Tamazight-NLP/NLLB-Seed_Tamasheq-Tifinagh-Script huggingface dataset:
English: The estates of the realm, or three estates, were the broad orders of social hierarchy used in Christendom (Christian Europe) from the Middle Ages to early modern Europe.
Tamasheq: ⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ,ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴶⵍⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ Iⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔⵉ (Iⴾⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ) ⵗⵓⵔ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ.
English: The monarchy included the king and the queen, while the system was made up of clergy (the First Estate), nobles (Second Estate), peasants and bourgeoisie (Third Estate).
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵢⵂⵢⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙ ⴾⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ( ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ), ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵂⴰ (ⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ) ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵈⵈⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ (ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ)
English: In England, a two-estate system evolved that combined nobility and clergy into one lordly estate with "commons" as the second estate.
Tamasheq: “ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ, ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵂⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴾⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵓⵉⵜⵂ “ⵛⵓⵎⵎoⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ” ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ”
English: In Scotland, the Three Estates were the Clergy (First Estate), Nobility (Second Estate), and Shire Commissioners, or "burghers" (Third Estate), representing the bourgeois, middle class, and lower class.
Tamasheq: “ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ Eⵛⵓⵙⵙⵢ, ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵈⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ( ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ), ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵂⴰ ( ⴾⴻⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ), ⵉⴷ ⴾⵓⵎⵉⵙⴻⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵓⵉⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⵢⵗ ““ⴱⵓⵔⴶⵂⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ”” (ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ) ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵛⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ”
English: Since clergy could not marry, such mobility was theoretically limited to one generation.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴻⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ , ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵛⴰⵔⵓⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵓⴾⴰⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵓⵍⵉⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ
English: Huizinga The Waning of the Middle Ages (1919, 1924:47).
Tamasheq: ⵂⵓⵉⵣⵉⵏⴶⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ (1919, 1924:47).
English: Commoners were universally considered the lowest order.
Tamasheq: ⴾⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
English: In many regions and realms there also existed population groups born outside these specifically defined resident estates.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵆⵍⴰⵈ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵔⵔⴰⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ
English: The economic and political transformation of the countryside in the period were filled by a large growth in population, agricultural production, technological innovations and urban centers; movements of reform and renewal attempted to sharpen the distinction between clerical and lay status, and power, recognized by the Church also had their effect.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵉⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵆⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ, ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵋⵋⴰⵙⵜ, ⵎⵢⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴻⴾⵏⵓⵍⵓⵋⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ; ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵎⵓⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴶⵂⵉⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵈⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵋⵓⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵔⴷⴰ ⴻⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ
English: The second order, those who fight, was the rank of the politically powerful, ambitious, and dangerous.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ, ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴾⴾⵓⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ , ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⵏⴻⵏ
English: In addition, the First and Second Estates relied on the labour of the Third, which made the latter's inferior status all the more glaring.
Tamasheq: ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ, ⵎⵉⵙⵙⴰⵓⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⵢⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ
English: Most were born within this group and also died as a part of it.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⵂⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ.
English: In May 1776, finance minister Turgot was dismissed, after failing to enact reforms.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴰⵗ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵓⵣⵢⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1776, ⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⴼ ⵟⵓⵔⴶⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⴾⴾⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴻⴶⵓ ⴻⵋⵓⴰⵍ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰ
English: When he could not persuade them to rubber-stamp his 'ideal program', Louis XVI sought to dissolve the Estates-General, but the Third Estate held out for their right to representation.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵙⵙⴰⵔⴷⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ “ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵓⵜⴰⵙ”, ⵍⵓⵓⵉⵙ ⵆⴱI ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵙⵜⴰⵜⵢ-ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴶⵉⵛⴰⵏ
English: Because the Parliament of Scotland was unicameral, all members sat in the same chamber, as opposed to the separate English House of Lords and House of Commons.
Tamasheq: ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵎⴱⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵛⵓⵙⵙⵢ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ, ⴷⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵉⴶⵂⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵎⴱⵍⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⵔⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ.
English: As in England, the Parliament of Ireland evolved out of the Magnum Concilium "great council" summoned by the chief governor of Ireland, attended by the council (curia regis), magnates (feudal lords), and prelates (bishops and abbots).
Tamasheq: "Iⵛⵎⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ, ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵎⴱⵍⵢⵜⴰⵏ Iⵔⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴾⴰⵛ ⵉⵏ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴶⵏⵓⵎ ⵛⵓⵏⵛⵉⵍⵉⵓⵎ ““ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ”” ⵉⵙⴰⵉⵗⵉⵎ ⵗⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ Iⵔⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷⵂⴰⵍ ⴾⵓⵎⵙⵢⵉ (ⵛⵓⵔⵉⴰ ⵔⵢⴶⵉⵙ), ⵎⴰⴶⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ (ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ), ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ (ⴱⵓⵎⴱⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ)."
English: In 1297, counties were first represented by elected knights of the shire (sheriffs had previously represented them).
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1297, ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵉⴱⴰⵋⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ “ⵙⵂⴻⵔⵉⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ)
English: Each were free men, and had specific rights and responsibilities, and the right to send representatives to the Riksdag of the Estates.
Tamasheq: Iⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵓⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵍⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⵓⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵔⵉⵆⵙⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ
English: Prior to the 18th century, the King had the right to cast a deciding vote if the Estates were split evenly.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800, ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴾⵉⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴶⴷⴰⵜ
English: However, after the Diet of Porvoo, the Diet of Finland was reconvened only in 1863.
Tamasheq: ⵂⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵢⵉⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⴱⵓⵓ , ⴹⵉⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⴷⴷⴰⵓⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1863
English: Around 1400, letters patent were introduced, in 1561 the ranks of Count and Baron were added, and in 1625 the House of Nobility was codified as the First Estate of the land.
Tamasheq: ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1400, ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⴱⴰⵉⴰ, ⵗⵓⵔ 1561 ⵔⴰⵏⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1625 ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵓⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
English: Heads of the noble houses were hereditary members of the assembly of nobles.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵊⵍ ⵜⵢⴾⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵗⵏⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵢⴷⵜⵢⴴⵓⵔⵙⴰⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ,ⴰⴹⴾⵓⴹ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵓⵔⵏ ⴷⵗ ⵢⵗⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵜⴰⴷⵗ ⵢⵣⵍⵢ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⵌ geoid
English: This resulted in great political influence for the higher nobility.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵢⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ Iⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵍⵍⴰ
English: In later centuries, the estate included teachers of universities and certain state schools.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵊⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ GPS ⵜⵏ,ⴰⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏⵗ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⵍⵓⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ,ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵜ ⵉⴾⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴹⴾⵓⴹ ⵏ ⴰⵌⵓⴾ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴷⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵣⵓⴷ
English: Trade was allowed only in the cities when the mercantilistic ideology had got the upper hand, and the burghers had the exclusive right to conduct commerce within the framework of guilds.
Tamasheq: ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴰ-ⵉⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴱⵓⵔⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ
English: In order for a settlement to become a city, a royal charter granting market right was required, and foreign trade required royally chartered staple port rights.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ , ⴰⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⵛ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾ ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵂⴰⴶⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵂⴻⴱⵓ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⴾⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: Since most of the population were independent farmer families until the 19th century, not serfs nor villeins, there is a remarkable difference in tradition compared to other European countries.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⴶⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⴻⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⵓⴰⴷⴷⴻⵏ ⵙⵢⵔⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵍⴰ vⵉⵍⵍⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍ ⵋⴰⵔ ⵢⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ.
English: Their representatives to the Diet were elected indirectly: each municipality sent electors to elect the representative of an electoral district.
Tamasheq: Iⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴾⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ , ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵙⴰⵓⴰⵉ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵓⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵓⵓⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ.
English: They had no political rights and could not vote.
Tamasheq: ⵗⵢⵓⵉⴷ ⵢⵈⵍ ⵔⵓⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴷⴴ ⵢⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰ ⵎⴷⴰⵏⴰⵏ
English: In Sweden, the Riksdag of the Estates existed until it was replaced with a bicameral Riksdag in 1866, which gave political rights to anyone with a certain income or property.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵢⴷ , ⵔⵉⴾⵙⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵔⵉⴾⵙⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1866 ⵉⴾⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵉ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵔⴰⵛ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ
English: In Finland, this legal division existed until 1906, still drawing on the Swedish constitution of 1772.
Tamasheq: ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1906 ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴾⵓⵏⵙⵜⵉⵜⵓⵙⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1772
English: Furthermore, the industrial workers living in the city were not represented by the four-estate system.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⴾⵏⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵗⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵔⵢⵣⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵂⵔⴾⵢ ⴷ ⴰⵢⴾⴰⵜⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵛⴴⵔⵢⵜ
English: Later in the 15th and 16th centuries Brussels became the place where the States General assembled.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1500 ⵉⴷ 1600 ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴻⵍⵋⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵉⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⵗⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ
English: As a consequence of the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and the events that followed afterwards, the States General declared that they no longer obeyed King Philip II of Spain, who was also overlord of the Netherlands.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⴰ ⵉⴾⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⴻⵛⵂⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1579 ⵉⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ, ⵙⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⴶⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⴶⵂⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⵉⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ 2 ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⵙ-ⴱⴰⵙ
English: It was the level of government where all things were dealt with that were of concern to all the seven provinces that became part of the Republic of the United Netherlands.
Tamasheq: ⵗⵓⵔ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴾⴰⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⵙ-ⴱⴰⵙ
English: In the Southern Netherlands, the last meetings of the States General loyal to the Habsburgs took place in the Estates General of 1600 and the Estates General of 1632.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵎⴰⵉⵏⴰⵋ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵉⵙ-ⴱⴰⵙ, ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵉⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵚⵜⴰⵜⴻⵙ ⵗⵢⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵂⴰⴱⵙⴱⵓⵔⴶⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ- ⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1600 ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1632 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴻⵙⵜⴰⵜⴻ ⵗⴻⵏⴻⵔⴰⵍ
English: It no longer consisted of representatives of the States, let alone the Estates: all men were considered equal under the 1798 Constitution.
Tamasheq: Iⴱⴰⵙ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ , Iⵏⵙⵛⵔⵉⵜ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵢⵙⵜⴰⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ: ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ 1798
English: In 1815, when the Netherlands were united with Belgium and Luxemburg, the States General were divided into two chambers: the First Chamber and the Second Chamber.
Tamasheq: ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1815, ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴱⴰⵉⵙ-ⴱⴰⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴻⵍⴶⵉⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵍⵓⵆⵢⵎⴱⵓⵔⴶ, ⵚⵜⴰⵜⴻ ⵗⴻⵏⴻⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴻⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜⵢⵏ: ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ.
English: From 1848 on, the Dutch Constitution provides that members of the Second Chamber be elected by the people (at first only by a limited portion of the male population; universal male and female suffrage exists since 1919), while the members of the First Chamber are chosen by the members of the States Provincial.
Tamasheq: ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1848, ⴰⵛⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴻⴰⵏⴻⵎⴰⵔⴾ ⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵓⵜ ( ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵗⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵢⴷⴷⴰⵏ , ⵓⵓⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1919) ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ.
English: The clergy was represented by the independent prince-bishops, prince-archbishops and prince-abbots of the many monasteries.
Tamasheq: Iⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵈⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴱⵓⵎⴱⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⴰⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
English: Many peoples whose territories within the Holy Roman Empire had been independent for centuries had no representatives in the Imperial Diet, and this included the Imperial Knights and independent villages.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵓⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵉⴱⵉⵋⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵉⵍⴰⵋ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⴻⵆⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
English: The four major estates were: nobility (dvoryanstvo), clergy, rural dwellers, and urban dwellers, with a more detailed stratification therein.
Tamasheq: Iⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴾⴾoⵣ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ: Iⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵂⴰ (ⴷⴱⴱⵓⵉⴰⵏⵙⵜⴱⵓ), ⵈⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵜ, ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴶⵓⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⵢⵔⴰⵜ
English: The bourgeoisie in its original sense is intimately linked to the existence of cities, recognized as such by their urban charters (e.g., municipal charters, town privileges, German town law), so there was no bourgeoisie apart from the citizenry of the cities.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵓⵔⵋⵓⴰⵣⵉ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵜⵢⵎⵢⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵎⵢⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⴷⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⴷⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ (ⵉⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ,ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⴷⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴻⵔⵉ, ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ , ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⴻⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ) ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴱⵓⵔⵋⵓⴰⵣⵉ ⵜⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ
English: Historically, the medieval French word bourgeois denoted the inhabitants of the bourgs (walled market-towns), the craftsmen, artisans, merchants, and others, who constituted "the bourgeoisie".
Tamasheq: “”ⴻⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ, ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵋⴰⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶⵢⵓⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶ ( ⵉⴶⵂⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵂⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ) ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ,ⴾⵢⵍ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵉⵓⵉⵏ “”ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶⵢⵓⵉⵙⵉ””
English: Guilds arose when individual businessmen (such as craftsmen, artisans and merchants) conflicted with their rent-seeking feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴾⴰⵔⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⵗⵓⵛⵂⴰⵉ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴼⵓⴾ (ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⵂⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴾⵢⵍ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ) ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵗⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ
English: They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵛ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶⴻⵓⵉⵙ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ
English: The names of these families are generally known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors have often contributed to the region's history.
Tamasheq: Iⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴶⵉⴷⵛⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵓⴰⵣⵣⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵂⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⴹⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
English: These people nevertheless live lavishly, enjoying the company of the great artists of the time.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵉⵙⵓⵂⴰⵗ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ
English: In the French language, the term bourgeoisie almost designates a caste by itself, even though social mobility into this socio-economic group is possible.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵜ , ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶⴻⵓⵉⵙⵉⴻ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜ ⴾⵓⴷ ⴻⵔⵂⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ
English: Hitler distrusted capitalism for being unreliable due to its egotism, and he preferred a state-directed economy that is subordinated to the interests of the Volk.
Tamasheq: ⵂⵉⵍⵜⵢⵔ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵉ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵗⵉⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ
English: Hitler also said that the business bourgeoisie "know nothing except their profit. '
Tamasheq: “ⵂⵉⵍⵜⴻⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⴶⵂⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴻⵍ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴶⴻⵓⵉⵙⵉⴻ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵉⵣⵏⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ““ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴻⵏⴰⵏ ⴶⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴾⴰⵔⵔⴰⵛⴰⵏ””
English: The utility of these things was inherent in their practical functions.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⴶⵂⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ
English: Belle de Jour (Beauty of the day, 1967) tells the story of a bourgeois wife who is bored with her marriage and decides to prostitute herself.
Tamasheq: ⴱⴻⵍⵍⴻ ⴷⴻ ⵋⵓⵓⵔ ( ⵜⵉⵂⵓⵙⵙⴰⵉ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ, ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1967) ⵉⵜ ⴰⵍⴰⴶⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⵔⴻⴶⵓⵉⵙ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴷⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵢⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵍⴾⴰⵆⴱⴰⵜ
English: In Europe, the title of Emperor has been used since the Middle Ages, considered in those times equal or almost equal in dignity to that of Pope due to the latter's position as visible head of the Church and spiritual leader of the Catholic part of Western Europe.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵂ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ, ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴱⵢⵔⵓⵔ ⵓⴰ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵋⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⵢⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⴷⴰ ⵓⴶⵂ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⴻ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴶⵍⵉⵣ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵂⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴾⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ
English: In as much as there is a strict definition of emperor, it is that an emperor has no relations implying the superiority of any other ruler and typically rules over more than one nation.
Tamasheq: ⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⴷⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴱⵢⵔⵓⵓⵔ, ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵎⴱⵢⵔⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰ ⵓⵙⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏoⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⵆⴾⴰⵎ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰ oⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ.
English: Their status was officially recognised by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1514, although not officially used by the Russian monarchs until 1547.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵜ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⵆⵉⴰⵣ ⵜⴰⵜ ⵢⵎⴱⵢⵔⵓⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵎⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1514, ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⴶⵂ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⴷⵋⵢⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵆⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵙⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ 1547
English: Such pre-Roman titles as Great King or King of Kings, used by the Kings of Persia and others, are often considered as the equivalent.
Tamasheq: Iⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⴾⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵔⵓⵓⵎⴰ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴱⵢⵔⵙⵉⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ
English: Empire became identified instead with vast territorial holdings rather than the title of its ruler by the mid-18th century.
Tamasheq: ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⴻ ⴻⵛⵓⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⴻⵏ ⴶⵂⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800
English: Ancient Romans abhorred the name Rex ("king"), and it was critical to the political order to maintain the forms and pretenses of republican rule.
Tamasheq: “ⵆⴻⵍ ⵔ ⵓⵎⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴻⵆ (““ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ””) ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⵢⴶⵂ ⵉ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⵉⴾⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⴶⵂⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ
English: Augustus, considered the first Roman emperor, established his hegemony by collecting on himself offices, titles, and honours of Republican Rome that had traditionally been distributed to different people, concentrating what had been distributed power in one man.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜⵓⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴱⴻⵔⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⴰ ⴻⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ, ⵉⴷ ⵙⴻⵎⴶⵂⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ , ⵉⴷⵓⴼ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ
English: However, it was the informal descriptive of Imperator ("commander") that became the title increasingly favored by his successors.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⴶⵂ,ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴻⵍ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵋⴻⵏⴻⵔⴰⵍ (“”ⴾⵓⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰ””) ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴾⴾⵓⵙⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵂⴰ”
English: This is one of the most enduring titles: Caesar and its transliterations appeared in every year from the time of Caesar Augustus to Tsar Simeon II of Bulgaria's removal from the throne in 1946.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵂⵢⵏ: ⵛⴰⵢⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵣⴰⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵏ ⵛⴰⴻⵙⴰⵔ Aⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜⵓⵙ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵙⴰⵔ ⵙⵉⵎⴻⵓⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ 2 ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴾⴾⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⴶⴰⵔⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⵆⵉⴰⵎⵜ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1946
English: Exceptions include the title of the Augustan History, a semi-historical collection of Emperors' biographies of the 2nd and 3rd century.
Tamasheq: ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜ ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴻⵎⴱⴻⵔⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 2 ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 3.
English: Few were however granted the title, and it was certainly not a rule that all wives of reigning Emperors would receive it.
Tamasheq: ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⴻⵂⴰ ⴰⵛ-ⴰⴾ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵢⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⴻⴶⵂⴰ ⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵗⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴷⵢⴷⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴻⵎⴱⵢⵔⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵆⴾⴰ,ⴻⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵔⵉⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ
English: In the late Republic, as in the early years of the new monarchy, Imperator was a title granted to Roman generals by their troops and the Roman Senate after a great victory, roughly comparable to field marshal (head or commander of the entire army).
Tamasheq: ⴻⴰⵗ ⵔⴻⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⴾ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵛⵔⴰⵉⴰⵜ, ⵂⴰⴾ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ , ⴾⵓⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⴾⴰⵔⵔⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵋⴻⵏⵢⵔⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵎⴱⵍ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ, ⵓⴶⴷⴰⵂ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵢⵛⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵋⴰⵍⴰ (ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⴾⵓⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⵉⵙⴾⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ)
English: The succeeding Nervan-Antonian Dynasty, ruling for most of the 2nd century, stabilised the Empire.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴶⴰⴷⴰⵛ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵔⴱⴰⵏ-ⴰⵏⵜⵓⵏⵉⴰ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ, ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴻⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⴶⴰⵜ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ.
English: Three short lived secessionist attempts had their own emperors: the Gallic Empire, the Britannic Empire, and the Palmyrene Empire though the latter used rex more regularly.
Tamasheq: Iⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵓⵋ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴱⵢⵔⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ: ⵗⴰⵍⵍⵉⵛ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⴻ, ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵉ ⴱⴰⵍⵎⵉⵔⵢⵏⵢ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵗⴰⵔⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵢⵆ
English: At one point, there were as many as five sharers of the imperium (see: Tetrarchy).
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵂ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴻⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵜⵓⵣⴰⵏⵏⵢⵏ Iⵎⴱⵢⵔⵉⵓⵎ (ⵉⴾⵉⵉⴷ: ⵟⴻⵜⵔⴰⵛⵂⵉ)
English: The city is more commonly called Constantinople and is today named Istanbul).
Tamasheq: ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⴶⵂⵉⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵢ ⵙ ⴰⵛⵂⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵢⵜ Iⵙⵜⴰⵏⴱⵓⵍ)
English: These Later Roman "Byzantine" Emperors completed the transition from the idea of the Emperor as a semi-republican official to the Emperor as an absolute monarch.
Tamasheq: “ⵆⵢⵍ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ Iⵎⵉⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍⴻⵏ ⵏ ““ⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ”” ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵋⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵔⴻⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⴾ ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ”.
English: Byzantine period emperors also used the Greek word "autokrator", meaning "one who rules himself", or "monarch", which was traditionally used by Greek writers to translate the Latin dictator.
Tamasheq: “ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵎⴱⵢⵔⵓⵎⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵓⴰⵏ “”ⴰⵓⵜⵓⴾⵔⴰⵜⵓⵔ”” ⴰⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ “”ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵆⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ”” ⵎⵢⴶⵂ “”ⵎⵓⵏⴰⵔⴾ”” ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵙ ⴶⵂⴰⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴾⵜⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⴾ ⵢⵉⴾⵜⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴾⴰⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ””
English: In fact, none of these (and other) additional epithets and titles had ever been completely discarded.
Tamasheq: ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜ,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⵉⵉⵉⴻⴷ) ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴾⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴻⵜ.
English: Following the tragedy of the horrific sacking of the city, the conquerors declared a new "Empire of Romania", known to historians as the Latin Empire of Constantinople, installing Baldwin IX, Count of Flanders, as Emperor.
Tamasheq: “” ⵢⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⵏⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵍⴰⴱⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴻⴶⵂⵛⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ, ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉ ⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴻⵎⵢⵍ ⵏ “”ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵕoⵎⴰⵏⵉⴰ”” ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵗⴰⵔⵔⵉⵎ ⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⴻⵆ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ Lⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ Eⵎⴱⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⴻ, ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵆⴾⴰⵎ ⵢⵔⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵍⴷⵓⵉⵏ Iⵆ ⵏ ⴼⵍⴰⵏⴷⵢⵔⵙ””
English: From the time of Otto the Great onward, much of the former Carolingian kingdom of Eastern Francia became the Holy Roman Empire.
Tamasheq: ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵔⵓⵍⵉⵏⴶⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵈⴰⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵓⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵓⵉⵍⵉⵜ
English: This junior King then bore the title of Roman King (King of the Romans).
Tamasheq: ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵓⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ( ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ)
English: The Holy Roman Emperor was considered the first among those in power.
Tamasheq: ⴻⵎⴱⵓⵔⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵍⵉ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵂⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ
English: Geography is often defined in terms of two branches: human geography and physical geography.
Tamasheq: ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⴶⵂⵏⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴶⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵓⵏ: ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
English: Traditionally, geography has been associated with cartography and place names.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵂ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵓⵆ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⴰⵔⴷⵓ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ
English: Because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, climate, plants and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary.
Tamasheq: ⴼⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⴷⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵓⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴾⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ, ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵆⴰⵜ, ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵉⵂⵉⵙⵂⴾⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵣⴻⵋ,ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵓⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵓⵏ
English: The former largely focuses on the built environment and how humans create, view, manage, and influence space.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵓⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ, ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
English: It requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography, like the ways that human societies conceptualize the environment.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵛⵂⵓⵛⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
English: The study of systems larger than the Earth itself usually forms part of Astronomy or Cosmology.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴻⴶⵂⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴻⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴶⵂⴰⵔⴻ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵜⴰⵂⴰ ⴰⵛⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵈ ⵉⴷ ⵈⵓⵏⵉⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
English: Regional science: In the 1950s, the regional science movement led by Walter Isard arose to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the descriptive tendencies of traditional geography programs.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ: ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1950, ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔ Wⴰⵍⵜⵔ Iⵙⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⵉⴾⴼⴰ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵣⴰⴱ ⵓⵍⴰⴶⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵉⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵂ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵔⵓⴶⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰⵍ ⴰⴶⵂⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
English: Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵙⵉⴾⴾⵉⵔⴷⵉ ⵉⵓ-ⵉⴷ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴻⴾⵏⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵉⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ
English: In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems.
Tamasheq: ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙⵉⵓⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⴷⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵗIⵙ ⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⵢⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵢⵎ ⵜⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ
English: Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields, including hydrology, geology, petroleum exploration, weather analysis, urban planning, logistics, and epidemiology.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵆⵉⵙⴰⴱ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⴰⵆⴷⵓⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴻⵂⴰ ⵉⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴾ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵔⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ, ⵉⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵜⵔⵓⵍ , ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵈⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴻⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵉⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵢⵆⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
English: The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria, Urartu, and several cities, in turn surrounded by a "bitter river" (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star.
Tamasheq: “ⵆⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰ ⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵢⵛⴾⵂⴰⵔⴷ ⵓⵏⴶⴰⵔ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⴾⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵓⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴻⵓⴱⵂⵔⴰⵜⵢⵙ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵍⴰⵉⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵋⵉⵍⵉⵍⵍⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⴾⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵔⵉⴰ , ⵓⵔⴰⵔⵜⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴻⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵂⵍⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ “ⵢⵋⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⴰⵏ” ( Oⵛⵢⴰⵏⵓⵙ) ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵉⵋⵉⵍⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴰⵗⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵜⵔⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵉⵙⴾⴰⵓⴰⵏ”
English: In contrast to the Imago Mundi, an earlier Babylonian world map dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent.
Tamasheq: ⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ Iⵎⴰⴶⵓ ⵎⵓⵏⴷⵉ, ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 900 ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⴱⵉ ⴶⵂⵉⵙⴰ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵋ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵓⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⵔⴰⴾⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵋⵋⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴾⵓⴷⴷⵢⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵛ-ⴰⴾ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ
English: Thales is also credited with the prediction of eclipses.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵂⴰⵍⵢⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⴻⵗ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⴶⵂⵔⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵉⴾⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵎⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵉⵓⵔ
English: There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the Earth is spherical in shape, with the credit going either to Parmenides or Pythagoras.
Tamasheq: Iⵍⵢ ⵎⴰⵋⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵗⵢⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵉⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵓⵢⵏ ,ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵋⴰⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵎⵢⵏⵉⴷⴻⵙ ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⴱⵉⵜⵂⴰⴶⵓⵔⴰⵙ
English: One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by Eratosthenes.
Tamasheq: Iⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵎⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵔⴰⴷⵉⵓⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵉ ⵢⵔⴰⵜⵓⵙⵜⵂⵓⵏⵓⵙ
English: The meridians were sub-divided into 360°, with each degree further subdivided into 60 (minutes).
Tamasheq: ⵎⵉⴻⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ 360 ⵏ ⴷⵢⴶⵔ ⵙ ⵂⴰⴾ ⴷⵢⴶⵔⵢ ⴷⵢⴶⵂ ⴰⵣⵓⵏ ⵙ 60 ⵏ (ⵎⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ)
English: He extended the work of Hipparchus, using a grid system on his maps and adopting a length of 56.5 miles for a degree.
Tamasheq: Iⵙⵙⵢⵓⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵂⵉⴱⴱⵓⵔⵛⵂⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵆⴷⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⴻⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵉⵉⴰⵋ ⴼⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⴶⵂⵓⴰⴷ 56.5 ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴾⵉⵍⵓⵎⴻⵜⵉⵔ ⵉ ⴷⵢⴶⵔⴻ
English: During the Middle Ages, the fall of the Roman empire led to a shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the Islamic world.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ, ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵎⵉⵙ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⴶⵂⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ
English: Further, Islamic scholars translated and interpreted the earlier works of the Romans and the Greeks and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for this purpose.
Tamasheq: ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ , ⵉⵎⴰⴶⵂⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵙⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵉⵙⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ,ⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴾⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⴶⴷⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ
English: Abu Rayhan Biruni (976–1048) first described a polar equi-azimuthal equidistant projection of the celestial sphere.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴱⵓ ⵔⴰⵉⵂⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵓⵏⵉ (ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 976 ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ 1048) ⵉⵍⵍⴰⴶⵗⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ oⴶⴷⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⵉⵔⵓⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ
English: He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of mountains, depths of the valleys, and expanse of the horizon.
Tamasheq: Iⵛⴰⵏⵏⴰⵛⵋⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⴻⴾⵏⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⵏⴻⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⴾⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵗⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵛⵂⵉⵋⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵋ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
English: The problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location.
Tamasheq: ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵎⵓⵙⵜⴰⴾⵛⵉⴼ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴾⴻⵍ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵂⵔⵉⴾⴻ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴷⵢⴶⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ
English: The 18th and the 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete academic discipline, and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin).
Tamasheq: ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1800 ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ 1900 ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵜⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵜoⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⵔⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴶⵂⴰⵔⵢⵜⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⴾⴾⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵢⵔⵓⴱⴰ ( ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵢⵔⵍⵉⵏ)
English: Over the past two centuries, the advancements in technology with computers have led to the development of geomatics and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography's portfolio of tools.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴰⵗ 2 ⴰⴼⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⴾⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴻⴾⵏⵓⵍⵋⵉ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵋⵉⵢⵎⴰⵏⵜⵉⴾ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴶⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⴷⵉⵎ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⵙⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵛⵏⵢⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ
English: Arnold Henry Guyot (1807–1884) – noted the structure of glaciers and advanced understanding in glacier motion, especially in fast ice flow.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵔⵏⵓⵍⴷ ⵂⵢⵔⵉ ⵗⵓⵉⵓⵜ (ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1807 ⵂⴰⵔ 1884) - ⵉⴾⵜⴰⴱ ⵓⵗⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵉⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴶⵍⴰⵛⵉⵢⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵂⴰⵎ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵛⴰⵓⴰⵏⴾⴰⵜ ⴶⵍⴰⵛⵉⵢⵔ ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵎⴻⴷⵏⵢⵏ
English: William Morris Davis (1850–1934) – father of American geography and developer of the cycle of erosion.
Tamasheq: ⵓⵉⵍⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⵎⵓⵔⵔⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⴱⵉⵙ ( ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1850 ⵂⴰⵔ 1934) - ⵉⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴼⵢⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴶⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ
English: Ellen Churchill Semple (1863–1932) – first female president of the Association of American Geographers.
Tamasheq: ⵢⵍⵍⴻⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵔⵛⵂⵉⵍ ⵙⴻⵎⴱⵍⴻ ( ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1863 ⵂⴰⵔ 1932) ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵂⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴾ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: Walter Christaller (1893–1969) – human geographer and inventor of Central place theory.
Tamasheq: ⵓⴰⵍⵜⵢⵔ ⵛⵂⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵍⵉⵢⵔ ( ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1893 ⵂⴰⵔ 1969) - ⴰⵓ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⴰⴾ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵣⵔⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ
English: David Harvey (born 1935) – Marxist geographer and author of theories on spatial and urban geography, winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⵂⴰⵔⴱⵢⵉ ( ⵉⵓⴰ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1935) - ⴰⵓ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵆⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵣⵔⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵋⵓⵄⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ , ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴷⵢⵗ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵓⵛⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵓⵜⵔⵉⵏ ⵍⵓⴷ
English: In some cases, a distinction is made between the official (constitutional) capital and the seat of government, which is in another place.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴰⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵣⵍⴰⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵆⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ( ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ) ⵉⴷ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ
English: Examples are ancient Babylon, Abbasid Baghdad, ancient Athens, Rome, Bratislava, Budapest, Constantinople, Chang'an, ancient Cusco, Kyiv, Madrid, Paris, Podgorica, London, Beijing, Prague, Tallinn, Tokyo, Lisbon, Riga, Vilnius, and Warsaw.
Tamasheq: Iⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ , ⴰⴱⴱⴰⵙⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⴶⵂⴷⴰⴷ, ⴰⵜⵂⴻⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ, ⵜⵓⵎⴰ, ⴱⵔⴰⵜⵉⵙⵍⴰvⴰ, ⴱⵓⴷⴰⴱⴻⵙⵜ, ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍ, ⵛⵂⴰⵏ’ⴰⵏ, ⵛⵓⵙⵛo ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ, ⵆⵉⵉv, ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⴷ, ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ, ⴱⵓⴷⴶⵓⵔⵉⵛⴰ, ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵔⵢ, , ⴱⵔⴰⴶⵓⵢ, ⵟⴰⵍⵍⵉⵏⵏ, ⵟⵓⴾⵉⵢ, ⵍⵉⵙⴱⵓⵏ, ⵔⵉⴶⴰ, ⴷⵉⵍⵏⵉⵓⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵔⵙⴰⵓ
English: In some countries, the capital has been changed for geopolitical reasons; Finland's first city, Turku, which had served as the country's capital since the Middle Ages under the Swedish rule, lost its right during the Grand Duchy of Finland in 1812, when Helsinki was made the current capital of Finland by the Russian Empire.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴼⵉⴰ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ; ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ Fⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵆⴾⴰⵎ ⵙⵓⴻⴷⴻ, ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵢⵜ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵗⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵢⵓⵛⵂⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1812 ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵢⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ ⵂⵢⵍⵙⵉⵏⴾⵉ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ
English: In Canada, there is a federal capital, while the ten provinces and three territories each have capital cities.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴰⴶⵂ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ, ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ 10 ⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ 3 ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵜ
English: In Australia, the term "capital cities" is regularly used to refer to those six state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra, and Darwin, the capital of the Northern Territory.
Tamasheq: “ⵢⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⴰ , ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ““ ⵆⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ”” ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰ ⵉⴶⵍⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⴷⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵓⵓⵉⴷ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵛⴰⵏⴱⴻⵔⵔⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⴰⵔⵓⵉⵏ, ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ”
English: Unlike in federations, there is usually not a separate national capital, but rather the capital city of one constituent nation will also be the capital of the state overall, such as London, which is the capital of England and of the United Kingdom.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵓⵂⴰⵔⵏⵢⵏ,ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⵓⴰ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴰⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⵜⵢⴷ ⵆⵉⵏⴶⴷⵓⵎ
English: The national capitals of Germany and Russia (the Stadtstaat of Berlin and the federal city of Moscow) are also constituent states of both countries in their own right.
Tamasheq: ⵆⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵗⵢⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉⴰ ( ⵙⵜⴰⴷⵜⵙⵜⴰⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵓ ⵢⵔⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⵛⵓⵓ) ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵈ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ
English: Frankfort, Kentucky, midway between Louisville and Lexington.
Tamasheq: ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴾⴼⵓⵔⵜ, ⵆⵢⵏⵜⵓⵛⴾⵉ, ⵎⵉⴷⵓⴰⵉ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵍⵓⵓⵉⴱⵉⵍⵍⴻ ⵉⴷ ⵍⴻⵆⵉⵏⴶⵜⵓ
English: Tallahassee, Florida, chosen as the midpoint between Pensacola and St. Augustine, Florida – then the two largest cities in Florida.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵂⴰⵙⵙ,,ⵢⵢ, ⵂⵍⵓⵔⴷⵉⴰ, ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⵋⴰⵔⵢⵉⵋⴰⵔⵢⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵢⵏⵙⴰⵛoⵍⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵜ ⴰⵓⴶⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏⴻ, ⴼⵍⵓⵔⴷⵉⴰ- ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⴻⵏ ⵏ 2 ⵜⵉ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⵉⴷⴰ
English: Changes in a nation's political regime sometimes result in the designation of a new capital.
Tamasheq: Iⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵣⴰⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵓⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ
English: When the Canary Islands became an autonomous community in 1982, Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria were both given capital status.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵉⵔⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⴻⵆⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵜ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1982,ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵛⵔⵓⵣ ⴷⴻ ⵟ,ⵢⵏⵢⵔⵉⴼⴻ ⵉⴷ ⵍⴰⵙ ⴱⴰⵍⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴻ ⵗⵔⴰⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⴰⵔⵉⴰ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ
English: Estonia: the Supreme Court and the Ministry of Education and Research are located in Tartu.
Tamasheq: ⵢⵙⵜⵓⵏⵉⴰ: ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵟⵢⵗⴰⵔⴻ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵟⴰⵔⵜⵓ
English: In case of emergency, the seat of the constitutional powers can be transferred to another town, in order for the Houses of Parliament to sit in the same location as the President and Cabinet.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵗⴰⵜⴻⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵎⴰⴷⴰⵜ, ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵉⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵢⴱⵉⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵗⴰⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴰ ⵢⵂⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ
English: The entire state machinery shifts from one city to another every six months.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵂⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⵂⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴶⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ 6 ⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ
English: Dharamshala, which is also the headquarters of the Central Tibetan Administration, is the second winter capital of the state.
Tamasheq: ⵢⵂⴰⵔⴰⵎⵙⵂⴰⵍⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉⵉⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵟⵉⴱⴻⵜⵉ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴻⵙⴰⵎⴻⴷ
English: The city itself is administered as a Union territory.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵆⴰⴾⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⴻⵔⵜⴰⵉⴰⵏ
English: Uttarakhand: Dehradun is the administrative and legislative capital, while the high court is located in Nainital.
Tamasheq: ⵓⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰⴾⵂⴰⵏⴷ: ⵢⵢⵂⵔⴰⴷⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵔⵓⵉⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⵢⵗⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴻⵂⴰ ⵎⴰⵉⵏⵉⵜⴰⵍ
English: Its construction started in 1960 and was completed in 1966.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴷⴻⵉ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⴰⵏ 1960 ⵉⵎⴷⴰ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1966
English: The presidential palace (Malacanang Palace) and the Supreme Court are located within the capital city but the two houses of Congress are located in separate suburbs.
Tamasheq: ⴱⵉⵔⵓ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ( ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵛⴰⵏⴰⵏⴶ ⴱⵍⴰⵛⴻ) ⵉⴷ ⴻⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵔⴻⵗⴰ ⵓⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ
English: Sri Lanka: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte is designated the administrative capital and the location of the parliament, while the former capital, Colombo, is now designated as the "commercial capital".
Tamasheq: “ⵙⵔⵉ ⵍⴰⵏⴾⴰ: ,ⵙⵔⵉ ⵋⴰⵉⴰⵓⴰⵔⴷⵢⵏⵢⴱⵓⵔⴰ ⴾⵓⵜⵜⴻ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵔⵓⵉⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵢⵂⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ ⵛⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ “”ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ””
English: South Africa: The administrative capital is Pretoria, the legislative capital is Cape Town, and the judicial capital is Bloemfontein.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵊⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ , ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉ ⴾⵔⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⴹⴰⴾⵓⴹⵏ ⴰⵌⵓⴾ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⵏ ⴷⵗ ⴰⴷⴶ ⵊⵓⴾ
English: Switzerland: Bern is the Federal City of Switzerland and functions as de facto capital.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵓⵢⵏⴷⵗ ⴰⵙ GPS Receiver ⵜⵏ ⴰⴶⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⵊⴰⵙⵏ ⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⵟⴰⴱⵍ ⵏⴰⵎⵜⴾⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⵙⵢⵍⵎⴰⴷⵜ ⴰⴹⴾⵓⴹ ⵏ ⴰⴴⴰⵔⴰⵓ
English: Also similar to Illinois and New York State, most statewide elected officials and officers who are based in Southeast Pennsylvania (City of Philadelphia, Bucks County, Montgomery County, Delaware County, and Chester County) prefer working mostly in Philadelphia.
Tamasheq: ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ Iⵍⵍⵉⵏⵓⵉⵙ ⵉⴷ Nⵢⵓ ⵗⵓⵔⴾ, ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵂⴰ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵓⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴾⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⴶⵂⵏⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵈⵉⴱⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵢⵏⵏⵙⵉⵍvⴰⵏⵉⴰ ( ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵂⵉⵍⴰⴷⵢⵍⴱⵂⵉⴰ, ⴱⵓⵛⴾⵙ ⵛⵓⵓⵏⵜⵉ, ⵎⵓⵏⵜⴶⵓⵎⵢⵔⵉ ⵛⵓⵓⵏⵜⵉ, ⵢⵢⵍⵓⴰⵔⵢ ⵛⵢⵓⵏⵜⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵛⵂⴻⵙⵜⴻⵔ ⵛⵓⵓⵏⵜⵉ) ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⵉⴷⵎⴰⵜ ⴷⴰ
English: Israel and Palestine: Both the Government of Israel and the Palestinian Authority claim Jerusalem as their capital.
Tamasheq: Iⵣⵔⴰⵉⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⵏ: ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ Iⵣⴰⵉⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴶⵂⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵋⵢⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⴾ
English: A symbolic relocation of a capital city to a geographically or demographically peripheral location may be for either economic or strategic reasons (sometimes known as a forward capital or spearhead capital).
Tamasheq: ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵢⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵂⵓⵂⵉⵏ ⵓⴰ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⵋⵓⴶⵔⴰⴱⵂⵉⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵢⵈⵈⵢⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴼⴰⵍⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴻ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⴻⵗ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵍⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⴰⴾⵔⴰ ( ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵎⴻⴶⵂ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵗ
English: The Ming emperors moved their capital to Beijing from the more central Nanjing to help supervise the border with the Mongols.
Tamasheq: ⵢⵎⴱⵢⵔⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⴶ ⵙ ⴰⵂⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴱⵢⵉⵋⵉⵏⴶ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ Nⴰⵏⵋⵉⵏⴶ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵂⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵋⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⵉⴰⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵆⴷⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⴶⵓⵍⵙ
English: Delhi finally became the colonial capital after the Coronation Durbar of King-Emperor George V in 1911, continuing as independent India's capital from 1947.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴰⵗ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⵉ ⵢⵢⵍⵂⵉ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵆⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵢⵗⵎⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴾⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵔⴰⵉⵉⵙ ⴹⵓⵔⴱⴰⵔ ⵗⵢoⵔⴶⴻ ⵠ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1911 ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵆⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ Iⵏⴷⵉⴰ ⵜⵉⴶⵔⴰⵓⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⴰⵍ ⵏⴻⵜ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1947.
English: Sometimes, the location of a new capital city was chosen to terminate actual or potential squabbling between various entities, such as in the cases of Canberra, Ottawa, Washington, Wellington and Managua.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ, ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵢⵉⵏⴰⵉⴰⵜ ⵉⵜ-ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵛⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⴻⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⵢⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⴻⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵓⴰ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵛⴰⵏⴱⵢⵔⵔⴰ, Oⵜⵜⴰⵓⴰ, ⵓⴰⵙⵂⵉⵏⴶⵜⵓⵏ, ⵓⵢⵍⵍⵉⵏⴶⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⴶⵓⴰ
English: In the Three Kingdoms period, both Shu and Wu fell when their respective capitals of Chengdu and Jianye fell.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴰⴰⴶⵂ ⴾⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵍⵉⴾⵉⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵙⵂⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵓ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈ ⵓⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵜ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵢⵏⴶⴷⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴰⵏⵉⵢ
English: After the Qing dynasty's collapse, decentralization of authority and improved transportation and communication technologies allowed both the Chinese Nationalists and Chinese Communists to rapidly relocate capitals and keep their leadership structures intact during the great crisis of Japanese invasion.
Tamasheq: ⵗⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵍ-ⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵔⵉⵏⴶ, ⴷⵢⵙⵢⵏⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⵣⴰⵙⵉoⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴾⵏⵓⵍoⵋⵉ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⴾⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴻⵔⴰⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵓⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴾⵓⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴻ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵂⵓⵂⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⴰⴶⵉⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴶⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵏⵓⴾⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵉⴾ ⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⵢⵜⴻ ⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵣ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵋⴰⴱⵓⵏ
English: It can be defined as a permanent and densely settled place with administratively defined boundaries whose members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵈⵈⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵙ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⵉⴷⵏⴰⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴱⴷⴰ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵆⴰⴷⴷⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⴶⵂⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵋⵋⴰⵙⵜ
English: Historically, city-dwellers have been a small proportion of humanity overall, but following two centuries of unprecedented and rapid urbanization, more than half of the world population now lives in cities, which has had profound consequences for global sustainability.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵢⵆ, ⵉⵎⴰⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴾⴱⵉⵣⵣⵢⵜ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⴼⵓⴾ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵙ ⴾⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵋⵋⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵔⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵈ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴶⵂⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰ ⵓⵋⵋⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ,ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴶⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⵍⵉⵎ
English: This increased influence means that cities also have significant influences on global issues, such as sustainable development, global warming and global health.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵓ-ⵉ-ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵗⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵛⴰⴾⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⴻⴼⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵗⵍⴰⵍ, ⵜⵓⴾⵉⵙⴻ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴻⵆⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵗⴰⵍⵉⵎ
English: Therefore, compact cities are often referred to as a crucial element of fighting climate change.
Tamasheq: ⵆⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⴰⵎⵎⵉⵙⴰⵙⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙoⵂⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ
English: For example, country capitals such as Beijing, London, Mexico City, Moscow, Nairobi, New Delhi, Paris, Rome, Athens, Seoul, Tokyo, and Washington, D.C. reflect the identity and apex of their respective nations.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵍ, ⴾⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵛⵂⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⵢⵉⵋⵉⵏⴶ, ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵔⵢ, ⵎⵢⵆⵉⵛⵓ ⵛⵉⵜⵉ, ⵎⵓⵙⵛⵓⵓ, ⵏⴰⵉⵔⵓⴱⵉ, ⵏⵢⵓ ⵢⵢⵍⵂⵉ, ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ, ⵔⵓⵎⴰ, ⴰⵜⵂⵢⵏⵢ, ⵙⵢⵓⵓⵍ, ⵟⵓⴾⵉⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵂⴰⵙⵉⵏⴶⵜⵓⵏ ⵢ.ⵛ ⵢⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⴾⴰⵔⵜⵉⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⴾ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ
English: The city may be looked on as a story, a pattern of relations between human groups, a production and distribution space, a field of physical force, a set of linked decisions, or an arena of conflict.
Tamasheq: ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⵉⵎⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵜ, ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵉⵙⵙⴰ, ⴻⴷⴰⴶ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ, ⵎⵢⴶⵂ ⴱⴰⵜⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⵙ.
English: National censuses use a variety of definitions - invoking factors such as population, population density, number of dwellings, economic function, and infrastructure - to classify populations as urban.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⴾⴾⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ- ⵋⴰⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴱⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ, ⵉⵋⵋⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⵗⵉⴱ, ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵗⵢⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵛⵗⵓⵍⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ- ⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵂⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵗⵣⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵂⴰⴶⵂⵉⴱ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵉⵎ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵗⴰⵣⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ
English: The mutual interdependence of town and country has one consequence so obvious that it is easily overlooked: at the global scale, cities are generally confined to areas capable of supporting a permanent agricultural population.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵋⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴾⵎⴰ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⵋⵢⵔ ⵂⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵔⴰⵈⵈⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵓⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵔⵉ:ⴹⴰⵗ ⵜⴰⵂⵉⵔⵉⴾ , ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵏ ⵂⴰⵔⴾⵓⴾ ⴰⵗⴰⴱⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵗⵉⴱ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵓⵉⵋⵋⴰⵙⵜ
English: As cities grew in complexity, the major civic institutions, from seats of government to religious buildings, would also come to dominate these points of convergence.
Tamasheq: Iⵛⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵔⵎⵓⴷ, ⵜⵉⴶⵉⵜⵜⴰⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵈⵈⵓⵔⵏⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵗⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴾⵓⵎⴰⵜ ⵂⴰⵔ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴰ ⵂⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵏⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴱⴰⵈⵈⴰ ⵜⵉ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⴼⵂⴰⵎ
English: Physical environment generally constrains the form in which a city is built.
Tamasheq: ⵜⴰⵗⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵂⵉⵏⵣⴰⵣⴰⵗ ⴰⵍⵓⴰⵈⵈⴰⵏ ⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵈⵈⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵂⴰⵛⵉⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵉ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ
English: And it may be set up for optimal defense given the surrounding landscape.
Tamasheq: ⵆⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴻⴶⵓ ⴻⴷⴻⵉ ⵉ ⴰⴶ-ⴰⵣ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵗⵏⴰ ⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴶⵂⵍⴰⵉ ⵂⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵆⵍⵓⴾ ⴰⵋⵋⵢⵜ
English: This form could evolve from successive growth over a long time, with concentric traces of town walls and citadels marking older city boundaries.
Tamasheq: Iⵛⵛⵉⴾⵉⵍ ⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵢⴱⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵓ-ⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵋⵔⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⵉⵔⵛⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵗⴰⵍⴰⵉⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴶⵂⵔⵉⵎ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵉⵜⴰⴷⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵛⵓⴰⵍⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵗⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓ
English: In cities such as Moscow, this pattern is still clearly visible.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴰⵗ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⵛⵓⵓ, ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵓⵋ ⵛⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵂⴰⵔ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⴷⵉ
English: Excavations in these areas have found the ruins of cities geared variously towards trade, politics, or religion.
Tamasheq: Iⵗⵢⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵔⴰⵓⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⵉⵔⵛⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰ, ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⴾ ⵎⵢⵗ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ
English: China's planned cities were constructed according to sacred principles to act as celestial microcosms.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵋⵋⴰ ⵛⵂⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵙⵢⵎⵗⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵈⵈⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵔⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰⵓⴰⵏ
English: These sites appear planned in a highly regimented and stratified fashion, with a minimalistic grid of rooms for the workers and increasingly more elaborate housing available for higher classes.
Tamasheq: ⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴷⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴾⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵓⵉⵣⵣⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴶⵔⵉⵉⴰⵋ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵂⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜⴻⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵆⴷⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⵉⵋⵋⴰⵏⵏ ⵢⴾⵢⵜ ⵓⵍⴰⵗⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰ ⵓⵉⵏ ⴾⵢⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ
English: In the following centuries, independent city-states of Greece, especially Athens, developed the polis, an association of male landowning citizens who collectively constituted the city.
Tamasheq: ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵓⵉⵜⵉⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⵉⵍⴾⴰⵎⵏⵢⵏ , ⵉⴾⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵗⵔⵢⵢⵛⵢ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵢⵆⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⴰⵙⴰⵏ,ⵂⵓⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵂⵢⵏⵢⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⵙ, ⵜⴰⴶⴰⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴾⵓⵍ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵓⵉⵏ ⵎⴻⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵉ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⴾⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵔⵓⴰⵙⵏⵢⵏ
English: Under the authority of its empire, Rome transformed and founded many cities (coloniae), and with them brought its principles of urban architecture, design, and society.
Tamasheq: ⵗⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵏⵢⵜ, ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⴰⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵉ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋoⵜⵏⴻⵏ (ⵛⵓⵏⴰⴻ) ⵙ ⵜⵢⵓⴰⵉ ⵙⵉⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴾⴰⵔⵓⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⵂⴰⵏⴰⵉ ⵏⵢⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴷⵓⵗⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵜ
English: The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru.
Tamasheq: ⴰⵜⵜⴰⴱⵉⴰ ⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵜⴻ ⵛⵂⵉⵛⵓ ⴰⵂⴰⵏ ⵜⵉ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⴾⵓⴷ ⵏ 30 ⵉⵂⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⴶⵂⵉⴱ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵓⴰ ⴻⵈⵈⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵓⵔⵜⴻ ⵛⵂⵉⵛo , ⵔⵢⵋⵉⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⴶⵂ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵢⵔⵓⵙ
English: The locus of power in the West shifted to Constantinople and to the ascendant Islamic civilization with its major cities Baghdad, Cairo, and Córdoba.
Tamasheq: ⵢⴷⴰⴶ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵉⴰ ⴷⴰⵗ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⵔⴰⴾ ⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵛⵓⵏⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⴻ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵆⴰⴷⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵗⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴰⵋⵋⵓⵜⵏⵢⵏ ⴱⴰⴷⴶⴷⴰⴷ, ⵛⴰⵉⵔⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵛⵓⵔⴷⵓⴱⴰ
English: By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, some cities become powerful states, taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires.
Tamasheq: ⵗⵂⵓⵔ ⴰⵓⴰⵜⴰⵉ ⵓⴰⵏ 1300 ⵂⴰⵔ ⵓⴰⵏ 1400 , ⵜⵉⴶⵂⴰⵔⵎⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵉⵉⴰⴷ ⵉⴾⵔⴰⵛ ⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵂⴰⵜ , ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴷⴰⴶⴰⵏ ⵂⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴶⵂⵍⴰⵉⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⵢⵗ ⵉⴷⴰⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴻⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵋⵉⵔⴰⵏ