⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔ “”ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵗⵓⵔⵜ”” ⵙ “”ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ” ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵗⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ””
English: For Robbins, the insufficiency was solved, and his definition allows us to proclaim, with an easy conscience, education economics, safety and security economics, health economics, war economics, and of course, production, distribution and consumption economics as valid subjects of the economic science."
Tamasheq: “”ⵉ ⵔⵓⴱⴱⵉⵏⵙ, ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵗ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵢⵏⴰⵙⵙⵢⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⵢ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴷⵓⵛⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ , ⵙⴰⴼⵢⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵙⵢⵛⵓⵔⵉⵜⵉ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ , ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ, ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ, ⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ, ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ”””
English: Although far from unanimous, most mainstream economists would accept some version of Robbins' definition, even though many have raised serious objections to the scope and method of economics, emanating from that definition.
Tamasheq: ⵆⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ, ⵢⴾⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⴱⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵔⵓⴱⴱⵉⵏⵙ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵏⵋⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ
English: The term "economics" was popularized by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall as a concise synonym for "economic science" and a substitute for the earlier "political economy".
Tamasheq: “ⵜⵉⴼⵢⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ “”ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ”” ⵉⴾⴼⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵛⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵢⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⵂⴰⵍⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ “”ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ”” ⴷ ⴰ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ “”ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ””
English: It dispensed with the labour theory of value inherited from classical economics in favour of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵍⴰⴱⵓⵓⵔ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ
English: An immediate example of this is the consumer theory of individual demand, which isolates how prices (as costs) and income affect quantity demanded.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵓⵎⵢⵔ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ ⵉⴷⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ
English: Modern mainstream economics builds on neoclassical economics but with many refinements that either supplement or generalize earlier analysis, such as econometrics, game theory, analysis of market failure and imperfect competition, and the neoclassical model of economic growth for analysing long-run variables affecting national income.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵓⵛⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴾⴰⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⴻⵜⵔⵉⵛⵙ, ⴶⴰⵎⴻ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ, ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵛⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⴷⵢⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ
English: There exists an economic problem, subject to study by economic science, when a decision (choice) is made by one or more resource-controlling players to attain the best possible outcome under bounded rational conditions.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵍⵍⵜ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ (ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ) ⵉⵋⵋⵢ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ
English: The book focused on determinants of national income in the short run when prices are relatively inflexible.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⴾⵉⵜⵜⴰⴱ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⴱⴱⵢⴰⵏ
English: Keynesian economics has two successors.
Tamasheq: ⵆⵢⵏⵢⵉⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵆⴰⵍⵉⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ
English: It is generally associated with the University of Cambridge and the work of Joan Robinson.
Tamasheq: Oⵙⴰⵗ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉⴷⴶⵢⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵏⵙⵓⵏ
English: Ben Bernanke, former Chairman of the Federal Reserve, is among the economists today generally accepting Friedman's analysis of the causes of the Great Depression.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵢⵏ ⴱⵢⵔⵏⴰⵏⴾⵢ ,ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴼⵢⴷⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵔⵢⵙⵢⵔⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵢⴾⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵂ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵔⵉⵢⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴹⵢⴱⵔⵢⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⴰⵔⴰⵜ
English: When creating theories, the objective is to find ones which are at least as simple in information requirements, more precise in predictions, and more fruitful in generating additional research than prior theories.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⴰⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵗⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⴶⵎⴰⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ
English: Early macroeconomic models focused on modelling the relationships between aggregate variables, but as the relationships appeared to change over time macroeconomists, including new Keynesians, reformulated their models in microfoundations.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴶⴶⵔⵢⴶⴰⵜⵢ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⴰⴱⵍⵢⵙ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵛⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵆⵢⵉⵏⵢⵙⵉⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵓⵗⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵛⵔⵓⴼⵓⵓⵏⴷⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏⵙ
English: Sometimes an economic hypothesis is only qualitative, not quantitative.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵉⵙ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ
English: However, the field of experimental economics is growing, and increasing use is being made of natural experiments.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣⴰⵏ
English: By such means, a hypothesis may gain acceptance, although in a probabilistic, rather than certain, sense.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵓⵢⵏ, ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵗⴱⴰⵍ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⵗⵏⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⵉⴾⴾⵉ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ
English: Criticisms based on professional standards and non-replicability of results serve as further checks against bias, errors, and over-generalization, although much economic research has been accused of being non-replicable, and prestigious journals have been accused of not facilitating replication through the provision of the code and data.
Tamasheq: ⵏⴰⵈⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵏⵓⵏ-ⵔⵢⴱⵍⵉⵛⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵂⵢⵛⴾⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵆⴰⵉⵓⵣ, ⵜⴰⵋⴰⵔⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⵓⵏ-ⵔⵢⴱⵍⵉⵛⴰⴱⵍⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵋⵓⵓⵔⵏⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⵔⵗⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⴱⵍⵉⵛⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵓⴷⵢ ⵓⴼ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ
English: In applied economics, input–output models employing linear programming methods are quite common.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴱⵍⵉⵢⴷ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ , ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵓⵜ-ⵓⵓⵜⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵋⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵍⵉⵏⵢⴰⵔ ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎⵎⵉⵏⴶ ⵎⵢⵜⵂⵓⴷⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
English: This has reduced the long-noted distinction of economics from natural sciences because it allows direct tests of what were previously taken as axioms.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⵋⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵉⵔⵔⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵆⵉⵓⵎⵙ
English: Similar empirical testing occurs in neuroeconomics.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵋⵉⵔⵔⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵏⵢⵓⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ
English: In perfectly competitive markets, no participants are large enough to have the market power to set the price of a homogeneous product.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵂⴰⵓⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ , ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵉ ⵢⵗⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ
English: Microeconomics studies individual markets by simplifying the economic system by assuming that activity in the market being analysed does not affect other markets.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵉⵛⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵔ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵗⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵉⴾⵎⴰ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵢⵏ
English: General-equilibrium theory studies various markets and their behaviour.
Tamasheq: ⵗⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ-ⵢⵈⵓⵉⵍⵉⴱⵔⵓⵉⵎ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵗⴰⵔ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
English: Choices must be made between desirable yet mutually exclusive actions.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ
English: Part of the cost of making pretzels is that neither the flour nor the morning are available any longer, for use in some other way.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵢⵜⵣⵢⵍⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵙⵆⵓⵈ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵓⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ
English: Inputs used in the production process include such primary factors of production as labour services, capital (durable produced goods used in production, such as an existing factory), and land (including natural resources).
Tamasheq: ⵉⵏⴱⵓⵜⵙ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵗⴰⵎⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ, ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ (ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵋⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵋⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ Iⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ) ⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ( ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ)
English: Efficiency is improved if more output is generated without changing inputs, or in other words, the amount of "waste" is reduced.
Tamasheq: “ ⴼⴰⵗⴰⵍⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜ-ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵢⵗⵏⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ “ⵓⵗⵛⵂⴰⴷ”” ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ””
English: In the simplest case an economy can produce just two goods (say "guns" and "butter").
Tamasheq: “ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵈⵉⵜⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ (ⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ “”ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵔⵓⴷⴰⵏ” ⴷ “”ⵓⴷⵉ””)
English: Scarcity is represented in the figure by people being willing but unable in the aggregate to consume beyond the PPF (such as at X) and by the negative slope of the curve.
Tamasheq: ⵏⴰⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⵜ-ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⵢⵔⵏ ⵙ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⴶⵔⵢⴶⴰⵜⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴱⴱⴼ ( ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵆ) ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴶⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵢ
English: The slope of the curve at a point on it gives the trade-off between the two goods.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴶⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵢ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵢⵔⴷⵓⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ
English: Along the PPF, scarcity implies that choosing more of one good in the aggregate entails doing with less of the other good.
Tamasheq: ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴱⴰⴼ ⵏⴰⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴶⴶⵔⵢⴶⴰⵜⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ
English: A point inside the curve (as at A), is feasible but represents production inefficiency (wasteful use of inputs), in that output of one or both goods could increase by moving in a northeast direction to a point on the curve.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵢ (ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰ), ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ (ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵗⵛⵂⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ), ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵢⵎⵂⵢⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ-ⴷⴰⵗ-ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴱ ⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵛⵓⵔⴱⵢ
English: It has been observed that a high volume of trade occurs among regions even with access to a similar technology and mix of factor inputs, including high-income countries.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵗⴰⵎⴱⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: Among each of these production systems, there may be a corresponding division of labour with different work groups specializing, or correspondingly different types of capital equipment and differentiated land uses.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
English: Theory and observation set out the conditions such that market prices of outputs and productive inputs select an allocation of factor inputs by comparative advantage, so that (relatively) low-cost inputs go to producing low-cost outputs.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵓⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵓⵙⵏⵢⵏ
English: In microeconomics, it applies to price and output determination for a market with perfect competition, which includes the condition of no buyers or sellers large enough to have price-setting power.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵛⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ,ⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵉ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏⵛⵂⵉⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ
English: Demand theory describes individual consumers as rationally choosing the most preferred quantity of each good, given income, prices, tastes, etc.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵢⵎⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ,ⵔⵉⴱⴰ,ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⵢⵎⴱⵢ
English: The law of demand states that, in general, price and quantity demanded in a given market are inversely related.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵂⵢⵔⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ
English: In addition, purchasing power from the price decline increases ability to buy (the income effect).
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ, ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴰⵛⵂ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵏⵛⵂ (ⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ)
English: Supply is the relation between the price of a good and the quantity available for sale at that price.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⴰ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵓⵢⵏ
English: Supply is typically represented as a function relating price and quantity, if other factors are unchanged.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ , ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵗⴰⵏⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ
English: Just as on the demand side, the position of the supply can shift, say from a change in the price of a productive input or a technical improvement.
Tamasheq: ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ , ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ, ⴰⵍⴰⵗⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵎ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵉⴾ
English: Market equilibrium occurs where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded, the intersection of the supply and demand curves in the figure above.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵣⴰⵏⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ, ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵈⵈⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⴰⴾⵔⴰⵎⴱⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ
English: At a price above equilibrium, there is a surplus of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵣⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ
English: The most obvious kinds of firms are corporations, partnerships and trusts.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ -ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ , ⵛⴰⵔⴰⴾⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵉⵈⴰ-ⵜⴰⵏ
English: In perfectly competitive markets studied in the theory of supply and demand, there are many producers, none of which significantly influence price.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ , ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⵉⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ
English: Common market structures studied besides perfect competition include monopolistic competition, various forms of oligopoly, and monopoly.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⵎⵓⵏⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⵙⵜⵉⵛ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⵢⵜⵉⵜⵉⵓⵏ, ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⴶⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉ
English: Given its different forms, there are various ways of representing uncertainty and modelling economic agents' responses to it.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴷ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ,ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵎⵢⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⵛⵂ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂ-ⴰⴾ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ
English: In behavioural economics, it has been used to model the strategies agents choose when interacting with others whose interests are at least partially adverse to their own.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵢⵂⴰⴱⵉⵓⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ, ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
English: It has significant applications seemingly outside of economics in such diverse subjects as formulation of nuclear strategies, ethics, political science, and evolutionary biology.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴱⵍⵉⴾⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵓⵙⵓⵗ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⵙⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵓⴾⵍⴻⴰⵔ ,ⴰⵆⵍⴰⵈⵉⵉⴰ, ⵙⵉⴰⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ
English: It also analyses the pricing of financial instruments, the financial structure of companies, the efficiency and fragility of financial markets, financial crises, and related government policy or regulation.
Tamasheq: ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵉⵉⵣ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ, ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ, ⴾⴰⴼⴰⵗⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵎⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ, ⴰⵣⵓⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵍⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: Customers without knowledge of whether a car is a "lemon" depress its price below what a quality second-hand car would be.
Tamasheq: “ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵎⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴼⵜ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ “”ⵍⴻⵎⵓⵏ” ⵉⴼⴰⵏⵏⴰⵣ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵣⵉⵓⵏ “”
English: Both problems may raise insurance costs and reduce efficiency by driving otherwise willing transactors from the market ("incomplete markets").
Tamasheq: “ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵏⵉⵣⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⴼⴰⵗⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ( “”ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ””)
English: Information asymmetries and incomplete markets may result in economic inefficiency but also a possibility of improving efficiency through market, legal, and regulatory remedies, as discussed above.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵎⵢⵜⵔⵉⵢⵙ ⴷ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴾⴰⴼⴰⵗⴰ ⵙ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ, ⵉⵙⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ
English: Public goods are goods which are under-supplied in a typical market.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵋⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵓⵢⵏ
English: For example, air pollution may generate a negative externality, and education may generate a positive externality (less crime, etc.).
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ,ⵎⴰⵔⴾⴰⵂⴰⵓ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵢⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵆⵜⵢⵔⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ (ⴰⴼⵏⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵉⵎⵜ)
English: In many areas, some form of price stickiness is postulated to account for quantities, rather than prices, adjusting in the short run to changes on the demand side or the supply side.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ, ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵎⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ
English: Examples of such price stickiness in particular markets include wage rates in labour markets and posted prices in markets deviating from perfect competition.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵎⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⴻⵂⴰⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵛⵂⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⴷⴰⵜ
English: Such aggregates include national income and output, the unemployment rate, and price inflation and subaggregates like total consumption and investment spending and their components.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴶⴶⵔⵢⴶⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰ ⵔⵉⴱⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵙⵓⴱⴰⴶⴶⵔⵢⴶⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵢⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵗⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⴾⴰⴱ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
English: This has addressed a long-standing concern about inconsistent developments of the same subject.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵢⵂⵓⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵓⴷⵓⵗ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ
English: Keynes contended that aggregate demand for goods might be insufficient during economic downturns, leading to unnecessarily high unemployment and losses of potential output.
Tamasheq: ⵆⵢⵉⵢⵙ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⴾⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴶⴶⵔⵢⴶⴰⵜⵢ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ
English: New classical macroeconomics, as distinct from the Keynesian view of the business cycle, posits market clearing with imperfect information.
Tamasheq: ⵛⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵛⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵆⵢⵉⵏⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵓⵛⵂⵢ ,ⵂⵢⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵗⵢⴷ
English: The labour force only includes workers actively looking for jobs.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⵢⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ
English: Classical models of unemployment occurs when wages are too high for employers to be willing to hire more workers.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓ-ⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵂⵓⵏ ⴷⵢⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ
English: Large amounts of structural unemployment can occur when an economy is transitioning industries and workers find their previous set of skills are no longer in demand.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵋⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵉⴾⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵔⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ
English: Money has general acceptability, relative consistency in value, divisibility, durability, portability, elasticity in supply, and longevity with mass public confidence.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⵍ ⵉ ⴼⵓⴾ, ⴰⵈⵈⵓⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ, ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵋⵉⵜ, ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵉ, ⴰⵛⵂⵉⵍⵓⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
English: In the words of Francis Amasa Walker, a well-known 19th-century economist, "Money is what money does" ("Money is that money does" in the original).
Tamasheq: “ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰ ⵓⴰⵍⴾⴻⵔ , ⴻⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 “”ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴻⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ”” (ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ”” ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ)”
English: Its economic function can be contrasted with barter (non-monetary exchange).
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵜ ⴰⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⵜⵢⵔ ( ⵉⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ)
English: When aggregate demand falls below the potential output of the economy, there is an output gap where some productive capacity is left unemployed.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴶⴶⵔⵢⴶⴰⵜⵢ ⵓⴷⴰ ⵙⵉⴷⵢⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ, ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⵢⵜⴰⵗⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ
English: For example, unemployed home builders can be hired to expand highways.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ , ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵆⴷⵢⵎ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⵔⴰⴾ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: The effects of fiscal policy can be limited by crowding out.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ
English: Some economists think that crowding out is always an issue while others do not think it is a major issue when output is depressed.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ
English: The latter, an aspect of public choice theory, models public-sector behaviour analogously to microeconomics, involving interactions of self-interested voters, politicians, and bureaucrats.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵢⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ, ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵉⵛⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵓⵓⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ,ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴱⵉⵔⴰⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: It also concerns the size and distribution of gains from trade.
Tamasheq: ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⴰⵆ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ
English: It is often stated that Carlyle gave economics the nickname "the dismal science" as a response to the late 18th century writings of The Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus, who grimly predicted that starvation would result, as projected population growth exceeded the rate of increase in the food supply.
Tamasheq: “”ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵉⵍⵢ ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵗⵔⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ “”ⴷⵉⵙⵎⴰⵍ ⵙⵛⵉⵢⵏⵛⵢ” ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵉ ⵉⴾⵉⵜⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵔⵢⵓⵢⵔⵢⵏⴷ ⵟⵂⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵔⵓⴱⵢⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵍⵜⵂⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵗⵉⴱ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴾⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵗⴰⵎ”
English: The close relation of economic theory and practice with politics is a focus of contention that may shade or distort the most unpretentious original tenets of economics, and is often confused with specific social agendas and value systems.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵂⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵂⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛ ⵜⵂⵢⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⵂⵗⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⴰⴾⴾⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴱⴱⴰⵂⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴶⵣⴰⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙ-ⵏ-ⴰⵗⴰⵎⴱⴰⵍ ⵙⵓⵛⵉⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⴻⵏⴷⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: Some academic economic journals have increased their efforts to gauge the consensus of economists regarding certain policy issues in hopes of effecting a more informed political environment.
Tamasheq: ⵋⵓⵓⵔⵏⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⵂⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴾⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴷⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ
English: Issues like central bank independence, central bank policies and rhetoric in central bank governors discourse or the premises of macroeconomic policies (monetary and fiscal policy) of the state, are focus of contention and criticism.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵓⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴶⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵙⴰⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⵔⵓⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ (ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ) ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵎⵛⵂⵉⴾⴾⵉ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ
English: The field of information economics includes both mathematical-economical research and also behavioural economics, akin to studies in behavioural psychology, and confounding factors to the neoclassical assumptions are the subject of substantial study in many areas of economics.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵎⴰⵜⵂⵢⵎⴰⵜⵉⵛⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⴷ ⴱⴻⵂⴰⴱⵉⵓⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⵢⵛⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵛⵙ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵢⵂⴰⴱⵉⵓⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⴱⵙⵉⵛⵂⵓⵍⵓⴶⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵗⴰⵏⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵛⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⵛⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⴷⵓⵗ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⵢ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵜⵉⵙⴰⴷ
English: Joskow had a strong feeling that the important work in oligopoly was done through informal observations while formal models were "trotted out ex post".
Tamasheq: “ ⵋⵓⵙⴾⵓⵓ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⴻⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵍⵉⴶⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵋ ⵙ ⵉⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ “ⵜⵔⵓⵜⵜⵢⴷ ⵓⵓⵜ ⴻⵆ ⴱⵓⵙⵜ”
English: Another major theme is evolution, which explains the unity and diversity of life.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵓⴷⵓⵗ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ
English: His works such as History of Animals were especially important because they revealed his naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵣⵢⵋ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⴼⵓⴾⴾⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵍⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏⴶⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ
English: Medicine was especially well studied by Islamic scholars working in Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought, especially in upholding a fixed hierarchy of life.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵢⴷⵢⵛⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼ ⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ
English: Investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining.
Tamasheq: ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵓⴰⵎⵎⵢⵔⴷⴰⵎ ⵢⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵔ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵏⵜⵓⵎⵓⵍⵓⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⵉⵛⵂⵉ ⵙ ⵎⵉⵛⵔⵓⵙⵛⵓⴱⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵂⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ
English: Then, in 1838, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1838, ⵙⵛⵂⵓⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵋⴰⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵙ (1) ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ (2) ⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴾⵢⵎ ⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ (3) ⵉⵣⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ
English: Carl Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 (variations of which have been in use ever since), and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species.
Tamasheq: ⵛⴰⵔⵍ ⵍⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵓⵙ ⵉⵣⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵆⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1735 (ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ) ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1750 ⴰⵣⵓⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵛⵢⵏⵛⵢ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ
English: Lamarck believed that these acquired traits could then be passed on to the animal's offspring, who would further develop and perfect them.
Tamasheq: ⵍⴰⴰⵔⵛⴾ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵂ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵣⵢⵋ ⵂⵓ ⵉⴷⵓⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵗⵉⴷ ⵜⴰ
English: The basis for modern genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel, who presented his paper, "Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden" ("Experiments on Plant Hybridization"), in 1865, which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics.
Tamasheq: “” ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵋⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵜ-ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴶⴰⵔ ⵎⵢⵏⴷⴻⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾ ⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵏⵢⵜ “””ⴱⵢⵔⵙⵓⵛⵂⵢ ⵓⴱⵢⵔ ⴱⴼⵍⴰⵏⵣⴻⵏⵂⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵢⵏ"" (‘’’’ⵉⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵂⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵣⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵛⵛⵢ) ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1865 ⵓ-ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵜⵜⴰⵗⵂⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴾⵓⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵋⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ”
English: A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵔⴾⵉⵣ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵛⵜⵢⵔⵉⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⴼⵓⴾⴾⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵓⴱⵍⵢ-ⵂⵢⵍⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵏⴰⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵋⴰⵎⵢⵙ ⵓⴰⵜⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉⵙ ⵛⵔⵉⵛⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1953 ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⵛⵂⵓⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⴰⵔ ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵜⵉⵛⵙ
English: Finally, the Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 with the goal of mapping the general human genome.
Tamasheq: ⵂⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵗⵢⵏⵓⵎⴻ ⴱⵓⵔⵋⵢⵛⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1990 ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴶⵢⵏⵓⵎⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ
English: Life on Earth began from water and remained there for about three billions years prior to migrating onto land.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎ ⴷⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
English: The nucleus is made of one or more protons and a number of neutrons.
Tamasheq: ⵏⵓⵛⵍⵢⵓⵙ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: The atom of each specific element contains a unique number of protons, which is known as its atomic number, and the sum of its protons and neutrons is an atom's mass number.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵗⴰⵏⵙⴰⵔ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⵢⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵢⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵎ
English: Carbon, for example, can exist as a stable isotope (carbon-12 or carbon-13) or as a radioactive isotope (carbon-14), the latter of which can be used in radiometric dating (specifically radiocarbon dating) to determine the age of organic materials.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ,ⵛⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵓⴱⵢ (ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵜ-12 ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵜ 13) ⵎⵢⵗ ⵔⴰⴷⵉⵓⴰⵛⵜⵉⴱⵢ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵓⴱⴻ (ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵜ -14), ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵂⵔⴰⵉ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵔⴰⴷⵉⵓⵎⵢⵜⵔⵉⵛ ⴷⴰⵜⵉⵏⴶ (ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⴷⵉⵓⵛⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵜⵉⵏⴶ) ⵉ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵋ
English: Ionic bonding involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, or between two atoms with sharply different electronegativities, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴰⵏⵉⵛ ⴱⴰⵏⴷⵉⵏⴶ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⵢⵍⵢⵛⵜⵔⵓⵙⵜⴰⵜⵉⵛ ⴰⵜⵜⵔⴰⵛⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵔ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵍⵢⵛⵜⵔⵓⵏⵢⴶⴰⵜⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉⵢ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵏⵉⵛ ⵛⵓⵎⴱⵓⵓⵏⴷⵙ
English: Unlike ionic bonds, a covalent bond involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
Tamasheq: ⵛⵓⴱⴰⵍⵢⵏⵜ ⴱⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵍⵢⵛⵜⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵉⵓⵏⵉⵛ ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵙ
English: A ubiquitous example of a hydrogen bond is found between water molecules.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴶⵢⵏ ⴱⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵜ ⴰⵓ ⴰⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵓⴰⵜⴻⵔ ⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: Water is important to life because it is an effective solvent, capable of dissolving solutes such as sodium and chloride ions or other small molecules to form an aqueous solution.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵓⵜⵢⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵓⴷⵉⵓⵎⴱⴷ ⵛⵂⵍⵓⵔⵉⴷⵢ ⵉⵓⵏⵙ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⵢⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ
English: Because the O–H bonds are polar, the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge and the two hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge.
Tamasheq: ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ O-H ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵈⵓⵜⴱⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ,ⵓⵆⵉⴶⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⵢⴶⴰⵜⵉⴱⵢ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⴶⵢ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴶⵢⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵉⵜⵉⴱⵜ ⵛⵂⴰⵔⴶⴻ
English: Water is also adhesive as it is able to adhere to the surface of any polar or charged non-water molecules.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵜⵜⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵜⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵈⵓⵜⴱⵉ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵜⴾⴰⵔ ⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ
English: The lower density of ice compared to liquid water is due to the lower number of water molecules that form the crystal lattice structure of ice, which leaves a large amount of space between water molecules.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵢⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴱⴰⴱ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴾⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵍⵢⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴾⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵢⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵎⵓⵍⵢⴾⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ
English: Thus, a large amount of energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to convert liquid water into gas (or water vapor).
Tamasheq: ⴰⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⵓⴷ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵔⴰⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴶⵢⵏ ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵙ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵙ ⴶⴰⵣ (ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵂⵓⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ)
English: With the exception of water, nearly all the molecules that make up each organism contain carbon.
Tamasheq: ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⴰⵂⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵜ
English: For example, a single carbon atom can form four single covalent bonds such as in methane, two double covalent bonds such as in carbon dioxide, or a triple covalent bond such as in carbon monoxide (CO).
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴾⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵛⵓⴱⴰⵍⵢⵏⵜⵙ ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵎⵢⵜⵂⴰⵏⵢ , ⵛⵓⴱⴰⵍⵢⵏⵜⵙ ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵙ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⴼⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⵓⵆⵉⴷⵢ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵛⵓⴱⴰⵍⵢⵏⵜ ⴱⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⵜⴼⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ ⵓⵏⵓⵆⵉⴷⵢ (ⵛO)
English: A hydrocarbon backbone can be substituted by other elements such as oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), which can change the chemical behavior of that compound.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⵛⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⵗⴰⵏⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵆⵉⴶⵢⵏ (O) , ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴶⵢⵏ (ⵂ), ⴱⵂⵓⵙⴱⵂⵓⵔⵓⵙ (ⴱ), ⴷ ⵙⵓⵍⴼⵓⵔ (ⵙ) ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵛⵂⵢⵎⵉⵛⴰⵍ ⴱⵢⵂⴰⴱⵉⵓⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⵢⵏ
English: When two monosaccharides such as glucose and fructose are linked together, they can form a disaccharide such as sucrose.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵓⵙⴰⵛⵛⵂⴰⵔⵉⴷⵢⵙ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴶⵍⵓⵛⵓⵙⴱⵢ ⴷ ⴼⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵙⵢⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ , ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵙⴰⵛⵛⵂⴰⵔⵉⴷⵢ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵓⵛⵔⵓⵙⵢ
English: These lipids are organic compounds that are largely nonpolar and hydrophobic.
Tamasheq: ⵍⵉⴱⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵈⵓⵜⴱⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴱⵂⵓⴱⵉⵛ
English: The glycerol and phosphate group together constitute the polar and hydrophilic (or head) region of the molecule whereas the fatty acids make up the nonpolar and hydrophobic (or tail) region.
Tamasheq: ⵗⵍⵉⵛⵢⵔⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴱⵂⵓⵙⴱⵂⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵈⵓⵜⴱⵉ ⴷ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴱⵂⵉⵍⵉⵛ ( ⵎⵢⵗ ⴻⵗⴰⴼ) ⵏ ⵎⵓⵍⴻⵛⵓⵍⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴰⵛⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔ-ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵈⵓⵜⴱⵉ ⴷ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴱⵂⵓⴱⵉⵛ
English: Proteins are the most diverse of the macromolecules, which include enzymes, transport proteins, large signaling molecules, antibodies, and structural proteins.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⵔⵓⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⵏⵣⵉⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓ ⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵎⵓⵍⵢⵛⵓⵍⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴶⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵏⵜⵉⴱⵓⴷⵉⵢⵙ ⴷ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵢⵉⵏⵙ
English: The polarity and charge of the side chains affect the solubility of amino acids.
Tamasheq: ⵔⴰⵜⴱⵉⵉⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴾⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵋⴰ ⵉⴷⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵓ ⴰⵛⵉⴷⵙ
English: The primary structure consists of a unique sequence of amino acids that are covalently linked together by peptide bonds.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴷⵢⵉ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵉ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵓ ⴰⵛⵉⴷⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴱⵢⴱⵜⵉⴷⵓ ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ
English: The folding of alpha helices and beta sheets gives a protein its three-dimensional or tertiary structure.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⴰⵜⴼⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵂⴰ ⵂⵢⵍⵉⵛⵢⵙ ⴷ ⴱⵢⵜⴰ ⵙⵂⵢⵢⵜⵙ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵢⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴷⵢⵉ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵈⴰⵉⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵜⵢⵔⵜⵉⴰⵔⵉ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⵢ
English: The purines include guanine (G) and adenine (A) whereas the pyrimidines consist of cytosine (T), uracil (U), and thymine (T).
Tamasheq: ⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⵢⵏ ⴶⵓⴰⵏⵉⵏⵓ (ⵗ), ⴷ ⴰⴷⵢⵏⵉⵏⵢ (ⴰ) ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏⵢⵙ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⵜⵓⵙⵉⵏⴻ (ⵟ), ⵓⵔⴰⵛⵉⵍ (ⵓ) ⴷⵜⵂⵉⵎⵉⵏⵢ (ⵟ)
English: A cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, including cholesterols that sit between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity at various temperatures.
Tamasheq: ⵛⵍⵍ ⵎⵢⵎⴱⵔⴰⵏⵓ ⵢⵂⵢⵜ ⵍⵉⴱⵉⴷ ⴱⵉⵍⴰⵉⵢⵔ, ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵍⵢⵙⵜⵢⵔⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴱⵂⵓⵙⵂⵓⵍⵉⴱⵉⴷⵙ ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ
English: Cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as cell adhesion, storing electrical energy, and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a cell wall, glycocalyx, and cytoskeleton.
Tamasheq: ⵛⵢⵍⵍ ⵎⵢⵎⴱⵔⴰⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵜⵓⵗ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ, ⴰⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵓ ⴷ ⵛⵢⵍⵍ ⵙⵉⴶⵏⴰⵍⵍⵉⵏⴶ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵆⵜⵔⴰⵛⵢⵍⵍⵓⵍⴰⵔ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⵛⵜⵓⵔⵢⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⵢⵍⵍⵢ ⵓⴰⵍⵍ, ⴶⵍⵉⵛⵓⵛⴰⵍⵉⵆ ⴷ ⵛⵉⵜⵓⵙⴾⵢⵍⵢⵜⵓⵏ
English: The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos.
Tamasheq: “ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵢⵔⵜⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ “” ⵛⵢⵍⵍⵓⵍⴰⵔ ⴱⵓⵉⵍⴷⵉⵏⴶ ⴱⵍⵓⵛⴾⵙ”” ⵛⵂⴰⵏⴾⴰⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵏⴰⵗ “
English: Plant cells have additional organelles that distinguish them from animal cells such as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell, chloroplasts that harvest sunlight energy to produce sugar, and vacuoles that provide storage and structural support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds.
Tamasheq: Iⵣⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴶⴰⵏⵢⵍⵍⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⵢⵍⵍ ⵓⴰⵍⵍ ⵢⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾ, ⵛⵂⵍⵓⵔⵓⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵙ ⵓⵉ ⵙⴰⴷⴰⵓ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴾⵜ ⵉⴾⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵛⵓⵓⵍⵢⵙ ⵂⴰⴾⴾⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵗⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵂⵉⵍⵜ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵗⵛⵂⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵎⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾ
English: According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy is conserved, i.e., cannot be created or destroyed.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗⴰⵜ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵂⵢⵔⵎⵓⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⵛⵙ , ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ ⵢⵗⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵓⵗⵛⵂⴰⴷ
English: As a result, an organism requires continuous input of energy to maintain a low state of entropy.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵜ-ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵣⴰⵎ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵋ ⵏ ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵉ
English: Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy.
Tamasheq: ⵆⴰⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵣⵓⵣⵋⵓⵔ ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⵉⵜⵓⵜ ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ
English: The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, some of which are redox reactions.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴾⴾⵢⵍⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵓⵛⵂⵢⵎⵉⵛⵙ, ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵔⵢⴷⵓⵆ
English: Acetyl-Coa enters the citric acid cycle, which takes places inside the mitochondrial matrix.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵛⵢⵜⵉⵍ-ⵛⵓⴰ ⵉⵜ ⴰⵋⴰⵛⵂ ⵛⵉⵜⵔⵉⵛ ⴰⵛⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵜⵓⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵜⵔⵉⵆ
English: Oxidative phosphorylation comprises the electron transport chain, which is a series of four protein complexes that transfer electrons from one complex to another, thereby releasing energy from NADH and FADH2 that is coupled to the pumping of protons (hydrogen ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (chemiosmosis), which generates a proton motive force.
Tamasheq: Oⵆⵉⴷⴰⵜⵉⴱⵢ ⴱⵂⵓⵙⴱⵂⵓⵔⵉⵍⴰⵜⵉⵓⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵙⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵍⵢⵛⵜⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⵓⵣ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵉⴾⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⵍⵢⵛⵜⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⵣⴰⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵋⵉ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵏⴰⵢⵂ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵢⵂ2 ⵢⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ (ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴶⵢⵏ ⵉⵓⵏⵙ) ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵉⵜⴱⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵎⴱⵔⴰⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ (ⵛⵂⵢⵎⵉⵓⵙⵎⵓⵙⵉⵙ) ⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵉⵔⵓⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏ
English: If oxygen were not present, pyruvate would not be metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation.
Tamasheq: ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵓⵆⵉⴶⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ , ⴱⵉⵔⵓⴱⴰⵜⵢ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵢⵆⵆⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⵓⵏⴼⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵎⵓⵛⵂⴰⵎ ⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵈⵓⴰⵜ
English: Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵈⵓⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵋ ⴰⴾⵙⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵏⴰⵢⵂ ⵙ ⵏⴰⵢ+ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴶⵍⵉⵛⵓⵍⵉⵙⵉⵙ
English: In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵗⵛⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⴷ ⵍⴰⴾⵜⵉⴾ
English: During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵢⵔⵓⴱⵉⵛ ⴶⵍⵉⵛⵓⵍⵉⵙⵉⵙ, ⵏⵢⴰ+ ⵉⵏⴰⴾⴾⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴶⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵉⵔⵓⴱⴰⵜⴻ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵛⵜⴰⵜⵢ
English: During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP.
Tamasheq: ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⵉⵏ, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵆⵉⴶⵢⵏ, ⵏⵢⴰ+ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵂⵉⴷⵔⵓⴶⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵍⴰⵛⵜⴰⵜⵓ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴱ
English: In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ, ⵓⵆⵉⴶⴻⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵓⵋ ⴻⵗⵛⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ
English: This is analogous to the proton-motive force generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane in aerobic respiration.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵋⴰ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵉⵜⵓⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⴰⵍ ⵎⴻⵎⴱⵔⴰⵏⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵏⴼⴰⵙ
English: In autocrine signaling, the ligand affects the same cell that releases it.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴶⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⵜⵓⵛⵔⵉⵏⴻ, ⵍⵉⴶⴰⵏⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵣⴰⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ
English: In eukaryotes (i.e., animal, plant, fungal, and protist cells), there are two distinct types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵓⴾⴰⵔⵉⵓⵜⵢⵙ (ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ , ⵢⵂⴰⵔⵢ, ⴰⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾ, ⴱⵉⴼⴼⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜ ⵛⵢⵍⵍⵙ), ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵂ-ⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ: ⵎⵉⵜⵓⵙⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵉⵓⵙⵉⵙ
English: After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ, ⵜⴰⵍⵉⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ
English: Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵜ-ⵓ-ⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵓ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⴻⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
English: Unlike the processes of mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotes, binary fission takes in prokaryotes takes place without the formation of a spindle apparatus on the cell.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵉⵜⵓⵙⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵉⵓⵙⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵓⴾⴰⵔⵉⵓⵜⵢⵙ, ⴱⵉⵏⴰⵔⵉ ⴼⵉⵙⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵓⴾⴰⵔⵉⵓⵜⵢⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵋ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵗⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵙⴱⵉⵏⴷⵍⵓ ⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔⴰⵜⵓⵙ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵔ
English: Mendelian inheritance, specifically, is the process by which genes and traits are passed on from parents to offspring.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⴾⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⵏⴷⵢⵍ ⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⴾⵓⴰⵉⵜ ⵙ ⴶⵢⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ
English: The first is that genetic characteristics, which are now called alleles, are discrete and have alternate forms (e.g., purple vs. white or tall vs. dwarf), each inherited from one of two parents.
Tamasheq: ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵢⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵗⵔⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⵢⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ ( ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ: ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏⴶⴰⵍⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵉ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ,ⵜⴰⴾⴾⵉⵏⴷⵉⵎⵜ)
English: Mendel noted that during gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene, which is stated by his law of segregation.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵢⵏⴷⵢⵍ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴰⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵢⵗⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵏⴰⵗ, ⴰⵍⵍⵢⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴶⵢⵏⵢ ⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵏⵣⴰⵗ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵗ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⴰⵍⵍⵢⵍⵢ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵉ ⴶⵢⵏⵢ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⴱⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ
English: The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone.
Tamasheq: ⵏⵓⴾⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⴷⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵏⵓⴾⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵓⵙⴼⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵛⴰⵔⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⵓⵔ-ⴼⵓⵙⴼⴰⵜ
English: The bases are divided into two groups: pyrimidines and purines.
Tamasheq: ⴱⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ : ⵉⴱⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏⵏ.
English: DNA is replicated once the two strands separate.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴱⴹⵓⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ.
English: A chromosome is an organized structure consisting of DNA and histones.
Tamasheq: ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵀⵉⵙⵜⵓⵏⵏ.
English: In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.
Tamasheq: ⵖⵔ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⴽⴰⵔⵢⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓ ⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵉⵜ ⵎ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⵉⴽⵍⵢⵓⴷ.
English: The genetic information stored in DNA represents the genotype, whereas the phenotype results from the synthesis of proteins that control an organism's structure and development, or that act as enzymes catalyzing specific metabolic pathways.
Tamasheq: ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⵡⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴽⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ.