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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8619029

The fair trade debate is a debate surrounding the ethics and alleged economic implications of fair trade as well as alleged issues with the Fairtrade brand. Some criticisms have been raised about fair trade systems. One 2015 study in a journal published by the MIT Press concluded that producer benefits were close to zero because there was an oversupply of certification, and only a fraction of produce classified as Fair Trade was actually sold on Fair Trade markets, just enough to recoup the costs of certification. A study published by the Journal of Economic Perspecitives however suggests that Fair Trade does achieve many of its intended goals, although on a comparatively modest scale relative to the size of national economies. Some research indicates that the implementation of certain fair trade standards can cause greater inequalities in some markets where these rigid rules are inappropriate for the specific market. In the fair trade debate, there are complaints of failure to enforce the fair trade standards, with producers, cooperatives, importers and packers profiting by evading them. Although there is evidence to suggest that consumers buy fair trade goods for a variety of reasons, some are willing to pay more for Fairtrade certified products – for example, in the belief that this helps the very poor. Critics of the Fairtrade brand have argued against the system on an ethical basis, stating that the system diverts profits from the poorest farmers, and that the profit is received by corporate firms. It has been argued that this causes "death and destitution". This has been used as evidence to doubt that much of the extra money paid reaches farmers, and that there is reason to believe that Fairtrade harms non-Fairtrade farmers. There are criticisms that false claims made for fair trade and the withholding of relevant information constitute Unfair Trading under EU law. However, pro-Fairtrade researcher Alastair Smith claims that while some of these criticisms are grounded in acceptable standards of evidence (and deserve serious attention), others are less well elaborated, and that in a few cases, the criticisms presented are assertions with little or no credible evidence to support them. However, these claims have themselves been criticized on matters of fact, theory, methodology, use of evidence and incorrect citations. What happens to the money. Little money reaches the developing world. The evidence available suggests that little of the extra money paid by consumers actually reaches the farmers. The Fairtrade Foundation does not monitor how much more money retailers charge for Fairtrade goods. Furthermore, retailers almost never sell identical Fairtrade and non-Fairtrade lines side by side, so it is rarely possible to determine how much extra is charged or how much reaches the producers in spite of Unfair Trading legislation. In a very few cases, it has been possible to find out. One British café chain was passing less than one percent of the extra charged to the exporting cooperative; in Finland, Valkila, Haaparanta and Niemi found that consumers paid much more for Fairtrade, and that only 11.5% of that reached the exporter. Kilian, Jones, Pratt and Villalobos talk of US Fairtrade coffee getting $5 per lb extra at retail, of which the exporter would have received only 2%. Mendoza and Bastiaensen calculated that in the UK only 1.6% to 18% of the extra charged for one product line reached the farmer. Critics claim that many counter-examples would be needed to show that these are not typical. Since Fairtrade charges a 1.9% licensing fee at wholesale, the maximum that reaches the developing world, even if traders charge unrealistically low margins, is 50%, and a much smaller amount would reach the target farmers. The Fairtrade Foundation does not monitor how much of the extra money paid to the exporting cooperatives reaches the farmer. The cooperatives incur certification and inspection fees, additional marketing costs, costs in meeting the Fairtrade political standards, and possibly costs arising from the monopoly power of the cooperative. Farmers also incur additional production costs on all of their production, even if only a small amount is sold at Fairtrade prices. Over the years, Fairtrade producers have only been able to sell 18% to 37% of their output as Fairtrade certified, selling the rest without certification at market prices. While both proponents and opponents of Fairtrade acknowledge this problem, there are scarce economic studies presenting the actual revenues of Fairtrade cooperatives and how they spend their money. Weber (2006) examined the additional marketing costs of some cooperatives and found, for example, that '... after six years Oro Verde can cover only 70 percent of its [additional marketing] costs with its current income stream' and that the cooperative needs to double its current annual export volume in order to sustain its management team. At the time they were losing money on their Fairtrade membership. FLO figures show that 40% of the money reaching the developing world is spent on 'business and production', which includes the costs mentioned above as well as costs incurred by any inefficiency and corruption in the cooperative or the marketing system. The rest is spent on social projects, rather than being passed on to farmers. There is no evidence that Fairtrade farmers get higher prices on average . Some anecdotes state farmers are paid more by traders than by Fairtrade cooperatives and some state that they were paid less. Few of these anecdotes address the problems of price reporting in developing world markets, and few appreciate the complexity of different price packages. A different price package may or may not include credit, harvesting, transport, processing, etc. Cooperatives typically average prices over the year, so they may pay more or less than traders, depending on the day. Bassett (2009) is able to compare prices only where Fairtrade and non-Fairtrade farmers have to sell cotton to the same monopsonistic ginneries, which pay low prices. Prices would have to be higher to compensate farmers for the increased costs of producing Fairtrade. For instance, when Fairtrade encouraged Nicaraguan farmers to switch to organic coffee, they earned a higher price per pound but a lower net income because of higher costs and lower yields. Some critics argue that there have been very few fair trade impact studies. Griffiths (2011) says that very few of the attempts made meet the normal standards for an impact evaluation, such as comparing the before and after situation, having meaningful control groups, allowing for the fact that Fairtrade recruits farmers who are already better off, allowing for the fact that a Fairtrade cooperative receives aid from a dozen other organizations – government departments, aid agencies, donor countries, and NGOs, and allowing for the fact that Fairtrade may harm other farmers. Other serious methodological problems arise in sampling, in comparing prices, and from the fact that the social projects of Fairtrade do not usually aim to produce economic benefits. Indeed, due to the snapshot nature of research, few studies include how long producers have been involved with fair trade. A further significant problem is that most studies ignore the agency and perspective of producer decision makers, especially the farmers excluded from the Fairtrade system. Capturing such socially constructed benefit, including that of confidence in business relationships, is notoriously difficult to capture. An important distinction when discussing Fairtrade is the difference between impact studies and case studies. Case studies are valuable for, among other things, researching specific systems and sub-systems, for constructing models, and for identifying problems. However, the impacts noted cannot be extrapolated generally. For instance, if a hundred dairy farms lose money, this does not mean that all or most dairy farms do. There are a lot of case studies on Fairtrade, but many are erroneously referred to as impact studies. An unpublished consultancy report prepared for Fairtrade claims to have found only 33 studies that met their criteria for impact studies (which accept studies that would not be acceptable to the World Bank etc. for instance). These included unpublished undergraduate and masters' dissertations, unpublished theses, journalistic articles by employees or members of Fairtrade cooperatives, several reports on the same cooperatives, and one report cited under two different titles. Griffiths (2011) claims that most of these reports had significant methodological weaknesses, and that few, if any, met the normal criteria for impact studies. Further, most of the cases studied were atypical. One reason for low prices is that Fairtrade farmers are forced to sell through a monopsonist cooperative, which may be inefficient or corrupt. They cannot choose the buyer who offers the best price, or switch when their cooperative is going bankrupt. There are also complaints that Fairtrade deviates from the free market ideal of some economists. Brink calls fair trade a "misguided attempt to make up for market failures" encouraging market inefficiencies and overproduction. Sometimes goods are overproduced, leading to the sale of a fair trade product in a non-fair trade market, causing potential issues with customers who are paying for fair trade products despite the fact that the same products are available for lower amounts. Critics argue that Fairtrade, but not all other Fair Trade businesses, harm all non-Fairtrade farmers. Fairtrade claims that its farmers are paid higher prices and are given special advice on better techniques, both of which will lead to increased output being sold on the global market. Economists assert that, as the demand for coffee, in particular, is highly inelastic, so an increased price for Fairtrade which produces a small increase in supply means a large fall in market price. In addition, the Fairtrade minimum price means that when the world market price collapses, it is the non-Fairtrade farmers, and particularly the poorest, who have to cut down their coffee trees. This argument is often illustrated with the example of Vietnam paying its coffee farmers over the world price in the 1980s, planting much coffee, then flooding the world market in the 1990s. Smith (2010) questioned the relevance of the Vietnam example, and Griffiths later published a response. Low prices may also occur because the Fair Trade marketing system provides more opportunities for corruption than the normal marketing system, and less possibility of, or incentive for, controlling it. Corruption has been noted in false labeling of coffee as Fairtrade by retailers and by packers in the developing countries, importers paying exporters less than the Fairtrade price for Fairtrade coffee failure by importers to provide the credit and other services specified theft or preferential treatment for ruling elites of cooperatives not paying laborers the specified minimum wage. Inequity. Fair Trade is profitable for traders in rich countries. It is also aimed at richer farmers: in order to join Fairtrade, cooperatives must meet quality and political standards which means their farmers must be relatively skillful and educated. Critics point out that these farmers are, therefore, far from the poorest farmers. The majority of Fairtrade suppliers are in the higher income or middle income developing countries, such as Costa Rica and Mexico, with relatively few in the poorest countries. Mexico has 70 times the GNP per head of Sierra Leone, and very much larger coffee farms. The minimum wage of agricultural workers in Peru is $3 a day and the average income of Fairtrade farmers in Bolivia was US$900/year, very much higher than normal agricultural incomes in Africa and much of Asia. Again, critics say this is diverting money from the poorest farmers. Fairtrade supporters boast of 'The Honeypot Effect' – that cooperatives which become Fairtrade members then attract additional aid from other NGO charities, government and international donors as a result of their membership. Typically there are now six to twelve other donors. Critics point out that this inevitably means that resources are being removed from other, poorer, farmers. It also makes it impossible to argue that any positive or negative changeshan to one of the other donors. Other ethical issues. Secrecy. Under EU law (Directive 2005/29/EC on Unfair Commercial Practices) the criminal offence of Unfair Trading is committed if (a) advertising or selling information 'contains false information and is therefore untruthful or in any way, including overall presentation, deceives or is likely to deceive the average consumer, even if the information is factually correct', (b) 'it omits material information that the average consumer needs ... and thereby causes or is likely to cause the average consumer to take a transactional decision that he would not have taken otherwise' or (c) 'fails to identify the commercial intent of the commercial practice ... [which] causes or is likely to cause the average consumer to take a transactional decision that he would not have taken otherwise.' Griffiths (2011) points to false claims that Fairtrade producers get higher prices, the almost universal failures to disclose the extra price charged for Fairtrade products, to disclose how much of this actually reaches the developing world, to disclose what this is spent on in the developing world, to disclose how much, if any, reaches farmers, and to disclose the harm that Fairtrade does to non-Fairtrade farmers. He also points to the failure to disclose when 'the primary commercial intent' is to make money for retailers and distributors The Fairtrade criteria presuppose a set of political values as to what economic, environmental, and social problems exist and how they are to be solved. Some critics state that it is unethical to bribe developing world producers to act according to political viewpoints that they may not agree with, and the consumers providing the money may not agree with. These critics also state that the unorthodox marketing system imposed, aiming to replace capitalism, may not tie in with the objectives of producers, consumers, importers or retailers. Booth says that the selling techniques used by some sellers and some supporters of Fairtrade are bullying, misleading and unethical. There are problems with the use of boycott campaigns and other pressure to force sellers to stock a product they think ethically suspect. However, the opposite has been argued, that a more participatory and multi-stakeholder approach to auditing might improve the quality of the process. Some people argue that these practices are justifiable: that strategic use of labeling may help embarrass (or encourage) major suppliers into changing their practices. They may make transparent corporate vulnerabilities that activists can exploit. Or they may encourage ordinary people to get involved with broader projects of social change. Volunteers may do unpaid work for fair trade firms, or promote fair trade organizations in schools and local governments, often without full awareness that these are not non-profit organizations. Davies and Crane report that Day Chocolate "made considerable use of unpaid volunteer workers for routine tasks, many of whom seemed to be under the (false) impression that they were helping out a charity. Not only might one question the sometimes quite excessive use of unpaid labour in a for-profit organisation, but the management team at Day appeared to have no intention of correcting the obvious misapprehensions of the volunteers. However, this did not appear to be acknowledged as a potential ethical problem at Day." There have been complaints that Fairtrade standards are inappropriate and may harm producers, sometimes imposing months of additional work for little return. There have been claims that adherence to fair trade standards by producers has been poor and that enforcement of standards by Fairtrade is very weak, notably by Christian Jacquiau and by Paola Ghillani, who spent four years as president of Fairtrade Labelling Organizations. There is criticism of poor enforcement: labourers on Fairtrade farms in Peru are paid less than the minimum wage; some non-Fairtrade coffee is sold as Fairtrade; "the standards are not very strict in the case of seasonally hired labour in coffee production"; "some fair trade standards are not strictly enforced"; and supermarkets may avoid their responsibility. In 2006, a "Financial Times" journalist found that ten out of the ten mills they visited had sold uncertified coffee to co-operatives as certified. It reported that they were "also handed evidence of at least one coffee association that received Fairtrade certification despite illegally growing some 20 per cent of its coffee in protected national forest land. Trade justice and fair trade. Segments of the trade justice movement have also criticized fair trade in the past years for focusing too much on individual small producer groups while stopping short of advocating immediate trade policy changes that would have a larger impact on disadvantaged producers' lives. French author and RFI correspondent Jean-Pierre Boris championed this view in his 2005 book "Commerce inéquitable". Political objections. There have been largely political criticisms of Fairtrade, both from the left and the right. Some believe the fair trade system is not radical enough. French author Christian Jacquiau, in his book "Les coulisses du commerce équitable", calls for stricter fair trade standards and criticizes the fair trade movement for working within the current system (i.e. partnerships with mass retailers, multinational corporations etc.) rather than establishing a new fairer, fully autonomous trading system. Jacquiau is also a staunch supporter of significantly higher fair trade prices in order to maximize the impact, as most producers only sell a portion of their crop under fair trade terms. It has been argued that the approach of the FairTrade system is too rooted in a Northern consumerist view of justice which Southern producers do not participate in setting. "A key issue is therefore to make explicit who possesses the power to define the terms of Fairtrade, that is who possesses the power to determine the need of an ethic in the first instance, and subsequently command a particular ethical vision as the truth." Some of the criticisms of Fairtrade from the free market approach to economics appear to be linked to right wing political approaches, but this does not mean that their analysis in this particular case is unacceptable to mainstream economists. Counter-arguments. Key ideas of fair trade include transparency and capacity building, as outlined by the WFTO fair trade principles. Particularly in the developing world, it is very common for small-scale farmers to have only one or two buyers for their commodity products. Prices thus can be set by the buyers along with quality criteria. Normally buyers do not provide transparency as to the weighing and grading of product. Unless the buyers are linked to a quality supply chain (such as a fair trade or organic supply chain), the buyers normally do not provide any capacity building as to how to improve the quality of the product and thus gain a higher price. Fair trade, when practiced well, must provide full transparency in terms of pricing, weighing, and quality standards. Also as the end goal is a superior quality product in all ways, good fair trade organizations provide good capacity building in terms of best production, harvest, and post-harvest practices. Hayes identifies limitations in LeClaire's (2002) formulation of this, both using what they agree is an unrealistic model.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32272484

"New Lands, New Beginnings" is the 38th episode of the tenth series of the UK medical drama "Holby City". It was written by the programme's creator, Tony McHale, directed by Fraser Macdonald, and premiered on BBC Scotland on 23 June 2008. Production. "Holby City" is regularly filmed at the BBC's Elstree Studios in Borehamwood, Hertfordshire. "New Lands, New Beginnings" was the last of an annual series of episodes to be filmed on location abroad. The programme had previously visited Paris in 2004, Ghana in 2005, Switzerland in 2006, and Dubai in 2007. Series producer Diana Kyle stated in November 2008 that due to major BBC budget cuts, the series would not be filming abroad again for the "foreseeable future". The episode's central characters, Faye, Joseph and Linden, were three of the series' best-known at the time of broadcast according to Kris Green of the entertainment news website "Digital Spy". "The Stage" Mark Wright observed that Linden was still fairly new to the programme at the time; indeed, Pow had debuted in the role just five months previously, in January 2008. Reception. According to overnight ratings, the episode was watched by an average of 5.3 million viewers and attained a 26% audience share. Its final viewership was calculated at 5.06 million, down 530,000 on the previous episode, "Doctor's Dilemma", and 560,000 on the tenth series average of 5.62 million. It was the twelfth most-watched programme on BBC One in the week of broadcast; the fourth most-watched scripted show behind "Doctor Who", "EastEnders" and its parent series "Casualty". Critical response to the episode was mixed. It was selected as recommended viewing by the "Daily Record", "Liverpool Daily Post", and Ceri Thomas of the "Evening Standard", although Thomas' review highlighted the unsubtle showcasing of the foreign setting. She noted, "almost every shot features either glorious coastline or grimy townships, while the soundtrack is heavy with African drums. Sheesh! If they'd set it in France, would the Eiffel Tower be constantly in view while Charles Aznavour warbled away in the background? Probably..." "Digital Spy" Green called the episode "action-packed". Jane Simon of the "Daily Mirror" commented on the implausibility of the plot: the way in which "The merest hint that the delectable Faye Morton might be in a spot of bother prompts two of Holby's top surgeons to drop everything in the middle of a shift and leap on the next plane to South Africa", and the "unlikely tales of dark, family-related woe" shared by Faye and Linden. On the events set in Holby, Wright wrote in "The Stage", "is Connie still as fabulous as ever? Of course she is!"

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12509115

The former Asia Insurance Building (Chinese: 亚洲保险大厦; pinyin: Yàzhōu Bǎoxiǎn dàshà), now named Ascott Raffles Place, lies in the heart of the Central Business District of Singapore, at the corner of Finlayson Green and Raffles Quay. Standing at 270 feet (82 metres), it surpassed the Cathay Building to be the tallest tower in Singapore until the completion of Shaw Centre in 1958. Designed by one of Singapore's pioneer architects, Ng Keng Siang, the office building was completed in 1955 and served as the headquarters for the Asia Insurance Company, one of the first local insurance companies. In 2006, the building was acquired by the Ascott Group and the office tower has since been refurbished into a serviced apartment residence. Renamed as Ascott Raffles Place, the building sits on a 999-year leasehold site with a building footprint of about 950 square meters. History. The site was formerly occupied by the Union Insurance of Canton. In 1924, the company vacated and was resided by the South British Insurance Company. In 1947, the site was acquired by the Asia Insurance Company. The concept of the Asia Insurance Building was crafted by Lee Leung Ki, the first General Manager of Asia Insurance Company. Lee wanted a building that would be a landmark and reflect the financial stability of the Asia Insurance Company. The intention was fulfilled by Architect Ng Keng Siang, the first Singaporean to become a member of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA). Building height debate. The building was originally designed to be of seven stories but was amended to comply with the request of the authorities for a 15-foot back lane to run behind the back of the building. The loss of this strip of land hence necessitated an increase in height of the building. The newly proposed height of 239 feet was, however, rejected by the Singapore Municipal Commissioners for it violated building by-laws of a maximum 4 to 6 stories. The Singapore Municipal Commissioners recommended the reduction of the building height to 135 feet on both frontages at Finlayson Green and Collyer Quay. On 20 February 1948, a discussion was held between the Singapore Municipal Commissioners and representatives of the Asia Insurance Company. The Singapore Municipal Commissioners were eventually convinced by Asia Insurance's technical adviser Dato Ronald Braddell, allowing for the building to rise 18 stories, at a height of 241 feet. The committee agreed that the proposed building would, by it majesty, beautify Singapore's waterfront, gaining indirect benefit from its advertisement. Construction. Owing to its height, a formal assurance was requested by the Municipal Commissioners to ensure that the soil would be able to bear the load. In February 1949, specimens of soil from the site were sent to Europe for laboratory analysis to determine its bearing capacity. Test results were proven to be satisfactory and construction commenced in early 1950. However, in 1951, during the execution of the work, the sandstone at depth was found to be core boulders or seams of softer sandstone up to 2 or 3 feet in thickness instead of the previously analysed solid rock. The in rush of soil during the sinking of cylinders through the beach formations aggravated the situation. On the Finlayson Green side, the road showed a series of cracks in the asphalt parallel to the building line and extending a distance of 15 to 20 feet of the center of the road. At the building line, the pavement had sunk between 2 and 3 feet throughout the length of the frontage. The absence of firm rock stratum to support the cylinders as originally designed necessitated a reduction of their bearing pressure. A specialist had to be brought in from the United Kingdom to advise on the project requirements. To avoid the further risk of loss of ground, the sinking of the cylinders were stopped. The cylinders were carried to their final level (45 to 55 feet below road level) by underpinning them with a precast concrete segmental lining. The bearing pressure was reduced to 3.5 tons per square foot by ‘belling out’ the bases. All cylinders were back-grouted, and also each ring of the lining as it was assembled. In certain cases, underpinning through the beach formations was carried out in compressed air. After sealing the bottoms of the shafts and encasing the segmental rings in a secondary lining, the tops of the cylinders were trimmed to a common level and a four-foot-thick reinforced concrete raft was cast over them. Into the raft were grouted the holding-down bolts and base plates for the stanchions of the steel superstructure. The 28 cylinders allowed the building load of 35,000 tons to be spread across an area of 9000 square feet. The unexpected soil composition caused the construction to stretch from 1949 to 1955, costing over $8 million, against the expected $3 million, with the earthquake-proof foundations themselves costing $2.25 million. Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. In May 1953, Singapore's waterfront lighted up in celebration of Queen Elizabeth II’s coronation. A giant crown with 4500 electric light bulb was erected on top of the Asia Insurance Building's skeletal structure to mark the occasion. The building has since been decked out with a three-tiered scalloped stainless steel crown to commemorate the event. Opening. On 10 December 1955, the Asia Insurance Building was officially opened by Sir Robert Brown Black, Governor of Singapore. To commemorate the event, a plague bearing the architect's name was inscribed at the main entrance. The Asia Insurance Building was occupied by local and foreign firms, with its offices fully sold before its completion and even after the delays. The Office of the Ceylon Commissioner in Malaya and the Singapore Baggage Transport Agency Ltd. among many others had set up their offices there. One month after the slated completion date of October 1955, the building still had no water and electricity and the lifts and air-conditioning were not yet installed, but some businesses still moved in as scheduled on 1 November 1955. The 18 stories building proposed a new prototype of office buildings, integrating offices, bank, restaurants, public and service areas all in a harmonious whole. The ground floor facing Raffles Quay was occupied by the KLM Royal Dutch Airlines while the Finlayson Green facing area was occupied by the Korean Exchange Bank. The 18-storey building was the third and tallest skyscraper to be erected in the vicinity during the 1940s, with the Finlayson House and Bank of China Building preceding it. The improvements in building technology and British desire to create a more prominent Singapore skyline fueled the increased construction activity during the 1950s. However, the increased office space provided by buildings like the Asia Insurance Building also began to promote businesses and the service industry boom in Singapore, helping to gradually establish Singapore as a financial centre of the region. The 14th and 15th floor housed a $500 000 Sky Palace Restaurant, completed with a bar on the 14th floor and garden on the 15th. It was the largest restaurant in Malaya, with accommodation for 800 guests. The 16th floor catered for customers who wish to relax or hold private discussions. It commanded a panoramic view of Singapore and the waterfront. The Asia Insurance Building was also fitted with many amenities that were considered modern and luxurious at that time. An air-conditioning system by Airtemp was installed in the building and served the first to sixth floors as well as the Sky Palace Restaurant located at the rooftop. Four automated lifts were also installed and were capable of discharging 2500 to 3000 persons per hour, and the entire building was also wired for a centralised telephone system. Suicides. Whilst it was the tallest building in Southeast Asia, the Asia Insurance Building, alongside the Upper Pickering Street Flats, saw a record number of people leaping to their deaths. On 20 June 1960, the top floor balcony was eventually closed to the public as a precautionary measure against suicides. Tourists and sightseers who wished to visit must first obtain permission from the Asia Insurance Company. Architecture. The former Asia Insurance Building was designed by Singapore pioneer architect Ng Keng Siang, the first Singaporean to become a member of the Royal Institute of British Architects. Professionally, Ng was highly respected by the Teochew and Hokkien communities, who previously commissioned him for projects such as the Teochew Association building. Lee Leung Ki's commission to design the Asia Insurance Building, which was to be the tallest building in the city, hence bears the testimony to the confidence and trust the Chinese community held in him. The Asia Insurance Building was designed in a luxurious Art Deco style, fulfilling Lee's intention to reflect the financial stability of the Asia Insurance Company. The building features an L-shaped plan with a circular concrete canopy and a two-storey corner tower on top of the building. The exterior of the building was lavishly adorned with expensive imported materials, signifying the economic prosperity of the company. The facade of the building was clad in premium Italian Travertine marble. The five-foot way around its perimeter is made from Nero Portaro marble, a rare type of black Italian marble with gold and whitish veins. The building also includes a brass mail chute, designed by James Cutler, where mail could be dropped at a high point and collected at a central depository. Ng Keng Siang was particular on the need for correct orientation and through ventilation for comfortable living in his buildings. He was acutely aware of the absolute necessity of proper and effective sun-shading and rain protection, and had stressed that the climate and weather conditions of the locality should be ‘the all-important factor every architect has to keep foremost in mind’. The belief is reflected in his design of the Asia Insurance Building through the horizontal overhangs which he said ‘should be wide, roomy ones that drip rain water to the ground far from the wall surface, and double as sun shades as well’. In addition, the volume is punctured by a small air well to provide ventilation to rooms on the inward side of a corridor that runs around the block. The shallow floor plans allows for the building to be naturally illuminated and ventilated by means of operable windows. Acquisition. As the building did not meet the future needs of the company, the Asia Insurance Company was not keen in conserving the building. They further opposed the Urban Redevelopment Authority's (URA) suggestion to conserve the property as it could hurt its chances of a sale. In 2006, the Ascott Group eventually bought the building for $109.5 million, recognizing its potential to be conserved and turned into upscale serviced suites. Ascott chose to ride on the building's heritage and refurbish it to provide 146 serviced apartments for business professionals. URA sweetened the deal by allowing it to expand its floor space by 14 percent, equivalent to about 20 more units. On 18 April 2007, the URA officially gazetted the building for conservation. Conservation. The restoration project was undertaken by RSP Architects Planners and Engineers, costing about $60 million. While features such as the air well were removed to cater to the spatial configuration required, several distinctive features were still retained. Original features such as the brass main chute, for instance, and the ornamental stair railing on the upper floors were kept. A significant portion of the facade that is clad with Italian Travertine has been pin-strengthened and restored to recapture as much as possible the creaminess and tonality of the original stone. The existing Italian Nero stone along the five footway that has undergone significant fading over the decades have been diamond-polished to regain the deep black richness of the original stone. The corner pinnacle at the very top of the building that is made of stainless steel has been re-polished to recapture its gloss. The antiquated window frame with brass handles that required sensitive repair and restoration were replaced with modern, high-performance glass. The sensitively restored building has been creatively and successfully adapted by its current owners. The restoration project led the refurbished building to win the 2009 URA Architectural Heritage Award. Representation in the media. The Asia Insurance Building was often featured in local and foreign films in the late 1950s and 1960s as a landmark of Singapore and an association with the affluent. Such films include "Che Mamat Parang Tumpol" (1960), "China Wife" 唐山阿嫂 (1957) and "Azimat" (1958). The restoration efforts by Ascott has also been recognized in several documentary series, including "Listen to our Walls", Episode 4 and "City Redesign", Episode 1.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22362740

The Church of All Saints in Monksilver, Somerset, England dates from the 12th century and has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building. The church has a square west tower, built in the 14th century, Architecture. The church shows fragments of 12th-century masonry and the tower at the west end is 14th-century. It is built of red sandstone with a slate roof with decorative ridge tiles. The plan consists of a four bay nave, south aisle, chancel, south chapel and south porch. The tower has three stages with crenelations on top which were added during restoration between 1843 and 1863, at which time the south chapel was also added. There is a ring of five bells including one by Roger Semson of Ash Priors which was cast between 1530 and 1570. The interior is whitewashed, the nave having a wagon roof which is thought to be 13th-century and an alms box by the door is from 1634. There is a 12th-century window on the north side of the chancel. The pulpit is sixteenth-century, the screen is Jacobean and the lectern is possibly older. The south aisle has "some of the most entertaining gargoyles in the county". The yew tree in the churchyard is believed to date from 1770. There is a historic cross dated 1863 in the churchyard, just south of the chancel, which is a Grade II listed structure. In 1583 the church was the venue for the marriage of Sir Francis Drake and his second wife Elizabeth Sydenham of nearby Combe Sydenham in the parish of Stogumber. The parish is part of the Quantock Towers benefice within the Quantock deanery.

cross-shaped relic

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9707139

Article marketing is a branch of content marketing. It is a type of advertising in which companies write and distribute short articles to a range of outlets such as article banks, forums, and newsletter publishers. Its main purpose is to gain a huge number of online audiences and boost the number of sales opportunities for products or services on websites. Another main purpose of this kind of marketing is to build backlinks. This type of marketing strategy can help marketers acquire new visitors and increase sales on their websites. Article marketing is also one of the least costly ways to market a company. Advantages and disadvantages of article marketing. There are many advantages of using article marketing such as: While there are many advantages to using article marketing, there are some downsides as well: Traditional article marketing. Article marketing has been used by professionals for nearly as long as mass print has been available. Business provides the content to a newspaper, possibly on a timely topic such as an article on tax audits during tax season, and the newspaper may use the article and include the business's name and contact information. Newspapers and other traditional media have limited budgets for gathering content and these articles may be used in the business section of the newspaper. Traditional article marketing is advertising a company’s article through the use of magazines, newspapers and any print media. (Daniels, 2013). This way of marketing has been going on for a really long time but it is still very much useful and still in style to this day. It still produces results in offline establishments. The method of doing the traditional article marketing is very straightforward. The company will choose a print media business they want to work with and discuss the conditions of the article they want to produce. Once the article has been written, the print media will then print and publish it. Both companies will benefit from this project. The print media company will have content to print and the business will gain exposure for their products and/or services. (Ekanem, 2015). Internet article marketing. Internet article marketing is used to promote the authors' expertise of their market, products or services online via article directories. Article directories with good web page ranks receive a lot of site visitors and may be considered authority sites by search engines, leading to high traffic. These directories then give PageRank to the author's website and in addition send traffic from readers. Articles and article directories attract search engines because of their rich content. This practice may have been effective in the past, however, changes in Google's algorithms over the years have negated the benefits one would have received from this practice. Both Google's Webmaster Guidelines and comments by Google's Head of Webspam, Matt Cutts discouraged, if not outright prohibit, the strategy of using article directory marketing as a means to build backlinks. Business Owners, Marketers and Entrepreneurs attempt to maximize the results of an article advertising campaign by submitting their articles to a number of article directories. However, most of the major search engines filter duplicate content to stop the identical content material from being returned multiple times in a search engine results page. Some marketers attempt to circumvent this filter by creating a number of variations of an article, known as article spinning. By doing this, one article can theoretically acquire site visitors from a number of article directories. Most forms of search engine optimization and internet marketing require a domain, internet hosting plan, and promoting budget. However, article marketing makes use of article directories as a free host and receives traffic by way of organic searches due to the listing's search engine authority. The primary goal behind article marketing is to get search engine traffic to the article so that the author can strengthen their authority and influence within their field, while also leveraging that traffic for their own site(s). The key to article marketing is that the author should be providing value with their articles, not just promoting their site, products or services. Evolution. Article marketing has changed as companies have moved from targeting article directories such as Ezinearticles.com or eHow.com, to micro-targeting small audiences using Facebook and Twitter. Article marketing used to have a much broader target audience but companies have switched to more finite groups of consumers. The change happened because companies found that improving article quality and targeting a better audience was much more effective. Part of this is due to the face that, as of March 2017 the internet has over 3.74 billion users. Having such a massive market makes it hard to find the right customers, which caused companies using article marketing to shrink their scope and search for smaller audiences. Significance. Article marketing is used to advertise cheaply. It is common for articles to get picked up by search engines, which allows for additional attention to a companies website. Article marketing is also very easy to perform and a great first step for a new business, which makes it very popular among small businesses. Article marketing has become so popular that many websites now have articles which teach easy steps on how to write your own marketing article to gain views from the public. Gaining views and attention to a website is important because websites gaining more traffic have a higher chance of getting purchases from the website according to statistics. Even if a website does not sell as many products on the website, the traffic a company gains will make the website more valuable. This will result in other companies seeking to pay for use of the website space for advertisements because of the larger amount of traffic the website receives. Apps. Article marketing has also moved into phone and tablet applications also known as apps. App advertising is a very effective form of advertising, Milton Brown performed a study that people were twice as likely to purchase on their mobile phone when they see a Snapchat (a prominent phone app) advertisement. He also found that 92% of campaigns saw clear results after advertising on Snapchat. Because of this rising popularity of cheap/free advertisement on Apps companies have backlashed on article marketing since it is flooding applications. Facebook started banning Article marketing and other types of free advertisements in 2018 by increasing their prices and forcing free article evaluations to be stopped.

commerce industry

1677-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25173995

Since the 1970s, Nike, Inc. has been accused of using sweatshops to produce footwear and apparel. It was built on the business model of finding the lowest cost of labour possible which led to child labour and exploitation. However it wasn't until 1991, when Jeff Ballinger published a report detailing their insufficient payment of workers and the poor conditions in factories, that these sweatshops came under fire. Nike received huge media attention causing immense problems for the business. Forced labour has changed the public/consumer's perception of the brand, and has decreased sales. This has meant Nike has had to re-analyse the business, and focus on the ethics of their workers, rather than continuing to promote the competitive nature of their model. Nike has strongly denied the claims in the past, suggesting the company has little control over sub-contracted factories. Beginning in 2002, Nike began auditing its factories for occupational health and safety. Ethics. Understanding the working conditions and emotional impact from the perspective of the workers is crucial in order to understand the true nature of these sweatshops. Even though Nike has changed its approach in recent years e.g. increasing the minimum wage, arguably this is to protect its reputation rather than to improve the lives of workers. The 'It's a Start' movement says that Nike still needs to improve. Nike: the business model and timeline. Nike has been accused of using sweatshops since the early 1970s, when it produced goods in South Korea, Mainland China, and Taiwan. As these areas' economies developed, workers became more productive, wages rose, and many moved on to higher paying jobs. This led to fewer workers meaning Nike had to open additional sweatshops in lower income economic countries. Throughout the 1990s, Nike was criticised for selling goods produced in sweatshops. They originally denied claims against them. However, in 2001, Nike director Todd McKean stated in an interview that the "initial attitude was, 'Hey, we don't own the factories. We don't control what goes on there.' Quite frankly, that was a sort of irresponsible way to approach this. We had people there every day looking at quality. Clearly, we had leverage and responsibility with certain parts of the business, so why not others?" In 2005, protesters at over 40 universities demanded that their institutions endorse companies who use "sweat-free" labor. Many anti-sweatshop groups were student-led, such as the United Students Against Sweatshops. At Brown University, Nike went so far as to pull out from a contract with the women’s ice hockey team because of efforts by a student activist group that wanted a code of conduct put in place by the company. Team Sweat is one of the largest groups that specifically tracks and protests about Nike. Team Sweat is "an international coalition of consumers, investors, and workers committed to ending the injustices in Nike’s sweatshops around the world" founded in 2000 by Jim Keady. While Keady was conducting his research about Nike at St. John’s University, the school signed a $3.5 million deal with Nike, forcing all athletes and coaches to endorse Nike. Keady publicly refused to support Nike and was forced to resign his position as soccer coach in 1998. Since resigning, Keady has done original research into the conditions in Nike's Sweatshops. He travelled to Indonesia and for a month lived among the Nike factory workers, surviving on $1.25 per day as the workers do. In 2016, the Worker Rights Consortium (WRC) and Fair Labor Association (FLA) issued reports on working conditions at the Hansae Vietnam factory complex. The reports detailed various violations of labor standards. In response, students at Georgetown University held a sit-in in December to protest their school's contract with Nike. The university allowed the contract to expire. In July 2017, USAS organized a Global Day of Action Against Nike on which protests were held at numerous Nike stores. In August, Nike reached a new agreement with Georgetown University which granted the WRC full access to Nike's factories. In 2019, Nike received the worst rating inTailored Wages UK report, published by The Clean Clothes Campaign. The report stated: "The brand can show no evidence of a Living Wage being paid to any workers". Moreover, in 2020, the "Washington Post" reported that Nike purchases from a factory that relies on forced labor from Uyghurs. Factory investigations. Advocacy groups engaged in looking at the conditions of the factories in which Nike, Inc. products are made as a way to understand the problems more fully. Throughout the 1990s, Nike experienced rapid growth after they moved their primary branches of production overseas. Record-breaking profits were reported and the number of factories increased to fulfill the consumers’ demand for Nike products. The employees were commonly the poor inhabitants of the area surrounding the factory looking for any sort of income. The heads of the factories were Nike contractors who often lived in United States or Europe and did not have any sort of relations with their employees. The duty of supervision was given to an upper-level factory worker. The authority of the supervisor included enforcing rules the workers must follow and making sure that they were performing to optimal standards. The findings of factory investigations show that the supervisor often oversteps their duties. The laws protecting the workers are ignored in favor of cutting costs and lowering health standards. This is possibly because political leaders are paid off by factory supervisors in order to limit governmental interference. The leaders relayed messages to military and police units to overlook the conditions in factories so that the illegal environment could remain open and functioning. They also were warned to watch for signs of labor activism near the factories to prevent workers from aligning with one another for better conditions. Women represent a large proportion of factory employees. Approximately 75 to 80% of workers are women and a majority of those are in their teens or early twenties. Factory jobs may require women to work long hours, ranging from nine to fourteen hours per day, six days a week. They are severely limited in the amount of time they can take off and are forced to work overtime on several occasions during the week. Although there are more women employed at the factories, they represent the minority in the higher paid supervisor positions. Advocacy efforts. The goals of transnational advocacy groups working on behalf of Nike factory workers are to allow workers to obtain higher wages, improve the working conditions of the factories, enable them to organize, and gain the respect of their employers. Global efforts have increased the information being spread about Nike sweatshop conditions. Countries such as the Netherlands, Germany, France, and Belgium, where no Nike factories exist, have branches of organizations that work to better factory conditions. In countries like Indonesia, Thailand, Mexico, and Cambodia, where factories are common, non-governmental organizations push anti-Nike efforts by informing the public through the media of the work environment within the plants. Several well-known advocacy groups are the Global Exchange (United States), Christian Aid (United Kingdom), The Ethical Shopper (New Zealand), and the Clean Clothes Campaign (Europe). There are several types of advocacy groups, ranging from human rights organizations, to religious groups, to labor associations. Advocacy groups function through donations, fundraising, and in some cases governmental funding. A majority of them create informational hand-outs that they distribute to citizens through the mail or at events. There has been a rapid increase in the use of the Internet as a means of distributing information between advocacy groups. The spread of news across national boundaries allows the groups to mobilize and unify campaigns. The main focus of political efforts within the countries that house the factories is an increase in the minimum wage for workers. In Indonesia, other legislative efforts included limits on the number of hours a person can work per day, mandated rest periods, minimum age requirements, and a maternity leave for women. Restrictions on labor activism and labor unions limits the amount of unification workers can develop within the factories. When laws in Indonesia were lifted in the late 1980s, factory workers and non-governmental organizations staged many strikes at Nike factories protesting the poor working conditions. The organizations also worked with international allies such as the United States to bring about awareness in foreign, and often wealthier, countries. These allies provided aide for the workers who were not paid while on strike. The non-governmental organizations within the country have less of an impact on their government’s view of the protest, but the groups outside of the country have a stronger political pull because of their wealth. Counter-criticism. William Stepp, of the libertarian Mises Institute, argues that minimum wage is arbitrary and causes unemployment. Stepp claims that the workers were not exploited and clearly received benefits from working at the factories "by showing up for work every day, and by accepting a paycheck based on mutually-agreed-upon terms." Other benefits include free annual physicals, uniforms and clothing, a clinic and health service, a canteen stocked with food, recreation and entertainment, and transportation. However, Stepp criticized Nike for its association with the World Bank, which says is the real exploiter of third world countries. A study by the Nike-founded Global Alliance for Workers and Communities found that 70% of Nike factory workers in Thailand rated their supervisors as good and 72% thought their income was fair. In Vietnam, most workers "thought the factory was a 'good place to work' and planned to continue at least three years," and 85% of those polled felt safe there. Further, they felt that the factory offered a more stable career and higher income than farmwork. The addition of factories to poor Asian countries has allowed them to increase their revenue by providing jobs to previously unemployed groups of citizens. People commonly move to areas where they know a factory is going to be built in order to earn even a low income. Migrant workers frequently send their wages back to their families in their home country. These employees are willing to do work that citizens of first world countries are not, especially for low wages. Since most of the economies of the small, poor countries were centred around their market system, the introduction of large factories owned by a wealthy corporation greatly increased their flow of money. Nike response. Nike began to monitor working conditions in factories that produce their products. During the 1990s, Nike installed a code of conduct for their factories. This code is called SHAPE: Safety, Health, Attitude, People, and Environment. The company spends around $10 million a year to follow the code, adhering to regulations for fire safety, air quality, minimum wage, and overtime limits. In 1998, Nike introduced a program to replace its petroleum-based solvents with less dangerous water-based solvents. A year later, an independent expert stated that Nike had, "substituted less harmful chemicals in its production, installed local exhaust ventilation systems, and trained key personnel on occupational health and safety issues." The study was conducted in a factory in Vietnam. Nike created a non-governmental organization called the Global Alliance for Workers and Communities that became aligned with several other groups including the International Youth Foundation. The organization releases reports about the corporation and its plans to improve current conditions. The Global Alliance received backlash in 2001 when a report about the Nike Inc. did not include recent events such as strikes, worker terminations, and the lack of collective bargaining in their Indonesian factories. Between 2002 and 2004, Nike audited its factories approximately 600 times, giving each factory a score on a scale of 1 to 100, which is then associated with a letter grade. Most factories received a "B", indicating some problems, or a "C", indicating that serious problems are not being resolved quickly enough. If a factory receives a "D", Nike threatens to stop producing in that factory unless the conditions are rapidly improved. Nike had plans to expand their monitoring process to include environmental and health issues beginning in 2004. Nike has allowed human rights groups and organisations to come into factories and inspect the working conditions, wages and speak personally with the workers. Consumer reaction. Several universities, unified by the Worker Rights Consortium, organized a national hunger strike in protest of their school using Nike products for athletics. Feminist groups mobilized boycotts of Nike products after learning of the unfair conditions for the primarily female workers. In the early 1990s, when Nike began a push to increase advertising for female athletic gear, these groups created a campaign called "Just Don’t Do It" to bring attention to the poor factory conditions where women create Nike products. Social media platforms have allowed for the rapid spread of information about factory conditions. Websites such as Facebook and Twitter have allowed people from distant countries to share their ideas and collaborate with each other. Advocacy groups commonly use social media sites to post about upcoming events and to keep members informed about the activities of the group. In a Vietnamese Nike factory, a worker accused his employer of striking him. After contacting a factory advocate, the worker was interviewed by a news station. The video eventually reached an ESPN affiliate in Vietnam, where it was viewed by millions of people before officials in the United States had formally heard of the incident. Other controversies. In 2000, Nike chairman Phil Knight planned to donate $30 million to his alma mater, the University of Oregon. When the University of Oregon joined the Worker Rights Consortium (WRC), Knight revoked his donation because the WRC has been blocked by Nike from inspecting its factories. The Fair Labor Association (which was co-founded by Nike in 1980s) is supported by Nike and the United States government, while the Workers Rights Consortium is not. There has been debate between the university and Knight about the legitimacy of the FLA and which labor monitoring organization is more effective. Another dispute arose from Nike’s personalization system, NIKEiD. MIT graduate Jonah Peretti attempted to order a pair of shoes from Nike. He chose to have the word “sweatshop” embroidered on them. Nike sent Peretti an email explaining that his personalization request could not be granted for one of four things: it contained another party's trademark or other intellectual property, the name of an athlete or team Nike does not have legal right to use, profanity or inappropriate slang, or was left blank. Peretti replied, expressing to Nike that his personalization did not contain content violating the aforementioned criteria. Nike responded by allowing Peretti to alter his personalization and Peretti chose not to change it and cancelled the order. According to the Mises Institute, the publicity led to Nike selling more of the personalized shoes.

minimal command

1084-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67112275

In genetics, when multiple copies of a beneficial mutation become established and fix together it is called soft sweep. Depending on the origin of these copies, linked variants might then be retained and emerge as haplotype structures in the population. There are two major forms of soft sweeps: 1) A beneficial mutation previously separated in the population neutrally and therefore existed as multiple haplotypes at the time of the selective shift in which the mutation became beneficial. In this way, a single beneficial mutation may carry multiple haplotypes to an intermediate frequency, while itself becomes fixed. 2) Another model happening when multiple beneficial mutations independently occur in short succession of one another — consequently, a second copy occur through mutation before the selective fixation of the first copy. Soft sweeps can occur from both standing variation and rapidly repeating beneficial mutations. Overview. A selective sweep occurs when, due to strong positive natural selection, beneficial alleles quickly go to fixation in a population and results in the reduction or elimination of variation among the nucleotides near that allele. A selective sweep can occur when a rare or a formerly absent allele that improves the fitness of the carrier relative to other members of the population increases in frequency quickly due to natural selection. As the frequency of such a beneficial allele increases, genetic variants that happen to be present in the DNA neighborhood of the beneficial allele will also become more prevalent; this phenomenon called genetic hitchhiking. A Selective sweep arise if rapid changes within the frequency of a beneficial allele, driven by positive selection, distort the genealogical history of samples from the region around the selected locus. It is now recognized that not all sweeps reduce genetic variation in the same way, but rather selective sweeps can be categorized into three main categories: First, the classic selective sweep or hard sweep is expected to occur when beneficial mutations are rare but when a beneficial mutation that has occurred increases in frequency rapidly, drastically reducing genetic variation in the population. Second, soft sweep from standing genetic variation (SGV) occurs when previously neutral mutations that were present in a population become beneficial because of an environmental change. Such a mutation may be present on several genomic backgrounds so that when it rapidly increases in frequency it does not erase all genetic variation in the population. Finally, a multiple origin soft sweep happens when mutations are common, for example in a large population, so that the same or similar beneficial mutations occur on a different genomic background such that no single genomic background can hitchhike the high frequency. Whether the selective sweep has occurred can be explored in various ways. One method is to measure linkage disequilibrium, that is whether a given haplotype is overrepresented in the population. Under neutral evolution, genetic recombination will result in the reshuffling of the different alleles within the haplotypes, and no single haplotype will dominate the population. However, during a selective sweep, selection for a positively selected gene variant will also result in hitchhiking of neighboring alleles and less opportunity for recombination. Therefore, the presence of strong linkage disequilibrium might indicate that there has been a selective sweep and can be used to identify sites recently under selection. There have been many scans for selective sweeps in humans and other species using a variety of statistical approaches and assumptions. Differences between soft and hard sweeps. The main difference between soft and hard selective sweeps lies in the expected number of different haplotypes carrying the beneficial mutation or mutations, and therefore in the expected number of haplotypes that hitchhike to considerable frequency during the selective sweep, and which remain in the population at the time of fixation. This key difference results in different expectations in both the site frequency spectrum and in linkage disequilibrium, and consequently in the frequent test statistics based on these forms. If hard sweeps facilitate evolutionary rescue, then just a single ancestor is responsible for the spread of the advantageous variants and so genetic diversity will be removed from the population as a consequence of adaptation as well as demographic decline. On the other hand, a soft sweep, in which the beneficial allele is independently derived in multiple ancestors, will keep certain ancestral diversity that existed prior to the environmental shift that initiated the fitness changes. Detecting soft sweeps. Is there any way to separate soft and hard sweeps? Obviously, only recent adaptive events leave a measurable signal at all (hard or soft). Signals from the site frequency spectrum (like the excess of rare alleles that is picked up by Tajima 1989) usually fade on time scales of ~ 0.1Ne generations, while signals based on linkage disequilibrium or haplotype statistics only last ~ 0.01Ne generations. to find it easily, selection must be strong (4NeSb≫100). Even then, soft sweeps can be difficult to discriminate from neutrality if they are ‘super soft’, i.e., if there are numerous independent origins of the beneficial allele, or if its starting frequency in the SGV(standing genetic variation) is high. For a strong interpretation of selection versus neutrality, we need a test statistic with reliably high power for hard and soft sweeps. Based on above-described patterns, and as exhibited, tests based on the site frequency spectrum (looking for low- or high-frequency derived alleles) have low power to reveal soft sweeps, whereas haplotype tests can detect both types of sweeps. In contrast to single-origin soft sweeps (which always leave a weaker footprint), the capability to detect multiple-origin soft sweeps can be higher than the capability to detect completed hard sweeps due to the clear haplotype structure right at the selected site. Detecting soft sweeps with a single origin is difficult. Some studies and tests based on a combination of summary statistics have been developed by Peter, Huerta-Sanchez & Nielsen (2012) and by Schrider & Kern (2016). Both tests have reliable power to find soft sweeps for robust selection and a high starting frequency (5–20%) of the selected allele. In addition, well-defined practical instances typically rely on other indications, go with footprint: e.g., a source population is recognized with the selected allele in the SGV (e.g., marine and freshwater sticklebacks, or identified and very recent selection pressure does not leave enough time for the allele to increase from a single copy to the frequency observed today (for example CCR5 adaptation to HIV in humans). On the whole, soft sweeps with multiple origins have better chances to detect.

potent analysis

5892-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54205289

The battles at Göta älv were a series of battles and sieges which took place in and around the Gothenburg area between 1717 and 1719, between the Swedish Empire and Denmark-Norway, during the Great Northern War. When Charles XII was forced to halt his assault on southern Norway in 1716, Dano-Norwegian troops, under the command of the young commander Peter Tordenskjold, attempted to blockade Gothenburg and assault its newly constructed naval base; Nya Varvet ("the New Yard)" in the spring of 1717", "but was unsuccessful. Tordenskold also attempted an assault on Strömstad, also without success. The attacks resulted in the Swedes rebasing their Gothenburg Squadron to Marstrand, some smaller vessels were rebased to Strömstad. Following Charles XII's renewed assault on Norway in the autumn of 1718, as well as the breakdown of the 1719 peace negotiations, Denmark-Norway launched yet another assault targeting Bohuslän. The goal for the Dano-Norwegian forces was to achieve a quick end of the war with a resulting territorial loss for Sweden, but also to halt the Swedes' privateering operations which were taking a toll on Denmark-Norway. Strömstad was quickly conquered by early July 1719, and the strong Carlsten Fortress at Marstrand was conquered by Tordenskjold, partly thanks to psychological warfare. During the battles in and around Marstrand, large parts of the Gothenburg Squadron were sunk by friendly forces in order to prevent its vessels from falling under enemy control. A subsequent Dano-Norwegian assault against the Älvsborg fortress in the riverhead of Gothenburg's inlet port was countered by the Swedes. Just before hostilities would calm down in the autumn of 1719, Tordenskjold launched yet another assault on Nya Varvet, this time with fewer troops but was a more successful operation than its predecessor. Background. Following the Swedish defeat in the Battle of Poltava in June 1709, Denmark–Norway declared war on Sweden on 8 August (O.S) that same year. Subsequent Russian attacks resulted in the seizure of Swedish defense structures across all of the Baltic region as well as parts of Finland. The new Russian naval base Kronstadt as well as other newly conquered Baltic ports became bases for Russian vessels. This drastically changed the situation for the Swedish Navy, as they had to focus more on the growing Russian Navy, compared to before, when the Swedes had concentrated their efforts on the Danes in the southern Baltic Sea and Øresund. The vital objective was to prevent the Danes and Russians from coordinating and combining their naval power. This situation was a major strain on Swedish resources and it made the defense of their western waters from the Dano-Norwegian fleet especially difficult. The Gothenburg area was considered a relatively low priority, despite the fact that the city's trade significance was growing. The construction of a new, deeper naval base, ("New Yard)", had begun in 1700 at the river entrance of Lilla Billingen, which was supposed to replace the existing Gamla Varvet ("Old Yard"), at what is today Stigberget. In addition to Gothenburg city fortress, the coastal fortress Nya Älvsborg in the river entrance of Göta älv, as well as Carlsten in Marstrand had all been expanded during the last decades. In 1704 it was decided that forced naval conscription was to be performed in the former Danish provinces (Scania, Bohuslän and Halland, among others) which were now part of southern Sweden. This meant that the part of the population that were fit for naval service were obliged to serve the navy during times of war, in exchange for some benefits. The local enthusiasm, however, was low, and many seamen fit for service instead sought service in the Danish and Norwegian navies. By spring 1715, 72 of the 140 naval officers that were conscripted in Gothenburg were ordered to Stockholm and the navy in the Baltic Sea. In order to compensate for the Swedish navy's diminished resources, letters of marque were issued, which authorized crews of armed, privately owned Swedish vessels to seize vessels belonging to nations that Sweden were at war with, and to an extent, sell their cargo. The crown received a 10 percent cut on these sales. Starting in 1710, privateering companies were being set up as a result. In 1711, the Crown allowed loyal privateers to borrow weapons and munitions from the government's Gothenburg storages. Admirals complained that privateers were using conscripted sailors during their operations that were supposed to be serving in the Navy. Swedish privateering operations expanded further in 1715 when foreign navy captains were authorized to receive letters of marque and to operate under Swedish flag. It was also no longer mandatory to pay a cut of the cargo value to the Swedish crown. By 1715, 25 Swedish privateers were conducting active operations in the Western Sea, which disrupted Dano-Norwegian trading routes severely. The largest privateering operation was led by Lars Gathe of Onsala. He was named Gathenhielm and Commander by Charles XII so he could not only command his privateering operation, but also the entire Swedish privateering fleet on the west coast. Charles XII:s Norwegian Campaign of 1716. In February, a smaller Swedish force composed of men from Värmland, Dalsland and Svinesund, marched into Norway with the intention of conquering Akershus fortress in Christiania, thereby forcing Denmark to make peace. After passing by the fortress town of Fredrikstad as well as Fredriksten fortress, near present-day Halden, Charles XII was able to march in to the undefended Christiania by 11 March, whilst under persistent fire from Akershus fortress. After a failed storming attempt, Charles XII realized that he needed access to more powerful siege artillery. Repeated attempts to defeat the Norwegian forces around Swedish-occupied Christiania failed because of General von Lützow's skilled defensive tactics and by him avoiding as many battles as possible, since he was aware that his relatively untrained army couldn't compare to the seasoned Swedish Caroleans. Additionally, the coming thaw meant that Danish reinforcements could start arriving by ship. The rough Norwegian terrain, combined with the lack of supplies and the active resistance of the local civilians forced the Swedish army to retreat south. A major cause to the Swedish defeat during the campaign was the inability to compete with the Danes on the sea. The commander of the Gothenburg Squadron, Vice admiral Axel Lewenhaupt, had only managed to put one frigate, the "Älvsborg" (46 cannons) to sea, by letting privateers borrow it for 20 000 daler. This, of course, did not prevent Danish vessels from supplying the Norwegians with soldiers and supplies. The Danish General Staff credited the retaking of Christiania to their fleet. In Gothenburg, Vice-Admiral Lewenhaupt had under rough circumstances managed to put together a transport fleet consisting of 24 vessels loaded with siege cannons, ammunition and other supplies. The fleet was escorted by six galleys and an armed barge. It moved slowly north along the coast under the command of schoutbynacht Olof Knape. By the end of April, it entered Dynekilen, a fjord between Strömstad and Svinesund. Additional transport ships arrived during the following months. Battle of Dynekilen. During the night of June 28, Norwegian Commander Peder Tordenskjold initiated one of the most daring and most widely renowned naval battles in Nordic history. By sailing directly into the approximately 5 kilometer long and narrow fjord with frigates, galleys and armed barges, the Swedes were taken by surprise. The Dano-Norwegian superior number of cannons meant that the entire Swedish transport fleet was either sunk or captured after five hours of combat. Without any usable siege artillery, and with a high risk of being cut off, Charles XII ordered a full retreat of the Swedish army on June 29. His soldiers managed to cross over to the Swedish side of the Idefjord, before Tordenskjold could destroy the bridge at Svinesund. The 25-year old Tordenskjold was promoted to captain, and in November he was designated Chief of the Norwegian Navy. The Swedish captain Strömstierna managed to reach land from the galley "Wrede", and despite his defeat, he was promoted to vice admiral by Charles XII. By early 1717 the Danes were still worrying that Charles XII would resume his invasion of Norway. Swedish privateers based in Gothenburg were still persistent in their harassing of Dano-Norwegian trade. Tordenskjold therefore prepared an assault on the Gothenburg Squadron and as much as possible on the Gothenburg-based privateering squadron at Göta älv. The moment of surprise would gain significance, as it did at Dynekilen. There were however no plans on attacking the Nya Älvsborg fortress or the Gothenburg city fortress. By February, Danish vessels had started blockading the river mouth of Göta älv. 1717 Attack on Nya Varvet. In the morning of May 2, 1717, a Dano-Norwegian naval force anchored in the Gothenburg archipelago with the purpose of conducting a night raid against Swedish harbors and dockyards in the city, but their moment of surprise was lost from the beginning. This happened because of disagreements between the Dano-Norwegian commanders which ultimately resulted in one of the necessary barges; the "Arca Noæ "not arriving on time. The Danes under the command of Tordenskjold, still managed to maneuver past Nya Älvsborg fortress with barges, galleys and slopes containing around 100 cannons and 1800 soldiers, during the night between 2 and 3 May. As a result of the Danish disorder before the battle, the Swedes could spare a few additional hours to see over their defenses. The defense of Gothenburg was formally led by Carl Gustaf Mörner, the governor of Gothenburg and Bohus County, but was in practice being led by Olof Strömstierna. Frederick I, a future successor to the Swedish throne, was because of co-incidence in Gothenburg at the time and took part in the fighting. Two of the Gothenburg Squadron's frigates, the "Fredericus" and the "Halmstad" had been leased to the Gathenhielm privateers. The "Halmstad" was equipped, but undermanned. These two frigates as well as an additional two from Nya Varvet, formed a blockade in Göta älv between Nya Varvet and Rya Nabbe. Strömstierna supplied the vessels with barricades so as to prevent the Danes from boarding them. Additionally, Nya Älvsborg fortress had been reinforced with a crew of 400 soldiers and 90 cannons. The two cannon batteries Lilla Billingen and Rya Nabbe, with 12 heavy cannons each had been manned with infantry from the Saxon Infantry Regiment led by Colonel G.D Zengerlein. In addition, the Småland Regiment as well as an elite unit, the Grenadier Battalion led by Johan Clausen, which composed of handpicked grenadiers from different units, were assigned to man the forts. In total, there were around 1000 Swedish soldiers and 200 cannons at the rivermouth of Göta älv. At roughly 8 in the morning, the Danes were forced to retreat, due to them not being able to breach the Swedish defenses. The Danish force sailed with an east-bearing wind out of Göta älv, with a slightly reduced fleet. Two galleys were left behind by the Danes and captured by the Swedes. The raid resulted in 52 casualties and 79 badly injured for the Danes. 40 were mildly injured and could keep working. Tordenskjold's superiors questioned his judgement due to his order to go ahead with the raid despite the circumstances. In the evening of May 15, the blockade of Gothenburg was lifted and Tordenskjold's squadron started its sail towards Norway. War in Northern Bohuslän. Following their victory against Tordenskjold in May 1717, the Swedish military deemed that Strömstad was in a vulnerable position and that it required reinforcement. Captain Nils Gyllenschruf succeeded in transporting soldiers, cannons, ammunition and grain from Gothenburg to Strömstad by June 14. The troops were part of the Halland Regiment and the previously mentioned Grenadier Battalion. The Västerbotten Regiment was also ordered to Strömstad. A major fortification project ensued, and by June 29, General Major Johan Giertta, who was responsible for the defense of the border with Norway, could report that two cannon batteries were operational and the remaining two were near completion. On July 8, Tordenskjold assaulted Strömstad with a squadron, and following heavy firing upon the city, an attempt was made to land soldiers escorted by galleys. The assault failed when the Swedish counterattack couldn't be stopped despite firing against them by Danish ships of the line and barges. A number of attacking galleys got stuck on rocks and were stranded. At 15 to 20 meters distance, Swedish grenadiers were able to hit with devastating musket salvos. The Danish casualties numbered 96 in addition to their 246 injured. Among the injured was Tordenskjold himself who was carried back to the ship of the line "Laaland, "bleeding and" "barely conscious. He was promptly replaced by the more careful Schoutbynacht Andreas Rosenpalm. Charles XII visited Strömstad and Gothenburg in September 1717. He decided that the Gothenburg Squadron was to be moved, and that its larger vessels, the frigates, were to be placed in the more strongly fortified Marstrand. The lesser vessels were to be based in Strömstad. Missing dockyards and storage facilities were to be constructed as soon as possible, by order of the King. One of the lessons learned from the Swedish invasion in 1716 was to not have large Swedish storage caches in occupied Norwegian territory. Almost 40 cargo ships therefore completed 150 transports of supplies from Gothenburg and Uddevalla to storages in Strömstad, between April and October 1718. The convoys were escorted by screens of the Gothenburg Squadron, since its frigates were lacking in equipment and manpower. Three of the frigates, the "Varberg, Halmstad "and the "Fredricus "had been put under the command of Gathenhielm. In the Ide fjord, a smaller Norwegian squadron had the ability to either assault the Swedish storage caches in Strömstad, or threaten the Swedish troops which were yet again planning to cross the border. Due to the fact that the entrance to Svinesund was blockaded by naval vessels and Norwegian cannon batteries, Charles XII decided that a number of galleys should be towed across land from Strömstad to Trångsviken in the Ide fjord, a distance of roughly 20 kilometers. The transport proved to be a difficult task across rough terrain, trickles and narrow roads. The transport of the heaviest vessel, the brigantine "Luren, "took two months. The roughly 40 tonne ship got stuck in a trickle and remained immobile until technical experts Christopher Polhem and Emanuel Swedenborg were called upon to remove the vessel. On September 10, under the command of Charles XII, the Swedish vessels, including brigantines and sloops, forced the Norwegian squadron to retreat to Fredrikshald during a battle in the Ide fjord. Following the renewed campaign against Norway in the autumn of 1718, and the subsequent death of Charles XII at Fredriksten fortress on November 30, the Swedish army marched back across the border into Sweden. The march would result in large casualties due to a severe winter storm, an event known as the Carolean Death March. Additionally, the Swedish east coast was being threatened by Russia. This was an opportunity for Denmark-Norway to retake areas on the Swedish west coast. Intricate plans regarding a land and naval invasion on Bohuslän existed already, and were put into motion. The large supply caches that had been constructed in Strömstad in 1718 were now facing a major threat by the Dano-Norwegian counter-attack, and during late 1718 and early 1719, Swedish cannons and supplies were heading back south by ship to Gothenburg and Uddevalla. The relocating of supplies meant that northern Bohuslän would be harder to defend. On March 27 1719, a Dano-Norwegian naval force, consisting of four ships of the line and a frigate, anchored in Rivö bay outside of Gothenburg. The blockading force was under the command of Tordenskjold, who had recently been promoted to the lower admiral rank of schout-bij-nacht. To avoid endangering the peace conference that was taking place in Stockholm in the spring, Tordenskjold had been ordered not to assault Gothenburg. In early June, the blockading naval force had increased to seven ships of the line, two frigates, four barges, two floating batteries, one bombarderskip, five galleys and two galiots. The smaller Danish vessels attempted to halt Swedish naval traffic between Nordre river and Marstrand. In mid-June, an additional 26 Danish merchant ships arrived from Öresund with storage for the Danish blockading fleet. At the end of May, a convoy of transport vessels docked at Marstrand, where transshipment occurred to more capable vessels, where the cargo rerouted for further transport through Nordre river to Gothenburg. A part of the convoy later returned to Strömstad. On May 23, Field Marshal Carl Gustaf Rehnskiöld was appointed commander of the Swedish troops in Bohuslän, and in early June, an inspection was started in the region. Fortifications were in need of repairs in several locations. Due to the strong Danish blockading force outside of Gothenburg, with an estimated manpower of 1300 soldiers on board and with several special purpose vessels able to bombard coastal defense positions, it was predicted that the Danes were planning an attack on either Marstrand or Älvsborg fortress. Captain Erik Sjöblad of the Gothenburg Squadron was ordered to moor all frigates and galleys to be able to defend the harbor inlets. Rehnskiöld later gave the order to clear all stationary ships for sinking. 1719 Assault on Bohuslän. Assault on Nya Älvsborg. On July 19 and 20, Tordenskjold gathered his ships in Rivö fjord, consisting of seven ships of the line, two frigates, four barges, three floating batteries and four galleys, comprising roughly 500 cannons and around 6000 men. On July 21, an assault begun on Nya Älvsborg using barges and floating batteries. The Danes spread out and used the surrounding islands for cover as they closed in on the fortress. Mortars were set up at nearby Aspholmarna. The Swedes had at this time a crew of around 360 men. These men had been drawn from two companies from the Älvsborg Regiment, a company from the Saxon Infantry Regiment, as well as from the fortress' regular artillery detachment. They were all under the command of Johan Abraham Lillie. The Swedish artillery amounted to around 90 pieces, they all varied in caliber. Mortars and howitzers were also used. The fortress suffered continuous fire for three days without pause. Damages were significant, a castle wall was destroyed due to an explosion of a munitions cache. The three floor high tower was also severely damaged. Lillie refused to surrender despite the damages, responding to the Danish calls for surrender with that he "would rather be brought back to Gothenburg as a dead Lillie than as a living Danckwardt", referring to the late Henrich Danckwardt who was executed by a Swedish court-martial for surrendering Marstrand to the enemy in 1719. Georg Bogislaus Staël von Holstein and his soldiers from the Skaraborg Regiment had a good visual over the Danish batteries in Aspholmarna, but could not reach them with his musketeers. Colonel Staël von Holstein managed to acquire a few cannons from the Gothenburg artillery storage. And so, on the night to July 24, the cannons were set up in Hisingen and in the morning, they started firing against the undefended Danish mortars in Aspholmarna. The Danish forces aborted their assault on Nya Älvsborg when three Swedish galleys from Nya Varvet, the "Carolus, Wrede "and the "Lucretia "attacked the remaining mortar battery in Aspholmarna, resulting in the Swedish capture of four heavy mortars, 60 bombs and three barrels of gunpowder. Swedish casualties during the siege amounted to 30 dead and 70 wounded, among the latter was Captain Lillie. 60 Danes died and 73 were wounded. The defense of Nya Älvsborg fortress attracted attention from all across Sweden, and Captain Lillie was named friherre. The Danish blockade of the river entrance to the city continued, however, and the alert level of the other Swedish fortresses remained high. 1719 Assault on Nya Varvet. In the early hours of September 1, a Swedish force based in Nya Varvet ("the New Yard") managed to overtake and capture a number of Danish vessels near Grötö. The ships captured totalled a galley, a bomber galiot, two barges as well as five cargo ships. The Swedish forces in the area were put on high alert, due to the fear of potential Danish reprisals. In the night to September 27, Tordenskjold sought revenge. Nine Danish slopes from Marstrand, under the command of Captain Oluf Budde, managed to sneak past Älvsborg fortress and its nearby artillery, towards Nya Varvet, where the remaining vessels of the Gothenburg Squadron and the captured Danish vessels were moored. The objective of the assault was to either recapture the Danish vessels and the rest of the Gothenburg Squadron, or to set them on fire. During their advance, the Danes were discovered and called upon by the Swedish guard detail, stationed at Käringberget. When they were asked to identify themselves, they responded that they were "good Swedes" that were up to "Swedish shenanigans". The deception was successful, and they were sent on their way. The next guard station allowed them to pass, since they had already been allowed passage by the previous station. Upon their arrival at Nya Varvet, 30 Danish soldiers landed and were commanded by Captain Kleve. They were spotted and called upon by soldiers from the Saxon Infantry Regiment that were assigned to guard duty around the yard. The Germans didn't react to the Danes' dialect, or to their uniforms that had been turned inside out (the inside of the red Danish uniforms was blue), and allowed them to pass. The Danes proceeded toward the top of Lilla Billingen where the guardhouse was located. When they approached the building, the Danish soldiers breached the windows with their musketeers and Captain Kleve rushed in with his pistol drawn, ordering the twelve Saxon soldiers to surrender. The head of the guard force, Lieutenant Franck, was confused and was shot by Kleve. After the guards had been incapacitated, the Danes attempted to navigate the ships out of the yard, but the majority of the vessels had to be left behind and were burnt. The galleys "Carolus" and the "Wrede" were among the burnt ships. Meanwhile, Tordenskjold himself arrived in a slope to Nya Varvet, but then the alarm had been raised because of a few guards escaping capture, and reporting the events to Major Ernbildt. The cannons of Nya Älvsborg were manned and started firing upon the Danes. The Danish force managed to slip away without casualties, and retrieved one galley. The largest Swedish vessel in the yard, the frigate "Le Comte de Mörner", burnt down at Göta älv." " This was the final battle between Sweden and Denmark during the Great Northern War.

regional excitement

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23642426

CoBoost is a semi-supervised training algorithm proposed by Collins and Singer in 1999. The original application for the algorithm was the task of Named Entity Classification using very weak learners. It can be used for performing semi-supervised learning in cases in which there exist redundancy in features. It may be seen as a combination of co-training and boosting. Each example is available in two views (subsections of the feature set), and boosting is applied iteratively in alternation with each view using predicted labels produced in the alternate view on the previous iteration. CoBoosting is not a valid boosting algorithm in the PAC learning sense. Motivation. CoBoosting was an attempt by Collins and Singer to improve on previous attempts to leverage redundancy in features for training classifiers in a semi-supervised fashion. CoTraining, a seminal work by Blum and Mitchell, was shown to be a powerful framework for learning classifiers given a small number of seed examples by iteratively inducing rules in a decision list. The advantage of CoBoosting to CoTraining is that it generalizes the CoTraining pattern so that it could be used with any classifier. CoBoosting accomplishes this feat by borrowing concepts from AdaBoost. In both CoTrain and CoBoost the training and testing example sets must follow two properties. The first is that the feature space of the examples can separated into two feature spaces (or views) such that each view is sufficiently expressive for classification. Formally, there exist two functions formula_1 and formula_2 such that for all examples formula_3, formula_4. While ideal, this constraint is in fact too strong due to noise and other factors, and both algorithms instead seek to maximize the agreement between the two functions. The second property is that the two views must not be highly correlated. Algorithm. Input: formula_5, formula_6 Initialize: formula_7. For formula_8 and for formula_9: Set pseudo-labels: formula_10 Set virtual distribution: formula_11 where formula_12 Find the weak hypothesis formula_13 that minimizes expanded training error. Choose value for formula_14 that minimizes expanded training error. Update the value for current strong non-thresholded classifier: formula_15 The final strong classifier output is formula_16 Setting up AdaBoost. CoBoosting builds on the AdaBoost algorithm, which gives CoBoosting its generalization ability since AdaBoost can be used in conjunction with many other learning algorithms. This build up assumes a two class classification task, although it can be adapted to multiple class classification. In the AdaBoost framework, weak classifiers are generated in series as well as a distribution over examples in the training set. Each weak classifier is given a weight and the final strong classifier is defined as the sign of the sum of the weak classifiers weighted by their assigned weight. (See AdaBoost Wikipedia page for notation). In the AdaBoost framework Schapire and Singer have shown that the training error is bounded by the following equation: formula_17 Where formula_18 is the normalizing factor for the distribution formula_19. Solving for formula_18 in the equation for formula_21 we get: formula_22 Where formula_23 is the feature selected in the current weak hypothesis. Three equations are defined describing the sum of the distributions for in which the current hypothesis has selected either correct or incorrect label. Note that it is possible for the classifier to abstain from selecting a label for an example, in which the label provided is 0. The two labels are selected to be either -1 or 1. formula_24 formula_25 formula_26 Schapire and Singer have shown that the value formula_18 can be minimized (and thus the training error) by selecting formula_14 to be as follows: formula_29 Providing confidence values for the current hypothesized classifier based on the number of correctly classified vs. the number of incorrectly classified examples weighted by the distribution over examples. This equation can be smoothed to compensate for cases in which formula_30 is too small. Deriving formula_18 from this equation we get: formula_32 The training error thus is minimized by selecting the weak hypothesis at every iteration that minimizes the previous equation. AdaBoost with two views. CoBoosting extends this framework in the case where one has a labeled training set (examples from formula_33) and an unlabeled training set (from formula_34), as well as satisfy the conditions of redundancy in features in the form of formula_35. The algorithm trains two classifiers in the same fashion as AdaBoost that agree on the labeled training sets correct labels and maximizes the agreement between the two classifiers on the unlabeled training set. The final classifier is the sign of the sum of the two strong classifiers. The bounded training error on CoBoost is extended as follows, where formula_36 is the extension of formula_18: formula_38 Where formula_39 is the summation of hypotheses weight by their confidence values for the formula_40 view (j = 1 or 2). formula_41 is the sign of formula_39. At each iteration of CoBoost both classifiers are updated iteratively. If formula_43 is the strong classifier output for the formula_40 view up to the formula_45 iteration we can set the pseudo-labels for the "j"th update to be: formula_46 In which formula_47 selects the other view to the one currently being updated. formula_36 is split into two such that formula_49. Where formula_50 The distribution over examples for each view formula_51 at iteration formula_52 is defined as follows: formula_11 At which point formula_54 can be rewritten as formula_55 Which is identical to the equation in AdaBoost. Thus the same process can be used to update the values of formula_56 as in AdaBoost using formula_57 and formula_58. By alternating this, the minimization of formula_59 and formula_60 in this fashion formula_36 is minimized in a greedy fashion.

additional estate

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24092901

Belt wrestling is a form of wrestling that is one of the oldest historically recorded sports. It involves two belted contestants aiming to take each other over by grappling with a belt. There are hundreds national belt wrestling styles, but contemporary most widespread and internationally competed are Alysh and Kurash, developed by the previously nomadic Turkic peoples of Central Asia. United World Wrestling recognized Alysh wrestling as the primary international belt wrestling style. It is regulated globally by the International Federation of Wrestling on Belts Alysh, the sport's governing body. Although the sport has been practiced for millennia, and local championships were held in various places of the world, it was until 2001 when Bayaman Erkinbayev started its international version, and it was called "Alysh". Until 2005, Rif Gaynanov and Bayaman Erkinbayev developed this style together, and then the ways separated. Two different styles appeared named "Alysh" and "Kurash" belt wrestling. Since then, the sport has been included in the 2013 Summer Universiade program, recognized by the Asian Olympic Council, and contested at the Asian Games and Asian Indoor Games. The sport's executives struggle to promote it to the level of an official Olympic sport. History. Ancient times. Gilgamesh engages in a form of belt wrestling with Enkidu in the Epic of Gilgamesh written around 2000 BC about a king of Sumer who lived around 2800 to 2600 BC. One of the oldest recorded illustrations of wrestling is a bronze statuette, dated to around 2600 BC, found in 1938 at Khafaji, near Baghdad and now stored in the National Museum of Iraq. Chinese Tangshu chronicles also mention belt wrestling in the Medieval China circa the 11th Century. In the 11th Century the scholar and philosopher Avicenna wrote about this type of wrestling. Present day. The International Federation. To accommodate the many variations of belt wrestling throughout the world, the philosophy of the new International Belt Wrestling Association (IBWA) founded in 2005 now headed by Mr. KHALIL AHMED KHAN of Pakistan has been simple and logical; it has adopted two sets of standard rules and a standard costume. Their reasoning is that some styles do not permit trips and some do. However, according to the new association, to compete without trips is called ‘classical style’ and with trips is called ‘free style’. The standard costume is an attractive feature, which allows for all styles to be completed so that no participant can conclude that his or her national style or costume has been slighted. IBWA unites all belt wrestling lovers in the world. Mr. Khalil Ahmed Khan is Chairman of Ad Hoc Advisory Committee Traditional Sports and Games, UNESCO and President of International Association of Traditional Wrestling Sports - IATWS. IATWS is a key partner of Traditional Sports and Games, UNESCO(Ref). The newly created official platform by UNESCO Advisory Committee on TSG is the "[ International Council of Traditional Sports and Games]" (ICTSG) has already awarded the membership to IATWS and IBWA. Belt Wrestling has been included in the First World Traditional Sports and Games Festival to be held in Astana- Kazakhstan 2021. The International Council of Traditional Sports and Games (ICTSG) is an international organization aiming to serve as an international platform for the preservation, promotion, and development of traditional sport and games (TSG) at the global level. It is the initiative of the UNESCO Advisory Committee and approved by UNESCO. These Games will be the first of their kind whilst giving a boost to tourism, local traditions, and culture of its Host Country. Anti-Doping in Traditional sports In today’s highly competitive sporting environment, athletes and athlete support personnel are under increasing pressure to do whatever it takes to win. ICTSG and UNESCO Convention against Doping in Sport are committed to preserve fair sport and to protect young people involved in traditional sports from the use of prohibited substances. Gender equality through Traditional sports Promoting gender equality and empowering women through traditional sports and games is one of ICTSG's main objectives. Khalil Ahmed Khan is President of the International Council of Traditional Sports and Games (ICTSG) and Shammi Rana is Secretary-General of the International Council of Traditional Sports and Games (Ref). The rules and variation of the rules. Different parts of the world have different variations on certain rules in the sport. As the name suggests, the central component of the sport is a simple device, such as a belt, an ordinary towel, or girdle. For example, within Central Asia, Kuresh wrestling of Turkic people is popular. It is distinguished by throwing an opponent by tearing him away from the floor or from the mat without using one’s legs. Such rules are usually specific to that particular region. As a result, the rules of the game can differ between continents or even countries. Former Honorary President of the International Association of Traditional Types of Sports Rif Gainanov once stated, "This type of wrestling will always be interesting. Every nation has its own coloring. One nation should not impose its own rules upon other countries and should respect other cultures and their customs". However, today it is necessary to understand the differences between: 1) the rules of national wrestling in every single country or region, of which there are surely thousands of variations; 2) and a common, well-defined system of belt wrestling rules, which makes it possible for athletes from around the world to come together in a competition as equals. 3) the belt wrestling has been accredited as a "Traditional Sports" by the UNESCO Advisory Committee on TSG. The sport today. Today wrestling, as a national sport, cannot be ascribed to any single country. In a similar way, people generally do not refer to soccer as an English sport or basketball to be American. Belt wrestling does not have any national boundaries. It is unique and gathering more and more fans. The circle of contestants is widening considerably. This is a spectacular and democratic sport and one that does not require much financial expenditure. An important fact is that the International Belt Wrestling Federation considerably lessened the number of injuries received by contestants since the introduction of the new rules. As it was proved, the correction of this or that wrestling rules popularized this kind of sport. Nowadays world and continental championships are being held in different parts of the world. The sport is developing rapidly and has become so prominent that President Putin of Russia attended the 6th World Championships in Ufa, the capital of Bashkortostan, from 9 to 13 October 2007. In America and Oceania the popularity of belt wrestling is no less than that in Iran, Turkey, Germany, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine, Russia, Lithuania, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Togo, and Spain - countries which have already been the hosts of international competitions. This is how one more step towards the main aim - inclusion in the Olympic Games – is being made. Several years ago, very few people knew anything about belt wrestling. Today, the International Association is getting applications for holding tournaments from all corners of the globe. This is no surprise as now the army of admirers of this kind of sport unites more than eighty countries of the world. The IBWA is an organization that serves as an international platform under the leadership of its President Khalil Ahmed Khan for the popularizing and developing traditional wrestling/belt wrestling throughout the world irrespective of race and political followings. The Association takes part in the exchanging of know-how, knowledge, information, and data, referring to the traditional wrestling/belt wrestling which, in turn, contributes to its development and popularization on local, national, regional and international levels. Belt Wrestling as a sport is recognized by the Asian Olympic Council from 2007 and is included in the program of Asian Martial Arts & Indoors Games 2017. There are many types of traditional belt wrestling in the world, but by developing this sport's general rules under the leadership of Dr. Rif Gaynanov (†) former President, and Khalil Ahmed Khan current President of IBWA/IATWS became a real home for all types of traditional belt wrestling in the world and a common platform for developing and promoting new-old sport discipline – belt wrestling. Today IBWA governs different belt wrestling disciplines: freestyle, classical style, female belt wrestling, beach belt wrestling, snow belt wrestling in five age groups: cadets, juniors, students, seniors, and veterans in 12 weight categories (7 for men and 5 for women). All IBWA events are with the line of the IOC vision which include seven components: sport – belt wrestling competition, culture – folklore youth festival and competition on local traditional wrestling style, science – scientific conference on developing and promotion of traditional sport and game, environment – tree planting action "Plant-for-the-Planet" or beach cleaning action "Creation" with art exhibition, sport for development and peace – training seminars between border conflict/post-war countries under the slogan "Play for Peace", healthy lifestyle promotion - Olympic mile "Fun Run", youth – youth leadership forum " New generation of leadership". Belt wrestling is also one of the disciplines of the Worldwide Nomad Games. Asian Belt Wrestling Federation(ABWF) is continental body of International Belt Wrestling Association and International Association of Traditional Wrestling Sports.H.E. Khalil Ahmed Khan is President of Asian Belt Wrestling Federation and Shammi Rana Secretary-General of Asian Belt Wrestling Federation and Rapporteur of Traditional Sports and Games, UNESCO(TSG)ABWF ABWF. The Belt Wrestling has been treated and accepted as the old traditional sports in the Central Asia region. Amateur Belt Wrestling Federation of India Executive Board meeting of Amateur Belt Wrestling Federation of India was held under the Chairmanship of Dr. SM Bali, Joint Secretary Indian Olympic Association at Hotel Ashoka on 16/01/2017[5] and Shammi Rana, Secretary-General Asian Belt Wrestling Federation(ABWF).Dr. SM Bali was elected as President, Aman Kumar Sharma Vice President and Tarsem Sharma elected as Secretary-General of Amateur Belt Wrestling Federation of India Competitions. World Belt Wrestling Championships. Senior. The first edition of the championships in 2002 saw competition in the openweight, therefore only two events were contested (men and women.) The 2003' championships were subdivided into weight classes, but because of the rules of the host country no women competition was allowed. Since 2003 the prize money totalling several hundred thousand U.S. dollars was contested among participating teams. Since the 2005' edition onwards the championships were contested in freestyle (belts) and classic style (kushaks.) The 2008' edition saw championships contested at an open-air competition area, on sand, in air temperature. External links. 2008 results 2009 results 2016 results

Indo-European pastime

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1562173

Snake Eyes (also known as Snake-Eyes) is a fictional character from the ' toyline, comic books, and animated series. He is one of the original and most popular members of the G.I. Joe Team, and is most known for his relationships with Scarlett and Storm Shadow. Snake Eyes is one of the most prominent characters in the "G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero" franchise, having appeared in every series of the franchise since its inception. He is portrayed by Ray Park in the 2009 live-action film ', and the 2013 sequel "". Henry Golding is slated to portray the titular character in the upcoming 2021 spin-off film "Snake Eyes". Profile. Snake Eyes is the code name of a member of the G.I. Joe Team. He is the team's original commando, and much of his history and information, including his real name, place of birth and service number, have remained "CLASSIFIED" throughout all depictions of his origin. All that is known for certain is his rank/grade (originally U.S. Army Sergeant/E-5, eventually reaching Sergeant First Class/E-7 before it too was made "CLASSIFIED"), his primary military specialty is infantry, and his secondary military specialty is hand-to-hand combat instructor. Snake Eyes was trained at the MACV Recondo School (Nha Trang), and served in LRRPs in Southeast Asia with Stalker and Storm Shadow, eventually leaving the service to study martial arts with Storm Shadow's Arashikage ninja clan. He has undergone drill sergeant training, and is a former U.S. Army Special Forces and Delta Force operator. Very little else about his past has been revealed. Snake Eyes was living a life of strict self-denial and seclusion in the High Sierra with a pet wolf named Timber when he was recruited for the G.I. Joe Team. He is an expert in all NATO and Warsaw Pact small arms and a black belt in 12 different fighting systems. He is also highly skilled in the use of edged weapons, especially his Japanese sword and spike-knuckled trench knives, but is equally qualified with and willing to use firearms and explosives. Snake Eyes is quiet in his movements and rarely relies on one set of weapons to the exclusion of others. During one of his first missions for G.I. Joe, Snake Eyes' face was severely disfigured in a helicopter explosion. Since then, Snake Eyes has had extensive plastic surgery to repair the damage, but his vocal cords cannot be repaired. He usually wears a black bodysuit, along with a balaclava and visor to cover his face. When out of his uniform, Snake Eyes is shown to be Caucasian with an athletic build, blonde hair, and blue eyes. Snake Eyes has been shown in most continuities to be romantically involved with fellow team member Scarlett. He has also had several apprentices, including Kamakura, Tiger Claw, and Jinx. His personal quote is "Move with the wind, and you will never be heard." Toyline. Snake Eyes was one of the original figures in the "G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero" toyline in 1982. He shared many parts with other figures of that series, except for his unique head sculpt. He was designed to save Hasbro money in the paint application process, as his first figure was made of black plastic with no paint applied for details, and his head did not require any detail because of the mask. All of the original sixteen figures from 1982 were released with "straight arms". The same figure was re-released in 1983 with "swivel-arm battle grip", which made it easier for figures to hold their rifles and accessories. A second version of Snake Eyes was released in 1985, packaged with his wolf Timber. A third version of Snake Eyes was released in 1989, and a fourth version in 1991. Snake Eyes has also been released as a member of several sub-lines of G.I. Joe figures, such as Ninja Force (1993) and Shadow Ninjas (1994). He has also been released in several Hasbro multi-packs such as the Heavy Assault Squad, Winter Operations, and the Desert Patrol Squad Toys "R" Us exclusive. A common element in almost all Snake Eyes figures, is that his face is covered (except for the 2005 "Classified" series action figure, depicting him before he was disfigured). The 1991 version was also released as a 12" G.I. Joe Hall of Fame action figure in 1992. This Snake Eyes figure introduced a new variation on the trademark G.I. Joe scar by putting the scar over the figure's left eye, instead of on his right cheek as had traditionally been the case during the vintage era (1964–1978) of G.I. Joe. A version of Snake Eyes with no accessories came with the Built to Rule Headquarters Attack in 2004. The figure featured additional articulation with a mid-thigh cut joint, and the forearms and the calves of the figure sported places where blocks could be attached. International variants. The 1982 mold of Snake Eyes was used in several countries in various forms. In most countries, because he was different from all of the other G.I. Joe figures available at that time, he was treated as a member of Cobra. In Brazil, his head was recolored and used to create Cobra De Aço, and the entire mold was used with a silver Cobra logo to create Cobra Invasor. The figure was also available without the Cobra logo as O Invasor. In Argentina, Snake Eyes was recolored in red and silver, and released as Cobra Mortal and as a different version of Cobra Invasor. 25th Anniversary. Snake Eyes was featured in the G.I. Joe Team 5 pack for the 25th Anniversary in 2007 as a Commando, using a new mold heavily based on his first design. His ninja design (V2) also was sold in the first line of individual figures packaged with Timber in 2007. In 2008, he received an updated version of his "Version 3" mold from 1989, which featured removable butterfly swords for the first time. For the finale of the 25th anniversary in April 2009, Hasbro launched a poll on their website, for fans to pick their favorite figures for the "Hall of Heroes" line. Two versions of Snake Eyes were selected for this series, which featured the figures packaged on a blister card, but also in a special collectors box. The Rise of Cobra. In 2009, to coincide with the film "", Hasbro released four figures based on the Snake Eyes movie character. The "Ninja Commando" figure is a classic rendition of his "V2" uniform from the original series. The "Paris Pursuit" figure features a uniform similar to his "V2" uniform, but with an overcoat, and includes either a black or grey wolf. The "Arctic Assault" figure is dressed in a white winter parka, with a traditional black mask. The "City Strike" figure features the head of Snake Eyes from "G.I. Joe: Resolute", on the body of a previous version. Snake Eyes was also released as part of the Target-exclusive "G.I. Joe Rescue Mission" 4-pack, with the "Paris Pursuit" head on a new body. A version of Snake Eyes was released in 2010 with the "Jet Storm Cycle". Snake Eyes was released for the "G.I. Joe: The Rise of Cobra" line as a 12-inch "ninja figure", with a sound chip and speaker in the torso, and push button "sword fighting action". His arms and hands featured molded-on clothing and gear. He was also released in a Wal-Mart exclusive wave of 12 inch figures, packaged with the Arashikage Cycle. The Pursuit of Cobra. Two versions of Snake Eyes were released in 2010 as part of "The Pursuit of Cobra" line, one with his wolf Timber, and one with a special "tornado kick" feature. Both "Arctic Threat" and "Desert Battle" versions of Snake Eyes were also released in 2011. 30th Anniversary. In 2011, two versions of Snake Eyes were released as part of the 30th Anniversary line, including one based on the animated series '. As with the first movie, Hasbro released four figures based on the Snake Eyes character from ' in 2012: a single carded figure, one included with the "Ninja Speed Cycle", one (with very limited articulation) included with the "Ninja Commando 4x4", and one with the "G.I. Joe Ninja Showdown Set". Three more versions of Snake Eyes were released in 2013 G.I. Joe Classified Series. Q2 of 2020 sees the release of G.I. Joe Classified Series, a new line of highly articulated 6-inch scale action figures that includes prominent characters like Snake-Eyes. This line features premium deco, detailing, articulation, and classic design updated to bring the classic characters into the modern era, plus accessories inspired by each character’s rich history. Comics. Marvel Comics. Snake Eyes first appears in "" #1 (June 1982). In the Marvel Comics' continuity, Snake Eyes, Stalker, and Storm Shadow served together during the Vietnam War in a LRRP unit. On a particular mission, a heavy firefight with the North Vietnamese NVA resulted in the apparent death of his teammates (among them Wade Collins, who actually survives and later joins Cobra, becoming Fred II of the Fred series Crimson Guardsmen). When a helicopter arrived to pick up the surviving team members, the pursuing NVA opened fire, severely injuring Snake Eyes. Despite a direct order from Stalker to leave him, Storm Shadow went back for Snake Eyes, and was able to get Snake Eyes safely aboard the helicopter. Upon returning home from the war, Snake Eyes met with Colonel Hawk, who informed him that his family had been killed in a car accident (which involved the brother of the man who would eventually become Cobra Commander). Devastated, Snake Eyes accepts an offer to study the ninja arts with Storm Shadow's family, the Arashikage Clan. Over time, Snake Eyes and Storm Shadow became sword brothers, and unintentional rivals for the attention and favor of Storm Shadow's uncle, the Hard Master. During one of Snake Eyes' training sessions, the Hard Master expressed his desire for Snake Eyes to take over leadership of the Arashikage clan instead of Storm Shadow. Snake Eyes refused, but then Zartan—hired by Cobra Commander to avenge the death of his brother—mistakenly killed the Hard Master instead of Snake-Eyes, using an arrow he stole from Storm Shadow. With Storm Shadow believed responsible for the death of the Hard Master, the Arashikage ninja clan dissolved. Snake Eyes returned to America, where he took up residence in the High Sierra mountains, and was eventually recruited for the G.I. Joe Team by Hawk and Stalker. During one of the team's first missions in the Middle East, Snake Eyes, Scarlett, Rock 'n Roll, and Grunt are sent to save George Strawhacker from Cobra. On the way, their helicopter collides with another in mid air, forcing the Joes to bail out. When Scarlett is trapped in the burning helicopter, Snake Eyes stays behind to save her, but a window explodes in his face, scarring him and damaging his vocal cords. Despite his injuries, Snake Eyes convinces Hawk to let him continue on with the mission. Strawhacker, who was once engaged to Snake Eyes' sister, never learns the identity of the "scarred, masked soldier" who saved his life. Later, when Scarlett is captured by Storm Shadow, Snake Eyes travels to Trans-Carpathia to rescue Scarlett, and battles Storm Shadow for the first time since he had left the Arashikage clan. Snake Eyes eventually learns that Storm Shadow joined Cobra to find out who was truly behind the murder of the Hard Master. After discovering it was Zartan who killed his uncle, Storm Shadow leaves Cobra and becomes Snake Eyes' ally, ultimately becoming a member of the G.I. Joe Team. Snake Eyes and Storm Shadow would team up for some of G.I. Joe's toughest missions, and the bond between them would be both strengthened and tested. In a story arc titled the "Snake Eyes Trilogy", the Baroness seeks revenge upon Snake Eyes, under the mistaken belief that he had killed her brother in Southeast Asia. She captures Snake Eyes while he is recovering from plastic surgery to repair his face, and shoots Scarlett in the process. Storm Shadow, Stalker, and Wade Collins lead a rescue at the Cobra Consulate building where Snake Eyes was imprisoned. After a second rescue mission for George Strawhacker and a run-in with the Night Creepers, Snake Eyes is finally reunited with Scarlett. For the first time in many years, Snake Eyes speaks Scarlett's name, and she wakes from her coma, eventually returning to active duty. As Marvel's "G.I. Joe" series is drawing to a close, Snake Eyes and Cobra Commander finally battle each other in issue #150. Snake Eyes eventually wins against an armored Cobra Commander, but the Commander would have the last laugh, as he captures Storm Shadow and successfully brainwashes him back to the allegiance of Cobra. Snake Eyes and Scarlett would continue to serve G.I. Joe until its disbandment. Devil's Due Publishing. Devil's Due Publishing and Image Comics introduced new elements into Snake Eyes' past during their "Snake Eyes Declassified" miniseries, which show more of Cobra Commander's motivation to kill Snake Eyes while training to become a ninja. Snake Eyes had an encounter with Cobra Commander prior to the formation of Cobra, where Cobra Commander befriended Snake Eyes and tried to recruit him into murdering a judge. The judge had convicted Cobra Commander's older brother of arson and insurance fraud, resulting in the ruin of his brother's life, causing his spiral downward into alcoholism, and ultimately the car accident that claimed both his life and the lives of Snake Eyes' family. Snake Eyes agreed to accompany Cobra Commander, but at the last minute refused to go along with the plan. Cobra Commander then killed the judge, and swore revenge against Snake Eyes, resulting in him hiring Firefly (who in turn subcontracted Zartan) to kill Snake Eyes while he was training with the Arashikage Clan. The first four issues of "G.I. Joe: Frontline" featured Larry Hama's story "The Mission That Never Was". After the official disbandment, the original G.I. Joe team had to transport a particle beam weapon from Florida to General Colton's location in New York City. Since Billy, Storm Shadow, and the Baroness were left under the influence of Cobra's Brain Wave Scanner at the end of the original series, Snake Eyes is on this mission to save Storm Shadow. At the end of this story, Storm Shadow returns to his ways as a ninja, and says he will deal with Snake Eyes when he is ready. Snake Eyes and Scarlett move back to his home in the High Sierras, where Timber has died but sired a litter of pups before passing, and Snake Eyes adopts one. After the G.I. Joe Team disbanded, Snake Eyes and Scarlett leave the military and become engaged, but for unknown reasons on the day of the wedding, Snake Eyes disappears and retreats again to his cabin in the High Sierras. The following "Master & Apprentice" miniseries reveals that Snake Eyes, along with Nunchuk, and T'Jbang, were training a new apprentice, Ophelia, to be the last of the Arashikage ninja clan, shortly after he and Scarlett became engaged. As Ophelia's final test, she and Snake Eyes confront Firefly for his role in the murder of the Hard Master. However, Firefly kills Ophelia and escapes, leaving Snake Eyes devastated. As a result, on his wedding day, Snake Eyes breaks off his engagement to Scarlett in front of Stalker, then again disappears to his compound in the Sierras. There, he is approached by Sean Collins, the son of his Vietnam War buddy Wade Collins. Sean asks Snake Eyes to train him as a new apprentice, after watching his crew also get slaughtered by Firefly on the night Ophelia was killed. Some time later, Jinx and Budo call Snake Eyes to investigate new intel on the location of Firefly, who is working for the "Nowhere Man". Snake Eyes confronts Firefly, who is meeting with another masked ninja, revealed to be Storm Shadow. Sean is eventually given the name Kamakura, and would later join the G.I. Joe team. In the pages of "", Snake Eyes and Scarlett would be reunited upon G.I. Joe's reinstatement, and the two again became engaged. Snake Eyes is involved in many skirmishes with Cobra, including altercations with Storm Shadow, the return of Serpentor (in which Snake Eyes was injured by a grenade blast but quickly recovered), Snake Eyes' triumph over the Red Ninja leader Sei Tin (which gave Snake Eyes control of the Red Ninja clan), and a close-call defeat at the hands of the heavily armored Wraith. The team is then reduced to a smaller unit, and when Snake Eyes, Scarlett, and Duke get into trouble, a shadowy cabal of generals known as "The Jugglers" has Snake Eyes and Duke arrested. However, Scarlett meets with Storm Shadow (who had broken free of his mind control), and they rescue Snake Eyes and Duke from a convoy. They escape to Iceland and hide out with Scanner, however they are tailed by former Coil agent Overlord, who fatally injures Scanner and locks the Joes in a bomb shelter. In his last moments, Scanner activates the Icelandic station's self-destruct mechanism, killing Overlord in the blast and saving the Joes. The team then assists Flint, Lady Jaye, and General Philip Rey in dealing with a new menace, the Red Shadows. When the Red Shadows attempted to assassinate Hawk at a mountain camp, Snake Eyes sends his apprentice Kamakura to get Hawk to safety. Snake Eyes would later help in defeating the Shadows before their plot could be set into motion, even fighting leader Wilder Vaughn, who escapes. Snake Eyes and Kamakura also travel to Asia, to assist Storm Shadow in finding his apprentice, who had been kidnapped by the Red Ninjas. Snake Eyes helps Storm Shadow defeat Red Ninja leader Sei Tin, but the mission is a failure. Snake Eyes relinquishes control of the Red Ninjas to Storm Shadow, who in turn leaves his clan in T'Jbang's care. America's Elite. Snake Eyes is reactivated as a member of the team in "", along with Stalker, Scarlett, Flint, Duke, Shipwreck, Roadblock, and Storm Shadow. With their new covert status and reduced roster, they continued to track down Cobra cells and eliminate them, from their new headquarters in Yellowstone National Park code named "The Rock". When Vance Wingfield seemingly returns from the grave, and drops deadly satellites onto major metropolitan areas using equipment supplied by Destro, Duke, Scarlett and Snake Eyes all leave to conduct solo investigations. Snake Eyes tracks Firefly to Chicago, and interrupts his attempt to assassinate a gang lord. Upon returning, Snake Eyes finds that Scarlett has been captured while investigating Cesspool. He reveals that both he and Scarlett had implanted tracking devices in one another, and that only they know the frequencies. He finds her on Destro's submarine in the Pacific Ocean, and succeeds in rescuing her, but Destro escapes, and Snake Eyes dies during the operation. Snake Eyes' body is stolen by the Red Ninjas, in order to resurrect him. The Joes track the Red Ninjas to China, where Sei-Tin takes control of Snake Eyes, and uses him to exact his revenge against Storm Shadow and Kamakura. They eventually defeat Sei-Tin and return Snake Eyes to normal. Shortly after, Scarlett observes Snake Eyes seemingly abandoning all of his ninja training, and focusing solely on his military training instead. Following the session, Scarlett unmasks Snake Eyes and is shocked at the sight. Later, Snake Eyes reveals to Scarlett and Stalker that the Baroness is still alive, and being held captive within the Rock, which leads them to confront General Colton. When ordered on a mandatory break, Snake Eyes and Kamakura go on a retreat to the High Sierras, where Kamakura tries to rationalize that Snake Eyes could not have died, but must have put himself into a trance. He then argues that Snake Eyes should not have given up his ninja skills, and that he wishes to work with him to restore his faith. Snake Eyes returns to active duty, and investigates a medical facility with Stalker and Scarlett, where they find a fatally injured Scalpel. He informs them that the Baroness is free and looking for revenge on both G.I. Joe and Cobra. In the one-shot comic "Special Missions: Antarctica", Snake Eyes is part of the team that is called to investigate an Extensive Enterprises venture in Antarctica. The G.I. Joe team eventually split up to find Tomax and Xamot, and Snake Eyes goes with Snow Job to infiltrate their base, where they fight and chase Tomax off. Snake Eyes is involved in various battles during the final arc "World War III". When the Joes start hunting down every member of Cobra that they can find, Snake Eyes and Scarlett apprehend Vypra, and capture Firefly in Japan. As part of Cobra Commander's sinister plot, he sends the elite squadron known as The Plague to attack G.I. Joe headquarters. As the evenly matched Plague and G.I. Joe teams clash, Cobra sleeper cells attack government buildings in nations across the globe. Meanwhile, Storm Shadow tries to stop Cobra from liberating prisoners from the G.I. Joe prison facility "The Coffin". He is partially successful, but Tomax manages to free Firefly and several others, while killing those Cobra Commander considered "loose ends". Storm Shadow then joins Snake Eyes and the rest of the main team in defeating several Cobra cells, and disarming nuclear weapons that Cobra Commander has placed in the Amazon and Antarctica. Cobra Commander and The Plague retreat to a secret base in the Appalachian Mountains, where the final battle takes place, and Snake Eyes again defeats Firefly in a sword duel. In the end, Snake Eyes is shown among the members of the fully restored G.I. Joe team. Hasbro later announced that all stories published by Devil's Due Publishing are no longer considered canonical, and are now considered an alternate continuity. Alternate continuities. In the separate continuity of "G.I. Joe: Reloaded", which featured a more modern and realistic take on the G.I. Joe/Cobra war, it is hinted that Snake Eyes is a former Cobra agent, who quit and decided to assist G.I. Joe instead. Although he did not serve on the team, it was shown that Snake Eyes was interested in Scarlett, but the series ended before anything further was explored. Snake Eyes appears in "G.I. Joe vs. The Transformers", the Devil's Due crossover series with Transformers set in an alternate continuity. As G.I. Joe is organized, Snake Eyes is assigned to a group of soldiers protecting a peace conference in Washington. He is called "Chatterbox" but does not actually speak, because he had been dared by the other soldiers to actually keep quiet for a time. Snake Eyes is terribly scarred, and loses his voice, when a Cobra Commander-controlled Starscream shoots Cover Girl's missile tank out from under him. His family is also killed during the attack. During the assault on Cobra Island, Snake Eyes slices open one of Starscream's optics and shoves a grenade into the socket. During the final part of the first miniseries, Snake Eyes is given a Cybertronian-based Mech that allows him to fight the much larger Decepticons, as well as Cobra agents in Decepticon suits. The second miniseries focuses on several Transformers being sent back in time to various time periods, which forces G.I. Joe and Cobra to team-up to retrieve them. The first group to be sent back in time includes Snake Eyes, Lady Jaye, Zartan, and Storm Shadow, sent back to 1970s California. After recovering all of the Transformers, they arrive back on Cybertron. During the third miniseries, it is shown that Snake Eyes has developed a love interest with Scarlett, who returns those feelings after he rescues her from a Decepticon prison, and removes his mask to show his scarred face. Later, they appear to be in a relationship. During the fourth miniseries, Snake Eyes is only shown in one scene as still being an active member of the Joe team, along with Flint, Lady Jaye, and Duke. He also appears briefly fighting several of the Cobra-La Royal Guards. "Transformers/G.I. Joe" was originally planned for publication during the same time as "G.I. Joe vs. The Transformers" by Dreamwave Productions, until they announced bankruptcy, leaving only the first miniseries completed. The story features the Transformers meeting the G.I. Joe team in 1939, where Snake Eyes is prominent in defeating the Decepticons by opening the Matrix. In the second miniseries set in the 1980s, Snake Eyes is somehow still in fighting shape, despite having been a member of the team in 1939. IDW Publishing. "G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero" continuation. In 2009, IDW Publishing took over the license for G.I. Joe comics, and started a new series that continues where the Marvel Comics series ended. The series began with a free Comic Book Day issue #155 ½, and replaces all of the Devil's Due Publishing continuity that had previously been established. This continuation of the Marvel series is again written by Larry Hama. Snake Eyes ultimately sacrifices himself to stop a revived Serpentor from destroying the Pit III. To convince Cobra that Snake Eyes is still alive, the recently recruited Sean Collins, who himself has been disfigured much as Snake Eyes was, is given the identity of Snake Eyes to continue in his name. Hasbro Comic Universe. IDW Publishing also started a "G.I. Joe" comic series that does not connect to any of the past continuity. Snake Eyes is once again a member of the team, and throughout the first storyline, he is a renegade agent of G.I. Joe, with whom Scarlett is in communication unapproved by Hawk. Snake Eyes first appears in the Crimean Rivera chasing Nico. It is later mentioned by Duke that Snake Eyes has gone AWOL. Scarlett sends him a message signed "Love Red", which is a code telling him to run. He heads to Seattle where he finds Mainframe, and gives him the hard drive that Scarlett requested, containing information about Springfield. Once there, they retrieve evidence from a secret lab that Cobra exists, before the town is leveled by a MOAB. With the evidence in hand, the two are accepted back into the G.I. Joe team. Snake Eyes eventually heads to Manhattan, NYC, to meet his old mentor, who helps him heal his mind after his defeat. In "G.I. Joe: Origins", Snake Eyes receives an update to the origin of his wounds. In the first storyline, Duke and Scarlett travel to the North Las Vegas community hospital, and find Snake Eyes in the burn unit intensive care near bed K (BUICK), the only survivor of an explosion at a plastic surgery clinic. Snake Eyes' face and hands are completely bandaged, and he is now mute because of the explosion. Duke and Scarlett escape with Snake Eyes, before the hospital room is destroyed by the Billionaire/Chimera. Snake Eyes continues to appear with his face wrapped in bandages throughout the first storyline. He later appears in his black uniform with a visor and sword, a variation of his original figure's uniform, as part of the second storyline on a mission in London . A solo title "G.I. Joe: Snake Eyes" started in May 2011, being part of the "G.I. Joe: Cobra Civil War" saga. After "Cobra Civil War" ended, "G.I. Joe: Snake Eyes" continued into the new story arc "G.I. Joe: Cobra Command", finally showing why and how he deserted the Joes and what part Storm Shadow had played. In January 2015, IDW published "G.I. Joe: Snake Eyes - Agent of Cobra". Written by Mike Costa, this series looks into Snake Eyes joining Cobra, whether Storm Shadow and Scarlet will join him, and how Destro plays into his transition. Snake Eyes is also the central character in IDW’s 2020 comic series , from writers Rob Liefeld and Chad Bowers. Animated series. Sunbow. Unlike his comic book counterpart, Snake Eyes did not play a major role in the Sunbow's "" TV series, with the exception of the first miniseries "The M.A.S.S. Device", where some of his origins were explored. He was always portrayed as a trusted and loyal teammate, and even proved to have a sense of humor, as seen when he broke into a break-dancing routine on-stage, and later in a disguise resembling Boy George in the "Pyramid of Darkness" miniseries. In the first miniseries, Snake Eyes appeared in his "V1" uniform, but for all of his later appearances he wore a bluish-grey version of his "V2" uniform. Additionally, he does not have a rivalry with Storm Shadow in the cartoon, who instead fights with such characters as Spirit and Quick Kick. Although Snake Eyes does not speak, the vocal effects of Snake Eyes' wolf Timber were provided by Frank Welker. Snake Eyes is shown in a few scenes of ", including the opening title sequence, but like many of the characters of the Sunbow cartoon, he has a very minor role in the final battle. DiC. Snake Eyes was shown during the DiC's " series in his 1991 "V4" uniform. He did have a few key episodes, and was shown to be working with his blood brother Storm Shadow, who now was a member of the G.I. Joe Ninja Force. Snake Eyes was shown more in this series as a ninja, but none of his origins or his relationships were explored before this series ended. Direct to video. Snake Eyes is a member of G.I. Joe in all of the direct to video CG-animated movies. The continuity of these movies does not tie into the previous history, and more directly leads into the events of ". Snake Eyes and Storm Shadow are once again on opposite sides fighting each other. Snake Eyes is shown throughout ", which marked his first appearance as a major animated character. He is a part of the team that goes to rescue Scarlett after she is taken hostage by Zartan, but their relationship is not fully explored. Snake Eyes also spares Storm Shadow's life, even though he asked to have Snake Eyes end it. Snake Eyes is seen in "" as the master to both of his apprentices Jinx and Kamakura. Snake Eyes gives Kamakura a sword named "Tatsuwashi", and battles Storm Shadow as well as several of the new Cobra Ninjas. In the animated short ", a new apprentice code named Tiger Claw is joining the G.I. Joe team, and learns of Snake Eyes' and Storm Shadow's past in the Arashikage Clan. Most of the movie is narration over original artwork and some scenes from the previous two movies, as well as some new footage at the end. This movie is not in the same continuity as the comics, and events here do not seem to progress into Sigma Six. Resolute. Snake Eyes first appears in " during a briefing on the attack of the USS "Flagg". During an autopsy on Bazooka, a scroll with the Arashikage symbol on it is found. The instructions on the scroll tell Snake Eyes to go where everything began, where he takes out a team of Cobra Neo-Vipers while Storm Shadow watches and waits. After this battle, a brief history of Storm Shadow and Snake Eyes is shown. In this series, their rivalry comes from Storm Shadow wanting his uncle to teach him the Seventh Step to the Sun technique, a move that allows one to kill an opponent in seven blows. When his uncle refuses, Storm Shadow signals Zartan to assassinate his uncle. Snake Eyes is shot in the throat by Zartan, to prevent him from warning their master, resulting in his becoming mute. Snake Eyes and Storm Shadow face off in a one on one battle. Storm Shadow initially dominates the fight, as he had been taught the Sixth Step to the Sun compared to Snake Eyes' fifth. Snake Eyes however shows that he in fact was taught the Seventh Step to the Sun technique, and kills Storm Shadow with seven blows, the last perforating his skull. He later rejoins the rest of the team in their final assault on Cobra Commander's headquarters. The love triangle of Snake Eyes, Scarlett and Duke is also explored slightly in this series. Early on in the episode, Duke makes Scarlett choose between Snake Eyes and himself, and she ultimately decides to be with Duke. Renegades. In "", Snake Eyes is a member of G.I. Joe. He was given the name "Hebi no me" ("Snake Eyes") by his Arashikage clan sensei, Hard Master, because he possesses the "steely gaze of a serpent". He cannot speak after having his throat punctured, and just shows up for special missions when called by Scarlett, who can "translate" what he is thinking. He is not used to teamwork, but now that he has joined G.I. Joe, his sense of honor and morality would not let him walk away. In the episode "Dreadnoks Rising", Zartan takes off his visor but puts it back on and says, "You need it more than I do". Snake Eyes' wolf Timber made an appearance in the episode "White Out", where he was rescued by Snake Eyes from a bear trap, before they were assaulted by Storm Shadow and Shadow-Vipers; at the end, Snake Eyes asks Snow Job to watch Timber until he returns. In the episode "Revelations, Part 1", Scarlett learns that Snake Eyes briefly met her father, and promised him to look after his daughter, and he shows signs of having feelings for her. During the time when Snake Eyes still spoke, before his throat injury in the episodes "Return of the Arashikage, Parts 1-2", Snake Eyes was voiced by Danny Cooksey. Sigma 6. Sigma 6 toys. Snake Eyes again appears as part of the toy series. Although similar in concept to the earlier toyline, the Sigma 6 action figures do not tie into the continuity of the original G.I. Joe universe, and were 8" in height rather than the smaller 3 ¾" scale figures of the A Real American Hero line. The first wave in 2005 contained a Snake Eyes figure. A "Ninja Showdown" battle pack also contained alternate versions of Snake Eyes and Storm Shadow. In 2006, all of the 2005 figures were re-released with new molds and accessories, including four different versions of Snake Eyes. A new version of Snake Eyes was also released in 2007. To complement the line of G.I. Joe: Sigma 6 action figures and vehicles, Hasbro also introduced a "mission scale" line of 2 ½ inch scale Mission Sets action figures. Each set of action figures is packaged as a "mission in a box", and includes a Mission Manual. Sigma 6 animated series. In the "Sigma 6" animated series, Snake Eyes' history has been substantially changed from the "A Real American Hero" series, but he still shares a connection with Storm Shadow, who refers to him as "brother". Although Storm Shadow is a brainwashed Cobra agent, he blames Snake Eyes for the ruin of the Arashikage ninja clan. In "Sigma 6", both Jinx and Kamakura serve as Snake Eyes' apprentices and G.I. Joe reserve members. As is in the original series, Snake Eyes is mute, but the reason for this is not explored. While the "A Real American Hero" animated series never showed Snake Eyes' true face, the Sigma 6 continuity takes some visual cues from the "A Real American Hero" comics. In one episode, when Snake Eyes is fighting Storm Shadow, his visor breaks and it appears that he has blonde hair, blue eyes, and a scar near his eye as a result of a training accident. In the sixth episode of season 2, Snake Eyes faces off against a pack of wolves; after saving one, the unnamed wolf helps him throughout the episode, and is later seen howling atop a hill near Sigma Six headquarters. This was confirmed as a Sigma 6 version of Timber, when an Arctic Sigma Six figure of Snake Eyes was released with Timber, with the figure's bio card describing the plot from this episode. Sigma 6 comics. Snake Eyes appeared in the "Sigma 6" comic book, released by Devil's Due Publishing with direct connection to animated series. Snake Eyes is spotlighted in issue #6, which centers on Storm Shadow, as Snake Eyes is sent in to retrieve a stolen electronic device from him. Storm Shadow refers to Snake Eyes as "brother", and breaks Snake Eyes' headgear, partially exposing his face, which again is shown to be of a blonde American with a scar. Live action film. G.I. Joe: The Rise of Cobra (2009). Martial artist/stuntman Ray Park, played the character with actor and martial artist Leo Howard playing the younger version in the film ". In an early draft by Stuart Beattie, Snake Eyes would have spoken as a gag, but Larry Hama convinced him to drop the joke. In the movie, Snake Eyes' origin is rebooted, with him being an abandoned 10-year-old child who found his way to the home of the Arashikage Clan. He battles the young Thomas Arashikage (Storm Shadow), who attacks him for stealing food. However, the orphan's natural ability to fight impresses Thomas's uncle, the Hard Master, who gives Snake Eyes his name, while bringing him under his wing. While Snake Eyes would initially lose to Thomas, Snake Eyes eventually surpasses Thomas and gains the favor of the Hard Master, becoming recognized as Hard Master's top student. Angered at Hard Master choosing Snake Eyes over him, Thomas appears to kill the Hard Master off-screen, and is then seen running off in midst of the chaos. Since then, Snake Eyes has chosen to take a vow of silence. Learning that Thomas, now known as Storm Shadow, is a member of Cobra, Snake Eyes fights him, before stabbing him and allowing him to fall into icy water at Cobra's Arctic base, leaving him for dead. Snake Eyes returns to the Pit with the surviving members of G.I. Joe. G.I. Joe: Retaliation (2013). Park returns as Snake Eyes in the sequel, ". In the film, Snake Eyes is framed by Zartan for assassinating the President of Pakistan under orders of G.I. Joe. Storm Shadow disguises himself as Snake Eyes to break Cobra Commander out of prison, as the real Snake Eyes watches from the shadows. With the help of Jinx, Snake Eyes captures Storm Shadow and takes him to the Blind Master to pay for his assassination of the Hard Master. However, Snake Eyes learns that Zartan was the one who murdered the Hard Master and framed Storm Shadow for it, and that Storm Shadow only joined Cobra in order to avenge the Hard Master's death. With this revelation, Storm Shadow teams up with Snake Eyes and the Joes to stop Cobra Commander's plan to destroy several countries and take over the world. During the final battle, Snake Eyes allows Storm Shadow to deal with Zartan, by giving him the Blade of Justice. Snake Eyes and the Joes stop Cobra Commander's plan and are declared heroes, absolved of their accusations, while Storm Shadow avenges the Hard Master's death by killing Zartan before disappearing. Snake Eyes (2021). In May 2018, it was announced that Paramount will develop a movie spin-off that takes place in an alternate live action continuity featuring Snake Eyes, and on December 4, 2018, Robert Schwentke was announced as Director with the screenplay written by Evan Spiliotopoulos. The film wrapped principal production on February 26, 2020 with an expected October 22, 2021 release date. Henry Golding stars in the title role with Andrew Koji as Storm Shadow, Ursula Corbero as Baroness, Samara Weaving as Scarlett, Iko Uwais as The Hard Master and Peter Mensah as The Blind Master. Reception. Snake Eyes is one of the most popular and recognizable G.I. Joe characters. In 1986, "G.I. Joe" creator Larry Hama called him the most successful character he ever created, believing this is because his mysterious appearance and persona means "he becomes a universal blank slate for projection of fantasy for anybody." In 2008, TechCrunch used the question "Could he/she beat Snake Eyes?" while evaluating the top video game ninja characters. In 2010, Topless Robot ranked Snake Eyes as the first on the list of The 10 Coolest G.I. Joe Ninjas, calling him "the most popular member of the team". UGO.com included him on the lists of TV's Worst Speakers (in 2010), and the Best Silent Killers of Movies and TV (in 2011). The character was parodied in the "Robot Chicken" 2007 episode "More Blood, More Chocolate", in which Snake Eyes was shown communicating with Duke by using an Etch A Sketch.

remaining individuals

12086-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=775021

A service-level agreement (SLA) is a commitment between a service provider and a client. Particular aspects of the service – quality, availability, responsibilities – are agreed between the service provider and the service user. The most common component of an SLA is that the services should be provided to the customer as agreed upon in the contract. As an example, Internet service providers and telcos will commonly include service level agreements within the terms of their contracts with customers to define the level(s) of service being sold in plain language terms. In this case the SLA will typically have a technical definition in "mean time between failures" (MTBF), "mean time to repair" or "mean time to recovery" (MTTR); identifying which party is responsible for reporting faults or paying fees; responsibility for various data rates; throughput; jitter; or similar measurable details. Overview. A service-level agreement is an agreement between two or more parties, where one is the customer and the others are service providers. This can be a legally binding formal or an informal "contract" (for example, internal department relationships). The agreement may involve separate organizations, or different teams within one organization. Contracts between the service provider and other third parties are often (incorrectly) called SLAs – because the level of service has been set by the (principal) customer, there can be no "agreement" between third parties; these agreements are simply "contracts." Operational-level agreements or OLAs, however, may be used by internal groups to support SLAs. If some aspect of a service has not been agreed with the customer, it is not an "SLA". SLAs commonly include many components, from a definition of services to the termination of agreement. To ensure that SLAs are consistently met, these agreements are often designed with specific lines of demarcation and the parties involved are required to meet regularly to create an open forum for communication. Rewards and penalties applying to the provider are often specified. Most SLAs also leave room for periodic (annual) revisitation to make changes. Since late 1980s SLAs have been used by fixed line telecom operators. SLAs are so widely used these days that larger organizations have many different SLAs existing within the company itself. Two different units in an organization script an SLA with one unit being the customer and another being the service provider. This practice helps to maintain the same quality of service amongst different units in the organization and also across multiple locations of the organization. This internal scripting of SLA also helps to compare the quality of service between an in-house department and an external service provider. The output received by the customer as a result of the service provided is the main focus of the service level agreement. Service level agreements are also defined at different levels: Components. A well defined and typical SLA will contain the following components: Common metrics. Service-level agreements can contain numerous service-performance metrics with corresponding service-level objectives. A common case in IT-service management is a call center or service desk. Metrics commonly agreed to in these cases include: Uptime is also a common metric, often used for data services such as shared hosting, virtual private servers and dedicated servers. Common agreements include percentage of network uptime, power uptime, number of scheduled maintenance windows, etc. Many SLAs track to the ITIL specifications when applied to IT services. Specific examples. Backbone Internet providers. It is not uncommon for an internet backbone service provider (or network service provider) to explicitly state its own SLA on its website. The U.S. Telecommunications Act of 1996 does not expressly mandate that companies have SLAs, but it does provide a framework for firms to do so in Sections 251 and 252. Section 252(c)(1) for example ("Duty to Negotiate") requires Incumbent local exchange carriers (ILECs) to negotiate in good faith about matters such as resale and access to rights of way. WSLA. A web service level agreement (WSLA) is a standard for service level agreement compliance monitoring of web services. It allows authors to specify the performance metrics associated with a web service application, desired performance targets, and actions that should be performed when performance is not met. WSLA Language Specification, version 1.0 was published by IBM in 2001. Cloud computing. The underlying benefit of cloud computing is shared resources, which is supported by the underlying nature of a shared infrastructure environment. Thus, SLAs span across the cloud and are offered by service providers as a service-based agreement rather than a customer-based agreement. Measuring, monitoring and reporting on cloud performance is based on the end UX or their ability to consume resources. The downside of cloud computing relative to SLAs is the difficulty in determining the root cause of service interruptions due to the complex nature of the environment. As applications are moved from dedicated hardware into the cloud, they need to achieve the same or even more demanding levels of service than classical installations. SLAs for cloud services focus on characteristics of the data center and more recently include characteristics of the network (see carrier cloud) to support end-to-end SLAs. Any SLA management strategy considers two well-differentiated phases: negotiating the contract and monitoring its fulfilment in real time. Thus, SLA management encompasses the SLA contract definition: the basic schema with the QoS parameters; SLA negotiation; SLA monitoring; SLA violation detection; and SLA enforcement—according to defined policies. The main point is to build a new layer upon the grid, cloud, or SOA middleware able to create a negotiation mechanism between the providers and consumers of services. An example is the EU–funded Framework 7 research project, SLA@SOI, which is researching aspects of multi-level, multi-provider SLAs within service-oriented infrastructure and cloud computing, while another EU-funded project, VISION Cloud, has provided results with respect to content-oriented SLAs. FP7 IRMOS also investigated aspects of translating application-level SLA terms to resource-based attributes in an effort to bridge the gap between client-side expectations and cloud-provider resource-management mechanisms. A summary of the results of various research projects in the area of SLAs (ranging from specifications to monitoring, management and enforcement) has been provided by the European Commission. Outsourcing. Outsourcing involves the transfer of responsibility from an organization to a supplier. This new arrangement is managed through a contract that may include one or more SLAs. The contract may involve financial penalties and the right to terminate if any of the SLAs metrics are consistently missed. Setting, tracking and managing SLAs is an important part of the outsourcing relationship management (ORM) discipline. Specific SLAs are typically negotiated up front as part of the outsourcing contract and used as one of the primary tools of outsourcing governance. In software development, specific SLAs can apply to application outsourcing contracts in line with standards in software quality, as well as recommendations provided by neutral organizations like CISQ, which has published numerous papers on the topic (such as "Using Software Measurement in SLAs") that are available to the public.

normal element

14123-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13582536

Hyderabadi haleem () is a type of haleem popular in the Indian city of Hyderabad. Haleem is a stew composed of meat, lentils and pounded wheat made into a thick paste. It is originally an Arabic dish and was introduced to the Hyderabad State by the Chaush people during the rule of the Nizams (the former rulers of Hyderabad State). Local traditional spices helped a unique Hyderabadi haleem evolve, which became popular among the native Hyderabadis by the 19th century. The preparation of haleem has been compared to that of Hyderabadi biryani. Though Hyderabadi haleem is the traditional hors d'oeuvre at weddings, celebrations and other social occasions, it is particularly consumed in the Islamic month of Ramadan during Iftar (the evening meal that breaks the day-long fast) as it provides instant energy and is high in calories. This has made the dish synonymous with Ramadan. In recognition of its cultural significance and popularity, in 2010 it was granted Geographical Indication status (GIS) by the Indian GIS registry office, making it the first non-vegetarian dish in India to receive this status. History. Haleem originated as an Arabic dish with meat and pounded wheat as the chief ingredients. It was introduced to Hyderabad by the Arab diaspora during the rule of the sixth Nizam, Mahbub Ali Khan, and later became an integral part of Hyderabadi cuisine during the rule of the seventh Nizam, Mir Osman Ali Khan. Sultan Saif Nawaz Jung Bahadur, an Arab chief from Mukalla, Hadhramaut, Yemen, who was among the seventh Nizam's court nobility, popularised it in Hyderabad. Addition of local flavours to the original recipe resulted in a taste distinct from other types of haleem. Officially introduced in Hyderabad. Hyderabadi haleem was officially introduced in Madina Hotel by Aga Hussain Zabeth, the Iranian founder of the hotel in 1956. The hotel which opened in 1947 in the Waqf property named Madina Building at Pathargatti which the rent from it was used to serve Haj pilgrims, Madina hotel is one of the oldest restaurant in the Hyderabad. After renovation of Madina hotel it was inaugurated by the last Nizam, Mir Osman Ali Khan in 1956. Preparation. Traditionally, Hyderabadi haleem is cooked on a low flame of firewood for up to 12 hours in a "bhatti" (a cauldron covered with a brick and mud kiln). One or two people are required to stir it continuously with wooden paddles throughout its preparation. For home-made Hyderabadi haleem, a "Ghotni" (a wooden hand masher) is used to stir it until it reaches a sticky-smooth consistency, similar to minced meat. Ingredients. The ingredients include meat (either goat meat, beef or chicken); pounded wheat; ghee—(milk fat rendered from butter, also called clarified butter); milk; lentils; ginger and garlic paste; turmeric; red chili pepper spices such as cumin seeds, caraway seeds ("shah zeera"), cinnamon, cardamom, cloves, black pepper, saffron, jaggery, natural gum, allspice ("kabab cheeni"); and dry fruits such as pistachio, cashew, fig and almond. It is served hot topped with a ghee-based gravy, pieces of lime, chopped coriander, sliced boiled egg and fried onions as garnish. Variations. Different variants have been introduced catering to regional taste and requirements. A "meethi" (sweet) variant of haleem is consumed as breakfast by the Arab diaspora in Barkas neighbourhood of the city. The chicken variant is less popular, even though it is lower priced. A vegetarian version of haleem, in which dry fruits and vegetables are substituted for goat meat, is available at some eateries in Hyderabad. Nutrition. Hyderabadi haleem is a high calorie dish which gives instant energy as it contains slow-digesting and fast-burning ingredients. It also contains dry fruits rich in anti-oxidants. The meat and dry fruits make it a high protein food. A new low-cholesterol variety by using emu meat, rich in minerals, phosphorus and vitamins, was introduced in 2013. The Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC), a local civic body that monitors health and safety regulations in the city, has set up hygiene and quality standards to be followed by the eateries selling it. Popularity. Hyderabadi haleem is regarded as an international delicacy. In Hyderabad, the dish is often consumed at celebratory events such as weddings. It is consumed especially during Iftaar, the evening meal following the day-long fast, observed by Muslims during the month of Ramadan. Places to try Haleem. Shah Ghouse Café, Cafe 555, Pista House, Grill 9, Parivar, Bahar Cafe, Chicha's, Peshawar, Sarvi ,Grand Hotel, Prince Bahar Cafe, Delite Kitchen (Kompally) are some of the places to try Haleem in Hyderabad In Hyderabad and neighbouring areas, the month of Ramadan is synonymous with Hyderabadi haleem. During the 2014 Ramadan season, 5 billion worth of Hyderabadi haleem was sold in the city, and an additional 25,000 people were employed in the preparation and sale of haleem. The connoisseur chefs are paid salaries of up to a month plus benefits, As of 2011, during Ramadan there were 6,000 eateries throughout the city that sold haleem (70% of which are temporary until Ramadan ends), and 28% of Hyderabadi haleem produced in the city was exported to 50 countries throughout the world. Sanjeev Kapoor, an entrepreneur of Indian cuisine, mentions in his book "Royal Hyderabadi Cooking" that the preparation of haleem in Hyderabad has become an art form, much like the Hyderabadi biryani. In 2010 Hyderabadi haleem was awarded Geographical Indication status by the Indian GI registry office. It became the first meat product of India to receive a GI certification. This means that a dish cannot be sold as Hyderabadi haleem unless it meets the necessary standards laid down for it.

a person or two

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54888741

Warren Church (October 19, 1929 – September 2, 2017) was an American politician who served on the Monterey County Board of Supervisors from 1965 to 1977. He was a Democrat who represented District 1 which at that time encompassed the northern parts of Monterey County. He served on various committees and published books on local history and genealogy. He was a native of Monterey County. Warren Church has been acknowledged as the father of the Monterey County parks system. Early life, education. Warren Church was born in northern Monterey County and spent all his life in the county, graduating from King City High School in 1947. He was a high school athlete as well as being active with both student government and the school newspaper. At the age of 15, Church worked in the stock room of the King City J.C. Penney department store. He graduated from California Polytechnic State College in 1962, earning a bachelor's degree in social sciences and a Master of Arts Degree in education-social sciences. He also received both elementary and secondary teaching credentials. Church taught at the Pajaro Elementary and the Jefferson school in San Benito. In 1974 Church was awarded the Honored Alumni Award by Cal Poly University's alumni association. In college Church also served on the staff of the college newspaper, ""El Mustang"." Warren Church is a veteran of the Korean War and served with the 987th Armored Field Artillery Battalion and was wounded while serving, receiving a Purple Heart. He was eventually discharged as a Corporal, April 17, 1953. Board of Supervisors. Before the 1964 Monterey County Board of Supervisors primary, Church, Allmond and incumbent Chester Deaver were split over their positions on the incorporation of North Monterey County, Castroville and Moss Landing. Church opposed the incorporation of North Monterey County, calling it an "'extremely poor, short sighted and senseless reason,'" but felt that Castroville was ready. Allmond called the incorporation of Castroville a "'stab in the back'" but later changed to asking for more input from the Castroville people. Deaver wanted to take a "'wait and see' attitude." In the June 1964 primary, Chester Deaver had finished far in front of his challengers; Deaver 2,927, Church 1,374, Allmond 1,116, Simon 938, Bayer 650, Coffill 391 (unofficial results). However, the runoff of the top two candidates led to the election of Church to the Monterey County Board of Supervisors November 3, 1964. Church defeated incumbent Deaver, "with a 1,066 vote margin". At the time, "The supervisor position was part-time and came with a typewriter and $300 a month for incidentals. The 1968 election results were Church 5,555 to Simon 2,859. In 1972, the "Salinas Californian" endorsed Church for Supervisor, while saying that they have disagreed with him many times and probably will continue to do so as "the interests of the city of Salinas seen to be a fairly low priority item with him... Nevertheless... he is head and shoulders above his opponents." Church won reelection for his third term June 6, 1972. He won with 53% of the vote. His challengers were Jack Simon and Andrew Hollenstain. In 1972 Church was invited to a Salinas Board of Realtors meeting to discuss campaign issues in a private setting. Church declined stating: In November 1972, the Board heard arguments for relaxing zoning ordinances for mobile homes in North Monterey County. Arguments for relaxing were due to very high home prices that made owning a home in the county difficult. Arguments against were that mobile homeowners used the county services equally as a homeowner but paid lower taxes. There was also a concern about a reduction of lot sizes, allowing the county to double in population since 1963 when 11,000 residents lived in the unincorporated area of North County (excluding Castroville). According to the North County Rezoning Study which looked at 48,700 acres and an existing density of 11.3 acres per unit, proposed developments could increase the population from 16,000 (from 1970 census) to 338,900 with a density of .51 acres per unit. Appearance of mobile homes, fire safety, and environmental concerns were also a consideration. Church stated that all attendees at the meeting that approved of the ban lived in North Monterey County, and those arguing about the ban were people who lived outside the area and had a financial interest. One Pacific Grove resident, Art Woodfin, complained about the ban stating that he "had an option on 15 acres of land in North County and planned to put mobile homes on it." Church replied, "'Then you're coming to rape the North County?'" The "Salinas Californian" stated in 1975 that although the "Californian" has criticized Church, "he's given us about as good as he's got in rebuttal... its hard not to admire the man's independence." There was a serious recall effort for Church's seat in 1974 which failed. Despite losing several elections, "Defeat doesn't discourage him... Church doesn't scare worth a darn." In August 1975, Church announced that he would not seek re-election to the Board of Supervisors saying, "'12 years is as long as anyone should consecutively hold any one elective or appointive position... New ideas are necessary for proper functioning of government.'" He hinted that he might run for the State Senate seat that was being vacated by Republican Donald Grunsky. Church had a perfect meeting attendance record. In the 12 years of Church's tenure, he did not miss a single board meeting. Church remembers at his farewell Supervisor meeting that he "attended 558 consecutive regular board meetings and 100 or more special meetings." Reflecting on needs of the county for his successor, Church said that "growth and property taxes... the two major problems facing Monterey County... prohibit general use of the property tax and adopt low density zoning... we don't have to become South San Jose." Further about his tenure with the Board, Church reflected, "I see no basis to bring suit against the county, except perhaps for the amount and color of my hair." County Supervisor and future Congressman Sam Farr in 1976, said of his colleague Church, "'I think this board has really been one of the outstanding supervisorial boards in California ... whose 12 years of experience and insight have taught me a lot. I think that serving in public office is really a leveling experience. I think I've learned that from my colleague on the left (Poyner) and Mr. Church.'" Parks. Church was instrumental in the acquisition and development of the Monterey County Parks system. When running for the board position in 1964 his "main plank was a county park system." Prior to 1966, Monterey County did not have a parks department, and was one of the last counties in California to have one. There had been interest in 1944 when the county made a parks plan, but nothing happened. Church blames a '"conservative viewpoint that didn't push for public services.'" for the reason it took until 1966 to give Monterey County its first public park, Royal Oaks Park. He spearheaded the purchase of a former turkey ranch, for Royal Oaks Park ($122,000 – it was $1,000 an acre), which opened on Labor Day in 1966 and also saw establishment of the Monterey County Parks Department that same year. His tenure on the Board of Supervisors also saw the creation of a number of other parks including Manzanita Park near Castroville, Toro Park in Salinas, Jacks Peak in Monterey and San Lorenzo Park near King City. At the 25th anniversary of the founding of the Monterey County Parks Department, Republican Charmaine Cruchett thanked Church and said, "The little fox I recently saw dashing across Castroville Boulevard into Manzanita Park may not know who provided that haven, but certainly all North Countians should. I thank you Warren. My children thank you. And if we're lucky, our human progeny can share your parks progeny forever." The county administrative office released a memorandum October 2, 2006, at the 40th anniversary of the Parks Department saying, "The highlight of the event was the attendance of Warren Church... who was instrumental in establishing the Parks Department and Charter Park Commissioners, from 1966." In 1977 Church said he had tried to protect Civic interests. In 1975 Church pointed out that there is a relationship between growth and property taxes leading to agricultural land being sold for development. This drives the need for services and thus higher taxes. One outcome was the passage in 1976 of a Board of Supervisors resolution to establish "growth guidelines to protect the character of the county." Church felt that rather than using property taxes to support county governments, a percentage of federal or state income tax could be set aside. Church was a strong supporter of local control and access to the court system and he long resisted the eventual consolidation of Monterey County courts, largely in service to the interests of his constituents. At the end of his tenure, the "Californian" stated that Church was a strong supporter of the library system and initiated the first family planning program in Monterey County. Church was also a founder of Post 593 of the Prunedale American Legion. Humble Oil. Church was a key vote on a controversial 1965 project promoted by Humble Oil, a subsidiary of Standard Oil of New Jersey, that would have changed the Monterey Bay's look and feel. Humble was intended to kickstart a massive 60-square-mile development plan for the Moss Landing area that would have significally impacted the area's natural beauty and altered its economic development. The company wanted to build a 50,000-barrel-a-day refinery with plans to expand to 150,000–200,000 barrels-a-day on a 444 acre site on the wetlands near Moss Landing at the Elkhorn Slough. Monterey County was deeply divided on the plan with tourism proponents, some agricultural interests and a nascent environmental movement opposing the refinery. However, public opinion surveys showed greater than 2 to 1 support for the Humble Oil refinery with Church's supervisorial district in favor with 82%. The Board of Supervisors, after a 17-hour marathon public meeting, voted 3–2 to back the plan, with Church in favor of it because his district overwhelmingly backed the plan. But Church and others added many tough restrictions to the project a few weeks later at a 12-hour meeting that set the conditions for the permit. "It is not just the Humble Oil refinery we are fighting at Moss Landing," said Carmel Highlands photographer Ansel Adams prior to the decision. "It is the whole industrial complex which will inevitability follow and change the whole complexion of this Monterey County." The Humble project was approved, but the planning commission (which had previously rejected the project by a 5–4 vote) had imposed 36 conditions many that had never been imposed on an industry before. Church added three more which included for parking, sulfur recovery and carbon monoxide emissions. As a part of the imposed conditions on the approval for Humble Oil, Church asked that three air-pollution stations be set up in Monterey County to monitor air quality for two-years prior to Humble starting to build. Church said that the county needed to do so in order to "obtain 'guidelines' to determine what pollutants an oil refinery may contribute." Church's intentions were that Humble be required to pay for and maintain the stations. "The Salinas Californian" stated, "It is conceivable in the future that other areas debating the admittance of an oil refinery will look at Monterey County as an example of strict regulations. The conditions are that unique." One of the most restrictive conditions forbid Humble Oil from expanding significantly without getting a new permit. By the spring of 1966, Humble Oil was expressing the need for a larger refinery than initially permitted. Church publicly declared that there was not a majority on the Board of Supervisors for a larger refinery. Although not identifying himself as the supervisor switching his position on Humble, it is widely accepted that it was Church who refused to back a larger refinery unless Humble could "prove" that a smaller one would comply with the county's restrictions. On May 18, 1966, Humble Oil announced a suspension of all activities at Moss Landing, publicly stating that a prime reason for abandoning the site was the difficulty of achieving a permit for a larger refinery. Public outcry and a legal challenge plus engineering problems also discouraged Humble Oil, and they eventually pulled out of Monterey County and decided to build a bigger refinery up north in more-welcoming Benicia. In 1979, Church would become a founding member of the Elkhorn Slough Foundation, which eventually helped create the Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve, which would have been devastated by Humble Oil's refinery and future industrial development. After Humble Oil's departure, no major industry seriously proposed to build at Moss Landing. In 1992, the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary was established. Committees. Church served on several civic and government boards, including: Personal life. Church had a number of business ventures, including beekeeping in high school and college, nursery supply and Christmas Tree farms. He has grown Christmas trees in properties in Hidden Valley, at Omo Ranch, CA., Egremont, Ma., and Wadena, Mn. Death. Church died September 2, 2017, at age 87. Suffering from a fatal disease and surrounded by close friends and family, he proactively took his own life using Seconal in accordance with the 2016 California End of Life Option Act. The Californian September 2, 2017, article, quotes Church's son Glenn Church on the manner of his father's death, "He had no hesitation. He took the (fatal) prescription with conviction and certainty." Church's cause of death was recorded as cachexia (the syndrome he had) in accordance of the End of Life Option Act.

committee spot

10173-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14878523

Transcription factor 21 (TCF21), also known as pod-1, capsulin, or epicardin, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "TCF21" gene on chromosome 6. It is ubiquitously expressed in many tissues and cell types and highly significantly expressed in lung and placenta. TCF21 is crucial for the development of a number of cell types during embryogenesis of the heart, lung, kidney, and spleen. TCF21 is also deregulated in several types of cancers, and thus known to function as a tumor suppressor. The "TCF21" gene also contains one of 27 SNPs associated with increased risk of coronary artery disease. Discovery. TCF21 was discovered in 1998 when search for novel cell-type-specific bHLH proteins expressed in human and mouse kidneys by performing a search of the expressed sequence tag (EST) databases. Because the transcript they found was highly expressed in visceral glomerular epithelial cells (podocytes), TCF21 was initialled named Pod-1. Comparison of Pod-1 with previously characterized bHLH proteins identified Pod-1 as a novel member of a subfamily of bHLH proteins with important roles in mesodermal development. The chromosomal location of Pod-1 in the mouse was then determined using an interspecific backcross panel along with genomic southern blot analysis to identify restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) between inbred mouse strains. Analysis showed Pod-1 to map to a region of mouse chromosome 10 that is syntenic with human chromosome 6q23-q24. The tissue distribution of Pod-1 was determined by hybridization of a human multiple tissue northern blot with a Pod-1 cDNA. A probe lacking the bHLH domain was used to minimize cross-reactivity along with high stringency hybridization and washing. Results showed that in humans and mice, Pod-1 was most highly expressed in the kidney, lung and heart, with selective expression at sites of epithelial-mesenchymal interaction in the kidney, lung, intestine and pancreas of developing mouse embryos. RNA in situ hybridization using 33P-labeled riboprobes was used to identify the cell types that expressed Pod-1 in the developing kidney and other tissues. This revealed Pod-1 expression in mesenchymal cells and podocytes, with expression coinciding with the onset of podocyte differentiation. It was found that expression of Pod-1 in embryonic kidney explants was inhibited through antisense oligonucleotides. This inhibition resulted in decreased mesenchymal cell condensation around the ureteric bud and a significant decrease in ureteric branching. Pod-1 was the first tissue-restricted bHLH protein to be identified in the developing kidney and tied to regulation of morphogenetic events. In an effort to identify novel bHLH factors related to dHAND and eHAND (a novel subclass of cell type-restricted bHLH factors shown to play important roles in cardiac morphogenesis), they screened expressed sequence tag (EST) databases for sequences with homology to the bHLH regions of these factors. The novel bHLH protein they identified in their search was also Pod-1, but they used the name capsulin. Whole-mount in situ hybridization of Capsulin transcripts were used to define sites of expression, which showed to be specific to mesodermal precursor cells that surround the epithelium of the developing gastrointestinal, genitourinary and respiratory systems during mouse embryogenesis. Expression patterns of capsulin mRNA in adult mouse tissues by Northern blot detected highest levels in the lungs, with lower levels in kidneys, heart and spleen. Capsulin transcripts were also found to mark the spiral septum of the heart and progenitor cells that give rise to the pericardium and coronary arteries. Capsulin was translated in a rabbit reticulocyte lysate in the presence and absence of the widely expressed bHLH protein E12 and performed gel mobility shift assays with several E-box sequences as probes to test the protein's DNA binding activity. Capsulin alone failed to bind any of the sequences tested. However, in the presence of E12 plus capsulin, a DNA complex was generated with the probe that migrated faster than the E12 homodimeric complex alone, representing the binding of capsulin/E12 heterodimers. It was concluded that capsulin heterodimerizes with E12 and binds the specific E-box consensus sequence (CANNTG), though not activating transcription through this sequence on its own. Its restricted expression pattern and DNA binding activity identified Capsulin as a regulator of gene expression in specific subtypes of visceral mesodermal cells involved in organogenesis and in precursor cells that contribute to the pericardium, coronary arteries and regions of the heart. Structure. Gene. The "TCF21" gene resides on chromosome 6 at the band 6q23.2 and includes 3 exons. These three exons are associated with CpG islands CGI1, CGI2, and CGI3. DNA methylation analysis revealed hypermethylation at CGI1 and CGI3, but not CGI2 in samples from various cancer tissues. Luciferase reporter assays with constructs covering CGI3 sequences in sense and antisense orientation demonstrated that CGI3 harbors a promoter that directs the synthesis of a previously unknown long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in antisense orientation to TCF21. This lncRNA has been named TARID (for TCF21 antisense RNA inducing demethylation). Protein. TCF21 is a member of the bHLH (basic helix-loop-helix) family of transcription factors. This protein is predicted to span 179 amino acid residues and contains a bHLH domain and an arginine-rich sequence that may facilitate DNA binding. Function. TCF21 encodes a transcription factor of the basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) family, which manages cell-fate specification, commitment and differentiation in various cell lineages during development. The TCF21 product is mesoderm-specific and expressed in embryonic epicardium, mesenchyme-derived tissues of lung, gut, gonad, and both mesenchymal and glomerular epithelial cells in the kidney. TCF21 is essential for regulating properties of the mesenchyme that are critically important for several aspects of lung and kidney morphogenesis. TCF21 is also essential for cardiac fibroblast cell fate, as demonstrated by the failed development of cardiac fibroblasts in mice lacking TCF21. In the absence of TCF21, these fibroblast progenitor cells do not undergo epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). While TCF21-expressing epicardial cells are initially multipotent, they become committed to the fibroblast lineage over time. Those TCF21-expressing cells that do not commit to the fibroblast lineage lose this expression and remain undifferentiated epicardial cells or coronary vascular smooth muscle cells. TCF21 is expressed in mesodermal cells in the proepicardial organ that give rise to coronary artery smooth muscle cells (SMC) and loss of TCF21 results in increased expression of smooth muscle markers by cells on the heart surface consistent with premature SMC differentiation. This suggests that early expression of TCF21 is important for expansion of the SMC compartment of the coronary circulation, with persistent TCF21 expression being required for cardiac fibroblast development. TCF21 activation is directed by an antisense long non-coding RNA, TARID (TCF21 antisense RNA inducing demethylation). TARID activates TCF21 expression by inducing promoter demethylation and affects expression levels of target genes by functioning as epigenetic regulators of chromatin structure through interactions with histone modifiers, chromatin remodeling complexes, transcriptional regulators, and/or DNA methylation machinery. Role in development. Since the identification of Tcf21 significance in various cell lineages, further research has expanded understanding of the essential roles of this gene. TCF21 is essential for regulating properties of the mesenchyme that are critically important for several aspects of lung and kidney morphogenesis. Null TCF21 mutant mice are born but die shortly after due to severely hypoplastic lungs and kidneys that lack alveoli and mature glomeruli. While TCF21 is exclusively expressed in the mesenchyme and podocytes, major defects are observed in adjacent epithelia of TCF21 mutant mice. In the kidney, TCF21 is required for conversion of condensing mesenchyme to epithelium of the nephron, branching morphogenesis and terminal differentiation of tubular epithelium. In the lung, TCF21 is required to correctly pattern the proximodistal axis of airway epithelium and for normal branching to occur. TCF21 null mice also fail to form a spleen, as TCF21 acts after splenic specification to control morphogenetic expansion of the splenic anlage and in its absence, splenic precursor cells undergo apoptosis. Since this splenic phenotype resembles that of mice lacking the homeobox genes Hox11 and Bapx1, it is possible that TCF21, together with Hox11, and Bapx1 control a common essential early step in the developmental pathway for spleen organogenesis. TCF21 is essential for cardiac fibroblast cell fate, as demonstrated by the failed development of cardiac fibroblasts in mice lacking TCF21. In the absence of TCF21, these fibroblast progenitor cells do not undergo epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). While TCF21-expressing epicardial cells are initially multipotent, they become committed to the fibroblast lineage over time. Those TCF21-expressing cells that do not commit to the fibroblast lineage lose this expression and remain undifferentiated epicardial cells or coronary vascular smooth muscle cells. TCF21 is expressed in mesodermal cells in the proepicardial organ that give rise to coronary artery smooth muscle cells (SMC) and loss of TCF21 results in increased expression of smooth muscle markers by cells on the heart surface consistent with premature SMC differentiation. This suggests that early expression of TCF21 is important for expansion of the SMC compartment of the coronary circulation, with persistent TCF21 expression being required for cardiac fibroblast development. Male TCF21 knockout mice, which die at birth due to respiratory failure, are reported to have feminized genitalia, implicating TCF21 in mouse gonadal development/differentiation. TCF21 transcriptionally represses steroidogenic factor 1 (Sf1), a gene expression regulator that mediates sexual differentiation and is involved in coordinating cell fate decisions in gonadal progenitors. Without TCF21, normal gonad development is disrupted as a result of ectopic expression of Sf1, which leads to abnormal committing of urogenital progenitor cells to steroidogenic cell fates. In the XY gonad, this disruption in organization contributes to changes in testicular structure and vasculature. Clinical significance. As a cancer suppressor. In humans, TCF21 has been identified as a candidate tumor suppressor gene and is frequently epigenetically silenced in various human cancers. Restriction landmark genomic scanning (RLGS) along a region of recurrent loss of heterozygosity (LOH) at chromosome 6q23-q24 to profile DNA methylation was used to test the hypothesis that abnormal promoter methylation could help pinpoint the location of a candidate tumor suppressor in regions of LOH. 6q23-q24 was the chosen chromosomal region due to frequently described LOH in human head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCC) and non-small-cell lung cancers (NSCLC) as well as in other tumor types, but with no identified tumor suppressor. Hypermethylation was found to occur frequently in the same RLGS loci in HNSCC and NSCLC. Sodium bisulfite sequencing further identified tumor-specific methylation of TCF21 when compared to normal controls. RNA samples were isolated from tumor tissues and analyzed to correlate the amount of TCF21 mRNA and DNA methylation in the samples. Overall, tumor samples with higher levels of CpG island hypermethylation had decreased TCF21 expression than normal controls. Exogenous expression of TCF21 in cells with silenced endogenous TCF21 loci resulted in a reductions in tumor properties both in vitro and in vivo. Based on these results, it was concluded that TCF21 is a tumor suppressor gene, often silenced by hypermethylation in cancer. TCF21 has also been linked to metastatic melanoma progression through the inhibition of the KISS1 metastasis-suppressor gene. DNA methylation analysis in melanoma patient biopsies has demonstrated downregulation of TCF21 due to promoter hypermethylation, which also correlates with decreased survival in patients suffering from metastatic skin melanoma. TCF21, together with E12 and TCF12, bind the KISS1 promoter, sustaining its activity. Without TCF21 to interact with the KISS1 promoter, KISS1 expression is lost. Melanoma cells overexpressing TCF21 have also been found to display reduced motility compared with vector-only control cells. Tobacco-induced lung cancer research has found TCF21 to be among the genes identified as highly methylated at both high and low concentrations of cigarette smoke condensate (CSC). In the presence genistein, one of the soy-derived bioactive isoflavones, methylation of TCF21 is significantly reduced. Genistein has been known to affect tumorigenesis through epigenetic regulation, such as chromatin configuration and DNA methylation, activating other tumor suppressor genes that affect cancer cell survival. These findings support the hypothesis that increasing hypermethylated tumor suppressor genes such as TCF21 is a potential chemopreventative pathway in tobacco-induced lung cancer. TCF21 may have also therapeutic potential for breast cancer treatment, as downregulation of TCF21 has been implicated in breast cancer tumorigenesis and proliferation. TCF21 mRNA expression is very low in breast cancer cells compared with normal breast epithelial cells. This low expression is also associated with large tumor size and lymph node metastasis. Breast cancer tissues exhibit significantly downregulated expression of TCF21 mRNA and TCF21 mRNA overexpression has been found to inhibit cancerous cell proliferation. Clinical marker. TCF21 methylation has been considered as a potential clinical marker in the diagnosis of renal cell carcinoma. Accordingly, TCF21 methylation levels in urine samples may be a useful means of diagnosing renal cell carcinoma. Also TCF21 rs12190287 polymorphism can regulate TCF21 expression and may serve as a potential marker for genetic susceptibility to breast cancer. Additionally, a multi-locus genetic risk score study based on a combination of 27 loci, including the TCF21 gene, identified individuals at increased risk for both incident and recurrent coronary artery disease events, as well as an enhanced clinical benefit from statin therapy. The study was based on a community cohort study (the Malmo Diet and Cancer study) and four additional randomized controlled trials of primary prevention cohorts (JUPITER and ASCOT) and secondary prevention cohorts (CARE and PROVE IT-TIMI 22).

unsuccessful growth

3204-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20534924

Consumer Electronics Control (CEC) is a feature of HDMI designed to control HDMI connected devices by using only one remote controller; so, individual CEC enabled devices can command and control each other without user intervention, for up to 15 devices. For example, a television set remote controller can also control a set-top box and a DVD player. It is a one-wire bidirectional serial bus that is based on the CENELEC standard AV.link protocol to perform remote control functions. CEC wiring is mandatory, although implementation of CEC in a product is optional. It was defined in HDMI Specification 1.0 and updated in HDMI 1.2, HDMI 1.2a and HDMI 1.3a (which added timer and audio commands to the bus). USB to CEC adapters exist that allow a computer to control CEC-enabled devices. Trade names for CEC technology. Trade names for CEC are: CEC commands. The following is a list of the most commonly used HDMI-CEC commands: Protocol. CEC is a separate electrical signal from the other HDMI signals. This allows a device to disable its high-speed HDMI circuitry in sleep mode, but be woken up by CEC. It is a single shared bus, which is directly connected between all HDMI ports on a device, so it can flow through a device which is completely powered off (not just asleep). The bus is electrically identical to the AV.link protocol, but CEC adds a detailed higher-level message protocol. The bus is an open-collector line, somewhat like I²C, passively pulled up to +3.3 V, and driven low to transmit a bit. Similarities to I²C include: Differences from I²C: Each bit begins with the line pulled low (falling edge), a delay indicating the bit value, a rising edge, and further delay until the start of the following bit. Normal data bits are long. A logic 1 is held low for , while a logic 0 is held low for . The receiver samples the line at after the falling edge, then begins watching for the following bit after the falling edge. A receiver can convert a transmitted 1 bit to a 0 bit by pulling the line low within 0.35 ms of the falling edge, and holding it until the 0 bit time. The transmitter observes the bus during its own transmissions to detect this condition. This is used to acknowledge a transmission. Each frame begins with a special start bit, held low for and then allowed to rise, for a total duration of . Any device may send a start bit after observing the bus idle for a suitable number of bit times. (Normally, 5 bit times, but 7 bit times immediately after a successful transmission to facilitate fair sharing of the bus, and 3 bit times between a failed transmission and its retransmission.) This is followed by up to 16 bytes. Each byte consists of ten bits: eight data bits (transmitted msbit-first, in big-endian order), an "end of message" bit (set to 1 after the last byte of a frame), and an "acknowledge" bit. For single-recipient messages, the acknowledge bit operates similarly to I²C: it is transmitted as a 1 bit, and the receiver pulls it down to a 0 bit to acknowledge the byte. For broadcast messages, the acknowledge bit is inverted: it is still transmitted as a 1 bit, but is pulled down to a 0 bit by any receiver which "rejects" the byte. The first byte of each CEC frame is a header containing the 4-bit source and destination addresses. If the addressed destination exists, it acknowledges the byte. A frame consisting of nothing but the header is a ping which simply checks for the presence of another device. The address 15 (1111) is used for the broadcast address (as a destination) and unregistered devices (as a source) which have not yet chosen a different address. Some devices do not need to receive non-broadcast messages and so may use address 15 permanently, notably remote control receivers and HDMI switches. Devices which need to receive addressed messages need their own address. A device obtains an address by attempting to ping it. If the ping is unacknowledged, the device claims it. If the ping is acknowledged, the device tries another address. The second byte is an opcode which specifies the operation to be performed, and the number and meaning of following parameter bytes. For example, a user press on a remote control will generate a 3-byte frame: a header byte, a codice_1 opcode (0x44), and an operand byte identifying the button. Including the initial idle time and extra-long start bit, this takes 88.5 ms (37 bit times). A later codice_2 opcode (0x45) has no operands.

a different broadcast destination

10793-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7575460

Ernest Everett Just (August 14, 1883 – October 27, 1941) was a pioneering African-American biologist, academic and science writer. Just's primary legacy is his recognition of the fundamental role of the cell surface in the development of organisms. In his work within marine biology, cytology and parthenogenesis, he advocated the study of whole cells under normal conditions, rather than simply breaking them apart in a laboratory setting. Early life and education. Born to Charles Jr. and Mary Matthews Just on August 14, 1883. His father and grandfather, Charles Sr., were builders. When Ernest was four years old, both his father and grandfather died (the former of alcoholism). Just's mother became the sole supporter of Just, his younger brother, and his younger sister. Mary Matthews Just, taught at an African-American school in Charleston to support her family. During the summer, she worked in the phosphate mines on James Island. Noticing that there was much vacant land near the island, Mary persuaded several black families to move there to farm. The town they founded, now incorporated in the West Ashley area of Charleston, was eventually named Maryville in her honor. When Just was young, he became severely sick for six weeks with typhoid. Once the fever passed, he had a hard time recuperating, and his memory had been greatly affected. He had previously learned to read and write, but now had to relearn. His mother had been very sympathetic in teaching him, but after a while she gave up. Hoping Just would become a teacher, at the age of 13 his mother sent him to the "Colored Normal Industrial Agricultural and Mechanical College of South Carolina", the only 1890 land grant school for the education of Negros in South Carolina, later known as South Carolina State University in Orangeburg, South Carolina. Believing that schools for blacks in the south were inferior, Just and his mother thought it better for him to go north. At the age of 16, Just enrolled at the Meriden, New Hampshire, college-preparatory high school Kimball Union Academy. During Just's second year at Kimball, he returned home for a visit only to learn that his mother had been buried an hour before he arrived. Despite this hardship, Just completed the four-year program in only three years and graduated in 1903 with the highest grades in his class. Just went on to graduate magna cum laude from Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. There, Just developed an interest in biology after learning about fertilization and egg development. Just won special honors in zoology, and distinguished himself in botany, history, and sociology as well. He was also honored as a Rufus Choate scholar for two years and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. Just was also a candidate to deliver a commencement speech, but was not chosen because the faculty "decided it would be a faux pas to allow the only black in the graduating class to address the crowd of parents, alumni, and benefactors. It would have made too glaring the fact, that Just had won just about every prize imaginable." Including, honors in botany, sociology, and history. Personal life. On June 12, 1912, he married Ethel Highwarden, who taught German at Howard University. They had three children: Margaret, Highwarden, and Maribel. The two divorced in 1939. That same year, Just married Hedwig Schnetzler, who was a philosophy student he met in Berlin. In 1940, Just was imprisoned by German Nazis, but was easily released thanks to the help of his wife's father. Founding of Omega Psi Phi. On November 17, 1911, Ernest Just and three Howard University students (Edgar Amos Love, Oscar James Cooper, and Frank Coleman), established the Omega Psi Phi fraternity on the campus of Howard. Love, Cooper, and Coleman had approached Just about establishing the first black fraternity on campus. Howard's faculty and administration initially opposed the idea of establishing the fraternity, fearing that it could pose a political threat to Howard's white administration. However, Just worked to mediate the controversy and, despite the initial doubts, Omega Psi Phi, Alpha Chapter, was chartered on Howard's campus on December 15, 1911. Omega Psi Phi was incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia on October 28, 1914. Career. When he graduated from Dartmouth, Just faced the same problems all black college graduates of his time did: no matter how brilliant they were or how high their grades were, it was almost impossible for black people to become faculty members at white colleges or universities. Just took what seemed to be the best choice available to him and accepted a teaching position at historically black Howard University in Washington, D.C. In 1907, Just first began teaching rhetoric and English, fields somewhat removed from his specialty. By 1909, however, he was teaching not only English but also Biology. In 1910, he was put in charge of a newly formed biology department by Howard's president, Wilbur P. Thirkield and, in 1912, he became head of the new Department of Zoology, a position he held until his death in 1941. Not long after beginning his appointment at Howard, Just was introduced to Frank R. Lillie, the head of the Department of Zoology at the University of Chicago. Lillie, who was also director of the Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, invited Just to spend the summer of 1909 as his research assistant at the MBL. During this time and later, Just's experiments focused mainly on the eggs of marine invertebrates. He investigated the fertilization reaction and the breeding habits of species such as "Platynereis megalops", "Nereis limbata", and "Arbacia punctulata". For the next 20 or so years, Just spent every summer but one at the MBL. While at the MBL, Just learned to handle marine invertebrate eggs and embryos with skill and understanding, and soon his expertise was in great demand by both junior and senior researchers alike. In 1915, Just took a leave of absence from Howard to enroll in an advanced academic program at the University of Chicago. That same year, Just, who was gaining a national reputation as an outstanding young scientist, was the first recipient of the NAACP's Spingarn Medal, which he received on February 12, 1915. The medal recognized his scientific achievements and his “foremost service to his race." He began his graduate training with coursework at the MBL: in 1909 and 1910 he took courses in invertebrate zoology and embryology, respectively, there. His coursework continued in-residence at the University of Chicago. His duties at Howard delayed the completion of his coursework and his receipt of the Ph.D. degree. However, in June 1916, Just received his degree in zoology, with a thesis on the mechanics of fertilization. Just thereby became one of only a handful of blacks who had gained the doctoral degree from a major university. By the time he received his doctorate from Chicago, he had already published several research articles, both as a single author and a co-author with Lillie. During his tenure at Woods Hole, Just rose from student apprentice to internationally respected scientist. A careful and meticulous experimentalist, he was regarded as "a genius in the design of experiments." He had explored other areas including: experimental parthenogenesis, cell division, hydration, dehydration in cells, UV carcinogenic radiation on cells, and physiology of development. Just, however, became frustrated because he could not obtain an appointment at a major American university. He wanted a position that would provide a steady income and allow him to spend more time with his research. Just's scientific career involved a constant struggle for an opportunity for research, "the breath of his life". He was condemned by racism to remain attached to Howard, an institution that could not give full opportunity to ambitions such as the ones Just had. In 1929, Just traveled to Naples, Italy, where he conducted experiments at the prestigious zoological station "Anton Dohrn". Then, in 1930, he became the first American to be invited to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin-Dahlem, Germany, where several Nobel Prize winners carried out research. Altogether from his first trip in 1929 to his last in 1938, Just made ten or more visits to Europe to pursue research. It was during this time, that Just co-authored on a research paper with a few other scientists, called, "General Cytology," which Scientists treated him like a celebrity and encouraged him to extend his theory on the ectoplasm to other species. Just enjoyed working in Europe because he did not face as much discrimination there in comparison to the U.S. and when he did encounter racism, it invariably came from Americans. Beginning in 1933, when the Nazis began to take the control of the country, Just ceased his work in Germany. He later moved his European-based studies to Paris and to the marine laboratory at the French fishing village of Roscoff, located on the English channel. Just authored two books, "Basic Methods for Experiments on Eggs of Marine Animals" (1939) and "The Biology of the Cell Surface" (1939), and he also published at least seventy papers in the areas of cytology, fertilization and early embryonic development. He discovered what is known as the fast block to polyspermy; he further elucidated the slow block, which had been discovered by Fol in the 1870s; and he showed that the adhesive properties of the cells of the early embryo are surface phenomena exquisitely dependent on developmental stage. He believed that the conditions used for experiments in the laboratory should closely match those in nature; in this sense, he can be considered to have been an early ecological developmental biologist. His work on experimental parthenogenesis informed Johannes Holtfreter's concept of "autoinduction" which, in turn, has broadly influenced modern evolutionary and developmental biology. His investigation of the movement of water into and out of living egg cells (all the while maintaining their full developmental potential) gave insights into internal cellular structure that is now being more fully elucidated using powerful biophysical tools and computational methods. These experiments anticipated the non-invasive imaging of live cells that is being developed today. Although Just's experimental work showed an important role for the cell surface and the layer below it, the "ectoplasm," in development, it was largely and unfortunately ignored. This was true even with respect to scientists who emphasized the cell surface in their work. It was especially true of the Americans; with the Europeans, he fared somewhat better. Death. At the outbreak of World War II, Just was working at the Station Biologique in Roscoff, researching the paper that would become "Unsolved Problems of General Biology". Although the French government requested foreigners to evacuate the country, Just remained to complete his work. In 1940, Germany invaded France, and Just was briefly imprisoned in a prisoner-of-war camp. With the help of the family of his second wife, a German citizen, he was rescued by the U.S. State Department and he returned to his home country in September 1940. However, Just had been very ill for months prior to his encampment and his condition deteriorated in prison and on the journey back to the U.S. In the fall of 1941, he was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer and died shortly thereafter. Legacy. Just was the subject of the 1983 biography "" by Kenneth R. Manning. The book received the 1983 Pfizer Award and was a finalist for the 1984 Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography. In 1996, the U.S. Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp honoring Just. Beginning in 2000, the Medical University of South Carolina has hosted the annual Ernest E. Just Symposium to encourage non-white students to pursue careers in biomedical sciences and health professions. In 2008, a National Science Foundation-funded symposium honoring Just and his scientific work was held on the campus of Howard University, where he was a faculty member from 1907 until his death in 1941. Many of the speakers at the symposium contributed papers to a special issue of the journal "Molecular Reproduction and Development" dedicated to Just that was published in 2009. Since 1994 the American Society for Cell Biology has given an award and hosted a lecture in Just's name. At least two of the institutions with which Just was associated have established prizes or symposia in his name: The University of Chicago, where Just received his PhD (in zoology, in 1916), and Dartmouth College, where he received his undergraduate degree. In 2013, an international symposium honoring Just was held at the Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn in Naples, Italy, where Just had worked starting in 1929. In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante included Just on his list of the "100 Greatest African Americans". A children's book about Just, titled "The Vast Wonder of the World: Biologist Ernest Everett Just", written by Mélina Mangal and illustrated by Luisa Uribe, was published by Millbrook Press in November 2018. Just believed that "life as an event lies in a combination of chemical stuffs exhibiting physical properties; and it is in this combination, i.e., its behavior and activities, and in it alone that we can seek life.". He also wrote: "[L]ife is the harmonious organization of events, the resultant of a communion of structures and reactions", and "We [scientists] have often striven to prove life as wholly mechanistic, starting with the hypothesis that organisms are machines! Living substance is such because it possesses this organization--something more than the sum of its minutest parts" He argued forcefully that the "ectoplasm," the outer region of the cytoplasm, and not the nucleus, constitutes the heart of the dynamic cell. He was convinced that the surface of the egg cell possesses an "independent irritability," which enables the egg (and all cells) to respond productively to diverse stimuli.

most favorable alternative

14096-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29560603

Melek Ahmed Pasha ("Ahmed Pasha the Angel"; 1604–1662) was an Ottoman statesman and grand vizier during the reign of Mehmed IV. Early years. He was of Abkhaz (or Abazin) origin. According to one source, his father was a sea captain named Pervane. During the reign of Murad IV, he was appointed as the governor of Diyarbakır. During Ibrahim's reign, he was appointed to the governorships of Erzurum, Mosul, Aleppo and Damascus. In 1644, he married to Kaya Sultan, Murad's daughter, and gained the title "damat" (groom). But all of the provinces (even Erzurum a part of Turkey) he was assigned, were quite far from Istanbul, the capital, and during most of his assignments, his wife stayed in Istanbul. During the reign of Mehmed IV, he finally returned to Istanbul as a vizier. But in 1650, to the dismay of his wife, he was appointed as the governor of Baghdad, another post far from Istanbul. Kaya Sultan tried to persuade the queen regent to revoke the decision. But she couldn't succeed, a sign of the chaos in Ottoman palace. Nevertheless, before Melek Ahmed left Istanbul, the Grand Vizier Kara Murat Pasha resigned, complaining of the intrigues of the palace people. The queen regent offered the post to Melek Ahmed, who accepted the offer on the condition that the palace people would not meddle with the governance of the state on 5 August 1650. He was the brother-in-law of the Haydarzade Mehmed Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Egypt from 1646 to 1647, who married his sister. Grand Vizier. When Melek Ahmed took office, he realized that the empire was almost bankrupt. The Cretan War (1645–1669) was very costly, and tax revenues from Anatolia were much less than the expected amount because of the Jelali revolts. He attempted to balance the budget, but without a real knowledge of financial affairs, his economic measures worsened the economy instead of improving it. Among his measures was the debasing of coinage by reducing the gold content. This caused reactions among both the merchants and the soldiers, whose salaries were paid by the new coins. The sultan was forced to relieve him of his post on 22 August 1651. Later years. After 1651, he was again assigned as a provincial governor, but this time in Silistra (now in Bulgaria), much closer to capital. Soon, he was able to return to Istanbul. In 1654, Mustafa İbşir Pasha had been appointed as the Grand Vizier, but delayed his arrival in Istanbul. During this period, Melek Ahmed functioned as his deputy. This aroused İbşir Pasha's suspicions, and Melek Ahmed was exiled to Van and Malkara. However, after İbşir Pasha was deposed, Melek Ahmed Pasha was able to regain his former titles. After working in some provinces in the European part of the empire, he was married for a second time to Fatma Sultan (the daughter of the late sultan Ahmed I) in 1662. According to Evliya Çelebi, the marriage was unhappy and forced upon both parties; Fatma Sultan reportedly threatened Melek Ahmed Pasha with divorce and the withdrawal of her dowry (which was reportedly worth an entire year's tax revenue from the Egypt Eyalet). Melek Ahmed Pasha died in 1662, only months after marrying Fatma Sultan. Aftermath. In the Ottoman Empire, the minting of devalued coinage continued after 1651 and provided the major reason for a wide-scale rebellion, the Çınar Incident, in 1656. Evliya Çelebi and Melek Ahmed Pasha. Although not a particularly successful Grand Vizier, details about both Melek Ahmed Pasa and his wife Kaya Sultan (as well as his later marriage to Fatma Sultan) are well known because of Evliya Çelebi's books. Evliya Çelebi was one of the most important Turkish travel writers of his time, and his mother was the milk-sister of Melek Ahmed Pasha, and Evliya Çelebi used this opportunity to travel with Melek Ahmed Pasha.

anticipated number

6996-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25831268

The Pylochelidae are a family of hermit crabs. Its members are commonly called the 'symmetrical hermit crabs'. They live in all the world's oceans, except the Arctic and the Antarctic, at depths of . Due to their cryptic nature and relative scarcity, only around 60 specimens had been collected before 1987, when a monograph was published detailing a further 400. Description. Unlike other hermit crabs, pylochelid hermit crabs are not markedly asymmetrical, with a straight body and equal numbers of appendages on both sides. This characteristic, together with the partial calcification of the abdomen (which is soft in other hermit crabs) led Edward J. Miers, when describing the first species, to consider it to represent a transition between hermit crabs and "Macrura" (long-tailed decapods, such as lobsters and shrimp). Correspondingly, pylochelid hermit crabs do not usually inhabit gastropod shells, but instead withdraw into decayed pieces of wood, stones, tusk shells (especially Dentaliidae), living sponges, pieces of bamboo or mangroves. Their claws are often adapted to form an operculum, which closes off the entrance to their home. Distribution. Although the family as a whole has a global distribution, diversity is concentrated in the Indo-Pacific, with only four species being found in the western Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea ("Cheiroplatea scutata", "Pylocheles agassizii", "Bathycheles cubensis" and "Mixtopagurus paradoxus"). Pylochelid hermit crabs inhabit a great range in water depths, from , with most living between deep. Genera. The family contains 41 species in 10 genera:

non-bent form

2439-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60096461

Motherhood in the Spanish Civil War period was a political concept around the idea of women's involvement in support of the state. The blending of definitions of motherhood and womanhood had been occurring in Spain long before this though, with a woman's role being defined as being in the house part of a biological determinism perspective supported by male run institutions in Spain, including the Government and the Catholic Church. The role of motherhood was debated when it came to women's education. Those on the left argued it was important for the emancipation of women, while those on the right argued it was important for preparing girls and young women in becoming mothers. Little changed during the Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, except biological determinism became more prominent. The Second Spanish Republic allowed them to formally enter the public sphere en masse, while also seeing a number of rights available to women for the first time like the right to vote, divorce and access to higher education. Motherhood became more political, and in some circles gender non-conforming women and mother were met with increased hostility. Rights earned by women were viewed by Nationalists as a degeneration of Spain, which would result in the destruction of the Spanish family. Organizations were created to support traditional definitions of Spanish motherhood. Public violence against women and mothers defending striking workers also increased. The Spanish Civil War saw definitions of motherhood become more political, but still traditional in that womanhood was defined as motherhood. Life in rural areas for mothers could remain largely apolitical but it also saw the upset of the family structure in some places as houses emptied of men or those who remained had to be less traditionally masculine in order to survive. Gender roles were also broken as many women went to the front and many mothers needed to work outside the home to serve war efforts. The end of the war ushered in the period of Francoist Spain, and the return of motherhood defined around traditional Spanish Catholicism supported by a series of laws that made women wards of their fathers and husbands. Education for girls and women again focused on maintaining the home and becoming good mothers. Definition of motherhood. The definition of motherhood in from the pre-Second Republic to the Francoist period is womanhood is motherhood, and motherhood was womanhood. This definition of motherhood as womanhood was rarely challenged, and would remain part of a Spanish status quo dating back to an earlier period of Catholic Spain. Prelude to the Second Republic (1800–1922). Definition of motherhood. During the late 1800s, women and mothers were viewed by men as fragile creatures, subject to the whims of their body, and captive to illness and suffering centered around menstruation, pregnancy and menopause. According to male thought leaders in Spain, these illnesses necessitated women to remain at home and serve in their natural duty of procreation. Social order was defined around biological order expressed through sex differences. These beliefs were supported by male physicians inside Spain and around Europe. Motherhood was defined around biological determinism. Education. The cultural situation in Spain resulted in a largely uneducated female population, with the literary rate for women only at 10% in 1900. The number of women known to have university titles in the period between 1800 and 1910 was around one, with María Goyri being the exception among Spanish women. This began to slowly change, with the literacy rate for women being 62% by 1930 and the gender ratio in schools being close to 50/50 on the primary school level. Motherhood would play an important role around education in Spain starting in the 1860s, as a debate began to emerge over what role education should play in the lives of women. Women's rights advocates, like Concepción Arenal who posed as a man to get a law degree in the 1860s, argued that women were just as smart as men. The only difference was that women lack access to education, and providing women with an education would open up opportunities for them outside the home. Emilia Pardo Bazán was another voice in this period advocating for increased access to education for women from a feminist perspective. She published her ideas in publications like London's "Fortnightly Review" and Spanish magazine "Nuevo Teatro Crítrico". On the other side, male leadership often argued for education for women as part of their goals of strengthening the state. They believed educating women in schools to become better wives and mothers would aid the state, by providing a backbone to support the next generation of male leaders. Childbirth. The birthrate for women in Spain in the 1800s was 44 per thousand people. Midwives needed to be approved before being given a license. Women were sometimes confined to bed for a period of sometime after giving birth. Francisca Iracheta published the first book by a woman on midwifery in Spain in 1870. It used a question and answer style method to teach future midwives, and also contained illustrations of the pelvis. Infant mortality rates were very high in the late 1800s and early 1900s, and many children in Spain were born out of wedlock. Organizations. Agrupación de Trabajadores. Agrupación de Trabajadores was created as a labor organization in 1891 by Teresa Claramunt to support her feminist ideals, and soon organized public meetings. The organization argued that women were being doubly punished by society, as women were expected to work outside the home to provide for the family while at the same time to meet all the domestic needs of the households. The organization was never particularly successful in its goals as many women in the workforce did not see a need for representation by a union. Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930). Definition of motherhood. "Maternidad y Feminismo" was published in 1926 and written by Gregorio Marañon. A leading medical figure of the time, Marañon defined both genders in the book by their biological roles, using science to justify women's role as mothers as women where characters by an anabolic metabolism, which made them have a need to synthesize and accumulate things in a passive manner. The passive nature of an egg in the fertilization process and its need to nest in the uterus during pregnancy explained the need, according to Marañon, for women to maintain passive roles in the home taking care of children as a primary function. This definition was mirrored by Antonio Vallejo-Nágera in his 1937 text, "Eugenesia de la Hispanidad". He also argued that this definition was important for the continuation of the state. Feminism. In the lead up to the founding of the Second Republic and the Civil War, many middle class and upper class women who became feminists did so as a result boarding school educations resulting in parents unable to guide the evolution of their political thoughts, fathers encouraging daughters towards political thinking, or being indoctrinated in classes essentially aimed at reinforcing societal gender norms. Left leaning families were more likely to see their ideas manifested by their daughters as feminists through active influence. Right leaning families were more likely to see their daughters become feminists through rigid gender norms resulting in a familial break. Education. For many leading male figures in this period, the education of girls and women was not important in substance. What mattered was the content should be focused around preparing girls and women in serving their husbands and in becoming good mothers. Second Spanish Republic (1931 - 1937). One of the most important things about the Second Republic for women is it allowed them to formally enter the public sphere en masse. The period also saw a number of rights available to women for the first time. This included the right to vote, divorce and access to higher education. Elections in the Second Republic. The Spanish monarchy ended in 1931. Following this and the end of the Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, the Second Republic was formed. The Second Republic had three elections before being replaced by the Franco dictatorship. These elections were held in 1931, 1933 and 1936. A few on the right supported women's suffrage as they saw it as likely benefiting them, which it did in the sense of providing additional support in the 1933 elections that saw a right wing government come to power. This support was based around their idea of Spanish motherhood, where women were subservient to men, men were subservient to the Catholic Church, and the Catholic Church could then influence election outcomes through the women's vote. This was indeed part of the reason some prominent women on the left, including Victoria Kent Siano and Margarita Nelken y Mansbergen, opposed women's suffrage. February 1936 elections. During the elections, pamphlets were distributed in Seville that warned women that a leftist Republican victory would result in the government removing their children from their homes and the destruction of their families. Other pamphlets distributed by the right in the election warned that the left would turn businesses over to the common ownership of women. Attitudes regarding non-conforming women. For the 1936 May Day celebrations, the Communist Party of Spain worked hard to convey a perception that they were one of the dominant political groups in the country by turning out party members in Madrid. They successfully organized hundred of Communist and Socialist women to participate in a march, where they chanted "Children yes, husbands no!" () with their fists clenched in the air behind huge Lenin and Stalin banners. This was particularly upsetting to male military members on the National right, including General Primo de Rivera who wrote about the incident in a letter. They saw it as women wrongly challenging Spain's traditional gender roles. Women's rights. Legal equality for women was opposed by many on Spain's right. They saw it as a degeneration of Spain, which would result in the destruction of the Spanish family. This tension about the rights of women was part of their tension over the existence of the Republic, and one of the reason they were opposed to it. Organizations. Sección Femenina de la Falange Española. Sección Femenina de la Falange Española was founded in 1934. It was led by Pilar Primo de Rivera, sister of José Antonio Primo de Rivera, as a women's auxiliary organization of Falange. Fascist in the mold of Mussolini's Italian party, both organizations were misogynistic in their approach to the goals of building a revolutionary  organic society that would support traditional Spanish values. There were three things they saw as critical to doing this: the family, the municipality and the syndicate. Using traditional gender roles from the Catholic Church, they would impose their values on women in the home. Given its goals of making women docile participants in civic life, the women's organization does not meet the definition of a feminist organization. It was the only major Nationalist women's political organization, with a membership of 300 in 1934. By 1939, Sección Femenina would eclipse the male run party in memberships, with over half a million women belonging to the group. Acción Católica de la Mujer. Women involved in Acción Católica de la Mujer (ACM) were involved in challenges to the Second Republic's laws that prohibited Catholic ceremonies and civic activities, including religious processions through towns. They often defied these laws, and were at the front of processionals in order to insure they were allowed to practice their more conservative version of Catholicism. Mothers also continued to enroll their children in and support Catholic education in spite of government attempts to limit it. Despite these political activities, male leadership in the Catholic Church and broader right leaning society attempted to get the ACM to be less political during the Second Republic. They encouraged ACM leadership to focus more on doing charity work, and on assisting working-class families. To this end, conservative leaders successfully oversaw the merger of ACM with the Unión de Damada del Sagrado Corazón in 1934. The new organization was called the Confederación de Mujeres Católics de Espana (CMCE). As a successful consequence, membership numbers dropped from 118,000 in 1928 to 61,354 members. It also saw the resignation of the more politically active women leaders from the newly formed CMCE. The newly merged organization also encouraged women explicitly to be less political, and participate in at most one or two demonstrations a year. Education. The Second Republic had a goal of educating women. This was viewed as a radical concept, and many reactionaries inside the Republic were opposed to it. Many others supported it, seeing education as a tool to allow women to pass along Republican values to their children. Childbirth. The Second Republic saw for the first time the introduction of maternity care being offered by the government. Women were also given access to contraception for the first time. In the latter part of the Republic, women would also be given access to abortion during the first three months of their pregnancies. Divorce by mutual consent was allowed for the first time, and the law made no distinction between illegitimate and legitimate births. Amparo Poch y Gascón played a critical role as a medical professional during the Second Republic in Madrid. She published "Cartilla de Consejos a las Madres" in December 1931. She set up Puente de Vallecas Medical Clinic in Madrid  in May 1934. Focusing on improved sanitation at medical facilities and encouraging women to change their lifestyles during pregnancy, her worked helped result in a drop in infant deaths by 1936 across the city. Her work on infant mortality continued into the Civil War period. Pre-war interactions with the Guardia Civil and Falange. Near the end of 1931,  workers at a shoe factor in the village of Arnedo near Logroño were fired because they were members of Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT). Villagers decided to protest their firing outside the townhall, and were fired upon for no discernible reason by the Guardia Civil. Four women, a child and a male worker were killed, while another thirty were injured. Falangists were seeking to engage in attacks that would provoke Republican reprisals in 1935 and 1939. One such attack occurred on 9 March 1936 in Granada during a strike by workers. A squad of Falangist loyalist fired on workers, and their families who were protesting with them. Among the wounded were many women and children. The left in the city immediately retaliated by calling for a general strike, and people in the city setting fire to the offices of Falange, Acción Popular, the offices of the newspaper Ideal and two churches. October Revolution of 1934. Women played roles behind the scenes in one of the first major conflicts of the Second Republic, when workers' militias seized control of the mines in Asturias. Originally planned as a nationwide strike, the workers collective action only really took place in Asturias. Some women were involved in propaganda and others in assisting the miners. After the government quelled the insurrection by bringing in Moroccan legionaries, some 30,000 people found themselves in prison and another 1,000 were put into graves. A large number of those put into prison were women. Women also played an advocacy role in trying to see their husbands and male relatives released. During the Austrian miners action, the government of the Second Republic responded by arresting thousands of miners and closing down their workers centers. Women rose up to support striking and imprisoned miners by advocating for their release and taking jobs to support their families. Partido Comunista de España (PCE) male leadership strove to find roles for women that better comported with what they saw as more acceptable for their gender and better fit into the new, more conservative legal framework being created by the Second Republic. This included changing the name of the Committee for Women against War and Fascism to Pro-Working Class Children Committee. PCE's goal and the actual result was to discourage women's active participation in labor protests. During the Asturian conflict, there were a few instances of women initiated violence. This fed into paranoia among those on the right that women would violently try to seize power from men. Both on the left and the right, these women were not viewed as heroic, and men wanted to limit their potential for further political action. Women were also involved in building barricades, clothing repair, and street protests. For many women, this was the first time they were civically engaged without a male chaperone as in many cases, they were working on behalf of imprisoned male relatives. Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). Definition of motherhood. Definitions of motherhood became explicitly political in this period. On the Republic side, the concept of "combative motherhood" began to develop, where motherhood was defined by a willingness to heroically their sons on behalf of Republican ideals, and mothers encouraging their sons to be willing to sacrifice their lives on behalf of those ideals. Unlike Nationalist definitions of motherhood in this period, Republican definitions allowed women some autonomy outside that of their husbands or the fathers of their children. These Republican definitions were also aided by figures such as Dolores Ibárruri, who portrayed motherhood as similar to that of Mary and the Passion of Christ. These Republican definitions though continued to support a basic definition of womanhood as motherhood. Role in the family. Mothers had a variety of different experiences during the Civil War depending on their personal situations. Many mothers in rural areas were apolitical, no matter what side of the front they lived on. They had little access to resources that would have allowed them to be politically engaged, and were often short on resources required for basic living. During the war, mothers worked hard to try to maintain a sense of normalcy. This included continuing domestic education, both among Republican and Nationalist women. Topics of focus included understanding the water, agriculture and religious education. Spanish sayings used by mothers at this time included, "After you eat, do not read a single letter." Reading was not viewed as good for digestion. Children were also encouraged by their mothers in rural areas to take a siesta after a meal. Mothers would often engage in activities like slapping and hitting their children as a way of reinforcing social education. Songs played an important part of rural life for women, in that singing signaled a woman was happy. For mothers, songs served another important function of passing along social values to their children. Songs also passed along messages about gender roles, including the importance of outward appearance. During the war, many mothers went to great lengths to try to feed their children during periods of food shortages. They might sneak into other towns to try to get food rations when the ration in their town was too small. They might forgo eating themselves so their children could have bigger portions. For many mothers in rural areas, the idea of being politically engaged was not possible. They had too many things they had to do at home to have time for that. They had to make soap. They had to work in the fields because of national rationing. Most Spanish homes during the war lacked running water at home. Mothers had to acquire water from local wells, lakes or rivers. They had to wash clothing for the whole family, making a journey to a body of water to do that. They also had to be home to prepare food when it was available. Most homes at this time did not have modern kitchens, and mothers had to cook over open flames using hay and wood for heat. The war upset the social structure inside the family. Because of survival issues related to food and fear of political persecution, the skills of mother in acquiring and preparing food while also remaining politically invisible meant they began to take on the role of head of household. Silence became a virtue, because doing or saying the wrong thing could lead to death at the hands of Nationalist forces. Women were less likely to be harassed than men, which meant they were often more out of the home. This could create tensions behind closed doors, as it attacked traditional Spanish definitions of masculinity as it made the home the domain of the mother. This change of women being the boss of the home would continue after the Civil War for both Republican and Nationalist families. Republican mothers had to deal with conflicting definitions of motherhood, and an increasing realization that the Republican side would lose. They were left with few choices in how to deal with this. Some responded by trying to instill Republican values in their children with a belief that the Republic would return. Others responded by hiding their own Republican leanings and having their children avoid Republican related activities in order to avoid them facing consequences during a Francoist government. Gender roles. The Spanish Civil War served to break traditional gender roles on the Republican side. It allowed women to fight openly on the battlefield, a rare occurrence in twentieth century European warfare. The war also served to remove the influence of the Catholic Church in defining gender roles on the Republican side. While the war broke down gender norms, it did not create an equitable employment change or remove the domestic tasks as the primary role of women. Behind the scene, away from the front, women serving in personal family and Republican opposition support roles were still expected to cook for soldiers, launder their uniforms, look after children and tend to dwellings. Women supporting CNT militants found themselves at once liberated from these gender roles, but still expected to serve male fighters in traditional roles. The most successful female political periods in this period survived by not challenging these gender norms and not threatening their male colleagues. Examples of such women include Dolores Ibárruri. This contrasted with figures like Margarita Nelken y Mansbergen whose gender presentation upset men. Media depictions of women. Nationalist propaganda held help the image of the "mujer castiza". She was modest, pure, asexual, self-sacrificing and traditional, supporting the Spanish family through work at home. She was the anti-thesis of the Republican fighter in that she was far away from the front, serving an important role as a mother and would never leave her family to be involved in combat. This contrasted with the imagery of Republican "milicianas", who were sometimes depicted as mothers who went to the front to fight for their families. Civilian women on the home front. Many poor, illiterate and unemployed women often found themselves immersed in the ideological battle of the Civil War and its connected violence as a result of forces beyond her control. Some of these women, mostly on the left, chose to try to reassert control by becoming active participants in the violent struggle going on around them. When it came to deciding who was right and wrong, many women had to use their own moral judgement formed by a lifetime to do so. They were not guided by political radicalization leading to ideological based morality. Women and children behind the lines were used by all sides, as a way of trying to garner support for their sides in the Civil War both internally and internationally. Nationalists often appealed to Catholics overseas, condemning Republican bombings on women in civil populations, claiming over 300,000 women and children had been killed. This met with limited success in the United States, where Catholics were uneasy with bombings against women and children that were being committed by both sides. In the Republican offensive against Nationalist held Teruel from December 1937 to February 1938, brigades on the ground tried to honor Indalecio Prieto's call to protect civilians, and particularly women and children. They sometimes stopped shelling buildings when people inside made clear they were non-combatant women and children. The reality of the offensive and life on the front lines meant many of those civilians had nothing. Women would often risk their lives to loot recently shelled buildings. They needed furniture to burn to melt snow for water, to cook and to provide some heat. Many women, on both sides in the city, died of starvation during the month long battle. Nationalist women on the Nationalist homefront. Falangist women activists were often divided into groups, which were largely based on age. Younger activists often to be outside the home, working on Nationalist goals in Nationalist women's organizations. Older women Nationalist activists believed they should be outside the public eye, serving Nationalist interests by working in the home. Nationalist women in more rural, less cosmopolitan cities, often had more privileges than their urban counterparts. They were able to leave the house, regardless of their marital status, and engage in the everyday tasks required for living. Few people noticed and cared. While Nationalist forces believed women should be at home, the realities of war meant that women were required to work outside the home, in factories and other businesses. During the war, Nationalist publications encouraged women to stay at home in service of the family. They were discouraged from shopping, going to the movies and engaging in other behavior viewed as frivolous by Nationalist male leaders. Republican women behind Nationalist lines. Behind Nationalist lines, all women were forbidden from wearing pants. Instead, women were to wear skirts, which had to be long. Shirts were required to be long sleeved. Rape was so common that many pregnant women did not know who the fathers of their children were. Rape, along with murder and torture, were frequent tools used by Nationalist forces to instill terror in women and keep them in line. When Constantina was taken by Nationalist forces on 7 August, those forces sought revenge for anarchist shooting of Nationalist prisoners. Women who had found themselves widowed recently or who had husbands serving with the Legionaries were raped in a mass orgy event fueled by alcohol provided by local wineries. On 10 August, show trials were held and many women were given death sentences for things like displaying Republican flags, expressing admiration for President Roosevelt or criticizing their employers. Among the women executed were two pregnant girls. 20 women believed to be Republican sympathizers were removed from a maternity ward in Toledo and executed. The Nationalist soldiers then threw their bodies down a nearby well, and proceeded to parade through a local village with the dead women's underwear draped on their rifles. Francoist Spain (1938–1973). Definition of motherhood. Following the end of the Second Republic, Francoist propaganda set about to eradicate beliefs that had arisen during the Second Republic that suggested womanhood had a definition of emancipation and was beyond that of biological motherhood. It strove to recast women and mothers as "Angels of the Hearth" who were courageous, modest, moral and self-sacrificing. Women were defined as a separate species, where sex definitions were based on being a natural species that exists purely to procreate. The fascist regime was supported by the Catholic Church and Sección Feminina, who all saw defining women as mothers as important for supporting the structures of the state. This definition of motherhood was then frozen, remaining until the end of the regime. Identities as women and mothers. Overall, the end of the Civil War proved a double loss for Republican women, as it first took away the limited political power and newly won identities as women they had won during the Second Republic and it secondly forced them back into the confines of their homes. Life in exile dislocated some Republican mothers from their identities as mothers. While mothers, they created identities based around being political activists. Motherhood was not an identity some of them felt they could afford, as they saw greater importance in accomplishing political goals and their identities around that. Priorities changed after the war. For many women in rural Spain and many mothers living in pueblos, the repressive nature of the Civil War and women needing to take charge of the family in rural Spain led to feelings of solidarity among women. It led to mothers creating a form of female specific identity that had largely not existed in rural Spain prior to the war. Role in the family. Motherhood became the primary social function of women in Francoist Spain. Still, this critical societal role it was one the regime only wanted to see perpetuated among those who shared in their political ideology. Children of mothers with leftist or Republican leanings were often removed from their care in order to prevent mothers from sharing their ideology with their offspring. A law passed on 30 March 1940 meant Republican women could keep their children with them in prison until the child turned three years old. At this point, children were then put into state care to prevent the contagion of Republican thinking from spreading. The number of children removed from Republican mothers between 1944 and 1954 was 30,960. These children were not allowed to remain in contact with their families, and many found themselves in centers run by Auxilio Social. When mothers were released from prisons, they were often watched to make sure they were good mothers as defined by the state. Actively surveiled, many women lost custody of new children they had. Because many women and mothers had husbands, sons and fathers in prison, Republican mothers in this period had their specific role of mother defined and organized around providing support for family members behind bars. It was expected of them, and these mothers often formed support groups among themselves and in aide of prisoners. The included getting books for prisoners, raise funds for prisoners, campaign for better treatment of prisoners, and campaign for their release. Republican mothers abroad addressed the problem of specifically being targeted by Franco's regime by created the Unión de Mujeres Españoles (UME) in France. The purpose of the organization was to legitimize political activity of mothers as being part of the broader efforts of "female consciousness." UME published a magazine called "Mujeres Antifascistas Españolas." The publication linked Republican women in exile with those in Spain, including some who were in prison. It honored women's roles as front line combatants, and suggested the special role of motherhood made their voices more valuable when it came to speaking out against the problems of the Franco regime. This contrasted to Spanish Communist women in exile beliefs, which suggested mothers in this period should fade into the background, serving in roles that supported single women and men who could be more visible in the struggle against Franco. Communists emphasized a traditional view of motherhood espoused by Franco. Gender roles. The end of the Civil War, and the victory of fascist forces, saw the return of traditional gender roles to Spain. This included the unacceptability of women serving in combat roles in the military. Where gender roles were more flexible, it was often around employment issues where women felt an economic necessity to make their voices heard. It was also more acceptable for women to work outside the home, though the options were still limited to roles defined as more traditionally female. Women were still required to get permission from their husbands before outside the home. This included working as nurses, or in soup kitchens or orphanages. The Civil War proved a loss for many Republican women. For some women in Spain, the Francoist period represented a continuation of the Second Republic. Many never felt empowered during the Second Republic and Civil War, and because they were largely behind fronts that saw less disruption to the family structure, the family had never become matriarchal with a mother running the home. This was particularly true in conservative parts of the Basque Country, where a patriarchal family structure with fixed gender roles of men as the head of household and women as subservient mothers continued into the Francoist period. With strict gender norms back in place, women who had found acceptable employment prior and during the Civil War found employment opportunities even more difficult in the post war period. Teachers who had worked for Republican schools often could not find employment. Gender norms were further reinforced by Sección Femenina de Falange. Opportunities to work, study or travel required taking classes on cooking, sewing, childcare and the role of women before they were granted. If women did not take or pass these classes, they were denied these opportunities. Education. Falange party schools teaching girls focused on the home during the post war period. Girls in the first through third grades were instructed in tidiness of the home and their immediate environments. They were instructed in bringing harmony, balance and softness to their domain of the home. Other school lessons included ones on the virtue of silence or how to carry on audience appropriate conversations. Lessons also explained what was and what was not acceptable for women in the company of others for activities like laughing, sneezing and copying with pain. Such lessons would continue until the late 1950s. Feminism. Sección Femenina de Falange worked to depict feminism as a form of depravity. It associated feminism with drug abuse and other evils plaguing society. State supported feminism, expressed through Sección Femenina, offered Isabel the Catholic and Teresa of Avila as symbols for Spanish women to look up. They had first been used by Francoist women during the Civil War, and reminded women that their role was to become mothers and to engage in pious domesticity. Women's rights. The pillars for a New Spain in the Franco era became national syndicalism and national Catholicism. Following the Civil War, the legal status for women in many cases reverted to that stipulated in the Napoleonic Code that had first been installed in Spanish law in 1889. In March 1938, Franco suppressed the laws regarding civil matrimony and divorce that had been enacted by the Second Republic. The post Civil War period saw the return of laws that effectively made wards of women. They were dependent on husbands, fathers and brothers to work outside the house. It was not until later labor shortages that laws around employment opportunities for women changed. These laws passed in 1958 and 1961 provided a very narrow opportunity, but an opportunity, for women to be engaged in non-domestic labor outside the household. The Franco period saw an extreme regression in the rights of women. The situation for women was more regressive than that of women in Nazi Germany under Hitler. Women needed permission to do an array of basic activities, including applying for a job, opening a bank account or going on a trip. The law during the Franco period allowed husbands to killed their wives if they caught them in the act of adultery. Mothers could only get state benefits if they were lawfully married and their children were legitimate.

current outcome

2297-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67724050

Pipeline () is a 2021 South Korean crime action film directed by Yoo Ha and starring Seo In-guk, Lee Soo-hyuk and Eum Moon-suk. The heist film tells the story of six thieves who wish to change their lives by stealing oil hidden in a tunnel dozens of meters underground in Korea. The film was released theatrically on May 26, 2021. Synopsis. Korea has over 1,200 km of oil pipeline, which is lifeline of the country. A drilling engineer prodigy spearheads an oil heist to drill into this pipeline against heavy odds fighting catastrophic explosion and corporate greed. Geon-woo (Lee Soo-hyuk), a rich oil refining company owner, sets up a plan to steal oil from pipeline between Honam and Seoul-Busan highway within a month. Pin Dol (Seo In-guk), the drilling engineer forms a team with Jeob-sae (Eum Moon-Suk), section chief Na (Yoo Seung-mok), Geun-sab (Tae Hang-ho) and Counter (Bae Da-bin) to complete the impossible heist. As the task gets delayed from various setbacks, the risks multiplied. Production. Casting. In July 2019, the cast of film was finalized. Seo In-guk was cast as protagonist playing drilling engineer. Seo In-guk and Lee Soo-hyuk previously appeared together in 2014 tvN drama series "High School King of Savvy", 2021 series "Doom at Your Service" and now "Pipeline". Filming. Principal photography began on July 23, 2019 and was wrapped up on November 12, 2019. The film was planned to release in 2020, but its release was postponed due to the resurgence of the COVID-19 pandemic. Reception. Box office. The film was released on May 26, 2021 on 776 screens. In its first week of release, it ranked number 1 among the Korean films released and number 3 among all the films released on the Korean box office. According to Korean Film Council data, it is at 8th place among all the Korean films released in the year 2021, with gross of US$8,33,161 and 105,935 admissions, as of June 1, 2021. Critical response. Yang So-young writing for "Daily Economic Star" opined that the content of the film are fresh, but the presentation of narrative is obvious. Yang wrote that though realistic visuals have been created with the oil pipeline background but as content of the film it was not handled as well. He praised the performance of ensemble cast and concluded as, ".. even the unobtrusive storytelling and the characters as if they were seen from anywhere, the fresh charm falls. The great flow of the story itself is not very different from the crime entertainment movies we have seen so far." Kim Ji-eun of "Newsis" agreed with Yang and wrote that although idea of oil stealing is new but it is a typical caper film. As regards to acting she wrote, "Pindol, played by Seo In-guk and smirk, lacks the taste of words, and Eum Moon-seok's suffix which is not necessary to say if it's a comical acting, has a poor humor code and only appears as a weak body gag." Concluding she wrote, "The energy of the site, which went through the tunnel without dying, is transmitted intact." Yoo Na reviewing the film for "YTN" opined that the film has followed the typical and dull pattern of a caper film. She wrote that the story is ordinary and characters have no charm. Concluding the review Yoo Na penned, "Like a B-class black comedy, it burns action, body gags, and passion, but in the end, it did not provide emotion or fun." Kim Ji-won writing for "Ten Asia" described the film as, "It is entertaining to say that it is boring, and laughter does not burst to say that it is pleasant." She wrote that there was no chemistry among characters and acting looked clumsy. Concluding, she wrote, "Was director Yooha inexperienced because it was not the genre he was good at, but the genre he challenged anew? The degree of fun is ambiguous."

destructive blast

4571-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1021764

Grasshoppers are a group of insects belonging to the suborder Caelifera. They are among what is probably the most ancient living group of chewing herbivorous insects, dating back to the early Triassic around 250 million years ago. Grasshoppers are typically ground-dwelling insects with powerful hind legs which allow them to escape from threats by leaping vigorously. As hemimetabolous insects, they do not undergo complete metamorphosis; they hatch from an egg into a nymph or "hopper" which undergoes five moults, becoming more similar to the adult insect at each developmental stage. At high population densities and under certain environmental conditions, some grasshopper species can change color and behavior and form swarms. Under these circumstances, they are known as locusts. Grasshoppers are plant-eaters, with a few species at times becoming serious pests of cereals, vegetables and pasture, especially when they swarm in their millions as locusts and destroy crops over wide areas. They protect themselves from predators by camouflage; when detected, many species attempt to startle the predator with a brilliantly-coloured wing-flash while jumping and (if adult) launching themselves into the air, usually flying for only a short distance. Other species such as the rainbow grasshopper have warning coloration which deters predators. Grasshoppers are affected by parasites and various diseases, and many predatory creatures feed on both nymphs and adults. The eggs are subject to attack by parasitoids and predators. Grasshoppers have had a long relationship with humans. Swarms of locusts can have devastating effects and cause famine, having done so since Biblical times. Even in smaller numbers, the insects can be serious pests. They are used as food in countries such as Mexico and Indonesia. They feature in art, symbolism and literature. The study of grasshopper species is called acridology. Phylogeny. Grasshoppers belong to the suborder Caelifera. Although "grasshopper" is sometimes used as a common name for the suborder in general, some sources restrict it to the more "advanced" groups. They may be placed in the infraorder Acrididea and have been referred-to as "short-horned grasshoppers" in older texts to distinguish them from the also-obsolete term "long-horned grasshoppers" (now bush-crickets or katydids) with their much longer antennae. The phylogeny of the Caelifera, based on mitochondrial ribosomal RNA of thirty-two taxa in six out of seven superfamilies, is shown as a cladogram. The Ensifera (crickets, "etc. "), Caelifera and all the superfamilies of grasshoppers except Pamphagoidea appear to be monophyletic. In evolutionary terms, the split between the Caelifera and the Ensifera is no more recent than the Permo-Triassic boundary; the earliest insects that are certainly Caeliferans are in the extinct families Locustopseidae and Locustavidae from the early Triassic, roughly 250 million years ago. The group diversified during the Triassic and have remained important plant-eaters from that time to now. The first modern families such as the Eumastacidae, Tetrigidae and Tridactylidae appeared in the Cretaceous, though some insects that might belong to the last two of these groups are found in the early Jurassic. Morphological classification is difficult because many taxa have converged towards a common habitat type; recent taxonomists have concentrated on the internal genitalia, especially those of the male. This information is not available from fossil specimens, and the palaentological taxonomy is founded principally on the venation of the hindwings. The Caelifera includes some 2,400 valid genera and about 11,000 known species. Many undescribed species probably exist, especially in tropical wet forests. The Caelifera have a predominantly tropical distribution with fewer species known from temperate zones, but most of the superfamilies have representatives worldwide. They are almost exclusively herbivorous and are probably the oldest living group of chewing herbivorous insects. The most diverse superfamily is the Acridoidea, with around 8,000 species. The two main families in this are the Acrididae (grasshoppers and locusts) with a worldwide distribution, and the Romaleidae (lubber grasshoppers), found chiefly in the New World. The Ommexechidae and Tristiridae are South American, and the Lentulidae, Lithidiidae and Pamphagidae are mainly African. The Pauliniids are nocturnal and can swim or skate on water, and the Lentulids are wingless. Pneumoridae are native to Africa, particularly southern Africa, and are distinguished by the inflated abdomens of the males. Characteristics. Grasshoppers have the typical insect body plan of head, thorax and abdomen. The head is held vertically at an angle to the body, with the mouth at the bottom. The head bears a large pair of compound eyes which give all-round vision, three simple eyes which can detect light and dark, and a pair of thread-like antennae that are sensitive to touch and smell. The downward-directed mouthparts are modified for chewing and there are two sensory palps in front of the jaws. The thorax and abdomen are segmented and have a rigid cuticle made up of overlapping plates composed of chitin. The three fused thoracic segments bear three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings. The forewings, known as tegmina, are narrow and leathery while the hindwings are large and membranous, the veins providing strength. The legs are terminated by claws for gripping. The hind leg is particularly powerful; the femur is robust and has several ridges where different surfaces join and the inner ridges bear stridulatory pegs in some species. The posterior edge of the tibia bears a double row of spines and there are a pair of articulated spurs near its lower end. The interior of the thorax houses the muscles that control the wings and legs. The abdomen has eleven segments, the first of which is fused to the thorax and contains the tympanal organ and hearing system. Segments two to eight are ring-shaped and joined by flexible membranes. Segments nine to eleven are reduced in size; segment nine bears a pair of cerci and segments ten and eleven house the reproductive organs. Female grasshoppers are normally larger than males, with short ovipositors. The name of the suborder "Caelifera" comes from the Latin and means "chisel-bearing", referring to the shape of the ovipositor. Those species that make easily heard noises usually do so by rubbing a row of pegs on the hind legs against the edges of the forewings (stridulation). These sounds are produced mainly by males to attract females, though in some species the females also stridulate. Grasshoppers may be confused with crickets, but they differ in many aspects; these include the number of segments in their antennae and the structure of the ovipositor, as well as the location of the tympanal organ and the methods by which sound is produced. Ensiferans have antennae that can be much longer than the body and have at least 20–24 segments, while caeliferans have fewer segments in their shorter, stouter antennae. Biology. Diet and digestion. Most grasshoppers are polyphagous, eating vegetation from multiple plant sources, but some are omnivorous and also eat animal tissue and animal faeces. In general their preference is for grasses, including many cereals grown as crops. The digestive system is typical of insects, with Malpighian tubules discharging into the midgut. Carbohydrates are digested mainly in the crop, while proteins are digested in the ceca of the midgut. Saliva is abundant but largely free of enzymes, helping to move food and Malpighian secretions along the gut. Some grasshoppers possess cellulase, which by softening plant cell walls makes plant cell contents accessible to other digestive enzymes. Sensory organs. Grasshoppers have a typical insect nervous system, and have an extensive set of external sense organs. On the side of the head are a pair of large compound eyes which give a broad field of vision and can detect movement, shape, colour and distance. There are also three simple eyes (ocelli) on the forehead which can detect light intensity, a pair of antennae containing olfactory (smell) and touch receptors, and mouthparts containing gustatory (taste) receptors. At the front end of the abdomen there is a pair of tympanal organs for sound reception. There are numerous fine hairs (setae) covering the whole body that act as mechanoreceptors (touch and wind sensors), and these are most dense on the antennae, the palps (part of the mouth), and on the cerci at the tip of the abdomen. There are special receptors (campaniform sensillae) embedded in the cuticle of the legs that sense pressure and cuticle distortion. There are internal "chordotonal" sense organs specialized to detect position and movement about the joints of the exoskeleton. The receptors convey information to the central nervous system through sensory neurons, and most of these have their cell bodies located in the periphery near the receptor site itself. Circulation and respiration. Like other insects, grasshoppers have an open circulatory system and their body cavities are filled with haemolymph. A heart-like structure in the upper part of the abdomen pumps the fluid to the head from where it percolates past the tissues and organs on its way back to the abdomen. This system circulates nutrients throughout the body and carries metabolic wastes to be excreted into the gut. Other functions of the haemolymph include wound healing, heat transfer and the provision of hydrostatic pressure, but the circulatory system is not involved in gaseous exchange. Respiration is performed using tracheae, air-filled tubes, which open at the surfaces of the thorax and abdomen through pairs of valved spiracles. Larger insects may need to actively ventilate their bodies by opening some spiracles while others remain closed, using abdominal muscles to expand and contract the body and pump air through the system. Jumping. A large grasshopper, such as a locust, can jump about a metre (twenty body lengths) without using its wings; the acceleration peaks at about 20 g. Grasshoppers jump by extending their large back legs and pushing against the substrate (the ground, a twig, a blade of grass or whatever else they are standing on); the reaction force propels them into the air. They jump for several reasons; to escape from a predator, to launch themselves into flight, or simply to move from place to place. For the escape jump in particular there is strong selective pressure to maximize take-off velocity, since this determines the range. This means that the legs must thrust against the ground with both high force and a high velocity of movement. A fundamental property of muscle is that it cannot contract with high force and high velocity at the same time. Grasshoppers overcome this by using a catapult mechanism to amplify the mechanical power produced by their muscles. The jump is a three-stage process. First, the grasshopper fully flexes the lower part of the leg (tibia) against the upper part (femur) by activating the flexor tibiae muscle (the back legs of the grasshopper in the top photograph are in this preparatory position). Second, there is a period of co-contraction in which force builds up in the large, pennate extensor tibiae muscle, but the tibia is kept flexed by the simultaneous contraction of the flexor tibiae muscle. The extensor muscle is much stronger than the flexor muscle, but the latter is aided by specialisations in the joint that give it a large effective mechanical advantage over the former when the tibia is fully flexed. Co-contraction can last for up to half a second, and during this period the extensor muscle shortens and stores elastic strain energy by distorting stiff cuticular structures in the leg. The extensor muscle contraction is quite slow (almost isometric), which allows it to develop high force (up to 14 N in the desert locust), but because it is slow only low power is needed. The third stage of the jump is the trigger relaxation of the flexor muscle, which releases the tibia from the flexed position. The subsequent rapid tibial extension is driven mainly by the relaxation of the elastic structures, rather than by further shortening of the extensor muscle. In this way the stiff cuticle acts like the elastic of a catapult, or the bow of a bow-and-arrow. Energy is put into the store at low power by slow but strong muscle contraction, and retrieved from the store at high power by rapid relaxation of the mechanical elastic structures. Stridulation. Male grasshoppers spend much of the day stridulating, singing more actively under optimal conditions and being more subdued when conditions are adverse; females also stridulate, but their efforts are insignificant when compared to the males. Late-stage male nymphs can sometimes be seen making stridulatory movements, although they lack the equipment to make sounds, demonstrating the importance of this behavioural trait. The songs are a means of communication; the male stridulation seems to express reproductive maturity, the desire for social cohesion and individual well-being. Social cohesion becomes necessary among grasshoppers because of their ability to jump or fly large distances, and the song can serve to limit dispersal and guide others to favourable habitat. The generalised song can vary in phraseology and intensity, and is modified in the presence of a rival male, and changes again to a courtship song when a female is nearby. In male grasshoppers of the family Pneumoridae, the enlarged abdomen amplifies stridulation. Life cycle. In most grasshopper species, conflicts between males over females rarely escalate beyond ritualistic displays. Some exceptions include the chameleon grasshopper ("Kosciuscola tristis"), where males may fight on top of ovipositing females; engaging in leg grappling, biting, kicking and mounting. The newly emerged female grasshopper has a preoviposition period of a week or two while she increases in weight and her eggs mature. After mating, the female of most species digs a hole with her ovipositor and lays a batch of eggs in a pod in the ground near food plants, generally in the summer. After laying the eggs, she covers the hole with soil and litter. Some, like the semi-aquatic "Cornops aquaticum", deposit the pod directly into plant tissue. The eggs in the pod are glued together with a froth in some species. After a few weeks of development, the eggs of most species in temperate climates go into diapause, and pass the winter in this state. Diapause is broken by a sufficiently low ground temperature, with development resuming as soon as the ground warms above a certain threshold temperature. The embryos in a pod generally all hatch out within a few minutes of each other. They soon shed their membranes and their exoskeletons harden. These first instar nymphs can then jump away from predators. Grasshoppers undergo incomplete metamorphosis: they repeatedly moult, each instar becoming larger and more like an adult, with the wing-buds increasing in size at each stage. The number of instars varies between species but is often six. After the final moult, the wings are inflated and become fully functional. The migratory grasshopper, "Melanoplus sanguinipes", spends about 25 to 30 days as a nymph, depending on sex and temperature, and lives for about 51 days as an adult. Swarming. Locusts are the swarming phase of certain species of short-horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae. Swarming behaviour is a response to overcrowding. Increased tactile stimulation of the hind legs causes an increase in levels of serotonin. This causes the grasshopper to change colour, feed more and breed faster. The transformation of a solitary individual into a swarming one is induced by several contacts per minute over a short period. Following this transformation, under suitable conditions dense nomadic bands of flightless nymphs known as "hoppers" can occur, producing pheromones which attract the insects to each other. With several generations in a year, the locust population can build up from localised groups into vast accumulations of flying insects known as plagues, devouring all the vegetation they encounter. The largest recorded locust swarm was one formed by the now-extinct Rocky Mountain locust in 1875; the swarm was long and wide, and one estimate puts the number of locusts involved at 3.5 trillion. An adult desert locust can eat about of plant material each day, so the billions of insects in a large swarm can be very destructive, stripping all the foliage from plants in an affected area and consuming stems, flowers, fruits, seeds and bark. Predators, parasites, and pathogens. Grasshoppers have a wide range of predators at different stages of their lives; eggs are eaten by bee-flies, ground beetles and blister beetles; hoppers and adults are taken by other insects such as ants, robber flies and sphecid wasps, by spiders, and by many birds and small mammals including dogs and cats. The eggs and nymphs are under attack by parasitoids including blow flies, flesh flies, and tachinid flies. External parasites of adults and nymphs include mites. Female grasshoppers parasitised by mites produce fewer eggs and thus have fewer offspring than unaffected individuals. The grasshopper nematode ("Mermis nigrescens") is a long slender worm that infects grasshoppers, living in the insect's hemocoel. Adult worms lay eggs on plants and the host becomes infected when the foliage is eaten. "Spinochordodes tellinii" and "Paragordius tricuspidatus" are parasitic worms that infect grasshoppers and alter the behaviour of their hosts. When the worms are sufficiently developed, the grasshopper is persuaded to leap into a nearby body of water where it drowns, thus enabling the parasite to continue with the next stage of its life cycle, which takes place in water. Grasshoppers are affected by diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa. The bacteria "Serratia marcescens" and "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" have both been implicated in causing disease in grasshoppers, as has the entomopathogenic fungus "Beauveria bassiana". This widespread fungus has been used to control various pest insects around the world, but although it infects grasshoppers, the infection is not usually lethal because basking in the sun has the result of raising the insect's temperature above a threshold tolerated by the fungus. The fungal pathogen "Entomophaga grylli" is able to influence the behaviour of its grasshopper host, causing it to climb to the top of a plant and cling to the stem as it dies. This ensures wide dispersal of the fungal spores liberated from the corpse. The fungal pathogen "Metarhizium acridum" is found in Africa, Australia and Brazil where it has caused epizootics in grasshoppers. It is being investigated for possible use as a microbial insecticide for locust control. The microsporidian fungus "Nosema locustae", once considered to be a protozoan, can be lethal to grasshoppers. It has to be consumed by mouth and is the basis for a bait-based commercial microbial pesticide. Various other microsporidians and protozoans are found in the gut. Anti-predator defences. Grasshoppers exemplify a range of anti-predator adaptations, enabling them to avoid detection, to escape if detected, and in some cases to avoid being eaten if captured. Grasshoppers are often camouflaged to avoid detection by predators that hunt by sight; some species can change their coloration to suit their surroundings. Several species such as the hooded leaf grasshopper "Phyllochoreia ramakrishnai" (Eumastacoidea) are detailed mimics of leaves. Stick grasshoppers (Proscopiidae) mimic wooden sticks in form and coloration. Grasshoppers often have deimatic patterns on their wings, giving a sudden flash of bright colours that may startle predators long enough to give time to escape in a combination of jump and flight. Some species are genuinely aposematic, having both bright warning coloration and sufficient toxicity to dissuade predators. "Dictyophorus productus" (Pyrgomorphidae) is a "heavy, bloated, sluggish insect" that makes no attempt to hide; it has a bright red abdomen. A "Cercopithecus" monkey that ate other grasshoppers refused to eat the species. Another species, the rainbow or painted grasshopper of Arizona, "Dactylotum bicolor" (Acridoidea), has been shown by experiment with a natural predator, the little striped whiptail lizard, to be aposematic. Relationship with humans. In art and media. Grasshoppers are occasionally depicted in artworks, such as the Dutch Golden Age painter Balthasar van der Ast's still life oil painting, "Flowers in a Vase with Shells and Insects", c. 1630, now in the National Gallery, London, though the insect may be a bush-cricket. Another orthopteran is found in Rachel Ruysch's still life "Flowers in a Vase", c. 1685. The seemingly static scene is animated by a "grasshopper on the table that looks about ready to spring", according to the gallery curator Betsy Wieseman, with other invertebrates including a spider, an ant, and two caterpillars. Grasshoppers are also featured in cinema. The 1957 film "Beginning of the End" portrayed giant grasshoppers attacking Chicago. In the 1998 Disney/Pixar animated film "A Bug's Life", the antagonists are a gang of grasshoppers, with their leader Hopper serving as the main villain. Symbolism. Grasshoppers are sometimes used as symbols. During the Greek Archaic Era, the grasshopper was the symbol of the "polis" of Athens, possibly because they were among the most common insects on the dry plains of Attica. Native Athenians for a while wore golden grasshopper brooches to symbolise that they were of pure Athenian lineage with no foreign ancestors. Another symbolic use of the grasshopper is Sir Thomas Gresham's gilded grasshopper in Lombard Street, London, dating from 1563; the building was for a while the headquarters of the Guardian Royal Exchange, but the company declined to use the symbol for fear of confusion with the locust. When grasshoppers appear in dreams, these have been interpreted as symbols of "Freedom, independence, spiritual enlightenment, inability to settle down or commit to decision". Locusts are taken literally to mean devastation of crops in the case of farmers; figuratively as "wicked men and women" for non-farmers; and "Extravagance, misfortune, & ephemeral happiness" by "gypsies". As food. In some countries, grasshoppers are used as food. In southern Mexico, grasshoppers, known as "chapulines", are eaten in a variety of dishes, such as in tortillas with chilli sauce. Grasshoppers are served on skewers in some Chinese food markets, like the Donghuamen Night Market. Fried grasshoppers ("walang goreng") are eaten in the Gunung Kidul Regency, Yogyakarta, Java in Indonesia. In America, the Ohlone burned grassland to herd grasshoppers into pits where they could be collected as food. It is recorded in the Bible that John the Baptist ate locusts and wild honey (Greek: ἀκρίδες καὶ μέλι ἄγριον, "akrídes kaì méli ágrion") while living in the wilderness. However, because of a tradition of depicting him as an ascetic, attempts have been made to explain that the "locusts" were in fact a suitably ascetic vegetarian food such as carob beans, notwithstanding the fact that the word "ἀκρίδες" means plainly "grasshoppers". In recent years, with the search for alternative healthy and sustainable protein sources, grasshoppers are being cultivated by commercial companies operating grasshopper farms and are being used as food and protein supplements. As pests. Grasshoppers eat large quantities of foliage both as adults and during their development, and can be serious pests of arid land and prairies. Pasture, grain, forage, vegetable and other crops can be affected. Grasshoppers often bask in the sun, and thrive in warm sunny conditions, so drought stimulates an increase in grasshopper populations. A single season of drought is not normally sufficient to stimulate a major population increase, but several successive dry seasons can do so, especially if the intervening winters are mild so that large numbers of nymphs survive. Although sunny weather stimulates growth, there needs to be an adequate food supply for the increasing grasshopper population. This means that although precipitation is needed to stimulate plant growth, prolonged periods of cloudy weather will slow nymphal development. Grasshoppers can best be prevented from becoming pests by manipulating their environment. Shade provided by trees will discourage them and they may be prevented from moving onto developing crops by removing coarse vegetation from fallow land and field margins and discouraging thick growth beside ditches and on roadside verges. With increasing numbers of grasshoppers, predator numbers may increase, but this seldom happens rapidly enough to have much effect on populations. Biological control is being investigated, and spores of the protozoan parasite "Nosema locustae" can be used mixed with bait to control grasshoppers, being more effective with immature insects. On a small scale, neem products can be effective as a feeding deterrent and as a disruptor of nymphal development. Insecticides can be used, but adult grasshoppers are difficult to kill, and as they move into fields from surrounding rank growth, crops may soon become reinfested. Some grasshopper species, like the Chinese rice grasshopper, are a pest in rice paddies. Ploughing exposes the eggs on the surface of the field, to be destroyed by sunshine or eaten by natural enemies. Some eggs may be buried too deeply in the soil for hatching to take place. Locust plagues can have devastating effects on human populations, causing famines and population upheavals. They are mentioned in both the Koran and the Bible and have also been held responsible for cholera epidemics, resulting from the corpses of locusts drowned in the Mediterranean Sea and decomposing on beaches. The FAO and other organisations monitor locust activity around the world. Timely application of pesticides can prevent nomadic bands of hoppers from forming before dense swarms of adults can build up. Besides conventional control using contact insecticides, biological pest control using the entomopathogenic fungus "Metarhizium acridum", which specifically infects grasshoppers, has been used with some success. Detection of explosives. In February 2020, researchers from Washington University in St. Louis announced they had engineered "cyborg grasshoppers" capable of accurately detecting explosives. In the project, funded by the US Office of Naval Research, researchers fitted grasshoppers with lightweight sensor backpacks that recorded and transmitted the electrical activity of their antennal lobes to a computer. According to the researchers, the grasshoppers were able to detect the location of the highest concentration of explosives. The researchers also tested the effect of combining sensorial information from several grasshoppers on detection accuracy. The neural activity from seven grasshoppers yielded an average detection accuracy rate of 80%, whereas a single grasshopper yielded a 60% rate. In literature. The Egyptian word for locust or grasshopper was written "snḥm" in the consonantal hieroglyphic writing system. The pharaoh Ramesses II compared the armies of the Hittites to locusts: "They covered the mountains and valleys and were like locusts in their multitude." One of Aesop's Fables, later retold by La Fontaine, is the tale of "The Ant and the Grasshopper". The ant works hard all summer, while the grasshopper plays. In winter, the ant is ready but the grasshopper starves. Somerset Maugham's short story "The Ant and the Grasshopper" explores the fable's symbolism via complex framing. Other human weaknesses besides improvidence have become identified with the grasshopper's behaviour. So an unfaithful woman (hopping from man to man) is "a grasshopper" in "Poprygunya", an 1892 short story by Anton Chekhov, and in Jerry Paris's 1969 film "The Grasshopper". In mechanical engineering. The name "Grasshopper" was given to the Aeronca L-3 and Piper L-4 light aircraft, both used for reconnaissance and other support duties in World War II. The name is said to have originated when Major General Innis P. Swift saw a Piper making a rough landing and remarked that it looked like a grasshopper for its bouncing progress. Grasshopper beam engines were beam engines pivoted at one end, the long horizontal arm resembling the hind leg of a grasshopper. The type was patented by William Freemantle in 1803.

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Star-Lord (Peter Jason Quill) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character, created by Steve Englehart and Steve Gan, first appeared in "Marvel Preview" #4 (January 1976). The son of human Meredith Quill and Spartoi J'son, Peter Quill assumes the mantle of Star-Lord, an interplanetary policeman. The character played prominent roles in the comic book storylines "Annihilation" (2006) and "" (2007), "War of Kings" (2008), and "The Thanos Imperative" (2009). He became the leader of the space-based superhero team Guardians of the Galaxy in the 2008 relaunch of the comic of the same name. He has been featured in a variety of associated Marvel merchandise, including animated television series, toys and trading cards. Chris Pratt portrays the character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe films "Guardians of the Galaxy" (2014), "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2" (2017), ' (2018), and ' (2019). Wyatt Oleff portrays a young Peter Quill in the first two "Guardians of the Galaxy" films. Pratt will return to play the character in "" (2022), "The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special" (2022), and "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3" (2023). Publication history. The character first appeared in the black-and-white magazine publication "Marvel Preview" #4 (Jan 1976). Creator Steve Englehart had plans for the character that went unrealized. He later reflected on his website: Star-Lord continued to appear in "Marvel Preview", with writer Chris Claremont revamping the character and using science fiction adventure stories like the Heinlein juveniles for inspiration. Heinlein's lawyers threatened legal action over the cover to "Marvel Preview" #11, which featured a blurb that described the content as "a novel-length science fiction spectacular in the tradition of Robert A. Heinlein", leading to the issue being pulled and reprinted. The story in #11 was the first teaming of the celebrated "X-Men" creative trio of writer Chris Claremont, penciller John Byrne, and inker Terry Austin. Star-Lord made sporadic appearances over the next few years in the titles "Marvel Super Special", "Marvel Spotlight", and "Marvel Premiere". The "Marvel Spotlight" installments, which were Star-Lord's first appearance in a traditional comic book format, served to consolidate the separate but complementary origin stories from his two appearances in "Marvel Preview". In February 1982, a color reprint of the black-and-white Star-Lord story from "Marvel Preview" #11 was published with a new framing sequence by Claremont and artist Michael Golden. The character returned in "Thanos" #8–12 (May–Sept. 2004) and "Annihilation" #1-6 (2006). The following year, he received a four issue eponymous title ("Annihilation: ConquestStar-Lord") leading into the "" crossover storyline, in which he played a central role. Spinning out of "Annihilation: Conquest", a second volume of "Guardians of the Galaxy" featured a team of characters from the crossover who were led by Star-Lord for the duration of the title's 25-issue run. Plot lines from that series were concluded in "The Thanos Imperative" mini-series. Because of revisions to the character's origin, his early appearances have been officially designated as occurring in an alternate reality. Star-Lord returned, along with other members of the Guardians, in "Avengers Assemble" #4-8 (June–Oct. 2012). He stars in "Guardians of the Galaxy" vol. 3, a part of the Marvel NOW! relaunch. In July 2014, Star-Lord received his own ongoing series, "Legendary Star-Lord". The character was also given a new costume, matching that seen in the Marvel Studios film "Guardians of the Galaxy" His solo series and "Guardians of the Galaxy" vol. 3 ended as Marvel began its 2015 "Secret Wars" storyline. Star-Lord appeared as a main character in the core "Secret Wars" miniseries, and in a tie-in miniseries during the event, "Star-Lord and Kitty Pryde". During publication of "Secret Wars", Marvel premiered a new ongoing "Star-Lord" series, written by Sam Humphries, as part of the All-New, All-Different Marvel initiative, which focused on the character's revamped origins. This series also saw him leave the Guardians of the Galaxy, and replaced by his fiancée Kitty Pryde, who took over the identity of Star-Lord on the team's roster. The series lasted for eight issues. A subsequent "Star-Lord" ongoing series written by Chip Zdarsky began in December 2017 before being canceled after a six issues and one annual. In April 2019 Peter Quill was given a 12 issue miniseries set in the Old Man Logan Universe called "Old Man Quill", which was written by Ethan Sacks and drawn by Robert Gill. Fictional character biography. When J'son's ship crash lands in Colorado, he is taken in by Meredith Quill. The two form a relationship while J'son makes repairs to his ship. Eventually, J'son is forced to leave to return home and fight in a war. He leaves, not knowing Meredith is pregnant with Peter Quill. Ten years later, Meredith is killed when she is attacked by two Badoon soldiers who have come to kill Peter and end J'son's blood line. Peter finds his father's gun by accident, kills them with a shotgun, and escapes his home before it is destroyed by the Badoon ship. The Badoon presume Peter has been killed and leave. Peter is placed in an orphanage and eventually joins NASA. It was eventually explained that he was raised by his mother's best friend Lisa Chang who was a commander at NASA. Later, when his ship malfunctions and he is stranded in space, Peter is found by the Ravagers, a group of space pirates led by Yondu. After the Ravagers save Peter, he tries to steal their ship. He outsmarts the Ravagers and even knocks out Yondu before capturing him. After Yondu awakens, he frees himself and attacks Peter, letting Peter choose to be released to space without more trouble or be killed. Peter instead asks Yondu if he could join Yondu's crew. Yondu eventually learns that the two share something in common: growing up as "kids without homes". Yondu lets Peter stay in the ship with the Ravagers as their cleaning boy. Peter decides to stay and try to learn everything he can while among the Ravagers. Peter encounters the Fallen One, a former Herald of Galactus, and is almost killed defeating the entity. In addition, his vessel, "Ship", is destroyed in the conflict. Peter and the Fallen One are subsequently imprisoned in the intergalactic prison called the Kyln. Peter is freed by the hero Nova during the Annihilation War and aids in the war against villain Annihilus. He later acts as military adviser to the Kree General Ronan the Accuser. When the Kree homeworld of Hala is , Star-Lord leads a band of rebels against the invaders until the war is over. In an effort to prevent another interstellar war, Star-Lord forms a new version of the "Guardians of the Galaxy". They are "proactive" and try to end emerging galactic threats early, but are unsuccessful at preventing a war between the Kree and Shi'ar. During a war with an invading universe, Star-Lord and Nova are prepared to sacrifice themselves to defeat Thanos but only Nova dies and Thanos escapes. New Guardians and Kitty Pryde. Peter decides to remain inactive for a time until he discovers his father was planning to pass a law that forbade any interaction of extraterrestrial or space origin with Earth. Knowing this would be an open invitation for invasion, Peter decides to reform the Guardians with six members: Gamora, Rocket Raccoon, Groot, Drax the Destroyer, and Bug, along with himself, and start protecting Earth from any attack. Soon they aid the Avengers against the returned Thanos. After this, Star-Lord and his new team of Guardians engage in conflicts with the Badoon. He is soon captured by the army of Spartax but he escapes imprisonment and broadcasts a video showing the unfairness of his father's reign. During the war of the builders, he infiltrated the S.W.O.R.D. facilities and rescued Abigail Brand along with Rocket and new member Angela. He also declared war against the Shi'ar empire after intervening in one of their trials to rescue the kidnapped young Jean Grey along with the X-Men. During this mission Peter meets Kitty Pryde, and the two eventually have a romantic relationship. Afterwards, the Guardians are cornered and captured by the Spartax Army. Peter is sent to Spartax where he confronts his father again and escapes after exposing once again his father's tyrannical reign. A riot forms in the Empire and J'son is deposed as a consequence. Peter keeps a low profile and remains dedicated to his long-distance relationship with Kitty. Soon he discovers he is elected by the Spartax people to be their new emperor. Peter ignores the announcement and focuses on Kitty and his search for a gangster named Mr. Knife who had put a bounty on his head. After being captured by Knife, he realizes Knife is J'son, his father. He escapes thanks to Kitty, and they spend some time together. Peter convinces Kitty to stay in space with him. He decides to steal an important artifact from J'son as payback. The Black Vortex. Peter and Kitty were successful in stealing the artifact called The Black Vortex, but found themselves outnumbered by J'son's killing squad so they decided to call the X-Men and the remaining Guardians for help. Knowing the artifact could give them the needed power to defeat J'son, Peter wanted everyone to submit to the Vortex to gain cosmic powers. Kitty stood against the idea but some of their friends submitted anyway. After failing to stop them, the submitted cosmic warriors attacked Hala and Peter went with a team to help the Kree in the battle. After some failed negotiations for the Vortex his team had to escape, but J'son found them and destroyed Hala in retaliation. Peter escaped on time. After finding Spartax had been completely covered in amber by Thane, including Kitty, Peter lamented not having heard her since the beginning and apologize to her. Kitty escaped thanks to her phasing powers and both had a reunion. Seeing no other way to defeat J'son and his cosmic empowered team, Peter tried to submit to the Vortex but after seeing the power would eventually make him push Kitty away, he refused. Kitty ended up submitting and saving Spartax. After the war ended, Peter had a romantic talk with Kitty where he proposes to Kitty Pryde, a proposal which she accepts. Secret Wars. When the universe is facing its imminent end, Star-Lord and the rest of the Guardians of the Galaxy come to the world's final battle against the Children of Tomorrow. During the battle, Groot and Rocket Raccoon are killed, and Star-Lord is teleported away by Reed Richards to his ship. In the end, he is one of the few survivors of the apocalypse aboard the Fantastic Four's "life raft". After the end of the universe, Doctor Doom somehow creates a new, patchwork world formed from the remains of dead universes. The life raft that Star-Lord was on remained in cryostasis for the next eight years, until they are awakened by Doctor Strange, a new Thor, and Miles Morales. Doom becomes aware of their location, and ambushes them. Knowing they are the only hope of reviving the old universe, Strange casts a spell to spread the survivors across the world using the wind, with Doom vowing to find them. Star-Lord ends up in the domain of Manhattan, where he gets a job singing in the popular club, "the Quiet Room", singing Disney songs, as Disney films never existed in Battleworld, using the alias of Steve Rogers to hide from Doom. It is here that he runs into an alternate universe version of Kitty Pryde (from the Age of Apocalypse universe), who is hunting down artifacts from before Battleworld's creation. Hoping to talk to who he believes is his fiancée, he accidentally foils a deal between Kitty and Gambit to obtain an ancient artifact. Gambit leaves, but Kitty uses a scanner to discover that Star-Lord is from before Battleworld's creation, and she plans to take him to Doom. However, they are ambushed by a group of robots connected to Gambit. The two decide to steal an artifact that Gambit has, but it is a trap, and the two are captured. Right before Gambit can kill them, a version of Drax appears. Drax originally hired Peter to work in the Quiet Room. Drax knocks out Gambit. The three leave with the artifact secured. When they are safe the next morning, Kitty shows it to the two, only to find out its Rocket Raccoon's tail. Star-Lord laments the death of his friend, and Kitty decides to allow him to keep it, as it is the one thing left of his old universe. Star-Lord thanks Kitty, who kisses him before heading back to her home of Doomguard. Realizing the two are out of a job for abandoning the Quiet Room in the middle of a show, Star-Lord and Drax decide to go back into Star-Lord's old career as a thief. He asks Drax if he knows a good geneticist, as he plans on using Rocket's tail to make a clone of his friend, possibly an army of them. During the final stand against God Doom, Peter not only piloted a ship to take the two Reed Richards' to the heart of Castle Doom, but also managed to keep Black Swan occupied by using the last twig of Groot, kept in his pocket ever since the Incursions to be planted at the crucial moment. All-New, All-Different Marvel. Following the restoration of reality, Peter ascends to the throne of Spartax, with Rocket taking over leadership of the Guardians while Kitty (under the alias Star-Lady) and the Thing (following the disbanding of the Fantastic Four while the Richards' family worked to restore the multiverse) joins the team. After Kree accuser Hala and the ruthless Yotat the Destroyer cause mass destruction on Spartax while trying to eliminate Quill, he returns to the Guardians due to the accusations of his delegates about his responsibility for the resulting deaths. During the "Civil War II" storyline, Star-Lord and the Guardians of the Galaxy assist Captain Marvel as her surprise weapon in the fight against Iron Man. During the battle, the Guardians ship is destroyed which leaves them stranded on Earth. After Iron Man's faction leaves, Gamora overhears a conversation between Peter and Kitty in which she learns that Peter knew (without telling the rest of the team) that Thanos was on Earth the entire time they were there. After stopping Gamora from storming into the Triskelion and killing Thanos, Gamora and the other Guardians leave Peter due to the secrecy. Peter and Kitty then break off their engagement. Grounded. Living alone in an apartment given to him by Abigail Brand, Peter calls Howard the Duck to try and have drinks with him, and Howard furiously hangs up. He then finds Kitty and Old Man Logan in an art gallery, where Kitty shouts at him for carrying his guns into an art gallery with children. Frustrated, Peter leaves. Logan then catches up to him and has drinks with him in a bar, where they fight hitmen, which attracts the attention of the police. Logan flees the scene and Peter is captured. Peter is prosecuted by Matt Murdock, who argues that unlike other superheroes, Star-Lord was reckless and endangered civilians while causing substantial property damage. The trial is interrupted by Brand, who gets the judge to reduce Peter's sentence to community service, to which Peter agrees. Brand and Alpha Flight then give him a new skin-tight costume, and he is assigned to senior citizen Edmund Allen, a retired super-criminal named Silver Bandit. After a day of bonding, Star-Lord is hired as a bartender at a bar for supervillains owned by Edmund's son. Guardians of the Galaxy Vol 6. When another threat to the universe arose, Star-Lord joined Rocket, Nova, and other members of the Guardians to fight it. Star-Lord appeared to die in a bomb blast, but was actually transported to another reality where he began a polyamorous relationship with a couple named Mors and Aradia. He is there revealed to be bisexual. Star-Lord spent the equivalent of 144 years in that reality before returning to his original universe. Powers and abilities. Star-Lord is a master strategist and problem solver who is an expert in close-quarter combat, various human and alien firearms, and battle techniques. He has extensive knowledge of various alien customs, societies, and cultures, and considerable knowledge about cosmic abstracts, such as Oblivion. As Star-Lord, Peter Quill wears a suit that grants augmented strength and durability and the ability to travel through space. He uses an "Element Gun", a special meta-pistol capable of projecting one of the four elements (air, earth, fire and water). Star-Lord shares a psychic link with his sentient space vessel, "Ship". "Ship" is a sentient energy form. She most often exists in the form of a starship but can alter her structure at will. She can travel through air, space and water. She possesses many of the conventional starship accessories, including shields, energy blasters, advanced sensors, replicators (able to form any kind of food, drink, etc. ), and hologram projectors. She has proven capable of creating a human form, which she can then animate and use as a host. Even if completely destroyed, she is capable of restoring herself, since her true form is her consciousness. In addition, she takes on a number of feminine characteristics, such as a mothering instinct for those she is partnered with. She has felt deeper attachments, including love for her partners. "Ship" can create Widgets—small, mobile droids able to scout out situations, gather information, and then return to her. The full extent of "Ship's" abilities are unknown. During Star-Lord's battle with The Fallen One, his element gun, suit and "Ship" were destroyed. Due to severe injury, he was grafted with cybernetic implants by doctors on the Kyln, where he was sentenced. The eye implant allows him to see all energy spectra and the memory chip in his brain gives him 100% total recall. On the Kree world of Aladon Prime, Star-Lord's cybernetic implants were removed. Star-Lord was outfitted with a Kree-issued heat-dampening espionage battle-suit, which became the hallmark look for the Guardians of the Galaxy, a battle helmet, and a universal translator, all of which he still uses. His battle helmet can analyze strategy data, improve vision, and regulate oxygen in space. Star-Lord's chosen weapons are two Kree sub-machine guns with various types of ammunition, including explosives. After escaping the Cancerverse, Peter acquires a new element gun(s), but he discards his armor. Other characters named Star-Lord. A three-issue limited series, "Starlord", features a man Sinjin Quarrel who adopts the identity 12 years after the disappearance of the original Star-Lord (Peter Jason Quill). The series was published from December 1996 to February 1997. It was written by Timothy Zahn, with art by Dan Lawlis. Other versions. Classic. Star-Lord's adventures in "Marvel Preview" #4 and #11 have been officially designated as occurring in an alternate past. In these issues, Peter Quill is born during an unusual astronomical phenomenon when many of the planets align. Seeing no resemblance, the man who believed he was Quill's father accuses his wife Meredith of infidelity and attempts to kill the infant, but dies of a sudden heart attack. Peter is raised by his single mother until she is killed by Ariguans when he is eleven. Quill is placed in an orphanage but escapes and eventually becomes a trainee NASA astronaut. An alien entity called the Master of the Sun later visits the space station that Quill and other astronauts are inhabiting and offers the mantle of Star-Lord (an interplanetary policeman) to a worthy candidate. Quill volunteers, but he is rejected in favor of a colleague he once treated badly. Quill is outraged, and NASA orders his return to Earth and discharge for his conduct. Instead, he steals a scout ship, returns to the space station, and takes his colleague's place. Quill becomes Star-Lord, with the Master of the Sun first creating an illusion in which the character is able to find and kill the aliens that murdered his mother to free him of his past. Equipped with a sentient vessel called "Ship", Quill commences his role as Star-Lord. Years later, Star-Lord becomes involved in stopping a group of slavers who are destroying worlds. His efforts led him to discover a conspiracy to replace the emperor of the Spartoi Empire. In order to thwart the takeover, Star-Lord travels to the imperial throneworld Sparta where he encounters and kills the alien who killed his mother. Star-Lord then meets Emperor Jason who reveals that he is Peter's father. Jason explains that he had crashed on Earth decades earlier and been rescued by Meredith Quill. During the year that he had spent repairing his ship, Jason and Meredith fell in love. When it came time to leave, Jason, for Meredith's safety, had placed a mindlock on her memories of him, causing her to remember their year together as only a dream. "Age of Ultron". During the 2013 "Age of Ultron" storyline, Wolverine and Susan Storm accidentally create an alternate timeline after traveling back in time and assassinating Hank Pym before he can create Ultron. In the new reality, Star-Lord is seen as a member of the Defenders, who have replaced the defunct Avengers as the world's premier superhero team. Starkill. Lord Starkill debuted in "Captain Marvel" #126 in 2018. He is an evil version of Star-Lord from an alternate universe. He possesses the Reality Stone and is allied with Thanos. Old Man Quill. Based in the Old Man Logan universe, Peter Quill eventually becomes the emperor of Spartax. He leaves the Guardians of the Galaxy and Gamora to marry L'ssa and fathers two kids, however, the Universal Church of Truth draw him out in a firefight, which leaves his homeworld vulnerable to attack the Church destroys everything and everyone he loves. A devastated Quill is found by an aged version of the Guardians recruiting him for one more adventure back on Earth that will give him revenge on the Church.

significant estate destruction

6950-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1714572

Harmolodics is the musical philosophy and compositional/improvisational method of jazz saxophonist Ornette Coleman, whose work following this philosophy during the late 1970s and 1980s inspired a style of free-thinking jazz funk known as harmolodic funk. It is associated with avant-garde jazz and free jazz, although its implications extend beyond these limits. Coleman also used the name "Harmolodic" for both his first website and his record label. Description. Coleman defined harmolodics as "the use of the physical and the mental of one's own logic made into an expression of sound to bring about the musical sensation of unison executed by a single person or with a group". Applied to the particulars of music, this means that "harmony, melody, speed, rhythm, time and phrases all have equal position in the results that come from the placing and spacing of ideas". (see: aspects of music) Harmolodics seeks to free musical compositions from any tonal center, allowing harmonic progression independent of traditional European notions of tension and release (see: atonality). Harmolodics may loosely be defined as an expression of music in which harmony, movement of sound, and melody all share the same value. The general effect is that music achieves an immediately open expression, without being constrained by tonal limitations, rhythmic pre-determination, or harmonic rules. Ronald Radano suggests that Coleman's concepts of harmonic unison and harmolodics were influenced by Pierre Boulez's theory of aleatory while Gunther Schuller suggested that harmolodics is based on the superimposition of the same or similar phrases, thus creating polytonality and heterophony. Coleman had been preparing a book called "The Harmolodic Theory" since at least the 1970s, but this remains unpublished. The only other known explanation of harmolodics that was written by Coleman is an article called "Prime Time for Harmolodics" (1983). Proponents include James Blood Ulmer and Jamaaladeen Tacuma. Ulmer, who played and toured with Coleman during the 1970s, has adopted harmolodics and applied the theories to his approach to jazz and blues guitar (for example, "Harmolodic Guitar with Strings"). Record label. In 1995, Coleman and his son, Denardo, established the Harmolodic record label, which had a marketing and distribution arrangement with Verve/PolyGram. The label released its first album, Coleman's "Tone Dialing", in September 1995. Harmolodic went on to release new albums by Coleman and Jayne Cortez, and also reissued some of Coleman's previous albums. The label was based in Harlem, New York.

accepted clarification

11443-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44223930

A Television-lift, TV-lift for short, or also TV lifting system, is an electrically powered mechanical system which lifts or moves televisions vertically or horizontally out of furniture, ceilings or partition walls. The main reason for using a TV lift system is in order to integrate a television into the existing interior design of a room without the television disrupting the overall design appearance. Due to the high overall project costs associated with TV lifts, they are regarded as a luxury product and are as a consequence most commonly to be found in more up-scale homes and apartments, conference rooms, private jets or yachts. History. The first TV lifts were launched on the market in the USA at the beginning of the 1950s. As a consequence of the fact that the cathode-ray televisions of the time were usually heavy and bulky, the first TV lifts were also very large and bulky constructions which required quiet a large amount of space for their installation. At the beginning, there were primarily TV lifts which lifted the cathode-ray television upwards out of a piece of furniture or a room divider. The vertical ceiling lifts first came onto the scene in the mid-1970s as a result of the television manufacturing industry by that time having developed cathode-ray televisions which were flatter and lighter. At the beginning of the new millennium in the year 2000, plasma display televisions were introduced which meant that more compact systems (Flatlift devices) became available on the market. After the lighter LED televisions replaced the plasma screen technology in 2011, the technology could be refined even further. Designs and Types of TV Lift Devices. The following named systems usually have in common that the television is mounted on or in it using the Vesa Mounting Interface Standard. For deviating standards, there are adapters available. Furthermore, a combination of the following devices with different cover flap solutions is possible in the vast majority of cases. Pop-Up. There are many different types of TV lift systems. The most frequent type of system used when the television is to be lifted vertically consists of a multipiece telescopic pipe which is driven by the interior spindle and electric motor. When the electric motor is activated, the multipiece telescopic pipe extends and moves upward. As a result of being extended, the individual pipes change the position of the TV. The pipe is positioned in an upright and central position in the vast majority of cases and is fitted with a standing foot which ensures that the object installed is stable and secure. Depending on the particular manufacturer, there is also a U-design for vertical TV lift applications. In the case of this U-design, a platform moves the TV upward out of the piece of furniture by means of a tubular motor. Nowadays, the U-design TV lift is regarded as outdated. Pop-Down. In the case of the reversely functioning and vertically sinkable TV ceiling lift system, the design looks similar to that of the vertical TV lifting system, with one important difference: due to the fact that the load is pulled, motors and components which have been approved for pull loads should be used. These are far more expensive compared to the components used for the push application, as these are required to assume extensive retention forces. The cover lid solution is realised in a congruent fashion to the pop-up TV lift systems, merely in reverse. Lift System with Articulating Monitor Arm. TV lifts which can be extended sideways are predominantly mounted to furniture cabinets or partition walls. Utilising one or several rails and drives, it is possible to have the TV extend out sideways from the particular piece of furniture or the wall. A number of manufacturers also manufacture specially designed articulating monitor arms which include a component which can be swivelled when the arm is extended. This means that the TV can be extended out sideways from the cabinet and then swivelled in any arbitrary direction in the room, meaning that the seats can be arranged in any direction or at any angle to the television. Monitor Lift System. The design of a monitor lift system is for the most part similar to that of the vertical pop-up TV lift system, with the only real difference being that the movement radius of the motor and the electrics are enclosed inside a sheet metal module. The system is conceived for smaller PC monitor sizes. They are predominantly installed in conference room tables in order to save space. The monitor lift systems are inserted from above into the section which has been cut out of the table by a carpenter or joiner and they are then secured to the table once again from below with screws. The upper part of the monitor lift system is often a cover plate made of brushed steel. With the push of a button, the cover section folds inward into the monitor lift and makes way for the monitor to move into position. The monitor moves up automatically and can still be tilted electronically when in the end position. A number of manufacturers manufacture the monitor lift with a fixed display. Monitor lift systems are available in various sizes ranging from 15 inches up to 42 inches. Wall Panel Lift System. In an automatically changing wall panel, there is the widest variety of designs available. Certain designs employ guide rails and cable hoists, while other systems make use of grooves and belts. Despite the wide variety of designs, all the systems basically achieve the same result. A TV waits behind a wall panel, flush to the actual wall. With the push of a button, the wall panel moves inward and is then automatically raised or sunk – depending on where it is installed – in order to make way for the TV. The TV is then moved forward and takes the place of the wall panel until it is flush with the actual wall. In the case of some special designs, the TV can also turned and swivelled in various different directions. Picture Lift System. The picture lift system is usually made from an aluminium frame. It covers a television which is installed in a niche in the wall. There are picture lift systems in different sizes for differently sized pictures. In the case of the most professionally produced picture lift systems, the rear picture frame of a picture can be braced, clamped or screwed to the aluminium frame. With a single push of a button on the remote control, the picture lift moves the picture either upward or downward and the television can then be watched. A number of manufacturers also manufacture special designs which combine picture lift with the additional TV swivel option. TV Swivel System. The TV swivel system is simply screwed to the wall, a cabinet or a piece of furniture just like any conventional flat-screen wall bracket. Depending on the direction in which it is mounted, the TV swivel system can be swivelled outward either to the left or right. This makes it possible to watch television from a variety of different viewing positions and angles. TV swivel systems can be specially designed and combined with further devices in order to achieve invisible TV installation. A number of manufacturers also offer the possibility to programme the viewing angle down to the exact degree angle. Projector lift. Apart from the TV lift systems, there are also the related projector lift systems. These projector lift systems may be distinguished into two equipment groups. On the one hand there is the projector ceiling light, which vertically lowers the projector downwards from a suspended ceiling, and there are projector lifts for integration into tables or furniture. The latter moves the projector vertically upwards, out of the furniture or table. Both systems are mostly made from ultra light aluminium. Stable equipment guiding is achieved in most cases using scissors or special guides. A projector lift system is often driven by a tubular motor, or another electromotor, which moves a shaft accordingly. Then the lower platform which the projector stands on, can be lowered via special belts or chains. Projector ceiling lift systems are available as ultra flat versions right up to stage projector lift devices with a lift of 5m and more, and a load bearing capacity of several 100 kg. Flap opening solutions. If the TV lift is integrated into a piece of furniture, wall or ceiling, there are a number of different cover lid solutions which are possible: Due to the additional costs of the electric cover lid, the automatic solution is primarily used only in yachts, because this particular cover lid must always be used due to the pitching and swaying movements of the yacht. There are, however, also projects on land for which the electric cover lid is used on exclusively aesthetic grounds. Safety Measures. Certain TV lift systems can be equipped with a contact strip or a programmable anti-collision monitoring system. The latter is absolutely necessary in the case of autonomously operating systems. If the TV lift has a dead man's switch, then the TV lift system stops as soon as the operator releases the button on the radio receiver. In the case of the anti-collision monitoring system, the power supply is measured. If the amount of power increases rapidly to a peak, the control box stops and lets the TV lift move in the opposite direction in order to dislodge the obstacle. References. 1.DE Patent for TV-Ceiling lift. Inventor Mr. Sascha Rissel, Worms,Germany<br> 2.DE Patent for TV-Pop-Up and Pop-Down Lift. Inventor Mr. Sascha Rissel, Worms, Germany<br> 3.US Patent for Pop-Up TV-lift, Furniture Integration - Inventor Thomas Hazzard<br> 4.DE Patent for Positioning of a Flatscreen TV. Inventor Mr. Sascha Rissel, Worms, Germany<br>

real enclosure

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42917406

Export Import Bank of Bangladesh Limited (EXIM Bank) is one of the leading private commercial banks in Bangladesh. The Bank came into operation as a commercial bank on 3 August 1999 as per rules and regulations of Bangladesh Bank. From its establishment the bank was known as BEXIM Bank Limited. But due to legal constraints, the bank was renamed as EXIM Bank, which stood for Export Import Bank of Bangladesh Limited. As of May 2015 the bank has operations across the country with 88 branches and 45 ATM booths. By July 2004 the bank has migrated all of its conventional banking operation into Shariah based Islamic banking. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is one of the most concerned areas of the Bank. Historical background. EXIM Bank Limited was established in 1999 by Shahjahan Kabir, founder chairman. Nazrul Islam Mazumder became the new chairman after the founding chairman died. The bank started functioning from 3 August 1999 with Alamgir Kabir, as the adviser and Mohammad Lakiotullah as the managing director. On 2009, the bank made history for being the first privately owned bank in Bangladesh to open an exchange house in the UK. The bank started its operation with an initial authorised capital of Taka 1 billion (US$12.87 million) and paid up capital of Taka 225 million (US$2.9 million). Since then the authorised and paid up capital remained unchanged till December 2000. Later, both were increased from time to time and their amounts stood at Tk.16.12 billion (US$207.31 million) and Tk.9.22 billion (US$118.7 million) respectively on 31 December 2011. EXIM bank is the first bank in Bangladesh to have converted all of its operations of conventional banking into shariah-based banking, since July/2004. Prime operational area. As a full-fledged Islamic bank in Bangladesh, EXIM Bank extended all Islamic banking services including wide range of saving and investment products, foreign exchange and ancillary services with the support of sophisticated IT and professional management. The investment portfolio of the bank comprises diversified areas of business and industry sectors. The sectors include textiles, edible oil, ready-made garments, chemicals, cement, telecommunication, steel, real estate and other service industry including general trade finance. Foreign exchange department. Foreign exchange is an important department of EXIM Bank Limited, which deals with import, export and foreign remittances. This department is playing an important role in enhancing export earning, which aids economic growth and in turn it helps for the economic development. On the other hand, it also helps to meet those goods and service, which are most demandable and not adequate in the country. Corporate social responsibilities. In past recent years the bank has supported the poor and meritorious student's education. In 2007 about 80 students of different institutions like (DU, BUET, DMC, VNCS, and NDC) have taken scholarship. The bank sponsored the "Beautification Project" of Dhaka mega city conducted by Dhaka City Corporation. EXIM Bank Foundation. EXIM Bank Scholarship Program. EXIM Bank Scholarship Program was launched in the year 2006 with 61 poor meritorious students selected from different reputed educational institutions of Dhaka City including Government Laboratory High School, Viqarunnisa Noon School and College, Dhaka University, BUET, Dhaka Medical College, etc. Till 30 April 2013, they have enrolled as many as 2100 students from around 350 reputed educational institutions across the country. Exim Bank Agricultural University Bangladesh. The vulnerable features of Northern Bangladesh characterised by frequent river erosion, flood and drought, social inequalities in education & health, and migration affecting livelihoods of its poor inhabitants inspired the Bank for undertaking some initiatives for their assistance in advancement. Till then, there has been no existence of any private agricultural university in North Bengal, even though northern part of the country is densely populated and has enormous potential for agricultural development. A large portion of quality students having good results in SSC and HSC cannot get admission into public agricultural university every year. In essence, availability of admission would enable them to pursue higher education in agriculture. EXIM Bank Supports export import initiatives throughout the country. Thus, they have set up EXIM Bank Agricultural University Bangladesh (EBAUB), a private agricultural university at Chapainawabgang, Rajshahi. EXIM Bank Hospital. A 5-storied building having 10,000 square feet of floor space at 840 Kazi Para, RokeyaSarani, Mirpur, Dhaka-1216 has been hired to set up Exim Bank Hospital.

contemporary times

6710-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1416530

Pyelonephritis is inflammation of the kidney, typically due to a bacterial infection. Symptoms most often include fever and flank tenderness. Other symptoms may include nausea, burning with urination, and frequent urination. Complications may include pus around the kidney, sepsis, or kidney failure. It is typically due to a bacterial infection, most commonly "Escherichia coli". Risk factors include sexual intercourse, prior urinary tract infections, diabetes, structural problems of the urinary tract, and spermicide use. The mechanism of infection is usually spread up the urinary tract. Less often infection occurs through the bloodstream. Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms and supported by urinalysis. If there is no improvement with treatment, medical imaging may be recommended. Pyelonephritis may be preventable by urination after sex and drinking sufficient fluids. Once present it is generally treated with antibiotics, such as ciprofloxacin or ceftriaxone. Those with severe disease may require treatment in hospital. In those with certain structural problems of the urinary tract or kidney stones, surgery may be required. Pyelonephritis affects about 1 to 2 per 1,000 women each year and just under 0.5 per 1,000 males. Young adult females are most often affected, followed by the very young and old. With treatment, outcomes are generally good in young adults. Among people over the age of 65 the risk of death is about 40%. Signs and symptoms. Signs and symptoms of acute pyelonephritis generally develop rapidly over a few hours or a day. It can cause high fever, pain on passing urine, and abdominal pain that radiates along the flank towards the back. There is often associated vomiting. Chronic pyelonephritis causes persistent flank or abdominal pain, signs of infection (fever, unintentional weight loss, malaise, decreased appetite), lower urinary tract symptoms and blood in the urine. Chronic pyelonephritis can in addition cause fever of unknown origin. Furthermore, inflammation-related proteins can accumulate in organs and cause the condition AA amyloidosis. Physical examination may reveal fever and tenderness at the costovertebral angle on the affected side. Causes. Most cases of community-acquired pyelonephritis are due to bowel organisms that enter the urinary tract. Common organisms are "E. coli" (7080%) and "Enterococcus faecalis". Hospital-acquired infections may be due to coliform bacteria and enterococci, as well as other organisms uncommon in the community (e.g., "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" and various species of "Klebsiella"). Most cases of pyelonephritis start off as lower urinary tract infections, mainly cystitis and prostatitis. "E. coli" can invade the superficial umbrella cells of the bladder to form intracellular bacterial communities (IBCs), which can mature into biofilms. These biofilm-producing "E. coli" are resistant to antibiotic therapy and immune system responses, and present a possible explanation for recurrent urinary tract infections, including pyelonephritis. Risk is increased in the following situations: Diagnosis. Laboratory examination. Analysis of the urine may show signs of urinary tract infection. Specifically, the presence of nitrite and white blood cells on a urine test strip in patients with typical symptoms are sufficient for the diagnosis of pyelonephritis, and are an indication for empirical treatment. Blood tests such as a complete blood count may show neutrophilia. Microbiological culture of the urine, with or without blood cultures and antibiotic sensitivity testing are useful for establishing a formal diagnosis, and are considered mandatory. Imaging studies. If a kidney stone is suspected (e.g. on the basis of characteristic colicky pain or the presence of a disproportionate amount of blood in the urine), a kidneys, ureters, and bladder x-ray (KUB film) may assist in identifying radioopaque stones. Where available, a noncontrast helical CT scan with 5millimeter sections is the diagnostic modality of choice in the radiographic evaluation of suspected nephrolithiasis. All stones are detectable on CT scans except very rare stones composed of certain drug residues in the urine. In patients with recurrent ascending urinary tract infections, it may be necessary to exclude an anatomical abnormality, such as vesicoureteral reflux or polycystic kidney disease. Investigations used in this setting include kidney ultrasonography or voiding cystourethrography. CT scan or kidney ultrasonography is useful in the diagnosis of xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis; serial imaging may be useful for differentiating this condition from kidney cancer. Ultrasound findings that indicate pyelonephritis are enlargement of the kidney, edema in the renal sinus or parenchyma, bleeding, loss of corticomedullary differentiation, abscess formation, or an areas of poor blood flow on doppler ultrasound. However, ultrasound findings are seen in only 20% to 24% of people with pyelonephritis. A DMSA scan is a radionuclide scan that uses dimercaptosuccinic acid in assessing the kidney morphology. It is now the most reliable test for the diagnosis of acute pyelonephritis. Classification. Acute pyelonephritis. Acute pyelonephritis is an exudative purulent localized inflammation of the renal pelvis (collecting system) and kidney. The kidney parenchyma presents in the interstitium abscesses (suppurative necrosis), consisting in purulent exudate (pus): neutrophils, fibrin, cell debris and central germ colonies (hematoxylinophils). Tubules are damaged by exudate and may contain neutrophil casts. In the early stages, the glomerulus and vessels are normal. Gross pathology often reveals pathognomonic radiations of bleeding and suppuration through the renal pelvis to the renal cortex. Chronic pyelonephritis. Chronic pyelonephritis implies recurrent kidney infections and can result in scarring of the renal parenchyma and impaired function, especially in the setting of obstruction. A perinephric abscess (infection around the kidney) and/or pyonephrosis may develop in severe cases of pyelonephritis. Xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis. Xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis is an unusual form of chronic pyelonephritis characterized by granulomatous abscess formation, severe kidney destruction, and a clinical picture that may resemble renal cell carcinoma and other inflammatory kidney parenchymal diseases. Most affected individuals present with recurrent fevers and urosepsis, anemia, and a painful kidney mass. Other common manifestations include kidney stones and loss of function of the affected kidney. Bacterial cultures of kidney tissue are almost always positive. Microscopically, there are granulomas and lipid-laden macrophages (hence the term "xantho"-, which means yellow in ancient Greek). It is found in roughly 20% of specimens from surgically managed cases of pyelonephritis. Prevention. In people who experience recurrent urinary tract infections, additional investigations may identify an underlying abnormality. Occasionally, surgical intervention is necessary to reduce the likelihood of recurrence. If no abnormality is identified, some studies suggest long-term preventive treatment with antibiotics, either daily or after sexual activity. In children at risk for recurrent urinary tract infections, not enough studies have been performed to conclude prescription of long-term antibiotics have a net positive benefit. Drinking cranberry juice does not appear to provide much if any benefit in decreasing urinary tract infections. Management. In people suspected of having pyelonephritis, a urine culture and antibiotic sensitivity test is performed, so therapy can eventually be tailored on the basis of the infecting organism. As most cases of pyelonephritis are due to bacterial infections, antibiotics are the mainstay of treatment. The choice of antibiotic depends on the species and antibiotic sensitivity profile of the infecting organism, and may include fluoroquinolones, cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, or trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, either alone or in combination. Simple. A 2018 systematic review recommended the use of norfloxacin as it has the lowest rate of side effects with a comparable efficacy to commonly used antibiotics. In people who do not require hospitalization and live in an area where there is a low prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, a fluoroquinolone by mouth such as ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin is an appropriate initial choice for therapy. In areas where there is a higher prevalence of fluoroquinolone resistance, it is useful to initiate treatment with a single intravenous dose of a long-acting antibiotic such as ceftriaxone or an aminoglycoside, and then continuing treatment with a fluoroquinolone. Oral trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole is an appropriate choice for therapy if the bacteria is known to be susceptible. If trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole is used when the susceptibility is not known, it is useful to initiate treatment with a single intravenous dose of a long-acting antibiotic such as ceftriaxone or an aminoglycoside. Oral beta-lactam antibiotics are less effective than other available agents for treatment of pyelonephritis. Improvement is expected in 48 to 72 hours. Complicated. People with acute pyelonephritis that is accompanied by high fever and leukocytosis are typically admitted to the hospital for intravenous hydration and intravenous antibiotic treatment. Treatment is typically initiated with an intravenous fluoroquinolone, an aminoglycoside, an extended-spectrum penicillin or cephalosporin, or a carbapenem. Combination antibiotic therapy is often used in such situations. The treatment regimen is selected based on local resistance data and the susceptibility profile of the specific infecting organism(s). During the course of antibiotic treatment, serial white blood cell count and temperature are closely monitored. Typically, the intravenous antibiotics are continued until the person has no fever for at least 24 to 48hours, then equivalent antibiotics by mouth can be given for a total of twoweek duration of treatment. Intravenous fluids may be administered to compensate for the reduced oral intake, insensible losses (due to the raised temperature) and vasodilation and to optimize urine output. Percutaneous nephrostomy or ureteral stent placement may be indicated to relieve obstruction caused by a stone. Children with acute pyelonephritis can be treated effectively with oral antibiotics (cefixime, ceftibuten and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid) or with short courses (2 to 4days) of intravenous therapy followed by oral therapy. If intravenous therapy is chosen, single daily dosing with aminoglycosides is safe and effective. Fosfomycin can be used as an efficacious treatment for both UTIs and complicated UTIs including acute pyelonephritis. The standard regimen for complicated UTIs is an oral 3g dose administered once every 48 or 72 hours for a total of 3 doses or a 6 grams every 8 hours for 7 days to 14 days when fosfomycin is given in IV form. Treatment of xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis involves antibiotics as well as surgery. Removal of the kidney is the best surgical treatment in the overwhelming majority of cases, although polar resection (partial nephrectomy) has been effective for some people with localized disease. Watchful waiting with serial imaging may be appropriate in rare circumstances. Follow-up. If no improvement is made in one to two days post therapy, inpatients should repeat an urine analysis and imaging. Outpatients should check again with their doctor. Epidemiology. There are roughly 1213 cases annually per 10,000 population in women receiving outpatient treatment and 34 cases requiring admission. In men, 23 cases per 10,000 are treated as outpatients and 1 cases/10,000 require admission. Young women are most often affected. Infants and the elderly are also at increased risk, reflecting anatomical changes and hormonal status. Xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis is most common in middle-aged women. It can present somewhat differently in children, in whom it may be mistaken for Wilms' tumor. Research. According to a 2015 meta analysis, vitamin A has been shown to alleviate renal damage and/or prevent renal scarring. Terminology. The term is from Greek πύελο|ς "pýelo|s", "basin" + νεφρ|ός "nepʰrós", "kidney" + suffix "-itis" suggesting "inflammation". A similar term is "pyelitis", which means inflammation of the renal pelvis and calyces. In other words, pyelitis together with nephritis is collectively known as pyelonephritis.

ten-thousand populace

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9441774

The seven institutions of the European Union (EU) are seated in four different cities, which are Brussels, Frankfurt, Luxembourg City and Strasbourg, rather than being concentrated in a single capital city. The EU agencies and other bodies are located all across the union, but usually not fixed in the treaties. The Hague is the only exception, as the fixed seat of the European Police Office (Europol). Over the years, Brussels has become the principal seat, with each major institution and now the European Council being based wholly or in part there, leading to it being popularly known as "the capital of the EU". The seats have been a matter of political dispute since the states first failed to reach an agreement at the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952. However, a final agreement between member states was reached in 1992, and later attached to the Treaty of Amsterdam. Despite this, the seat of the European Parliament remains controversial. The work of Parliament is divided between Brussels, Luxembourg City and Strasbourg, which is seen as a problem due to the large number of MEPs, staff, and documents which need to be moved. As the locations of the major seats have been enshrined in the treaties of the European Union, Parliament has no right to decide its own seat, unlike national parliaments. Locating new bodies is also not without political disputes. The European Central Bank's (ECB) seat had to symbolise its independence from political control, and was located in a city which did not already host a national government or European institution. New agencies are also being based in eastern Europe since 2004 to balance the distribution of agencies across the EU. Locations. The treaties of the European Union outline the locations of the following institutions: The European Parliament has its seat in Strasbourg, hosting twelve monthly plenary sessions (including budget session). Brussels hosts additional sessions and committees (including being used in September 2008 for normal sittings when the Strasbourg chamber was damaged). Luxembourg City hosts the Secretariat of the European Parliament. The Council of the European Union has its seat in Brussels, except during April, June, and October, when meetings are held in Luxembourg City. The European Commission also has its seat in Brussels, although some departments are hosted by Luxembourg City. The European Court of Justice, the General Court, and the Court of Auditors are based in Luxembourg City along with the European Investment Bank. The Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions are entirely based in Brussels while the European Central Bank is based in Frankfurt and Europol is the only agency to have its seat fixed by the treaties, in The Hague. Separately, the Treaty of Nice establishes Brussels as the venue for all formal summits of the European Council after 2004. However some extraordinary sessions are sometimes held outside the city. The European Council's seat is however fixed by a declaration rather than a protocol, meaning it is less binding than the other seats. The 2011 Treaty Establishing the European Stability Mechanism (ESM) states that the seat of the ESM must be in Luxembourg. The ESM should be ratified and active in mid-2013 and it is allowed to establish a liaison office in Brussels. Non-fixed seats. There are numerous other bodies and agencies that have not had their seats fixed by treaties. Brussels hosts the European Defence Agency (as NATO and formerly the WEU are also in the city). Luxembourg City hosts the Translation Centre for the Bodies of the European Union and the European Investment Bank. Strasbourg and Brussels both host the offices of the European Ombudsman. The other agencies are spread across Europe and since the 2004 enlargement, there has been a drive to locate more agencies in the new member-states to make a more equal distribution. However, some problems have been encountered with basing agencies in the eastern states. For example, Frontex, the new border agency, has had problems recruiting skilled experts because many do not want to live in the agency's host city, Warsaw, due to its relatively low wages and standard of living. In addition, plans to place the headquarters of Galileo in Prague met with opposition over security concerns that the city would not be safe enough for such a sensitive agency. Commission departments. Although the Commission is mainly based in Brussels, some of its departments are required to be based in Luxembourg City since the 1965 agreement which listed the following for Luxembourg City; ECSC financial departments, the DG for Credit and Investments, the department which collects the ECSC levy and attached accounts departments; the Publications Office with related sales and proofreading services and CORDIS; the EEC Statistical Office and data-processing department; the EEC and ECSC departments for hygiene and industrial safety; DG for Health; DG for Euratom safeguards and any appropriate administrative and technical infrastructure for these. As departments have changed over the years, some are no longer present as they have been abolished or merged, with most departments present being mainly based in Brussels while retaining a minor presence in Luxembourg City. There are however some departments which are still entirely based in the city per the 1965 agreement. "Capital". The treaties or declarations of the EU have not declared any city as the "capital" of the EU in any form. However, informally the term has found usage despite connotations out of step with the normal perceptions surrounding an inter/supranational entity. Brussels is frequently the subject of the label, particularly in publications by local authorities, the Commission and press. Indeed, the city of Brussels interprets the 1992 agreement on seats (details below) as declaring Brussels as the capital. Likewise, authorities in Strasbourg and organisations based there refer to Strasbourg as the "capital" of Europe (often wider Europe due to the presence of the Council of Europe there as well) and Brussels, Strasbourg and Luxembourg City are also referred to as the joint capitals of Europe, for example in relation to the "Eurocap-rail" project: a railway that would link "the three European capitals". History. At the founding of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951, the states could not agree which city should host the institutions of the new community. Brussels was widely preferred, but was vetoed by Belgium which insisted on Liège. Because of the impasse, Luxembourg City was chosen as a provisional choice for all but the Assembly (Parliament), which was to be based in Strasbourg. Two further communities were created in 1957 and again a provisional agreement laid out that the Assembly would meet in Strasbourg, the Courts would meet in Luxembourg City, and the Commissions and Councils would be split between Luxembourg City and Brussels. These institutions later started to be concentrated in the latter city. As various agreements were reached, activities in Luxembourg City gradually shifted to Brussels and the Parliament, although bound to remain in Strasbourg, also started to work in Brussels while the courts remained in Luxembourg City. The final agreement in 1992 set up the present arrangement, including the division of the Parliament's work between the three cities. In 2002, the European Council, having previously rotated between different cities, decided to base itself in Brussels. Beginning. The ECSC was founded by the Treaty of Paris in 1951; however, there was no decision on where to base the institutions of the new community. The treaties allowed for the seat(s) to be decided by common accord of governments, and at a conference of the ECSC members on 23 July 1952 no permanent seat was decided. The seat was contested, with Liège, Luxembourg, Strasbourg and Turin all considered. While Saarbrücken had a status as a "European city" (Europeanised presence and control), the ongoing dispute over Saarland made it a problematic choice. Brussels would have been accepted at the time, but divisions within the then-unstable Belgian government ruled that option out. To break the deadlock, Joseph Bech, then Prime Minister of Luxembourg, proposed that Luxembourg City be made the "provisional" seat of the institutions (including the Council and High Authority) until a permanent agreement was reached. In 1958, after the Treaty of Rome came into effect the new members of the community had to again decide on a seat. In early 1958 they could not come to a conclusion, and various cities began to lobby for the position. It was decided that in principle all of the institutions should be located in one city as soon as feasible. Brussels, Strasbourg, Luxembourg, Turin, Milan, Stresa, Paris, Nice, and the French Department of Oise were all considered by the "European Committee of Town-Planning Experts" in a report to the Council of Ministers. However, even after the presentation of the report the countries could not agree, and in June 1959 a three-year moratorium on the decision was set. The delay helped Brussels establish itself as the seat, since it was already functioning as much of the administration was already working there in offices space loaned from the Belgian government. During this time Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and the European institutions themselves favoured Brussels; Luxembourg City wanted to maintain the seat of the ECSC (or be generously compensated); France supported Strasbourg, and Italy continued to promote Milan. However, it was decided that the Common Assembly, which became the Parliament, should instead be based in Strasbourg—the Council of Europe (CoE) was already based there, in the House of Europe. The chamber of the CoE's Parliamentary Assembly could also serve the Common Assembly, and they did so until 1999, when a new complex of buildings was built across the river from the Palace. Provisional agreement. The creation in 1957 of the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom) created new duplicate institutions to the ECSC (except for the Parliamentary Assembly and Court of Justice, which were shared). On 7 January 1958, it was decided that Brussels, Luxembourg City, and Strasbourg would again be provisional venues until a final decision. Strasbourg would retain the Assembly, Luxembourg City the Court and both Brussels and Luxembourg City would host meetings of the Councils and Commissions (or High Authority). The discretion of the exact meeting place of the new Councils was given to the President of the Council. In practice, this was to be in the Château of Val-Duchesse until the autumn of 1958, at which point it would move to 2 Rue Ravensteinstraat in Brussels. Meanwhile, the ECSC Council was still based in Luxembourg City, holding its meetings in the Cercle Municipal on Place d’Armes. Its secretariat moved within the city on numerous occasions, but between 1955 and 1967, it was housed in the Verlorenkost district. On 21 June 1958, the Parliamentary Assembly recommended to the Council that the Assembly should have its seat in the same place where the other organisations are based, although it accepted that plenary sessions could be held elsewhere. The Assembly also nominated three cities to be the seat of the institutions (Brussels, Strasbourg and Milan), however no permanent agreement was reached. The provisional arrangement was reiterated on 8 April 1965 with the "Decision on the provisional location of certain institutions and departments of the Communities". This was following the Merger Treaty, which combined the executives of the three Communities into a single institutional structure. However, with the merged executives, the Commission and most departments were grouped together in Brussels, rather than Luxembourg City. The Commission was first based on Avenue de la Joyeuse Entrée/Blijde Inkomstlaan, before moving to the Breydel building on the Schuman roundabout, and then its present location in the Berlaymont building. The ECSC secretariat moved from Luxembourg City to the merged body Council secretariat in the Ravenstein building of Brussels. In 1971 the Council and its secretariat moved into the Charlemagne building, next to the Commission's Berlaymont. These premises rapidly proved insufficient and the administrative branch of the secretariat moved to a building at 76 Rue Joseph II/Jozef II-straat. During the 1980s the language divisions moved out into the Nerviens, Frère Orban and Guimard buildings. To compensate Luxembourg City for the loss of the Commission and Council, a number of provisions were laid out. Firstly, the Court of Justice would remain in the city. Some departments of the Commission and the Assembly, including the Secretariat of the Assembly would remain along with European Investment Bank (further, particularly financial, institutions would also be prioritised for Luxembourg City). The Council would also have to hold sessions in Luxembourg City during April, June and October. It also confirmed Strasbourg as the seat of the Parliament. With the prioritisation of Luxembourg City for future institutions, in 1977 the Court of Auditors became provisionally located in Luxembourg City. Edinburgh agreement. Despite the 1965 agreement, the Parliament's seat remained a source of contention. Wishing to be closer to the activities in Brussels and Luxembourg City, a few plenary sessions were held by the Parliament between 1967 and 1981 in Luxembourg City instead of Strasbourg—against the wishes of France—and in 1981 it returned to holding sessions entirely in Strasbourg. In the previous year it unsuccessfully issued an ultimatum to the national governments, attempting to force them to reach an agreement. Thus, the Parliament moved some of its decision-making bodies to Brussels, along with its committee and political group meetings, and in 1985 it also built a plenary chamber in Brussels for some part-sessions. All the Parliament's attempts in this field were challenged by member states. In response, the European Council adopted on 12 December 1992 in Edinburgh a final agreement on the seats. The "Decision on the location of the seats of the institutions and of certain bodies and departments of the European Communities" outlined that the Parliament would be based in Strasbourg, where it would be obliged to hold "twelve periods of monthly plenary sessions, including the budget session". However, additional sessions could be held in Brussels, which is where committees also should have met while the secretariat had to remain in Luxembourg City. It also provided for the Court of First Instance (now known as the General Court) to be based in Luxembourg City with the Court of Justice, which remained there. However, this agreement dropped the provision from the 1965 decision, which gave priority to Luxembourg City for any new judicial and financial bodies. In response, Luxembourg attached a unilateral declaration stating it did not renounce this article. However they did renounce any claim to the seat of the judicial "Boards of Appeal of the Office for Harmonisation in the Internal Market" via the Treaty of Nice. The Parliament challenged this decision splitting their working arrangements, declaring that the division of its activities between three states was against the treaties and the natural prerogatives of a Parliament elected by direct universal suffrage, claiming the right to decide its own workings to its own efficiency. In response, leaders annexed the decision to the Treaty of Amsterdam, including it in the treaties. Central bank. A Council decision on 29 October 1993 on the location of European agencies established that the European Monetary Institute, later the European Central Bank, would be based in Frankfurt. Frankfurt had to compete with numerous other cities, including London, Paris, Amsterdam, Luxembourg, Lyon, Barcelona and even Basel (in Switzerland, which is outside the European Union). France even linked the issue of the seat to the ongoing dispute regarding the seat of the European Parliament. Frankfurt was criticised as symbolising German dominance, although the Deutsche Bundesbank had effectively been running the Communities currencies for the previous years, while Luxembourg City has a banking tradition that wasn't so careful. London was discredited because the UK remained outside the eurozone. It was also seen as important to locate the bank in a city not already hosting a national government or EU institution, in order to emphasise its independence. Others, such as the former head of the Bundesbank Karl Otto Pöhl, favoured a small country with a stable currency. The advantages of hosting the Bank were also in dispute by some economists. While there was seen by some as little to gain in terms of attracting other banks and financial institutions, others saw it as affecting which cities would be financial hubs in the years to come. Recent history. In 1995, the Council of the European Union moved into the Justus Lipsius building in Brussels. However, with its staff increasing it continued to rent the Frère Orban building to house the Finnish and Swedish language divisions; later it started to rent further buildings in Brussels. In 2002, the European Council also began using the Justus Lipsius building as their Brussels venue, following an advanced implementation of a decision by European leaders during ratification of the Nice Treaty to do so at such a time as the total membership of the European Union surpassed 18 member states. Prior to this, the venue for European Council summits was in the member state that held the rotating Presidency of the Council of the European Union. In order to make room for additional meeting space a number of renovations were made, including the conversion of an underground carpark into additional press briefing rooms. However, in 2004 leaders decided the logistical problems created by the outdated facilities warranted the construction of a new purpose built seat able to cope with the nearly 6,000 meetings, working groups, and summits per year. This resulted in the Europa building, which opened its doors in 2017, and is now home to both the Council of the European Union and the European Council. Both institutions continue to use the adjacent Justus Lipsius building, linked by two skyways to the new construction, for low-level meetings and for use by the Council secretariat. In 2004, following renovations to remove asbestos, the European Commission moved back into its headquarters in the Berlaymont building and the Barroso Commission concentrated its activities there, with the President and meeting room on the thirteenth floor. As of 2007, the Commission occupies 865,000m² in 61 buildings across the Brussels EU district, with staff increases owing to the enlargement of the EU prompting speculation of possible new building plans. The European Parliament seat remained an issue throughout this period, despite the Council writing it into the treaties. During the 1990s, the issue was debated every year and in 1999, 250 MEPs signed a letter condemning the arrangement and the Strasbourg facilities. The following year Parliament voted 401 to 77 for a resolution demanding the right to decide its own working locations. Attempts to include this in the following treaties in 2000 and 2007 both failed. However, in September 2008 Parliament held its first full plenary session in Brussels after the ceiling of the Strasbourg chamber collapsed during recess forcing the temporary move. The unique architecture of the European Commission's Berlaymont building is utilised in its official emblem. Likewise, the official emblem of the European Council and Council of the European Union features the Europa building's distinctive multi-storey "lantern" shaped structure where meetings for both of these institutions take place. European Parliament. The Parliament is bound to spend "twelve periods of monthly plenary sessions, including the budget session" in Strasbourg, while additional sessions and committees are in Brussels. The secretariat is in Luxembourg City. While the split arrangements for other bodies have relatively little impact, the large number of members of the Parliament and its concentration of work load means that these issues are far more contentious than those surrounding the other institutions. A democratic question has also been raised in the European Parliament being one of the few parliaments in the world which cannot decide its own meeting place, and also being the only parliament to have more than one seat. Critics have described the three-city arrangement as a "travelling circus" with a cost an extra 200 million euro over a single location. Defenders of the Strasbourg seat, like the MEP for Germany Bernd Posselt, however claim that the figure is rather a mere 40 million euro, i.e. an extra cost of 8 cents per EU citizen. When Parliament was forced to meet in Brussels in September 2008, due to a fault in the Strasbourg building, it was estimated that Parliament saved between €3 and 4 million, though the exact figure is hard to calculate. As the Commission also meets in Strasbourg when Parliament is out of Brussels, the cost of Commissioners moving amounted to €9.5 million between 2002 and 2007. The Green party has also noted the environmental cost in a study led by Jean Lambert, MEP and Caroline Lucas, MEP; in addition to the extra financial cost, there are over 20,268 tonnes of additional carbon dioxide, undermining any environmental stance of the institution and the Union. Jens-Peter Bonde, former leader of the ID group, stated in 2007 that unless the issue of the seat was tackled, it would be impossible to increase the election's turnout, as the movement of the seat was the issue raised by voters most often. He, along with Green co-leader Monica Frassoni, called for a debate on the issue, which was being blocked by President Hans-Gert Pöttering. The trips between the cities are seen by the public as "a money-wasting junket hugely "enjoyed" by journalists, MEPs and researchers" when in fact it is "a money-wasting junket "loathed" by journalists, MEPs and researchers" according to Gary Titley, MEP (PES), who announced he would not be standing for re-election in 2009 because of the two-seat issue. Titley stated that he could "no longer tolerate the shifting of the Parliament lock, stock and barrel to Strasbourg one week a month...It's a miserable journey and it's always a problem", noting the problems in lost luggage. As well as undermining the EU's climate change objectives, he criticises the Strasbourg sessions as the deals have already been made leading to them becoming formal voting sessions padded out with "debates saying we are against sin." Titley also states that, because the journeys take so much time, the committees in Brussels who do the bulk of the work do not have sufficient time to work. Titley is not the only one to leave over the issue; Eluned Morgan MEP is standing down in 2009 for similar reasons, notably due to the toll the moving has on time with her family, and former MEP Simon Murphy quit as leader of the Socialists in 2002 due to the inconvenience of the arrangement. Brussels as a single workplace. Brussels is already the seat of the two other political institutions, the Commission and Council of Ministers (including the European Council). In addition, the Parliament has already geared three quarters of its activity in the city. Third-party organisations are also based in the city, including NGOs, trade unions, employers' organisations and the highest concentration of journalists in the world—also due to the presence of NATO in the city in addition to the large presence of Union institutions. While Strasbourg campaigners see being based in Strasbourg as an aid to independence of MEPs, Brussels' campaigners state it is merely reducing the institution's influence by "exiling" them away from the other major institutions. Brussels also has better transport links than Strasbourg, with lower pay for civil servants which reduce costs. Some commentators further underline that night-life in Strasbourg is comparatively lacklustre and that MEPs who'd wish to relax after a long and hard working day aren't offered many opportunities to do so. The position of Strasbourg suffered a minor blow in 2006, when allegations surfaced over charges by the city of Strasbourg on buildings the Parliament was renting. The controversy died down when the European Parliament decided to officially buy the buildings on 24 October 2006. In May 2006, an online petition, oneseat.eu, was started by MEP Cecilia Malmström calling for a single seat of Parliament, to be based in Brussels. By September of that year it reached its aim of one million signatures, and according to a provision in the European Constitution a petition signed by a million citizens should be considered by the Commission. The overall validity of the petition was called into doubt, however, due to it being on the Internet and using e-mail addresses instead of street addresses. In addition, the majority of signatories were concentrated in northern Europe, notably the Netherlands (40%). Regardless, the petition is seen by pro-Brussels groups as an important symbol. One signatory to the petition was Commission Vice President Margot Wallström; she supported the campaign, stating that "something that was once a very positive symbol of the EU reuniting France and Germany has now become a negative symbol—of wasting money, bureaucracy and the insanity of the Brussels institutions". In early 2011, the Parliament voted to scrap one of the Strasbourg sessions by holding two within a single week. and the Dutch government joined the calls to scrap the seat altogether. The mayor of Strasbourg officially reacted by stating "we will counter-attack by upturning the adversary's strength to our own profit, as a judoka would do" and announced that his town would press forward for a complete relocation of all parliamentary related services of the EU to Strasbourg. In August 2012, cracks were found in the beams supporting the ceiling of the Brussels hemicycle, leading to a closure of at least 6 months of the entire A section of the Paul Henri Spaak Building according to an estimate released on 9 October 2012 by the Parliament administration. In early December 2012, it became known that the damage was more serious than previously thought, and that the closure of the hemicycle was expected to last "until November 2013". All "mini plenary" meetings in Brussels until this date were cancelled. Since, as of December 2012, the European Parliament is "having trouble" finding a company to carry out the repair work, it is likely that the reopening of the Brussels hemicycle may take place only in 2014. Strasbourg as a single workplace. Some campaigners wish to see the concentration of the Parliament's activities back in Strasbourg (one being a campaign called the "Association for European Democracy" launched on 15 March 2007). This is seen to be symbolic of decentralisation of the EU away from Brussels. Emma Nicholson, the only British MEP to support Strasbourg, argues that being next door to the Council of Europe allows MEPs to keep in touch with delegates from the rest of Europe, such as Russia, and that being in Brussels isolates the EU from such influences. Pro-Strasbourg campaigners also argue that Strasbourg offers more independence for Parliament, away from the other institutions and lobby groups in Brussels. If the Parliament were wholly in Strasbourg, then the news media would also no longer be able to use shortcuts such as "Brussels decided..." rather than discuss the detail of the decision markers. Media would also have to be based in Strasbourg and hence might provide better coverage of the Council of Europe. Strasbourg is also preferred for historical reasons, having changed hands between France and Germany four times between 1870 and 1945. It is also argued that Brussels is no longer a good symbol for European unity given the recent political disputes in Belgium. This position was supported by President Josep Borrell Fontelles, although he earned some criticism when he stated that the importance of Strasbourg in the context of the Second World War could not be perceived in the same way as France and Germany by "Nordic countries" (a reference to the Swedish MEP who started the one-seat petition). French MEP Brigitte Foure started a pro-Strasbourg petition, one-city.eu, in 2008 (countering the Brussels petition) which has gained just over 7,190 signatures as of October 2012. Following the announcement (on 21 October 2010) of the setting up of an "informal seat study group" by British MEP Edward McMillan-Scott (Liberal Democrats), which was seen as an attack on Strasbourg by the municipality, Roland Ries and Catherine Trautmann released (on 29 October 2010) an energetic joint declaration of defense. On 9 November 2010, the municipal council of Strasbourg green-lighted a project (envisioned since April of the same year) of the creation of a "Place for Europe" ("lieu d′Europe") – a walk-in centre for people curious about the European institutions in Strasbourg – in the former "", an architecturally precious but currently (2010) derelict 18th-century mansion neighbouring with the European Court of Human Rights and the Agora building of the Council of Europe. Opinion and actions. A poll of MEP in June 2007 by MEP Alexander Nuno Alvaro, a pro-Brussels campaigner, found that 89% wanted a single seat and that 81% preferred Brussels. However, despite polling all MEPs, only 39% responded to the questions. Alvaro stated that, after consulting polling firms, this was a high turnout for an opinion poll even if not totally representative. A Parliamentary magazine was pressured to drop the publication of this poll initially, reflecting the sensitive nature of the issue. In the same month, another survey by Simon Hix of the University of Manchester and Roger Scully from the University of Aberystwyth found a 68% support for a single seat. In their survey 272 of the 732 people questioned responded. Following each sitting in Strasbourg, hundreds of MEPs sign a petition calling for a reduction of time in Strasbourg, though Pascal Mangin, Strasboug's deputy mayor, does not believe the opinion of the MEPs to be important. Nevertheless, in January 2009 a Parliamentary written declaration calling for one Brussels seat failed to get sufficient support. It gained 286 signatures out of 393 needed for it to be considered. Brussels campaigners cited that it was bad timing, with French and German leaders of Parliament and the main two groups ordering their members not to support the motion. The campaigners vowed to continue the fight while the Mayor of Strasbourg Roland Ries this time welcomed the "wisdom of the parliamentarians" and said it signalled their desire for Strasbourg to host the institution alone. A survey of citizens' attitudes conducted in May 2006 included two questions on the issue of the Parliament's seat. On average, 32% people from all member states supported the two-location policy while 68 were against. Support for one location was higher among men than women, and among people over 35 than under. Support for both locations was one percentage point lower in the 10 countries which joined in 2004 than in the 15 earlier members; No group have more than 40 percent support to two locations. Of those against two seats, 76% supported Brussels and 24% supported Strasbourg. In this case support for Brussels was 6 percentage points higher in the 10 new members with women and the under 35 year-olds. The group with the highest support for Strasbourg was the over 35-year-olds with 28 percent support. The citizens of Strasbourg are of course strong supporters of the Parliament being based in Strasbourg with each session being worth four million euro to the city's economy. In September 2008, Strasbourg's government passed a motion demanding all of Parliament's activities be relocated to the city. These polls have not affected the position of France, which can veto any such move, with French President Nicolas Sarkozy stating that its seat is "non-negotiable". Despite that, the government has stated that the issue might be addressed if France were to be offered something of equal value. The Council itself has indicated privately that it would discuss the Strasbourg seat only if Parliament gives them a signal to start a debate, as they would not do on their own initiative. However, few wish to discuss the issue while the current constitutional issues are still present. Although political parties have no formal position, the Greens, Liberals and Socialists are all outspoken on having Brussels as a permanent seat. In 2020, Irish MEP Clare Daly told "The Parliament Magazine" that the coronavirus pandemic highlighted the unnecessary nature of travelling to Strasbourg for plenary, and called for the seat's abolition as part of the EU's economic recovery plans Alternative role for Strasbourg. In January 2003, Green-EFA co-leader Daniel Cohn-Bendit proposed turning the Strasbourg seat into a "European university". Elaborating on this in 2008, he sees such a university teaching all subjects and funded directly by the EU with between 15,000 and 20,000 students. The same idea has been put forward in January 2006 by Polish minister and former dissident Bronisław Geremek, in an article originally published by "Le Monde". In an open letter to Cohn-Bendit, Roland Ries, the mayor of Strasbourg, reminded him that the international attractiveness of the University of Strasbourg was related to the presence of European Institutions in Strasbourg and that it would not be enhanced, but undermined, by the replacement of one of the largest of these institutions by just another, and much smaller, university. The year before, the proposed European Institute of Technology had been touted as the university to take over the building. It has been proposed that the Institute could also be merged with European Research Council and based there. The vice-chancellors of Strasbourg's three universities have suggested merging to create a 'European University'. It has also been suggested that Strasbourg could host the European Council meetings, minor institutions such as the Committee of the Regions, or the institutions of the proposed Mediterranean Union. The Green Party has proposed having Strasbourg as the home of a new "European Senate". Following the United Kingdom's decision to leave the EU, it has been suggested by senior MEPs that the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and European Banking Authority (EBA), currently based in London, could relocate to France in exchange for the scrapping of the Strasbourg seat. The EMA would utilise the parliament's former complex of buildings. Other plans mooted, following the election of French President Macron, include converting it into a parliament for use by the Eurozone.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41228673

An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine. The force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, a rotor, or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into useful work. This replaced the external combustion engine for applications where weight or size of the engine is important. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1860 and the first modern internal combustion engine was created in 1876 by Nicolaus Otto (see "Otto engine"). The term "internal combustion engine" usually refers to an engine in which combustion is intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston engines, along with variants, such as the six-stroke piston engine and the Wankel rotary engine. A second class of internal combustion engines use continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and most rocket engines, each of which are internal combustion engines on the same principle as previously described. Firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine, though of a type so specialized that they are commonly treated as a separate category. In contrast, in external combustion engines, such as steam or Stirling engines, energy is delivered to a working fluid not consisting of, mixed with, or contaminated by combustion products. Working fluids for external combustion engines include air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, heated in a boiler. ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel fuel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many stationary applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft and boats. ICEs are typically powered by fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel fuel or fuel oil. Renewable fuels like biodiesel are used in compression ignition (CI) engines and bioethanol or ETBE (ethyl tert-butyl ether) produced from bioethanol in spark ignition (SI) engines. Renewable fuels are commonly blended with fossil fuels. Hydrogen, which is rarely used, can be obtained from either fossil fuels or renewable energy. History. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines. In 1791, John Barber developed the gas turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine. Also in 1794, Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine. In 1807, French engineers Nicéphore Niépce (who went on to invent photography) and Claude Niépce ran a prototype internal combustion engine, using controlled dust explosions, the Pyréolophore, which was granted a patent by Napoleon Bonaparte. This engine powered a boat on the Saône river, France. In the same year, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz invented a hydrogen-based internal combustion engine and powered the engine by electric spark. In 1808, De Rivaz fitted his invention to a primitive working vehicle – "the world's first internal combustion powered automobile". In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially. In 1854 in the UK, the Italian inventors Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci obtained the certification: "Obtaining Motive Power by the Explosion of Gases". In 1857 the Great Seal Patent Office conceded them patent No.1655 for the invention of an "Improved Apparatus for Obtaining Motive Power from Gases". Barsanti and Matteucci obtained other patents for the same invention in France, Belgium and Piedmont between 1857 and 1859. In 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nicolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine. In 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nicolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, four-cycle engine. In 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gasoline engine. Later, in 1886, Benz began the first commercial production of motor vehicles with the internal combustion engine, in which a three wheeled, four cycled engine and chassis formed a single unit. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine. In 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the world's first jet aircraft. Etymology. At one time, the word "engine" (via Old French, from Latin "ingenium", "ability") meant any piece of machinery—a sense that persists in expressions such as "siege engine". A "motor" (from Latin "motor", "mover") is any machine that produces mechanical power. Traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as "engines"; however, combustion engines are often referred to as "motors". (An "electric engine" refers to a locomotive operated by electricity.) In boating, an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, but the engines that sit on the transom are referred to as motors. Applications. Reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives (some are electrical but most use Diesel engines). Rotary engines of the Wankel design are used in some automobiles, aircraft and motorcycles. These are collectively known as internal-combustion-engine vehicles (ICEV). Where high power-to-weight ratios are required, internal combustion engines appear in the form of combustion turbines or Wankel engines. Powered aircraft typically uses an ICE which may be a reciprocating engine. Airplanes can instead use jet engines and helicopters can instead employ turboshafts; both of which are types of turbines. In addition to providing propulsion, airliners may employ a separate ICE as an auxiliary power unit. Wankel engines are fitted to many unmanned aerial vehicles. ICEs drive large electric generators that power electrical grids. They are found in the form of combustion turbines with a typical electrical output in the range of some 100 MW. Combined cycle power plants use the high temperature exhaust to boil and superheat water steam to run a steam turbine. Thus, the efficiency is higher because more energy is extracted from the fuel than what could be extracted by the combustion engine alone. Combined cycle power plants achieve efficiencies in the range of 50% to 60%. In a smaller scale, stationary engines like Gas engine or Diesel generators are used for backup or for providing electrical power to areas not connected to an electric grid. Small engines (usually 2‐stroke gasoline/petrol engines) are a common power source for lawnmowers, string trimmers, chain saws, leafblowers, pressure washers, snowmobiles, jet skis, outboard motors, mopeds, and motorcycles. Classification. There are several possible ways to classify internal combustion engines. Reciprocating. By number of strokes: By type of ignition: By mechanical/thermodynamic cycle (these 2 cycles do not encompass all reciprocating engines, and are infrequently used): Reciprocating engines. Structure. The base of a reciprocating internal combustion engine is the engine block, which is typically made of cast iron (due to its good wear resistance and low cost) or aluminum. In the latter case, the cylinder liners are made of cast iron or steel. The engine block contains the cylinders. In engines with more than one cylinder they are usually arranged either in 1 row (straight engine) or 2 rows (boxer engine or V engine); 3 rows are occasionally used (W engine) in contemporary engines, and other engine configurations are possible and have been used. Single cylinder engines are common for motorcycles and in small engines of machinery. On the outer side of the cylinder, passages that contain cooling fluid cast into the engine block whereas, in some heavy duty engines, the passages are the types of removable cylinder sleeves which can be replacable. Water-cooled engines contain passages in the engine block where cooling fluid circulates (the water jacket). Some small engines are air-cooled, and instead of having a water jacket the cylinder block has fins protruding away from it to cool by directly transferring heat to the air. The cylinder walls are usually finished by honing to obtain a cross hatch, which is better able to retain the oil. A too rough surface would quickly harm the engine by excessive wear on the piston. The pistons are short cylindrical parts which seal one end of the cylinder from the high pressure of the compressed air and combustion products and slide continuously within it while the engine is in operation. In smaller engines, the pistons are made of aluminum while they are made of cast iron in larger engines. The top wall of the piston is termed its "crown" and is typically flat or concave. Some two-stroke engines use pistons with a deflector head. Pistons are open at the bottom and hollow except for an integral reinforcement structure (the piston web). When an engine is working, the gas pressure in the combustion chamber exerts a force on the piston crown which is transferred through its web to a gudgeon pin. Each piston has rings fitted around its circumference that mostly prevent the gases from leaking into the crankcase or the oil into the combustion chamber. A ventilation system drives the small amount of gas that escapes past the pistons during normal operation (the blow-by gases) out of the crankcase so that it does not accumulate contaminating the oil and creating corrosion. In two-stroke gasoline engines the crankcase is part of the air–fuel path and due to the continuous flow of it they do not need a separate crankcase ventilation system. The cylinder head is attached to the engine block by numerous bolts or studs. It has several functions. The cylinder head seals the cylinders on the side opposite to the pistons; it contains short ducts (the "ports") for intake and exhaust and the associated intake valves that open to let the cylinder be filled with fresh air and exhaust valves that open to allow the combustion gases to escape. However, 2-stroke crankcase scavenged engines connect the gas ports directly to the cylinder wall without poppet valves; the piston controls their opening and occlusion instead. The cylinder head also holds the spark plug in the case of spark ignition engines and the injector for engines that use direct injection. All CI engines use fuel injection, usually direct injection but some engines instead use indirect injection. SI engines can use a carburetor or fuel injection as port injection or direct injection. Most SI engines have a single spark plug per cylinder but some have 2. A head gasket prevents the gas from leaking between the cylinder head and the engine block. The opening and closing of the valves is controlled by one or several camshafts and springs—or in some engines—a desmodromic mechanism that uses no springs. The camshaft may press directly the stem of the valve or may act upon a rocker arm, again, either directly or through a pushrod. The crankcase is sealed at the bottom with a sump that collects the falling oil during normal operation to be cycled again. The cavity created between the cylinder block and the sump houses a crankshaft that converts the reciprocating motion of the pistons to rotational motion. The crankshaft is held in place relative to the engine block by main bearings, which allow it to rotate. Bulkheads in the crankcase form a half of every main bearing; the other half is a detachable cap. In some cases a single "main bearing deck" is used rather than several smaller caps. A connecting rod is connected to offset sections of the crankshaft (the crankpins) in one end and to the piston in the other end through the gudgeon pin and thus transfers the force and translates the reciprocating motion of the pistons to the circular motion of the crankshaft. The end of the connecting rod attached to the gudgeon pin is called its small end, and the other end, where it is connected to the crankshaft, the big end. The big end has a detachable half to allow assembly around the crankshaft. It is kept together to the connecting rod by removable bolts. The cylinder head has an intake manifold and an exhaust manifold attached to the corresponding ports. The intake manifold connects to the air filter directly, or to a carburetor when one is present, which is then connected to the air filter. It distributes the air incoming from these devices to the individual cylinders. The exhaust manifold is the first component in the exhaust system. It collects the exhaust gases from the cylinders and drives it to the following component in the path. The exhaust system of an ICE may also include a catalytic converter and muffler. The final section in the path of the exhaust gases is the tailpipe. 4-stroke engines. The "top dead center" (TDC) of a piston is the position where it is nearest to the valves; "bottom dead center" (BDC) is the opposite position where it is furthest from them. A "stroke" is the movement of a piston from TDC to BDC or vice versa, together with the associated process. While an engine is in operation, the crankshaft rotates continuously at a nearly constant speed. In a 4-stroke ICE, each piston experiences 2 strokes per crankshaft revolution in the following order. Starting the description at TDC, these are: 2-stroke engines. The defining characteristic of this kind of engine is that each piston completes a cycle every crankshaft revolution. The 4 processes of intake, compression, power and exhaust take place in only 2 strokes so that it is not possible to dedicate a stroke exclusively for each of them. Starting at TDC the cycle consist of: While a 4-stroke engine uses the piston as a positive displacement pump to accomplish scavenging taking 2 of the 4 strokes, a 2-stroke engine uses the last part of the power stroke and the first part of the compression stroke for combined intake and exhaust. The work required to displace the charge and exhaust gases comes from either the crankcase or a separate blower. For scavenging, expulsion of burned gas and entry of fresh mix, two main approaches are described: Loop scavenging, and Uniflow scavenging, SAE news published in the 2010s that 'Loop Scavenging' is better under any circumstance than Uniflow Scavenging. Crankcase scavenged. Some SI engines are crankcase scavenged and do not use poppet valves. Instead, the crankcase and the part of the cylinder below the piston is used as a pump. The intake port is connected to the crankcase through a reed valve or a rotary disk valve driven by the engine. For each cylinder, a transfer port connects in one end to the crankcase and in the other end to the cylinder wall. The exhaust port is connected directly to the cylinder wall. The transfer and exhaust port are opened and closed by the piston. The reed valve opens when the crankcase pressure is slightly below intake pressure, to let it be filled with a new charge; this happens when the piston is moving upwards. When the piston is moving downwards the pressure in the crankcase increases and the reed valve closes promptly, then the charge in the crankcase is compressed. When the piston is moving upwards, it uncovers the exhaust port and the transfer port and the higher pressure of the charge in the crankcase makes it enter the cylinder through the transfer port, blowing the exhaust gases. Lubrication is accomplished by adding "2-stroke oil" to the fuel in small ratios. "Petroil" refers to the mix of gasoline with the aforesaid oil. This kind of 2-stroke engines has a lower efficiency than comparable 4-strokes engines and release a more polluting exhaust gases for the following conditions: The main advantage of 2-stroke engines of this type is mechanical simplicity and a higher power-to-weight ratio than their 4-stroke counterparts. Despite having twice as many power strokes per cycle, less than twice the power of a comparable 4-stroke engine is attainable in practice. In the US, 2-stroke engines were banned for road vehicles due to the pollution. Off-road only motorcycles are still often 2-stroke but are rarely road legal. However, many thousands of 2-stroke lawn maintenance engines are in use. Blower scavenged. Using a separate blower avoids many of the shortcomings of crankcase scavenging, at the expense of increased complexity which means a higher cost and an increase in maintenance requirement. An engine of this type uses ports or valves for intake and valves for exhaust, except opposed piston engines, which may also use ports for exhaust. The blower is usually of the Roots-type but other types have been used too. This design is commonplace in CI engines, and has been occasionally used in SI engines. CI engines that use a blower typically use "uniflow scavenging". In this design the cylinder wall contains several intake ports placed uniformly spaced along the circumference just above the position that the piston crown reaches when at BDC. An exhaust valve or several like that of 4-stroke engines is used. The final part of the intake manifold is an air sleeve that feeds the intake ports. The intake ports are placed at a horizontal angle to the cylinder wall (I.e: they are in plane of the piston crown) to give a swirl to the incoming charge to improve combustion. The largest reciprocating IC are low speed CI engines of this type; they are used for marine propulsion (see marine diesel engine) or electric power generation and achieve the highest thermal efficiencies among internal combustion engines of any kind. Some Diesel-electric locomotive engines operate on the 2-stroke cycle. The most powerful of them have a brake power of around 4.5 MW or 6,000 HP. The EMD SD90MAC class of locomotives are an example of such. The comparable class GE AC6000CW whose prime mover has almost the same brake power uses a 4-stroke engine. An example of this type of engine is the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RT-flex96-C turbocharged 2-stroke Diesel, used in large container ships. It is the most efficient and powerful reciprocating internal combustion engine in the world with a thermal efficiency over 50%. For comparison, the most efficient small four-stroke engines are around 43% thermally-efficient (SAE 900648); size is an advantage for efficiency due to the increase in the ratio of volume to surface area. See the external links for an in-cylinder combustion video in a 2-stroke, optically accessible motorcycle engine. Historical design. Dugald Clerk developed the first two-cycle engine in 1879. It used a separate cylinder which functioned as a pump in order to transfer the fuel mixture to the cylinder. In 1899 John Day simplified Clerk's design into the type of 2 cycle engine that is very widely used today. Day cycle engines are crankcase scavenged and port timed. The crankcase and the part of the cylinder below the exhaust port is used as a pump. The operation of the Day cycle engine begins when the crankshaft is turned so that the piston moves from BDC upward (toward the head) creating a vacuum in the crankcase/cylinder area. The carburetor then feeds the fuel mixture into the crankcase through a reed valve or a rotary disk valve (driven by the engine). There are cast in ducts from the crankcase to the port in the cylinder to provide for intake and another from the exhaust port to the exhaust pipe. The height of the port in relationship to the length of the cylinder is called the "port timing". On the first upstroke of the engine there would be no fuel inducted into the cylinder as the crankcase was empty. On the downstroke, the piston now compresses the fuel mix, which has lubricated the piston in the cylinder and the bearings due to the fuel mix having oil added to it. As the piston moves downward is first uncovers the exhaust, but on the first stroke there is no burnt fuel to exhaust. As the piston moves downward further, it uncovers the intake port which has a duct that runs to the crankcase. Since the fuel mix in the crankcase is under pressure, the mix moves through the duct and into the cylinder. Because there is no obstruction in the cylinder of the fuel to move directly out of the exhaust port prior to the piston rising far enough to close the port, early engines used a high domed piston to slow down the flow of fuel. Later the fuel was "resonated" back into the cylinder using an expansion chamber design. When the piston rose close to TDC, a spark ignites the fuel. As the piston is driven downward with power, it first uncovers the exhaust port where the burned fuel is expelled under high pressure and then the intake port where the process has been completed and will keep repeating. Later engines used a type of porting devised by the Deutz company to improve performance. It was called the Schnurle Reverse Flow system. DKW licensed this design for all their motorcycles. Their DKW RT 125 was one of the first motor vehicles to achieve over 100 mpg as a result. Ignition. Internal combustion engines require ignition of the mixture, either by spark ignition (SI) or compression ignition (CI). Before the invention of reliable electrical methods, hot tube and flame methods were used. Experimental engines with laser ignition have been built. Spark ignition process. The spark-ignition engine was a refinement of the early engines which used Hot Tube ignition. When Bosch developed the magneto it became the primary system for producing electricity to energize a spark plug. Many small engines still use magneto ignition. Small engines are started by hand cranking using a recoil starter or hand crank. Prior to Charles F. Kettering of Delco's development of the automotive starter all gasoline engined automobiles used a hand crank. Larger engines typically power their starting motors and ignition systems using the electrical energy stored in a lead–acid battery. The battery's charged state is maintained by an automotive alternator or (previously) a generator which uses engine power to create electrical energy storage. The battery supplies electrical power for starting when the engine has a starting motor system, and supplies electrical power when the engine is off. The battery also supplies electrical power during rare run conditions where the alternator cannot maintain more than 13.8 volts (for a common 12V automotive electrical system). As alternator voltage falls below 13.8 volts, the lead-acid storage battery increasingly picks up electrical load. During virtually all running conditions, including normal idle conditions, the alternator supplies primary electrical power. Some systems disable alternator field (rotor) power during wide-open throttle conditions. Disabling the field reduces alternator pulley mechanical loading to nearly zero, maximizing crankshaft power. In this case, the battery supplies all primary electrical power. Gasoline engines take in a mixture of air and gasoline and compress it by the movement of the piston from bottom dead center to top dead center when the fuel is at maximum compression. The reduction in the size of the swept area of the cylinder and taking into account the volume of the combustion chamber is described by a ratio. Early engines had compression ratios of 6 to 1. As compression ratios were increased, the efficiency of the engine increased as well. With early induction and ignition systems the compression ratios had to be kept low. With advances in fuel technology and combustion management, high-performance engines can run reliably at 12:1 ratio. With low octane fuel, a problem would occur as the compression ratio increased as the fuel was igniting due to the rise in temperature that resulted. Charles Kettering developed a lead additive which allowed higher compression ratios, which was progressively abandoned for automotive use from the 1970s onward, partly due to lead poisoning concerns. The fuel mixture is ignited at difference progressions of the piston in the cylinder. At low rpm, the spark is timed to occur close to the piston achieving top dead center. In order to produce more power, as rpm rises the spark is advanced sooner during piston movement. The spark occurs while the fuel is still being compressed progressively more as rpm rises. The necessary high voltage, typically 10,000 volts, is supplied by an induction coil or transformer. The induction coil is a fly-back system, using interruption of electrical primary system current through some type of synchronized interrupter. The interrupter can be either contact points or a power transistor. The problem with this type of ignition is that as RPM increases the availability of electrical energy decreases. This is especially a problem, since the amount of energy needed to ignite a more dense fuel mixture is higher. The result was often a high RPM misfire. Capacitor discharge ignition was developed. It produces a rising voltage that is sent to the spark plug. CD system voltages can reach 60,000 volts. CD ignitions use step-up transformers. The step-up transformer uses energy stored in a capacitance to generate electric spark. With either system, a mechanical or electrical control system provides a carefully timed high-voltage to the proper cylinder. This spark, via the spark plug, ignites the air-fuel mixture in the engine's cylinders. While gasoline internal combustion engines are much easier to start in cold weather than diesel engines, they can still have cold weather starting problems under extreme conditions. For years, the solution was to park the car in heated areas. In some parts of the world, the oil was actually drained and heated overnight and returned to the engine for cold starts. In the early 1950s, the gasoline Gasifier unit was developed, where, on cold weather starts, raw gasoline was diverted to the unit where part of the fuel was burned causing the other part to become a hot vapor sent directly to the intake valve manifold. This unit was quite popular until electric engine block heaters became standard on gasoline engines sold in cold climates. Compression ignition process. Diesel, PPC and HCCI engines, rely solely on heat and pressure created by the engine in its compression process for ignition. The compression level that occurs is usually twice or more than a gasoline engine. Diesel engines take in air only, and shortly before peak compression, spray a small quantity of diesel fuel into the cylinder via a fuel injector that allows the fuel to instantly ignite. HCCI type engines take in both air and fuel, but continue to rely on an unaided auto-combustion process, due to higher pressures and heat. This is also why diesel and HCCI engines are more susceptible to cold-starting issues, although they run just as well in cold weather once started. Light duty diesel engines with indirect injection in automobiles and light trucks employ glowplugs (or other pre-heating: see Cummins ISB#6BT) that pre-heat the combustion chamber just before starting to reduce no-start conditions in cold weather. Most diesels also have a battery and charging system; nevertheless, this system is secondary and is added by manufacturers as a luxury for the ease of starting, turning fuel on and off (which can also be done via a switch or mechanical apparatus), and for running auxiliary electrical components and accessories. Most new engines rely on electrical and electronic engine control units (ECU) that also adjust the combustion process to increase efficiency and reduce emissions. Lubrication. Surfaces in contact and relative motion to other surfaces require lubrication to reduce wear, noise and increase efficiency by reducing the power wasting in overcoming friction, or to make the mechanism work at all. Also, the lubricant used can reduce excess heat and provide additional cooling to components. At the very least, an engine requires lubrication in the following parts: In 2-stroke crankcase scavenged engines, the interior of the crankcase, and therefore the crankshaft, connecting rod and bottom of the pistons are sprayed by the 2-stroke oil in the air-fuel-oil mixture which is then burned along with the fuel. The valve train may be contained in a compartment flooded with lubricant so that no oil pump is required. In a "splash lubrication system" no oil pump is used. Instead the crankshaft dips into the oil in the sump and due to its high speed, it splashes the crankshaft, connecting rods and bottom of the pistons. The connecting rod big end caps may have an attached scoop to enhance this effect. The valve train may also be sealed in a flooded compartment, or open to the crankshaft in a way that it receives splashed oil and allows it to drain back to the sump. Splash lubrication is common for small 4-stroke engines. In a "forced" (also called "pressurized") "lubrication system", lubrication is accomplished in a closed-loop which carries motor oil to the surfaces serviced by the system and then returns the oil to a reservoir. The auxiliary equipment of an engine is typically not serviced by this loop; for instance, an alternator may use ball bearings sealed with their own lubricant. The reservoir for the oil is usually the sump, and when this is the case, it is called a "wet sump" system. When there is a different oil reservoir the crankcase still catches it, but it is continuously drained by a dedicated pump; this is called a "dry sump" system. On its bottom, the sump contains an oil intake covered by a mesh filter which is connected to an oil pump then to an oil filter outside the crankcase, from there it is diverted to the crankshaft main bearings and valve train. The crankcase contains at least one "oil gallery" (a conduit inside a crankcase wall) to which oil is introduced from the oil filter. The main bearings contain a groove through all or half its circumference; the oil enters these grooves from channels connected to the oil gallery. The crankshaft has drillings that take oil from these grooves and deliver it to the big end bearings. All big end bearings are lubricated this way. A single main bearing may provide oil for 0, 1 or 2 big end bearings. A similar system may be used to lubricate the piston, its gudgeon pin and the small end of its connecting rod; in this system, the connecting rod big end has a groove around the crankshaft and a drilling connected to the groove which distributes oil from there to the bottom of the piston and from then to the cylinder. Other systems are also used to lubricate the cylinder and piston. The connecting rod may have a nozzle to throw an oil jet to the cylinder and bottom of the piston. That nozzle is in movement relative to the cylinder it lubricates, but always pointed towards it or the corresponding piston. Typically a forced lubrication systems have a lubricant flow higher than what is required to lubricate satisfactorily, in order to assist with cooling. Specifically, the lubricant system helps to move heat from the hot engine parts to the cooling liquid (in water-cooled engines) or fins (in air-cooled engines) which then transfer it to the environment. The lubricant must be designed to be chemically stable and maintain suitable viscosities within the temperature range it encounters in the engine. Cylinder configuration. Common cylinder configurations include the straight or inline configuration, the more compact V configuration, and the wider but smoother flat or boxer configuration. Aircraft engines can also adopt a radial configuration, which allows more effective cooling. More unusual configurations such as the H, U, X, and W have also been used. Multiple cylinder engines have their valve train and crankshaft configured so that pistons are at different parts of their cycle. It is desirable to have the pistons' cycles uniformly spaced (this is called "even firing") especially in forced induction engines; this reduces torque pulsations and makes inline engines with more than 3 cylinders statically balanced in its primary forces. However, some engine configurations require odd firing to achieve better balance than what is possible with even firing. For instance, a 4-stroke I2 engine has better balance when the angle between the crankpins is 180° because the pistons move in opposite directions and inertial forces partially cancel, but this gives an odd firing pattern where one cylinder fires 180° of crankshaft rotation after the other, then no cylinder fires for 540°. With an even firing pattern, the pistons would move in unison and the associated forces would add. Multiple crankshaft configurations do not necessarily need a cylinder head at all because they can instead have a piston at each end of the cylinder called an opposed piston design. Because fuel inlets and outlets are positioned at opposed ends of the cylinder, one can achieve uniflow scavenging, which, as in the four-stroke engine is efficient over a wide range of engine speeds. Thermal efficiency is improved because of a lack of cylinder heads. This design was used in the Junkers Jumo 205 diesel aircraft engine, using two crankshafts at either end of a single bank of cylinders, and most remarkably in the Napier Deltic diesel engines. These used three crankshafts to serve three banks of double-ended cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle with the crankshafts at the corners. It was also used in single-bank locomotive engines, and is still used in marine propulsion engines and marine auxiliary generators. Diesel cycle. Most truck and automotive diesel engines use a cycle reminiscent of a four-stroke cycle, but with compression heating causing ignition, rather than needing a separate ignition system. This variation is called the diesel cycle. In the diesel cycle, diesel fuel is injected directly into the cylinder so that combustion occurs at constant pressure, as the piston moves. Otto cycle. Otto cycle is the typical cycle for most of the cars internal combustion engines, that work using gasoline as a fuel. Otto cycle is exactly the same one that was described for the four-stroke engine. It consists of the same major steps: Intake, compression, ignition, expansion and exhaust. Five-stroke engine. In 1879, Nicolaus Otto manufactured and sold a double expansion engine (the double and triple expansion principles had ample usage in steam engines), with two small cylinders at both sides of a low-pressure larger cylinder, where a second expansion of exhaust stroke gas took place; the owner returned it, alleging poor performance. In 1906, the concept was incorporated in a car built by EHV (Eisenhuth Horseless Vehicle Company); and in the 21st century Ilmor designed and successfully tested a 5-stroke double expansion internal combustion engine, with high power output and low SFC (Specific Fuel Consumption). Six-stroke engine. The six-stroke engine was invented in 1883. Four kinds of six-stroke use a regular piston in a regular cylinder (Griffin six-stroke, Bajulaz six-stroke, Velozeta six-stroke and Crower six-stroke), firing every three crankshaft revolutions. These systems capture the wasted heat of the four-stroke Otto cycle with an injection of air or water. The Beare Head and "piston charger" engines operate as opposed-piston engines, two pistons in a single cylinder, firing every two revolutions rather more like a regular four-stroke. Other cycles. The very first internal combustion engines did not compress the mixture. The first part of the piston downstroke drew in a fuel-air mixture, then the inlet valve closed and, in the remainder of the down-stroke, the fuel-air mixture fired. The exhaust valve opened for the piston upstroke. These attempts at imitating the principle of a steam engine were very inefficient. There are a number of variations of these cycles, most notably the Atkinson and Miller cycles. The diesel cycle is somewhat different. Split-cycle engines separate the four strokes of intake, compression, combustion and exhaust into two separate but paired cylinders. The first cylinder is used for intake and compression. The compressed air is then transferred through a crossover passage from the compression cylinder into the second cylinder, where combustion and exhaust occur. A split-cycle engine is really an air compressor on one side with a combustion chamber on the other. Previous split-cycle engines have had two major problems—poor breathing (volumetric efficiency) and low thermal efficiency. However, new designs are being introduced that seek to address these problems. The Scuderi Engine addresses the breathing problem by reducing the clearance between the piston and the cylinder head through various turbo charging techniques. The Scuderi design requires the use of outwardly opening valves that enable the piston to move very close to the cylinder head without the interference of the valves. Scuderi addresses the low thermal efficiency via firing after top dead centre (ATDC). Firing ATDC can be accomplished by using high-pressure air in the transfer passage to create sonic flow and high turbulence in the power cylinder. Combustion turbines. Jet engine. Jet engines use a number of rows of fan blades to compress air which then enters a combustor where it is mixed with fuel (typically JP fuel) and then ignited. The burning of the fuel raises the temperature of the air which is then exhausted out of the engine creating thrust. A modern turbofan engine can operate at as high as 48% efficiency. There are six sections to a turbofan engine: Gas turbines. A gas turbine compresses air and uses it to turn a turbine. It is essentially a jet engine which directs its output to a shaft. There are three stages to a turbine: 1) air is drawn through a compressor where the temperature rises due to compression, 2) fuel is added in the combuster, and 3) hot air is exhausted through turbine blades which rotate a shaft connected to the compressor. A gas turbine is a rotary machine similar in principle to a steam turbine and it consists of three main components: a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine. The air, after being compressed in the compressor, is heated by burning fuel in it. The heated air and the products of combustion expand in a turbine, producing work output. About of the work drives the compressor: the rest (about ) is available as useful work output. Gas Turbines are among the most efficient internal combustion engines. The General Electric 7HA and 9HA turbine combined cycle electrical plants are rated at over 61% efficiency. Brayton cycle. A gas turbine is a rotary machine somewhat similar in principle to a steam turbine. It consists of three main components: compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine. The air is compressed by the compressor where a temperature rise occurs. The compressed air is further heated by combustion of injected fuel in the combustion chamber which expands the air. This energy rotates the turbine which powers the compressor via a mechanical coupling. The hot gases are then exhausted to provide thrust. Gas turbine cycle engines employ a continuous combustion system where compression, combustion, and expansion occur simultaneously at different places in the engine—giving continuous power. Notably, the combustion takes place at constant pressure, rather than with the Otto cycle, constant volume. Wankel engines. The Wankel engine (rotary engine) does not have piston strokes. It operates with the same separation of phases as the four-stroke engine with the phases taking place in separate locations in the engine. In thermodynamic terms it follows the Otto engine cycle, so may be thought of as a "four-phase" engine. While it is true that three power strokes typically occur per rotor revolution, due to the 3:1 revolution ratio of the rotor to the eccentric shaft, only one power stroke per shaft revolution actually occurs. The drive (eccentric) shaft rotates once during every power stroke instead of twice (crankshaft), as in the Otto cycle, giving it a greater power-to-weight ratio than piston engines. This type of engine was most notably used in the Mazda RX-8, the earlier RX-7, and other vehicle models. The engine is also used in unmanned aerial vehicles, where the small size and weight and the high power-to-weight ratio are advantageous. Forced induction. Forced induction is the process of delivering compressed air to the intake of an internal combustion engine. A forced induction engine uses a gas compressor to increase the pressure, temperature and density of the air. An engine without forced induction is considered a naturally aspirated engine. Forced induction is used in the automotive and aviation industry to increase engine power and efficiency. It particularly helps aviation engines, as they need to operate at high altitude. Forced induction is achieved by a supercharger, where the compressor is directly powered from the engine shaft or, in the turbocharger, from a turbine powered by the engine exhaust. Fuels and oxidizers. All internal combustion engines depend on combustion of a chemical fuel, typically with oxygen from the air (though it is possible to inject nitrous oxide to do more of the same thing and gain a power boost). The combustion process typically results in the production of a great quantity of heat, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other chemicals at very high temperature; the temperature reached is determined by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidisers (see stoichiometry), as well as by the compression and other factors. Fuels. The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived mostly from fossil fuels (petroleum). Fossil fuels include diesel fuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane. Except for the fuel delivery components, most internal combustion engines that are designed for gasoline use can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications. Large diesels can run with air mixed with gases and a pilot diesel fuel ignition injection. Liquid and gaseous biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yield triglycerides such as soybean oil), can also be used. Engines with appropriate modifications can also run on hydrogen gas, wood gas, or charcoal gas, as well as from so-called producer gas made from other convenient biomass. Experiments have also been conducted using powdered solid fuels, such as the magnesium injection cycle. Presently, fuels used include: Even fluidized metal powders and explosives have seen some use. Engines that use gases for fuel are called gas engines and those that use liquid hydrocarbons are called oil engines; however, gasoline engines are also often colloquially referred to as, "gas engines" ("petrol engines" outside North America). The main limitations on fuels are that it must be easily transportable through the fuel system to the combustion chamber, and that the fuel releases sufficient energy in the form of heat upon combustion to make practical use of the engine. Diesel engines are generally heavier, noisier, and more powerful at lower speeds than gasoline engines. They are also more fuel-efficient in most circumstances and are used in heavy road vehicles, some automobiles (increasingly so for their increased fuel efficiency over gasoline engines), ships, railway locomotives, and light aircraft. Gasoline engines are used in most other road vehicles including most cars, motorcycles, and mopeds. Note that in Europe, sophisticated diesel-engined cars have taken over about 45% of the market since the 1990s. There are also engines that run on hydrogen, methanol, ethanol, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), biodiesel, paraffin and tractor vaporizing oil (TVO). Hydrogen. Hydrogen could eventually replace conventional fossil fuels in traditional internal combustion engines. Alternatively fuel cell technology may come to deliver its promise and the use of the internal combustion engines could even be phased out. Although there are multiple ways of producing free hydrogen, those methods require converting combustible molecules into hydrogen or consuming electric energy. Unless that electricity is produced from a renewable source—and is not required for other purposes—hydrogen does not solve any energy crisis. In many situations the disadvantage of hydrogen, relative to carbon fuels, is its storage. Liquid hydrogen has extremely low density (14 times lower than water) and requires extensive insulation—whilst gaseous hydrogen requires heavy tankage. Even when liquefied, hydrogen has a higher specific energy but the volumetric energetic storage is still roughly five times lower than gasoline. However, the energy density of hydrogen is considerably higher than that of electric batteries, making it a serious contender as an energy carrier to replace fossil fuels. The 'Hydrogen on Demand' process (see direct borohydride fuel cell) creates hydrogen as needed, but has other issues, such as the high price of the sodium borohydride that is the raw material. Oxidizers. Since air is plentiful at the surface of the earth, the oxidizer is typically atmospheric oxygen, which has the advantage of not being stored within the vehicle. This increases the power-to-weight and power-to-volume ratios. Other materials are used for special purposes, often to increase power output or to allow operation under water or in space. Cooling. Cooling is required to remove excessive heat—over heating can cause engine failure, usually from wear (due to heat-induced failure of lubrication), cracking or warping. Two most common forms of engine cooling are air-cooled and water-cooled. Most modern automotive engines are both water and air-cooled, as the water/liquid-coolant is carried to air-cooled fins and/or fans, whereas larger engines may be singularly water-cooled as they are stationary and have a constant supply of water through water-mains or fresh-water, while most power tool engines and other small engines are air-cooled. Some engines (air or water-cooled) also have an oil cooler. In some engines, especially for turbine engine blade cooling and liquid rocket engine cooling, fuel is used as a coolant, as it is simultaneously preheated before injecting it into a combustion chamber. Starting. Internal combustion engines must have their cycles started. In reciprocating engines this is accomplished by turning the crankshaft (Wankel Rotor Shaft) which induces the cycles of intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust. The first engines were started with a turn of their flywheels, while the first vehicle (the Daimler Reitwagen) was started with a hand crank. All ICE engined automobiles were started with hand cranks until Charles Kettering developed the electric starter for automobiles. This method is now the most widely used, even among non-automobiles. As diesel engines have become larger and their mechanisms heavier, air starters have come into use. This is due to the lack of torque in electric starters. Air starters work by pumping compressed air into the cylinders of an engine to start it turning. Two-wheeled vehicles may have their engines started in one of four ways: There are also starters where a spring is compressed by a crank motion and then used to start an engine. Some small engines use a pull-rope mechanism called "recoil starting", as the rope rewinds itself after it has been pulled out to start the engine. This method is commonly used in pushed lawn mowers and other settings where only a small amount of torque is needed to turn an engine over. Turbine engines are frequently started by an electric motor or by compressed air. Measures of engine performance. Engine types vary greatly in a number of different ways: Energy efficiency. Once ignited and burnt, the combustion products—hot gases—have more available thermal energy than the original compressed fuel-air mixture (which had higher chemical energy). The available energy is manifested as high temperature and pressure that can be translated into work by the engine. In a reciprocating engine, the high-pressure gases inside the cylinders drive the engine's pistons. Once the available energy has been removed, the remaining hot gases are vented (often by opening a valve or exposing the exhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous position (top dead center, or TDC). The piston can then proceed to the next phase of its cycle, which varies between engines. Any heat that is not translated into work is normally considered a waste product and is removed from the engine either by an air or liquid cooling system. Internal combustion engines are heat engines, and as such their theoretical efficiency can be approximated by idealized thermodynamic cycles. The thermal efficiency of a theoretical cycle cannot exceed that of the Carnot cycle, whose efficiency is determined by the difference between the lower and upper operating temperatures of the engine. The upper operating temperature of an engine is limited by two main factors; the thermal operating limits of the materials, and the auto-ignition resistance of the fuel. All metals and alloys have a thermal operating limit, and there is significant research into ceramic materials that can be made with greater thermal stability and desirable structural properties. Higher thermal stability allows for a greater temperature difference between the lower (ambient) and upper operating temperatures, hence greater thermodynamic efficiency. Also, as the cylinder temperature rises, the engine becomes more prone to auto-ignition. This is caused when the cylinder temperature nears the flash point of the charge. At this point, ignition can spontaneously occur before the spark plug fires, causing excessive cylinder pressures. Auto-ignition can be mitigated by using fuels with high auto-ignition resistance (octane rating), however it still puts an upper bound on the allowable peak cylinder temperature. The thermodynamic limits assume that the engine is operating under ideal conditions: a frictionless world, ideal gases, perfect insulators, and operation for infinite time. Real world applications introduce complexities that reduce efficiency. For example, a real engine runs best at a specific load, termed its power band. The engine in a car cruising on a highway is usually operating significantly below its ideal load, because it is designed for the higher loads required for rapid acceleration. In addition, factors such as wind resistance reduce overall system efficiency. Engine fuel economy is measured in miles per gallon or in liters per 100 kilometers. The volume of hydrocarbon assumes a standard energy content. Most iron engines have a thermodynamic limit of 37%. Even when aided with turbochargers and stock efficiency aids, most engines retain an "average" efficiency of about 18–20%. However, the latest technologies in Formula One engines have seen a boost in thermal efficiency past 50%. There are many inventions aimed at increasing the efficiency of IC engines. In general, practical engines are always compromised by trade-offs between different properties such as efficiency, weight, power, heat, response, exhaust emissions, or noise. Sometimes economy also plays a role in not only the cost of manufacturing the engine itself, but also manufacturing and distributing the fuel. Increasing the engine's efficiency brings better fuel economy but only if the fuel cost per energy content is the same. Measures of fuel efficiency and propellant efficiency. For stationary and shaft engines including propeller engines, fuel consumption is measured by calculating the brake specific fuel consumption, which measures the mass flow rate of fuel consumption divided by the power produced. For internal combustion engines in the form of jet engines, the power output varies drastically with airspeed and a less variable measure is used: thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC), which is the mass of propellant needed to generate impulses that is measured in either pound force-hour or the grams of propellant needed to generate an impulse that measures one kilonewton-second. For rockets, TSFC can be used, but typically other equivalent measures are traditionally used, such as specific impulse and effective exhaust velocity. Air and noise pollution. Air pollution. Internal combustion engines such as reciprocating internal combustion engines produce air pollution emissions, due to incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuel. The main derivatives of the process are carbon dioxide , water and some soot—also called particulate matter (PM). The effects of inhaling particulate matter have been studied in humans and animals and include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, and premature death. There are, however, some additional products of the combustion process that include nitrogen oxides and sulfur and some uncombusted hydrocarbons, depending on the operating conditions and the fuel-air ratio. Not all of the fuel is completely consumed by the combustion process. A small amount of fuel is present after combustion, and some of it reacts to form oxygenates, such as formaldehyde or acetaldehyde, or hydrocarbons not originally present in the input fuel mixture. Incomplete combustion usually results from insufficient oxygen to achieve the perfect stoichiometric ratio. The flame is "quenched" by the relatively cool cylinder walls, leaving behind unreacted fuel that is expelled with the exhaust. When running at lower speeds, quenching is commonly observed in diesel (compression ignition) engines that run on natural gas. Quenching reduces efficiency and increases knocking, sometimes causing the engine to stall. Incomplete combustion also leads to the production of carbon monoxide (CO). Further chemicals released are benzene and 1,3-butadiene that are also hazardous air pollutants. Increasing the amount of air in the engine reduces emissions of incomplete combustion products, but also promotes reaction between oxygen and nitrogen in the air to produce nitrogen oxides (). is hazardous to both plant and animal health, and leads to the production of ozone (O3). Ozone is not emitted directly; rather, it is a secondary air pollutant, produced in the atmosphere by the reaction of and volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight. Ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and the environment. Though the same chemical substance, ground-level ozone should not be confused with stratospheric ozone, or the ozone layer, which protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays. Carbon fuels contain sulfur and impurities that eventually produce sulfur monoxides (SO) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) in the exhaust, which promotes acid rain. In the United States, nitrogen oxides, PM, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and ozone, are regulated as criteria air pollutants under the Clean Air Act to levels where human health and welfare are protected. Other pollutants, such as benzene and 1,3-butadiene, are regulated as hazardous air pollutants whose emissions must be lowered as much as possible depending on technological and practical considerations. , carbon monoxide and other pollutants are frequently controlled via exhaust gas recirculation which returns some of the exhaust back into the engine intake, and catalytic converters, which convert exhaust chemicals to harmless chemicals. Non-road engines. The emission standards used by many countries have special requirements for non-road engines which are used by equipment and vehicles that are not operated on the public roadways. The standards are separated from the road vehicles. Noise pollution. Significant contributions to noise pollution are made by internal combustion engines. Automobile and truck traffic operating on highways and street systems produce noise, as do aircraft flights due to jet noise, particularly supersonic-capable aircraft. Rocket engines create the most intense noise. Idling. Internal combustion engines continue to consume fuel and emit pollutants when idling so it is desirable to keep periods of idling to a minimum. Many bus companies now instruct drivers to switch off the engine when the bus is waiting at a terminal. In England, the Road Traffic Vehicle Emissions Fixed Penalty Regulations 2002 (Statutory Instrument 2002 No. 1808) introduced the concept of a ""stationary idling offence". This means that a driver can be ordered "by an authorised person ... upon production of evidence of his authorisation, require him to stop the running of the engine of that vehicle" and a "person who fails to comply ... shall be guilty of an offence and be liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding level 3 on the standard scale"". Only a few local authorities have implemented the regulations, one of them being Oxford City Council. In many European countries, idling is, by default, disabled by stop-start systems.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16794839

Lloyd George Avenue, originally known as Bute Avenue, is an avenue in Cardiff, Wales. Roughly one mile long, the road links the Inner Harbour of Cardiff Bay to Cardiff city centre and forms part of the A470 road. It runs parallel to Bute Street and the Butetown Branch Line. Landscaping on the route was completed in 2000, and it was renamed after the Liberal prime minister David Lloyd George. The site of the avenue had been known as Collingdon Road, which was described as a "grimy industrial area of small factories and workshops, employing hundreds of people". The original concept, a scheme by Cardiff Bay Development Corporation (CBDC), envisaged the removal of the railway line along Bute Street to create a continental-style boulevard, initially named Bute Avenue, with a Light Rapid Transit system, a park and recreational facilities. The Welsh Office required the CDBC to use the Private Finance Initiative to construct Bute Avenue. Due to high costs, the LRT element of the project was abandoned, but a new road was built as part of a £120 million PFI scheme awarded to a consortium of investors and shareholders named City Link. After the wind-up of the CBDC in March 2000, all property rights and liabilities for the Bute Avenue project transferred to the Welsh Development Agency. In 2011 the Welsh Government revealed that the full cost of the PFI scheme, including its 25-year payback period, would be £188.8 million. This includes the 350 neighbouring homes, some shops, commercial development and a small section of new road surrounding Callaghan Square. Responsibility for ongoing maintenance reverts to Cardiff Council in 2025. Although officials from the Welsh Development Agency and the City and County of Cardiff have examined various options for the completion of the original boulevard scheme, as of 2011 no progress has been made.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1873024

Between 1873 and 1882, the life and work of Charles Darwin from "Insectivorous Plants" to "Worms" continued with investigations into carnivorous and climbing plants that had begun with his previous work. Worries about family illnesses contributed to his interest in Galton's ideas of "hereditary improvement" (which would later be called Eugenics). He continued to help with the work of Downe parish church and associated village amenities, despite problems with control being seized by a new High Church vicar, and he remained on good terms with the Church's patron, the Revd. John Brodie Innes. There was continuing interest in Charles Darwin's views on religion, but he remained reticent. Despite repeated problems and delays caused by Charles Darwin's illness, his work on evolution-related experiments and investigations continued, with the production of books on the movement of climbing plants, insectivorous plants, the effects of cross and self fertilisation of plants, different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, and "The Power of Movement in Plants". His ideas on evolution were increasingly accepted in scientific circles despite some bitter disputes, and he received numerous honours. As well as writing out his own autobiography for his family, he wrote an introduction to a biography of his grandfather Erasmus Darwin. In his last book, he returned to the effect earthworms have on soil formation. He died in Downe, Kent, England, on 19 April 1882. He had expected to be buried in St Mary's churchyard at Downe, but at the request of Darwin's colleagues, William Spottiswoode (President of the Royal Society) arranged for Darwin to be given a major ceremonial funeral and buried in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton. Background. In the aftermath of the publication of "On the Origin of Species through Natural Selection" in 1859, Charles Darwin's allies Charles Lyell, Joseph Dalton Hooker, Thomas Huxley, Alfred Russel Wallace and Asa Gray in America worked to spread acceptance of its ideas despite difficulty in coming to terms with natural selection and man's descent from animals. Darwin's research and experiments on plants and animals continued, and his extensive writings countered the arguments against evolution, particularly those put by the Duke of Argyll and St George Mivart. Family matters, eugenics. Darwin's sons George and Horace were ill and arrived home at Christmas 1872 for nursing. Darwin turned from his insectivorous plants to a more leisurely update of his monograph on climbing plants. He was intrigued by Galton's latest "hereditary improvement" ideas (which would be called Eugenics after 1883), proposing that society should breed out mental and physical disability and improve the nation's stock by introducing "a sentiment of caste among those who are naturally gifted". Families would be registered and incentives offered so that the best children chosen from each "superior family" would marry and reproduce. Darwin, aware that of his brood only William had good health, had already dismissed the aims as too "utopian" in "the Descent of Man". He thought these new proposals impractical if voluntary and politically horrifying if enforced by compulsory registration, even were they the "sole feasible" way of "improving the human race". He felt it better simply to publicise the "all-important principle of inheritance" and let people pursue the "grand" objective for themselves. In any case it was too late for his own infirm offspring. Huxley was also ill, needing a rest and harried by a neighbour suing over a damp basement. The X Club (a dining club formed in November 1864 to support the evolutionary "new reformation" in naturalism, including Huxley, Hooker, John Tyndall, Busk, Spencer, and Spottiswoode) raised a £2,000 collection for him, primed by Darwin with £300. Darwin's spirits were again downcast when Lyell's wife died. In June 1873 Darwin resumed work on his insectivorous plants, with some distractions as his wife Emma took care of the seven Huxley children while Huxley and Hooker went on holiday to the continent. Having young children in the house was like the 1850s again. Parish conflict. A new reforming High Church vicar, the Revd. George Sketchley Ffinden, had been imposing his ideas since taking over the parish in November 1871. Darwin had to write to the patron, John Brodie Innes, explaining what had upset the parishioners. Ffinden now usurped control of the village school which had been run for years by a committee of Darwin, Lubbock and the incumbent priest, with a "conscience clause" which protected the children from Anglican indoctrination. Ffinden began lessons on the "Thirty-nine Articles of the Anglican faith", an unwelcome move from the point of view of the Baptists in the village. Darwin withdrew from the committee and cut his annual donation to the church, but continued with the Friendly Society work. Hensleigh Wedgwood's daughter Effie had married Thomas "Theta" Farrer in May, and on 5 August 1873 the Darwins went to visit them for a few days. They arrived to hear that a fortnight previously the Farrer's servants had been called to an accident. Earl Granville's riding companion Samuel Wilberforce had been killed in a fall from his horse, and was subsequently laid out in state for two days in the Farrer's drawing room. Although an opponent of the "Origin", Wilberforce had always thought Darwin a "capital fellow". Pause. At home, a heated discussion with Hooker ended with Darwin lying in bed with his memory gone and "a severe shock continually passing through my brain". Emma feared an epileptic fit, but the doctor put him on a diet and in September he returned to work on insectivorous plants. His correspondence continued, funding worthy projects and acknowledging countless gifts including "Das Kapital" from "a sincere admirer", Karl Marx, which Darwin had difficulty in following, but hoped that both their efforts towards "the extension of knowledge... [would] add to the happiness of mankind". Frank struggled with his medical studies, and after finishing his thesis on animal tissues he was to assist with plant tissues at Downe. George's legal career had been ended by stomach illness and he had spent two years going to spas. He began writing topical essays, the first in the "Contemporary Review" on Galton. His latest essay boldly dismissed prayer, divine morals and "future rewards & punishments". Darwin urged him not to publish it for some months, and "to pause, pause, pause." Fiske. During a visit in November 1873 the Harvard philosopher John Fiske amused the X Club with his story of a cockney in New York warning him "What, that 'orrid hold hinfidel 'Uxley? Why, we don't think hanythink of 'im in Hingland! We think 'e's 'orrid! ", himself writing that "I am quite wild over Huxley... what a pleasure to meet such a clean-cut mind! It is like Saladin's sword which cut through the cushion." and "Old Darwin is the dearest, sweetest, loveliest old grandpa that ever was. And on the whole he impresses me with his strength more than any man I have seen yet. There is a charming kind of quiet strength about him and about everything he does. He isn't burning and eager like Huxley. He has a mild blue eye, and is the gentlest of gentle old fellows. [His] long white hair and enormous white beard [made him] very picturesque... guileless simplicity... I am afraid I shall never see him again, for his health is very bad. Of all my days in England I prize today the most." New edition of "The Descent of Man". Darwin tackled a new edition of the "Descent of Man", and offered the self-financing Wallace the work of assisting him. Wallace quoted seven shillings an hour, mentioning that he was "dipping into politics" proposing nationalisation of coal mining. Emma found out and had the task given to their son George, so Darwin had to write apologetically to Wallace, adding "I hope to Heaven that politics will not replace natural science." Parish reading room. For two years, Emma had organised a winter reading room in the local school for local labourers, who subscribed a penny a week to smoke and play games, with "Respectable newspapers & a few books... & a respectable housekeeper..there every evening to maintain decorum." This was a common facility to save men from "resorting to the public house". In 1873 the Revd. Ffinden opposed it, as "Coffee drinking, bagatelle & other games" had been allowed and "the effects of tobacco smoke & spitting" were seen when the children returned in the morning. Emma got Darwin to get the approval of the education inspectorate in London, and just before Christmas 1873 the Darwins and Lubbocks got the agreement of the school committee, offering to pay for any repairs needed "to afford every possible opportunity to the working class for self improvement & amusement". A furious Ffinden huffed that it was "quite out of order" for the Darwins to have gone to the inspectorate behind his back. In the autumn of 1874 Darwin let off steam at Ffinden and formally resigned from the school committee on health grounds. Spiritualism. Francis Galton was attracted to the recent spiritualism movement. On a visit to London in January 1874 Darwin attended a séance at Erasmus's house with relatives including Hensleigh Wedgwood, as well as Huxley. George had hired the medium Charles Williams, and they sat round the table in the dark, but as the room grew stuffy Darwin went upstairs to lie down, missing the show, with sparks, sounds and the table rising above their heads. While Galton thought it a "good séance", Darwin later wrote "The Lord have mercy on us all, if we have to believe such rubbish" and told Emma that it was "all imposture" and "it would take an enormous weight of evidence" to convince him otherwise. At a second séance Huxley and George found that Williams was nothing but a cheat, to Darwin's relief. Emma told Hensleigh's daughter Snow that Charles "won't believe it, he dislikes the thought of it so much". Snow remembered that her uncle "used to look upon it as a great weakness if one allowed wish to influence belief" and when Emma said that "he does not always act up to his principles" Snow thought that was "what one means by bigotry", to which Emma said "Oh yes, he is a regular bigot". New edition of "Descent". Darwin continued painfully rewriting his books with the help of Henrietta and George, incorporating ideas from Galton and new anecdotes. He bought from Lubbock the Sandwalk he had been renting for years, but the price seemed excessive and affected their friendship. News of a dispute involving the removal of George Bentham from presidency of the Linnean Society, allegedly spurred on by Owen, led Darwin to write "What a demon on earth Owen is. I do hate him". With Huxley's assistance he updated the "Descent" on ape-brain inheritance, which Huxley thought "pounds the enemy into a jelly... though none but anatomists" would know it. The manuscript was completed in April 1874, and the publisher John Murray planned a 12 shilling half-price edition to replicate the success of the cheap revision of the "Origin". Darwin left the proofs to George, and turned again to Plants. The new edition was published on 13 November with the price cut to the bone at 9 shillings. Insectivorous plants. During 1874 Darwin contacted many of his old friends to assist with experimentation on insectivorous or carnivorous plants. Helpers included Hooker and his assistant William Thiselton-Dyer at Kew, John Burdon-Sanderson at University College London running lab tests on the plant's digestion, and Asa Gray at Harvard. Enquiries to "Nature" magazine brought in sacks of mail to be dealt with by Frank, who settled into Brodie Innes's old house in the village and married Amy Ruck on 23 July. At this time the family was joined by George Romanes who had been a student with Frank at Cambridge. Plants experimented on were members of the genera "Drosera" and "Pinguicula", including "D. rotundifolia" and "P. vulgaris". Controversy with Mivart. As well as working on the proofs, George Darwin made a statistical analysis of first cousin marriages (three times more frequent in "our rank" than in the lower) and, influenced by Galton, published an article on "beneficial restrictions in marriage". Mivart attacked this anonymously in the "Quarterly Review", misinterpreting advocacy of divorce in cases of criminality or advice as " the most oppressive laws, and the encouragement of vice in order to check population", talking of "hideous sexual criminality". A furious Darwin told George to take legal advice while he contacted the publisher of his books and the "Quarterly", John Murray, threatening to "take his business elsewhere". Darwin's holiday at Southampton with William was overshadowed as he drafted George's response. John Tyndall's address to the British Association later that month laid claim to "wrest from theology the entire domain of cosmological theory" and led to calls for his prosecution for blasphemy. Lyell, now nearly blind and in deteriorating health, wrote to Darwin applauding the boost to "you and your theory of evolution" despite his qualms about the hereafter. Darwin was sympathetic, but did "not feel any innate conviction" of life after death. The October issue of the "Quarterly" carried George's response and an "apology" from Mivart which still maintained "that the doctrines... are most dangerous and pernicious" and infuriated Darwin. On 13 November Hooker's wife Fanny died suddenly, and a devastated Hooker felt unable to return home after the funeral and brought his family to Downe. Emma looked after the children, and when Hooker returned to Kew, Darwin urged "hard work" to overcome his "utter desolation". Later, Darwin mentioned the Mivart argument and Hooker rallied the X Club (a dining club formed in November 1864 to support the evolutionary "new reformation" in naturalism, including Huxley, Hooker, John Tyndall, Busk, Spencer, and Spottiswoode). Huxley eagerly used a review to attack "anonymous slander", telling Darwin that he "ought to be like one of the blessed gods of Elysium, and let the inferior deities do battle with the infernal powers." Mivart confidentially pleaded to make amends, but Huxley told Darwin that the "most effectual punishment" was to "give him the cold shoulder". Darwin was itching to speak his mind, and when no apology had come by 12 January 1875 he wrote vowing never to communicate with Mivart again. "Insectivorous Plants", parish and vivisection. Darwin struggled on, by February 1875 telling George that "I know full well the feeling of life being objectless & all being vanity of vanities", and Hooker that he was even "ready to commit suicide". The death of Lyell on 22 February had him feeling "as if we were all soon to go". Their friendship had cooled after Lyell declined to back natural selection, and Darwin pleaded illness rather than take part as a pall-bearer at the funeral in Westminster Abbey. In March Darwin took the proofs of "Insectivorous Plants" to Murray. For a year the vicar had refused to speak to any of the Darwins, and when two evening lectures were proposed for the village, Lubbock had to act as an intermediary in requesting use of the schoolroom. The committee agreed, but Ffinden refused to co-operate, writing that "I had long been aware of the harmful tendencies to revealed religion of Mr. Darwin's views, but.. I had fully determined.. not to let my difference of opinion interfere with a friendly feeling as neighbours, trusting that God's grace might in time bring one so highly gifted intellectually and morally to a better mind." Darwin was equally haughty in return, condescending that "If Mr. F bows to Mrs D. and myself, we will return it". He found that dealing with Mivart and Ffinden was increasing his private hostility to Christianity. Darwin's daughter Henrietta at first supported a petition drawn up by Frances Power Cobbe demanding anti-vivisection legislation. Though Darwin was an animal lover and had never carried out vivisection, he persuaded her that "Physiology can only progress by experiments on living animals". During his spring break in London he took the matter up with his contacts, at first thinking of a counter-petition, then on Huxley's advice seeking support lobbying for a pre-emptive bill to provide for regulated vivisection with what he called a "more humanitarian aspect". The hint to the fox-hunting houses of parliament that a ban could lead to further restrictions helped, and though Cobbe's bill reached the House of Lords on 4 May 1875 a week before the scientist's bill reached the House of Commons, the Home Secretary announced a Royal Commission of inquiry to resolve the arguments, with Huxley co-opted on to the Commission. The demand for Darwin as an author was shown when "Insectivorous Plants", a 450-page catalogue of plant experiments, sold out quickly and in July a 1,000 copy reprint sold out within a fortnight. "Variation" revised. Now Darwin turned to work on a new edition of "The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication" incorporating additions from the hundreds of letters and scores of monographs that had been sent to Darwin in the seven years since it had been published. Parts were altered or discarded, and George Romanes set aside work on jellyfish to graft vegetable plants in experiments aimed at finding out about the "gemmules" which Darwin thought formed the mechanism of inheritance of characteristics. Investigations into "pangenesis" by Galton had tried blood transfusions between different breeds of rabbits without success. Darwin continued to look for proof of inheritance of acquired characteristics, amassing evidence of blacksmith's children being muscular and babies born with scars matching those of their parents. He would not follow Huxley in discarding these ideas, and "Descent" had presented such inheritance as a significant factor in human evolution. Darwin had long been concerned that his children could have inherited his weaknesses. He was proud that Frank seemed to have inherited his interest in natural history, coming to Down House from the village to carry out plant experiments, and put his son up for a Fellowship of the Linnean Society. "Cross and Self Fertilisation". With "Variation" at the printers and with his old essay on "The Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants" due out in November 1875 with "illustrations... drawn by my son, George", Darwin wrote "The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom". This drew on a painstaking series of experiments, protecting the plants from insects and controlling the pollination of flowers, counting the seeds and checking them for fertility, repeated for up to ten generations with detailed records kept at every stage. Darwin tabulated the results, Galton checked his statistics, and they found the crossed plants significantly superior to self-fertilised ones in height, weight, vigour and fertility. The same principle would apply to people, and though the attempt to get a question on the census had failed, George analysed data from lunatic asylums and the "Pall Mall Gazette" which Darwin cited as showing a small effect produced by first-cousin marriages. While Emma ensured that he took short breaks, Darwin pressed on with work as "my sole pleasure in life" and finished the first draft of "Fertilisation" in May 1876, promptly going on to a revision of "Orchids". "Recollections". They visited Hensleigh and Fanny to celebrate the announcement that Frank's wife Amy was five months pregnant, and Charles and Emma would shortly become grandparents. Darwin decided to leave a posthumous memoir for his family, and on Sunday 28 May 1876 he began "Recollections of the Development of my mind and character". He found this candid private memoir easy going, covering his childhood, university, life on the Beagle and developing work in science. A section headed "Religious Belief" opened just before his marriage, and frankly discussed his long disagreement with Emma. ("see Charles Darwin's views on religion") He recalled Annie and thought of how, but for her untimely death, she would now "have grown into a delightful woman... Tears still come into my eyes, when I think of her sweet ways". He completed his memoir on 3 August, concluding that after his book on fertilisation was published, "my strength... will probably be exhausted". On 7 September the baby, named Bernard, was born at Down House, but his mother suffered a fever and convulsions, and died four days later at the age of 26. Darwin thought it the "most dreadful thing", and Frank in a state of shock and grief moved into Down House with the baby. The contractors were brought in to extend the house for him, and Frank carried on with mechanical chores for his father, making a fair copy of the memoir and correcting proofs of "Orchids". Liberalism. Despite Ffinden's continuing opposition, Emma's project of a parish reading room for labourers was restarted and opened before Christmas. Darwin saw "Orchids" and "Cross and Self Fertilisation" published as he wrote his next book on flowers. In February 1877 he attended the "George and Dragon" in his position as treasurer and persuaded the village labourers, who were suffering from wage cuts and a threat to their jobs in a farm slump, not to disband the "Friendly Society" and take the proceeds, but to keep some protection for their longer term security by keeping the books open while distributing their surplus funds. His old Whig principles fitted well with the "Self-Help" philosophy of another Murray author, Samuel Smiles, who had impressed Darwin. As a "thorough Liberal", Darwin supported Gladstone, the "Grand Old Man" of British politics. Three months earlier Darwin had backed the outcry against the "Bulgarian horrors" when 15,000 (Christian) Bulgarian rebels were massacred by Muslim "Turkish" troops of the Ottoman Empire, and supported Gladstone's calls for Russian intervention in opposition to the Tory government's support for the Turks. Marx thought this a hypocritical preference for a Christian oppressor, and complained about Darwin's support for the "piggish demonstration". On 10 March Gladstone, while doing the rounds of his backbenchers and visiting Lubbock, turned up with his entourage at Down House and for two hours regaled a silent Darwin with comments from his latest pamphlet on "Turkish terrorism", and "launched forth his thunderbolts with unexhausted zest". Before leaving he asked Darwin if evolution meant that the future belonged to America as the Eastern civilisations decayed; after thinking it over, Darwin responded "Yes." Watching Gladstone's "erect alert figure" walking away, he said "What an honour that such a great man should come to visit me!" A fortnight after Gladstone's visit, the leading secularist, militant atheist and unofficial Liberal candidate Charles Bradlaugh with co-publisher Annie Besant caused public outrage by publishing do-it-yourself contraceptive advice from an American doctor, Charles Knowlton, in a sixpenny pamphlet "Fruits of Philosophy". Bradlaugh and Besant were accused of obscenity and committed for trial on 18 June 1877. A fortnight beforehand they subpoenaed Darwin for their defence, expecting his support. Appalled, he wrote protesting the "great suffering" this would put him to, and advised that he would have to denounce the defendants as he had "long held an opposite opinion" on birth control, as evidenced by an extract from the "Descent of Man" stating that "our natural rate of increase, though leading to many and obvious evils, must not be greatly diminished by any means." The practice of contraception would "spread to unmarried women & would destroy chastity on which the family bond depends; & the weakening of this bond would be the greatest of all evils to mankind." Holidays. The subpoena was dropped, and Darwin was not held back from holidaying at Leith Hill and Southampton for his much needed "rest" which, as usual, meant working furiously away from home. He visited Stonehenge for the first time, examining how worm castings had buried the megaliths over time. Emma feared that the day-trip involving two hours train journey and a 24-mile drive would "half kill" him, but he was in wonderful form even after digging in the hot sun. In mid July 1877 his work on the sex life of plants culminated in the publication of "The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species", dedicated to Asa Gray. He could not "endure being idle" and turned to his next book, on plant movement. Emma got him away for his autumn break to Abinger on the North Downs, and though Wallace now lived only a few miles away, Darwin avoided him, diplomatically writing that he "wished to come over to see you, but driving tires me so much that my courage failed." Honorary doctorate. The University of Cambridge had come round to Darwinism, and on Saturday 17 November the family attended the Senate House for a ceremony in which Darwin was awarded an honorary Doctorate of Laws in front of crowds of students, who strung a cord across the chamber with a monkey-marionette which was removed by a Proctor then replaced by a "missing link", a beribboned ring which hung over the crowd through the ceremony. Darwin entered to a roar of approval. The Public Orator gave his panegyric describing Darwin's work with purple Latin prose, to some good humoured heckling from the students, and distanced the dignitaries from "the unlovely tribe of apes" saying "'Mores in utroques dispares' – the moral nature of the two races is different". Emma had a headache, so she and Darwin let their boys to stand in for them at a dinner in his honour at which Huxley chided the university for failing to honour Darwin twenty years earlier. On the Sunday, after a "brilliant luncheon" with George at Trinity College, they were given guided tours. The engineering professor James Stuart showed Emma and Darwin round his workshop and later wrote of "A strong.. looking man with iron grey hair..[as though] rough hewn from a rock with a heavy..hammer... A man of genius.. indeed one of 'the few'." Romanes. Into the spring of 1878 Darwin and Frank again filled the house with experiments on the movement of plants. To Frank it was "as if an outside force were compelling him", and in March the strain brought back his old sickness of attacks of dizziness. Dr. Clark in London prescribed a "dry diet" which helped, and refused to charge his patient so Darwin sent £100 towards the development of a fungus-proof potato by a "highly respectable" Belfast breeder. He also responded to an appeal asking 's officers for help in supporting an orphan – the grandson of Jemmy Button. George Romanes had become Darwin's leading protégé, but a conflict between his reasoned scepticism and earlier longing for faith came to a head when his sister died. His attempt to get solace from a leading spiritualist came to nothing. Darwin invited Romanes to Downe to help him recover. Romanes had earlier written a refutation of theism, and had taken Darwin's advice to pause, but now wanted to publish. Darwin counselled anonymity, and suggested study of the evolution of religious reasoning, giving him unused notes on instinct from his work on "Natural Selection". Romanes launched on the study of comparative psychology, and in August was given a standing ovation for his talk at the British Association. In November the Darwins were staying with the Litchfields, and Romanes drove there to introduce his fiancé and present his new book, "A Candid Examination of Theism" by "Physicus". Darwin read it with "very great interest", but was unconvinced. Biography of Erasmus Darwin. The German scientific periodical "Kosmos" featured, as a 70th birthday tribute to Charles Darwin, an essay by Ernst Krause on his grandfather Erasmus Darwin. In March 1879 he arranged for it to be translated as a book to which he would add a biographical preface. This would counter Samuel Butler's "Evolution Old and New" in which the previously supportive, though unscientific, author of "Erewhon" had turned against Darwinism, and he sent a copy of it to Krause. In the summer he became bogged down with the proofs of his preface about Erasmus, and Henrietta edited out controversial points. The publisher John Murray was satisfied, but Darwin vowed "never again" to be "tempted out of my proper work". Abominable mystery. The origin and swift diversification of flowering plants in the Early Cretaceous appeared to go against Darwin's view of gradual evolution, and in a July 1879 letter to Joseph Dalton Hooker he called this an "abominable mystery". He sought explanations such as a long earlier development having taken place in an area where the fossil record had been lost, possibly a sunken continent, or relatively rapid development having been spurred by coevolution between insects and plants. Although he tired more quickly now, Darwin still worked for several hours a day. Emma ensured he took holidays, in autumn 1879 joining the Litchfields for a month in the Lake District where he met with John Ruskin, though this was not a meeting of minds. On return the Darwins were visited by Ernst Haeckel whose "roaring" about the freedom of science had Darwin retreating to his plants. Darwin unsuccessfully tried to get government support for the Belfast potato breeder from the Permanent Secretary, Thomas "Theta" Farrer (Effie Wedgwood's husband). Farrer was more concerned that his daughter by his first marriage wanted to marry the unsuitable sickly Horace Darwin. Despite her father's opposition the young couple prevailed, with Darwin giving his son £5,000 of railway stock and assuring Farrer that Horace would have a suitable inheritance. The wedding took place on 3 January 1880, with the families not on speaking terms. Samuel Butler. In "Evolution Old and New" Samuel Butler claimed that earlier evolutionists had correctly seen the mind as controlling evolution, and Mivart told Richard Owen that he thought the book would "help to burst the bubble of 'Natural Selection'." Ernst Krause's "Erasmus Darwin" countered this, and Butler took affront at Darwin's preface which said that Krause's essay predated Butler's book, when it clearly had passages written later. Darwin had to admit that Krause had revised his essay, and spent a week in February 1880 drafting responses, then was persuaded to ignore the dispute, writing to Huxley "I feel like a man condemned to be hung who has just got a reprieve". Butler took the silence as a tacit admission of guilt. Coming of Age. Huxley titled his Royal Institution talk "The Coming of Age of the Origin of Species", celebrating its 21st anniversary, though wrongly claiming that before its publication only catastrophism was accepted. While Darwin (on holiday with the Farrers, now on good terms) was delighted by the press coverage, he was disappointed to find no mention in its text of natural selection – even "Darwin's Bulldog" was still not committed to the central plank of his theory. In April, Gladstone defeated the Tories at the general election, delighting Charles and Emma Darwin though not all their relatives, and a buoyant Charles sent a large subscription to Abbot's "The Index" with hearty wishes for success in the "good cause of truth" and 'free religion'. The Liberal success even got the militant atheist Charles Bradlaugh elected as MP for Northampton, and public controversy about atheism erupted. He was prevented from taking his seat in the House of Commons by procedural requirements of the oath of allegiance, and secularists such as Edward Aveling toured the country leading protests. Aveling had been writing a series on "Darwin and his Works" in Bradlaugh's paper "The National Reformer", and Darwin had sent written thanks which he now feared would be published to his shame. In June, after sending "Movement in Plants" to his publisher John Murray, Darwin visited William and Sarah at Southampton, and he got William to write to Abbot withdrawing the endorsement that had been printed as advertising copy in the magazine: even association with free thought in distant America could damage his respectability. Worms. Darwin again took up his work on worms. As ever, he corresponded widely, encouraging and helping fund research and collecting anecdotes. Emma supported his commitment, saying that "if it was a condition of his living, that he sh[oul]d do now work, she was willing for him to die". For their autumn break they visited Horace and Ida in Cambridge, and to spare him the stress of getting between London stations and changing trains Emma arranged a private railway carriage. At Cambridge he showed Emma around the "scenes of my early life". In September 1880 he completed the proofs of "Movement in Plants", his largest botany book at 600 pages with 196 wood-cuts, sighing "I am turned into a sort of machine for observing facts & grinding out conclusions." When on 13 October he got the request he had feared from Aveling, for permission to dedicate the "Darwin and his Works" articles to Darwin in book format, he declined in a four-page letter marked PRIVATE emphasising that he confined his writing to science and avoided aiding attacks on religion. Attacks on Darwin's theory continued, and when the official report of a scientific voyage slighted "the theory which refers the evolution of species to extreme variation guided only by natural selection" he responded in "Nature", "Can Sir Wyville Thomson name any one who has said that the evolution of species depends only on natural selection?" and set out multiple causes, including "use and disuse of parts". He called Thomson's criticism appropriate to "theologians and metaphysicians", and was only stopped by Huxley from using "irreverent language". Help for Wallace. Wallace was suffering "ever-increasing anxiety" over funds, and Arabella Buckley, Lyell's old secretary, pleaded with Darwin to help him find "some modest work". Hooker persuaded Darwin it was hopeless, noting that Wallace had "lost caste" over spiritualism and a £500 bet he had won by proving the world was a globe to a rich flat-earth fanatic who then started litigation which cost Wallace more than the bet had won. When Wallace's "best book" to date, "Island Life", came out in November 1880 Darwin devoted all his attention to getting his friends to sign a testimonial he wrote, then rushed it to Gladstone before the re-opening of Parliament at the start of January and was overjoyed when Gladstone agreed to recommend a civil list pension of £200 a year, backdated six months. As Darwin passed on the good news to Wallace, Emma organised the family accounts so that Charles could distribute the surplus from the year's £8,000 investment income to the children. Work on worms. Downe was snowed in, and an outbreak of swine fever involved Darwin as magistrate signing orders daily to allow movement of stock. He wrote to Kovalevsky "I make sure, but wo[e]fully slow progress, with my new book" on worms. In late February he visited London, and called on Duke of Argyll, his old opponent. They had a long and "awfully friendly" discussion, and when Argyll asked if it was not "impossible to look at [the design of orchids] without seeing that they were the effect and the expression of Mind? ", Darwin looked at him "very hard" before replying that he could see the "overwhelming force" this argument might have, but he could no longer accept it. The billiard room at Down House was now devoted to worm experiments which included Darwin shining different colours of lights at them at night, his sons playing different musical instruments to them, different scents and kinds of food. Other stimuli were ignored, but a bright white light or a touch of breath would make them bolt "like rabbits" into their burrows. They appeared to "enjoy the pleasure of eating" showing "eagerness for certain kinds of food", sexual passion was "strong enough to overcome... their dread of light", and he saw "a trace of social feeling" in their way of "crawling over each other's bodies". Experiments showed that they dragged leaves into their burrows narrow end first, having somehow got a "notion, however rude, of the shape of an object", maybe by "touching it in many places" with a sense like "a man... born blind and deaf" and a rudimentary intelligence. By mid march he was writing the final chapters of what he told Victor Carus would be "a small book of little moment. I have little strength & feel very old." He wrote to "The Times" about the anti-vivisection cause, accusing it of committing "a crime against humanity" by holding back the "progress of physiology", then commented that we "ought to be grateful" to worms, which reached a depth of "five or six feet" even "here at Down" where he expected to be buried shortly. No heart or strength. Before Easter he sent off his manuscript for "The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms", and found he had no "heart or strength... to begin any investigation lasting for years". "Never happy except when at work", he was at a loose end until he remembered his autobiography. On 22 April 1881, exactly 30 years after Annie's burial, he re-read the passages about her and Emma's letter of that time, and added a note under his daguerreotype of Annie, "When I am dead, know that many times, I have kissed & cryed over this." [sic.] He left the proofs of "Worms" to Frank and, despondent, turned down Gladstone's invitation to become a Trustee of the British Museum. Early in June 1881 Emma and the Litchfields took him to the Lake District, together with William and young Bernard. The sky was "like lead" and an attempt at climbing brought spots before his eyes and a doctor's diagnosis that his heart condition was "precarious". He wrote to Hooker that "Illness is downright misery to me... I cannot forget my discomfort for an hour [and] must look forward to Down graveyard as the sweetest place on earth." "The Creed of Science". Then he was perked up by the 400-page "The Creed of Science" by the Irish philosopher William Graham arguing the validity of traditional beliefs in the face of materialism. Darwin wrote to Graham expressing doubts about the conclusions – "The chief one is that the existence of so-called natural laws implies purpose. I cannot see this." He was swayed by one – "You have expressed my inward conviction.. that the Universe is not the result of chance", but then qualified this by his "horrid doubt" that such beliefs might have arisen as the human mind evolved, and were no more to be trusted than "the convictions of a monkey's mind, if there are any convictions in such a mind". He still supported natural selection as the engine of social progress, pointing out that "The more civilised so-called Caucasian races have beaten the Turkish hollow in the struggle for existence" and telling Graham that elimination of "lower races" by "higher civilised races" was inevitable in the progress of Malthusian struggle. Back at Downe, a letter from Wallace promoted the socialist ideas of Henry George's "Progress and Poverty" proposing to "make land common property" as morally just. The landowner Darwin responded that such books had "a disastrous effect" on his mind, he hoped that Wallace would not "turn renegade to natural history" while adding that "I have everything to make me happy and contented". Pleasant memories. To Hooker he wrote of "Pleasant memories of long past days... many a discussion and... a good fight". Hooker valued their arguments "as iron sharpeneth iron" and, longing to "throw off the trammels of official life" and retire from Kew, found it "difficult to resist the pessimist view of creation", but "when I look back... to the days I have spent in intercourse with you and yours, that view takes wings to itself and flies away." That summer Darwin was in his "happiest spirits", chatting "deliciously" for hours and in the evenings asking for Bach and Handel to be played repeatedly. Romanes, visiting with his wife and baby, thought the old man as "grand and good and bright as ever". Darwin stayed with Erasmus while his portrait was painted by John Collier and on 3 August dined by special invitation with the Prince of Wales, the Crown Prince of Germany and eminent physicians at the start of the Seventh International Medical Congress. Later, Erasmus became gravely ill and died on 26 August, and at the funeral at Downe on 1 September Charles, looking "old and ill", was a picture of "sad reverie". Subsequently, Darwin inherited half Erasmus's estate. William announced that this made Darwin's wealth over a quarter of a million pounds, ""without" mother's fortune", and Darwin redrafted his will. He sent a note to his sister Caroline about her half of Erasmus's estate, enclosing a miniature of their mother and commenting that he could not remember her face, though he did recall her "black velvet gown" and the "death scene". A requested visit from the eminent but atheist German Doctor Ludwig Büchner in company with the notorious Edward Aveling went amiably on Thursday 28 September with Darwin introducing his old friend the Revd. Brodie Innes, and defending agnosticism "(see Charles Darwin's views on religion)". "Worms" was published in October 1881 and within weeks thousands had been sold. It brought a flood of letters, with many "idiotic" enquiries, and a "worn out" Darwin escaped with Emma to visit Horace and Ida in Cambridge. Roots and illness. Darwin, "quite set up", returned to his experiments on plant roots standing in an ammonia solution, preparing sections and looking for "physiological division of labour" through his microscope. In London he made an unannounced visit to the house of Romanes on 15 December. Romanes was absent, and Darwin declined the concerned butler's invitation to come in. He crossed the street, stumbled and clutched the railings before getting a cab. The next morning Dr. Clark pronounced him fine, but Emma kept him indoors and he was visited by eminent scientists. He seemed bright and animated, but told the geologist John Judd that he had "received his warning". Once home, this did not hold him back from working hard at his root cells, as well as still doing his walks round the Sandwalk, receiving visitors and dealing with letters. In one he argued with an American feminist that women are "inferior intellectually". In February he was "miserable to a strange degree" with a cough. On 7 March 1882 he had a seizure while on the Sandwalk 400 yards from the house and struggled back to collapse in Emma's arms. Dr. Clark diagnosed angina and prescribed morphine pills for the pain. Darwin lay prostrate in despair, then a younger doctor, Dr. Norman Moore, assured him that his heart was only weak and within days Darwin was back at work, writing to "Nature" about beetles. Having company helped. Henrietta brought her friend Laura Forster (aunt of E. M. Forster), herself making a rapid recovery from illness. Darwin daily told Laura of his symptoms and feelings. One day he came out into the garden and, putting his arms round Emma, said "Oh Laura, what a miserable man I should be without this dear woman." Another afternoon he joined her in the drawing-room and said "The clocks go dreadfully slowly, I have come in here to see if this one gets over the hours any quicker than the study one does." Emma wanted a quiet Easter, so Laura and Henrietta left on 4 April, but on the 4th and 5th Darwin suffered attacks, noting "much pain". He recorded his own symptoms, and continued to note sporadic attacks. He took capsules of amyl nitrite, an antispasmodic, and was attended by Dr. Moore and a local physician, Dr. Allfrey. On the 10th, George arrived back from the West Indies, and though Darwin was not up to talking for very long, he enjoyed George's news. Emma remembered how Darwin was "gracious & tender" when being attended for his illness, and would say "It is almost worth while to be so to be nursed by you". George helped Frank and Jackson (the butler) to carry Darwin to and from his bed. On the nights of 11 and 12 April, Darwin had excruciating attacks of pain. On Saturday 15 April they were visited by the Lichfield family. Darwin joined them for dinner but had a giddy attack and fell down, and had to retire early. He did better on the Sunday, and on Monday was well enough to walk, supported on both sides, as far as the orchard. Death. Darwin seemed "fully up to the average, so on Tuesday 18 April the Lichfields left and George went to Cambridge. Darwin stayed up late later than usual in the evening, chatting to Bessy. Just before midnight he again had agonising pain, and woke a flustered Emma to ask for the amyl nitrite. She had difficulties finding it at first, and with the assistance of Bessy gave him brandy. Emma later noted that he had woken her saying "I have got the pain & I shall feel better or bear it better if you are awake". He had taken the antispasmodic twice, and afterwards said "I am not the least afraid of death- Remember what a good wife you have been to me – Tell all my children to remember how good they have been to me". Dr Allfrey attended and gave some relief, then after he left at 8 a.m. Charles began violent vomiting, after two hours gasping "If I could but die" repeatedly. Frank and Henrietta returned to join Bessy, who persuaded a worn out Emma to take an opium pill and rest. Charles woke in a daze, recognised his children and embraced them with tears. Emma's notes state that after the worse of the distress he said "I was so sorry for you – but I could not help you... there never were such good nurses as you [Francis] & Henrietta – Where is Mammy", and when told she was lying down, "I am glad of it... Don't call her I don't want her", and often "It's almost worth while to be sick to be nursed by you". He suffered more bouts of nausea and pain, then at 3.25 p.m. groaned "I feel as if I should faint". Emma was called and held him as he suffered excruciating pain, then lost consciousness and died at 4 p.m. on Wednesday 19 April 1882. Dr Allfrey signed the death certificate which gave "Angina pectoris Syncope" as the cause of death. Frank brought Bernard from the nursery to the garden. As they walked past the drawing-room window Bernard noticed his aunts and said "Why are Bessy and Etty crying? because Grandpa is so ill?" Grief-stricken, Frank eventually said "Grandpa has been so ill that he won't be ill any more." They reached the Sandwalk and Bernard gathered a bouquet of wild lilies. Funeral. Arrangements were made for burial in St. Mary's churchyard at Downe, with Brodie Innes offering to perform the rites, and the customary black edged letters were sent out to friends, relatives and colleagues. In London Galton got William Spottiswoode as President of the Royal Society to telegraph the Darwins asking if they would consent to burial in Westminster Abbey, an honour that Darwin had been glad to see given to Lyle in 1875. They told Hooker, Lubbock and Huxley who with Spottiswoode met the Revd. Frederic Farrar, Canon of Westminster. Farrar suggested a petition to overcome any objections to an agnostic being buried in the Abbey, and approached the Revd. George Granville Bradley, Dean of Westminster. Lubbock took up a petition in the House of Commons stating that "it would be acceptable to a very large number of our countrymen of all classes and opinions that our illustrious countryman Mr. Darwin should be buried in Westminster Abbey." It was "very influentially signed". Newspapers took the request up, sending a public plea to Emma and the children to consent, as foreign tributes poured in. "The Standard" maintained that "true Christians can accept the main scientific facts of Evolution just as they do of Astronomy and Geology", "The Times" declared the 1860 debate was "ancient history" and the "Daily News" said that Darwin's doctrine was consistent "with strong religious faith and hope". Hurried arrangements were made, and Emma saw it "nearly settled. It gave us all a pang not to have him rest quietly by Eras – ; but William felt strongly, and on reflection I did also, that his gracious & grateful nature would have wished to accept the acknowledgement of what he had done". While her children and relatives attended the funeral, she stayed at Downe. The Downe tradesmen were disappointed, the publican pointing out that it "would have helped the place so much, for it would have brought hosts of people down to see his grave". The joiner had "made his coffin just the way he wanted it, all rough, just as it left the bench, no polish, no nothin", but this was returned and replaced by one "you could see to shave in". He added that "They buried him in Westminster Abbey, but he always wanted to lie here, and I don't think he'd have liked it." That Sunday, Church sermons praised Darwin, saying Natural Selection was "by no means alien to the Christian tradition" (if interpreted correctly) and seeking a "reconciliation between Faith and Science". On Tuesday there was a massive demand for admission cards to the funeral. All day on Tuesday the hearse was drawn by four horses the 16 miles from Downe to Westminster in cold drizzling rain. Next morning the Abbey filled with mourners including international dignitaries and scientists. At mid day on Wednesday 26 April 1882 the full pomp of a state occasion began. The service included a specially commissioned anthem setting words from the Book of Proverbs to music composed for the occasion by Frederick Bridge, "Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, and getteth understanding". As the Darwin family later recalled, William "was sitting in the front seat as eldest son and chief mourner, and he felt a draught on his already bald head; so he put his black gloves to balance on the top of his skull, and sat like that all through the service with the eyes of the nation upon him." Darwin was buried beneath the monument to Isaac Newton, next to Sir John Herschel, and as the coffin was lowered, the choir sang an anthem from Ecclesiasticus to music by Handel, "His body is buried in peace, but his name liveth evermore". Pallbearers at the funeral included: William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire; George John Douglas Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll; Edward Henry Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby; James Russell Lowell; William Spottiswoode; Joseph Dalton Hooker; Alfred Russel Wallace; Thomas Henry Huxley; John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury; and last but by no means least Rev. Frederic Farrar; Stanley and Farrar were both Cambridge Apostles as Erasmus Alvey 'Ras' Darwin had been; Charles Darwin himself had not been a member of the Cambridge Apostles. The service was conducted by Canon George Prothero (1818-1894) and the other Westminster Abbey staff present were minor canon Rev. John Henry Cheadle (? - ? ); minor canon Rev. John Troutbeck (1832-1899); Canon Thomas James Rowsell (1816-1894); Canon Alfred Barry (1826-1910); Canon Robinson Duckworth (1834-1911); Rev. Samuel Flood Jones, precentor, (1826-1895); the Chapter Clerk, Mr. Charles St. Clare Bedford (1810-1900); Frederick Bridge, organist 1844-1924 (according to The Times, he composed an anthem for the funeral). The Dean, George Granville Bradley, was not in the country at the time of the funeral hence Canon Prothero was in charge. Commemoration. Galton proposed a commemorative stained glass window in the Abbey, with panels symbolising the works of nature, each contributed by a different country. The evolution pane did not proceed, but the Royal Society formed a committee which decided on a bronze plaque in the Abbey, and a statue for the new Natural History Museum at South Kensington. Richard Owen remained opposed, and unveiling of the statue had to wait till 1885, after his retirement. The pomp and ceremony was attended by the Prince of Wales, scientists and the family, though not Emma, and led by Huxley. Darwin's Westminster Abbey funeral expressed a public feeling of national pride, with the "Pall Mall Gazette" proclaiming that Great Britain had "lost a man whose name is a glory to his country". Religious writers of all persuasions praised his "noble character and his ardent pursuit of truth", calling him a "true Christian gentleman". In particular the Unitarians and free religionists, proud of his Dissenting upbringing, supported his naturalistic views. William Benjamin Carpenter carried a resolution praising Darwin's unravelling of "the immutable laws of the Divine Government", shedding light on "the progress of humanity". The Unitarian preacher John Chadwick from New York wrote that "The nation's grandest temple of religion opened its gates and lifted up its everlasting doors and bade the King of Science come in."

point of unsureness

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14908818

Secret Beach, officially known as Kauapea Beach, is a beach in Kalihiwai, Hawaii, on the north shore of the island of Kauai. The beach is known for its size, seclusion, and beauty. Location. Secret Beach is located approximately one-half mile northwest of the town of Kilauea and is situated between the Kilauea Lighthouse and Kalihiwai Valley. As its name suggests, the beach is not easily accessible and no public roads lead to it. To find it, take the Kuhio Highway past Kilauea and turn right on Kalihiwai Road. Follow the road for about 50 yards and then turn right into an unmarked, unpaved road. Proceed to the end and park. Nearby is the footpath leading to the west end of the beach. Trail Conditions. The trail winds steeply downhill through brush and may be barely discernible in places. The hike takes about 10 minutes in good weather. On rainy days and particularly in the winter, the trail is dangerously slick. Be prepared to be covered in reddish hued clay that is notoriously difficult to remove from clothing. Locals recommend braving the hike either barefoot or using Neoprene booties that kayaking enthusiasts tend to use. Since the return requires hiking back up the same path, most visitors will want to come on a dry day to avoid these conditions. Topography. Secret Beach is quite large by Hawaiian standards, approximately 3000 feet long and 75 feet wide. Its surface is predominantly covered with fine white sand and with outcrops of black lava rock. The beach’s seclusion and beauty are further enhanced by the cliff backdrop and the brilliant turquoise-colored ocean water in the foreground. The cliff face, notably on the east and west ends of the beach, is sheer red and black rock. Where the gradient is less steep, the cliff is covered with lush vegetation, consisting of ironwood trees, taro plants, and other tropical plants. Also there are several small cascading waterfalls. Clearly visible to the east is Kilauea Lighthouse set atop a cliff that faces Moku'ae'ae Island. About a quarter mile beyond the west end of the beach is a substantial waterfall that plunges about 15 feet into the Pacific Ocean. The ocean floor is mostly sand-covered and its descent is steep. Activities. Water conditions at the beach vary by season. Although the beach is accessible year round, swimming is only advisable in the summer and even then swimming can be risky when the surf is high or rough because of strong, unpredictable currents. In winter the surf is turbulent and dangerous; accordingly, swimming is not recommended for anyone who is inexperienced under these conditions. Other beach activities include picnicking, seashell hunting, surfing, sunbathing, snorkeling, and fishing. Also tidal lagoons form on the west end of the beach, offering a kind of kiddie pool. There are no facilities at the beach, so visitors must bring their own food and beverages. Naturism. Secret Beach has for many years attracted nude sunbathers, particularly toward the east and west ends of the beach. Although public nudity is not legal in Hawaii and despite the beach’s reputation, the beach is rarely patrolled and no one seems much concerned with the practice. In the rare instances that patrols are conducted, violators will invariably just be asked to dress.

moisture-free period

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48516436

Hong Kong House of Stories (), formerly Wan Chai Livelihood Place (), is a museum of Hong Kong Culture and society. The museum is located in the Blue House in Wan Chai, Hong Kong. The museum provides Kong stories with movies, concerts, and exhibitions. History. In 2007, the museum was called Wan Chai Livelihood Place. In March 2012, it was renamed as Hong Kong House of Stories Facilities. Hong Kong House of Stories is divided into two parts. The first is the exhibition area, and the other is the handicraft area. Community culture activities. Hong Kong House of Stories Public Exhibitions, Community-Guided Tours, Arts and Culture, Promotion Activities, Workshops and Regular Events. Public exhibitions. The Hong Kong House of Stories sponsors many exhibitions. For example, there was a 2015 exhibition on the theme of antiques. In addition, there were also exhibitions related to local Hong Kong culture such as Another exhibition 2015 was "Blue House Curio Store. Recognize the old things and bring a story home" Previous exhibitions include Community-guided tours. Some tours are held to help the public to recognize the change between the past and recent Hong Kong community. Wan Chai Community Cultural Tour and Central Community Cultural Tour are regular tours in which the English version tour is available for the Wan Chai Community tour. Some special tours are held at a particular time of the day. The special tours are Wan Chai Cuisine Tour and Wan Chai Hiking Tour. Arts and culture promotion activities. The "Viva Blue House Studio" and the "Community Classroom" are the main programs to promote community arts by organizing different workshops to the public for a better understanding of community arts and local crafts. Workshops. In Community Classroom, there are Community Arts Workshop, Local Crafts Workshop, Traditional Industry Workshop and Traditional Food Workshop organized for the public to learn more about traditional artwork and crafts. Regular events. Some events are held every month regularly, for instances, movie sharing, night concert, art studios, neighborhood sharing discussion, etc. Handicraft. Hong Kong House of Stories sells handmade souvenirs and helps visitors create their own souvenirs. The income for maintaining the running cost of the Hong Kong House of Stories comes from the donations from visitors by making stamps and notebooks. Features. Elderly staff. One of the main features of the Hong Kong House of Stories is that most of the staff are the elderly who are volunteers. It suits the aims and the objectives of this museum which are to pass on the culture as they believe that the elderly is used to be one of the important assets in the territory. Interactive events. There are some events for visitors to interact with each other, for example, touring, etc. so as to promote the importance of cultural preservation and to let the general public understand the diverse changes of the old city and the modern territory.

certain hour

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5902254

The following is a list of fictional characters from the 2004 Disney/Pixar computer-animated superhero film "The Incredibles" and its 2018 sequel "Incredibles 2". The Parr Family. Bob Parr (Mr. Incredible). Robert "Bob" Parr (a.k.a. Mr. Incredible) (voiced by Craig T. Nelson in the films, Pete Docter in "Mr. Incredible and Pals", Richard McGonagle in "", and Jeff Bergman in "Lego The Incredibles") possesses superhuman strength, stamina, and durability. He is married to Helen Parr, the superheroine known as Elastigirl, and they have three children together: Violet, Dash, and Jack-Jack. His face was physically modeled after director Brad Bird. Sometime after his marriage, Mr. Incredible was sued by Oliver Sansweet for thwarting his suicide and the passengers of the train he stopped from running off the tracks which was part of the events that led to the government quietly initiating the Superhero Relocation Program. Bob found forced retirement difficult, and often had to cheat his way out of the house on Wednesdays so that he could continue his superheroics. He was shocked to discover that his "Number 1 fan", Buddy, had recreated himself as the supervillain Syndrome after Mr. Incredible had squelched Pine's wish to be his ward in an attempt to protect him. It was not until Syndrome threatened his family that Bob realized that they were his "greatest adventure". His red superhero suit, designed by Edna Mode, appears to have the same level of durability as Mr. Incredible himself. In his prime, Mr. Incredible drove a gadget-laden car, the Incredibile, reminiscent of those driven by James Bond or Batman. The silhouette of a newer version of the Incredibile for the entire family is seen in the end credits of the first film, and the new car makes a full appearance at the end of the second film. Mr. Incredible was ranked number 5 in IGN's list of the Top 10 Pixar Characters. Readers of "Empire" magazine also voted Mr. Incredible number 8 in that magazine's list of The Top 20 Pixar Characters. Helen Parr (Elastigirl). Helen Parr (a.k.a. Elastigirl or Mrs. Incredible) (voiced by Holly Hunter) is Mr. Incredible's wife. Helen can stretch any part of her body up to 300 feet and can be 1 mm thin. She can also reshape her body in a variety of ways. In the movie she becomes a parachute and a rubber boat, and has used her arms for swings and a slingshot. In her early years she seemed to be a feminist and had no desire to "settle down". Since her marriage to Bob, Helen has become a dedicated spouse and mother, although she is frustrated with her husband's continuing dreams of glory. Helen is also an experienced jet pilot, from having a close friend who flew her around the world when she was a Super. Her sharp wit and superb espionage skills, as well as her experience as a superhero, make her an excellent tactician and leader. Her red superheroine suit, designed by Edna Mode, can stretch as far as she can and still retain its shape. It is virtually indestructible yet it breathes like Egyptian cotton. The filmmakers drew inspiration from actresses Mary Tyler Moore, Marilyn Monroe and Audrey Hepburn for Helen's role and appearance in the sequel. , interviewed by Maureen Dowd as part of a group of current and former CIA professionals, said " had a favorite crime fighter ... Just think of us as a work force of Elastigirls.” Violet Parr. Violet Parr (voiced by Sarah Vowell) is a 14-year-old junior high school teenager stuck at the crossroads between girl and woman. Violet desperately wants to be like everyone else, to blend in with normal people, and not to stand out. Her superpowers allow her to turn instantly invisible, and to generate spherical force fields to protect herself and also to levitate extremely heavy objects; the interiors of the force fields have an anti-gravitational effect, allowing Violet to levitate inside, but she can be stunned temporarily if the field is struck by a sufficiently large force. During the first film, she and Dash combine their powers to create the IncrediBall (named in the video game), a tactic in which Violet generates a force field around herself, and Dash uses his speed power to use the ball like a cannonball or battering ram. Her struggle with her shyness and lack of confidence constitutes a major side story in the movie; she is spurred on by Helen's encouragement that she has more power than she realizes and that she just has to believe it. In the end, Violet sheds her shyness and ends up at the confident side when her crush Tony Rydinger asks her for a date. Unlike her normal clothes, her red superheroine suit, designed by Edna Mode, also turns invisible when Violet does. Dash Parr. Dashiell "Dash" Robert Parr (voiced by Spencer Fox in the first film, Huck Milner in the second film) is a speedster. While he is only as strong as the average 10-year-old boy, the film's official website lists "enhanced durability" amongst Dash's powers, which is implied in the film by the amount of incidental high-speed collisions and crashes Dash endures without apparent injury. Dash also discovers throughout the course of the movie that his speed allows him to be able to run over water without submerging. Dash would like to go out for sports, but his mother Helen will not allow it because she thinks that he would show off his superspeed and blow the family's civilian cover. To vent his frustration, Dash uses his power to play pranks on his teacher, Bernie Kropp, which also threatens their cover. Dash's reckless and impulsive nature and one-track mind have put him at odds with Violet's gloomier and more sarcastic nature more often than their parents would like, but when Dash is in battle, he cares deeply about his family; he was willing to attack a fully grown man who was about to kill his sister. His red superhero suit, designed by Edna Mode, is resistant to air friction, wear and heat when Dash is running at super speed. Jack-Jack Parr. John Jackson "Jack-Jack" Parr (voiced by Eli Fucile and Maeve Andrews in the first film, Fucile and Nicholas Bird in the second film) is the Parrs' infant son, the youngest of the Parr children. Initially believed to be the only family member without any powers, he manifests a multitude of superhuman abilities at the end of the first film, most of which are types of shapeshifting. More powers are seen in the short film "Jack-Jack Attack" on the "Incredibles" DVD, making his powers the most versatile of the family, and according to a collectible poster included with some Incredibles toys, still more powers are undisclosed. Although Edna Mode did not know what powers Jack-Jack might develop, she covered various possibilities by making him a fireproof and bulletproof blanket sleeper-like jumpsuit. Creator Brad Bird explains on the DVD that Jack-Jack's varied abilities are a metaphor for how young children have infinite possibilities ahead of them in life. He begins to manifest a broader range of powers during "Incredibles 2", inspiring Edna to upgrade his suit with sensors that allow his family to track him or rein in his powers via remote control. Jack-Jack was ranked number 15 in "Empire" magazine's list of the Top 20 Pixar Characters. Allies. Frozone. Lucius Best (a.k.a. Frozone) (voiced by Samuel L. Jackson in the films, Isaac C. Singleton Jr. in "Rise of the Underminer", and John Eric Bentley in "Lego The Incredibles") is a long-time friend of the Parr family. Frozone is Bob Parr's best friend, and was the best man at Bob and Helen's wedding. Similar to the Marvel Comics superhero Iceman, Frozone has the power to freeze water, or even ambient moisture in the air. He is limited by the amount of water available, either in liquid form, or in the air. It is also indicated that he can use the moisture of his own body, and that dehydration weakens his abilities as a result. During the first film, it is suggested that he has adapted to civilian life much more easily than his long-time friend, Bob Parr, though he still possesses a hidden cache containing his costume and all of his old gadgets in working condition. Lucius married an unseen woman whom he refers to as Honey (voiced by Kimberly Adair Clark), who is aware of his superhero past, but is unsupportive of his public-minded ideals. Lucius is best friends with Bob, and a close friend of Helen and the kids, who are the only supers he socializes with following the banning of superheroes. Whenever Lucius and Bob go out on Wednesdays to engage in superheroics, they have to cover from their respective wives by claiming to be going bowling, but they stop going out when Bob is caught by Helen. Lucius's super suit is designed to keep him warm in the cold, but he must wear a special set of refraction goggles not only to protect his identity, but also to protect his eyes from the glare of the sunlight that bounces off his ice crystals. The soles of Frozone's snow boots can change into ice skates, alpine ice skis, and a concave disc he uses as a snowboard. These forms of transport, combined with chutes of ice, result in particularly speedy travel. Frozone was ranked number 16 in "Empire" magazine's list of the Top 20 Pixar Characters. Frozone returns in "Incredibles 2". He helps the Incredibles stop the Underminer's drill, and after the battle learns of Winston Deavor's offer to restore public trust in superheroes, bringing Helen and Bob with him to meet Deavor together. He is later overwhelmed by other hypnotized Supers when he unsuccessfully attempts to protect the Parr children from them, and is put under Evelyn's mind control via goggles. However, he is freed by Helen and her children and aids in foiling Evelyn's plan. Edna Mode. Edna "E" Mode (voiced by Brad Bird) is an eccentric fashion designer who designs the costumes for many members of the superhero community. To that end, not only does she take the aesthetics of the clothes into account, but also their practical uses such as protective qualities and accommodation to the powers of the wearer. She was a guest at Mr. Incredible and Elastigirl's wedding. Rick Dicker, who felt that Edna was "difficult" to work with, was the one who first referred Elastigirl to Edna. Edna was conceived as an amalgam between James Bond's gadget supplier, Q, and Oscar-winning costume designer Edith Head. Pixar artist Teddy Newton, who co-designed the character, stated that the film's animators looked for inspiration in the 1995 fashion documentary "Unzipped", which spotlighted a number of designers, including Isaac Mizrahi and Polly Mellen. Edna Mode also appeared with Pierce Brosnan to present the Academy Award for Costume Design at the 77th Academy Awards. Edna refuses to design super suits with capes in light of the number of supers having unfortunate accidents because their capes got caught in airliner turbines, elevators, missiles, etc. The film's creators originally could not find an appropriate actress to voice Edna. Finally, when asking actress Lily Tomlin to voice Edna, Brad Bird provided an example of what she should sound like. Tomlin told Bird that he successfully captured her voice so well that he should provide it in the film himself, which Bird did. Edna Mode was ranked number 8 in IGN's list of the Top 10 Pixar Characters, and number 6 in "Empire" magazine's list of the Top 20 Pixar Characters. When Bob visits Edna to get his old super suit patched up in "The Incredibles", she is inspired to create new suits for the entire family, including Jack-Jack even though he has not yet exhibited any powers. She returns in "Incredibles 2", offering to babysit Jack-Jack for an exhausted Bob, and upgrades Jack-Jack's suit with sensors that allow the family to track him and curb his newly manifested powers via remote control. The time she spends looking after Jack-Jack is the focus of the short "Auntie Edna". Rick Dicker. Rick Dicker (voiced by Pixar animator Bud Luckey in the first film, Jonathan Banks in the second film) is a government agent who was once part of the NSA (National Supers Agency) and now oversees the Superhero Relocation Program. He was one of the guests present at Mr. Incredible and Elastigirl's wedding. Rick is often frustrated by Bob clinging on to the "Glory Days", which usually ends up in Rick having to erase memories and repair damage caused by Bob's actions. By the first film's conclusion, Dicker congratulates Bob and his family after they stop the Omnidroid and expose Syndrome's plot. Rick Dicker also appears in the short film "Jack-Jack Attack" where he interrogates Jack-Jack's babysitter Kari about the events that unfolded while she was babysitting Jack-Jack and then erases Kari's memories at the end. In the DVD commentary, Brad Bird jokes that he had an idea to start Luckey's short film "Boundin"' with Rick Dicker coming into his office late at night, pulling out a bottle of "booze" and a banjo to begin telling the story. Rick returns in "Incredibles 2". He informs the Parr family that his department's Super Relocation program is being shut down, forcing supers across the world to permanently adhere to their secret identities. He then goes on to tell the family that they are on their own now and that he cannot help them any longer, althrough he manages to get them to live in a motel for two weeks after the destruction of their house in the first film, and informs them he is going into forced retirement. After Violet's classmate and crush Tony, who had recently agreed to go out on a date with Violet, witnesses Violet in her super-suit without her mask during the battle with the Underminer, Bob asks him to erase that memory in order to protect Violet's secret identity. However, Dicker accidentally erases Tony's "entire" memory of Violet, for which she is heartbroken. Snug. Snug is an old friend of Helen Parr, presumably from her super days as Elastigirl. He never appears in the films, but his voice can be heard on the phone when Helen calls him to acquire a jet to access Syndrome's island (in "The Incredibles"). In the movie, Snug can be seen in a photograph held by Helen that shows the two of them in aviation gear. In the deleted scenes, Snug was intended to travel with them on the plane to the island and would be killed in the following crash with the missiles, but this was rewritten to have Helen pilot the plane solo. Winston Deavor. Winston Deavor (voiced by Bob Odenkirk) is an ardent superhero fan who leads a telecommunications company with his sister Evelyn. In "Incredibles 2", he wants to re-legalize supers, whose activities have been outlawed by the government, through a marketing campaign. Winston selects Helen Parr to carry out a publicity stunt as Elastigirl in order to regain the general public's support of supers, and houses the Parr family in a luxurious mansion. His sister, however, places him under her control via hypnotic signals transmitted by television screens, as part of her scheme to permanently undermine the legal status of supers. She intends to do this by sabotaging a summit of supers and similarly-hypnotized political delegates taking place on the Deavors' cruise ship by crashing the ship into the city. When Winston is freed from her control, he aids in foiling Evelyn's plan to collide his cruise ship into the city by reboarding the runaway ship and freeing the delegates to then ensure their safety, while the supers attempt to regain control of the ship. He later presumably explains the truth of his sister's scheme to the delegates and to the authorities to legalize the superheroes again. Civilians. Oliver Sansweet. Oliver Sansweet is the president of a bank in Municiberg. While en route to his wedding, Mr. Incredible sees him jump off a building and saves him, which results in injuries to Sansweet in the process. Following the incident, Sansweet sues Mr. Incredible in Superior Court for preventing his suicide. His lawyer states that he did not want to be saved, and that injuries he sustained in the incident cause him daily pain. Sansweet's lawsuit against Mr. Incredible, as well as a series of other Super-related lawsuits, leads the government to initiate the Superhero Relocation Program. Gilbert Huph. Gilbert Huph (voiced by Wallace Shawn) is Bob Parr's diminutive, strict supervisor at his insurance company Insuricare. His main priority at Insuricare is its profits despite concerns from the company's staff or its customers. He is a stickler for bureaucracy, but prefers that customers should be unaware of any "loopholes" that would help secure an insurance claim. When Huph refuses to let Bob stop a mugging out in the street by threatening to fire him if he takes action, Bob loses his temper and throws Huph through several office walls, leaving him hospitalized and in traction, and resulting in Bob's termination from Insuricare. A deleted scene on the film's official website shows that his memories of the incident were erased by Rick. Bernie Kropp. Bernard "Bernie" Kropp (voiced by Lou Romano) is a teacher at Dash Parr's school, on whom Dash regularly pulls pranks. After sitting on a tack placed on his seat at his desk, Kropp sends Dash to the principal's office where they conference with Helen Parr. Kropp reveals that he had secretly videotaped the incident with Dash, which he claims "proves" Dash placed the tack on his desk chair. However, the principal is unconvinced and Dash is allowed to leave with Helen with no school repercussions, infuriating Kropp. Tony Rydinger. Anthony "Tony" Rydinger (voiced by Michael Bird) is a junior high school teenager, attending the same school as Violet Parr. Violet harbors a secret crush on him. In the end of "The Incredibles", with boosted confidence, Violet manages to attract Tony's attention and he asks her out on a date, which she accepts. Tony returns in "Incredibles 2". It is revealed that Tony accidentally witnessed Violet in her supersuit unmasked during their battle with the Underminer, which resulted in Rick Dicker being forced to wipe Tony's memory of the day, including that of Violet and his planned date with her. Following Evelyn Deavor's defeat, Violet is forced to start from scratch with Tony, asking him out to the movies again. However, she is forced to leave him at the cinema (with the promise of returning quickly) when a new threat calls for the Incredibles to take action. Kari McKeen. Kari McKeen (voiced by Bret Parker) is a friend of the Parrs, whom Violet calls upon to babysit Jack-Jack while the rest of the family are flying to save Mr. Incredible (in "The Incredibles"). She has taken numerous babysitting classes and feels more than adequately prepared to care for Jack-Jack in any capacity, and assures Helen Parr to that effect. She has one scene in the film, and she is heard later on Mrs. Parr's voice mail, complaining that some "very weird things" are happening; she does apparently learn all of Jack-Jack's powers as she has a defense for all of them after one day. Her eventful night with the baby (see above) is documented in the "Jack-Jack Attack" short included on the DVD release, ending with Rick Dicker erasing her memory of the incident. Ambassador Henrietta Selick. Ambassador Henrietta Selick (voiced by Isabella Rossellini) is a dignified foreign official committed to the support and legalization of superheroes. She is rescued by Elastigirl in "Incredibles 2", when Evelyn attempts to kill her in her helicopter through her hypnotic screens. Antagonists. Syndrome. In "The Incredibles", Buddy Pine (a.k.a. Syndrome) (voiced by Jason Lee) first appears as a 10-year-old child named Buddy Pine who professes to be Mr. Incredible's "number 1 fan". In an attempt to earn his hero's respect, Buddy Pine tries to aid him in fighting crime as "IncrediBoy", using gadgets of his own invention. Mr. Incredible declines Buddy's offer, and during a subsequent conflict between Mr. Incredible and the supervillain Bomb Voyage, Buddy interferes, and ends up with a bomb attached to his cape. Mr. Incredible's removal of it leads to the destruction of a section of elevated train tracks, which requires him to save the approaching train. Mr. Incredible then hands Buddy over to the police to have them take him home and inform his mother of his actions, bluntly telling Buddy that he works alone, leaving Buddy feeling rejected and disillusioned. Fifteen years later, Buddy has recreated himself as an evil genius called Syndrome who plans to exact revenge on his former idol, whom he now regards as his nemesis. He starts by having his assistant Mirage lure a series of Supers to his lair on Nomanisan Island under the cover of a job offer so that his Omnidroids can be improved by killing each one. After capturing the Parrs, Syndrome unleashes a massive Omnidroid upon Metroville, so that he can portray himself as a superhero who destroys it, when in fact, he is in control of it himself. However, the Omnidroid's adaptive intelligence leads it to turn against Syndrome. After freeing themselves and journeying to Metroville, they and Frozone destroy the Omnidroid. The authorities freeze Syndrome's assets and issue a warrant for his arrest. Syndrome abducts Jack-Jack with the intention of raising him as a sidekick, but he fails due to the sudden emergence of Jack-Jack's powers, and is killed when his cape is caught in his jet's intake. Syndrome has no superhuman powers, but he is incredibly intelligent, having invented numerous weapons and high-tech vehicles that use such principles as robotics, anti-gravity, and zero-point energy, which he sold to black market buyers to make himself rich. He owns his own island, complete with a mansion, a sophisticated monorail system, missiles, and a staff of guards equipped with exotic vehicles of Syndrome's design. Like Mr. Incredible, his character was also physically modeled after Brad Bird. Syndrome was chosen as the 64th Greatest Villain Ever by "Wizard Magazine". Omnidroid. The Omnidroids are a series of intelligent and destructive robots developed by Syndrome to fight and kill Supers. Syndrome made many different versions of this battle robot. All were designed to fight and kill Supers, and each subsequent model improved upon the previous one by correcting flaws and weaknesses found during fights. The Omnidroid's only weakness is itself: in the film, Mr. Incredible climbs into the Omnidroid's internal structure, causing the robot to pierce its own armor in a vain attempt to pry Mr. Incredible out of itself. The Omnidroid series of robots were designed by Syndrome to use AI and destructive features such as claws and laser guns to target and destroy its enemies. It is self-learning and can correct its own mistakes, and also collects information on the superheroes it encounters. Omnidroids were used to kill various superheroes - each time a superhero eventually defeated an Omnidroid, data from the defeated version was then used to create an improved model, specifically designed to have functions to beat the superhero who had previously destroyed it. Through the instructions of Mirage, the superheroes do not fully destroy the Omnidroid as "it is government property". The final Omnidroid created by Syndrome was controlled via a remote, which he uses to appear as a superhero by "destroying" it after launching it himself into Metroville. However, the Omnidroid learns that Syndrome is controlling it and turns on him. The Omnidroid is eventually destroyed by the combined efforts of the Parr family and Frozone when a separated claw is used to rip out its power core. "The Incredibles" credits includes the sentence, "The term OMNIDROID used by permission of Lucasfilm Ltd". George Lucas apparently holds a trademark on the term "droid" (the word used to refer to the robots in the "Star Wars" franchise) and as "Omnidroid" has the term "droid" in it, permission was requested (and granted) from Lucasfilm to use the term in the film. Mirage. In the first film, Mirage (voiced by Elizabeth Peña) is Syndrome's seductive right-hand woman and accomplice in the deaths of many Supers. She plays a significant role but is secondary antagonist to Syndrome. Though she has no superhuman abilities, she has extensive computer and espionage skills. In her video-tablet message to Mr. Incredible she mentions that according to the government, neither of them officially exist. Mirage is amoral to the point where she assists with Syndrome's systematic murder of the Supers. She has a change of heart when Syndrome shows callous regard for Elastigirl and the children on board the plane, and after he takes a gamble on her life, daring an imprisoned Mr. Incredible to kill her. She subsequently frees him, and helps his family escape the island. Bomb Voyage. Bomb Voyage (voiced by Dominique Louis) is a mime-themed French supervillain who uses explosives. He is a recurring enemy of Mr. Incredible. The character's name is a pun on the French phrase "Bon Voyage". He is first seen in "The Incredibles" confronting Mr. Incredible when stealing money from a bank vault. Buddy Pine, Mr. Incredible's long-time fan, interrupts their impending showdown and tries to convince Mr. Incredible to let Buddy help. As Buddy flies off to get the police, Voyage plants a bomb on his cape, forcing Mr. Incredible to release him to save Buddy, thus allowing Voyage to escape. Stung by Mr. Incredible's anger and disappointment, Buddy became the supervillain Syndrome. Brad Bird originally pitched a character named Bomb Pérignon in reference to the similarly named champagne Dom Pérignon, but the Moët et Chandon company rejected the idea. Voyage makes a cameo in the 2007 Pixar film "Ratatouille" as a street mime. The Underminer. The Underminer (voiced by John Ratzenberger) is a mole-like supervillain who appears at the end of "The Incredibles" riding on a gigantic drill-tipped tank, where he announces his "war on peace and happiness", leading into the last shot of the Parr family putting their masks on for battle. This confrontation is continued at the beginning of "Incredibles 2"; after declaring war, the Underminer drills back underneath the ground and blows up the ground-areas holding up the Metroville Bank. The Underminer then uses a vacuum hose to rob all of the savings in the Bank's Vault, while Mr. Incredible tries to stop him. The Underminer is able to store all of the money in an escape pod, and escapes from his tank before it runs out of control. The main tank is then disabled by the Parrs and Frozone. This battle, which caused collateral damage to the city, leads to the Superhero Relocation Program being shut down, and the warning by the government of legal action against Supers if they cause any more damage. Screenslaver/Evelyn Deavor. In "Incredibles 2", Evelyn Deavor (voiced by Catherine Keener) is the sister of Winston Deavor and the chief designer for DevTech. She creates the masked villain persona Screenslaver in order to carry out her plans to hypnotize and control people undiscovered. When the Screenslaver himself is seemingly unmasked by Elastigirl, he turns out to be a confused pizza delivery driverman (voiced by Bill Wise) who had been hypnotized by his mask's goggles into following Evelyn's orders. Evelyn forces another pair of goggles onto Elastigirl and reveals her plan to ruin Winston's summit so that the supers will fail to regain legal status. After gaining control of Mr. Incredible, Frozone, and several other supers, she is thwarted when Dash, Violet, and Jack-Jack free their parents, and Winston exposes Evelyn's plans to the world leaders. Evelyn attempts to flee while setting the summit ship on a collision course with the city of Municiberg. However, the supers stop the ship just in time, and Evelyn is captured and turned over to the police. Her name is a pun based on the phrase "evil endeavor." List of known superheroes. Most of the following information comes from one of four main sources, two of which are scenes from the first film. The first is Edna Mode's explanation to Bob of why she refuses to design supersuits with capes, which is accompanied by a montage of a number of late supers' deaths. The second is when Bob hacks into Syndrome's computer files. The third is the "NSA Files" feature in the "Top Secret" section of Disc 2 of "The Incredibles" two-disc DVD edition. A minor amount of information, such as information on Fironic, comes from other scenes in the film, as noted. Aspiring superheroes. The following are characters that aspire to be superheroes and appear in "Incredibles 2":

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Second-language attrition is the decline of second-language skills, which occurs whenever the learner uses the second language to an insufficient degree (de Bot & Weltens 1991:43) or due to environmental changes the language use is limited and another language is becoming the dominant one (Olshtain 1989: 151). Definition. A German researcher, Schöpper-Grabe, once expressed that, "Almost everybody who has learned a foreign language shares the experience of forgetting the acquired language skills once the period of formal instruction is over" (Schöpper-Grabe 1998: 231). This relates to how second-language attrition can be defined as the "non-pathological decrease in a language that had formerly been acquired by an individual" (Köpke & Schmid 2004: 5) and described as the "[…] loss of skills in the individual over time" (de Bot & Weltens, 1995). Beginning in the 1970s until today, a new and especially young field in the area of second-language acquisition was developed. It is connected cross-sectionally throughout different research areas. Language attrition, in general, is concerned with what is lost (linguistic focus), how it is lost (psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic focus) and why it is lost (sociolinguistic, sociologistic and anthropologistic focus) (Hansen 1999). Over 25 years research has been concentrated on studying the attrition of second languages. First studies, dealing with the topic of language loss or language attrition, were published in the late 1970s (de Bot & Weltens 1989: 127). In 1980, the University of Pennsylvania hosted the conference "The Loss of Language Skills", and language attrition was recognized as a field in the research of second-language acquisition. Since then, various scientific research papers – mainly within America – have been published. Later, several studies in Europe – especially the Netherlands – followed. In other countries, however, language attrition research was paid hardly any attention (de Bot & Weltens 1995). Compared to the field of second-language acquisition, language attrition is still relatively young; so much is still unknown. Purpose and development. The purpose of language attrition research, in general, is to discover how, why and what is lost when a language is forgotten. The aim in foreign or second-language attrition research, more specifically, is to find out why, after an active learning process, the language competence changes or even stops (Gleason 1982). Further, results from research in this area could, as Van Els and Weltens (1989) counter, contribute to the understanding of relations between acquisition and attrition (van Els 1989). L2/FL attrition research is particularly important because it provides results for foreign language instruction. De Bot and Weltens state, "[r]esearch on language attrition can also have a considerable impact on curriculum planning or foreign language teaching" (1995: 152). The theoretical grounding of the language attrition research derives primarily from cognitive and psychological theories. Research in the area of language attrition concentrates generally on the loss of the L1 and L2. The first distinction that can be made is between pathological and natural language attrition. The former concentrates on language loss caused by a damage of the brain, injury, age or illness. However, this topic will not be investigated any further, because the language attrition in these cases is not caused by natural circumstances. Weltens (1987: 24) states another possible distinction, inter and intra generational language attrition. Inter generational language attrition is concerned with attrition within individuals, whereas intra generational language attrition concentrates on the attrition across different generations. Van Els (1986) distinguishes types of attrition in terms of which language is lost and in which environment it is being lost. Therefore, he classifies: Relationship between the first and second languages in the mind. It is not exactly known how different languages are stored in the mind. A researcher, Vivian Cook, proposes that the languages are separated into distinct compartments. This is termed the separation model. An L2 speaker will speak one of the languages, but no connection is made between them in the mind (Cook 2003: 7). Another proposed model is the integration model, which suggests that rather than having two separate mental lexicons, an L2 speaker has one lexicon where words from one language are stored from one language alongside words from the other. Regarding phonology, it has been found that L2 speakers sometimes have one merged system for producing speech, not distinguished by L1 or L2. The integration model focuses on how there is a balance between the unique elements of both languages, and how they form one system. Though these two proposed models offering different perspectives, it is impossible to have total separation because both languages exist in the same mind. Total integration is impossible because we are able to keep the languages apart in our minds (Cook 2003: 7). Another proposed model is the link language model. This model illustrates the idea that two languages within the same mind are able to influence and interact with one another. Further, the partial integration model illustrates the idea of partial overlapping between two languages in one mind. It doesn't differentiate between the languages in the overlap, but it shows how it functions as a single, conjoined system. These systems illustrate the point that vocabulary, syntax, and other aspects of language knowledge can be shared or overlapped between different languages within one mind (Cook 2003: 8). Finally, all of the models function together to create the integration continuum, an illustration that shows the possible relationships in "multi-competence" (Cook 2003: 9). Effects on the L1. The L1 can be enhanced by the use of an L2 - Cook mentions that "extensive research into bilingual development shows overall that L2 user children have more precocious metalinguistic skills than their monolingual pairs" (Cook 2003: 13). The L1 can be harmed by the use of an L2 - He also brings up the risk of L1 language attrition from the L2. When one language is less and less used, certain abilities are lost from inactivity. The L1 is different from the L2, without being better or worse - Oftentimes, the effects of the L2 on the L1 cause no difference in language knowledge or ability. Differences will undoubtedly exist in the first language element because of different linguistic organization. Different characteristics, like phonological properties, show noticeable differences from a speaker transitioning from L1 to L2. For example, Cook brings up the possibility of differences in "the first language of L2 users for plosive consonants such as /p/ and /b/ or /k/ and /g/ across pairs of languages such as Spanish/English, French/English, and Hebrew/English, which are essentially undetectable in normal language use" (Cook 2003: 13). First language attrition. Researchers, Levy, McVeigh, Marful, and Anderson studied the idea of a new acquired language inhibiting the first, native language. They discussed how "travelers immersed in a new language often experience a surprising phenomenon: Words in their native tongue grow more difficult to recall over time" (Levy 2007: 29). They suggest that the lapses in native-language words can possibly be attributed to "an adaptive role of inhibitory control in hastening second-language acquisition" (Levy 2007: 29). First-language attrition is often worse during second-language immersion. During this time, the native-language is practiced infrequently. The attrition can be attributed to the disuse of the native language and functions of forgetting that occur in the mind. They bring up the idea that first-language attrition can be related to "retrieval-induced-forgetting." This is supported by how novice foreign-language speakers immediately access native-language vocabulary for things, although the foreign word is wanted. The aforementioned researchers conducted studies on retrieval-induced forgetting, and examined "whether inhibitory control mechanisms resolve interference from one's native language during foreign-language production" (Levy 2007: 30). The results of their experiments provided evidence for a role of inhibitions in first-language attrition. The experiment showed that "the more often novice Spanish speakers named objects in Spanish, the worse their later production of the corresponding English names became", "subjects who were least fluent with the Spanish vocabulary [they] test showed the largest phonological inhibition of English words", and showed that the inhibition effect was isolated to phonology (Levy 2007: 33). Theories of forgetting. To provide an answer as to how second-language attrition happens, it is necessary to have a glance at the findings of the research of memory. Since its establishment by Ebbinghaus in the late 19th century, the empirical research about learning still plays an important role in the modern research of memory. Decay theory. Hermann Ebbinghaus contributed a lot to the research of the memory of the brain. He made the first empirical study concerning the function of the memory as to the storage and forgetting of information. His major finding was that the amount of learned knowledge depends on the amount of time invested. Further, the more time that is passing by, the more repetitions that are necessary. Resulting from the findings of Ebbinghaus, the first theory of forgetting was established, the decay theory. It says that if something new is learned, a "memory trace" is formed. This trace will decay, if not used in the course of time, and by decaying of this trace, forgetting occurs (Weltens 1987). Interference theory. The interference theory can be seen as one of the most important theories of forgetting. It indicates that prior, posterior or new learning information compete with already existing ones and therefore forgetting occurs. This inhibition can be divided into two types: the retroactive inhibition, where information acquired at a later point in time blocks the information that was acquired earlier. Proactive inhibition means that information acquired in the past can infer with new information. Hence, a blocking can occur that inhibits the acquiring of the new target item (Ecke 2004: 325). Retrieval-failure hypothesis. Today, the retrieval-failure hypothesis, concerning the function of the memory, is more widely accepted and popularized (Schöpper-Grabe 1998:237). It says that the storage of information happens on different levels. Therefore, information or memory is not deleted, but rather, the access to the current level is blocked. Thus, the information is not available. Hansen quotes Loftus & Loftus (1976) to describe forgetting: "[…] much like being unable to find something that we have misplaced somewhere" (1999: 10). Cohen states, evidence for knowing that a learner is not able to "find" something, is the use of the so-called progressive retrieval (1986). Thereby, the learner is unable to express something that is in his mind and consequently uses an incorrect form. He eventually remembers the correct one (Cohen 1986; Olshtain 1989). Time is considered the decisive factor to measure how far the attrition has proceeded already (de Bot & Weltens, 1995). Hypotheses of language attrition. To have a better understanding of language attrition, it is necessary to examine the various hypotheses that attempt to explain how language memory changes over time. Regression hypothesis. The regression hypothesis can be named as the first established theory in language loss. Its tradition goes far back, further than any other theory. The first researcher who designed it was Ribot in 1880. Later, Freud took Ribot's idea up again and related it to aphasia (Weltens & Schmid 2004: 211). In 1940, Roman Jakobson embedded it into a linguistic framework and claimed that language attrition is the mirror image of language acquisition (Weltens & Cohen 1989: 130). Even though only a few studies have tested this hypothesis, it is quite attractive to many researchers. As Weltens and Schmid (2004: 212) state, children acquire the language in stages. It was then suggested that language competence, in general, appears in different layers and therefore, attrition, as the mirror image of acquisition, will also happen from the top layer to the bottom. Last-learned-first-forgotten hypothesis. According to the regression hypothesis, two similar approaches developed. Cohen started to conduct several studies on his own to determine "whether the last things learned are, in fact, the first things to be forgotten, and whether forgetting entails unlearning in reverse order from the original learning process" (Cohen 1975: 128). He observed the attrition of Spanish, as the second language, among school children during the summer vacation. Cohen's results supported the regression hypothesis and his last-learned-first-forgotten thesis. It supported the idea that some things, which are learned last, are the first to be forgotten when the learner has no input of the target language anymore. Best-learned-last-forgotten hypothesis. Another variation of the regression hypothesis is the best learned-last-forgotten hypothesis, which emphasizes the intensity and quality of the acquired knowledge, not the order in which it is learned. Therefore, the better something is learned, the longer it will remain. Because the language component is repeated again and again, it becomes automated and increases the probability that it will last in the memory (Schöpper-Grabe 1998: 241). Linguistic-feature hypothesis. The linguistic-feature hypothesis was introduced by Andersen (Andersen 1982). He claims that second languages or foreign languages that share more differences with the respective mother tongue than similarities are more endangered to be forgotten than those similar to the L1. Another point is the attrition of components, which are less "functional", "marked" or "frequent" compared to other elements (Weltens & Cohen 1989: 130). This hypothesis is more differentiated and complex than the regression hypothesis because it considers aspects from first- and second-language acquisition research, language contact and aphasia research and the survey of pidgin and creole languages (Müller 1995). By means of this hypothesis research, it tries to detect the aspects of language that are first to be forgotten. Process of language attrition. To define the process of language attrition, it is necessary to consider that there are different theories as to how the stages of language attrition occur. Acquisition and incubation period. Gardner (1982: 519-520) believes that the process of second-language attrition is divided into three points in time: Between times 1 to 2 is termed the acquisition period. Between times 2 to 3 is termed the incubation period (1982: 520). Further, he states that it is not enough to consider only the time that has passed between 2 and 3 to make statements about attrition. It is also necessary to consider the duration, relative success, and nature of the acquisition period and the duration and content of the incubation phase (Gardner 1982: 520). The acquisition period is the time where language learning or language experience occurs, mainly from the first to the last lesson. During the incubation period, no language training or language usage occurs and the forgetting may begin. He says that now that language learning is not active anymore, a study about language attrition can be conducted (Gardner 1982a: 2). The typical forgetting curve. The forgetting curve orientates itself on the typical forgetting curve by Ebbinghaus. He said that already after a very short amount of time, a forgetting process sets in immediately, stabilizes and then levels off. Bahrick conducted a study where he tested 773 persons with Spanish as their L2. His probates had varying acquisition and incubation periods, up to 50 years of non-active learning. He discovered a heavy attrition within the first 5 years, which then stabilized for the next 20 years (Weltens & Cohen 1989: 130). According to Bahrick, the knowledge that remained after 5 years is stored in the permastore. Neisser (1984) uses a different term, he prefers critical threshold, a level that has to be reached. Beyond that threshold, knowledge will resist decay. Contrary to these findings Weltens & Cohen (1989: 130) are reporting from studies where different results were found. According to these findings, the forgetting curve begins with an initial plateau, a period where the language competence is not affected at all. This is then followed by the onset of attrition. Weltens explains these results: it is by the high proficiency of the probates (bilinguals and immersion students). However, it is still unknown whether the curve that follows this plateau is potentially exactly like the "normal" forgetting curve of language learners with a lower proficiency level (Weltens & Cohen 1989: 130). Relearning. Another phenomenon is relearning. Some studies show that, despite the end of learning and no language input, a residual learning can happen. Weltens (1989), who studied foreign language learners, identifies an increase in reading and listening comprehension. He says that it happens because a process of maturation happens. Schöpper-Grabe determines that contact and the intensity with the target language cannot be the only variable causing language attrition (Schöpper-Grabe 1998). Factors influencing second-language attrition. In literature several factors are named for explaining why language competence is decreasing. Many researchers, however, regard the level of competence of the learner as essential for attrition. It is said that the higher the level of competence, the less attrition will occur. Thus, a reference to the theory of the critical threshold can be drawn. Similar to this theory it is claimed, that according to conducted studies, the higher the level of competence of the learner at the end of the incubation period, the fewer will be lost. Therefore, duration, success and intensity of the language instruction or language input in general is vitally important. Weltens (1987) divides the factors influencing language attrition into three categories: characteristics of the acquisition process (method of instruction, length of exposure, proficiency before attrition, relationship between L1 and the FL), characteristics of the attrition period ('post exposure' and length of the attrition period), and learner characteristics. The second category are sociopsychological factors, as the attitude towards the target language and culture and aligned with the motivation for acquiring the language. Further, factors, which are settled in the language environment, should be considered as well, e.g. the status and prestige of the language are meaningful, too. Another frequent occurring factor is age. A variable that seems to be quite important, especially observing language attrition in children. Even though children are regarded as the better foreign language learner, their cognitive development is less progressed compared to adults. Further, usually they haven't learned to write or read in any language, and usually particularly not in the second language at all. Therefore, their literacy skill in the L2 is very limited if not even there yet. Cohen (1989) conducted a study observing young children. He found out, that the attrition in an 8-year-old boy was stronger than the one in his 12-year-old sister. Tomiyama, suggested on the basis of her findings, that these children might not lose their knowledge of the L2 completely, moreover the access to such information is inaccessible and may vanish with time passing by. At the beginning of the 80s another, so far unnoticed factor, was introduced into the research field. Socioaffective factors as attitude, orientation and motivation are now accounted. On account of that, he established a socio-educational model of language acquisition. Thereby motivation and attitude influence the workload of the individual to keep their language competence. Further, individuals, who have positive attitudes towards the target language, seek possibilities and opportunities during the incubation period to retain their language competence (Gardner 1987: 521). However, the factor motivation is hardly considered examining language attrition. Especially during the last 10–15 years it became more and more acknowledged in the field of language acquisition rather than attrition. Only Gardner considered motivation as a possible factor influencing attrition. Even until today it is hardly recognised as an influencing factor and therefore exist only a few studies about motivation and its effects. Areas affected by language attrition. Feuerhake (2004: 7) reports that, looking at released studies, that have been conducted, it can be seen that all four competence areas2 are affected. Though some of these seem more likely to be affected than others, e.g. grammar and lexical knowledge are more likely to suffer a high attrition process. Showing loss in speaking competence, the first evidence is that the speech tempo decreases. Longer and more frequently occurring speech pauses, under which the fluency is suffering, are observable as well (Gardner 1987). Olshtain (1986) observed "[…] reduced accessibility in vocabulary retrieval in all situations of attrition where there is a reduction of language loss over longer periods of time." (1986: 163). Further, gaps concerning grammatical knowledge, especially tenses and conjunction of verbs occur quite frequently. Nevertheless, it can be said that productive skills are more affected than receptive ones, which mainly remain constantly stable (Cohen 1989) and if the learner shows already signs of language attrition it is more likely that transfer from L1 will happen (Berman & Olshtain 1983). Cohen examined in his studies several strategies, the learner applies to compensate the lack of adequate speaking skills, e.g. one strategy is code-switching, to uphold the communication. Another phenomenon observable is a kind of "mixed-language". Müller (1995) states that on many levels of speaking the learner falls back on a mixture between different languages. Still, it is important to mention, that, as with almost every study that has been conducted in the different sub-fields of second-language acquisition research, several problems arise. There are longitudinal vs. cross-sectional studies, different variables, which have been used, and mainly terms and conditions of acquisition and incubation period are not standardised, particularly the length of the incubation period (Feuerhake 2004: 8). That means, some studies only observe language attrition after language programs, other look at the attrition in between breaks of language programs and studies, which examine the attrition after change of environment, regarding language and living conditions (Cohen 1975, Olshtain 1989). Finally, studies reviewed in this paper show that attrition follows a certain order, e.g. productive skills are more affected than receptive skills. Mainly due to difficulties in lexical retrieval a loss in fluency seems to be the first signs of language attrition, followed by attrition in morphology and syntax. Further observations in language attrition are necessary, to give a better understanding of how the human mind deals with language (Hansen 1999: 78). Motivation. The following chapter is trying to explain motivation and its influence on language attrition. Until 1990 the sociopsychological model of Gardner dominated the research about motivation. Gardner and Lambert emphasise thereby the importance of attitude towards the language, the target country and language community (Feuerhake 2004). Instrumental and integrative orientation. According to Gardner and Lambert (1972) a learner is instrumental orientated if learning a foreign language has a function, e.g. for success in career terms. Thereby, the language becomes an instrument to achieve the higher purpose and the foreign language learning is concentrated on fulfilling the aim of the learner (Feuerhake 2004: 9). The integrative orientation follows the aim of acculturating with the target language and country as well as the integration into the target language community. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The instrumental and integrative orientation is not enough to cover all aspects of the term motivation, the term intrinsic and extrinsic motivation was added to the model. The term intrinsic is connected with behaviour, which results from the reward of the activity itself. The learner acts, because he is enjoying the activity or it is satisfying his curiosity. Mainly it is self-determined and the learner is eager to learn a foreign language because he wants to achieve a certain level of competence. The learner enjoys learning and the acquisition of a foreign language is challenging. Extrinsic motivated learners are orientated on external stimuli, e.g. positive feedback or expectations from others. In general four different types of extrinsic motivation can be distinguished (Bahar 2005): Bahar (2005: 66) quotes Pintrich & Schunk (1996), who state that "[…] motivation involves various mental processes that lead to the initiation and maintenance of action […]". Hence, motivation is a dynamic process that changes over time and the motivation of a learner as well might change during the learning process. Therefore, it cannot be seen as an isolated factor. Moreover, several other factors, which are settled within the learner, as well as in the environment, influence motivation and are responsible for its intensity and variability. Other studies. Gardner, Lalonde, & Moorcroft (1987) investigated the nature of L2-French skills attriting by L1-English grade 12 students during the summer vacation, and the role played by attitudes and motivation in promoting language achievement and language maintenance. Students who finished the L2 class highly proficient are more likely to retain what they knew. Yet high achievers in the classroom situation are no more likely to make efforts to use the L2 outside the classroom unless they have positive attitudes and high levels of motivation. The authors write: "an underlying determinant of both acquisition and use is motivation" (p. 44). In fact, the nature of language acquisition is still so complex and so much is still unknown, not all students will have the same experiences during the incubation period. It is possible that some students will appear to attrite in some areas and others will appear to attrite in other areas. Some students will appear to maintain the level that they had previously achieved. And still, other students will appear to improve. Murtagh (2003) investigated retention and attrition of L2-Irish in Ireland with second level school students. At Time 1, she found that most participants were motivated instrumentally, yet the immersion students were most likely to be motivated integratively and they had the most positive attitudes towards learning Irish. Immersion school students were also more likely to have opportunities to use Irish outside the classroom/school environment. Self-reports correlated with ability. She concludes that the educational setting (immersion schools, for example) and the use of the language outside the classroom were the best predictors for L2-Irish acquisition. Eighteen months later, Murtagh finds that the majority of groups 1 and 2 believe their Irish ability has attrited, the immersion group less so. The results from the tests, however, do not show any overall attrition. "Time" as a factor did not exert any overall significant change on the sample's proficiency in Irish (Murtagh, 2003:159). Fujita (2002), in a study evaluating attrition among bilingual Japanese children, says that a number of factors are seen as necessary to maintain the two languages in the returnee child. Those factors include: age on arrival in the L2 environment, length of residence in the L2 environment, and proficiency levels of the L1. Furthermore, she found that L2 attrition was closely related to another factor: age of the child on returning to the L1 environment. Children returning around or before 9 were more likely to attrite than those returning later. Upon returning from overseas, pressure from society, their family, their peers and themselves force returnee children to switch channels back to the L1 and they quickly make effort to attain the level of native-like L1 proficiency of their peers. At the same time, lack of L2 support in the schools in particular and in society in general results in an overall L2 loss.

specific procedure

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3234630

The Case Fresno is the name assigned by the Catalonia media and public opinion to the Federation of International Roller Sports (FIRS) assembly held at Fresno, California, on 26 November 2004. It meant that for the first time in history, an international sport team that had been accepted provisionally was later not accepted definitely. At the same time, it was the first time that a regional sport team (Catalonia) had been registered with the opposition of the state the region belonged to (Spain). The Spanish sport organizations actively lobbied against the Catalonia membership among the members of the assembly. At the Fresno assembly, the membership application was rejected (8–114). However, the Federació Catalana de Patinatge brought the case to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (TAS) at Lausanne, which admitted irregularities in the assembly (notably the lack of secrecy in the vote), invalidated the vote, and forced the FIRS to repeat the vote following the FIRS statute rules. An extraordinary FIRS assembly was held in Rome on November 24, 2005, and again rejected the membership application of the Catalan federation (125–43). After being granted a temporary membership, Catalonia played the World Championship B, at Macau, (China), in October 2004, winning it. As a result, Catalonia qualified to play the full World Championship, where it played in the same group as Spain. Spain's opposition. Some Catalan media have denounced the pressions by the Spanish government and sport organizations on the members of the assembly . Representatives from Chile or Italy (Sabatino Aracu, member of Forza Italia) would allegedly suffered from such pressions or receive instructions from their national governments. The Czech Republic representative Radek Pavelec admitted that his federation had received pressures from the Spanish government . In addition, a letter of the Consejo Superior de Deported (CSD, the Spanish Council for Sports) to the Colombian federation in which the Spaniards were asking for the vote against Catalonia has been made public. In that letter the CSD stated that the recognition of Catalonia would alter the Spanish sport national unity and would create a wrong precedent. The same letter was sent to some other South American federations . The German representative admitted that she was contacted by the German MP for Sport demanding the vote against Catalonia. Literally he asked her to make sure she was coming back from Fresno with a "no" against Catalonia. Repetition of the vote in Rome. On 29 November 2005, the FIRS assembly, meeting in Rome, he repeated the final vote on the admission of the Catalan Federation of Skating. In this case the method of voting was secret and the president of the Catalan Ramon Basiana was able to defend the nomination. The extraordinary meeting in Rome of the FIRS rejected by 125 votes to 43 for admission as a full member of the Catalan Federation of Skating

request to join

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511178

A beer tap is a valve, specifically a tap, for controlling the release of beer. While other kinds of tap may be called "faucet", "valve" or "spigot", the use of "tap" for beer is almost universal. This may be because the word was originally coined for the wooden valve in traditional barrels. Beer served from a tap is largely known as draught beer, though beer served from a cask is more commonly called cask ale, while beer from a keg may specifically be called keg beer. Beer taps can be also used to serve similar drinks like cider or long drinks. There are many different types and styles of beer or keg taps. Usage. Pressure-dispense bar tap. Beer supplied in kegs is served with the aid of external pressure from a cylinder of carbon dioxide (or occasionally nitrogen) which forces the beer out of the keg and up a narrow tube to the bar. At the end of this tube is a valve built into a fixture (usually somewhat decorative) on the bar. This is the beer tap and opening it with a small lever causes beer, pushed by the gas from the cylinder, to flow into the glass. Some view this system as disadvantageous as it produces a frothy head which must be left to subside before more beer can be added to the glass. Some manufacturers have tried to address this problem by producing a device which allows the beer to be poured from the bottom up. Some people, such as Germans and the Dutch prefer a rather large amount of head on their beers. Portable keg tap. Sometimes, beer kegs designed to be connected to the above system are instead used on their own, perhaps at a party or outdoor event. In this case, a self-contained portable tap is required that allows beer to be served straight from the keg. Because the keg system uses pressure to force the beer up and out of the keg, these taps must have a means of supplying it. The typical "picnic tap" uses a hand pump to push air into the keg; this will cause the beer to spoil faster but is perfectly acceptable if the entire keg will be consumed in a short time. Portable taps with small CO2 cylinders are also available. Cask beer tap. Beers brewed and served by traditional methods, typically cask ale, do not use artificial gas. Taps for cask beer are simple on-off valves that are hammered into the end of the cask (see keystone for details). When beer is served directly from the cask ("by gravity"), as at beer festivals and some pubs, it simply flows out of the tap and into the glass. When the cask is stored in the cellar and served from the bar, as in most pubs, the beer line is screwed onto the tap and the beer is pulled through it by a beer engine. The taps used are the same, and in beer-line setups the first pint is often poured from the cask as for "gravity", for tasting, before the line is connected. Cask beer taps can be brass (now discouraged for fear of lead contamination), stainless steel, plastic, and wood. Tall fount. In Scotland, cask ale was traditionally served through a tall fount (pronounced "font"). These appear similar to keg taps (indeed, many Scottish pubs serve keg beer through adapted tall founts) rendered from brass but the beer was drawn from the barrel via air pressure generated by a water engine rather than by a pressurised artificial gas. Some pubs still dispense cask beer using this method (although the water engine will invariably have been replaced by an electric compressor) but is increasingly rare due to the perception that hand-pumps are the correct means by which to serve real ale, and to the potential for confusion with keg ale, which is regarded as inferior by many beer drinkers. The Aitken fount variety is still in use in several Edinburgh pubs but there were other designs. Dimensions. Typical tap handles are 9-13" tall, but can range from very short (4") to novelty lengths (>13"). Most taps are assembled with a 4" delrin handle. The threading for tap handles is 3/8"-16 UNC (coarse). The faucet is male and the handle is female.

remarkable quantity

1199-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17032592

Field-flow fractionation, abbreviated FFF, is a separation technique which does not have a stationary phase. It is similar to liquid chromatography as it works on dilute solutions or suspensions of the solute. Separation is achieved by applying a field (hydraulic, centrifugal, thermal, electric, magnetic, gravitational, ...) perpendicular to the direction of transport of the sample which is pumped through a long and narrow channel. The field exerts a force on the sample components concentrating them towards one of the channel walls, which is called accumulation wall. The force interacts with a property of the sample on which then the separation occurs, in other words on their differing "mobilities" under the force exerted by the field. As an example, for the hydraulic, or cross-flow FFF method, the property driving separation is the translational diffusion coefficient or the hydrodynamic size. For a thermal field (heating one wall and cooling the other), it is the ratio of the thermal and the translational diffusion coefficient. FFF is applicable in the sub-micron range (from 1 nm to several microns) in the "normal" mode or up to 50 microns in the so-called steric mode. The transition from normal to steric mode takes place when diffusion becomes negligible at sizes above a micron. FFF does not work for small molecules, because the force is not high enough to concentrate the sample to an average distance from the accumulation wall which is less than 10µm. This is possible if the ratio of the drift velocity caused by the force field and the diffusion coefficient is at least 100, which is the case in the size from a nanometer up to several microns. The FFF method is unique to other separation techniques because it can separate materials over a wide colloidal size range while maintaining high resolution. Although FFF is an extremely versatile technique, there is no "one size fits all" method for all applications. FFF was devised and first published by J. Calvin Giddings in 1966 and in 1976 he published on Flow-FFF which is the most important FFF technique today. Giddings, credited for the invention of FFF, was professor of chemistry and specialist of chromatography and separation techniques at the University of Utah. As mentioned above, in field-flow fractionation the "field" can be hydraulic (with a cross "flow" through a semi-permeable membrane as the accumulation wall), gravitational, centrifugal, thermal, electrical, or magnetic. In all cases, the separation mechanism is produced by differences in particle mobility under the forces of the field, "in a stationary equilibrium with" the forces of diffusion: The field induces a downward drift velocity and concentration towards the accumulation wall, the diffusion works against this concentration gradient. After a certain time (called relaxation time) the two forces equilibrate in a stationary equilibrium. This is best visualized as a particle cloud, with all components in constant motion, but with an exponential decrease of the average concentration going away from the accumulation wall up into the channel. The decrease of air pressure going up from sea level has the same exponential decrease which is described in the Barometric formula. After relaxation has been achieved, elution starts as the channel flow is activated. In the thin channel (typical height 250 to 350 µm) a parabolic laminar-flow-velocity profile exists, which is characterized by a strong increase of the flow velocity with increasing distance from the accumulation wall. This determines the velocity of a particular particle, based on its equilibrium position from the wall of the channel. Particles closer to the accumulation wall will migrate slower compared to others being higher up. The ratio of the velocity of a species of particle to the average velocity of the fluid is called the "retention ratio R". In FFF for efficient separation, R needs to be below 0.2, typical values are in the range of 0.02 to 0.1. Due to FFF's similarity to Liquid Chromatography, in ways of a liquid mobile phase passing through the channel, the most common detectors are those that are also used for LC. The most frequently used is a UV detector because of its non-destructive nature. Coupling with Multiangle light scattering allows to calculate the size of eluting fractions and compare to values obtained via FFF theory. Another popular specific detection is Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to characterize metallic nanoparticles with high specificity and sensitivity. Fundamental principles. Field flow fractionation is based on laminar flow of particles in a solution. These sample components will change levels and speed based on their size/mass. Since these components will be travelling at different speeds, separation occurs. A simplified explanation of the setup is as follows. The sample separation occurs in a thin, ribbon-like, channel in which there is an inlet flow and a perpendicular field flow. The inlet flow is where the carrier liquid is pumped into the channel and it creates a parabolic flow profile and it propels the sample towards the outlet of the channel. Once the sample elutes from the channel it enters the detector. Relating force (F) to retention time (TR). The relationship between the separative force field and retention time can be illustrated from first principles. Consider two particle populations within the FFF channel. The cross field drives both particle clouds towards the bottom "accumulation" wall. Opposing this force field is the particles natural diffusion, or Brownian motion, which produces a counter acting motion. When these two transport process reach equilibrium the particle concentration c approaches the exponential function of elevation x above the accumulation wall as illustrated in equation 1. l represents the characteristic elevation of the particle cloud. This relates to the height that the particle group can reach within the channel and only when the value for l is different for either group will separation occur. The l of each component can be related to the force applied on each individual particle. Where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is absolute temperature and F is the force exerted on a single particle by the cross flow. This shows how the characteristic elevation value is inversely dependent to the Force applied. Therefore, F governs the separation process. Hence, by varying the field strength the separation can be controlled to achieve optimal levels. The velocity V of a cloud of molecules is simply the average velocity of an exponential distribution embedded in a parabolic flow profile. Retention time, tr can be written as: Where L is the channel length. Subsequently, the retention time can be written as: tr/to = w/6l ⌊coth w/2l- 2l/w⌋−1 Where to is the void time (emergence of a non-retained tracer) and w is the sample thickness. Substituting in kT/F in place of l illustrates the retention time with respect to the cross force applied. tr/to = Fw/6kT ⌊coth Fw/2kT- 2kT/Fw⌋−1 For an efficient operation the channel thickness value w far exceeds l. When this is the case the term in the brackets approaches unity. Therefore, equation 5 can be approximated as: tr/to = w/6l = Fw/6kT Thus tr is roughly proportional to F. The separation of particle bands X and Y, represented by the finite increment ∆tr in their retention times, is achieved only if the force increment ∆F between them is sufficient. A differential in force of only 10–16 N is required for this to be the case. The magnitude of F and ∆F depend on particle properties, field strength and the type of field. This allows for variations and specialisations for the technique. From this basic principle many forms of FFF have evolved varying by the nature of the separative force applied and the range in molecule size to which they are targeted. Fractogram. A graph of detection signal vs. time from an FFF separation, in which various substances present in a fluid are separated based on their flow velocities under some applied external field, such as an flow, centrifugal, thermal or electric field. Often these substances are particles initially suspended in a small volume of a liquid buffer and pushed along the FFF channel by the buffer. The varying velocities of a particular species of particles may be due to its size, its mass, and/or its distance from the walls of a channel with non-uniform flow-velocity. The presence of different species in a sample can thus be identified through detection of a common property at some distance down the long channel, and by the resulting fractogram indicating the presence of the various species by peaks, due to the different times of arrival characteristic of each species and its physical and chemical properties. In an electrical FFF, an electric field controls the velocity by controlling the lateral position of either a charged (having electrophoretic mobility) or polarized (being levitated in a non-uniform field) species in a capillary channel with a hydrodynamically parabolic flow-velocity profile, meaning that the velocity of the pumped fluid is highest midway between the walls of the channel and it monotonically decays to a minimum of zero at the wall surface. Forms. Most techniques available today are advances on those originally created by Prof. Giddings nearly 4 decades ago. Flow. Of these techniques flow FFF was the first to be offered commercially. Flow FFF separates particles based on size, independent of density and can measure macromolecules in the range of 1 nm to 1 µm. In this respect it is the most versatile FFF sub-technique available. The cross flow in Flow FFF enters through a porous frit at the top of the channel, exiting through a semi-permeable membrane outlet frit on the accumulation wall (i.e. the bottom wall). Hollow fiber flow. Hollow fiber flow FFF (HF5) was developed by Lee "et al". (1974). HF5 has been applied towards the analysis of lattices and other macromolecules. HF5 was the first form of flow FFF to be developed in 1974. Flat membranes soon outperformed hollow fibers and forced HF5 into obscurity. One of the drawbacks of HF5 is the availability of the membranes with uniform pore sizes. There are different kinds of ceramic and polymeric hollow fiber membranes used in practice. Asymmetric flow. Asymmetric flow FFF (AF4), on the other hand, has only one semi-permeable membrane on the bottom wall of the channel. The cross flow is, therefore, created by the carrier liquid exiting the bottom of the channel. This offers an extremely gentle separation and an “ultra-broad” separation range. High Temperature Asymmetric Flow Field-Flow Fractionation is the most advanced technology for the separation of high and ultra-high molar mass polymers, macromolecules and nanoparticles in the size range. Thermal. Thermal FFF, as the name suggests, establishes a separation force by applying a temperature gradient to the channel. The top channel wall is heated and the bottom wall is cooled driving polymers and particles towards the cold wall by thermal diffusion. Thermal FFF was developed as a technique for separating synthetic polymers in organic solvents. Thermal FFF is unique amongst FFF techniques in that it can separate macromolecules by both molar mass and chemical composition, allowing for the separation of polymer fractions with the same molecular weight. Today this technique is ideally suited for the characterization of polymers, gels and nanoparticles. One of the major advantage of Thermal FFF is the simple and very well defined dimensions of the separation channel, which makes the inter-lab or inter-instrument Universal Calibration possible because the Thermal FFF calibration constants closely describe the ratio of ordinary (molecular) diffusion coefficient D to thermal diffusion coefficient (or, thermophoretic mobility) DT which are only polymer dependent. The ThFFF Universal Calibration is, therefore, instrument and lab transferable, while the well-known size exclusion chromatography Universal Calibration is polymer-transferable on the same instrument only. Split flow thin-cell fractionation. Split flow thin-cell fractionation (SPLITT) is a special preparative FFF technique, using gravity for separation of µm-sized particles on a continuous basis. SPLITT is performed by pumping the sample containing liquid into the top inlet at the start of the channel, whilst simultaneously pumping a carrier liquid into the bottom inlet. By controlling the flow rate ratios of the two inlet streams and two outlet streams, the separation can be controlled and the sample separated into two distinct sized fractions. The use of gravity alone as the separating force makes SPLITT the least sensitive FFF technique, limited to particles above 1 µm. Centrifugal. In centrifugal FFF, the separation field is generated via a centrifugal force. The channel takes the form of a ring, which spins at speeds up to 4900 rpm in the case of Postnova Analytics CF2000 instrument. The flow and sample are pumped into the channel and centrifuged, allowing the operator to resolve the particles by mass (size and density). The advantage of centrifugal FFF lies in the high size resolution that can be achieved by varying the force applied, since particle size is proportional to particle mass to the third power. The unique advantage presented by centrifugal FFF comes from the techniques capability for high resolution. The only commercially available centrifugal FFF instrument is Postnova Analytics' CF2000, incorporating the unique feature of separating particles by both particle size and density. This allows for the separation of particles with only a 5% difference in size. Centrifugal FFF has the advantage that particles and macromolecules can be separated by particle density, rather than just particle size. In this instance, two identically sized gold and silver nanoparticles can be separated into two peaks, according to differences in density in the gold and silver nanoparticles, separated with the Centrifugal FFF Postnova CF2000 instrument with detection by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS). In AF4 separations, the ratio of mass to time is 1:1. With the addition of the third parameter of density to centrifugal FFF, this produces a ratio more akin to mass:time to the power of three. This results in a significantly larger distinction between peaks and result in a greatly improved resolution. This can be particularly useful for novel products, such as composite materials and coated polymers containing nanoparticles, i.e. particles which may not vary in size but which do vary in density. In this way two identically sized particles can still be separated into two peaks, providing that the density is different. Electrical. In electrical FFF a transverse electrical current (DC) is applied which creates an electric field. Depending on the charge of sample components, an electrophoretic drift velocity is induced, counteracted by the diffusion from Brownian motion, so the separation depends on the ration of electrophoretic mobility and size.

interesting benefit

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16293403

Race results from the automobile and motorcycle races contested at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana. Races have been held on six different track configurations: Automobile races – oval. Prest-O-Lite Trophy, Wheeler-Schebler Trophy, and other early automobile races (1909–1910). On four race weekends in 1909 and 1910, a total of 82 automobile races were held, with lengths varying between 5 and 250 miles. Of these, 17 were of distance of 20 miles or more. None of the short races served as a qualifying race, or "heat" race, for the longer events. Each race stood on its own, and awarded its own trophy. All 82 races were sanctioned by the American Automobile Association (AAA). The 1909 races took place on the original crushed stone and tar surface. As the weekend progressed, the track surface began breaking up badly, and the final race of the weekend, scheduled for a 300-mile length, was shortened to 235 miles. The next scheduled weekend of auto races, planned for early October, was canceled so the track could be repaved in brick during the fall of 1909. Over two days in December, several automobile and motorcycle racers conducted speed exhibitions, in extremely cold temperatures. No races had been planned for that event. The next races were run over three holiday weekends in 1910. Indianapolis 500 (since 1911). The Indianapolis 500, introduced as the International 500-Mile Sweepstakes in 1911, has been held on Memorial Day, or the Memorial Day weekend, every year since (excluding six years during the World Wars). In 2020, due to the 2019-20 coronavirus pandemic, the race was postponed to August. The race has been sanctioned by the American Automobile Association (AAA) from 1911 to 1955, by the United States Automobile Club (USAC) from 1956 to 1997, and by the Indy Racing League (IRL) from 1998 to the present. Harvest Auto Racing Classic (1916). The Harvest Auto Racing Classic was a series of three races, of 20, 50, and 100 mile lengths, held in September 1916. The event was sanctioned by the American Automobile Association (AAA), and the 100 mile feature race counted toward the 1916 AAA National Championship. Brickyard 400 (1994–2020). The Brickyard 400 is an annual stock car race that is part of NASCAR Cup Series. This event, when first held in 1994, marked the first race other than the Indianapolis 500 to be held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway since 1916. From 2005 to 2009, the race was known as the Allstate 400 at the Brickyard, under a naming rights arrangement with Allstate Insurance. From 2012 to 2016, the race was known as the Crown Royal Presents the (Your Hero's Name Here) 400 at the Brickyard, under the naming rights arrangement with Diageo, which included an annual contest in which the winner would have his/her name attached to the race. The race remains commonly known as the Brickyard 400. In 2018, the race was moved from its summer date to early September, serving as the final race before the NASCAR playoffs. Two years later, the 400 switched places with Daytona International Speedway's Coke Zero Sugar 400 to become the Cup Series' Independence Day weekend round. IROC at Indy (1998–2003). The IROC at Indy race was held as support to the Brickyard 400. It was part of the International Race of Champions series, and was the IROC season finale for all six years it was held. All participating cars: Pontiac. Freedom 100 (2003–2019). The Freedom 100 is a Firestone Indy Lights race, held as support to the Indianapolis 500. Indiana 250 (2012–2019). The Indiana 250 is a NASCAR Xfinity Series race which, starting in 2012, is held as part of the "Super Weekend at the Brickyard" event. It replaced the Kroger 200, which had been held at nearby Lucas Oil Raceway (formerly Indianapolis Raceway Park) in Clermont, Indiana. Automobile races – road course. United States Grand Prix at Indianapolis (2000–2007). Beginning in 2000, the United States Grand Prix at Indianapolis, a round of the Formula One World Championship, was held on a combined road course, utilizing part of the oval and a new infield segment. The first running was widely popular, and marked the return of Formula One to the United States for the first time since 1991. During the 2005 Formula One season, a rule mandated all cars must run an entire (305 km / 190 miles) race on one set of tires, and there was a tire war between Bridgestone and Michelin during the season. That led to controversy when two crashes in practice took place with Michelin-shod cars because of tire failure, especially with the high g-loads through turns 12 and 13. On race morning, all cars utilizing Michelin tires withdrew from the race on the formation lap due to safety concerns and the rules in question at the time. The controversy tarnished the event, angered fans and media, and led to costly ticket refunds. The event recovered, with successful races held in 2006 and 2007, but crowds never matched the year 2000 attendance. After the contract expired in 2007, an agreement could not be reached to hold the race in 2008. A future return to Indianapolis had been rumored, but was always denied. Speedway officials claimed they made profit on the first four runnings, but lost money on the last four runnings. After the announcement of a new United States Grand Prix in Austin, and management and schedule changes at the Speedway, a return of Formula One is highly unlikely. Porsche Supercup (2000–2006). The Porsche Supercup series held twin races, as support to the United States Grand Prix. On September 23, 2000, by winning the first of two races, Bernd Maylander earned the distinction of becoming the first driver to win a race of any kind on the Indianapolis Motor Speedway road course. All participating cars: Porsche. Ferrari Challenge (2000–2002, 2019–). The Ferrari Challenge series held races, as support to the first three United States Grand Prix events. Beginning in 2019, the championship returned to IMS with a stand-alone event, featuring four races over two series. All participating cars: Ferrari. Formula BMW (2004–2007). The Formula BMW USA series held twin races, as support to the United States Grand Prix. Liberty Challenge (2005–2007). The Liberty Challenge was an Indy Pro Series race, held as support to the United States Grand Prix. In 2007, twin races were held. All participating cars: Dallara/Infiniti. IMSA GT3 Cup (2007). The IMSA GT3 Cup Challenge held twin races, as support to the United States Grand Prix. All participating cars: Porsche 911 GT3 Cup. Brickyard Grand Prix (2012–2014). The Brickyard Grand Prix was a sports car race, with multiple classes being run concurrently. It was held in support of the Brickyard 400, as part of the "Kroger Super Weekend at the Brickyard" event. In its first two years, it was held as part of the Grand Am Rolex Sports Car Series, and moved to the Tudor United SportsCar Championship in 2014. Brickyard Sports Car Challenge (2012–2014). The Brickyard Sports Car Challenge was a sports car race in the Continental Tire Sports Car Challenge series, with two classes being run concurrently. It was held as support to the Brickyard Grand Prix, which was in turn a support race to the Brickyard 400. Grand Prix of Indianapolis (since 2014). The Grand Prix of Indianapolis is an IndyCar Series race, held as a lead-in event to the Indianapolis 500. Indy Lights (2014–2019, 2021–). The Indy Lights series holds twin races, as support to the Grand Prix of Indianapolis. Unlike other races conducted by this series at this track (Freedom 100 and Liberty Challenge), these races were not named. Indy Pro 2000 (since 2014). The Indy Pro 2000 Championship holds multiple races, as support to the Grand Prix of Indianapolis. All cars 2014-2017 Élan / Mazda, 2018 onwards Tatuus / Mazda. 1 This race was originally scheduled as the second race at NOLA Motorsports Park, on April 12. The starting grid was determined by qualifications and results of Race 1 at NOLA. The race was rescheduled to May 7 at IMS because of inclement weather at NOLA. U.S. F2000 (since 2014). The U.S. F2000 National Championship holds multiple races, as support to the Grand Prix of Indianapolis. All cars 2014 to 2016: Élan / Mazda; 2017 to present Tatuus / Mazda. Brickyard Vintage Racing Invitational (2014–2019). The Brickyard Vintage Racing Invitational was a series of races for various classes of vintage racing automobiles. The event was sanctioned by the Sportscar Vintage Racing Association. Trans-Am Series (2017–2019). The Trans-Am Series held twin races, with the TA2 class competing in one while the remaining classes ran concurrently in the other. It was held in support of the Brickyard Vintage Racing Invitational. The 2018 event was run in conjunction with the Trans-Am West Coast Championship. Global MX-5 Cup (2017, 2020). The Global MX-5 Cup held twin races, as support to the Brickyard Vintage Racing Invitational in 2017 and the IndyCar Harvest Grand Prix in 2020. All participating cars: Spec Miata. Pennzoil 150 (since 2020). In 2020, the Xfinity Series' Indiana 250 was moved to the track's infield road course. Indianapolis 8 Hours (since 2020). The Indianapolis 8 Hours is a GT class sports car endurance race held by the Intercontinental GT Challenge series, in conjunction with the GT World Challenge America series. GT4 America Series (since 2020). The GT4 America Series holds multiple races, as support to the Indianapolis 8 Hours. TC America Series (since 2020). The TC America Series holds twin races, as support to the Indianapolis 8 Hours. IndyCar Harvest Grand Prix (since 2020). The IndyCar Harvest Grand Prix are two IndyCar Series races, scheduled as part of revisions to the 2020 IndyCar Series calendar due to the 2019-20 coronavirus pandemic. These races were also held as support to the Indianapolis 8 Hours. Although the name pays tribute to the Harvest Auto Racing Classic, these events are unrelated. Motorcycle races – oval. National Motorcycle Race Meet (1909). The first motorsports event at the track consisted of 7 motorcycle races, ranging from 1 to 10 miles in length, on August 14, 1909. All races were sanctioned by the Federation of American Motorcyclists (FAM). A planned feature race of 25 miles was canceled, as was a proposed second day of competition, due to concerns over suitability of track surface for motorcycle use. Motorcycle races – road course. Red Bull Indianapolis GP (2008–2015). Beginning in 2008, the Red Bull Indianapolis GP, a round of the FIM's MotoGP World Championship motorcycle series, was held on a variation of the road course, modified for motorcycle competition. FIM Moto2 (2008–2015). As is true of most MotoGP Road Racing World Championship events, the secondary class was included as support to the Red Bull Indianapolis GP. Until the end of the 2009 season, the class was designated as the 250cc series, based upon its engine capacity (250cc two-stroke engines). Starting in 2010, the class was renamed Moto2, following new FIM nomenclature and formula (600cc four-stroke engines). FIM Moto3 (2008–2015). As is true of most MotoGP Road Racing World Championship events, the tertiary class was included as support to the Red Bull Indianapolis GP. Until the end of the 2011 season, the class was designated as the 125cc series, based upon its engine capacity (125cc, two-stroke engines). Starting in 2012, the class was renamed Moto3, following new FIM nomenclature and formula (250cc, four-stroke). "NOTES": Applying to the above three classes. 1 All races in the 2008 Red Bull Indianapolis Grand Prix were affected by high winds and heavy rain. The 125cc and MotoGP races were shortened, while the 250cc race was canceled. 2 Race shortened by crash. Red Bull Rookies Cup (2008). The Red Bull AMA Rookies Cup was an entry level series for young riders, held as support features primarily at AMA Superbike events. It was the US counterpart to the Red Bull MotoGP Rookies Cup, a similar series held as support features at European MotoGP events. The Red Bull Riders Cup was an all-star event combining the leading riders in the AMA Rookies Cup and MotoGP Rookies Cup series. The Red Bull AMA Rookies Cup and Red Bull Riders Cup each held a race, as support to the Red Bull Indianapolis GP. All participating motorcycles: KTM. USGPRU Moriwaki MD250H (2010). The Moriwaki MD250H series is an entry level category for young riders, sanctioned by the United States Grand Prix Racers Union. The series held twin races, as support to the Red Bull Indianapolis GP. All participating motorcycles: Moriwaki chassis with Honda engines. AMA Pro Vance and Hines XR1200 (2011–2014). The Pro Vance & Hines XR1200 series, sanctioned by AMA Pro Road Racing, held twin races, as support to the Red Bull Indianapolis GP. All participating motorcycles: Harley-Davidson XR1200. FIM eRoadRacing North American Regional Series (2013). The North American series of the FIM eRoadRacing World Cup, a championship of electric motorcycle road racing, held a race as support to the Red Bull Indianapolis GP. MotoAmerica Superbike and Superstock 1000 (2015, 2020–). The MotoAmerica Superbike Championship ran two races, each with two classes being run concurrently, as support to the Red Bull Indianapolis GP. The Superstock 1000 class was abolished after 2017. In 2020, the series was originally scheduled to return as part of Motorcycles on Meridian. Because of the Indianapolis 500 being rescheduled for the Meridian weekend, the races occurred in mid-October with limited number of spectators. MotoAmerica Supersport (2015, 2020–). The MotoAmerica Supersport series held a race as support to the Red Bull Indianapolis GP. In 2020, the series was originally scheduled to return as part of Motorcycles on Meridian. After Motorcycles on Meridian was canceled due to the 2019-20 coronavirus pandemic, the races occurred anyway in front of a limited number of spectators. MotoAmerica Stock 1000 (since 2020). The MotoAmerica Stock 1000 series race was originally scheduled as a companion event to Motorcycles on Meridian in 2020. After Motorcycles on Meridian was canceled due to the 2019-20 coronavirus pandemic, the race occurred anyway in front of a limited number of spectators. This series was effectively the replacement of the Superstock 1000 class, with slight differences. MotoAmerica Twins Cup (since 2020). The MotoAmerica Twins Cup series race was originally scheduled as a companion event to Motorcycles on Meridian in 2020. After Motorcycles on Meridian was canceled due to the 2019-20 coronavirus pandemic, the race occurred anyway in front of a limited number of spectators. MotoAmerica Liqui Moly Junior Cup (since 2020). The MotoAmerica Liqui Moly Junior Cup series races were originally scheduled as a companion event to Motorcycles on Meridian in 2020. After Motorcycles on Meridian was canceled due to the 2019-20 coronavirus pandemic, the races occurred anyway in front of a limited number of spectators. This series is an entry level class exclusively designated for riders younger than 25 years old. Race win milestones. Multiple victories. 39 participants (36 drivers and 3 motorcycle riders) have each won three or more races at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway: Other automotive exhibitions. Brick track re-opening (1909). After the original track surface of crushed stone and tar proved unsuitable, during the August 1909 races, the decision was made to re-pave the track with brick. Once that was completed, and a retaining wall added, a two-day time trial session was conducted. Ten drivers and riders drove partial laps alone, attempting speed records at various distances of one mile and less. In addition, there was one 20-mile free-for-all session, with seven cars running concurrently. Finally, Lewis Strang drove a two-lap session. Although no races were held, or planned, the public was admitted, and programs were sold. Indianapolis Auto Show Stunt Driving Competition (1910). Several weeks before its first auto races of 1910, the Speedway held a special competition, in conjunction with the Indianapolis Auto Show. Six stunts were attempted while driving, including popping balloons with the wheels, and balancing the car on a teeter board. Most of the stunts required the participation of a passenger, such as dropping a potato into a basket, and holding a rubber ball in a spoon. At least two of the participants were professional race drivers (Harry Endicott and Johnny Aitken). The winner apparently was not, as his name does not appear in available race statistics of the day. The drivers in this event also included Katrina Fertig, making her the first woman to drive in a competition (though not in a race, as such) at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. Hazard Race (1910). The second day of the May, 1910, race weekend started with a special event, a "Hazard Race." Each car went out separately, driving over portable ramps on the track, into the creek in the infield, under the track, into the parking lot, across the automobile bridge over the track, and eventually back onto the track. The total distance was a bit over a lap, and the winner was determined by the best time. Private race: Union Printers' National Baseball League (1916). In August 1916, the Union Printers' National Baseball League held its annual tournament in Indianapolis. A special event for the entertainment of tournament participants was a day of exhibition automobile races held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Because the races were not part of a recognized series, and were conducted for a private audience, this is not generally regarded as an official race event. Private race: American Society for Steel Treating Convention (1921). In September 1921, the American Society for Steel Treating held its annual convention in Indianapolis. A special event during this convention was an exhibition automobile race held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Because this race was not part of a recognized series, and was for a private audience, it is not generally regarded as an official race event. Stevens Challenge Trophy (1927–1954). Beginning in 1927, The Samuel B. Stevens Challenge Trophy was offered to any automobile manufacturer to run a strictly stock, production automobile at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, for a period of 24 hours at an average speed of 60 miles per hour or more. This was not a race as such, as only one team participated in any instance. Four manufactures earned the trophy over the next 27 years. The trophy was retired after Chrysler's win in 1954. Ford made an unsuccessful run 1956 with drivers Johnny Mantz, Chuck Stevenson, Chuck Davis, and Danny Ames. Though they failed to complete the 24 hours, they did set a 500-mile stock car record at the Speedway of 111.916 mph. Nichels Engineering Endurance Run (1961). In 1961, Ray Nichels, then a successful builder of race cars, prepared two production-based Pontiacs for a 24-hour endurance run at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. He assembled six drivers, three from USAC and three from NASCAR, taking turns in both cars. Pit Stop Challenge. The Pit Stop Challenge is a pit stop contest held during activities leading up to the Indianapolis 500. Since 1977, the event has been held on Carb Day, following the final practice session. "NOTE: No event was held in 2008 because of rain, or in 2020 due to coronavirus pandemic." Stadium Super Trucks. In 2014, the Stadium Super Trucks, officially known as Speed Energy Formula Off-Road, held a doubleheader event on a small modified course at the northwest corner of the track. This incorporated a portion of the oval track's pit entry, two small portions of the road course, a segment of an access lane, and dirt areas in between, with two jump ramps added. This occurred during the Indy 500's Carb Day activities, and marked the first time in track history that trucks were raced. Series founder Robby Gordon had tested at the track in April.

promotional displays

1959-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12421293

The Human Security Act of 2007, officially designated as Republic Act No. 9372, was a Philippine law that took effect on July 20, 2007. This law is one of the most primary anti-terrorism law that brings the Philippines in line with its Southeast Asian neighbors battling Islamist militants. It is aimed at tackling militants in the southern Philippines. The law defines terrorism a crime of "caus[ing] widespread and extraordinary fear and panic among the populace" and allows authorities to arrest terror suspects without warrants and temporarily detain them without charges for a maximum of three days. Under the law, detained terrorists are entitled to see a lawyer, a priest, a doctor, or family members. Background. The first anti-terror bill was sponsored in Congress by Senator Juan Ponce Enrile in 1996; the bill that passed was close to Senator Enrile's proposal. The final version included many amendments by Senator Aquilino Pimentel, Jr. These revisions introduced several amendments and safeguards that have caused the law to be called "toothless" and "watered down". It was ratified by the Senate on February 8, then approved by the House of Representatives during a special session two weeks later on February 19, 2007. It was later signed into law by President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo on March 6. It took effect on July 20, 2007. The Philippines had long been urged by the United States and other Western countries to bring in stricter anti-terror legislation, citing the presence of al Qaeda-linked extremists who have been blamed for bombings, beheadings, and kidnappings. Summary. 1. "The State recognizes that the fight against terrorism requires a comprehensive approach, comprising political, economic, diplomatic, military, and legal means duly taking into account the root causes of terrorism without acknowledging these as justification for terrorist and/or criminal activities. Such measures shall include conflict management and post-conflict peace-building, addressing the roots of conflict by building state capacity and promoting equitable economic development." This statement elucidates that the Philippines government has realized that a strict military approach cannot be adequate solution when dealing with terrorist groups. In this sense, the Philippines government has decided to adopt a broader and more comprehensive approach rather than only applying a military approach. 2. "Terrorism is the premeditated or threatened use of violence or force or any other means that deliberately cause harm to persons, or of force and other destructive means against property or the environment, with the intention of creating or sowing a state of danger, panic, fear, or chaos to the general public or segment thereof, or of coercing or intimidating the government to do or refrain from doing an act." The law provides for a clearer definition of terrorism allowing police and security services a better understanding of the crimes at stake. This statement can act as a potential deterrent to future terrorists as they will know that it is no longer possible to commit an attack and escape without being charged. 3. "Arrest and Detention. Any peace office or a private person may, without warrant, arrest a person: (a)when, in his presence, the person to be arrested has committed, is actually committing, or attempting to commit any of the offense under this Act; or (b)when any of said offense has in fact been committed and he has reasonable ground to believe that the person to be arrested has committed the same. Any person arrested under this Section may be detained for a period of not more than three(3)days following his arrest for custodial investigation." In previous laws related to anti-terrorism, there were many loopholes that prevented terrorists suspects from being detained. However, this bill clarifies to Philippines Law Enforcement Agencies to arrest suspected terrorists without warrant and bestows the authority to detain suspects for 3 days. Supreme Court ruling. In a 2010 ruling under "Southern Hemisphere Engagement Network et. al. v. Anti-Terrorism Council et. al. ", the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the Human Security Act was constitutional. The court ruled that the petitioners had no legal standing because none of them have been charged under the said law. The Supreme Court ruled with finality on the matter in 2011, affirming its constitutionality. International reaction. Allies in the United States-led War on Terrorism expressed confidence in the Philippines with the signing of the law. In a statement, the US Embassy said "this new law will help provide Philippine law enforcement and judicial authorities with the legal tools they need to confront the threats posed by international terrorism, while ensuring protection and civil liberties and human rights". Australian ambassador Tony Hely hailed the signing of the law and called the Philippines "a key regional counter-terrorism partner" for Australia. However, the Special Rapporteur of the UN on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, Martin Scheinin, issued the following statement; that the Philippine Government should reconsider "Human Security Act of 2007" since implementation of this law can negatively affect the human rights. He stated that even though there are some positive aspects of this law, an overly broad definition can be incompatible with Article 15 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020. During the presidency of Rodrigo Duterte, the Senate approved Senate Bill No. 1083 on February 26, 2020 and later the House of Representative approved House Bill No. 6875 on June 3, 2020. Both bills sought to amend the Human Security Act by imposing stronger measures to combat terrorism but has garnered criticism from human rights advocates who say the law will curtail civil liberties and be prone to constitutional abuse.

acceptable resolution

1683-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29029594

In human anatomy, the head is at the top of the human body. It supports the face and is maintained by the skull, which itself encloses the brain. Structure. The human head consists of a fleshy outer portion, which surrounds the bony skull. The brain is enclosed within the skull. There are 22 bones in the human head. The head rests on the neck, and the seven cervical vertebrae support it. The human head typically weights between The face is the anterior part of the head, containing the eyes, nose, and mouth. On either side of the mouth, the cheeks provide a fleshy border to the oral cavity. The ears sit to either side of the head. Blood supply. The head receives blood supply through the internal and external carotid arteries. These supply the area outside of the skull (external carotid artery) and inside of the skull (internal carotid artery). The area inside the skull also receives blood supply from the vertebral arteries, which travel up through the cervical vertebrae. Nerve supply. The twelve pairs of cranial nerves provide the majority of nervous control to the head. The sensation to the face is provided by the branches of the trigeminal nerve, the fifth cranial nerve. Sensation to other portions of the head is provided by the cervical nerves. Modern texts are in agreement about which areas of the skin are served by which nerves, but there are minor variations in some of the details. The borders designated by diagrams in the 1918 edition of Gray's Anatomy are similar but not identical to those generally accepted today. The cutaneous innervation of the head is as follows: Function. The head contains sensory organs: two eyes, two ears, a nose and tongue inside of the mouth. It also houses the brain. Together, these organs function as a processing center for the body by relaying sensory information to the brain. Humans can process information faster by having this central nerve cluster. Society and culture. For humans, the front of the head (the face) is the main distinguishing feature between different people due to its easily discernible features, such as eye and hair colors, shapes of the sensory organs, and the wrinkles. Humans easily differentiate between faces because of the brain's predisposition toward facial recognition. When observing a relatively unfamiliar species, all faces seem nearly identical. Human infants are biologically programmed to recognize subtle differences in anthropomorphic facial features. People who have greater than average intelligence are sometimes depicted in cartoons as having bigger heads as a way of notionally indicating that they have a "larger brain". Additionally, in science fiction, an extraterrestrial having a big head is often symbolic of high intelligence. Despite this depiction, advances in neurobiology have shown that the functional diversity of the brain means that a difference in overall brain size is only slightly to moderately correlated to differences in overall intelligence between two humans. The head is a source for many metaphors and metonymies in human language, including referring to things typically near the human head ( "the head of the bed"), things physically similar to the way a head is arranged spatially to a body ("the head of the table"), metaphorically ("the head of the class"), and things that represent some characteristics associated with the head, such as intelligence ("there are a lot of good heads in this company"). Ancient Greeks had a method for evaluating sexual attractiveness based on the Golden ratio, part of which included measurements of the head. Headhunting is the practice of taking and preserving a person's head after killing the person. Headhunting has been practiced across the Americas, Europe, Asia, and Oceania for millennia. Clothing. Headpieces can signify status, origin, religious/spiritual beliefs, social grouping, team affiliation, occupation, or fashion choices. In many cultures, covering the head is seen as a sign of respect. Often, some or all of the head must be covered and veiled when entering holy places or places of prayer. For many centuries, women in Europe, the Middle East, and South Asia have covered their head hair as a sign of modesty. This trend has changed drastically in Europe in the 20th century, although is still observed in other parts of the world. In addition, a number of religions require men to wear specific head clothing—such as the Islamic Taqiyah (cap), Jewish yarmulke, or the Sikh turban. The same goes for women with the Muslim hijab or Christian nun's habit. A hat is a head covering that can serve a variety of purposes. Hats may be worn as part of a uniform or used as a protective device, such as a hard hat, a covering for warmth, or a fashion accessory. Hats can also be indicative of social status in some areas of the world. Anthropometry. While numerous charts detailing head sizes in infants and children exist, most do not measure average head circumference past the age of 21. Reference charts for adult head circumference also generally feature homogeneous samples and fail to take height and weight into account. One study in the United States estimated the average human head circumference to be in males and in females. A British study by Newcastle University showed an average size of 57.2 cm for males and 55.2 cm for females with average size varying proportionally with height Macrocephaly can be an indicator of increased risk for some types of cancer in individuals who carry the genetic mutation that causes Cowden syndrome. For adults, this refers to head sizes greater than 58 centimeters in men or greater than 57 centimeters in women.

group association

10937-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63419161

In bacteriology, minicells are bacterial cells that are smaller than usual. The first minicells reported were from a strain of "Escherichia coli" that had a mutation in the Min System that lead to mis-localization of the septum during cell division and the production of cells of random sizes. Generation of minicells. The first report of minicells in the scientific literature dates to 1930., but the first use of the name "minicell" dates to 1967 Minicells of a variety of gram negative and gram positive bacteria, including "Escherichia coli" and "Salmonella enterica", have been reported, but in principle, minicells could be generated for any bacterial species that can be genetically edited. Minicells can not reproduce because they do not contain a full copy of the genome. Normal role of minicells in bacteriology. Scientists hypothesize that minicells are produced by normal bacteria in times of stress so that damaged areas of the cell can be expelled. Applications of minicells. Minicells have been extensively used to study ultrastructure of bacteria using electron cryotomography (cryoET). Minicells are ideal for cryoET because they are small enough for the electron beam to penetrate in transmission electron microscopy. Bacterial minicells are being developed as a drug delivery system. Minicells could be used to deliver genetic material to eukaryotic cells for gene editing. They are also being investigated for vaccine development.

complete mirror

6201-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56821109

Partita, five reminiscences for large orchestra is a collection of musical pieces by Jörg Widmann. It was written for the 275th anniversary of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra in 2018. History. Widmann was appointed for the season 2017–2018 as the first "Gewandhauskomponist" (Gewandhaus composer). Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra and Boston Symphony Orchestra commissioned Partita in 2015 as part of the collaboration between both orchestras. The work was composed from 2017 to 2018 for the 275th anniversary of the Gewandhaus Orchestra. Structure. The five reminiscences, a partita, are: Music. The five pieces refer to the musical history of Leipzig and Boston. All movements begin with woodwinds. The whole concept of Partita is to link the music of Bach and Mendelssohn. The first reminiscence is influenced by Bach, Bruckner, and Wagner. A bass clarinet solo, playing an endless melody line, dominates the opening, followed by a section with Wagner tubas. The expansionary prelude leads to a first dance of the orchestra, a brief gigue. The second reminiscence Andante cites Mendelssohn's Clarinet Sonata (2nd movement), but starts with an English horn solo. \relative c' { \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"clarinet" \time 6/8 \tempo 8 = 80 \key g \minor \partial 8 d8 g8. fis16 g8 bes a g a4( fis8 d) r8 a'16( c) bes4 bes8 \acciaccatura d8 c( bes c) d4 f16 es d4 f16 es d4 f16 es d4\fermata \layout { \context { \Staff \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver" </score> Mendelssohn was the "Gewandhauskapellmeister" from 1835 to 1847. Woodwind figures open the third movement of neo-Baroque ancestry. Widmann cites in the Divertimento the Bach cantanta "Tue Rechnung! Donnerwort, BWV 168". The fourth reminiscence, Sarabande, contains bassoons whimpering in highest register. The last reminiscence, a chaconne, starts with a modern decatonic scale, played by an alto flute. The final movement leads to a "joyful, ecstatic" coda. \relative c' { \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute" a1 bes b! c cis d e f g gis a \layout { \context { \Staff \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver" \remove Bar_engraver \remove Time_signature_engraver </score> \relative c' { \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute" \partial 4 a4 bes b! c cis d2 e4 f g2 gis a1 \addlyrics { Fern ist der Grund der Din- ge und tief, gar tief; wer will ihn finden? \layout { \context { \Staff \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver" </score> Performances. Partita was premiered at the Gewandhaus in Leipzig on 8 March 2018. Andris Nelsons conducted the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra. The concert was repeated on 11 March 2018, the 275th birthday of the orchestra. The American premiere took place in Boston on 29 March 2018 with Nelsons conducting the Boston Symphony Orchestra. Reception. Peter Korfmacher of Leipziger Volkszeitung wrote: "overripe opulence" ("").

entire idea behind

9168-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2544984

Cardhalla is a charity event that has been held at Gen Con since 1999. During the convention, a city is constructed out of donated trading card game cards. Near the end of the convention attendees are invited to throw coins at the city to destroy it. The thrown coins are collected and donated to charity. The motto is: "Build. Donate. Destroy." The name is a portmanteau of "card" and the Norse city of Valhalla. Build. Attendees may help in the building process using the cards that are donated. They may come and go as they wish, as the event is a 24-hour event hosted for free. The usual style of building consists of folding cards and stacking them. However, cutting a card to make a fit or even just stacking cards without folding is always an option. Glue, tape, and other adhesives are not permitted. Donate. Donations come from anyone at the convention. Cards from over 100 different card games have been used. Cards range from the most common to the rarest cards of games. People also donate time to help clean up, manage, and chat. The original card set that started the building was the premiere of the "Young Jedi" CCG, demo decks were given to everyone at GenCon, and stacks of the starter decks were left scattered around the hall. Destroy. On Saturday night at 10:30, all are invited to help destroy the city that takes the four days of the convention to build. With the first city, back then known just as "Cardland", the idea to raffle off the destruction of the city was introduced. The winning entrant decided to invite everyone back to throw coins at the city. This would allow everyone to help in the destruction as well as raise more money for charity, as all the coins would be collected and donated as well. The city takes a matter of minutes to destroy and just under an hour to clean up. History. Cardland, as the first event came to be known in 1999, happened spontaneously. Free sample packs of cards were given to attendees. A couple of people began to build little towers out of cards while waiting for one of their friends to finish a game. A sign was left out "Add on if you wish, but do not destroy." Soon other convention attendees began adding onto the project. As that Friday night progressed more and more was added on including bridges and tall towers. Roads connected structures, and buildings of all types came about. Soon encompassing 20 tables, both above and below, a city and its suburbs were formed, one of which became known as Cardhalla. The name stuck and the next year, 2000, Cardhalla became an official event of Gen Con, and in 2000 it had a designated space within the tournament hall. A large portion of the cards donated to the original Cardhalla were the giveaways included in every attendee's bag, such as cards from the Monty Python and the Holy Grail card game and various promotional cards. When possible, each building was designed with cards from a similar game or license. (Such as Star Trek, Star Wars, Netrunner and Rage) Since then, the event has raised nearly 2000 dollars for charity and given people an opportunity to do something with their spare time at the convention. In 2006 the first offshoot of this event was seen at Phoenix ConGames where 30,000 cards were used to build, donate, and destroy. Over 1000 cards were taken from the GenCon 2005 event and used to seed Phoenix ConGames 2006. The money raised ($276.00) at Phoenix ConGames was donated to a local orphanage.

day-long affair

9781-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10452612

Mysore is a city in the state of Karnataka, India. It is known as the cultural capital of Karnataka. Mysore was the capital of the Wodeyar kings who ruled over the Mysore Kingdom for many centuries. Wodeyars were great patrons of art and music and have contributed significantly to make Mysore a cultural centre. Mysore is well known for its palaces, museums and art galleries and the festivities that take place here during the period of Dasara attract a worldwide audience. Mysore has also lent its name to popular dishes like "Mysore Masala Dosa" and "Mysore Pak". Mysore is also the origin of the popular silk sari known as "Mysore silk sari" and has also given rise to a popular form of painting known as "Mysore painting". Festivals. Dasara. Dasara is the "Nadahabba" (state-festival) of the state of Karnataka. It is also known as "Navaratri" ("Nava-ratri" = nine-nights) and is a 10-day festival with the last day being Vijayadashami, the most auspicious day of Dasara. Dasara usually falls in the month of September or October. According to a legend, Vijayadashami denotes the victory of truth over evil and was the day when the Hindu Goddess Chamundeshwari killed the demon Mahishasura. Mahishasura is the demon from whose name Mysore has been derived. The Dasara festivities were first started by the Wodeyar King, Raja Wodeyar I (1578–1617 CE) in 1610. The Mysore Palace is lit up on all the 10 days of Dasara. The festivities begin with the Wodeyar royal couple performing a special puja to Goddess Chamundeshwari in the Chamundi Temple located on the top of Chamundi Hill at Mysore. This would be followed by a special "durbar" (royal assembly).Kings wore the traditional Mysore Peta as headgear during the Durbar (court of Indian or princely state's kings) time or in a ceremonial procession during the Dasara celebrations. It was during the reign of Krishnaraja Wodeyar III in 1805, when the king started the tradition of having a special "durbar" in the Mysore Palace during Dasara; which was attended by members of the royal family, special invitees, officials and the masses. The King and men attending King's court wore the conventional attire called the durbar dress which comprised a black long coat with white trousers and a compulsory Mysore Peta. This tradition has been continued even now with the current scion of the Wodeyar family, Yaduveer Krishnadatta Chamaraja Wodeyar holding a private "durbar" during Dasara. The ninth day of Dasara known as "Mahanavami" is also an auspicious day on which the royal sword is worshipped and is taken on a procession involving elephants, camels and horses. On Vijayadashami, the traditional Dasara procession (locally known as "Jumboo Savari") is held on the streets of Mysore city. The main attraction of this procession is the idol of the Goddess Chamundeshwari which is placed on a golden mantapa on the top of a decorated elephant. This idol is worshipped by the royal couple and other invitees before it is taken around in the procession. Colourful tableaux, dance groups, music bands, decorated elephants, horses and camels form a part of the procession which starts from the Mysore Palace and culminates at a place called "Bannimantap" where the "banni" tree (Prosopis spicigera) is worshipped. According to a legend of the Mahabharata, "banni" tree was used by the Pandavas to hide their arms during their one-year period of "Agnatavasa" (living life incognito). Before undertaking any warfare, the kings traditionally worshipped this tree to help them emerge victorious in the war. The Dasara festivities would culminate on the night of Vijayadashami with an event held in the grounds at Bannimantap called as "Panjina Kavayatthu" (torch-light parade). Another major attraction during Dasara is the Dasara exhibition which is held in the exhibition grounds opposite to the Mysore Palace. This exhibition starts during Dasara and goes on till December. Various stalls which sell items like clothes, plastic items, kitchenware, cosmetics and eatables are set up and they attract a significant number of people. A play area containing attractions like ferris-wheel is also present to provide entertainment to the people. Various Governmental agencies setup stalls to signify the achievements and projects that they have undertaken. On all the 10 days of Dasara, various music and dance concerts are held in auditoriums around Mysore city. Musicians and dance groups from all over India are invited to perform on this occasion. Another attraction during Dasara is the "Kusti Spardhe" (wrestling-bout) which attracts wrestlers from all around India. Palaces. Wodeyar kings of Mysore have built quite a few palaces in Mysore and this has earned the city the sobriquet of "City of Palaces". Following are the palaces present here: Ambavilas Palace. This is the main palace of Mysore and also termed as "Mysore Palace". This palace was built in 1912 at a cost of Rs. 4,150,000 in the Indo-Sarcenic style. The earlier wooden palace that existed at this location got burnt in a fire during the wedding of Jayalakshammanni, the eldest daughter of Chamaraja Wodeyar, in February 1897. The architect of this palace was Mr. Henry Irwin and the consulting engineer was Mr E W Fritchley. The palace is a three storied structure with the tallest tower with a gilded dome rising to 145 feet above ground. In the first floor is the grand Durbar hall, where the kings used to hold their assembly. Some of the other important halls within the palace are Kalyana Mantap (the wedding hall), Gombe Thotti (hall of dolls) and Amba Vilasa (private hall). Lifelike paintings, murals, arms, trophies, stained glass windows and decorated domes enhance the architectural splendour of this palace. This is the center of all festivities during the Dasara. Jaganmohan Palace. Jaganmohan Palace was built in 1861 by Krishnaraja Wodeyar III in a predominantly Hindu style to serve as an alternate palace for the royal family. This palace housed the royal family when the older Mysore Palace was burnt down by a fire. The palace has three floors and has stained glass shutters and ventilators. It has housed the "Sri Jayachamarajendra Art Gallery" since the year 1915. The collections exhibited here include paintings from the famed Travancore ruler, Raja Ravi Varma, the Russian painter Svetoslav Roerich and many paintings of the Mysore painting style. The Durbar Hall here was the place where the early convocations of the Mysore University were held. The hall also serves as an auditorium for staging cultural programmes. Jayalakshmi Vilas Mansion. This palace was built in 1905 by Chamaraja Wodeyar for his eldest daughter Jayalakshmi Devi. This mansion has three wings and contains a series of twin Corinthian and Ionic columns, regal pediments and oval ventilators. The mansion was originally built with a cost of Rs. 700,000. This mansion was acquired by the Mysore University to house its post-graduate campus. It was renovated in 2002 from funding provided by Infosys foundation. The main hall in this mansion is the "Kalyana Mantapa" which has an eight-petal shaped dome with stained glass windows with a gold-plated "Kalasha"(tower) at the top. A new gallery called as "Writer's Gallery" has been created in the "Kalyana Mantapa" hall that will exhibit personal items, photographs, awards and writings of renowned writers of Kannada. A special illumination system has also been added to this heritage structure. This mansion is said to be the first university museum complex in the country. Lalitha Mahal. The architect of this palace was Mr E W Fritchley. The palace was built by Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV in 1921 for the exclusive stay of the Viceroy of India. The palace is pure white in colour and is built in the style of Italian palazzo with twin Ionic columns and domes. It also has a sprawling terrace and landscaped gardens. This palace has now been converted into a five-star hotel belonging to the Ashok Group of Hotels. The interior of this palace contains venation marble floors, rosewood furniture and a stately balustrade staircase. The central hall in the palace contains life size portraits of the royalty, lithographs, motifs, a Belgian glass dome and carved wood shutters. An ancient elevator, still in working condition, is also present. Rajendra Vilas. This is a palace atop the Chamundi Hill. This was conceived in the 1920s and completed in 1938–1939. This was built as a summer palace for the Wodeyar kings. This palace is currently owned by the current scion of the royal family, Yaduveer Krishnadatta Chamaraja Wadiyar. There are plans to convert this into a Heritage hotel. Cheluvamba Mansion. This mansion was built by Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV for his third daughter, Cheluvarajammanni. It now houses the CFTRI (Central Food and Technological Research Institute). Painting. Mysore painting. The traditional form of painting called as Mysore painting is an offshoot of the Vijayanagar school of Painting. With the fall of the Vijayanagar empire, the artists who were involved in the Vijayanagar Paintings were rendered jobless. The Wodeyar king, Raja Wodeyar (1578–1617 CE) rehabilitated these artists in Srirangapatna and under his patronage, a new form of painting called as Mysore painting evolved. These artists employed by the king made use of locally available materials to do the paintings. Squirell hair was used as a brush by tying the hair with a silken thread and inserting them into the narrow end of a quill. A cloth spread over a wooden plank formed the painting board. Properly burnt tamarind sticks were used as a sketching charcoal. The main attraction of these paintings was the "gesso" work in which gold foils were pasted on appropriate regions on the painting. Gesso was used for depicting intricate designs of clothes, jewellery and architectural details. Stories from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata Purana and Jain epics formed the basis of these paintings. Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar (Krishnaraja Wodeyar III) was instrumental in the growth of the Mysore painting form and is said to have commissioned more than 1000 portraits during his reign. Many of these paintings can still be seen on the walls of the Jaganmohan Palace at Mysore. Ganjifa Art. Ganjifa or "Ganjeefa" was a popular card game in ancient India. Played extensively in the Mughal period, Ganjifa is now known more for the art work on the cards than the game itself. Cards made for royalty were inlaid with precious stones and were also made of ivory, mother-of-pearl and wafers of lac. In Mysore, this game was known as "Chadd" ("God's play"). One of the finest exponents of Ganjifa Art, Ganjifa Raghupathi Bhatta is a resident of Mysore and has set up an International Ganjifa Research Centre at Mysore. The cards are generally circular and sometimes rectangular in shape with lacquered backs with exquisite paintings on them.. Carpentry. Rosewood Inlay work. British writers mention the existence of thousands of workers in Mysore involved in inlaying etched ivory motifs into rosewood to create intricate wood work. Even now an estimated 4000 people in Mysore are involved in rosewood inlay work though other media like plastic have replaced ivory. This intricate work involves many stages. The first step is to design and draw the images and patterns on the rosewood. Then the rosewood is cut into proper shape by carpentry. The motifs that have to be inlaid are then carefully handcut to shape. The areas where the motifs have to be inlaid on the rosewood, are carefully scooped out. Next the motifs are inlaid and fixed. The wood is then smoothened using sandpaper and polished to give a bright look. Fashion. Mysore silk saree. Mysore is the home of the famous Indian feminine wear, the Mysore silk saree. Mysore Silk is a trademark for the silk sarees produced by KSIC (Karnataka Silk Industries Corporation). The distinguishing feature of this saree is the usage of pure silk and 100% pure gold zari (a golden coloured thread containing 65% of silver and 0.65% of gold). These sarees are manufactured in a silk factory located in Mysore city. This factory was started in 1912 by the Maharaja of Mysore by importing 32 looms from Switzerland. In 1980, this factory was transferred to KSIC and now has around 159 looms. Every saree produced here comes with an embroidered code number and a hologram to prevent misuse. Mysore silk sarees are also undergoing an innovating change with the use of kasuti embroidery, thickly woven "pallu"s (the part of the saree worn over the shoulder), bandhini techniques and new colours like lilac, coffee-brown and elephant-grey. Cuisine. The cuisine of Mysore resembles to a large extent the Udupi cuisine. Rice is the staple food item used in cooking and various spices are also used. A breakfast mostly includes dishes made of rice of which idli and dosa are prevalent. Vada is another popular breakfast item mostly prepared only in hotels. Other popular breakfast dishes include "shavige bath" (spicy dish made of vermicelli), "rava idli", "oggarane avalakki" (seasoned beaten rice), Pongal and Poori. A lunch or dinner spread generally includes steamed rice, chutney, sambar, pickle, curry, "gojju" (a sweet curry), rasam, papad and curds. Some of the rice based dishes that form a part of the lunch are "Bisi bele bath" (a spicy rice preparation with vegetables), "vangi baath" (rice mixed with brinjal curry), "chitranna" (rice mixed with seasoning, turmeric and lemon juice or raw mango scrapes) and Puliyogare. Chapati is another lunch item preferred nowadays. In formal occasions like marriage, the food is served on a plantain leaf and would include additional items like sweets and Kosambari apart from the ones mentioned above. Some of the popular sweet dishes are "rave unde" (sweet balls made of semolina and coconut scrapes), ladoo, payasam, Mysore Pak and jalebi. It is customary to eat "adike" (arecanut) with betel leaf after the lunch/dinner. Coffee (Indian filter coffee) is the preferred beverage in homes. Some of the snacks that are prevalent here are chakkuli, "khara mandakki" (spicy puffed rice), churmuri and "kodubale" (a doughnut shaped spicy snack made of fried semolina). In the last few years, chaat, pizzas and items belonging to Indian Chinese cuisine have become popular mostly with the younger generation. Mysore has also lent its name to the sweet-dish Mysore Pak and the Mysore Masala Dosa. Institutions. CAVA. Chamarajendra Academy of Visual Arts (CAVA) is an arts academy located in Mysore and affiliated to the University of Mysore. It offers courses in drawing, painting, sculpture, graphics, applied arts, photography, photojournalism and art history. It awards the Bachelor of Fine Arts degree and also has a master's program leading into the Master of Fine Arts. It was started in 1906 as "Chamarajendra Technical Institute" by the then King of Mysore, Nalvadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar. King George V laid the foundation to this institute which was started in dedication to the king, Chamarajendra Wodeyar. "Chamarajendra Technical Institute" was renamed as CAVA in 1981 by the Government of Karnataka and on the suggestions of the renowned Russian painter, Svetoslav Roerich, CAVA was modelled on the lines of the famous J.J. School of Arts in Mumbai. Rangayana. Rangayana is a theatre institution located in the campus of Kalamandira auditorium in Mysore. It was started in 1989 as an autonomous cultural organisation by the Government of Karnataka. It has two divisions working under it, "Bharatiya Ranga Shikshana Kendra" which is a theatre training institute and "Sriranga Ranga Mahiti and Samshodana Kendra" which is a documentation and research centre. Having an ensemble of fifteen actors and actresses, Rangayana Repertory performs on week ends (Saturday & Sunday) at "Bhoomigita Theater" at Mysore. It also offers a 1-year diploma course for theatre enthusiasts. Dhvanyaloka. Dhvanyaloka is an institution dedicated to the advanced study and research in English literature. It was started in 1979 by Prof. C. D. Narasimhaiah (popularly known as CDN). This institution publishes a journal called as "Literary Criterion" which contains articles related to literature. Some of the other books published by this institution includes Kipling's India, Bhakti in Indian literature, Indian poetics in application, Western writers on India, the Vitality of West Indian Writing, Glimpses of New Zealand Literature, T. S. Eliot and the Indian Literary Scene and Indian literature in English. Akashavani (All India Radio). Mysore hosts one of the oldest broadcasting stations of All India Radio. The term Akashavani was actually coined here by Prof. M. V. Gopalaswami in 1936. It remains quite popular to this day and organizes various intellectual, educative and entertainment programs aiming to promote the local culture and traditions. Museums. The following museums exist in Mysore: Personalities. Literature. Apart from the above-mentioned personalities, other eminent litterateurs who were educated and/or taught in Mysore (mostly at Mysore University) at some point of their career include statesman, philosopher and former president of India Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Sanskrit scholar M. Hiriyanna, scholar and librarian R. Shamasastry, historian S. Srikanta Sastri, author B. M. Srikantaiah, poet T. N. Srikantaiah, author and professor M. V. Seetharamiah, writer A. R. Krishnashastry, author and educator T.S. Venkannaiah, linguist and grammarian D. L. Narasimhachar, music composer Rallapalli Ananta Krishna Sharma, lexicographer G. Venkatasubbiah, poet G. P. Rajarathnam, poet K. S. Narasimhaswamy, playwright and poet P. T. Narasimhachar, writer V Sitaramiah, literary critic C. D. Narasimhaiah, author Aryamba Pattabhi, writer G. S. Shivarudrappa, author Poornachandra Tejaswi, journalist P. Lankesh, writer Chaduranga, archaeologist S.R. Rao, and so on. Thanks to Wodeyars and Diwans, Mysore in 19th and 20th century flourished as one of the main centers of learning and education in India. It still continues that legacy through its universities and research institutes. Many noted science writers such as Prof. G.T. Narayana Rao, Prof. J.R. Lakshmana Rao, etc. whose inspiring books and articles on astronomy, physics, chemistry and biographies of world renowned scientists also had successful career at the University of Mysore. Journalism. Mysore is home to the only Sanskrit daily newspaper of India named Sudharma. It was established by the eminent Sanskrit scholar Kalale Nadadur Varadaraja Iyengar in 1970. The newspaper has received many accolades since then for their efforts to promote the ancient language. It is currently managed by Varadaraja Iyengar's son Sri K.V.Sampathkumar and his wife Smt. Jayalakshmi KS. The e-paper is also available on their website. Music. Carnatic music flourished under the patronage of the Wodeyar dynasty for many centuries in Mysore. Great composers of the erstwhile era including Mysore Sadashiva Rao, Mysore Vasudevacharya, Muthiah Bhagavathar, etc. were court musicians during the era of Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV and Jayachamarajendra Wodeyar. Maharaja Jayachamarajendra Wodeyar was an excellent composer himself, and has contributed immensely to Carnatic music through his immortal compositions. Mysore is renowned for its unique style of playing the Veena, known as Mysore Bani. Veene Sheshanna, an eminent Vainika and a disciple of Mysore Sadashiva Rao was also a court musician during the early 20th century. Other great Vainikas of his era include his student Veena Venkatagiriyappa and Veene Shamanna who enriched the instrumental music tradition in the Mysore kingdom. The Mysore brothers, Dr. Mysore Manjunath and Mysore Nagaraj, are world-renowned violin maestros from the city of Mysore; sons of veteran musician Sangita Vidya Nidhi Vidwan Mahadevappa, the brothers' outstanding musicianship and astounding virtuosity made them some of the best violin players in the contemporary music world. They represent the genre of Carnatic music and have collaborated with numerous world-class musicians in countless countries at major music festivals and conferences. Mysore also boasts of one of the finest violin teachers of India H. K. Narasimhamurthy. He has trained a long line of students, who have gone onto make a mark in the world of Indian music. A highly regarded accompanist, H. K. N. Murthy has accompanied most of the leading Carnatic musicians in a career spanning more than 5 decades. His students, some of whom are acclaimed to be world class in India and the west, have gone on to play in Carnegie Hall, Lincoln Center, Sydney Opera house and Madras Music academy among other venues. Some of his leading disciples who are professional musicians include his son H. N. Bhaskar, Mysore Srikanth, Mysore Dayakar and H. M. Smitha. Along with classical music, Mysore is also a center for learning of the light music genre, known as Sugama Sangeetha. Prominent singers of this genre include Mysore Ananthaswamy who brought many poems of great Kannada poets back to life and his son Raju Ananthaswamy. Mysore has to its credit many renowned musicians like Raghu Dixit and Vijay Prakash to name a few. Mysore even witnessed a musical fight against corruption in January 2012 when a song called "Alarm – wake up guys" was released. The music for the song was composed by a young Mysorean named Phalgunn Maharishi and Kannada lyrics were written by Suraj Shankar, who also hails from Mysore. They are the grandsons of a noted novelist from Mysore, Mrs. Mangala Satyan. Their hard work was appreciated by many people when the song was premiered by TV9 Karnataka and many newspapers wrote about the two cousins and their work on Alarm.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25336390

Peter "Tucker" Jenkins is a main character of British children's drama series "Grange Hill", who appeared as a main cast member in the first four seasons. He would later guest appear in the show throughout its thirty-season run and would feature in his own spin-off "Tucker's Luck". Tucker was played by Todd Carty in all his appearances. The show followed his progression from an unruly child to a rebellious teenager to a young man on the dole. Series history. Series 1. Tucker Jenkins was placed in Mr Mitchell's form class in his first year where he quickly made friends with Benny Green, a poor student with the same sense of mischief and humour as Tucker. After being embarrassed by Foster, a strict PE teacher, and witnessing Benny being disregarded for the football team because he couldn't afford the kit, Tucker made it his mission to help Benny get a makeshift kit together. The same day, Tucker met Justin Bennett, a quiet, posh boy who seemed unimpressed by the comprehensive school. Justin's complaints and inability to joke around with Tucker's sense of humour caused the pair to become rivals. This was particularly evident when Tucker proceeded to push Justin into the school swimming pool during a swimming lesson and then steal his trousers, hanging them out of the window for all to see. Justin's revenge consisted of telling a teacher when Tucker, Benny, Alan and Tommy played in the pool without teacher supervision. Receiving a banishment from swimming lessons and detention, Benny then stole Tucker's trousers and hung them from the form window in a similar fashion. Tucker and Benny would later explore an old deserted warehouse alongside Justin, though their own rivalry to outdo the other in dangerous stunts would cause Justin to fall from the building and cause him severe harm. Hearing of this from Justin's father, Tucker and Benny would receive the first corporal punishment Grange Hill had ever enacted. Tucker attempted to boast he could probably take much more than Benny could, but was quickly quieted as Benny snapped that was 'how they got into this mess'. Tucker would later run for school council, but lost out on votes due to his boisterous behaviour with other members of the class and being the only one to ever receive corporal punishment. Ann Wilson was elected instead much to Tucker's dismay. Sometime later, Tucker witnesses new boy Michael Doyle stealing an antique pistol but is unable to tell Mr Mitchell for fear Doyle's word would be taken over his, due to Doyle's father being on the council. Tucker instead decides to bully Doyle to giving the gun back. The technique worked and Doyle returned the gun. However, angered by Tucker, Doyle begins racially assaulting Benny Green as revenge for Tucker's own violence. Tucker attempts to help Benny several times, and jumps to his defence when he witnesses it but is unable to protect Benny, especially since Doyle targets the boy when Tucker is not around. This causes Benny to bunk off school, much to Tucker's confusion. Benny would eventually report the bullying to Mr Mitchell. Series 2. During his second term at Grange Hill, a new head teacher was installed. A majority of the first few episodes only featured Tucker as a supporting cast member, to set up for the new ensemble casting featuring more hard hitting storylines than simply Tucker's mischievous tricks. Tucker's first storyline coincides with character Simon Shaw's own dyslexia piece when he, Simon and their group of friends accidentally set fire to the school's auditorium after breaking in one night. Shaw is the only one of the boys caught. Despite avoiding punishment, Tucker volunteers to fix the damage the fire caused to the students work on the school play. Although the running arc throughout this series was the abolition of school uniform, Tucker showed little to no interest in it. Instead, he focused on the abolition of a separate table for the poorer children who were forced to sit segregated from the others in the lunch hall, due to them getting free dinners. One particular lunch time, Benny was given a hard time by classroom bully Michael Doyle. Tucker and Doyle fought but were quickly split up. Angered and supported by School Uniform Abolition head Jess, Tucker joined in a protest to allow for all students to sit wherever they wanted in the lunch hall. The new head teacher praised Tucker's honesty and approach and removed the necessity for separate seating. Series 3. By the time Series 3 takes place, Tucker has become a third year. Although Tucker does not have an ongoing storyline himself, he does make cameos throughout. Near the end of the series, Tucker begins work experience at a building site owned by his best friend Alan Humphries' father. Here, he, Alan and Benny discover a fellow employee has been stealing and selling the stock to a scrapyard. Roping Mr Humphries into their investigation, the rogue employee is eventually caught and Tucker, along with his friends, are rewarded. Tucker also joins the rest of the third years to help build an outdoor centre where Cathy injures her foot. The accident causes the school to discard the outdoor centre, much to the students dismay. The next week, Tucker and his friends are seen at their usual hang out spot at the shopping precinct where they see a classmate Antoni Karamanopolis hanging around with older years. After being intimidated out of the area, the gangs decide it is all out war. The shopping precinct is quickly banned by the school. Of course, Tucker, Antoni and the others disregard such a rule and sneak out to hang around there anyway. Tucker is seen by Baxter and quickly escapes. The next thing he hears is that Antoni was killed during a dare match gone too far. Antoni's gang deny Tucker's involvement in sneaking out, leaving Tucker in shock. Series 4. Tucker returns as part of the main cast for this series. Over the course of Christmas, the school has gone to ruins through vandalism. New headteacher Mrs McClusky decides to crack down on student behaviour. Tucker begins to be victimised by fifth year psychopath Booga Benson. He also agrees to enter a competition to design the new school magazine cover. Later, Tucker catches a first year writing some graffiti but is unfairly regarded as the culprit by the new caretaker. Tucker is then grabbed by the caretaker and pushes him in retaliation, something that causes him to get even deeper in trouble. As the bullying by Booga Benson continues, Tucker believes he is the one vandalising the school. After Booga tears up his school magazine entry, Tucker bunks off the rest of the day to recreate it. He is caught running back into the school by PE Teacher Mr Baxter and is told by Mr Sutcliffe to report to Baxter's office. He does so, only to find Booga destroying the office. Booga threatens Tucker not to report him but after it is reported that the school dance would not go forward unless the culprit is caught, Tucker reports the incident. He is later savagely beaten by Booga at the school dance and left for dead. Fortunately, he survived and Booga was arrested. After a lengthy stay at home, Tucker finally rejoins Grange Hill in time for the school trip to France. Unfortunately, he attempts to sneak his friend Tommy on the trip which causes the school to be sent home. Around this time, Tucker began to develop feelings for classmate Pamela Cartwright. He attempts to ask her out several times throughout the series but it is eventually climaxed with him overhearing from Pamela that she would never date him. After missing the bus home from school, Tucker also managed to save a first year student from a paedophile. Tucker decides he does not want to go to University despite his mother's insistence. At Christmas that year, a now fourth year Tucker helps DJ at the school Christmas disco using his brother's DJ set. An attempt by Brookdale kids to break the stereo ends the disco in a large fight, one in which Tucker's nemesis Doyle defends him. The two thank each other and agree that their teamwork was only due to the Christmas holiday. Guest appearances. For the show's fifth series, a new cast was brought in and so Tucker's character is officially retired. However, Todd Carty guest appears in several series after due to his high popularity. In the fifth series, he was present in the first episode saving the new cast from the bully Gripper Stebson. Tucker also returns with the original cast in the episode "School Revue", where he single-handedly saves the talent showcase, by buying a champagne bottle for the showcase's raffle, much to teacher Mr McGuffey's ire (though as a result of this purchase, the raffle turns out to be an enormous success), and performs a song in praise of the latter with his band as part of the show. Tucker would then be absent from the show until 2003, where he would drop off his nephew Togger Johnson at Grange Hill. He returned one final time for the show's last episode in 2008, when telling his nephew not to make the same mistake as he did and leave school early, which led Togger to staying on. His speech consisted of the importance of comprehensive schools, which were a leading effort to improve equality in class divisions in Britain. His last scene was riding off on his motorbike. Other appearances. On 20 April 2009, Tucker was an unseen character in episode 2.1 of "Ashes to Ashes". In that episode, the protagonist, DI Alex Drake, sees her daughter Molly incorporated into an episode of "Grange Hill" on the evening of 3 or 5 April 1982 [calendar indicates 3 April; the news report was from 5 April]. Molly (in new footage) tells headmistress Bridget McClusky (appearing as archival footage and Gwyneth Powell's newly recorded audio) that she and Tucker got into a fight when Tucker said her mother Alex was dead. Spin-offs. Tucker's Luck. Tucker appeared in three series of "Tucker's Luck", which showed Tucker and his friends Alan and Tommy after they left Grange Hill and their struggles with growing up and trying to find work. Casting. Carty attended a Saturday morning acting class at Phildene Stage School from the age of four, which had an attached agency. Carty was put forward for the role of Tucker by his agency and was against about 500 other children. Carty stated that he was spotted by the producer jumping the queue, which happened in episode three of the first series by Tucker, "so there must have been something in what I [Carty] did, as well as how I [Carty] read for the part, that eventually saw me in the role of Tucker."

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Cephisodotus (; lived 4th century BC) was an Athenian general and orator, who was sent with Callias, Autocles, and others in 371 BC to negotiate peace with Sparta. Again, in 369 BC, when the Spartan ambassadors had come to Athens to settle the terms of the desired alliance between the states, and the Athenian council had proposed that the land-forces of the confederacy should be under the command of Sparta, and the navy under that of Athens, Cephisodotus persuaded the assembly to reject the proposal, on the ground that, while Athenian citizens would have to serve under Spartan generals, few but helots (who principally manned the ships) would be subject to Athenian control. Another arrangement was then adopted, by which the command of the entire force was to be held by each state alternately for five days. It seems to have been about 359 BC that he was sent out with a squadron to the Hellespont, where the Athenians hoped that the Euboean adventurer, Charidemus, the friend of Cephisodotus, would, according to his promise made through the latter, co-operate with him in re-annexing the Thracian Chersonese to their dominion. But Charidemus turned his arms against them, and marched in particular to the relief of Alopeconnesus, a town on the south-east of the Chersonese, of which Cephisodotus had been ordered to make himself master under the pretext of dislodging a band of pirates who had taken refuge there. Unable to cope with Charidemus, he entered into a compromise by which the place was indeed yielded to Athens, but on terms so disadvantageous that he was recalled from his command and brought to trial for his life. By a majority of only three votes he escaped sentence of death, but was condemned to a fine of five talents. This was perhaps the Cephisodotus who, in 355 BC, joined Aristophon the Azenian and others in defending the law of Leptines against Demosthenes, and who is mentioned in the speech of the latter as inferior to none in eloquence. Aristotle speaks of him as an opponent of Chares when the latter had to undergo his "euthyne", or public scrutiny, after the Olynthian war, 347 BC.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38477134

The Battle of San Mateo and Montalban was a battle fought between the remaining "Katipuneros" under the command of Andres Bonifacio and Emilio Jacinto and the Spanish government after a failed attempt to capture the El Deposito water works at San Juan del Monte. Background. After the failure to take San Juan del Monte, Bonifacio and the rest of his army retreated to the nearby areas of Mariquina, San Mateo and Montalban, in what was then Manila Province (now Rizal Province). Bonifacio and Jacinto encountered heavy Spanish pursuit as they retreated towards Morong. Capture of Montalban. Around late August, 1896, after the defeat at San Juan del Monte, Bonifacio and the remaining survivors of his army reached Montalban. There, they encountered moderate resistance as they captured San Mateo and Montalban. While there, they regrouped and Bonifacio and his armies recovered from the major defeat, knowing that it was a vital loss and it would affect the image of both Bonifacio and the rest of the Manila Katipunan. However, this battle that he personally led was rather successful initially, and they continued to occupy parts of Morong until the Spanish counterattack. Battle of San Mateo. With the help of Macario Sakay, Apolonio Samson, Faustino Guillermo and General Luciona, the Katipuneros prepared for their next offensive. Jacinto sent out couriers to the neighboring towns, urging the patriots to join the cause. That same day, the first military ranks were conferred to the members of the Katipunan fighting forces. The people's army at Antipolo and Uyungan of over 100 men with 32 revolvers and small cannons merged with the Masuyod contingent, and placed themselves under the overall command of General Kiko (alias Labe), a lieutenant of Bonifacio. With renewed vigor, the Katipuneros, armed with bolos and spears, and a few captured Remingtons, set off for San Mateo, and attacked the town. General Mariano Gutierrez and his Tungko troops, as Bonifacio ordered, surrounded San Mateo. The enemy forces were at the convent and parish house of the church, and they had six cannons. Generals Malinis and De la Cruz gave orders to fire and a furious exchange of fire from guns and cannons ensued the whole day until late in the afternoon. Along the Nangka(Nanca) river the Supremo ordered his soldiers to make effigies from banana trunks and straw scarecrows. With KKK hats on the effigies, the duped enemy wasted bullets on these dummies. Routed, the Spaniard retreat leaving San Mateo to the hands of the triumphant rebels. Spanish counterattack and subsequent recapture of Montalban. The Spanish reaction was swift and decisive. Three days later, Governor-General Ramón Blanco y Erenas quickly sent reinforcements to aid in the recapture of San Mateo and Montalban. When the reinforcements arrived, the Katipunan was defeated yet again at the hands of the Spaniards. Bonifacio once again was forced to retreat - outnumbered, depleted and outgunned by the Spaniards. Retreat to Balara. The loss of Montalban did not affect Bonifacio as much as the earlier conflict. However, it gave him the opportunity to switch the objective from occupying Manila, to a Guerrilla-type warfare in the provinces. Bonifacio retreated to Balara once again to regroup, where he began to fight in skirmishes across Morong province. Guerrilla warfare in Morong. Bonifacio continued to personally lead fights and skirmishes in Morong until the end of the year, but oftentimes, most of these ill-fated attempts led to deaths on both sides and fruitless attempts to regain his reputation. Bonifacio personally led this desperate fight, hard-pressed and depleted, the Revolution in Morong province inevitably flopped. Bonifacio would not be released from this nightmare until he was invited to resolve the Magdalo-Magdiwang issue in Cavite which led to the conflict. He would not return from that province alive. Other rebel leaders considered San Mateo as a refuge. After the Cry of Nueva Ecija, General Mariano Llanera began guerrilla tactics in Bulacan. As the Spaniards continuously pursued them, they made it to the foothills of San Mateo to establish headquarters in November 1896. In a similar way, after the disastrous Defeats suffered by Emilio Aguinaldo in Cavite, he and his men made their arduous trek to Montalban and later to Biak-Na-Bato.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170160

The canton of Schwyz ( ) is a canton in central Switzerland between the Alps in the south, Lake Lucerne to the west and Lake Zürich in the north, centered on and named after the town of Schwyz. It is one of the founding cantons of Switzerland; Switzerland's name is derived from the name of the canton, and the flag of Switzerland from its coat of arms. For the history of the name, see Schwyz. The Swiss Federal Charter is on display in Schwyz. Northeast of the town of Schwyz is the Einsiedeln Abbey. History. Prehistory to the Roman era. The earliest traces of humans in Schwyz are from the Upper Paleolithic and Early Mesolithic or about 12,500 BC. An excavation of the karst caves in the valley of the Muota river ("Muotatal") revealed numerous sites, some dating back to the Younger Dryas period (c. 10,000 BC). The alpine meadows at Bödmeren, Twärenen and Silberen were stone age hunter-gatherer camps. Ibex and red deer bones along with charcoal indicate that the animals were butchered and cooked in these camps. In 2009 the first stone age tool in the canton, a stone drill, was discovered. During the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age there were a number of pile dwellings and other settlements around the lakes of the canton. The two settlements at Hurden in Freienbach are part of the Prehistoric Pile dwellings around the Alps, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Hurden sites are related to the western Cortaillod culture (c. 4500–3500 BC). Sites on the island of Lützelau and the shore zone at Freienbach are eastern Pfyn culture (4000-3300 BC) and Corded Ware culture (2750-2450 BC). During the Bronze Age several bridges were built between the promontory of Endingen in Rapperswil, St. Gallen and the settlements at Hurden. Over 200,000 posts and seven bridges have been discovered, along with several settlements and ritual sites. On the Schwyz side of the lake, ten different settlements from 4300-2700 BC have been discovered. However, after 1200 BC there is very little evidence for further Bronze Age settlements in the canton. Only eight Iron Age sites have been discovered in the canton from the 8th to 1st centuries BC. During the Roman era a Roman Vicus was established at Kempraten in Rapperswil around the massive bridge at Seedamm (near the Bronze Age bridges) which crossed into Schwyz. A Gallo-Roman temple was built on Ufenau island around AD 200 on the site of the present chapel of Sts. Peter and Paul. A few Roman coin hoards were discovered at Küssnacht and Rickenbach bei Schwyz and Küssnacht may have been the site of a Roman estate. Early Middle Ages. In 561 Schwyz became part of the "Ducatus alamannorum" and remained relatively independent under the Alemanni dukes until the second quarter of the 8th century. The Alemanni began to settle into the valleys around 680, but for centuries the Germanic speaking Alemanni and the Romansh speaking Gallo-Romans coexisted. Romansh remained the main language in Einsiedeln until the 10th century. In the 8th and 9th centuries the land was under the Counts of the Zürichgau. The low-lying land along Lake Zürich was relatively easy to reach and was settled throughout the Middle Ages. During the Middle Ages, the Muotathal area was used by seasonal herders but there were very few permanent settlements. Küssnacht was first mentioned in the 9th century, but it is likely that there were earlier settlements. The forests around Einsiedeln were lightly settled. A visit of the Irish monks, Gallus and Columbanus in 611 is mentioned in the Gallusviten. However, their missionary efforts were unsuccessful in Schwyz. In the late 7th century Christianity began to spread into the region. The church at Tuggen was first built around 680/700, while the Aisleless church at Schwyz was built after 700. In the following centuries, the monasteries at Säckingen, St. Gallen and Reichenau all became centers of spreading the faith. In 948, Einsiedeln Abbey was consecrated on the site of Saint Meinrad's murder in 861 in a high valley near Schwyz. When Einsiedeln Abbey was founded, it was granted many farms, villages and isolated churches helping to spread Christianity into the high valleys. The valley of Schwyz is first mentioned in 972 under the name "Suittes". Later, a community of freemen is found settled at the foot of the Mythen. These freemen, possessing common lands, were subject only to the count of the Zürichgau, as representing the German king. The economy benefited from the transit across the Gotthard, but these profits attracted other powers, such as the Habsburgs. The inner or mountainous portion of Schwyz were controlled by the Counts of Lenzburg, until that line died out in 1173. The Lenzburg lands were inherited by the Counts of Kyburg and Frohburg, the Lords of Rapperswil and the Habsburgs. During the 10th century Einsiedeln Abbey became more and more powerful. The expanding town of Schwyz often encroached on lands that the abbey claimed. During the early 12th century, the Counts of Lenzburg (as the Count of the Zürichgau) unsuccessfully sued the abbey on behalf of Schwyz over land use and borders in the forest. Though the Counts were forced to pay a fine each time, the farmers of Schwyz continued to push into land claimed by the abbey. It soon controlled many of the surrounding lands, many of which are outside the area today covered by the canton of Schwyz. The outer or lake side parts of the canton were partly controlled by the Abbeys of St. Gallen, Pfäfers, Rüti and Schänis along with the Lords of Habsburg, Toggenburg and Rapperswil. Both Pfäffikon Castle and Alt Rapperswil Castle were built by these landlords to control their landholdings. In contrast to the Swiss Plateau where the local nobility and knights ruled extensive landholdings for the regional counts, in Schwyz there were very few local nobles and they were generally poorer and less important than the monasteries' representatives or the leaders of the local livestock collectives. Much of the farming or grazing land in the inner portion of Schwyz was not privately owned but was common land. To administer the land the local collectives developed into regional collectives that covered several towns and villages. The collectives helped create a sense of unity throughout the farming towns and villages of the valleys and developed a tradition of independence. With the extinction of the Kyburgs and the decline of the Lords of Rapperswil in the second half of the 13th century, the Habsburgs attempted to claim sovereignty over the Kyburg and Rapperswil lands in Central Switzerland. They succeeded in acquiring the parishes of Schwyz, Steinen, Muotathal and Morschach and in 1283 the patronage over the monastery of Einsiedeln. In 1240, Emperor Frederick II granted the Schwyz valley imperial immediacy for services that they had rendered to the Emperor. While the farming villages of the valleys drew closer together, the expansion of the Habsburgs and changing relationships between the farmers of the alpine valleys and the monasteries led to conflicts such as the "Marchenstreit" between Schwyz and Einseideln Abbey. The "Marchenstreit" started around 1100 over grazing rights around the Mythen mountains and dragged on, with court cases and violent raids, until about 1350. Eternal alliance. Perhaps on 1 August 1291, the cantons of Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden entered into an Eternal Alliance that would eventually become the Swiss Confederation. The Federal Charter of 1291 was probably prompted by the death of Rudolf I of Habsburg on 15 July 1291 and created a defensive alliance. The "Rütlischwur" (Oath of the Rütli) was another alliance between the Forest Cantons in or around 1308 and brought the cantons closer together. The canton of Schwyz took the leadership in the confederation early on. As early as 1320 the name of the canton was applied to the whole of the confederation. It was only in 1803, however, that the name "Schweiz" as derived from the canton of "Schwyz" became the official name of Switzerland. The flag of Switzerland is derived from the banner of Schwyz. With the Eternal Alliance, the three cantons remained politically independent, with a central council to deal with disputes among the members, and with promises of military assistance. The cantons became "de facto" independent from the Habsburgs at the same time as the Habsburgs were attempting to expand into the Forest Cantons. When the century-old "Marchenstreit" between Schwyz and Einseideln Abbey led to a Schwyz attack on the Abbey in 1314, the Habsburgs, as patrons of the Abbey, had an opportunity for military action against them. On 15 November 1315, Leopold of Austria led a large army of knights to crush the rebellious confederates, planning a surprise attack from the south via Lake Aegeri and the Morgarten pass, and counting on a complete victory over the rebellious peasants. The chronicle of Johannes von Winterthur concerning the battle puts the Austrian forces at 20,000, though that number is certainly inflated. Another account says that there were 9,000 men in the Austrian army, while Delbrück holds that the Austrian army was only 2,000-3,000 but mostly knights. The Confederates of Schwyz — supported by the Confederates of Uri, who feared for their autonomy, but not supported by the Confederates of Unterwalden — expected the army in the west near the village of Arth, where they had erected fortifications. The size of the Confederate army is also disputed, with some chronicles placing it at 1,500, while others state that it was 3,000-4,000. Even if the Confederate army outnumbered the Habsburgs, they were an untrained militia against a force of well-equipped and trained knights. The Confederates prepared a road block and an ambush at a point between Lake Aegeri and the Morgarten Pass where the narrow path led between the steep slope and a swamp. When the Austrian army entered the ambush, the Confederates attacked from above with rocks, logs and halberds. The knights had no room to defend themselves and suffered a crushing defeat, while the foot soldiers in the rear fled back to the city of Zug. About 1,500 Habsburg soldiers were killed in the attack. After the victory at Morgarten, the Forest Cantons met at Brunnen on 9 December 1315 to renew the promise of mutual military assistance. The Pact of Brunnen, which emerged from the meeting, changed the pragmatic defensive alliance into a full confederacy. During the following forty years, five nearby cities (Lucerne in 1332, Zürich in 1351, Glarus and Zug in 1352 and Bern in 1353) joined the Pact and began the growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy. Old Swiss Confederation. As the Confederation expanded, Schwyz took a leading role in the new organization. The aggressive, expansionist foreign policy of Schwyz led to its name being applied to the entire Confederation. Even in the 14th century, the chronicles of the surrounding countries referred to the Confederation as "Schwyzer" or "Schweizer" (the modern German spelling). With its exterior borders secured, Schwyz began to acquire rights and land in the neighboring valley. In 1386, Schwyz invaded and occupied the town of Einsiedeln, and by 1424 the monastery was under Schwyz' control, though it retained some independence. Between 1386 and 1436, Schwyz brought under its direct control the entire March District, which became part of the canton. In 1424, Küssnacht became part of the canton. Villages and lands along Lake Zürich, including Wollerau and Pfäffikon (in 1440), Hurden and Ufenau Island all became part of the canton in the 14th and 15th centuries. King Sigismund granted Schwyz the right to High Justice over Schwyz, Einsiedeln, Küssnacht and March in 1415 as a reward for their military support against Frederick IV of Habsburg. The gradual expansion of Schwyz meant that each village entered the canton under different agreements and not all the provinces were granted the same degree of autonomy. One unique case was the town of Gersau which, while located near Schwyz, became a protectorate of the Confederacy and a semi-independent state in 1359. Gersau remained a free city-state and republic until 1817 when it was merged into Schwyz. In 1385, Zürich, Zug and Lucerne attacked several Habsburg strongholds and in the following year Lucerne entered into alliances with several Habsburg cities in an attempt to pull those cities into Lucerne's sphere of influence. In response, Leopold III of Austria gathered an army and prepared to invade the Confederation. After a minor battle, a short-lived armistice was declared, but by early July 1386 the Habsburg army was on the move toward the Lucerne city of Sempach. On 9 July 1386 a Confederation force from Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden met the Austrian army in the Battle of Sempach. While the Habsburg knights initially drove the lightly armored Swiss back, around mid-day the Swiss gained the upper hand and killed Leopold and forced his army to retreat. Much like the Battle of Morgarten, Sempach helped cement the Confederation into a further unified federation. While Schwyz gained no territory from the battle, both Bern and Lucerne gained significant territories at the expense of the Habsburgs. In 1402/3 Schwyz signed an alliance with Appenzell, which was seeking independence from the Abbey of St. Gall. In May 1403, the Abbot and the Habsburgs sent a force to defeat the rebellious Appenzellers while Schwyz and Glarus sent troops to defend their ally. On 15 May 1403, the Abbot's forces entered the pass leading to Speicher, and outside the village of Vögelinsegg they met the Appenzell army. A detachment of about 80 Appenzellers started the attack from a hill over the valley, with about 300 soldiers from Schwyz and 200 from Glarus moving around the flanks of the army. When the League's cavalry charged up the hill, they met 2000 Appenzellers and were forced to retreat. During the retreat, about 600 horsemen and many of the 5000 infantry were killed by the Appenzell army. The League signed a peace treaty with Appenzell at Arbon, but the peace was short-lived. Appenzell formed an anti-Habsburg alliance, the "Bund ob dem See", with several cities including Bregenz. In 1408 the Habsburgs besieged Bregenz, and the "Bund", including Schwyz, marched out to support Bregenz. However, when they met the Habsburgs, the "Bund" was decisively defeated and the "Bund" collapsed. Schwyz paid the Habsburgs off to avoid an attack and Appenzell retained some independence but eventually became an associate of the Confederation. In 1440-46, Schwyz and six other cantons fought against Zürich and the Habsburgs in the Old Zürich War. The eventual peace brought Zürich back into the Confederation and forced them to cancel their treaty with the Austrians. After the war, Schwyz acquired the villages of Wollerau and Pfäffikon (now in Freienbach) and shared control of Uznach and Gaster (both now in St. Gallen) with Glarus. The war also showed that the confederation had grown into a political alliance so close that it no longer tolerated separatist tendencies of a single member. In the 15th century, Schwyz joined Uri and Nidwalden in attempting to expand south of the Gotthard Pass to gain the revenue from trade over the pass. By the 16th century they controlled, as a federal condominium, the Riveria valley, the Blenio valley, the Maggia valley and the towns of Bellinzona, Lugano, Mendrisio and Locarno. In 1480, Heinrich von Gundelfingen collected a number of local legends into a book called the "Herkommen der Schwyzer und Oberhasler" (Traditions of the Schwyzer and Oberhasler) which claimed that the land had been settled by 6,000 Swedes and 1,200 East Frisians after they rescued the Pope from a barbarian attack in 400 AD. The central elements of the myth, the Swedish origin and the rescue of the Pope became central elements in the Schwyzer state mythos. By 1531, this special relationship to the Catholic faith and the Pope was specifically mentioned in a resolution that passed in the Landsgemeinde. This resolution was passed against the backdrop of the Protestant Reformation and the tensions following the First War of Kappel two years earlier. Soon thereafter, the Catholic cantons refused to help the Three Leagues ("Drei Bünde") in Graubünden in the Musso war against the Duchy of Milan, Zürich promptly considered this a breach of contracts between the confederacy and the Three Leagues and declared an embargo against the five alpine Catholic cantons, in which Bern also participated. While the "Tagsatzung" had successfully mediated in 1529, on this occasion the attempt failed, not least because the reformation leader Huldrych Zwingli was eager for a military confrontation. The Catholic cantons declared war on Zürich on 9 October 1531. On 11 October 1531, Schwyz, Uri and Zug decisively defeated the army of Zwingli. Hundreds of soldiers were killed, including Zwingli himself. Schwyz remained staunchly Catholic following the war. In 1655 the canton of Schwyz began prosecuting those Protestant families who had remained in Schwyz. Some were turned in to the inquisition in Milan, some were beheaded, and the property of those who fled to Protestant Zürich was confiscated. Zürich demanded compensation for this property. Schwyz demanded the return of the refugees. Zürich urged Bern to declare war on the Catholic cantons (Schwyz and its allies Uri, Unterwalden, Zug and Lucerne). Zürich's forces laid a fruitless siege of Rapperswil, while Catholic forces separated Zürich from Bern, beating the Bernese at the First Battle of Villmergen on 24 January 1656. Hostilities ceased on 20 February and the treaty of Villmergen of 7 March reinstalled the status quo preceding the outbreak of hostilities, wherein each canton could specify the religion of all its residents. However, religious tensions continued to rise. When the abbot of St. Gallen proposed to build a "Catholic" road from Schwyz to Austria that would cut off the Protestant part of Glarus from its support in Zürich, the Protestant cantons declared war on the Abbot. After the Protestant victory at the Second Battle of Villmergen, religious equality was established in the Confederation. Throughout the time of the Old Swiss Confederation, the direct democracy of the Landsgemeinde in Schwyz was seen as the most important political institution in the canton and the municipalities of the canton. The Landsgemeinde generally met on the last Sunday in April. Mayors and other government officials were elected, new laws were discussed and voted on and traditional rights were reconfirmed. The Landsgemeinde usually met at Ibach outside Schwyz town, though there were several alternative locations. In the towns, the Landsgemeinde was made up of all land holding males or citizen. By the 16th century this class had begun to develop into an elite class that tended to lead the Landsgemeinde and be appointed as mayors. Below the citizens there was a class of residents, who were allowed to use the common land but had limited rights or political power. In the 16th century it was possible for a resident to buy his way into citizenship, however by the 17th century this had become almost impossible. To pay for the Second Battle of Villmergen, Schwyz allowed residents to once again buy citizenship. The Landsgemeinde meetings sometimes collapsed and led to riots. There were often many parties represented and the alliances and factions changed quickly and unpredictably. Schwyz was often characterized as an "enfant terrible" due to the unyielding Catholicism along with the political chaos of the Landsgemeinde. Helvetic Republic to the federal state. During the years leading up to the 1798 French invasion of Switzerland, the spiritual leadership of the canton often preached against the anti-Catholic parts of the French Revolution. In the Landsgemeinde in the spring of 1798, the leadership spoke out strongly against the French and urged the people to take an uncompromising position against the newly created Helvetic Republic and the limited freedom of religion in the Republic. In response, the cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Nidwalden raised an army of about 10,000 men led by Alois von Reding to fight the French. This army was deployed along the defensive line from Napf to Rapperswil. Reding besieged French-controlled Lucerne and marched across the Brünig pass into the Berner Oberland to support the armies of Bern. At the same time, the French General Balthasar Alexis Henri Antoine of Schauenburg marched out of occupied Zürich to attack Zug, Lucerne and the Sattel pass. Even though Reding's army won victories at Rothenthurm on 2 May 1798 and Morgarten, Schauenburg's victory near Sattel allowed him to threaten the town of Schwyz. On 4 May 1798, the town council of Schwyz surrendered. Reding surrendered to the French on 13 May. To help break the political power of the Inner Cantons, Uri (without the Leventina but with the Urseren), Schwyz (without March and Höfe), both half-cantons of Unterwalden, Zug, the Republic of Gersau and Engelberg Abbey were merged into the canton of Waldstätten. The new canton only had 4 seats in the Tagsatzung instead of the 16 that its members had held before the invasion. Initially the victorious French army only lightly occupied the old core of the canton of Schwyz, but plundered the Einseideln Abbey. However, after a failed uprising in Nidwalden in the fall of 1798, Schwyz was forced to hand over all weapons and to provide supplies and housing to French troops. The heavy demands of the occupying French led to the uprising known as the "Hirthemmli War" in April 1799. After the French suppressed this uprising, they moved the capital of the canton of Waldstätten to Zug. In summer and autumn of 1799, the outbreak of the War of the Second Coalition brought renewed fighting to Schwyz. In mid-August the French General André Masséna drove the Austrian-Russian army out of the Schwyz valley. By the end of September they were fighting in the March valley. Simultaneously, the Russian General Alexander Suvorov crossed the Kinzig Pass with his army and began fighting the French in the Muota valley. Suvorov was unable to force his way out of the canton and was eventually driven over the Pragel Pass to Glarus. The destruction and looting from both armies stripped the canton of food and ruined fields, causing hardship and death among the Schwyzer during the following winter. Joseph Thomas Fassbind compiled a history of the canton during this period, published in the 1830s. After the 1803 Act of Mediation, Schwyz regained its independence and most of the changes introduced by Napoleon were reverted. The old subject lands were converted into full and equal districts and the formerly independent towns of Gersau and Reichenburg joined the new canton of Schwyz. The loss of power in the old core of Schwyz led to resentment and tension in the canton. After the abolition of the Act of Mediation in February 1814 the old core tried to usurp the leadership role in the canton and strip the right to political participation from the former subject lands. The old subject lands resisted this and the old core was forced to agree to the 1814 Constitution which granted equal rights to all citizens. However, they were able to include the provision that the two-thirds of the seats would come from the old core of Schwyz. Furthermore, the highest cantonal authorities came from the old core. While the new constitution removed the legal difference between citizens and residents, residents were not allowed to use the extensive land owned by the citizen's community. Tensions continued to escalate until in the Landsgemeinde of 1829, the residents from the former subject lands were driven out of the assembly. The former subject lands saw this as a clear threat to their equality, and encouraged by the July Revolution of 1830 the four outer districts; March, Einsiedeln, Pfaeffikon and Küssnacht signed a new constitution which guaranteed, among other things, proportional representation. The leaders of the old core saw this as a threat to their authority and rejected the new constitution. On 9 March 1831 the outer districts seceded from Schwyz and formed the canton of Outer Schwyz with the capital in Einseideln. In 1832 they established a new constitution, government and courts. In spring 1833, the Swiss Tagsatzung acknowledged the new canton, but insisted that they work toward reunification. An altercation in Küssnacht between supporters and opponents of secession offered Inner Schwyz the opportunity to resolve the crisis with military action. They invaded and occupied Küssnacht on 31 July 1833. The Outer Schwyz and Lucerne appealed to the Swiss Confederation, which responded by invading Inner Schwyz in August. Shortly thereafter the two half-cantons reunited under a constitution that guaranteed equal rights for all residents. In the Landsgemeinde of 13 October 1833, the voting residents of the canton chose two liberal minded leaders, but shortly thereafter the conservative faction came into power again. Under the conservative government, the canton joined the Sonderbund (separate alliance in German) in 1845 to protect cantonal sovereignty and the Catholic religion. When the Tagsatzung attempted to dissolve the Sonderbund on 21 October 1847, the Catholic cantons rebelled. On 23 November 1847 Federal troops defeated the Sonderbund at Gislikon and drove the Schwyzer army back at Meierskappel. Four days later the Sonderbund surrendered. The conservative government of Schwyz was dissolved and a new provisional government and constitution established. The first attempt at a constitution, which split the district of Schwyz in two and moved the cantonal capital away from Schwyz, was narrowly defeated on 27 January 1848. The second constitution, which removed the mentioned points and merged the former districts of Wollerau and Pfäffikon in the district of March, was then approved by the electorate on 27 February 1848. The new constitution of 1848 reformed the government of the canton. Perhaps the greatest change was that it abolished the Landsgemeinde, which had formerly been the supreme authority. It split the government into three branches, legislature, executive and judiciary and created a three-tier structure of municipalities, districts and canton. It created proportional representation and allowed the population to vote on laws and constitutional amendments. Modern Schwyz. With the end of the Landsgemeinde in the new constitution, the cantonal elections on 3 December 1848 brought a conservative majority parliament. However, the cantonal councils then selected a liberal-conservative and liberal government. The government had the difficult task of reunifying the canton and supporting the new federal government, which 75% of Schwyzer opposed. Over the next few years the new government focused, almost exclusively, on integrating the canton into the new Confederation. Federal forgiveness of the Sonderbund War debt in 1852 and hosting the Federal Officers Festival in 1856 and the Federal Shooting Festival of 1867 all helped to reintegrate the canton. A conservative ballot initiative in 1854 failed to reestablish the Landsgemeinde and abolish the districts, while a liberal initiative in 1866, which attempted to expand personal rights, also failed. In the early 1870s, the conservatives gained power in the cantonal government. In 1874, the Swiss Federal Constitution was completely revised, which created conflicts with the Schwyz cantonal constitution. It was revised in 1876 and accepted by 73% of voters. The new cantonal constitution limited the scope of the cantonal laws and extended the requirements for mandatory referendums. In the mid-1890s, the liberals began to push for another constitutional revision. Their revisions included language that would give the government authority over the monasteries and their assets. The conservatives fought back with a platform of protecting the religion of most Schwyzer. In response, the government created a second version, which dropped the controversial religious portions but was otherwise unchanged. This new constitution, which required elections every four years, the popular election of all members of parliament, proportional representation in the cantonal councils and full religious freedom, was approved on 23 October 1898. This constitution remained in force, with amendments, until 2011. Between 1833 and 1950 the population of the canton doubled from 38,351 to 71,082 people, though this increase was slower than the national average. The railroad to Küssnacht allowed that town to grow much faster than average between 1870–1914. At about the same time, a wave of immigrants from Europe (mostly from Italy) moved into the canton and a larger group of Schwyzer emigrated to the United States. On a per capita basis, Schwyz had the third highest emigration rate in Switzerland as people left for jobs. During late 19th and early 20th century, internal migration also changed the composition of the population. In 1860 almost 80% of the residents lived in the village of their birth, by 1950 it was only 50%. The First World War was very hard on the residents of the canton. The cantonal authorities did little to prevent war time profiteering and prices for food and other necessities skyrocketed. At the same time, extensive unemployment and low wages led to starvation and poverty. Some of the major industries in Schwyz at the time were tourism and the textile cottage industry, both of which collapsed, so the canton suffered disproportionately. In 1918, Schwyzer troops were called up to join the Federal Army in suppressing striking workers in the canton of Uri, in Rapperswil and in the Zürich Oberland. When the Spanish flu broke out in the army camps many Schwyzer soldiers died. The poverty and death led to a polarization of politics and the Conservatives used the slogan of "flu-dead soldiers" until the mid-1930s. During the Second World War, Schwyz was generally insulated from the effects of the war. Several fortresses were built on the Rigi, in the Sattel Pass and on the Etzel and the Linth plains as part of the National Redoubt fortifications. During the war, Schwyz was twice the center of national attention. Once in 1941 on the occasion of the 650th anniversary of Confederation and in 1942, with the arrest of the owner of a dairy and mill for the extensive black market operations. Between 1950 and 2010, the population doubled again to 146,730 people in 2010. During this period Schwyz showed one of the highest growth rates among the Swiss cantons. The highest growth was in the Outer Schwyz region. The Höfe district grew from 7,573 in 1950 to around 27,000 people in 2010. In 2004, Freienbach replaced Schwyz as the largest municipality in the canton. The cantonal administration introduced a "logo" to represent its "corporate identity" in 1995. This was discussed controversially, and a popular initiative demanded that solely the coat of arms was to be used to represent the canton. The initiative was rejected by the popular vote on 7 December 1997, and the logo has been used officially since 1998. Geography. Schwyz has an area, , of . Of this area, 41.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while 33.7% is forested, 5.4% is settled (buildings or roads) and 20.0% is unproductive land. The canton of Schwyz is located in central Switzerland. The river Sihl and the smaller Muota traverse the canton. It includes parts of Lake Zürich and Lake Lucerne. Only a small part of Lake Zug is within the canton of Schwyz. The smaller lakes Lauerz ("Lauerzersee") and Sihl ("Sihlsee"), however, are completely within the canton of Schwyz. The highest elevation is the "Bös Fulen" at . Although not as high, the summits of the Rigi massif ("Kulm", , and "Scheidegg", ) are probably the most famous mountains within the borders of the canton. Political subdivisions. The canton is divided into six districts and 30 municipalities, although the Einsiedeln, Küssnacht and Gersau districts comprise the municipality of the same name. The largest towns are Küssnacht and Pfäffikon. Coat of arms. The blazon of the coat of arms is "Gules, a Confederate cross couped in the hoist argent." Demographics. Schwyz has a population () of . , 15.6% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of 12.8%. Migration accounted for 10%, while births and deaths accounted for 3.9%. Most of the population () speaks German (115,688 or 89.9%) as their first language, Serbo-Croatian is the second most common (2,667 or 2.1%) and Albanian is the third (2,477 or 1.9%). There are 502 people who speak French, 2,447 people who speak Italian and 234 people who speak Romansh. , the population was 49.9% male and 50.1% female. The population was made up of 5,824 Swiss men (42.2% of the population) and 1,058 (7.7%) non-Swiss men. There were 5,932 Swiss women (43.0%) and 988 (7.2%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the canton, 50,778 or about 39.5% were born in Schwyz and lived there in 2000. There were 19,319 or 15.0% who were born in the same canton, while 35,617 or 27.7% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 19,622 or 15.2% were born outside of Switzerland. , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 25.6% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 61.4% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 12.9%. , there were 57,353 people who were single and never married in the canton. There were 59,385 married individuals, 6,201 widows or widowers and 5,765 individuals who are divorced. , there were 50,089 private households in the canton, and an average of 2.5 persons per household. There were 15,043 households that consist of only one person and 4,801 households with five or more people. , the construction rate of new housing units was 7.8 new units per 1000 residents. the average price to rent an average apartment in Schwyz town was 1185.58 Swiss francs (CHF) per month (US$950, £530, €760 approx. exchange rate from 2003). The average rate for a one-room apartment was 543.08 CHF (US$430, £240, €350), a two-room apartment was about 904.87 CHF (US$720, £410, €580), a three-room apartment was about 1068.78 CHF (US$860, £480, €680) and a six or more room apartment cost an average of 1461.34 CHF (US$1170, £660, €940). The average apartment price in Schwyz was 106.2% of the national average of 1116 CHF. The vacancy rate for the canton, , was 0.97%. Historic population. The historical population is given in the following chart: Politics. The cantonal constitution was rewritten in 2011. Before that, the constitution dates mainly from 1876, but was revised in 1898. Under the 1876/98 constitution, the legislature (Kantonsrat) is composed of members elected by a portion of the population and holds office for four years. Originally, each member of the Kantonsrat represented 600 people or a fraction thereof over 200 people. As the population has increased while the number of members has remained fixed at about 100, this has changed. , the 13 municipalities with the smallest population each elect one member of the Kantonsrat. The other 87 seats are divided between the remaining 17 municipalities based on population. The executive (Regierungsrat) consists of seven members who are elected by a popular vote, and hold office for four years. The two members of the federal Standerat and the four (three until 2003) of the federal Nationalrat are also chosen by a popular vote. In the case of all laws approved by the legislature and important financial measures there is a requirement for an "obligatory referendum". Two thousand citizens may claim a popular vote as to any decrees or resolutions of the legislature, and have also the right of "initiative" as to the revision of the cantonal constitution or as to legislative projects. Federal elections. In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 38.0% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the CVP (20.6%), the SP/PS (15.7%) and the FDP (15.5%). The SVP lost about 7.0% of the vote when compared to the 2007 Federal election (45.0% in 2007 vs 38.0% in 2011). The CVP retained about the same popularity (20.1% in 2007), the SPS moved from below fourth place in 2007 to third and the FDP moved from below fourth place in 2007 to fourth. Cantonal elections. The evolving party membership in the Kantonsrat is shown in the following chart (for selected dates): Economy. Most of the canton relies on agriculture. The local breed of brown cattle is renowned. The textile industry used to be of great importance in the canton but has now almost ceased to exist; remnants are concentrated around the capital Schwyz. Located in the same area are many producers of fine furniture. There are a few large hydroelectric power plants in the canton. Tourism is of importance in a number of regions, most notably in the centre of pilgrimage Einsiedeln. Einsiedeln is also a centre of winter sports. The mountain railways on the Rigi are well known around the country. Freienbach, in the north of the canton, is known for the lowest taxes in Switzerland. This has attracted a number of the rich. The best known, worldwide product of the canton is the Swiss Army Knife manufactured by Victorinox in Ibach just downhill from the main town of Schwyz. , Schwyz had an unemployment rate of 2.3%. , there were 4,723 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 1,789 businesses involved in this sector. 18,661 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 1,937 businesses in this sector. 41,198 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 6,207 businesses in this sector. the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 53,451. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 2,939, of which 2,795 were in agriculture, 130 were in forestry or lumber production and 14 were in fishing or fisheries. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 17,505 of which 10,048 or (57.4%) were in manufacturing, 88 or (0.5%) were in mining and 6,959 (39.8%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 33,007. In the tertiary sector; 8,708 or 26.4% were in the sale or repair of motor vehicles, 2,193 or 6.6% were in the movement and storage of goods, 3,376 or 10.2% were in a hotel or restaurant, 1,382 or 4.2% were in the information industry, 2,294 or 7.0% were the insurance or financial industry, 4,126 or 12.5% were technical professionals or scientists, 1,922 or 5.8% were in education and 4,504 or 13.6% were in health care. Of the working population, 15.9% used public transportation to get to work, and 56% used a private car. Religion. From the , 92,868 or 72.2% were Roman Catholic, while 15,140 or 11.8% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 2,758 members of an Orthodox church (or about 2.14% of the population), there were 46 individuals (or about 0.04% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 2,658 individuals (or about 2.07% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 51 individuals (or about 0.04% of the population) who were Jewish, and 5,598 (or about 4.35% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 272 individuals who were Buddhist, 429 individuals who were Hindu and 62 individuals who belonged to another church. 6,331 (or about 4.92% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 3,752 individuals (or about 2.92% of the population) did not answer the question. Education. In Schwyz about 46,694 or (36.3%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 13,848 or (10.8%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 13,848 who completed tertiary schooling, 66.3% were Swiss men, 19.4% were Swiss women, 9.1% were non-Swiss men and 5.2% were non-Swiss women. Schwyz is home to the "Kantonsschule Kollegium Schwyz" (KKS), an upper Secondary school that is a Gymnasium and a vocational or technical college. The KKS has operated for over 150 years, though it builds on several older schools. The first Latin school in Schwyz opened in 1627 in the former Capuchin monastery of St. Josef im Loo. This school remained open until the 1798 French invasion. On 25 July 1841, the Jesuits laid the cornerstone of what would become the Jesuit College on the site of the modern "Kollegium". The school opened in 1844 but only remained under Jesuit control for three years. In 1847, Federal troops marched into Schwyz to suppress the Catholic Sonderbund and forced the Jesuits to flee. It was reopened in 1855 under the Capuchin Father Theodosius Florentini and in the following year began teaching students. The school continued to teach students using both religious and secular teachers until the 1970s. In 1972, the lower Secondary students moved to Pfäffikon and the school became an upper Secondary "Kantonsschule". See also. Theodor Ab Yberg, head of the canton 1846-1847 External links.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32231914

Werd Island is the main island of the small island group "Werd Islands" in the westernmost part of the Lower Lake of Lake Constance just before the High Rhine leaves the part of the lake known as . It is located on Swiss territory between Stein am Rhein and Eschenz. History. The Werd was already inhabited in 5000 BC, using stilt houses. Stone tools used by hunter-gatherers in the Middle Stone Age have been found. In the Neolithic, Werd provided an ideal place to settle. Between 1931 and 1935, the island was excavated under the direction of Karl Keller-Tarnuzzer. Numerous items such as stone axes, arrowheads, a flint sickle, pottery shards, bone fishhooks from the Neolithic and the Bronze Age came to light. Tools, weapons and jewelry from the Bronze Age were found. Water levels of Lake Constance fell to an extreme low in the winter of 2005/2006. This uncovered a large waterfront areas and some prehistoric artifacts. A selection of prehistoric, Roman Era and medieval artifacts is on display at the entrance of the refectory on the island. Other important finds are now housed in the Museum of Archaeology in Frauenfeld and in the local museum in Eschenz. In 50 BCE, the Romans built a pile bridge between Rhaetia and Magna Germania via the island. The two bridge sections had a length of 220 and 217 meters and a width of six meters. This Roman road, known in the literature as the "Rheatian Boundary Street" led from the Vicus "Tasgetium" (Eschenz) via Rielasingen, Singen, Friedingen, Steißlingen, Orsingen, Vilsingen and Inzigkofen to a ford across the Danube at Laiz. In Orsingen there was a junction to Pfullendorf and Burgweiler. Near "Dürren Ast", there was a further junction through the Ablach Valley to Meßkirch, Krauchenwies and Mengen-Ennetach. Chapel. Saint Othmar, the first abbot of the Abbey of St. Gall was sent into exile to Werd in 759. He died on Werd on 16 November of that year. The St. Othmar chapel on the island was erected in his memory in the 15th Century. It belongs to the Catholic parish of Eschenz. The island is owned by the Benedictine Einsiedeln Abbey. It is, however, leased by the Franciscans; they live in a house attached to the chapel. Archipelago. Werd is the main island of a small island group. It has an area of 1.59 hectare belongs to the ward Untereschenz of the municipality of Eschenz, in the Swiss Canton Thurgau. The highest point of the island is 398 metres above sea level or 2 metres above lake level (396 m). It is connected to the south bank of the river by a 125 meter long wooden bridge. The two smaller islands in the group belong to the municipality of Stein am Rhein of Canton of Schaffhausen. They are uninhabited and form the nature reserve and bird sanctuary "Middle and lower Werdli". Middle Werdli island has an area of 0.4 hectares; Lower Werdli measures 0.6 hectares. The boundary between the cantons of Thurgau and Schaffhausen, follows the center line of the Rhine here. The bridge at Stein am Rhein is generally considered to be the boundary between the Lower Lake of Lake Constance and the High Rhine. The Werd islands lie just above the bridge and are therefore inland islands, not river islands. The Western tip of Lower Werli is about 320 meters upstream from the bridge.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45478687

This is a list of characters from , a Japanese tokusatsu drama in the Super Sentai Series. Ninningers. The five main members of the Ninningers are the descendants of the , ninja who were involved in Japan's Sengoku Era where they dispatched Gengetsu Kibaoni, and are also the grandchildren of Yoshitaka Igasaki, who has been preparing for Kibaoni's predestined return. As users of their clan's fighting style, the Ninningers' arsenal revolves around the use of their . The Ninningers can restore the purified Sealing Shuriken to the Nin Shuriken by sharpening their enough. They each transform by inserting a into their ninjatō-like sidearms, which also can be used to perform attacks including their finisher, elemental jutsu with a , unique jutsu with a (including techniques used by other ninja heroes like the Hurricanegers, the Kakurangers, and Jiraiya), and summon their Otomonin. The Ninningers' Nin Shuriken-compatible arsenal also includes the Yokai-detecting handgun, which fire from the and function as a Yokai alert system, and the Fūma shuriken-like , which has three modes: blade, bow, and claw. After the is added to their arsenal, Aka Ninger usually using it, the Ninningers can become their armored Chozetsu form, armed with the , the combination of the Ninja Ichibantou and the Chozetsu Shobu Changer. Takaharu Igasaki. is the leader of the Ninningers who is an impulsive optimist who acts like a big brother to his teammates. Out of the group, Takaharu is most adamant of being a ninja and wishes to become the kind of ninja his grandfather is. He becomes the red-colored . With the Chozetsu Shobu Changer, Aka Ninger can become , whose finisher is the . After the final battle against Gengetsu Kibaoni, Takaharu opens his own school of ninjutsu and is last seen teaching his students. In-between the final episode and prior to the Ninningers' encounter with the Zyuohgers, Takaharu was married and had a son named Yoshiharu, but forgot to notify this to his family and cousins. As Aka Ninger, Takaharu's catchphrase is . Takaharu Igasaki is portrayed by . As a child, Takaharu is portrayed by . Yakumo Kato. has a cold demeanor despite his quick temper. Yakumo was originally in England to learn magic until he was called back to Japan. Though a realist who doesn't really see a need to carry out his grandfather's legacy, he decides to prove himself better skilled at the Shuriken Ninja Art. He becomes the blue-colored . With the Chozetsu Shobu Changer, Ao Ninger can become . After the final battle against Gengetsu Kibaoni, Yakumo returns to his magic school in England and introduces the combined techniques of ninjutsu and magic, though still has a long way to go teaching the British wizards with Kasumi and became her husband. During "Kamen Rider × Super Sentai: Ultra Super Hero Taisen", Yakumo temporarily assumes the form of , a hybrid of Aorenger and the Double Riders, once he and his team prevail in the Game World's Ultra Super Hero Taisen tournament. In this form, he rides Kamen Rider Kiva's Castle Doran against the Xevious fleet. As Ao Ninger, Yakumo's catchphrase is . Yakumo "Cloud" Kato is portrayed by . Nagi Matsuo. is very friendly, yet surprisingly observant with both a prankster streak and a desire to master various things. He is the youngest member of the team who becomes the yellow-colored . With the Chozetsu Shobu Changer, Ki Ninger can become . After the final battle against Gengetsu Kibaoni, Nagi studies with Fuuka to get into university and became Fuuka's boyfriend. As Ki Ninger, Nagi's catchphrase is . Nagi Matsuo is portrayed by . Fuka Igasaki. is Takaharu's younger sister who is very reliable but a bit clumsy, initially believing her clan's history with Kibaoni to be a fairy tale. Just like Nagi, she is a high schooler and becomes the white-colored . After the final battle against Gengetsu Kibaoni, Fuka sets her sights on becoming an idol and uses her ninjutsu as one of her talents. As Shiro Ninger, Fuka's catchphrase is . Fuka Igasaki is portrayed by . As a child, Fuka is portrayed by . Kasumi Momochi. is a university student who aims to be a scientist and normally very reserved despite being unable to take a hint or having a sharp-tongue at times. She becomes the pink-colored . After the final battle against Gengetsu Kibaoni, Kasumi decides to continue research the secrets behind the Ninningers' arsenal through her scientific studies in England with Yakumo and became his wife. As Momo Ninger, Kasumi's catchphrase is . Kasumi Momochi is portrayed by . Kinji Takigawa. is a from the United States, having learning the basics from his father as a child before being orphaned when his older brother and their father were killed by the Western Yokai Okami-otoko. Kinji's intent to become a great Yokai Hunter had him seek out Yoshitaka to become his apprentice. Having followed Yoshitaka to Japan, learning to speak in an old Japanese Edo dialect from watching jidaigeki and rakugo, Kinji is offered a chance by accepting the old man's challenge to kill one of the Ninningers within a month's time. Though Kinji failed after developing a bond with Yoshitaka's grandchildren, he is given another chance by Yoshitaka after his role in the Ninningers obtaining Lion HaOh. After the final battle against Gengetsu Kibaoni, Kinji inherits Yoshitaka's oden business and starts operating it in the United States. Kinji transforms into the gold-colored by inserting a Transformation Nin Shuriken into the device, which functions as a smartphone with a Yokai alert system and can be used to summon his Otomonin. His Technique Nin Shuriken-compatible main weapon is the electric guitar, which has a for the finisher and a for the finisher. With the Chozetsu Shobu Changer, Star Ninger can become , whose finisher is the . After the sword is added to his arsenal, Star Ninger can become , who has two finishers: and . As Star Ninger, Kinji's catchphrase is . Kinji Takigawa is portrayed by . As a child, Kinji is portrayed by . Tsumuji Igasaki. is Takaharu and Fuka's father and Yoshitaka's oldest son. He trained since childhood in order to succeed his father until one day his ability to use ninjutsu was stolen by Kyuemon, and thus uses all his knowledge to train the Ninningers instead. He is also the one who created the Ninja Ichibantou for them to use. After reclaiming his lost powers thanks to the other Ninningers, Tsumuji joins forces with them in the final battle against the Kibaoni forces by transforming himself into his own version of Aka Ninger. As Aka Ninger, Tsumuji's catchphrase is . Tsumuji Igasaki is portrayed by . As a teenager, Tsumuji is portrayed by . Yoshitaka Igasaki. , known as the , is the Ninningers' grandfather who sealed Gengetsu Kibaoni away when he revived as an oni. He was originally believed to have died prior to the series but he went into hiding while building the Otomonin in secret. Yoshitaka only revealed himself after giving the Ninningers their Otomonin Shuriken, believing they need his guidance to be true ninja. It is also later hinted that he went to Italy for certain reasons and as such, occasionally adds Italian phrases in his speech. He also single-handedly built a completely new after the old one was destroyed, equipped with countless secret panels and trapdoors as well as being able to change its design after tapping on one of the floorboards. One of the many legends associated to Yoshitaka is that he made contact with aliens several times, which was proven true when it is revealed that he used alien technology to create the Otomonin. Yoshitaka explains that he would eventually choose one of his grandchildren who managed to exceed his expectations by improving their Nintality while fully mastering the Shuriken Ninja Art to become his successor and inherit the title of Last Ninja. However, he later reveals that the title of Last Ninja can be only be inherited by whoever strikes him down and absorbs his Nintality, much to the grief of his grandchildren, but when they show him their own conviction to surpass him by finding their own path to become the Last Ninja, he acknowledges them and joins forces with the Ninningers for the final battle with the Kibaoni Army Corps, by transforming into his own version of Aka Ninger. He is later killed when Kyuemon stabs him in the back, taking his Nintality and End Shuriken for himself before fading away from existence. At the same time, Yoshitaka reveals that he has actually been dead for the past some decades, ever since he sealed Gengetsu Kibaoni, and the End Shuriken has been all that has kept him alive since. Before he dies, he gives a purified Sealing Shuriken to Kyuemon, which transforms into his own Nin Shuriken after finally acknowledging him as his teacher. As Aka Ninger, Yoshitaka's catchphrase is . Yoshitaka Igasaki is portrayed by . In episode 44, a younger Yoshitaka is portrayed by , Takashi Sasano's eldest son. , Takashi's second eldest son, also has a guest role in the "Ninninger" finale as one of Nagi's classmates. Luna Kokonoe. is a new member of the Ninningers capable of transforming into the green-colored , using the same Nin Shuriken that was reserved for Kyuemon, and was possessed by his spirit. She appears exclusively in the film "Shuriken Sentai Ninninger Returns: Ninnin Girls vs. Boys Final Wars". As Mido Ninger, Luna's catchphrase is . Luna Kokonoe is portrayed by who also voiced Kyuemon Izayoi. Yoshiharu Igasaki. is Takaharu's son who comes from the future to stop the battle between the Zyuohgers and the Ninningers. He transforms into his own version of Aka Ninger. He appears exclusively in the film "Doubutsu Sentai Zyuohger vs. Ninninger the Movie: Super Sentai's Message from the Future". As Aka Ninger, Yoshiharu's catchphrase is . Yoshiharu Igasaki is portrayed by . Otomonin. The are mecha created by Yoshitaka using alien technology that are normally hidden in the city until summoned by the Ninningers using their Ichibantou in conjunction with the for a summoning jutsu. The Ninningers' secondary Otomonin are created by themselves, giving life to them with their own spirits. The Otomonin can also combine through . Shurikenzin. is the Ninningers' original giant robot, formed by the combination of Shinobimaru, Dragomaru, Dumpmaru, Wanmaru and Buyunmaru. Armed with the used for the finisher and the , after the other Otomonin combine into an exosuit that Shinobimaru uses. When an auxiliary mecha take Shinobimaru's place in alternate Shurikenzin formations, Shinobimaru becomes the left arm in the combination instead of Dumpmaru. Bison King. is Star Ninger's personal giant robot, formed by the combination of Rodeomaru and the Bison King Buggy via , armed with the which allows it to perform the finisher. King Shurikenzin. is the Ninninger's first super robot, formed by the combination of Shurikenzin and Bison King, armed with the which allows it to perform the finisher. Gekiatsu DaiOh. is a combination of the Ninningers' secondary Otomonin: Hououmaru, Seryumaru, Genbumaru, Byakkomaru, Pandamaru and Magoimaru that can perform the and attacks, as well as perform the finisher. HaOh Shurikenzin. is the Niningers' most powerful robot, formed by a combination of Shurikenzin, Bison King and Lion HaOjo that can perform the finisher. Allies. Harukaze Kato. is Yakumo's mother and Tsumuji's older sister who is a worldwide fashion designer. She has no interest in ninja, finding it very "uncool," until seeing her son in action with his cousins. Harukaze Kato is portrayed by . Tetsunosuke Saika XXII. is a karakuri technician and son of Tetsunosuke Saika XXI, the man who helped Yoshitaka create the Otomonin. He since then succeeded his father and is now responsible for performing maintenance on the Ninningers' equipment and is the creator of the Chozetsu Shobu Changer, also assisting them in creating their secondary Otomonin. He is usually at . Tetsunosuke Saika XXII is portrayed by . Tatsunosuke Hakkaku. is the lord of inside . He appears exclusively in the film "". He was originally a caring lord to his citizens but this eventually led him to abandon his own family and turned into the terrible dragon after falling into greed, anxiety and fear. In the present day, his body was shrunken to human-sized and rescued by the Ninninger is part of their summer homework. Takeru was forced to look after Tatsunosuke when the Ninningers left to defend the Shinobigakure villagers but forced to abandon him when his comrades were in danger. Seeing Takeru's act, Tatsunosuke eventually joined him and in turn defended the Ninningers when Juza Yumihari tried to attack them. Although his selfless act lifted him from the dinosaur curse and created a new Nin Shuriken, but the Kibaoni Army general used his Yojutsu to turn him back in the terrible dragon until Aka Ninger strikes its horn, separating Tatsunosuke from it and reveals the dragon's true form, the Otomonin Dinomaru. Following the battle's conclusion, he and his villagers thanked the Ninningers and bid farewell, marking the end of their summer homework. Tatsunosuke Hakkaku is portrayed by . Sakurako Igasaki. is Takaharu and Fuka's mother and Tsumuji's wife who is a ninja freak. She created the idol duo , consisting of Fuka and Kasumi. She appears exclusively in the film "Shuriken Sentai Ninninger Returns: Ninnin Girls vs. Boys Final Wars". Sakurako Igasaki is portrayed by . Returning characters. "Shuriken Sentai Ninninger" pays homage to Toei Company's past ninja-themed series, featuring reappearances of actors reprising their characters from them. Sasuke. , also known as from the Kakurangers, appears along Yousuke Shiina with the pretense of being the Ninningers' temporary teacher, but their true mission was to prevent Takaharu from being killed by the Yokai Nekomata, as they saw his demise when he was sent to the past 10 years prior. reprises his role as Sasuke. Yousuke Shiina. , also known as from the Hurricanegers, appears along Sasuke with the pretense of being the Ninningers' temporary teacher and successfully helps save Takaharu's life when the Ninninger uses the substitution technique he learned from him to change his fate, thus earning the Hurricanegers and Kakurangers' approval and their Nin Shurikens as well. reprises his role as Yousuke Shiina. Toha Yamaji. , also known as , first encounters the Ninningers while mistaking them for ninjas from the Izayoi-Style. Once the misunderstanding is cleared, they end up joining forces against the Advanced Yokai Konaki-jiji. The Ninningers obtain the Nin Shuriken containing Jiraiya's techniques once Takaharu has Toha convince himself to retire from the frontlines and allow the next generation of ninjas to take the lead against the forces of evil. reprises his role as Toha Yamaji. Tsubasa Ozu. , also known as of the Magirangers, was Yakumo's special magic teacher during his stay in England. He briefly appears to pick up Elena who had run away to Japan to visit Yakumo and uses his magic to repair Takaharu's Ichibantou and Yakumo's magic wand before leaving. reprises his role as Tsubasa Ozu. Shurikenger. , ally of the Hurricanegers, is sent by Toha Yamaji to measure the Ninningers' progress. He invites them to play a special game of karuta in which they test their knowledge of the Yokai they have previously defeated. However, they are interrupted by a trap set by the Yokai Fudagaeshi and Shurikenger helps them against the enemy before taking his leave. reprises his role voicing Shurikenger. Kibaoni Army Corps. The is an army of Yokai based in that seeks to conquer the world through fear. After being revived as an oni in modern times, Gengetsu Kibaoni and forces were sealed away within forty-eight by the Ninningers' grandfather Yoshitaka Igasaki. However, after decades of waiting, Kyuemon Izayoi manages to break the seal and release the Kibaoni Army Corps and use the three spearheads to gather the from terrorizing humans to restore their leader and resume their campaign with the power of the . Gengetsu Kibaoni. was formerly an evil feudal warlord during the Sengoku Era who believed that fear was the best method to unite the war-torn Japan. He wears a shikami mask covering his face and is armed with the naginata. His attacks are the and the . Though Kibaoni was killed by the ninjas of the Igasaki clan, he vowed to return in 444 years to resume his campaign. As a result, Kibaoni sacrificed his humanity to be revived as an Oni centuries later before he was sealed away by Yoshitaka Igasaki. But Kibaoni's prophecy, due to a miscalculation of dating, is revealed to begin in 2015 as Kyuemon manages to release his master and their forces. Lacking physical form upon his release, Kibaoni tasks his retainers to gather fear so he can reconstitute himself, and eventually achieves his goal using the grief and anger of his wife over their son Mangetsu's death. After Ariake and Kyuemon are defeated by the Niningers, Gengetsu absorbs them into his body and enlarges himself for the final battle against the heroes, just to be ultimately destroyed by Gekiatsu DaiOh after Kyuemon breaks free of his body. Gengetsu Kibaoni is voiced by . Kyuemon Izayoi. was originally the first and only apprentice of Yoshitaka. But after becoming fearful of his power after Yoshitaka refused to hand over the End Shuriken, Kyuemon ended up in his current kitsune-masked form with mastery of spells and a hatred towards his former mentor. As a self-styled page of Kibaoni, Kyuemon ordered the destruction of the Igasaki Ninjutsu Dojo to obtain a special mallet that he uses to end the confinement of Kibaoni's spirit. Kyuemon also searches for the End Shuriken for its power, justifying he has the right as Yoshitaka's first apprentice. But while Raizo was easy for him to manipulate, Kyuemon had difficult luck doing the same with Masakage and attempts an alliance with Kinji for his goals. When that failed, Kyuemon acts against Masakage and Ariake by reviving four of the Oniwaban Five into his service. Later, after finding Mangetsu dying after a fight Ninningers, Kyuemon reveals that he is Kibaoni's firstborn son. Kibaoni further explains that Kyuemon is his son by a concubine 444 years prior to the start of the series; he then went on to protect Kyuemon, and set the plans of his second revival into motion by using his then-nascent Yokai powers to send the infant into the future. When the Ninningers fought his father, he stabbed Yoshitaka in the back killing him, stealing his Nintality and the End Shuriken. He uses the stolen Last Ninja powers and several corrupted Sealing Shuriken to assumes a much more powerful form. In his final stand against the Ninningers, Takaharu and Kinji manage to figure out that Kyuemon has actually been following in Yoshitaka's footsteps all along, in a similar way to Kinji, as both want the End Shuriken in order to bring their families back. After admitting this is the truth, Kyuemon receives his own Nin Shuriken from Yoshikata but is interrupted by Gengetsu, who absorbs Kyuemon into his body to boost his power. In a last ditch effort, Kyuemon escapes from his father, allowing the Ninningers to finish him. After making peace with Yoshitaka, Kyuemon finally passes on and returns the End Shuriken to the Ninningers. His personal Nin Shuriken is enshrined in his memory, until it is given by Sakurako to Luna to become Mido Ninger. During the battle against the revived Ariake and Mangetsu, Kyuemon's sprit contained inside the Nin Shuriken possesses Luna's body and he fights alongside the Ninningers to repay his debt to them, finally being allowed to reincarnate after returning to the Igasaki Clan the mallet he stole from them. While using his bottle gourd to gather the Power of Fear emitted from the terrorized humans needed to fully revive Kibaoni and his retainers, Kyuemon can also use his mallet in conjunction with Sealing Shurikens that he corrupted with his power into . Such Yo Shuiken include the , that is used for the to revive a defeated Yokai as a giant, the to turn a human into a Yokai, the to summon an Izayoi-Style Ninja, the revival of Kibaoni, and the to absorb an Igasaki Ninja's Nintality, and the that summon Gashadokuro. The mallet is also capable of turning into a sword for combat. His attacks are the and the . Kyuemon Izayoi is voiced by Megumi Han. As a teenager, Kyuemon is portrayed by . Raizo Gabi. is the Goryō-themed spearhead of the Kibaoni Army Corps who wears a splintered hannya mask covering his face and is armed with both a katana and a smaller katana. His attack is the . While he passionately hates the Igasaki clan, Raizo has his own ambition and craves battling powerful enemies to the point that he will kill off his allies if he considers them to be interfering. Raizo was revived after Kyuemon gives his remains the Power of Fear that he collected from the actions of Kamaitachi and Kappa so that he can help him gather more fear. But revealed to be not fully awakened, Raizo refuses to aid Kyuemon as he personally fights the Ninningers to awake himself up by facing a worthy opponent. This results in Raizo finding an ideal opponent in Takaharu, reluctantly agreeing to assist Kyuemon as it would allow him to be able to fight the human for real in a battle to the death. Once eventually achieving his goal, managing to render Takaharu unconscious after defeating him, Raizo honors his promise to Kyuemon by terrorizing the city with his Jukkarage forces before being defeated by Aka Ninger in a rematch. Though he accepted his defeat, Raizo is forcefully enlarged into a mindless berserker by Kyuemon, wielding a Gashadokuro zanbatō. In the end, Raizo is defeated by King Shurikenzin and enabled to return to the afterlife, thanking Takaharu and apologizing to his master. When Gengetsu Kibaoni is finally fully revived, he revives Raizo a second time with a corrupted Sealing Shuriken, giving him a more powerful form. He fights Takaharu once again during Gengetsu's invasion, and later Yakumo, only to die again at the latter's hand. Raizo Gabi is voiced by . Masakage Tsugomori. is Kibaoni's Koromodako-themed chief retainer and strategist who wears the top part of an okina mask covering his face and is armed with a shakujō and is capable of various magical powers. His attack is the . While acting playful, Masakage can be extremely dangerous and uses deception in his attack methods. Masakage is revived by Kyuemon after Raizo's defeat to help him gather the amount of fear needed for Kibaoni's resurrection. However, Masakage regards the destruction of the Igasaki Clan as his top priority, and is perceptive enough to know Kyuemon is not an true member of the Kibaoni Army Corps. Masakage permits Kyuemon's continued presence so long as he does not act against Kibaoni's will. He eventually took the fight to the Ninningers personally after his master fully revived, when Kyuemon, now speaking as Kibaoni's second-in-command, tasks him with gathering more fear. During the fight, it is revealed Masakage is actually very tiny and the human sized body the Ninningers fought is a mechanical replica piloted by the tiny original. Upon this reveal, the real Masakage grows giant sized in desperation, but is finally destroyed by HaOh Gekiatsu DaiOh. Masakage Tsugomori is voiced by . Ariake no Kata. is Kibaoni's Aonyōbō-themed wife who wears the top and lower part of a ko-omote mask covering her face and is armed with the bladed hand fan. Though Kyuemon was reluctant to revive her, he is forced to after the Ninningers have become too powerful. She is impatient and vain, yelling at Masakage or Kyuemon (whom she always refers to as "kitsune") to fix things when things don't go right and using the "fear" gathered by Kyuemon as a beauty treatment or to flavor shaved ice. She believes she needs to look her best when her husband is finally revived. She is never seen without two Hyakkarage bodyguards who protect and serve her. Ariake eventually reveals the reason why she needed so much fear energy was because she was pregnant with Kibaoni's son, Mangetsu Kibaoni. She loves Mangetsu dearly, doting on him even though he was extremely abusive towards her, and even forgives him for using her as a human shield. When Kyuemon reports Mangetsu's demise to Ariake, her rage and grief, alone, creates an overflow of fear energy great enough to allow Kibaoni to regain his physical form and is heartbroken to learn of Kyuemon's familial ties to her husband. During the final battle, Ariake is mortally wounded by Kinji and Kasumi with her life force then absorbed by Kibaoni. Two years later, Ariake returns from the dead, seeking revenge on the Ninningers along with Juza. She revives Mangetsu with the Power of Fear, but is finally destroyed along with him by the seven Ninningers. Ariake no Kata is voiced by , who also portrays her human disguise. Juza Yumihari. is the main antagonist of the film "", the armored samurai general of the Kibaoni Army Corps, and a mentor of Raizo who wears the right part of a yase-otoko mask covering his face and is armed with a bladed bow that can be separated into twin swords. He uses special Yojutsu spells called the ; the , the , and the Hypertrophic Fast Growth. He attacks Shinobigakure Village to find the "legendary evil dragon". He is destroyed by Shurikenzin Dino. Two years later, Juza returns from the dead, seeking revenge on the Ninningers along with Ariake, but is destroyed again by Kasumi and Fuka. Juza Yumihari is voiced by . Mangetsu Kibaoni. is the son of Gengetsu and Ariake who wears the right part of a shikami mask covering his face and is armed with a large barbarian sword. His attack is the . He can enlarge himself using a magic spell and gathered fear. In his first appearance, he pretends to be a bullying buffoon and arrogant mama's boy who gathers fear by stealing children's snacks. When the Ninningers sprung a trap on him, he showed his true personality, being a cruel, and cunning warrior strong enough to even withstand a Chozetsu form attack; he is obsessed with gathering fear directly from the Ninningers to revive his father. He would use Super Advanced Yokai Shuten Doji in a plan to destroy the Ninningers, but is ultimately thwarted and mortally wounded by HaOh Gekiatsu DaiOh. As he lays dying, Kyuemon reveals to him that he is his older brother. Two years later, Mangetsu is revived by Ariake, but is destroyed again along with her by the seven Ninningers. Mangetsu Kibaoni is voiced by . Hitokarage/Jukkarage/Hyakkarage/Senkarage. The are ashigaru footsoldiers who are armed with spears and arquebuses and support the Yokai. They are created from Gengetsu's evil energy leaking from the tainted Sealing Shuriken. Through the power of one of Kibaoni's generals, the Hitokarage can transform into the stronger who are armed with sasumata-styled swords and arquebuses. The are elite Jukkarage who are ten times as strong as the Jukkarage. The are giant Hyakkarage with the kanji for thousand on their jackets. Gashadokuro. The are giant, skeletal Yokai armed with twin-bladed billhook-styled swords that are summoned by Kyuemon. A number of the Gashadokuro can also combine to form a zanbatō for other enlarged Yokai to use. Yokai. The are monsters that are created from one of the tainted Sealing Shuriken coming into contact with an item. Acting on Kibaoni's will, Yokai function in gathering the “Power of Fear” by attacking people. Once a Yokai is destroyed, the Sealing Shuriken that forms its core is purified and the Ninningers must gather all of them in order to seal Kibaoni once more while using some as additional arsenal. Western Yokai. The are a trio of Yokai who have flourished in western civilization, having appeared in Europe and America before they are summoned to Japan by Ariake. Advanced Yokai. The are created from two of the tainted Sealing Shuriken coming into contact with an item, instead of one. Stronger than the ordinary Yokai, they also have the ability to make themselves grow into giants through their own power, without the help of Kyuemon's mallet. Super Advanced Yokai. The are created from four of the tainted Sealing Shuriken coming into contact with an object, rather than one or two shurikens, and are stronger than the Advanced Yokai. Like the Advanced Yokai, the Super Advanced Yokai also have the ability to make themselves grow into giants through their own power, without the help of Kyuemon's mallet. Oniwaban Five. The is a group of who are sealed within the Kibaoni family scrolls before four of them are revived by Kyuemon to serve under him. Like the Ninningers, they can perform attacks by inserting a shuriken into their ninjatō-like . Each ninja possesses a , Kyuemon taking possession of the Core Gears of the Oniwaban he revived to create his Karakuri Kyubi. Supparage. The are kitsune-masked ninja footsoldiers of the Izayoi-Style Ninja who are armed with ninjatō.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34765783

John Barton is a fictional character from the British soap opera "Emmerdale", played by James Thornton. The actor was asked to audition for the part and he called it the "most frightening audition" he had ever done. Thornton won the role of John, who was introduced to "Emmerdale" along with his family as part of an overhaul of the show by the series producer Gavin Blyth. The Barton family took over the running of Butler's Farm and they were described as being "sexy, modern and contemporary". Thornton made his debut screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 17 July 2009. The following year, he signed a one-year extension to his contract. In November 2011, Thornton revealed that he was to leave "Emmerdale" after three years and he departed on 16 February 2012. Shortly before he arrived on-screen, Blyth described John as being "a very charismatic and modern farmer." He was a family man, who was honest and hard-working. Kate Woodward of "Inside Soap" called him "ruggedly handsome" and said he had a heart of gold. Thornton called his character a "proper bloke", who was quite moral. John and his family moved to the village to make Butler's Farm a success. John was good at business and employed a modern approach to farming. He and his wife, Moira (Natalie J. Robb), were childhood sweethearts and their marriage was initially solid. However, John shared a kiss with Eve Jenson (Suzanne Shaw) and two years later Moira had an affair with Cain Dingle (Jeff Hordley). John struggled to forgive Moira for her infidelity, but eventually realised that he could not be without her. Creation and casting. On 22 May 2009, it was announced a new farming family called the Bartons would be introduced to "Emmerdale" in July. Kris Green of Digital Spy reported the show's series producer, Gavin Blyth was introducing the new family as part of an ongoing reinvention of the soap. The family, which consisted of five members – a mother, father, two daughters and a son – took over the running of Butler's Farm. Of the family, Blyth said "I don't want to make "Emmerdale" a show about teenagers and young people, it's about family values. The Bartons are sexy, modern and contemporary. They're almost happy – and in soapland that's quite strange!" Natalie J. Robb was cast in the role of Moira Barton and Adam Thomas, Sophie Powles and Grace Cassidy were cast as teenagers Adam, Holly and Hannah respectively. Former "HolbyBlue" actor James Thornton was cast in the role of Moira's husband, John. Thornton was asked to audition for "Emmerdale" when the role came through to his agent. He auditioned alongside Robb and they read scenes together. Thornton said "I thought I was just coming up for a chat so when we went on set it was mental. It's the most frightening audition I've ever done, but it must have gone well!" The actor said he had grown up with the show and was brought up twenty minutes from where it is filmed. He said his character appealed to him as he believed he would be fun to play, and there would be opportunities for him to film comedy and drama storylines. In September 2010, it was announced Thornton had signed a one-year extension to his contract. Development. Characterisation. Upon announcement of his casting, John was described as being a principled, ambitious farmer, who is trying to run a business and keep an eye on his family at the same time. Blyth quipped that John was "a very charismatic and modern farmer who's actually a success." The series producer said the character would be seen taking farming forward in "Emmerdale". Thornton told a "Yorkshire Post" reporter that while John was a "laid-back family man", viewers could expect fireworks and feuds from him. He said "There are definitely going to be confrontations with the Dingles. John will enjoy that battle and give as good as he gets." John and his family also sparked a volatile relationship with the Wylde family. A writer for "What's on TV" said John was a successful, honest and hard-working farmer, who stood up for his himself and his family. While Kate Woodward of "Inside Soap" branded him "ruggedly handsome" and said he wanted to create a happy home for his family. Woodward added that John had a heart of gold and wanted to have fun, though he was not a push over. Thornton told Amanda Killelea of the "Daily Mirror" that his character was a "proper bloke", who was quite moral. John and his family moved to the village to make a go of Butlers Farm, which John had big plans for. Thornton stated that John was good at business and he had a modern approach to farming. He was hands on and knew how to make money. When asked to describe John's approach to his work and family, Thornton said "Even though he's a business guy, he's not just about the money. He likes working hard and obviously cares about his family first and foremost. He's a genuine, grounded bloke and at the moment things are going really well for him." The actor revealed he did have some personal experience of farming as he used to help out on a farm near to where he grew up. For the role of John, Thornton had to take tractor lessons. Marriage to Moira Barton. In their fictional backstory, John and Moira were childhood sweethearts, with the spark between them "instantaneous". It was love at first sight for the both of them and Robb commented that the couple had a "great chemistry" together. Following several dates, John and Moira married and had their three children. Robb stated that John and Moira had a lot of affection for each other, while a writer for ITV branded them a "striking yet down-to-earth couple". During an interview with Kris Green of Digital Spy, Thornton said John and Moira had a lot of fun in their youth and there had often been hints about their party lifestyle on screen. When asked if they were enough for each other, Thornton quipped "Yeah, definitely. What I love about their relationship is that she's a strong woman - she doesn't take any prisoners. She's the boss of the house and he respects that. She calls the shots!" He added that while no one knows much about the Barton's backstory, they were aware that John and Moira had a solid marriage. The actor thought John and Moira must have had their children when they were around eighteen as their family unit was quite young. During a feature of soap opera's longest marriages in 2010, Kate Woodward and Sarah Ellis stated that John and Moira had been married for twenty years. The writers added that as a couple, John and Moira had been solid and showed an easy attitude to keeping their family on an even keel. When asked what kind of man it would take for Moira to cheat on John, Robb opined the man would have similar values to John and she thought Marlon Dingle (Mark Charnock) would be a safe bet as he is loyal and trustworthy. Thornton said he was worried the writers were going to break John and Moira up and Robb said if the characters were to split, they would find it hard to live without each other. In late 2011, John and Moira's marriage goes through a rough patch because of problems at the farm. Thornton opined that John is not giving Moira any attention because he is overworked. Moira becomes fed up of John not listening to her and the lack of communication and the distance between the couple becomes worse. Moira then begins an affair with Cain Dingle. Of why Moira puts her marriage in jeopardy, Robb revealed "She still loves John, but she feels isolated and neglected because he's stopped including her in the finances of the new business. He's changed the dynamic of their relationship." Cain later tells John what has been going on between him and Moira by dropping hints about their affair. John initially believes Cain is winding him up, but paranoia set in and he confronts his wife in a bid to get the truth. Speaking to Anne Richardson of "Inside Soap", Thornton said John is shocked and heartbroken when Moira confirms she did have an affair. The situation is made worse because Moira cheated with Cain, a man hated by most residents. John struggles to forgive Moira for her infidelity and Thornton said he makes the decision that their marriage is over and she has to go. He then asks his wife to leave their home. Allison Jones, writing for "Inside Soap" said John does not allow Moira to wallow in self-pity and he reminds her she was the one who threw their marriage away. The couple keep their children in the dark and Moira goes quietly. When Adam, Hannah and Holly do find out what has happened, Holly is firmly on John's side. John later has a fight with Cain in The Woolpack. On 17 November 2011, it was announced a major storyline would see Cain attacked by a mystery person and left for dead. John was named as one of six official suspects, along with Moira. Of John's motive "Inside Soap's" Kate White said "John's family is in ruins thank to Cain's affair with his wife, Moira. Violence erupts as the men have a vicious fight this fortnight – and when John is discovered fleeing from the crime scene with blood on his hands, it looks like an open-and-shut case!" Digital Spy conducted a poll asking viewers to select which suspect they thought had carried out the attack and John received 26.3% of the vote, placing him first in the poll. Eve Jenson. In May 2010, John kissed Eve Jenson (Suzanne Shaw). Prior to the kiss, John had spent weeks trying to fend off Eve's advances. In an interview with "What's on TV", Shaw said Eve developed a big crush on John and because they had a few things in common, it made her hopeful that he was interested in her. Both Moira and Adam noticed Eve flirting with John in The Woolpack, but they just teased him about it. Shaw revealed the attention from Eve was just a bit of fun for John, as he had some problems at home and used it as a way of escaping. Thornton told "Inside Soap's" Katy Moon that John was so secure in his relationship with Moira that he felt Eve was not a threat, so he did not put up any barriers. He thought Eve was "a nice girl" with nothing malicious about her, which left him open to her charms. Eve was given a job at Butler's Farm and she used that as an opportunity to flirt with John. Moira noticed and eventually warned her off when she thought Eve was getting too familiar with John. Thornton stated "I wouldn't want to get on the wrong side of Moira! Her fiery nature begins to show, but John assures her that Eve is just a tease and nothing more. John and Moira have quite an open relationship anyway, and they're both aware of their flirtatious natures in any case." Moon quipped that John crossed a line when he confided in Eve about Holly's drug problem. Thornton agreed and said it was a stupid thing that men tend to do, he cannot keep his mouth shut despite the problem being a family secret. Cain Dingle (Jeff Hordley) later winds John up about working with Eve on the farm and does not fix his land rover properly as a joke. John refused to pay the garage bill and Thornton said despite John being warned about getting on the wrong side of Cain, he did not care. John and Eve share a kiss and Thornton explained that John gave in to Eve because he was flattered by her interest in him. John told Eve that their kiss was a mistake and she insisted that it be kept between the two of them. However, Cain saw everything and he blackmailed John into paying the outstanding garage bill. Cain later told Moira that he saw John and Eve kissing. Robb deemed John Moira's soulmate and said even though she knew he looked at other woman, she did not think he would ever act upon it. The actress added that Moira had sensed something before it happened, which made the situation worse. Departure. On 28 November 2011, it was announced Thornton was to leave "Emmerdale". Of his decision to exit the soap, Thornton said "I have had a fantastic time playing John for the past three years, but it's the longest I have ever played one part and the time now feels right to move on. I have decided to leave on a high with a big exit storyline in 2012, which I'm really excited about. I will miss all my colleagues at "Emmerdale" and have many very fond memories of my time in the Dales." Series producer, Stuart Blackburn said Thornton had created a "truly memorable character in John" and that he would be missed. Thornton later told Daniel Kilkelly from Digital Spy that it had been a difficult decision to leave the serial, but he had decided at the beginning he would just do three years. He revealed that he was really sad about going and would miss his co-stars more than anything else. The actor said that Blackburn had been "absolutely brilliant and really understanding" about his departure. On-screen John started to rebuild his relationship with Moira, following her affair with Cain. The couple decided to go and spend the night at a hotel together, but their car hit a patch of ice and crashed. The vehicle then slipped and fell off a ravine. Thornton revealed that he thought the storyline was "brilliant" and stated "As I learned more, I discovered that the scale of John's departure was going to be huge, and that the amount of money they were spending was massive. So I was really, really pleased. As an actor, you always want to do something that's going to grab the audience's attention." The actor explained that the crew spent three nights shooting the stunt and he was allowed to do as many of his own stunts as possible. Thornton commented that things would become "tricky" for the Barton family without John, but thought his exit would open up "brilliant opportunities" for Moira. He added "In a way, the Barton family have been quite isolated up on the farm. They have their own little world away from the village, but now it opens it all up." Thornton made his on-screen exit on 16 February 2012. Storylines. John and his family arrive in the village and move into Butler's Farm. When Rodney Blackstock (Patrick Mower) accidentally leaves his van's brakes off, it begins rolling through the village towards the shop. John tries to help Aaron Livesy (Danny Miller) stop it, but it crashes into the shop trapping three of the village residents. John then helps pull the van out of the debris using his tractor, so the villagers can be rescued. When John catches Aaron playing with a lighter in one of his barns, he hits him and locks him inside. After being released, Aaron reports John to the police and he is arrested. Moira goes to Aaron's family and begs them to get Aaron to drop the charges, and he does. John becomes worried when his lambs starting dying on the farm. When Adam confesses that there has been a chemical spill, John is furious as it incident could threaten the future of the farm and their business. Eve Jenson begins working on the farm and starts flirting with John. He ends up telling her about Holly's drug problems and when he gives her a lift home, John and Eve share a kiss, which Cain Dingle witnesses. He begins blackmailing John into paying an outstanding garage bill and later tells Moira what happened. She asks John to leave the farm, but she eventually forgives him and he returns. John and Moira discover Holly has been thrown out of college for drug dealing and they make her work on the farm. When Rhona Goskirk (Zoe Henry) reveals that some ketamine has gone missing from her bag, John accuses Holly of taking it, but fails to find anything during a search of her room. Holly's drug problem becomes worse, but when she refuses to stop, John disowns her and she goes missing. John and Moira eventually find Holly and John tries to force her into his car, but she runs off. She eventually returns home and John and Moira decide to lock Holly her in her room, to stop her taking anymore drugs. The situation begins to affect the whole family and Moira goes out and buys some heroin to give to Holly, so she can be weaned off slowly. John becomes frustrated with the situation and when he threatens to try heroin unless she stops, Holly agrees to fight her addiction. Declan Macey (Jason Merrells) announces that he wants to sell the farm, but John refuses to leave and vows to make it into a profitable business so that he can buy it from Declan instead. The pressure of the business causes John and Moira's marriage to suffer. Cain later reveals that he has been having an affair with Moira and John tells her to leave their house. Cain goads John into a fight and Adam later finds John walking down the road with blood on his hands. When Cain is found to have been attacked, John becomes a suspect and is arrested. He is later released due to a lack of evidence. John begins flirting with Chas Dingle (Lucy Pargeter), which causes a fight between Aaron and Adam. Moira is also unhappy that John is seeing Chas and the two women fight. John later informs Moira that he wants a divorce. When John and Chas go to have sex, John realises that he cannot go through with it and decides that he cannot live without Moira. He and Moira talk about their issues and reconcile. They tell Adam, Holly and Hannah that they are back together and they book a hotel room for them. John borrows Andy Sugden's (Kelvin Fletcher) Land Rover and he and Moira make their way to the hotel. However, John loses control of the Land Rover on some black ice and it crashes down a hillside. John and Moira are both trapped in the vehicle when Declan and Katie Sugden (Sammy Winward) discover them. Declan manages to get Moira out, before the Land Rover falls over a cliff. John is rescued and taken to the hospital, where he undergoes surgery for a aortic rupture which although was successful doctors warns the family that he still in a critical condition and that there was a risk of bleeding later on. Shortly after Moira tells him she loves him, John goes into cardiac arrest and despite doctors efforts to perform emergency surgery for another bleed, he dies. Reception. Thornton received a nomination for Sexiest Male at the 2010 British Soap Awards. In 2012, he earned a nomination for Best Exit and won Spectacular Scene of the Year for John and Moira's car accident. Of the John and Eve storyline, "Inside Soap's" Kate Woodward and Sarah Ellis commented "For some reason, John's head is being turned by foxy farmhand Eve. We think he needs that head read". Jane Simon of the "Daily Mirror" stated life was unfair when "lovely, gorgeous John" died. "All About Soap's" Laura Morgan called John "the fit farmer" and said "our hearts are broken" at his death. Of his final scene, Morgan explained "We couldn't hold back the tears as Moira stood over his hospital bed tenderly stroking his face, and John said they made the perfect team. And with those words he slipped away, watched by his devastated family."

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18995

Martin Charles Scorsese (, ; born November 17, 1942) is an American film director, producer, screenwriter, and actor. One of the major figures of the New Hollywood era, he is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential directors in film history. Scorsese's body of work explores themes such as Italian-American identity, Catholic concepts of guilt and redemption, faith, machismo, nihilism, crime and sectarianism. Many of his films are known for their depiction of violence and the liberal use of profanity. Scorsese has also dedicated his life to film preservation and film restoration by founding the nonprofit organization The Film Foundation in 1990, as well as the World Cinema Foundation in 2007 and the African Film Heritage Project in 2017. Scorsese studied at New York University, where he received a bachelor's degree in English literature in 1964, and received a master's degree in fine arts in film from NYU's Tisch School of the Arts in 1968. In 1967 Scorsese's first feature film "Who's That Knocking at My Door" was released and was accepted into the Chicago Film Festival, where critic Roger Ebert saw it and called it "a marvelous evocation of American city life, announcing the arrival of an important new director". Scorsese's mentors included John Cassavetes, whose chatty, improvisational style did much to influence Scorsese's scripts and production work, and who told him to "make films about what you know". While attending New York University, Scorsese met and became good friends with director Michael Wadleigh. They were both passionate about rock music, and came up with the idea of staging a rock concert and documenting it, which ended up becoming the Oscar Award winning documentary Woodstock. Scorsese served as the assistant director and editor for it. In 1971 Scorsese moved to Hollywood, where he associated with some of the young directors who defined the decade, including Steven Spielberg, Francis Ford Coppola, Brian De Palma, and George Lucas. He directed "Boxcar Bertha" (1972), a cut-rate Depression-era film for Roger Corman, and "Mean Streets" (1973), a personal film about faith and redemption shot in Little Italy, starring Harvey Keitel and Robert De Niro. He has established a filmmaking history involving repeat collaborations with actors and film technicians, including nine films made with Robert De Niro. His films with De Niro are the psychological thriller "Taxi Driver" (1976), the biographical sports drama "Raging Bull" (1980), the satirical black comedy "The King of Comedy" (1982), the musical drama "New York, New York" (1977), the psychological thriller "Cape Fear" (1991), and the crime films "Mean Streets" (1973), "Goodfellas" (1990), "Casino" (1995), "The Departed" (2006), and "The Irishman" (2019). Scorsese has also been noted for his collaborations with actor Leonardo DiCaprio, having directed him in five films: the historical epic "Gangs of New York" (2002), the Howard Hughes biography "The Aviator" (2004), the psychological thriller "Shutter Island" (2010), and the Wall Street black comedy "The Wolf of Wall Street" (2013). "The Departed" won Scorsese an Academy Award for Best Director, and for Best Picture. Scorsese is also known for his long-time collaboration with film editor Thelma Schoonmaker, who has edited every Scorsese film beginning with "Raging Bull". Scorsese's other film work includes the black comedy "After Hours" (1985), the romantic drama "The Age of Innocence" (1993), the children's adventure drama "Hugo" (2011), and the religious epics "The Last Temptation of Christ" (1988), "Kundun" (1997) and "Silence" (2016). Scorsese's films have consistently garnered critical acclaim, with nine nominations for the Academy Award for Best Director, Scorsese is the most-nominated living director and is second only to William Wyler's twelve nominations overall. In 2007, Scorsese was presented with the Kennedy Center Honor at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts for his influence in American culture, and four of his films have been inducted into the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant". He also received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2003, a British Film Institute Fellowship in 1995, and a BAFTA Fellowship in 2012. Scorsese is also a recipient of the AFI Life Achievement Award for his contributions to the cinema, and has won an Academy Award, a Palme d'Or, a Cannes Film Festival Award, a Silver Lion, a Grammy Award, three Primetime Emmy Awards, three Golden Globe Awards, three BAFTA Awards, and two Directors Guild of America Awards. Scorsese is also known for his work in television, including directing the pilot episodes of the HBO series "Boardwalk Empire" and "Vinyl", the latter he also co-created. As a fan of rock music, he has directed several documentaries on the subject after editing "Woodstock" (1970), including "The Last Waltz" (1978), "No Direction Home" (2005), "Shine a Light" (2008), ' (2011), and ' (2019). Early life. Martin Scorsese was born on November 17, 1942, in the Flushing area of New York City's Queens borough. His family moved to Little Italy in Manhattan before he started school. Both of Scorsese's parents, Charles Scorsese and Catherine Scorsese (born Cappa), worked in New York's Garment District. Charles was a clothes presser and an actor while Catherine was a seamstress and an actress. Both of them were of Italian descent: his paternal grandparents, Francesco Paolo and Teresa Scozzese, emigrated from Polizzi Generosa, while his maternal grandparents, Martino and Domenica Cappa, emigrated from Ciminna, both in the province of Palermo, Sicily. The original surname of the family was "Scozzese", later changed to Scorsese because of a transcription error. Scorsese was raised in a predominantly Catholic environment. As a boy, he had asthma and could not play sports or take part in any activities with other children, so his parents and his older brother would often take him to movie theaters; it was at this stage in his life that he developed a passion for cinema. As a teenager in the Bronx, Scorsese frequently rented Powell and Pressburger's "The Tales of Hoffmann" (1951) from a store that had one copy of the reel. Scorsese was one of only two people who regularly rented it; the other was future film director George A. Romero. Scorsese has cited Sabu and Victor Mature as his favorite actors during his youth. He has also spoken of the influence of the 1947–48 Powell and Pressburger films "Black Narcissus" and "The Red Shoes", whose innovative techniques later impacted his filmmaking. In his documentary titled "A Personal Journey with Martin Scorsese Through American Movies", Scorsese said that he was enamored of historical epics in his adolescence, and at least two films of the genre, "Land of the Pharaohs" and "El Cid", appear to have had a deep and lasting impact on his cinematic psyche. Scorsese also developed an admiration for neorealist cinema at this time. He recounted its influence in a documentary on Italian neorealism, and commented on how "Bicycle Thieves", "Rome, Open City" and especially "Paisà" inspired him and influenced his view or portrayal of his Sicilian roots. In his documentary, "Il Mio Viaggio in Italia" ("My Voyage to Italy"), Scorsese noted that the Sicilian episode of Roberto Rossellini's "Paisà", which he first saw on television with his relatives who were themselves Sicilian immigrants, had a significant impact on his life. He acknowledges owing a great debt to the French New Wave and has stated that "the French New Wave has influenced all filmmakers who have worked since, whether they saw the films or not." He has also cited filmmakers including Satyajit Ray, Ingmar Bergman, Michelangelo Antonioni, and Federico Fellini as major influences on his career. He attended the all-boys Cardinal Hayes High School in the Bronx, graduating in 1960. He had initially desired to become a priest, attending a preparatory seminary but failed after the first year. This gave way to cinema and consequently Scorsese enrolled in NYU's Washington Square College (now known as the College of Arts and Science), where he earned a B.S. in Film Communications in 1964. He went on to earn his M.A. from New York University's School of the Arts (now known as the Tisch School of the Arts) in 1968, a year after the school was founded. Career. 1960s. While attending the Tisch School of the Arts, Scorsese made the short films "What's a Nice Girl Like You Doing in a Place Like This?" (1963) and "It's Not Just You, Murray!" (1964). His most famous short of the period is the darkly comic "The Big Shave" (1967), which features Peter Bernuth. The film is an indictment of America's involvement in Vietnam, suggested by its alternative title "Viet '67". Scorsese has mentioned on several occasions that he was greatly inspired in his early days at New York University by film professor Haig P. Manoogian. In 1967, Scorsese made his first feature-length film, the black and white "I Call First", which was later retitled "Who's That Knocking at My Door", with his fellow students actor Harvey Keitel and editor Thelma Schoonmaker, both of whom were to become long-term collaborators. This film was intended to be the first of Scorsese's semi-autobiographical J. R. Trilogy, which would have included a later film, "Mean Streets". Film critic Roger Ebert saw the film at the 1967 Chicago International Film Festival and in his review praised Scorsese and the film writing, "I Call First" brings these two kinds of films together into a work that is absolutely genuine, artistically satisfying and technically comparable to the best films being made anywhere. I have no reservations in describing it as a great moment in American movies." Throughout his career, Scorsese has avoided comparing his own films to those of other filmmakers whom he considers to be his contemporaries after 1967 when his own career in films began. The single exception is Kubrick’s 1968 film "". 1970s. Scorsese became friends with the influential "movie brats" of the 1970s: Brian De Palma, Francis Ford Coppola, George Lucas and Steven Spielberg. It was De Palma who introduced Scorsese to Robert De Niro. During this period, Scorsese worked as the assistant director and one of the editors on the documentary "Woodstock" (1970) and met actor–director John Cassavetes, who became a close friend and mentor. In 1972, Scorsese made the Depression-era exploiter "Boxcar Bertha" for B-movie producer Roger Corman, who also helped directors such as Francis Ford Coppola, James Cameron, and John Sayles launch their careers. It was Corman who taught Scorsese that entertaining films could be shot with very little money or time, preparing the young director well for the challenges to come with "Mean Streets". Following the film's release, Cassavetes encouraged Scorsese to make the films that he wanted to make, rather than someone else's projects. Championed by influential film critic Pauline Kael, "Mean Streets" was a breakthrough for Scorsese, De Niro, and Keitel. By now the signature Scorsese style was in place: macho posturing, bloody violence, Catholic guilt and redemption, gritty New York locale (though the majority of "Mean Streets" was shot in Los Angeles), rapid-fire editing and a soundtrack with contemporary music. Although the film was innovative, its wired atmosphere, edgy documentary style, and gritty street-level direction owed a debt to directors Cassavetes, Samuel Fuller and early Jean-Luc Godard. In 1974, actress Ellen Burstyn chose Scorsese to direct her in "Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore", for which she won an Academy Award for Best Actress. Although well regarded, the film remains an anomaly in the director's early career as it focuses on a central female character. Returning to Little Italy to explore his ethnic roots, Scorsese next came up with "Italianamerican", a documentary featuring his parents Charles and Catherine Scorsese. "Taxi Driver" followed in 1976—Scorsese's dark, urban nightmare of one lonely man's gradual descent into insanity. The film established him as an accomplished filmmaker and also brought attention to cinematographer Michael Chapman, whose style tends towards high contrasts, strong colors, and complex camera movements. The film starred Robert De Niro as the troubled and psychotic Travis Bickle, and co-starred Jodie Foster in a highly controversial role as an underage prostitute, with Harvey Keitel as her pimp. "Taxi Driver" also marked the start of a series of collaborations between Scorsese and writer Paul Schrader, whose influences included the diary of would-be assassin Arthur Bremer and "Pickpocket", a film by the French director Robert Bresson. Writer–director Schrader often returns to Bresson's work in films such as "American Gigolo", "Light Sleeper", and Scorsese's later "Bringing Out the Dead". Already controversial upon its release, "Taxi Driver" hit the headlines again five years later, when John Hinckley Jr. made an assassination attempt on then-president Ronald Reagan. He subsequently blamed his act on his obsession with Jodie Foster's "Taxi Driver" character (in the film, De Niro's character, Travis Bickle, makes an assassination attempt on a senator). "Taxi Driver" won the Palme d'Or at the 1976 Cannes Film Festival, also receiving four Oscar nominations, including Best Picture. The critical and financial success of "Taxi Driver" encouraged Scorsese to move ahead with his first big-budget project: the highly stylized musical "New York, New York". This tribute to Scorsese's home town and the classic Hollywood musical was a box-office failure. The film was the director's third collaboration with Robert De Niro, co-starring with Liza Minnelli. The film is best remembered today for the title theme song, which was popularized by Frank Sinatra. Although possessing Scorsese's usual visual panache and stylistic bravura, many critics felt its enclosed studio-bound atmosphere left it leaden in comparison with his earlier work. Despite its weak reception, the film is regarded positively by some critics. Richard Brody in "The New Yorker" wrote: In 1977 he directed the Broadway musical "The Act", starring Liza Minnelli. The disappointing reception that "New York, New York" received drove Scorsese into depression. By this stage the director had developed a serious cocaine addiction. However, he did find the creative drive to make the highly regarded "The Last Waltz", documenting the final concert by The Band. It was held at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco on American Thanksgiving Day, November 25, 1976, and featured one of the most extensive lineups of prominent guest performers at a single concert, including Bob Dylan, Neil Young, Ringo Starr, Muddy Waters, Joni Mitchell, Van Morrison, Paul Butterfield, Neil Diamond, Ronnie Wood, and Eric Clapton. However, Scorsese's commitments to other projects delayed the release of the film until 1978. Another Scorsese-directed documentary, titled "", also appeared in 1978, focusing on Steven Prince, the cocky gun salesman who appeared in "Taxi Driver". A period of wild partying followed, damaging the director's already fragile health. Scorsese helped provide footage for the documentary "Elvis on Tour". 1980s. By several accounts (Scorsese's included), Robert De Niro saved Scorsese's life when he persuaded him to kick his cocaine addiction to make his highly regarded film "Raging Bull". Writing for "The New Yorker" in March 2000, Mark Singer summarized Scorsese's condition stating: He (Scorsese) was more than mildly depressed. Drug abuse, and abuse of his body in general, culminated in a terrifying episode of internal bleeding. Robert De Niro came to see him in the hospital and asked, in so many words, whether he wanted to live or die. If you want to live, De Niro proposed, let's make this picture—referring to "Raging Bull", an as-told-to book by Jake La Motta, the former world middleweight boxing champion, that De Niro had given him to read years earlier. Convinced that he would never make another movie, he poured his energies into making this violent biopic of middleweight boxing champion Jake LaMotta, calling it a kamikaze method of film-making. The film is widely viewed as a masterpiece and was voted the greatest film of the 1980s by Britain's "Sight & Sound" magazine. It received eight Oscar nominations, including Best Picture, Best Actor for Robert De Niro and Scorsese's first for Best Director. De Niro won, as did Thelma Schoonmaker for editing, but Best Director went to Robert Redford for "Ordinary People". From this work onwards, Scorsese's films are always labeled as "A Martin Scorsese Picture" on promotional material. "Raging Bull", filmed in high contrast black and white, is where Scorsese's style reached its zenith: "Taxi Driver" and "New York, New York" had used elements of expressionism to replicate psychological points of view, but here the style was taken to new extremes, employing extensive slow-motion, complex tracking shots, and extravagant distortion of perspective (for example, the size of boxing rings would change from fight to fight). Thematically too, the concerns carried on from "Mean Streets" and "Taxi Driver": insecure males, violence, guilt, and redemption. Although the screenplay for "Raging Bull" was credited to Paul Schrader and Mardik Martin (who earlier co-wrote "Mean Streets"), the finished script differed extensively from Schrader's original draft. It was rewritten several times by various writers including Jay Cocks (who went on to co-script later Scorsese films "The Age of Innocence" and "Gangs of New York"). The final draft was largely written by Scorsese and Robert De Niro. The American Film Institute chose "Raging Bull" as the number one American sports film on their list of the top 10 sports films. In 1997, the Institute ranked "Raging Bull" as the twenty-fourth greatest film of all time on their AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movies list. In 2007, they ranked "Raging Bull" as the fourth greatest film of all time on their AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) list. Scorsese's next project was his fifth collaboration with Robert De Niro, "The King of Comedy" (1983). It is a satire on the world of media and celebrity, whose central character is a troubled loner who ironically becomes famous through a criminal act (kidnapping). The film was an obvious departure from the more emotionally committed films he had become associated with. Visually, it was far less kinetic than the style Scorsese had developed previously, often using a static camera and long takes. Here the expressionism of his previous work gave way to moments of almost total surrealism. It still bore many of Scorsese's trademarks, however. The "King of Comedy" failed at the box office, but has become increasingly well regarded by critics in the years since its release. German director Wim Wenders numbered it among his 15 favorite films. Also, in 1983, Scorsese made a brief cameo appearance in the film "Anna Pavlova" (also known as "A Woman for All Time"), originally intended to be directed by one of his heroes, Michael Powell. This led to a more significant acting appearance in Bertrand Tavernier's jazz film "Round Midnight". He also made a brief venture into television, directing an episode of Steven Spielberg's "Amazing Stories". With "After Hours" (1985), for which he won a Best Director Award at Cannes, Scorsese made an esthetic shift back to a pared-down, almost "underground" film-making style. Filmed on an extremely low budget, on location, and at night in the SoHo neighborhood of Manhattan, the film is a black comedy about one increasingly misfortunate night for a mild New York word processor (Griffin Dunne) and features cameos by such disparate actors as Teri Garr and Cheech and Chong. Along with the 1987 Michael Jackson music video "Bad", in 1986 Scorsese made "The Color of Money", a sequel to the much admired Robert Rossen film "The Hustler" (1961) with Paul Newman, which co-starred Tom Cruise. Although adhering to Scorsese's established style, "The Color of Money" was the director's first official foray into mainstream film-making. The film finally won actor Paul Newman an Oscar and gave Scorsese the clout to finally secure backing for a project that had been a longtime goal for him: "The Last Temptation of Christ". In 1983, Scorsese began work on this long-cherished personal project. "The Last Temptation of Christ", based on the 1955 novel written by Nikos Kazantzakis, retold the life of Christ in human rather than divine terms. Barbara Hershey recalls introducing Scorsese to the book while they were filming "Boxcar Bertha". The film was slated to shoot under the Paramount Pictures banner, but shortly before principal photography was to start, Paramount pulled the plug on the project, citing pressure from religious groups. In this aborted 1983 version, Aidan Quinn was cast as Jesus, and Sting was cast as Pontius Pilate. (In the 1988 version, these roles were played by Willem Dafoe and David Bowie respectively.) However, following his mid-1980s flirtation with commercial Hollywood, Scorsese made a major return to personal filmmaking with the project, which was ultimately released in 1988. Even prior to its release, the film (adapted by "Taxi Driver" and "Raging Bull" veteran Paul Schrader) caused a massive furor, with worldwide protests against its perceived blasphemy effectively turning a low-budget independent film into a media sensation. Most of the controversy centered on the final passages of the film, which depicted Christ marrying and raising a family with Mary Magdalene in a Satan-induced hallucination while on the cross. In 1986, Scorsese directed the 18 minute short film "Bad" featuring Michael Jackson and Wesley Snipes (in his film debut). The short also serves as a music video and was shot in the Hoyt–Schermerhorn Streets station in Brooklyn over a 6-week period during November and December 1986. The short film's cinematographer was frequent Scorsese collaborator Michael Chapman. The dancing and filmmaking was heavily influenced by the 1961 film "West Side Story". Scorsese also noted the influence of his own film "Taxi Driver" (1976) in Spike Lee's documentary about the 25th anniversary of the short titled, "Bad 25" (2012). The short has been praised by critics as one of the most iconic and greatest videos of all time; Jackson's outfit has been cited as an influence on fashion. Looking past the controversy, "The Last Temptation of Christ" gained critical acclaim and remains an important work in Scorsese's canon: an explicit attempt to wrestle with the spirituality underpinning his films up until that point. The director went on to receive his second nomination for a Best Director Academy Award (again unsuccessfully, this time losing to Barry Levinson for "Rain Man"). As a separate film project, and along with directors Woody Allen and Francis Ford Coppola in 1989, Scorsese provided one of three segments in the portmanteau film "New York Stories", called "Life Lessons". Roger Ebert's gave the film a mixed review, while praising Scorsese's short as "really successful". 1990s. After a decade of films considered by critics to be mixed results, some considered Scorsese's gangster epic "Goodfellas" (1990) his return to directorial form, and his most confident and fully realized film since "Raging Bull". De Niro and Joe Pesci offered a virtuoso display of Scorsese's bravura cinematic technique in the film and re-established, enhanced, and consolidated his reputation. After the film was released, Roger Ebert, a friend and supporter of Scorsese, named "Goodfellas" "the best mob movie ever". It is ranked No. 1 on Ebert's movie list for 1990, along with those of Gene Siskel and Peter Travers', and is widely considered one of the director's greatest achievements. The film was nominated for six Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director, and Scorsese earned his third Best Director nomination but again lost to a first-time director, Kevin Costner ("Dances with Wolves"). Joe Pesci earned the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance. Scorsese and the film also won many other awards, including five BAFTA Awards, a Silver Lion and more. The American Film Institute placed "Goodfellas" at No. 94 on the AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movies list. On the 2007 updated version, they moved "Goodfellas" up to No. 92 on the AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movies list (10th Anniversary Edition) and put "Goodfellas" at No. 2 on their list of the top 10 gangster films (after "The Godfather"). In 1990, he released his only short-form documentary: "Made in Milan" about fashion designer Giorgio Armani. The following year brought "Cape Fear", a remake of a cult 1962 movie of the same name and the director's seventh collaboration with De Niro. Another foray into the mainstream, the film was a stylized thriller taking its cues heavily from Alfred Hitchcock and Charles Laughton's "The Night of the Hunter" (1955). "Cape Fear" received a mixed critical reception and was lambasted in many quarters for its scenes depicting misogynistic violence. However, the lurid subject matter gave Scorsese a chance to experiment with visual tricks and effects. The film garnered two Oscar nominations. Earning $80 million domestically, it stood as Scorsese's most commercially successful release until "The Aviator" (2004), and then "The Departed" (2006). The film also marked the first time Scorsese used wide-screen Panavision with an aspect ratio of 2.39:1. In 1990, Scorsese acted in a small role as Vincent van Gogh in the film "Dreams" by Japanese director Akira Kurosawa. Scorsese's 1994 cameo appearance in the Robert Redford film "Quiz Show" is remembered for the telling line: "You see, the audience didn't tune in to watch some amazing display of intellectual ability. They just wanted to watch the money." De Fina-Cappa was the production company he formed that same year with producer Barbara De Fina. In the early 1990s, Scorsese also expanded his role as a film producer. He produced a wide range of films, including major Hollywood studio productions ("Mad Dog and Glory", "Clockers"), low-budget independent films ("The Grifters", "Naked in New York", "Grace of My Heart", "Search and Destroy", "The Hi-Lo Country"), and even the foreign film ("Con gli occhi chiusi" (With Closed Eyes)). "The Age of Innocence" (1993) was a significant departure for Scorsese, a period adaptation of the Edith Wharton novel about the constrictive high society of late-19th century New York. It was highly lauded by critics upon its original release but was a box office bomb, making an overall loss. As noted in "Scorsese on Scorsese" by editor–interviewer Ian Christie, the news that Scorsese wanted to make a film about a failed 19th-century romance raised many eyebrows among the film fraternity; all the more when Scorsese made it clear that it was a personal project and not a studio for-hire job. Scorsese was interested in doing a "romantic piece", and he was strongly drawn to the characters and the story of Wharton's text. Scorsese wanted his film to be as rich an emotional experience as the book was to him rather than the traditional academic adaptations of literary works. To this end, Scorsese sought influence from diverse period films that had had an emotional impact on him. In "Scorsese on Scorsese", he documents influences from films such as Luchino Visconti's "Senso" and his "Il Gattopardo" ("The Leopard") as well as Orson Welles's "The Magnificent Ambersons" and also Roberto Rossellini's "La prise de pouvoir par Louis XIV" ("The Taking of Power by Louis XIV"). Although "The Age of Innocence" was ultimately different from these films in terms of narrative, story, and thematic concern, the presence of a lost society, of lost values as well as detailed re-creations of social customs and rituals continues the tradition of these films. It came back into the public eye, especially in countries such as the UK and France, but still is largely neglected in North America. The film earned five Academy Award nominations (including Best Adapted Screenplay for Scorsese), winning the Costume Design Oscar. This was his first collaboration with the Academy Award-winning actor Daniel Day-Lewis, with whom he would work again on "Gangs of New York". This was Scorsese's first film to be shot on Super 35 format. "Casino" (1995), like "The Age of Innocence" before it, focused on a tightly wound male whose well-ordered life is disrupted by the arrival of unpredictable forces. The fact that it was a violent gangster film made it more palatable to the director's fans who perhaps were baffled by the apparent departure of the earlier film. "Casino" was a box office success, and it received generally positive notices from critics. Comparisons were drawn to his earlier film "Goodfellas", and Scorsese admitted "Casino" bore a superficial resemblance to it, but he maintained that the story was significantly larger in scope. Sharon Stone was nominated for the Best Actress Academy Award for her performance. During the filming, Scorsese played a background part as a gambler at one of the tables. Scorsese still found time for a four-hour documentary in 1995, titled "A Personal Journey with Martin Scorsese Through American Movies", offering a thorough trek through American cinema. It covered the silent era to 1969, a year after which Scorsese began his feature career. He said, "I wouldn't feel right commenting on myself or my contemporaries." In the four-hour documentary, Scorsese lists the four aspects of the director he believes are the most important as (1) the director as storyteller; (2) the director as an illusionist: D. W. Griffith or F. W. Murnau, who created new editing techniques among other innovations that made the appearance of sound and color possible later on; (3) the director as a smuggler—filmmakers such as Douglas Sirk, Samuel Fuller, and Vincente Minnelli, who used to hide subversive messages in their films; and (4) the director as iconoclast. In the preface to this documentary, Scorsese states his commitment to the "Director's Dilemma", in which a successful contemporary director must be pragmatic about the realities of getting financing for films of personal esthetic interest by accepting the need of "making one film for the studio, and (then) making one for oneself." If "The Age of Innocence" alienated and confused some fans, then "Kundun" (1997) went several steps further, offering an account of the early life of Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, the People's Liberation Army's entry into Tibet, and the Dalai Lama's subsequent exile to India. Not only a departure in subject matter, "Kundun" saw Scorsese employing a fresh narrative and visual approach. Traditional dramatic devices were substituted for a trance-like meditation achieved through an elaborate tableau of colorful visual images. The film was a source of turmoil for its distributor, Buena Vista Pictures, which was planning significant expansion into the Chinese market at the time. Initially defiant in the face of pressure from Chinese officials, Disney has since distanced itself from the project, hurting "Kundun"s commercial profile. In the short term, the sheer eclecticism in evidence enhanced the director's reputation. In the long term, however, it appears "Kundun" has been sidelined in most critical appraisals of the director, mostly noted as a stylistic and thematic detour. "Kundun" was the Scorsese's second attempt to profile the life of a great religious leader, following "The Last Temptation of Christ". "Bringing Out the Dead" (1999) was a return to familiar territory, with the director and writer Paul Schrader constructing a pitch-black comic take on their own earlier "Taxi Driver". Like earlier Scorsese-Schrader collaborations, its final scenes of spiritual redemption explicitly recall the films of Robert Bresson. (It is also worth noting that the film's incident-filled nocturnal setting is reminiscent of "After Hours".) It received generally positive reviews, although not the universal critical acclaim of some of his other films. It stars Nicolas Cage, Ving Rhames, John Goodman, Tom Sizemore, and Patricia Arquette. On various occasions Scorsese has been asked to present the Honorary Academy Award during the Oscar telecast. In 1998, at the 70th Academy Awards, Scorsese presented the award to film legend Stanley Donen. When accepting the award Donen quipped, "Marty this is backwards, I should be giving this to you, believe me". In 1999, at the 71st Academy Awards, Scorsese and De Niro presented the award to film director Elia Kazan. This would be a controversial pick for the Academy due to Kazan's past history regarding his involvement with the Hollywood Blacklist in the 1950s. Several members of the audience including Nick Nolte and Ed Harris refused to applaud Kazan when he received the award while others such as Warren Beatty, Meryl Streep, Kathy Bates, and Kurt Russell gave him a standing ovation. 2000s. In 1999, Scorsese produced a documentary on Italian filmmakers titled "Il Mio Viaggio in Italia", also known as "My Voyage to Italy". The documentary foreshadowed the director's next project, the epic "Gangs of New York" (2002), influenced by (amongst many others) major Italian directors such as Luchino Visconti and filmed in its entirety at Rome's famous Cinecittà film studios. With a production budget said to be in excess of $100 million, "Gangs of New York" was Scorsese's biggest and arguably most mainstream venture to date. Like "The Age of Innocence", it was set in 19th-century New York, although focusing on the other end of the social scale (and like that film, also starring Daniel Day-Lewis). The film marked the first collaboration between Scorsese and actor Leonardo DiCaprio, who became a fixture in later Scorsese films. The production was highly troubled, with many rumors referring to the director's conflict with Miramax boss Harvey Weinstein. Despite denials of artistic compromise, some felt that "Gangs of New York" was the director's most conventional film, featuring standard film tropes that the director had traditionally avoided, such as characters existing purely for exposition purposes and explanatory flashbacks. The final cut of the movie ran to 168 minutes, while the director's original cut was over 180 minutes long. Even so, the film received generally positive reviews with the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reporting that 75 percent of the reviews for the film they tallied were positive and summarizing the critics writing, "Though flawed, the sprawling, messy "Gangs of New York" is redeemed by impressive production design and Day-Lewis's electrifying performance." The film's central themes are consistent with the director's established concerns: New York, violence as culturally endemic, and subcultural divisions down ethnic lines. Originally filmed for a release in the winter of 2001 (to qualify for Academy Award nominations), Scorsese delayed the final production of the film until after the beginning of 2002; the studio consequently delayed the film until its release in the Oscar season of late 2002. "Gangs of New York" earned Scorsese his first Golden Globe for Best Director. In February 2003, "Gangs of New York" received 10 Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Actor for Daniel Day-Lewis; however, it did not win in any category. The following year, Scorsese completed production of "The Blues", an expansive seven-part documentary tracing the history of blues music from its African roots to the Mississippi Delta and beyond. Seven film-makers including Wim Wenders, Clint Eastwood, Mike Figgis, and Scorsese himself each contributed a 90-minute film (Scorsese's entry was titled "Feel Like Going Home"). In the early 2000s, Scorsese produced several films for up-and-coming directors, such as "You Can Count on Me" (directed by Kenneth Lonergan), "Rain" (directed by Katherine Lindberg), "Lymelife" (directed by Derick Martini) and "The Young Victoria" (directed by Jean-Marc Vallée). At that time, he established Sikelia Productions. In 2003, producer Emma Tillinger Koskoff joined the company. Scorsese also produced several documentaries, such as "The Soul of a Man" (directed by Wim Wenders) and "Lightning in a Bottle" (directed by Antoine Fuqua). Scorsese's film "The Aviator" (2004) is a lavish, large-scale biopic of eccentric aviation pioneer and film mogul Howard Hughes and reunited Scorsese with actor Leonardo DiCaprio. The film received highly positive reviews. The film was a widespread box office success and gained Academy recognition. "The Aviator" was nominated for six Golden Globe awards, including Best Motion Picture-Drama, Best Director, Best Screenplay, and Best Actor-Motion Picture Drama for Leonardo DiCaprio. It won three, including Best Motion Picture-Drama and Best Actor-Motion Picture Drama. In January 2005 "The Aviator" became the most-nominated film of the 77th Academy Awards nominations, nominated in 11 categories including Best Picture. The film also garnered nominations in nearly all the other major categories, including a fifth Best Director nomination for Scorsese. Despite having the most nominations, the film won only five Oscars. Scorsese lost again, this time to director Clint Eastwood for "Million Dollar Baby" (which also won Best Picture). "No Direction Home" is a documentary film by Scorsese that tells of the life of Bob Dylan, and his impact on American popular music and the culture of the 20th century. The film does not cover Dylan's entire career; it focuses on his beginnings, his rise to fame in the 1960s, his then-controversial transformation from an acoustic guitar-based musician and performer to an electric guitar-influenced sound and his "retirement" from touring in 1966 following an infamous motorcycle accident. The film was first presented on television in both the United States (as part of the PBS "American Masters" series) and the United Kingdom (as part of the BBC Two "Arena" series) on September 26 to 27, 2005. A DVD version of the film was released the same month. The film won a Peabody Award and the Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video. In addition, Scorsese received an Emmy nomination for it. Scorsese returned to the crime genre with the Boston-set thriller "The Departed", based on the Hong Kong police drama "Infernal Affairs" (which is co-directed by Andrew Lau and Alan Mak). The film continued Scorsese's collaboration with Leonardo DiCaprio and was the first time he worked with Matt Damon, Jack Nicholson, Mark Wahlberg, and Martin Sheen. "The Departed" opened to widespread critical acclaim, with some proclaiming it as one of the best efforts Scorsese had brought to the screen since 1990's "Goodfellas", and still others putting it at the same level as Scorsese's most celebrated classics "Taxi Driver" and "Raging Bull". With domestic box office receipts surpassing million, "The Departed" was Scorsese's highest-grossing film (not accounting for inflation) until 2010's "Shutter Island". "The Departed" earned Scorsese a second Golden Globe for Best Director, as well as a Critics' Choice Award, his first Directors Guild of America Award, and the Academy Award for Best Director. Presented with the latter, Scorsese poked fun at his track record of nominations, asking, "Could you double-check the envelope?" The award was presented by his longtime friends and colleagues Francis Ford Coppola, George Lucas and Steven Spielberg. "The Departed" also received the Academy Award for the Best Motion Picture of 2006, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Film Editing by longtime Scorsese editor Thelma Schoonmaker, her third win for a Scorsese film. "Shine a Light" captures rock and roll band The Rolling Stones' performing at New York City's Beacon Theater on October 29 and November 1, 2006, intercut with brief news and interview footage from throughout their career. The film was initially scheduled for release on September 21, 2007, but Paramount Classics postponed its general release until April 2008. Its world premiere was at the opening of the 58th Berlinale Film Festival on February 7, 2008. "Marty did an amazing job of making us look great…" observed drummer Charlie Watts. "It's all in the edits and the cuts. That's a movie maker rather than a guy just shooting a band onstage… It's not "Casablanca", but it's a great thing to have from our point of view, not being egotistical. It's a document." In 2009, Scorsese signed a petition in support of director Roman Polanski, calling for his release from custody after he was detained in relation to his 1977 sexual abuse charges. 2010s. On October 22, 2007, "Daily Variety" reported that Scorsese would reunite with Leonardo DiCaprio on a fourth picture, "Shutter Island". Principal photography on the Laeta Kalogridis screenplay, based on the novel of the same name by Dennis Lehane, began in Massachusetts in March 2008. In December 2007, actors Mark Ruffalo, Max von Sydow, Ben Kingsley, and Michelle Williams joined the cast, marking the first time these actors had worked with Scorsese. The film was released on February 19, 2010. On May 20, 2010, the film became Scorsese's highest-grossing film. In 2010, "The Wall Street Journal" reported that Scorsese was supporting the David Lynch Foundation's initiative to help 10,000 military veterans overcome posttraumatic stress disorder through Transcendental Meditation; Scorsese has publicly discussed his own practice of TM. Scorsese directed the series premiere for "Boardwalk Empire", an HBO drama series, starring Steve Buscemi and Michael Pitt, based on Nelson Johnson's book "Boardwalk Empire: The Birth, High Times and Corruption of Atlantic City". Terence Winter, who wrote for "The Sopranos", created the series. In addition to directing the pilot (for which he won the 2011 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing), Scorsese also served as an executive producer on the series. The series premiered on September 19, 2010, and was broadcast for five seasons. Scorsese directed the three-and-a-half-hour documentary "" about the life and music of former Beatles' member George Harrison, which premiered in the United States on HBO over two parts on October 5 and 6, 2011. His next film "Hugo" is a 3D adventure drama film based on Brian Selznick's novel "The Invention of Hugo Cabret". The film stars Asa Butterfield, Chloë Grace Moretz, Ben Kingsley, Sacha Baron Cohen, Ray Winstone, Emily Mortimer, Christopher Lee, and Jude Law. The film has been met with critical acclaim and earned Scorsese his third Golden Globe Award for Best Director. The film was also nominated for 11 Academy Awards, winning five of them and becoming tied with Michel Hazanavicius's film "The Artist" for the most Academy Awards won by a single film in 2011. "Hugo" also won two BAFTA awards, among numerous other awards and nominations. "Hugo" was Scorsese's first 3D film and was released in the United States on November 23, 2011. Scorsese's 2013 film, "The Wolf of Wall Street", is an American biographical black comedy based on Jordan Belfort's memoir of the same name. The screenplay was written by Terence Winter and starred Leonardo DiCaprio as Belfort, along with Jonah Hill, Matthew McConaughey, and others. The film marked the fifth collaboration between Scorsese and DiCaprio and the second between Scorsese and Winter after "Boardwalk Empire". It was released on December 25, 2013. The film tells the story of a New York stockbroker, played by DiCaprio, who engages in a large securities fraud case involving illicit stock manipulation, by way of the practice of "pump and dump". DiCaprio was given the award for Best Actor-Motion Picture Musical or Comedy at the 2014 Golden Globe Awards. The film was also nominated for Best Motion Picture-Musical or Comedy as well. "The Wolf of Wall Street" was nominated for five Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Actor for Leonardo DiCaprio, Best Supporting Actor for Jonah Hill, Best Director for Martin Scorsese, and Best Adapted Screenplay for Terence Winter but did not win in any category. In a 2016 critics' poll conducted by the BBC, the film was ranked among the 100 greatest motion pictures since 2000. Scorsese and David Tedeschi made a documentary about the history of the "New York Review of Books", titled "The 50 Year Argument". It screened as a work in progress at the Berlin International Film Festival in February 2014 and premiered in June 2014 at the Sheffield Doc/Fest. It was also screened in Oslo, and Jerusalem before being shown on the BBC's "Arena" series in July and at Telluride in August. In September, it was screened at the Toronto and Calgary International Film Festivals, and the New York Film Festival. It aired on HBO on September 29, 2014. Scorsese directed the pilot for "Vinyl" written by Terence Winter and George Mastras, with Mick Jagger producing and Mastras as showrunner. The series stars Bobby Cannavale as Richie Finestra, founder and president of a top-tier record label, set in 1970s New York City's drug-and sex-fueled music business as punk and disco were breaking out, all told through the eyes of Finestra trying to resurrect his label and find the next new sound. Filming began on July 25, 2014. Co-stars include Ray Romano, Olivia Wilde, Juno Temple, Andrew Dice Clay, Ato Essandoh, Max Casella, and James Jagger. On December 2, 2014, "Vinyl" was picked up by HBO. The series lasted one season. Scorsese has acted as executive producer of several indie films, like the 2014 "The Third Side of the River" (directed by his protege Celina Murga), another 2014 film "Revenge of the Green Dragons" (co-directed by Andrew Lau, whose film "Infernal Affairs" inspired "The Departed"), as well as "Bleed for This" and "Free Fire". Scorsese directed "The Audition", a short film that also served as a promotional piece for casinos Studio City in Macau and City of Dreams in Manila, Philippines. The short brought together Scorsese's long-time muses Leonardo DiCaprio and Robert De Niro for the first time under his direction. The short film featured the two actors, playing fictionalized versions of themselves, competing for a role in Scorsese's next film. It was Scorsese's first collaboration with De Niro in two decades. The film premiered in October 2015 in conjunction with the grand opening of Studio City. Scorsese had long anticipated filming an adaptation of Shūsaku Endō's novel "Silence", a drama about the lives of two Portuguese Jesuit priests in Japan during the 17th century. He had originally planned "Silence" as his next project following "Shutter Island." On April 19, 2013, financing was secured for "Silence" by Emmett/Furla Films, and filming began in January 2015. By November 2016, the film had completed post-production. It was written by Jay Cocks and Scorsese, based on the novel, and stars Andrew Garfield, Liam Neeson, and Adam Driver. The film was released on December 23, 2016. Scorsese was recognized as an Italian citizen by "jus sanguinis" in 2018. On January 10, 2019, "Variety"s Chris Willman reported that Scorsese's long-anticipated documentary of Bob Dylan's 1975 tour, the Rolling Thunder Revue, would be released by Netflix: """ captures the troubled spirit of America in 1975 and the joyous music that Dylan performed during the fall of that year. Part documentary, part concert film, part fever dream, "Rolling Thunder" is a one of a kind experience, from master filmmaker Martin Scorsese." On April 25, 2019, it was announced that the documentary would be released on Netflix on June 12, 2019, with a concurrent theatrical engagement in twenty American, European, and Australian cities the night before, and an extended theatrical schedule in Los Angeles and New York so that the film will qualify for award consideration. After years of development, principal photography on Scorsese's crime film "The Irishman" began in August 2017, starring Robert De Niro, Joe Pesci, and Al Pacino. The film had its world premiere at the 57th New York Film Festival on September 27, 2019. It received a limited theatrical release on November 1, 2019, followed by digital streaming on November 27, 2019, on Netflix. In January 2020, "The Irishman" received ten Academy Award nominations, including for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Supporting Actor for Pacino and Pesci. 2020s. On December 29, 2020, the trailer for Scorsese's documentary series "Pretend It's a City" was released. The series features Fran Lebowitz and Scorsese as they delve into her personal beliefs and thoughts on New York City. The project was released January 8, 2021 on Netflix. This is Scorsese's second documentary featuring Lebowitz, the first being "Public Speaking" (2010) which was released on HBO. In July 2019, Scorsese started scouting locations in preparation for the 2020 filming of his next film "Killers of the Flower Moon", a film adaptation of the book of the same name by David Grann. Scorsese will be teaming up with Leonardo DiCaprio for the sixth time and Robert De Niro for the tenth time. In December 2019, Scorsese's frequent cinematographer Rodrigo Prieto confirmed that "Flower Moon" was gearing up to start principal photography in March 2020, which was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In April 2020, it was announced that filming for "Killers of the Flower Moon" had been postponed indefinitely in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, that the potential cost of the film had ballooned to $200 million, and that Scorsese was in talks with Netflix or Apple Inc. to produce and distribute, with Paramount Pictures involved as a partner. On May 27, 2020, Apple bought the production and distribution rights to the film, which will be released theatrically by Paramount and streaming on Apple TV+. Principal photography commenced in April 2021. Filmmaking style and technique. Several recurring filmmaking techniques are identifiable in many of Scorsese's films. He has established a filmmaking history which involves repeat collaborations with actors, screenwriters, film editors, and cinematographers, sometimes extending over several decades, such as that with recurring cinematographers Michael Ballhaus, Robert Richardson, and Rodrigo Prieto. Slow motion and freeze frame. Scorsese is known for his frequent use of slow motion, for example, in "Who's That Knocking at My Door" (1967) and "Mean Streets" (1973). He is also known for using freeze frames, such as: in the opening credits of "The King of Comedy" (1983), throughout "Goodfellas" (1990), "Casino" (1995), "The Departed" (2006), and in "The Irishman" (2019). His blonde leading ladies are usually seen through the eyes of the protagonist as angelic and ethereal; they wear white in their first scene and are photographed in slow motion—Cybill Shepherd in "Taxi Driver"; Cathy Moriarty's white bikini in "Raging Bull"; Sharon Stone's white minidress in "Casino". This may be a nod to director Alfred Hitchcock. Scorsese often uses long tracking shots, as seen in "Taxi Driver", "Goodfellas", "Casino", "Gangs of New York", and "Hugo". MOS sequences set to popular music or voice-over are regularly seen in his films, often involving aggressive camera movement and/or rapid editing. Scorsese sometimes highlights characters in a scene with an iris, an homage to 1920s silent film cinema (as scenes at the time sometimes used this transition). This effect can be seen in "Casino" (it is used on Sharon Stone and Joe Pesci), "Life Lessons", "The Departed" (on Matt Damon), and "Hugo". Some of his films include references/allusions to Westerns, particularly "Rio Bravo", "The Great Train Robbery", "Shane", "The Searchers", and "The Oklahoma Kid". Slow motion flashbulbs and accented camera/flash/shutter sounds are often used, as is the song "Gimme Shelter" by The Rolling Stones heard in several of Scorsese's films: "Goodfellas", "Casino", and "The Departed". Cameo appearances. Scorsese usually has a quick cameo in his films ("Who's That Knocking at My Door", "Boxcar Bertha", "Mean Streets", "Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore", "Taxi Driver", "The King of Comedy", "After Hours", "The Last Temptation of Christ" (albeit hidden under a hood), "The Age of Innocence", "Gangs of New York", "Hugo"), he is also known to contribute his voice to a film without appearing on screen (e.g. as in "The Aviator" and "The Wolf of Wall Street"). In "The Age of Innocence", for example, he appears in the non-speaking role of a large format portrait photographer in one of the passing scenes of the film. He provides the opening voice-over narration in "Mean Streets" and "The Color of Money"; plays the off-screen dressing room attendant in the final scene of "Raging Bull", and provides the voice of the unseen ambulance dispatcher in "Bringing Out the Dead". He also appears as the director of fictional newly formed Vatican Television in the Italian comedy "In the Pope's Eye". Religious guilt. Guilt is a prominent theme in many of his films, as is the role of Catholicism in creating and dealing with guilt ("Who's That Knocking at My Door", "Mean Streets", "Raging Bull", "Bringing Out the Dead", "The Departed", "Shutter Island", and "The Irishman"). In a similar manner, Scorsese considered "Silence" a "passion project": it had been in development since 1990, two years after the release of his film "The Last Temptation of Christ", which also contained strongly religious themes. When asked why he retained interest in a project dealing with strong theological themes for over 26 years, Scorsese said,As you get older, ideas go and come. Questions, answers, loss of the answer again and more questions, and this is what really interests me. Yes, the cinema and the people in my life and my family are most important, but ultimately as you get older, there's got to be more ... "Silence" is just something that I'm drawn to in that way. It's been an obsession, it has to be done ... it's a strong, wonderful true story, a thriller in a way, but it deals with those questions. Political corruption. More recently, his films have featured corrupt authority figures, such as policemen in "The Departed" and politicians in "Gangs of New York" and "The Aviator". He is also known for his liberal usage of profanity, dark humor, and violence. Scorsese's interest in political corruption as depicted in his films was expanded further in his 2019 film "The Irishman". Richard Brody writing for "The New Yorker" found the main interpretation of the film to be a dark allegory of a realist reading of American politics and American society stating: The real-life Hoffa... (was) a crucial player in both gangland politics and the actual practical politics of the day, and the movie's key through line is the inseparability of those two realms. "The Irishman" is a sociopolitical horror story that views much of modern American history as a continuous crime in motion, in which every level of society—from domestic life through local business through big business through national and international politics—is poisoned by graft and bribery, shady deals and dirty money, threats of violence and its gruesome enactment, and the hard-baked impunity that keeps the entire system running. Frequent collaborators. Scorsese often casts the same actors in his projects, particularly Robert De Niro, who has collaborated with Scorsese on nine feature films and one short film. Included are the three films ("Taxi Driver", "Raging Bull", and "Goodfellas") that made AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movies list. Scorsese has often said he thinks De Niro's best work under his direction was Rupert Pupkin in "The King of Comedy". After the turn of the century, Scorsese found a new muse with younger actor Leonardo DiCaprio, collaborating on five feature films and one short to date. Several critics have compared Scorsese's new partnership with DiCaprio with his previous one with De Niro. Frequent collaborators also include: Victor Argo (6), Harvey Keitel (6), Harry Northup (6), Murray Moston (5), Illeana Douglas (4), J. C. MacKenzie (4), Joe Pesci (4), Frank Vincent (3), Barry Primus (3), and Verna Bloom (3). Others who have appeared in multiple Scorsese projects include Daniel Day-Lewis, who had become very reclusive to the Hollywood scene, Alec Baldwin, Willem Dafoe, Ben Kingsley, Jude Law, Dick Miller, Liam Neeson, Emily Mortimer, John C. Reilly, David Carradine, Barbara Hershey, Kevin Corrigan, Jake Hoffman, Frank Sivero, Ray Winstone and Nick Nolte. Before their deaths, Scorsese's parents, Charles Scorsese and Catherine Scorsese, appeared in bit parts, walk-ons or supporting roles, such as in "Goodfellas". For his crew, Scorsese frequently worked with editors Marcia Lucas and Thelma Schoonmaker, cinematographers Michael Ballhaus, Robert Richardson, Michael Chapman and Rodrigo Prieto, screenwriters Paul Schrader, Mardik Martin, Jay Cocks, Terrence Winter, John Logan and Steven Zaillian, costume designer Sandy Powell, production designers Dante Ferretti and Bob Shaw, music producer Robbie Robertson, and composers Howard Shore and Elmer Bernstein. Schoonmaker, Richardson, Powell, and Ferretti have each won Academy Awards in their respective categories on collaborations with Scorsese. Elaine and Saul Bass, the latter being Hitchcock's frequent title designer, designed the opening credits for "Goodfellas", "The Age of Innocence", "Casino" and "Cape Fear". Acting collaborations Personal life. In 1965, Scorsese married his first wife Laraine Marie Brennan, and they remained together for six years between 1965 and 1971; they have a daughter, Catherine, who was named after his mother. Since their divorce in 1972, Scorsese has had four subsequent wives and had previously identified himself as a lapsed Roman Catholic as a result of the Church's doctrinal position against divorce. He has said, "I'm a lapsed Catholic. But I am Roman Catholic; there's no way out of it." In 2016, Scorsese identified himself as a Catholic again, saying, "my way has been, and is, Catholicism. After many years of thinking about other things, dabbling here and there, I am most comfortable as a Catholic. I believe in the tenets of Catholicism." In 1976, Scorsese married the writer Julia Cameron, his second marriage; they have a daughter (Domenica Cameron-Scorsese, who is an actress and appeared in "The Age of Innocence"), but the marriage lasted only a year. The divorce was acrimonious and served as the basis of Cameron's first feature, the dark comedy "God's Will", which also starred their daughter. She had a small role in "Cape Fear" using the name Domenica Scorsese and has continued to act, write, direct, and produce. Before the end of 1979, Scorsese married actress Isabella Rossellini, and they stayed together for four years, divorcing in 1983. Scorsese married producer Barbara De Fina in 1985, his fourth of five marriages; they divorced in 1991. Throughout the early 1990s until 1997, Scorsese was romantically involved with actress Illeana Douglas following his fourth divorce. In 1999, Scorsese married his current spouse of over twenty years, Helen Schermerhorn Morris. They have a daughter, Francesca, who appeared in "The Departed" and "The Aviator". Filmography. , Scorsese has directed 25 full-length films and 16 full-length documentary films. Favorite films. In 2012, Scorsese participated in the "Sight & Sound" film polls of that year. Held every ten years to select the greatest films of all time, contemporary directors were asked to select ten films of their choice. Scorsese, however, picked 12, which are listed below in alphabetical order: In 1999, after the death of Gene Siskel, Scorsese joined Roger Ebert as the guest co-host for an episode of "Siskel & Ebert" where they each stated their 10 favorite films of the decade. Scorsese's list numerically is: Film activism. Scorsese has mentioned his mentors being such filmmakers as John Cassavetes, Roger Corman, and Michael Powell. In film critic Roger Ebert's book, "Scorsese by Ebert", Ebert praised Scorsese for championing and supporting other filmmakers by serving as an executive producer on projects of filmmakers such as Antoine Fuqua, Wim Wenders, Kenneth Lonergan, Stephen Frears, Allison Anders, Spike Lee, and John McNaughton. More recently he's executive produced the films of the Safdie Brothers, Joanna Hogg, Kornél Mundruczó, Josephine Decker, Danielle Lessovitz, Alice Rohrwacher, Jonas Carpignano, Amélie van Elmbt, and Celina Murga. Scorsese has also chosen to name filmmakers throughout the years that he admires such as fellow New York City-based directors Woody Allen and Spike Lee, as well as other artists such as Wes Anderson, Bong Joon-ho, Greta Gerwig, Ari Aster, Kelly Reichardt, Claire Denis, Noah Baumbach, Paul Thomas Anderson, the Coen Brothers, and Kathryn Bigelow. Film preservation. The Film Foundation. Scorsese had been at the forefront in film preservation and restoration ever since 1990, when he created The Film Foundation, a non-profit film organization which collaborates with film studios to restore prints of old or damaged films. Scorsese launched the organization with Woody Allen, Robert Altman, Francis Ford Coppola, Clint Eastwood, Stanley Kubrick, George Lucas, Sydney Pollack, Robert Redford, and Steven Spielberg, who all sat on the foundation's original board of directors. In 2006, Paul Thomas Anderson, Wes Anderson, Curtis Hanson, Peter Jackson, Ang Lee and Alexander Payne joined them. In 2015, Christopher Nolan also joined the board. Recent members include Spike Lee, Sofia Coppola, Guillermo Del Toro, Barry Jenkins, Lynne Ramsay, Peter Jackson, Joanna Hogg and Kathryn Bigelow. The foundation has restored more than 800 films from around the world and conducts a free educational curriculum for young people on the language and history of film. Scorsese and the Foundation spearheaded fundraising for the film restoration of Michael Powell, and Emeric Pressburger's "The Red Shoes" (1948). For his advocacy in film restoration he received the Robert Osborne Award at the 2018 TCM Film Festival. The award was given to Scorsese as "an individual who has significantly contributed to preserving the cultural heritage of classic films". In November 2020, the Criterion Channel released a 30-minute video titled, "30 Years of The Film Foundation: Martin Scorsese and Ari Aster in Conversation", celebrating the "mission, evolution, and ongoing work of The Film Foundation". Scorsese stated as of 2020, the Foundation has helped restore 850 films. The World Cinema Project. In 2007, Scorsese established the World Cinema Project with the mission, to preserve and present marginalized and infrequently screened films from regions generally ill-equipped to preserve their own cinema history. Scorsese's organization has worked with the Criterion Collection to not only preserve the films but to allow them to be released on DVD and Blu-ray boxsets and on streaming services such as The Criterion Channel. Films in the WCP include Ousmane Sembène's "Black Girl" (1966), and Djibril Diop Mambéty's "Touki Bouki" (1973). The Criterion Collection so far has released two Vol. boxsets on DVD and Blu-ray, titled, "Martin Scorsese's World Cinema Project". The first Volume includes 6 titles, "Touki Bouki" (1973), "Redes" (1936), "A River Called Titas" (1973), "Dry Summer" (1964), "Trances" (1981) and "The Housemaid" (1960). The second volume also includes 6 titles, "Insiang" (1976), "Mysterious Object at Noon" (2000), "Revenge" (1989), "Limite" (1931), "Law of the Border" (1967), and "Taipei Story" (1985). The African Film Heritage Project. In 2017, Scorsese also introduced The African Film Heritage Project (AFHP), which is a joint initiative between Scorsese's non-profit The Film Foundation, UNESCO, Cineteca di Bologna, and the Pan African Federation of Filmmakers (FEPACI). The project aims to locate and preserve 50 classic African films, some thought lost and others beyond repair, with hopes to make them available to audiences everywhere. In an interview with "Cinema Escapist" in 2018, Scorsese talked about the ambitious collaboration saying, "Our first goal is to launch and conduct a thorough investigation in film archives and laboratories around the world, in order to locate the best surviving elements—original negatives, we hope—for our first 50 titles." He also stated that "Restoration is always the primary goal, of course, but within the initiative, it’s also a starting point of a process that follows through with exhibition and dissemination in Africa and abroad. And of course, our restoration process always includes the creation of preservation elements." In 2019, the AFHP, announced that they would screen restorations of four African films on their home continent for the first time as part of the 50th anniversary of the Pan African Film Festival of Ouagadougou. The movies in question are Med Hondo’s "Soleil Ô" (1970), Mohammed Lakhdar-Hamina’s "Chronique des années de braise" (1975), Timité Bassori’s "La Femme au couteau" (1969), and Jean-Pierre Dikongue-Pipa’s "Muna Moto" (1975). Legacy and honors. Scorsese's films have been nominated for numerous awards both nationally and internationally, with an Academy Award win for "The Departed". In 1991, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In 1997, Scorsese received the AFI Life Achievement Award. In 1998, the American Film Institute placed three Scorsese films on their list of the greatest American movies: "Raging Bull" at #24, "Taxi Driver" at #47, and "Goodfellas" at #94. For the tenth-anniversary edition of their list, "Raging Bull" was moved to #4, "Taxi Driver" was moved to #52, and "Goodfellas" was moved to #92. In 2001, the American Film Institute placed two Scorsese films on their list of the most "heart-pounding movies" in American cinema: "Taxi Driver" at #22 and "Raging Bull" at #51. At a ceremony in Paris, France, on January 5, 2005, Martin Scorsese was awarded the French Legion of Honour in recognition of his contribution to cinema. On February 8, 2006, at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards, Scorsese was awarded the Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video for "No Direction Home". In 2007, Scorsese was listed among "Time" magazine's 100 Most Influential People in The World. In August 2007, Scorsese was named the second-greatest director of all time in a poll by "Total Film" magazine, in front of Steven Spielberg and behind Alfred Hitchcock. In 2007, Scorsese was honored by the National Italian American Foundation (N.I.A.F.) at the nonprofit's thirty-second Anniversary Gala. During the ceremony, Scorsese helped launch N.I.A.F. 's Jack Valenti Institute in memory of former foundation board member and past president of the Motion Picture Association of America (M.P.A.A.) Jack Valenti. The Institute provides support to Italian film students in the U.S. Scorsese received his award from Mary Margaret Valenti, Jack Valenti's widow. Certain pieces of Scorsese's film-related material and personal papers are contained in the Wesleyan University Cinema Archives, to which scholars and media experts from around the world may have full access. On September 11, 2007, the Kennedy Center Honors committee, which recognizes career excellence and cultural influence, named Scorsese as one of the honorees for the year. On June 17, 2008, the American Film Institute placed two of Scorsese's films on the AFI's 10 Top 10 list: "Raging Bull" at number one for the Sports genre and "Goodfellas" at number two for the Gangster genre. In 2013, the staff of "Entertainment Weekly" voted "Mean Streets" the seventh greatest film ever made. On January 17, 2010, at the 67th Golden Globe Awards, Scorsese was the recipient of the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award. On September 18, 2011, at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards, Scorsese won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for his work on the series premiere of "Boardwalk Empire". In 2011, Scorsese received an honorary doctorate from the National Film School in Lodz. At the awards ceremony he said, "I feel like I'm a part of this school and that I attended it," paying tribute to the films of Wajda, Munk, Has, Polanski and Skolimowski. King Missile wrote "Martin Scorsese" in his honor. On February 12, 2012, at the 65th British Academy Film Awards, Scorsese was the recipient of the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award. On September 16, 2012, Scorsese won two Emmy Awards for Outstanding Directing for Nonfiction Programming and Outstanding Nonfiction Special for his work on the documentary "George Harrison: Living in the Material World". In 2013, the National Endowment for the Humanities selected Scorsese for the Jefferson Lecture, the U.S. federal government's highest honor for achievement in the humanities. He was the first filmmaker chosen for the honor. His lecture, delivered on April 1, 2013, at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, was titled "Persistence of Vision: Reading the Language of Cinema". Scorsese was awarded the Polish Gold Medal for Merit to Culture – Gloria Artis on April 11, 2017, in recognition of his contribution to Polish cinema. Scorsese has also garnered favorable responses from numerous film giants including Ingmar Bergman, Frank Capra, Jean-Luc Godard, Werner Herzog, Elia Kazan, Akira Kurosawa, David Lean, Michael Powell, Satyajit Ray, and François Truffaut. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2008. He was awarded an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Oxford on June 20, 2018. As of 2019, four of Scorsese's films have been selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". In commenting on Scorsese's 2019 film "The Irishman", Guillermo del Toro cited Scorsese's ability as a director for the depiction of character development comparable to the films of "Renoir, Bresson, Bergman, Oliveira or Kurosawa". Sam Mendes, in his acceptance speech after winning the 2020 Golden Globe Award for Best Director for "1917", praised Scorsese's contribution to cinema, stating, "There's not one director in this room, not one director in the world, that is not in the shadow of Martin Scorsese... I just have to say that." Bong Joon-ho, in his acceptance speech for the 2020 Academy Award for Best Director for "Parasite", said, "When I was young and studying cinema, there was a saying that I carved deep into my heart, which is, the most personal is the most creative." He then said that this quote had come from Scorsese, which prompted the audience to give Scorsese a standing ovation.

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Mary Louise Brooks (November 14, 1906 – August 8, 1985), known professionally as Louise Brooks, was an American film actress and dancer during the 1920s and 1930s. She is regarded today as a Jazz Age icon and as a flapper sex symbol due to her bob hairstyle that she helped popularize during the prime of her career. At the age of fifteen, Brooks began her career as a dancer and toured with the Denishawn School of Dancing and Related Arts where she performed opposite Ted Shawn. After being fired, she found employment as a chorus girl in "George White's Scandals" and as a semi-nude dancer in the "Ziegfeld Follies" in New York City. While dancing in the "Follies", Brooks came to the attention of Walter Wanger, a producer at Paramount Pictures, and was signed to a five-year contract with the studio. She appeared in supporting roles in various Paramount films before taking the heroine's role in "Beggars of Life" (1928). During this time, she became an intimate friend of actress Marion Davies and joined the elite social circle of press baron William Randolph Hearst at Hearst Castle in San Simeon. Dissatisfied with her mediocre roles in Hollywood films, Brooks went to Germany in 1929 and starred in three feature films which launched her to international stardom: "Pandora's Box" (1929), "Diary of a Lost Girl" (1929), and "Miss Europe" (1930); the first two were directed by G. W. Pabst. By 1938, she had starred in seventeen silent films and eight sound films. After retiring from acting, she fell upon financial hardship and became a paid escort. For the next two decades, she struggled with alcoholism and suicidal tendencies. Following the rediscovery of her films by cinephiles in the 1950s, a reclusive Brooks began writing articles about her film career; her insightful essays drew considerable acclaim. She published her memoir, "Lulu in Hollywood", in 1982. Three years later, she died of a heart attack at age 78. Early life. Born in Cherryvale, Kansas, Louise Brooks was the daughter of Leonard Porter Brooks, a lawyer, who was usually preoccupied with his legal practice, and Myra Rude, an artistic mother who said that any "squalling brats she produced could take care of themselves". Rude was a talented pianist who played the latest Debussy and Ravel for her children, inspiring them with a love of books and music. Brooks described the hometown of her childhood as a typical Midwestern community where the inhabitants "prayed in the parlor and practiced incest in the barn." When Louise was nine years old, a neighborhood man sexually abused her. Beyond the physical trauma at the time, the event continued to have damaging psychological effects on her personal life as an adult and on her career. That early abuse caused her later to acknowledge that she was incapable of real love, explaining that this man: "...must have had a great deal to do with forming my attitude toward sexual pleasure... For me, nice, soft, easy men were never enough—there had to be an element of domination." When Brooks at last told her mother of the incident, many years later, her mother suggested that it must have been Louise's fault for "leading him on". Brooks began her entertainment career as a dancer, joining the Denishawn School of Dancing and Related Arts modern dance company in Los Angeles at the age of 15 in 1922. The company included founders Ruth St. Denis and Ted Shawn, as well as a young Martha Graham. As a member of the globe-trotting troupe, Brooks spent a season abroad in London and in Paris. In her second season with the Denishawn company, Brooks advanced to a starring role in one work opposite Shawn. However, a long-simmering personal conflict between Brooks and St. Denis boiled over one day, and St. Denis abruptly fired Brooks from the troupe in the spring of 1924, telling her in front of the other members: "I am dismissing you from the company because you want life handed to you on a silver salver." These words made a strong impression on Brooks; when she drew up an outline for a planned autobiographical novel in 1949, "The Silver Salver" was the title she gave the tenth and final chapter. Brooks was 17 years old at the time of her dismissal. Thanks to her friend Barbara Bennett, the sister of Constance and Joan Bennett, Brooks almost immediately found employment as a chorus girl in "George White's Scandals", followed by an appearance as a semi-nude dancer in the 1925 edition of the "Ziegfeld Follies" at the Amsterdam Theater on 42nd Street. As a result of her work in the "Follies", Brooks came to the attention of Walter Wanger, a producer at Paramount Pictures. An infatuated Wanger signed her to a five-year contract with the studio in 1925. Soon after, Brooks met movie star Charlie Chaplin at a cocktail party given by Wanger. Chaplin was in town for the premiere of his film "The Gold Rush" (1925) at the Strand Theatre on Broadway. Chaplin and Brooks had a two-month affair that summer while Chaplin was married to Lita Grey. When their affair ended, Chaplin sent her a check; she declined to write him a thank-you note. Career. Paramount films. Brooks made her screen debut in the silent "The Street of Forgotten Men", in an uncredited role in 1925. Soon, however, she was playing the female lead in a number of silent light comedies and flapper films over the next few years, starring with Adolphe Menjou and W. C. Fields, among others. After her small roles in 1925, both Paramount and MGM offered her contracts. At the time, Brooks had an on-and-off affair with Walter Wanger, head of Paramount Pictures and husband of actress Justine Johnstone. Wanger tried to persuade her to take the MGM contract to avoid rumors that she only obtained the Paramount contract because of her intimate relationship with him. Despite his advice, she decided to accept Paramount's offer. During this time, Brooks gained a cult following in Europe for her pivotal vamp role in the 1928 Howard Hawks silent buddy film "A Girl in Every Port". Her distinctive bob haircut helped start a trend, and many women styled their hair in imitation of both her and fellow film star Colleen Moore. In the early sound film drama "Beggars of Life" (1928), Brooks plays an abused country girl who kills her foster father when he "attempts, one sunny morning, to rape her." A hobo (Richard Arlen) happens on the murder scene and convinces Brooks to disguise herself as a young boy and escape the law by "riding the rails" with him. In a hobo encampment, or "jungle," they meet another hobo (Wallace Beery). Brooks' disguise is soon uncovered and she finds herself the only female in a world of brutal, sex-hungry men. Much of this film was shot on location in the Jacumba Mountains near the Mexican border, and the boom microphone was invented for this film by the director William Wellman, who needed it for one of the first experimental talking scenes in the movies. The filming of "Beggars of Life" proved to be a difficult ordeal for Brooks. During the production, she had a one-night stand with a stuntman who—the next day—spread a malicious false rumor on the set that Brooks had contracted a venereal disease during a previous weekend stay with a producer, ostensibly Jack Pickford. Concurrently, Brooks' interactions with her co-star Richard Arlen deteriorated as Arlen was a close friend of Brooks' then-husband Eddie Sutherland and, according to Brooks, Arlen took a dim view of her casual liaisons with crew members. Amid these tensions, Brooks repeatedly clashed with director William Wellman whose risk-taking directing style nearly caused her death in a scene where she hazardously climbs aboard a moving train. Soon after the production of "Beggars Of Life" was completed, Brooks began filming the pre-Code crime-mystery film "The Canary Murder Case" (1929). By this time in her life, she was socializing with wealthy and famous persons. She was a frequent house guest of the media magnate William Randolph Hearst and his mistress Marion Davies at Hearst Castle in San Simeon, being intimate friends with Davies' lesbian niece, Pepi Lederer. While partying with Lederer, Brooks had a brief sexual liaison with her. At some point in their friendship, Hearst and Davies were made aware of Lederer's lesbianism. Hearst arranged for Lederer to be committed to a mental institution for drug addiction. Several days after her arrival at the institution, Lederer—Brooks' closest friend and companion—committed suicide by jumping to her death from a hospital window. This event traumatized Brooks and likely led to her further dissatisfaction with Hollywood and the West Coast. Brooks, who now loathed the Hollywood "scene", refused to stay on at Paramount after being denied a promised raise. Learning of her refusal, her friend and lover George Preston Marshall counseled her to sail with him to Europe in order to make films with director G.W. Pabst, the prominent Austrian Expressionist director. On the last day of filming "The Canary Murder Case" Brooks departed Paramount Pictures to leave Hollywood for Berlin to work for Pabst. It was not until thirty years later that this rebellious decision would come to be seen as arguably the most beneficial to her career, securing her immortality as a silent film legend and independent spirit. While her initial snubbing of Paramount alone would not have finished her in Hollywood altogether, her later refusal after returning from Germany to come back to Paramount for sound retakes of "The Canary Murder Case" (1929) irrevocably placed her on an unofficial blacklist. Angered by her refusal, the studio allegedly claimed that Brooks' voice was unsuitable for sound pictures, and another actress, Margaret Livingston, was hired to dub Brooks' voice for the film. European films. Brooks traveled to Europe accompanied by her paramour George Preston Marshall and his English valet. The German film industry was Hollywood's only major rival at the time, and the film industry based in Berlin was known as the "Filmwelt" ("film world") reflecting its own self-image as a highly glamorous "exclusive club". After their arrival in Weimar Germany, she starred in the 1929 silent film "Pandora's Box", directed by Pabst in his New Objectivity period. Pabst was one of the leading directors of the "filmwelt", known for his refined, elegant films that represented the "filmwelt" "...at the height of its creative powers". The film "Pandora's Box" is based on two plays by Frank Wedekind ("Erdgeist" and "Die Büchse der Pandora"), and Brooks plays the central figure, Lulu. This film is notable for its frank treatment of modern sexual mores, including one of the first overt on-screen portrayals of a lesbian. Brooks' performance in "Pandora's Box" made her into a star. In looking for the right actress to play Lulu, Pabst had rejected Marlene Dietrich as "too old" and too obvious." In choosing Brooks, a relative unknown who had only appeared—not to very great effect—in secondary roles, Pabst was going against the advice of those around him. Brooks recalled that "when we made "Pandora's Box", Mr. Pabst was a man of 43 who astonished me with his knowledge on practically any subject. I, who astonished him because I knew practically nothing on every subject, celebrated my twenty-second birthday with a beer party on a London street." Brooks claimed her experience shooting "Pandora's Box" in Germany was a pleasant one: After the filming of "Pandora's Box" concluded, Brooks had a brief one-night stand with Pabst, and the director cast Brooks again in his controversial social drama "Diary of a Lost Girl" (1929), based on the book by Margarete Böhme. In performing "Diary of a Lost Girl", Brooks drew upon on her memories of being molested as a 9 year old child and then being blamed by her mother for her own molestation, later recalling on that day she became one of the "lost". On the final day of shooting "Diary of a Lost Girl", Pabst counseled Brooks not to return to Hollywood and instead to stay in Germany and to her continue her career as a serious actress. Pabst expressed concern that Brooks' carefree approach towards her career would end in dire poverty "exactly like Lulu's". He further cautioned Brooks that her then-paramour George Marshall and her "rich American friends" would likely shun her when her career stalled. When audiences and critics first viewed Brooks' German films, they were bewildered by her naturalistic acting style. Viewers purportedly exited the theater vocally complaining, "She doesn't act! She does nothing!" In the late 1920s, cinemagoers were habituated to theatre-style stage acting with exaggerated body language and facial expressions. Yet Brooks' acting style was deliberately subtle as she knew the close-up images of the actors' bodies and faces made such exaggerations unnecessary. When explaining her acting method, Brooks posited that acting "does not consist of descriptive movement of face and body but in the movements of thought and soul transmitted in a kind of intense isolation." This innovative style continues to be used today by film actors but, at the time, it was surprising to viewers who assumed she wasn't acting at all. Film critic Roger Ebert later noted that, by employing this acting method, "Brooks became one of the most modern and effective of actors, projecting a presence that could be startling." Her appearances in Pabst's two films made Brooks an international star. According to the film critic and historian Molly Haskell, the films "expos[ed] her animal sensuality and turn[ed] her into one of the most erotic figures on the screen — the bold, black-helmeted young girl who, with only a shy grin to acknowledge her 'fall,' became a prostitute in "Diary of a Lost Girl" and who, with no more sense of sin than a baby, drives men out of their minds in "Pandora's Box"." Near the end of 1929, English film critic and journalist Cedric Belfrage interviewed Pabst for an article about Brooks' film work in Europe, one that was published in the February 1930 issue of the American monthly "Motion Picture". The Austrian director, according to Belfrage, attributed Brooks' acting success outside of the United States to her seemingly inherent or instinctive "European" sensibilities: Belfarge goes on in his article to elaborate on Brooks' opinion of Hollywood, and he refers to Pabst's firsthand knowledge of that opinion. "The very mention of the place," he states, "gives her a sensation of nausea. He continues, "The pettiness of it, the dullness, the monotony, the stupidity—no, no, that is no place for Louise Brooks." After the success of her German films, Brooks appeared in one more European film entitled "Miss Europe" (1930), a French film by Italian director Augusto Genina. Return to America. Dissatisfied with Europe, Brooks returned to New York in December 1929. When Brooks returned to Hollywood in 1931, she was cast in two mainstream films, "God's Gift to Women" (1931) and "It Pays to Advertise" (1931), but her performances in these films were largely ignored by critics, and few other job offers were forthcoming due to her informal "blacklisting". As the sole member of the cast who had refused to return to make the talkie version of "The Canary Murder Case," Brooks became convinced that "no major studio would hire [her] to make a film." Purportedly, director William Wellman—despite their previous acrimonious relationship on "Beggars of Life"—offered Brooks the female lead in his new picture "The Public Enemy", starring James Cagney. Brooks turned down Wellman's offer in order to visit her then-lover George Preston Marshall in New York City, and the coveted role instead went to Jean Harlow, who began her own rise to stardom largely as a result. Although Brooks later claimed she declined the role because she "hated Hollywood," film historian James Card, who came to know Brooks intimately later in her life, stated that Brooks "just wasn't interested... She was more interested in Marshall". In the opinion of biographer Barry Paris, "turning down "Public Enemy" marked the real end of Louise Brooks's film career". She returned to Hollywood after being offered of a $500 per week salary from Columbia Pictures but, after refusing to do a screen test for a Buck Jones Western film, the contract offer was withdrawn. She made one more film at that time, a two-reel comedy short, "Windy Riley Goes Hollywood" (1931), directed by disgraced Hollywood outcast Fatty Arbuckle, working under the pseudonym "William Goodrich". Brooks declared bankruptcy in 1932, and she began dancing in nightclubs to earn a living. She attempted a film comeback in 1936 and did a bit part in "Empty Saddles", a Western that led Columbia to offer her a screen test, contingent on appearing in the 1937 musical "When You're in Love", uncredited, as a specialty ballerina in the chorus. In 1937, Brooks managed to obtain a bit part in the film "King of Gamblers" after a private interview on a Paramount set with director Robert Florey who "specialised in giving jobs to destitute and sufficiently grateful actresses." Unfortunately, after filming, Brooks' scenes were deleted. Brooks made two more films after that, including the 1938 Western "Overland Stage Raiders" in which she plays the romantic lead, opposite John Wayne, with a long hairstyle that renders her all but unrecognizable from her Lulu days. In contemporary reviews of that Western in newspapers and trade publications, Brooks received little attention from critics for her role. The review by "The Film Daily" in September 1938 provides one example of that general disregard. The New York-based paper barely mentions her, stating only that "Louise Brooks makes an appearance as a female attraction." "Variety", the nation's leading entertainment publication at the time, also devotes very little ink to her in its review. "Louise Brooks is the femme appeal with nothing much to do", it reports, "except look glamorous in a shoulder-length straight-bang coiffure." Life after film. Economic hardship. Brooks' career prospects as a film actress had significantly declined by 1940. According to the federal census in May that year, she was living in a $55-a-month apartment at 1317 North Fairfax Avenue in West Hollywood and was working as a copywriter for a magazine. Soon, however, she found herself unemployed and increasingly desperate for a steady income. She also realized during this time that "the only people who wanted to see me were men who wanted to sleep with me." That realization was underscored by her longtime friend Paramount executive Walter Wanger, who warned her that she would likely "become a call girl" if she remained in Hollywood. Upon hearing Wanger's warning, Brooks purportedly also remembered Pabst's earlier predictions about the dire circumstances to which she would be driven if her career stalled in Hollywood: "I heard his [Pabst's] words again — hissing back to me. And listening this time, I packed my trunks and went home to Kansas." Heeding Wanger's warning, Brooks briefly returned to Wichita, where she was raised, but this undesired return "turned out to be another kind of hell." "I retired first to my father's home in Wichita," she later recalled, "but there I found that the citizens could not decide whether they despised me for having once been a success away from home or for now being a failure in their midst." For her part, Brooks admitted that "I wasn't exactly enchanted with them," and "I must confess to a lifelong curse: My own failure as a social creature." After an unsuccessful attempt at operating a dance studio, she returned to New York City. Following brief stints there as a radio actor in soap operas and a gossip columnist, she worked as a salesgirl in a Saks Fifth Avenue store in Manhattan. Between 1948 and 1953, Brooks embarked upon a career as a courtesan with a few select wealthy men as clients. As her finances eroded, an impoverished Brooks began working regularly for an escort agency in New York. Recalling this difficult period in her memoirs, Brooks wrote that she frequently pondered suicide: She spent subsequent years "drinking and escorting" while subsisting in obscurity and poverty in a small New York apartment. By this time, "all of her rich and famous friends had forgotten her." Angered by this ostracization, she attempted to write a tell-all memoir titled "Naked on My Goat", a title drawn from Goethe's epic play, "Faust". After working on that autobiography for years, she destroyed the entire manuscript by throwing it into an incinerator. As time passed, she increasingly drank more and continued to suffer from suicidal tendencies. Rediscovery. In 1955, French film historians such as Henri Langlois rediscovered Brooks' films, proclaiming her an unparalleled actress who surpassed even Marlene Dietrich and Greta Garbo as a film icon, much to her purported amusement. This rediscovery led to a Louise Brooks film festival in 1957 and rehabilitated her reputation in her home country. During this time, James Card, the film curator for the George Eastman House, discovered Brooks "living as a recluse" in New York City. He persuaded her in 1956 to move to Rochester, New York, to be near the George Eastman House film collection where she could study cinema and write about her past career. With Card's assistance, she became a noted film writer. Although Brooks had been a heavy drinker since the age of 14, she remained relatively sober to begin writing perceptive essays on cinema in film magazines, which became her second career. A collection of her writings, titled "Lulu in Hollywood", published in 1982 and still in print, was heralded by film critic Roger Ebert as "one of the few film books that can be called indispensable." In her later years, Brooks rarely granted interviews, yet had special relationships with film historians John Kobal and Kevin Brownlow. In the 1970s, she was interviewed extensively on film for the documentaries "" (1976), produced and directed by Gary Conklin, and "Hollywood" (1980), by Brownlow and David Gill. "Lulu in Berlin" (1984) is another rare filmed interview, produced by Richard Leacock and Susan Woll, released a year before her death but filmed a decade earlier. In 1979, she was profiled by the film writer Kenneth Tynan in his essay "The Girl in the Black Helmet", the title an allusion to her bobbed hair, worn since childhood. In 1982, writer Tom Graves was allowed into Brooks' small apartment for an interview, and later wrote about the often awkward and tense conversation in his article "My Afternoon with Louise Brooks". Death. On August 8, 1985, after suffering from arthritis and emphysema for many years, Brooks died of a heart attack in her apartment in Rochester, New York. She had no survivors and was buried in Holy Sepulchre Cemetery in Rochester. Personal life. Marriages and relationships. In the summer of 1926, Brooks married Eddie Sutherland, the director of the film she made with W. C. Fields, but by 1927 had become infatuated with George Preston Marshall, owner of a chain of laundries and future owner of the Washington Redskins football team, following a chance meeting with him that she later referred to as "the most fateful encounter of my life". She divorced Sutherland, mainly due to her budding relationship with Marshall, in June 1928. Sutherland was purportedly extremely distraught when Brooks divorced him and, on the first night after their separation, he attempted to take his life with an overdose of sleeping pills. Throughout the late 1920s and early 1930s, Brooks continued her on-again, off-again relationship with George Preston Marshall which she later described as abusive. Marshall was purportedly "her frequent bedfellow and constant adviser between 1927 and 1933." Marshall repeatedly asked her to marry him but, after learning that she had had many affairs while they were together and believing her to be incapable of fidelity, he married film actress Corinne Griffith instead. In 1925, Brooks sued the New York glamour photographer John de Mirjian to prevent publication of his risque studio portraits of her; the lawsuit made him notorious. In 1933, she married Chicago millionaire Deering Davis, a son of Nathan Smith Davis, Jr., but abruptly left him in March 1934 after only five months of marriage, "without a good-bye... and leaving only a note of her intentions" behind her. According to Card, Davis was just "another elegant, well-heeled admirer", nothing more. The couple officially divorced in 1938. In her later years, Brooks insisted that both her previous marriages were loveless and that she had never loved anyone in her lifetime: "As a matter of fact, I've never been in love. And if I had loved a man, could I have been faithful to him? Could he have trusted me beyond a closed door? I doubt it." Despite her two marriages, she never had children, referring to herself as "Barren Brooks." Her many paramours from years before had included a young William S. Paley, the founder of CBS. Paley provided a small monthly stipend to Brooks for the remainder of her life, and this stipend kept her from committing suicide at one point. Sometime in September 1953, Brooks converted to Roman Catholicism, but she left the church in 1964. Sexuality. Following Brooks' death, writer Kenneth Tynan asserted that "she was the most seductive, sexual image of Woman ever committed to celluloid. She's the only unrepentant hedonist, the only pure pleasure-seeker, I think I've ever known." By her own admission, Brooks was a sexually liberated woman, unafraid to experiment, even posing nude for art photography, and her liaisons with many film people were legendary, although much of it is speculation. Brooks enjoyed fostering speculation about her sexuality, cultivating friendships with lesbian and bisexual women including Pepi Lederer and Peggy Fears, but eschewing relationships. She admitted to some lesbian dalliances, including a one-night stand with Greta Garbo. She later described Garbo as masculine but a "charming and tender lover". Despite all this, she considered herself neither lesbian nor bisexual: According to biographer Barry Paris, Brooks had a "clear preference for men", but she did not discourage the rumors that she was a lesbian, both because she relished their shock value, which enhanced her aura, and because she personally valued feminine beauty. Paris claims that Brooks "loved women as a homosexual man, rather than as a lesbian, would love them. ... The operative rule with Louise was neither heterosexuality, homosexuality, or bisexuality. It was just sexuality..." Legacy. Following her death in 1985, Brooks has had a significant legacy in novels, comics, music and film. Film. Brooks has inspired cinematic characters such as Sally Bowles in Bob Fosse's 1972 film "Cabaret". For her portrayal of Bowles, Liza Minnelli reinvented the character with "Lulu makeup and helmet-like coiffure" based on Brooks' 1920s persona. Similarly, films such as Jonathan Demme's "Something Wild" features a reckless femme fatale (Melanie Griffith) who calls herself "Lulu" and wears a bob, and in the 1992 film "Death Becomes Her", Isabella Rosselini plays Lisle von Rhoman, a character inspired by Brooks. In Nora Ephron's 1994 film "Mixed Nuts", Liev Schreiber, portrays a character with a strong resemblance to Ms. Brooks for the cut of her hair, her mannerisms and facial expressions. More recently, in 2018, the PBS film "The Chaperone" was released which depicts Brooks' initial arrival in New York as well as her career decline as an actress. The film stars Haley Lu Richardson and Elizabeth McGovern. Novels. Brooks' film persona served as the literary inspiration for Adolfo Bioy Casares when he wrote his science fiction novel "The Invention of Morel" (1940) about a man attracted to Faustine, a woman who is only a projected 3-D image. In a 1995 interview, Casares explained that Faustine is directly based on his love for Louise Brooks who "vanished too early from the movies". Elements of "The Invention of Morel", minus the science fiction elements, served as a basis for Alain Resnais's 1961 film "Last Year at Marienbad". In Neil Gaiman's novel "American Gods", the character Czernobog refers to Brooks as the greatest movie star of all time. In her 2011 novel of supernatural horror, "Houdini Heart", Ki Longfellow uses Brooks as an actual character in the leading character's visions. Brooks appears as a central character in the 2012 novel "The Chaperone" by Laura Moriarty. In Gayle Forman's novels "Just One Day" and "Just One Year", the protagonist is called "Lulu" because her bobbed hair resembles Brooks. In 1987, the Dutch author Willem Frederik Hermans published a book, "The Saint of the Clockmakers", in which Louise Brooks plays a role. Comics. Brooks also had a significant influence in the graphics world. She inspired the long-running "Dixie Dugan" newspaper strip by John H. Striebel. The strip began in the late 1920s and ran until 1966, which grew out of the serialized novel and later stage musical, "Show Girl", that writer J.P. McEvoy had loosely based on Louise's days as a Follies girl on Broadway. Brooks also inspired the erotic comic books of "Valentina", by the late Guido Crepax, which began publication in 1965 and continued for many years. Crepax became a friend and regular correspondent with Louise late in her life. Hugo Pratt, another comics artist, also used her as inspiration for characters, and even named them after her. Other comics have drawn upon Brooks' distinctive hair-style. Brooks was the visual model for the character of Ivy Pepper in Tracy Butler's "Lackadaisy" comic series. More recently, illustrator Rick Geary published a 2015 graphic novel entitled "Louise Brooks: Detective" in which Brooks, "her movie career having sputtered to a stop," returns to her native Kansas in 1940 and becomes a private investigator who solves murders. Music. Brooks has been referenced in a number of songs. In 1991, British new wave group Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark released "Pandora's Box" as a tribute to Brooks' film. Similarly, Soul Coughing's 1998 song "St. Louise Is Listening" contains several references to Brooks, and the song "Interior Lulu" released the next year by Marillion is a reference to Brooks and mentions her in its first lines. In 2011, American metal group Metallica and singer-songwriter Lou Reed released the double album "Lulu" with a Brooks-like mannequin on the cover. And, more recently, Natalie Merchant's self-titled 2014 album, the song "Lulu" is a biographical portrait of Brooks. Filmography. As is the case with many of her contemporaries, a number of Brooks' films are considered to be lost. Her key films survive, however, particularly "Pandora's Box" and "Diary of a Lost Girl", which have been released on DVD in North America by the Criterion Collection and Kino Video, respectively. As of 2007, "Miss Europe" and "The Show Off" have also seen limited North American DVD release. Her short film (and one of her only talkies) "Windy Riley Goes Hollywood" was included on the DVD release of "Diary of a Lost Girl". Her final film, "Overland Stage Raiders", was released on VHS and then in 2012 on DVD. References. Informational notes Citations Bibliography Further reading

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Great Junction Street is a street in Leith, on the northern outskirts of Edinburgh, Scotland. It runs southeast to northwest following approximately the southwestmost line of the old town walls around Leith. History. The road was planned c.1800 as a route to join the foot of Leith Walk with Ferry Road and the new wet docks bypassing the narrow and busy streets of old Leith. The link was completed by the construction of Junction Bridge over the Water of Leith in 1818 although the road between the bridge and Bonnington Road was not surfaced until the late 1830s. The street was the site of a triumphal arch which was constructed for the reception of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert in 1842. Great crowds attended this despite the heavy rain. Prince Albert added to the general merriment of the occasion by observing that he supposed that this was just a Scotch mist. People from Leith often refer to Great Junction Street as "Junction Street". North Junction Street lies at its extreme west end. It is connected to the area known as the Shore via Henderson Street. Buildings. Although typified by tenements the tenements in their own right are not necessarily typical. Great Junction Street has an abnormal number of flat-roofed tenements. These survived the ravages of the Scottish weather due to their novel construction; three inches of horse hair and tar (strong, flexible and impervious). These roofs normally survive well until tackled by Housing Repair Grant projects, which invariably replace them with felt, not appreciating the durability and value of the original roof. Other buildings of note are the former Leith Provident Co-operative Society building with its octagonal clock tower with lead-covered domed roof and Ionic attached columns making it a local landmark. Built in 1911, the building is Category B listed by Historic Scotland. Also B listed, the attached building with ground floor shops also formerly occupied by Leith Provident was built in 1905. The central warehousing (east of Cables Wynd) was built originally as a wine vault overlooking fields to the south. It was bought by Crabbie's whisky, and served as a bonded warehouse for most of the 20th century, being greatly expanded on its west side. Crabbie's Green Ginger was made in a small modern building on the east side (now demolished). The warehouse also served to mature many of the famous whiskies, which largely came to Leith to mature. This building was internally labelled in rows for Talisker, Laphroaig and so on. Following sale to United Distillers it was closed down and has now been converted to flats. On the south side of the road, Junction Place, shows where a collection of public buildings formerly stood. "Fire Engine House", stepping into the street midway, was a horse-drawn fire service, the gates opening onto the narrowest part of the roadway. At the very end of Junction Place stood Leith Electricity Generating Station, a surprisingly domestic scale building erected in 1895 to provide electric street lights, but having a bronze plaque to explain its creation. On the west side Dr Bell's School designed by R & R Dickson in 1839 operated the Madras System of Education. Behind it, Leith Swimming Baths (now restored) linked to the Public Baths (i.e. rows of enamel baths) and Laundry (both now demolished to create the Victoria Swim Centre). The baths were in use until the late 1970s, due to the high number of Leith dwellings lacking bathrooms up to that time. In 2002 the very unusual but very out of character Telectra House was demolished and replaced with housing. This had been built (between Cables Wynd and King Street) in the early 1960s as a department store extension to the existing Leith Provident Co-operative Society building. Despite a late call to list the building as a monument to Modern Architecture this was blocked due to high asbestos content in the building. A plaque on the corner of King Street marks it as the now demolished birthplace of Sir John Gladstone of Fasque, father of William Gladstone the future Prime Minister of Britain. King Street leads through to the eastern sections of Leith Hospital: the cholera isolation block and nurses home on the east, the Queen Victoria Diamond Jubilee block on the west. The former State Cinema by James Miller & Partners stands at the extreme west end of the street adjacent to the Water of Leith. The building dates from 1938 but spent most of the latter part of the 20th century as a bingo hall. It currently houses the Kingdom Church and the Sketchy Beats concept cafe. Taylor Gardens. Taylor Gardens is the small pocket park at the west end of Great Junction Street. It was formed in 1920, following the demolition of South Leith Poorhouse. Unusually for the period, that was not the end of Leith's poorhouse: a new poorhouse was built at Seafield in 1923, converted to a military hospital in 1939, then a normal hospital, the Eastern General, in 1946. It in turn was demolished in 2008. The Taylor Gardens park was created as a setting as part of a project to expand Leith Hospital, immediately to the north. In an Act of 1919 all local authorities were obliged to erect war memorials. There were strict guidelines on their form. Leith appealed to the authorities to request that a new wing be built on the hospital instead; specifically a children's wing. This was agreed, but clearly cost a lot more in terms of public subscription. The wing, which faces Taylor Gardens, therefore reads "Leith War Memorial" along the top, with various military badges and emblems also carved. Since the hospital's conversion to housing in the early 21st century, a new plinth has been erected in Taylor Gardens in order to lay wreaths on Remembrance Day. On the north-west side of the gardens (on Mill Lane) stands a two-storey building dating from 1822. This was built as a school for the poorhouse, with boys on one floor and girls on the other. This was the first free education provided to females in this area. It was replaced by a new pair of schools (one for girls one for boys) further along Mill Lane, in 1838. These were built by Sir John Gladstone of Leith, William Gladstone's father. This connection led to the first-mentioned ex-school being named "Gladstones". The Quilts. Opposite Taylor Gardens is an area of Scottish Special Housing Association (SSHA) housing erected in 1981. This replaced an area cleared as slum housing as part of a Comprehensive Redevelopment Area designated by the Council. The north-east corner has a plaque to the Siege of Leith in 1561. The enamel street number plates were created by students at Edinburgh College of Art as part of a practical design exercise. The Ebenezer Church formerly in the centre of the street frontage was demolished but rebuilt as a new church on Bangor Road.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=61880194

The Mitis River () is a salmon river in the Bas-Saint-Laurent region of Quebec, Canada. It flows to the south shore of the Saint Lawrence River. There are two hydroelectric dams on the river at a point where a waterfall used to prevent salmon from going further upstream. A system to capture and transport salmon upstream was installed in 1965, and the river now has a healthy salmon population along its whole length. Course. The Mitis River originates in Lake Mitis in the Notre Dame Mountains, at an elevation of . Lake Mitis is a large reservoir long formed from the Superior, Croix and Inferior lakes. The Mitis dam and the hamlet of Lac-Mitis are at the source of the river. The river is swelled by many tributaries as it flows north for . Towards its mouth, in the Price municipality near Mont-Joli, the river meanders before being crossed by the Mitis-1 and Mitis-2 dams. It ends in the Baie Mitis on the south shore of the Saint Lawrence. Its mouth is near Sainte-Flavie, about east of Rimouski. The Mitis River is between the Matane and Rimouski rivers. It gives its name to La Mitis Regional County Municipality. The main tributaries are the Neigette and Mistigougèche rivers. The average flow is , a steady rate due to the two dams built in the first half of the 20th century. The river can be accessed from a path that runs along its length. The river bed has fairly large rocks and red clay, but little gravel. The clay gives the clear river water a slightly reddish tinge after a heavy rainfall. Name. The name was given by the Listuguj Miꞌgmaq First Nation of Restigouche, who used to use it as a route to the Saint Lawrence. It appears in the title deed of the "Seigneurie de Mitis", dated 6 May 1675. Dams. In the early 20th century Jules-André Brillant (1888–1973), a local entrepreneur, formed the Compagnie de Pouvoir du Bas-Saint-Laurent (Lower Saint Lawrence Power Company). He found investors in Rimouski, purchased the Elsie Reford Falls and had a dam built above the falls. On 22 October 1922 the 2.75 MW turbine came into service. It was formally inaugurated in a ceremony on 1 July 1923 attended by various notables. The company grew into the largest power supplier in the region with a network of transmission lines serving Matane, Mont-Joli, Rimouski and beyond. A 3 MW turbine was added in 1930. The second dam, now called Mitis-2, was completed in 1947 below the first dam. In 1963 the government of Quebec nationalized the production of electricity and created Hydro-Québec as a public utility, which took over management of the Mitis-1 and Mitis-2 dams. In 1965 a salmon capture station was installed at the foot of Mitis-2, with a system to transport the fish above the dams to a point about upstream near the mouth of the Neigette River. With this change the salmon population grew rapidly from an estimated 20 fish in 1965 to 1,200 by 1992. Activities. The river is used for fishing, canoeing and swimming. Inflatable boats can be used to descend the river from the lake. The Parc de la Rivière Mitis is opposite the historical Jardins de Métis. The regional park has just over of hiking trails. It also provides a dozen camping sites beside the Saint Lawrence. Fishing. The river is one of 22 salmon rivers in the Gaspé Peninsula. Historians think that the Malécites / Maliseet Indians fished for eel and salmon at the mouth of the river, although they may not have had permanent villages. Fish are numerous, and include Atlantic salmon ("Salmo salar"), longnose dace ("Rhinichthys cataractae"), Eastern blacknose dace ("Rhinichthys atratulus"), slimy sculpin ("Cottus cognatus"), American eel ("Anguilla rostrata") and brook trout ("Salvelinus fontinalis"). George Stephen, co-founder of the Canadian Pacific Railway, established the first fishing camp on the river in 1886. His niece Elsie Reford converted the camp into the Jardins de Métis. At that time salmon could only reach upstream, where they were stopped by a waterfall. Salmon were also affected until 1979 by logs being floated downstream. The river was opened to the public for salmon fishing in 1977. In 1993 it became a ZEC ("zone d'exploitation contrôlée": controlled use zone), Zec de la Rivière-Mitis, managed by the Mitis River Sport Fishing Management Corporation. There are three fishing areas, one private and the other two open to the public, with 33 pools, mostly fished with waders. The ZEC de la rivière Mitis covers about of the river. Lake Mitis has a large population of lake trout ("Salvelinus namaycush"). Brook trout is found in Lake Mitis and in several water bodies and streams in the region. In May 2015 the Ministry of Forests, Wildlife and Parks of Quebec announced a sport fishing catch-and-release program for large salmon on sixteen of Quebec's 118 salmon rivers. These were the Mitis, Laval, Pigou, Bouleau, aux Rochers, Jupitagon, Magpie, Saint-Jean, Corneille, Piashti, Watshishou, Little Watshishou, Nabisipi, Aguanish and Natashquan rivers. The Quebec Atlantic Salmon Federation said that the measures did not go nearly far enough in protecting salmon for future generations. In view of the rapidly declining Atlantic salmon population catch-and-release should have been implemented on all rivers apart from northern Quebec.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3325618

Tax shelters are any method of reducing taxable income resulting in a reduction of the payments to tax collecting entities, including state and federal governments. The methodology can vary depending on local and international tax laws. Types of tax shelters. Some tax shelters are questionable or even illegal: The flaws of these questionable tax shelters are usually that transactions were not reported at fair market value or the interest rate was too high or too low. In general, if the purpose of a transaction is to lower tax liabilities but otherwise have no economic value, and especially when arranged between related parties, such transactions are often viewed as unethical. The agency may re-evaluate the price, and will quickly neutralize any over tax benefits. However, such cases are difficult to prove. A soft drink from a vending machine can cost $1.75, but may also be bought in bulk for $0.25. To prove that the price is in fact unreasonable may turn out to be reasonably difficult itself. Other tax shelters can be legal and legitimate: These tax shelters are usually created by the government to promote a certain desirable behavior, usually a long-term investment, to help the economy; in turn, this generates even more tax revenue. Alternatively, the shelters may be a means to promote social behaviors. In Canada, in order to protect the Canadian culture from American influence, tax incentives were given to companies that produced Canadian television programs. In general, a tax shelter is any organized program in which many individuals, rich or poor, participate to reduce their taxes due. However, a few individuals stretch the limits of legal interpretation of the income tax laws. While these actions may be within the boundary of legally accepted practice in physical form, these actions could be deemed to be conducted in bad faith. Tax shelters were intended to induce good behaviors from the masses, but at the same time caused a handful to act in the opposite manner. Tax shelters have therefore often shared an unsavory association with fraud. Judicial doctrines. Aside from the attempts to stop tax shelters in the United States through provisions of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code, U.S. courts have several ways to prevent tax sheltering activities from happening. The judicial doctrines have a basic theme: to invalidate a transaction that would achieve a result contradictory to the intent or basic structure of the tax code provisions at issue. The following are the judicial doctrines: 1) "The Substance over form doctrine" This doctrine is based on the premise that if two transactions have the same economic result, they should have the same tax result. To achieve this similar tax result, it can be necessary to look at the substance of the transaction rather than the formal steps taken to implement it. 2) "The Step transaction doctrine" Similar to the substance doctrine, the step transaction doctrine treats a series of formally separate steps as a single transaction to determine what really was going on with the transaction. 3) "The Business Purpose Doctrine" Courts will invalidate a transaction for tax purposes under this doctrine when it appears that the taxpayer was motivated by no business purpose other than to avoid tax or secure some tax benefit. This judicial inquiry largely is dependent on the taxpayer's intent. 4) "The Sham Transaction Doctrine" This doctrine looks for transactions where the economic activities giving rise to the tax benefits do not occur. A clear example of this doctrine is seen in "Knetsch v. United States, 364 U.S. 361". Sham transactions are classified as being one of two types, sham-in-substance, or sham-in-fact. 5) "The Economic Substance Doctrine" Under this doctrine, courts will invalidate the tax transaction if the transaction lacks economic substance independent of the tax considerations. This doctrines questions whether the purported economic activity would have occurred absent the tax benefits claimed by the taxpayer. Statutory provisions. In 2010, the U.S. Congress amended the Internal Revenue Code to codify and clarify the rules for applying these doctrines under the over all heading of the "Economic Substance Doctrine." The codification is found in subsection (o) of Section 7701 of the Code. Under the Code, a taxpayer must (with certain exceptions) meet both of the following tests in order for a transaction to be respected. The transaction must change, in a "meaningful way", the taxpayer's economic position apart from the Federal income tax effects, and (B) the taxpayer must have a "substantial purpose" for entering into such transaction, apart from its Federal income tax effects. Under the Code, the term "economic substance doctrine" is defined as the common law doctrine under which Federal income tax benefits with respect to a transaction are not allowable if the transaction does not have economic substance or lacks a business purpose. The step transaction doctrine is incorporated into the codification.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22167125

"Dream Team" is the twenty-second episode of the fifth season of the television series "The Office", and the 94th overall episode of the series. It originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 9, 2009. In the episode, Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) and Michael Scott (Steve Carell) try to keep each other motivated as the two form their new paper company together. Michael recruits Ryan Howard (B. J. Novak) for the company, which sets up a new office in the same building complex as Dunder Mifflin. Meanwhile, Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) tries to impress new boss Charles Miner (guest star Idris Elba) by claiming to be a soccer enthusiast, but it backfires when Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) convinces the two to face each other in a game. The episode was written by Novak and directed by Paul Feig. The episode aired the same day as the "Office" episode "Michael Scott Paper Company"; the debut episode of the new NBC show "Parks and Recreation" was shown between the two episodes. "Dream Team" marked the return of Ryan, who had not appeared on the show since the November 2008 episode "Frame Toby". The episode received generally positive reviews and, according to Nielsen ratings, was watched by 7.2 million viewers and captured the most viewers in its time slot for adults between the ages of 18 and 49. "Dream Team" received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series. Plot. In the cold open, Kevin Malone (Brian Baumgartner) struggles to correctly transfer phone calls, after having been moved to reception by Charles. Michael Scott (Steve Carell), having left Dunder Mifflin with Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) to form his own company, is having trouble starting his first day as president of the Michael Scott Paper Company. Pam tries to keep things together and suggests they create a list of things to do to maintain a positive working atmosphere. Michael sets up a meeting with a potential investor and makes a list of potential salesmen to join the company. He receives a letter from his condo association saying that running a business from his condominium is in violation of his residence agreement, so he needs to find office space for the company. Michael and Pam leave to find potential salesmen and then have their meeting with the potential investor. Michael's first stop is his old part-time telemarketing job to pick up Vikram (Ranjit Chowdhry). Next, they stop at a bowling alley, where Ryan Howard (B. J. Novak), with bleached blond hair, is now working the shoe counter. Michael asks Ryan to join them, despite heavy protests from Pam. Ryan is convinced and steals two pairs of bowling shoes on the way out. They head to the meeting with the investor, who turns out to be Michael's "nana" (Connie Sawyer), at a nursing home. Michael gives her his pitch, but she does not believe his new venture will yield success and refuses to fund his company. Meanwhile, at the Dunder Mifflin office, Charles Miner (Idris Elba) is revealed to have an obsession with soccer, and the rest of the employees pretend to feel the same way about it. When Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) tries claiming to be an experienced soccer player, Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson), attempting to humiliate Jim, suggests that the staff play a game after work in the parking lot. During the game, when Charles kicks the ball towards Jim, he ducks and the ball hits Phyllis Vance (Phyllis Smith) in the face. Charles berates Jim for ducking, and Dwight mocks him. In the car leaving the nursing home, Vikram asks to be brought back to the telemarketing job after he learns "nana" is a term for grandmother. Back at Michael's condo, a frustrated Pam loses her composure and tells Michael she made a mistake leaving Dunder Mifflin and only did it because she was tired of being a receptionist. Michael calms her down, telling her the reality is they both quit and that their only option is to continue trying with the new company. Michael purchases office space in the Scranton Business Park, where Dunder Mifflin is located; it turns out to be a large store room directly underneath the Dunder Mifflin office. Michael and Pam put their company name in the office lobby directory where they encounter Charles. Michael taunts Charles that he cannot kick them out of the building now because they own their own space. Production. "Dream Team" was written by B. J. Novak and directed by Paul Feig. It originally aired on April 9, 2009, the same day as the episode "Michael Scott Paper Company"; the debut episode of the new NBC show "Parks and Recreation" was shown between the two episodes. It marks the first appearance of Novak as Ryan since "Frame Toby" in November 2008, when Novak briefly left the show to film his role in Quentin Tarantino's "Inglourious Basterds". Mindy Kaling, an "Office" writer who also stars as Kelly Kapoor, thought of the idea of Ryan dying his hair blond. Novak wore a baseball cap in public between the times his hair was dyed and when the episode aired, in order to make the reveal a surprise, and even kept the cap on when he and the rest of the cast and crew did a public forum and Q&A session. "Dream Team" was the third of six episodes guest starring Idris Elba, best known as Stringer Bell from the television series "The Wire". Elba said he did not watch the episode when it aired because "I'm hypercritical about my work, so I try not to torture myself." Prior to the episode airing, NBC set up a web site for the new Michael Scott Paper Company at michaelscottpapercompany.com, which included a mission statement for the company, photos of the new office space and a downloadable copy of the coupon for "unparalleled customer service" featured in the episode "Michael Scott Paper Company". Another official NBC site, dundermifflininfinity.com, created a Flash game inspired by the episode, in which the viewer attempts to kick a soccer ball past Jim in the office parking lot and hit Phyllis in the face. The official "The Office" website included two cut scenes from "Dream Team" within a week of the episode's original release. In one-minute-long clip, Andy continues brown-nosing to Charles; during a documentary interview, Andy says he was not the teacher's pet in school, but that he "walked the teacher's pet, and fed it, and bathed it". A second one-minute clip involves the soccer game itself: Dwight excitedly sets up the game, Jim tries not to show Charles he does not know what "offside" means and Creed picks up the ball and hurls it at Kelly. Cultural references. Michael refers to his old telemarketing job where he met salesman Vikram; this is a reference to the fourth season episode "Money", in which Michael briefly works a second job as a telemarketer. The bowling alley Ryan works at is Idle Hour Lanes, an actual bowling alley in Dickson City, Pennsylvania, which is just outside the show's setting of Scranton. When Michael discusses song parodies, he names "My Stumps" in a reference to The Black Eyed Peas song "My Humps" and "Achy Breaky Fart" in a reference to the Billy Ray Cyrus song "Achy Breaky Heart". In discussing the formation of the new paper company, Pam refers to the early years of Apple Inc., which she said began in a garage. The seniors at the retirement center where Michael discusses his business are watching "Maury", the talk show hosted by Maury Povich, in the background. Reception. In its original American broadcast on April 9, 2009, "Dream Team" was watched by 7.2 million overall viewers, according to Nielsen ratings. The episode earned more ratings than the "Parks and Recreation" pilot that immediately followed it (which had 6.8 million viewers) but had less than "Michael Scott Paper Company", which came right after "Parks and Recreation" and had 8 million viewers. "Dream Team", as well as "Michael Scott Paper Company", had the most viewers in its time slot among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. "Dream Team" received generally positive reviews. Alan Sepinwall of "The Star-Ledger" said he was enjoying the new paper company storyline and that "Dream Team" was funnier than "Michael Scott Paper Company". Sepinwall said the final scene with Michael trying to comfort Pam in the car was a "good payoff" which was well acted by Steve Carell and Jenna Fischer, and "yet another reminder that Michael does know what he's doing some of the time, which means Pam wasn't a complete idiot for following him out the door." He also liked Kevin's struggle with the phones in the beginning, but said the storyline between Jim and Charles was getting repetitive and, "It would help if the writers ever gave Idris Elba something funny to do." Steven Mullen of "The Tuscaloosa News" called the episode "stellar", said the Charles Miner soccer subplot ended "perfectly" and said, "Watching [Michael's] fears bubble beneath the surface and slowly erode Pam's confidence was a masterwork." Travis Fickett of IGN said he was happy with the new, unpredictable direction "The Office" was taking. He particularly praised the Michael/Pam relationship in the episode, as well as soccer subplot involving Jim and Charles and the return of Ryan; he said Ryan's new bleached blond hair and his theft of bowling shoes were particularly funny moments. Will Leitch of "New York" magazine said the episode has provided a change the show needed, and said, "Considering how unlikely it was that "The Office" was going to allow Michael and Pam to degrade into homelessness and squalor, the show has handled the predictable transition as well as possible." Keith Phipps of "The A.V. Club" said the episode included a good exploration of Michael and Pam's relationship; he said "they're weirdly good together". Phipps, who gave the episode an A- grade, also said the Dunder Mifflin material worked well, "although Idris Elba has been so good at portraying a heartless professional it almost doesn’t seem right for anything to break through his icy exterior." Margaret Lions of "Entertainment Weekly" said the episode had "strong moments, and some interesting character play [but] I didn't get quite the same buzz from this week's installments as I did from the previous episode." She said "Dream Team" lacks the usual group interactions between the office co-workers, which she said are normally the funniest parts of the show. However, she praised Michael's pep talk to Pam in the final scene, and said the episode was "the best showcase Jenna Fischer has had in years". "Entertainment Weekly" listed Michael's pep talk to Pam at the end of the episode as one of the 13 highlights from that week in television. In her list of the top ten moments from the fifth season of "The Office", "phillyBurbs.com" writer Jen Wielgus ranked Michael's formation of the Michael Scott Paper Company in the downstairs storage closet as number one, citing the "Dream Team", "Michael Scott Paper Company" and "Heavy Competition" episodes in particular. She also said she specifically enjoyed the attempt to solicit investments at the retirement home from "Dream Team". Ryan's return to the series, along with his brief return as a temp in the episode "Weight Loss", ranked number 5 in that list. "Dream Team" was voted the fifteenth-highest-rated episode out of 26 from the fifth season, according to an episode poll at the fansite "OfficeTally"; the episode was rated 8.00 out of 10. Claire Scanlon received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series. "Dream Team" accounted for one of the ten Primetime Emmy Award nominations "The Office" received for the show's fifth season at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards, which were held on September 20, 2009.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4172748

De Oratore (On the Orator; not to be confused with "Orator") is a dialogue written by Cicero in 55 BC. It is set in 91 BC, when Lucius Licinius Crassus dies, just before the Social War and the civil war between Marius and Sulla, during which Marcus Antonius (orator), the other great orator of this dialogue, dies. During this year, the author faces a difficult political situation: after his return from exile in Dyrrachium (modern Albania), his house was destroyed by the gangs of Clodius in a time when violence was common. This was intertwined with the street politics of Rome. Amidst the moral and political decadence of the state, Cicero wrote "De Oratore" to describe the ideal orator and imagine him as a moral guide of the state. He did not intend "De Oratore" as merely a treatise on rhetoric, but went beyond mere technique to make several references to philosophical principles. Cicero understood that the power of persuasion—the ability to verbally manipulate opinion in crucial political decisions—was a key issue. The power of words in the hands of a man without scruples or principles would endanger the whole community. As a consequence, moral principles can be taken either by the examples of noble men of the past or by the great Greek philosophers, who provided ethical ways to be followed in their teaching and their works. The perfect orator shall be not merely a skilled speaker without moral principles, but both an expert of rhetorical technique and a man of wide knowledge in law, history, and ethical principles. "De Oratore" is an exposition of issues, techniques, and divisions in rhetoric; it is also a parade of examples for several of them and it makes continuous references to philosophical concepts to be merged for a perfect result. Choice of the historical background of the dialogue. At that time as much as when Cicero writes the dialogue, the crisis of the state is obsessing everyone and clashes deliberately with the pleasant and quiet atmosphere of the villa in Tusculum. Cicero tries to reproduce the feeling of the last days of peace in the old Roman republic. Despite "De Oratore" ("On the Orator") being a discourse on rhetoric, Cicero has the original idea of inspiring himself to Plato's Dialogues, replacing the streets and squares of Athens with a nice garden of a country villa of a noble Roman aristocrat. With this fanciful device, he avoided the arid explanation of rhetoric rules and devices. The work contains the second known description of the method of loci, a mnemonic technique (after the "Rhetorica ad Herennium"). Book I. Oratory is an attractive but difficult study. After Roman peace had been established, it seemed as though everyone wanted to begin learning the eloquence of oral rhetoric. After first trying rhetoric without training or rules, using only natural skill, young orators listened and learned from Greek orators and teachers, and soon were much more enthusiastic for eloquence. Young orators learned, through practice, the importance of variety and frequency of speech. In the end, orators were awarded with popularity, wealth, and reputation. This is the reason why this particular subject is such a difficult one to pursue. This means that the student must, through his style, bring in humor and charm—as well as the readiness to deliver and respond to an attack. In summary, oratory is a combination of many things, and to succeed in maintaining all of these qualities is a great achievement. This section marks Cicero's standard canons for the rhetorical composing process. Responsibility of the orator; argument of the work. The Greeks, after dividing the arts, paid more attention to the portion of oratory that is concerned with the law, courts, and debate, and therefore left these subjects for orators in Rome. Indeed, all that the Greeks have written in their treaties of eloquence or taught by the masters thereof, but Cicero prefers to report the moral authority of these Roman orators. Cicero announces that he will not expose a series of prescriptions but some principles, that he learnt to have been discussed once by excellent Roman orators. Date, scene, and persons. Cicero exposes a dialogue, reported to him by Cotta, among a group of excellent political men and orators, who came together to discuss the crisis and general decline of politics. They met in the garden of Lucius Licinius Crassus' villa in Tusculum, during the tribunate of Marcus Livius Drusus (91 BCE). Thereto also gathered Lucius Licinius Crassus, Quintus Mucius Scaevola, Marcus Antonius Orator, Gaius Aurelius Cotta and Publius Sulpicius Rufus. One member, Scaevola, wants to imitate Socrates as he appears in Plato's "Phaedrus". Crassus replies that, instead, they will find a better solution, and calls for cushions so that this group can discuss it more comfortably. Thesis: the importance of oratory to society and the state. Crassus states that oratory is one of the greatest accomplishments that a nation can have. He extols the power that oratory can give to a person, including the ability to maintain personal rights, words to defend oneself, and the ability to revenge oneself on a wicked person. The ability to converse is what gives mankind our advantage over other animals and nature. It is what creates civilization. Since speech is so important, why should we not use it to the benefit of oneself, other individuals, and even the entire State? Scaevola agrees with Crassus's points except for two. Scaevola does not feel that orators are what created social communities and he questions the superiority of the orator if there were no assemblies, courts, etc. It was good decision making and laws that formed society, not eloquence. Was Romulus an orator? Scaevola says that there are more examples of damage done by orators than good, and he could cite many instances. There are other factors of civilization that are more important than orator: ancient ordinances, traditions, augury, religious rites and laws, private individual laws. Had Scaevola not been in Crassus's domain, Scaevola would take Crassus to court and argue over his assertions, a place where oratory belongs. Courts, assemblies and the Senate are where oratory should remain, and Crassus should not extend the scope of oratory beyond these places. That is too sweeping for the profession of oratory. Crassus replies that he has heard Scaevola's views before, in many works including Plato's Gorgias. However, he does not agree with their viewpoint. In respects to Gorgias, Crassus reminds that, while Plato was making fun of orators, Plato himself was the ultimate orator. If the orator was nothing more than a speaker without the knowledge of oratory, how is it possible that the most revered people are skilled orators? The best speakers are those who have a certain "style", which is lost, if the speaker does not comprehend the subject matter on which he is speaking. Rhetoric is a science. Crassus says he does not borrow from Aristotle or Theophrastus their theories regarding the orator. For while the schools of Philosophy claim that rhetoric and other arts belong to them, the science of oratory which adds "style," belong to its own science. Lycurgus, Solon were certainly more qualified about laws, war, peace, allies, taxes, civil right than Hyperides or Demosthenes, greater in the art of speaking in public. Similarly in Rome, the "decemviri legibus scribundis" were more expert in right than Servius Galba and Gaius Lelius, excellent Roman orators. Nevertheless, Crassus maintains his opinion that "oratorem plenum atque perfectum esse eum, qui de omnibus rebus possit copiose varieque dicere". (the complete and perfect orator is who can speak in public about every subject with richness of arguments and variety of tunes and images). The orator must know the facts. To speak effectively, the orator must have some knowledge of the subject. Can an advocate for or against war speak on the subject without knowing the art of war? Can an advocate speak on legislation if he does not know law or how the administration process works? Even though others will disagree, Crassus states that an expert of the natural science also must use oratory style to give an effective speech on his subject. For example, Asclepiades, a well-known physician, was popular not just because of his medical expertise, but because he could share it with eloquence. The orator can have technical skills, but must be versed in moral science. Anyone who can speak with knowledge upon a subject, can be called an orator as long as he does so with knowledge, charm, memory and has a certain style. Philosophy is divided into three branches: natural studies, dialectic and knowledge of human conduct ("in vitam atque mores"). To truly be a great orator, one must master the third branch: this is what distinguishes the great orator. The orator, like the poet, needs a wide education. Cicero mentions Aratos of Soli, not expert in astronomy, and yet he wrote a marvellous poem ("Phaenomena"). So did Nicander of Colophon, who wrote excellent poems on agriculture (Georgika). An orator is very much like the poet. The poet is more encumbered by rhythm than the orator, but richer in word choice and similar in ornamentation. Crassus then replies to Scaevola's remark: he would not have claimed that orators should be experts in all subjects, should he himself be the person he is describing. Nevertheless, everyone can easily understand, in the speeches before assemblies, courts or before the Senate, if a speaker has good exercise in the art of speaking in public or if he is also well educated in eloquence and all the liberal arts. A reported debate at Athens. Antonius tells of the debate that occurred in Athens regarding this very subject. Indeed, he stated that a good orator must shine of a good light himself, that is by his dignity of life, about which nothing is said by those masters of rhetoric. Moreover, the audience is directed into the mood, in which the orator drives them. But this can not happen, if he does not know in how many and in which ways he can drive the feelings of the men. This is because these secrets are hidden in the deepest heart of philosophy and the rhetors have never even touched it in its surface. In a nutshell, Antonius thought Demosthenes appeared to be arguing that there was no "craft" of oratory and no one could speak well unless he had mastered philosophical teaching. Difference between "disertus" and "eloquens". Antonius, convinced by those arguments, says he wrote a pamphlet about them. He names "disertus" (easy-speaking), a person who can speak with sufficient clearness and smartness, before people of medium level, about whichever subject; on the other hand he names "eloquens" (eloquent) a person, who is able to speak in public, using nobler and more adorned language on whichever subject, so that he can embrace all sources of the art of eloquence with his mind and memory. Someday, somewhere a man will come along who will not just claim to be eloquent, but will actually be truly eloquent. And if this man is not Crassus, then he can only be a little bit better than Crassus. Sulpicius is gleeful that, as he and Cotta had hoped, someone would mention Antonius and Crassus in their conversations so that they could get some glimmer of knowledge from these two respected individuals. Since Crassus started the discussion, Sulpicius asks him to give his views on oratory first. Crassus replies that he would rather have Antonius speak first as he himself tends to shy away from any discourse on this subject. Cotta is pleased that Crassus has responded in any way because it is usually so difficult to get him to respond in any manner about these matters. Crassus agrees to answer any questions from Cotta or Sulpicius, as long as they are within his knowledge or power. Is there a science of rhetoric? Sulpicius asks, "is there an 'art' of oratory?" Crassus responds with some contempt. Do they think he is some idle talkative Greekling? Do they think that he just answers any question that is posed to him? It was Gorgias that started this practice—which was great when he did it—but is so overused today that there is no topic, however grand, that some people claim they cannot respond to. Had he known this was what Sulpius and Cotta wanted, he would have brought a simple Greek with him to respond—which he still can do if they want him to. Mucius chides Crassus. Crassus agreed to answer the young men's questions, not to bring in some unpracticed Greek or another to respond. Crassus has been known for being a kind person, and it would be becoming for him to respect their question, to answer it, and not run away from responding. Crassus agrees to answer their question. No, he says. There is no art of speaking, and if there is an art to it, it is a very thin one, as this is just a word. As Antonius had previously explained, an Art is something that has been thoroughly looked at, examined and understood. It is something that is not an opinion, but is an exact fact. Oratory cannot possibly fit into this category. However, if the practices of oratory and how oratory is conducted is studied, put into terms and classification, this could then—possibly—be considered to be an art. Crassus and Antonius debate on the orator's natural talent. Using Antonius's example earlier, these people didn't lack the knowledge of oratory, they lacked the innate ability. No, they are gifts of nature, that is the ability to invent, richness in talking, strong lungs, certain voice tones, particular body physique as well as a pleasant looking face. Because of his modesty in this speech, the others in the group elevate Crassus in status even higher. An orator is easily set-up by the very nature of what he does to be labeled ignorant. If one studies other disciplines, he simply needs to be an ordinary man. Roscius, a famous actor, often complained that he hadn't found a pupil who deserved his approval. There were many with good qualities, but he could not tolerate any fault in them. If we consider this actor, we can see that he makes no gesture of absolute perfection, of highest grace, exactly to give the public emotion and pleasure. In so many years, he reached such a level of perfection, that everyone, who distinguishes himself in a particular art, is called a "Roscius" in his field. The man who does not have the natural ability for oratory, he should instead try to achieve something that is more within his grasp. Crassus replies to some objections by Cotta and Sulpicius. Sulpicius asks Crassus if he is advising Cotta and him to give up with oratory and rather to study civil right or to follow a military career. Crassus explains that his words are addressed to other young people, who have not the natural talent for oratory, rather than discourage Sulpicius and Cotta, who have great talent and passion for it. Cotta replies that, given that Crassus stimulates them to dedicate themselves to oratory, now it is time to reveal the secret of his excellence in oratory. Moreover, Cotta wishes to know which other talents they have still to reach, apart those natural, which they have—according to Crassus. Crassus says that this is quite an easy task, since he asks him to tell about his own oratory ability, and not about the art of oratory in general. Therefore, he will expose his usual method, which he used once when he was young, not anything strange or mysterious nor difficult nor solemn. Sulpicius exults: "At last the day we desired so much, Cotta, has come! We will be able to listen from his very words the way he elaborates and prepares his speeches". Fundamentals of rhetoric. "I will not tell you anything really mysterious", Crassus says the two listeners. First is a liberal education and follow the lessons that are taught in these classes. The main task of an orator is to get speak in a proper way to persuade the audience; second, each speech can be on a general matter, without citing persons and dates, or a specific one, regarding particular persons and circumstances. In both cases, it is usual to ask: There are three kind of speeches: first, those in the courts, those in public assemblies, and those that praise or blame someone. There are also some topics ("loci") to be used in trials, whose aim is justice; other ones to be used in assemblies, whose aim is give opinions; other ones to be used in laudatory speeches, whose aim is to celebrate the cited person. All energy and ability of the orator must apply to five steps: Before pronouncing the speech, it is necessary to gain the goodwill of the audience; then expose the argument; after, establish the dispute; subsequently, show evidence of one's own thesis; then, rebut the other party's arguments; finally, remark our strong positions and weaken the other's. As regards the ornaments of style, first one is taught to speak with pure and Latin language ("ut pure et Latine loquamur"); second to express oneself clearly; third to speak with elegance and corresponding to the dignity of the arguments and conveniently. The rhetors' rules are useful means for the orator. The fact is, however, that these rules came out by the observation of some people on the natural gift of others. That is, it is not the eloquence that is born from rhetoric, but the rhetoric is born by eloquence. I do not refuse rhetoric, although I believe it is not indispensable for the orator. Then Sulpicius says: "That is what we want to better know! The rhetoric rules that you mentioned, even if they are not so now for us. But this later; now we want your opinion about exercises". The exercise ("exercitatio"). Crassus approves the practice of speaking, imaging to be treating a trial in a court. However, this has the limit of exercising the voice, not yet with art, or its power, increasing the speed of speaking and the richness of vocabulary; therefore, one is alluded to have learnt to speak in public. "Stilus optimus et praestantissimus dicendi effector ac magister" (The pen is the best and most efficient creator and master of speaking). Like an improvised speech is lower than a well thought one, so this one is, compared to a well prepared and built writing. All arguments, either those of rhetoric and from one's nature and experience, come out by themselves. But the most striking thoughts and expressions come one after the other by the style; so the harmonic placing and disposing words is acquired by writing with oratory and not poetic rhythm ("non poetico sed quodam oratorio numero et modo"). In addition, the orator, who is used to write speeches, reaches the aim that, even in an improvised speech, he seems to speak so similar to a written text. Crassus remembers some of his exercises when he was younger, he began to read and then imitate poetry or solemn speeches. This was a used exercise of his main adversary, Gaius Carbo. But after a while, he found that this was an error, because he did not gain benefit imitating the verses of Ennius or the speeches of Gracchus. Everyone is silent. Then Scaevola asks if Cotta or Sulpicius have any more questions for Crassus. Debate on Crassus' opinions. Cotta replies that Crassus' speech was so raging that he could not catch his content completely. It was like he entered in a rich house, full of rich carpets and treasures, but piled in disorder and not in full view or hidden. "Why do not you ask Crassus," Scaevola says to Cotta, "to place his treasures in order and in full view?" Cotta hesitates, but Mucius asks again Crassus to expose in detail his opinion about the perfect orator. Crassus gives examples of orators not expert in civil right. Crassus first hesitates, saying that he does not know some disciplines as much as a master. Scaevola then encourages him to expose his notions, so fundamental for the perfect orator: on the nature of men, on their attitudes, on the methods by which one excites or calms their souls; notions of history, of antiquities, of State administration and of civil right. Scaevola knows well that Crassus has a wise knowledge of all these matters and he is also an excellent orator. Crassus begins his speech underlining the importance of studying civil right. He quotes the case of two orators, Ipseus and Cneus Octavius, which brought a lawsuit with great eloquence, but lacking of any knowledge of civil right. They committed great gaffes, proposing requests in favour of their client, which could not fit the rules of civil right. Another case was the one of Quintus Pompeius, who, asking damages for a client of his, committed a formal, little error, but such that it endangered all his court action. Finally Crassus quotes positively Marcus Porcius Cato, who was at the top of eloquence, at his times, and also was the best expert in civil right, although he said he despised it. As regards Antonius, Crassus says he has such a talent for oratory, so unique and incredible, that he can defend himself with all his devices, gained by his experience, although he lacks of knowledge of civil right. On the contrary, Crassus condemns all the others, because they are lazy in studying civil right, and yet they are so insolent, pretending to have a wide culture; instead, they fall miserably in private trials of little importance, because they have no experience in detailed parts of civil right . Studying civil right is important. Crassus continues his speech, blaming those orators who are lazy in studying civil right. Even if the study of law is wide and difficult, the advantages that it gives deserve this effort. Notwithstanding the formulae of Roman civil right have been published by Gneus Flavius, no one has still disposed them in systematic order. Even in other disciplines, the knowledge has been systematically organised; even oratory made the division on a speech into "inventio, elocutio, dispositio, memoria and actio". In civil right there is need to keep justice based on law and tradition. Then it is necessary to depart the genders and reduce them to a reduce number, and so on: division in species and definitions. Gaius Aculeo has a secure knowledge of civil right in such a way that only Scaevola is better than he is. Civil right is so important that - Crassus says - even politics is contained in the XII Tabulae and even philosophy has its sources in civil right. Indeed, only laws teach that everyone must, first of all, seek good reputation by the others ("dignitas"), virtue and right and honest labour are decked of honours ("honoribus, praemiis, splendore"). Laws are fit to dominate greed and to protect property. Crassus then believes that the "libellus XII Tabularum" has more "auctoritas" and "utilitas" than all others works of philosophers, for those who study sources and principles of laws. If we have to love our country, we must first know its spirit ("mens"), traditions ("mos"), constitution ("disciplines"), because our country is the mother of all of us; this is why it was so wise in writing laws as much as building an empire of such a great power. The Roman right is well more advanced than that of other people, including the Greek. Crassus' final praise of studying civil right. Crassus once more remarks how much honour gives the knowledge of civil right. Indeed, unlike the Greek orators, who need the assistance of some expert of right, called pragmatikoi, the Roman have so many persons who gained high reputation and prestige on giving their advice on legal questions. Which more honourable refuge can be imagined for the older age than dedicating oneself to the study of right and enrich it by this? The house of the expert of right (iuris consultus) is the oracle of the entire community: this is confirmed by Quintus Mucius, who, despite his fragile health and very old age, is consulted every day by a large number of citizens and by the most influent and important persons in Rome. Given that—Crassus continues—there is no need to further explain how much important is for the orator to know public right, which relates to government of the state and of the empire, historical documents and glorious facts of the past. We are not seeking a person who simply shouts before a court, but a devoted to this divine art, who can face the hits of the enemies, whose word is able to raise the citizens' hate against a crime and the criminal, hold them tight with the fear of punishment and save the innocent persons by conviction. Again, he shall wake up tired, degenerated people and raise them to honour, divert them from the error or fire them against evil persons, calm them when they attack honest persons. If anyone believes that all this has been treated in a book of rhetoric, I disagree and I add that he neither realises that his opinion is completely wrong. All I tried to do, is to guide you to the sources of your desire of knowledge and on the right way. Mucius praises Crassus and tells he did even too much to cope with their enthusiasm. Sulpicius agrees but adds that they want to know something more about the rules of the art of rhetoric; if Crassus tells more deeply about them, they will be fully satisfied. The young pupils there are eager to know the methods to apply. What about—Crassus replies—if we ask Antonius now to expose what he keeps inside him and has not yet shown to us? He told that he regretted to let him escape a little handbook on the eloquence. The others agree and Crassus asks Antonius to expose his point of view. Views of Antonius, gained from his experience. Antonius offers his perspective, pointing out that he will not speak about any art of oratory, that he never learnt, but on his own practical use in the law courts and from a brief treaty that he wrote. He decides to begin his case the same way he would in court, which is to state clearly the subject for discussion. In this way, the speaker cannot wander dispersedly and the issue is not understood by the disputants. For example, if the subject were to decide what exactly is the art of being a general, then he would have to decide what a general does, determine who is a General and what that person does. Then he would give examples of generals, such as Scipio and Fabius Maximus and also Epaminondas and Hannibal. And if he were defining what a statesman is, he would give a different definition, characteristics of men who fit this definition, and specific examples of men who are statesmen, he would mention Publius Lentulus, Tiberius Gracchus, Quintus Cecilius Metellus, Publius Cornelius Scipio, Gaius Lelius and many others, both Romans and foreign persons. If he were defining an expert of laws and traditions ("iuris consultus"), he would mention Sextus Aelius, Manius Manilius and Publius Mucius. The same would be done with musicians, poets, and those of lesser arts. The philosopher pretends to know everything about everything, but, nevertheless he gives himself a definition of a person trying to understand the essence of all human and divine things, their nature and causes; to know and respect all practices of right living. Definition of orator, according to Antonius. Antonius disagrees with Crassus' definition of orator, because the last one claims that an orator should have a knowledge of all matters and disciplines. On the contrary, Antonius believes that an orator is a person, who is able to use graceful words to be listened to and proper arguments to generate persuasion in the ordinary court proceedings. He asks the orator to have a vigorous voice, a gentle gesture and a kind attitude. In Antonius' opinion, Crassus gave an improper field to the orator, even an unlimited scope of action: not the space of a court, but even the government of a state. And it seemed so strange that Scaevola approved that, despite he obtained consensus by the Senate, although having spoken in a very synthetic and poor way. A good senator does not become automatically a good orator and vice versa. These roles and skills are very far each from the other, independent and separate. Marcus Cato, Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius, Gaius Lelius, all eloquent persons, used very different means to ornate their speeches and the dignity of the state. Neither nature nor any law or tradition prohibit that a man is skilled in more than one discipline. Therefore, if Pericles was, at the same time, the most eloquent and the most powerful politician in Athens, we cannot conclude that both these distinct qualities are necessary to the same person. If Publius Crassus was, at the same time, an excellent orator and an expert of right, not for this we can conclude that the knowledge of right is inside the abilities of the oratory. Indeed, when a person has a reputation in one art and then he learns well another, he seems that the second one is part of his first excellence. One could call poets those who are called "physikoi" by the Greeks, just because the Empedocles, the physicist, wrote an excellent poem. But the philosophers themselves, although claiming that they study everything, dare to say that geometry and music belong to the philosopher, just because Plato has been unanimously acknowledged excellent in these disciplines. In conclusion, if we want to put all the disciplines as a necessary knowledge for the orator, Antonius disagrees, and prefers simply to say that the oratory needs not to be nude and without ornate; on the contrary, it needs to be flavoured and moved by a graceful and changing variety. A good orator needs to have listened a lot, watched a lot, reflecting a lot, thinking and reading, without claiming to possess notions, but just taking honourable inspiration by others' creations. Antonius finally acknowledges that an orator must be smart in discussing a court action and never appear as an inexperienced soldier nor a foreign person in an unknown territory. Difference between an orator and a philosopher. Antonius disagrees with Crassus' opinion: an orator does not need to have enquired deeply the human soul, behaviour and motions—that is, study philosophy—to excite or calm the souls of the audience. Antonius admires those who dedicated their time to study philosophy nor despites them, the width of their culture and the importance of this discipline. Yet, he believes that it is enough for the Roman orator to have a general knowledge of human habits and not to speak about things that clash with their traditions. Which orator, to put the judge against his adversary, has been ever in trouble to ignore anger and other passions, and, instead, used the philosophers' arguments? Some of these latest ones claim that one's soul must be kept away from passions and say it is a crime to excite them in the judges' souls. Other philosophers, more tolerant and more practical, say that passions should be moderate and smooth. On the contrary, the orator picks all these passions of everyday life and amplifies them, making them greater and stronger. At the same time he praises and gives appeal to what is commonly pleasant and desirable. He does not want to appear the wise among the stupids: by that, he would seem unable and a Greek with a poor art; otherwise they would hate to be treated as stupid persons. Instead, he works on every feeling and thought, driving them so that he need not to discuss philosophers' questions. We need a very different kind of man, Crassus, we need an intelligent, smart man by his nature and experience, skilled in catching thoughts, feelings, opinions, hopes of his citizens and of those who want to persuade with his speech. The orator shall feel the people pulse, whatever their kind, age, social class, investigate the feelings of those who is going to speak to. Let him keep the books of the philosophers for his relax or free time; the ideal state of Plato had concepts and ideals of justice very far from the common life. Would you claim, Crassus, that the virtue ("virtus") become slave of the precept of these philosophers? No, it shall alway be anyway free, even if the body is captured. Then, the Senate not only can but shall serve the people; and which philosopher would approve to serve the people, if the people themselves gave him the power to govern and guide them? . Episodes of the past: Rutilius Rufus, Servius Galba, Cato and Crassus. Antonius then reports a past episode: Publius Rutilius Rufus blamed Crassus before the Senate spoke not only "parum commode" (in few adequate way), but also "turpiter et flagitiose" (shamefully and in scandalous way). Rutilius Rufus himself blamed also Servius Galba, because he used pathetical devices to excite compassion of the audience, when Lucius Scribonius sued him in a trial. In the same proceeding, Marcus Cato, his bitter and dogged enemy, made a hard speech against him, that after inserted in his Origines. He would be convicted, if he would not have used his sons to rise compassion. Rutilius strongly blamed such devices and, when he was sued in court, chose not to be defended by a great orator like Crassus. Rather, he preferred to expose simply the truth and he faced the cruel feeling of the judges without the protection of the oratory of Crassus. The example of Socrates. Rutilius, a Roman and a consularis, wanted to imitate Socrates. He chose to speak himself for his defence, when he was on trial and convicted to death. He preferred not to ask mercy or to be an accused, but a teacher for his judges and even a master of them. When Lysias, an excellent orator, brought him a written speech to learn by heart, he read it and found it very good but added: "You seem to have brought to me elegant shoes from Sicyon, but they are not suited for a man": he meant that the written speech was brilliant and excellent for an orator, but not strong and suited for a man. After the judges condemned him, they asked him which punishment he would have believed suited for him and he replied to receive the highest honour and live for the rest of his life in the Pritaneus, at the state expenses. This increased the anger of the judges, who condemned him to death. Therefore, if this was the end of Socrates, how can we ask the philosophers the rules of eloquence?. I do not question whether philosophy is better or worse than oratory; I only consider that philosophy is different by eloquence and this last one can reach the perfection by itself. Antonius: the orator need not a wide knowledge of right. Antonius understands that Crassus has made a passionate mention to the civil right, a grateful gift to Scaevola, who deserves it. As Crassus saw this discipline poor, he enriched it with ornate. Antonius acknowledges his opinion and respect it, that is to give great relevance to the study of civil right, because it is important, it had always a very high honour and it is studied by the most eminent citizens of Rome. But pay attention, Antonius says, not to give the right an ornate that is not its own. If you said that an expert of right ("iuris consultus") is also an orator and, equally, an orator is also an expert of right, you would put at the same level and dignity two very bright disciplines. Nevertheless, at the same time, you admit that an expert of right can be a person without the eloquence we are discussing on, and, the more, you acknowledge that there were many like this. On the contrary, you claim that an orator cannot exist without having learnt civil right. Therefore, in your opinion, an expert of right is no more than a skilled and smart handler of right; but given that an orator often deals with right during a legal action, you have placed the science of right nearby the eloquence, as a simple handmaiden that follows her proprietress. You blame—Antonius continues—those advocates, who, although ignoring the fundamentals of right face legal proceedings, I can defend them, because they used a smart eloquence. But I ask you, Antonius, which benefit would the orator have given to the science of right in these trials, given that the expert of right would have won, not thanks to his specific ability, but to another's, thanks to the eloquence. I was told that Publius Crassus, when was candidate for Aedilis and Servius Galba, was a supporter of him, he was approached by a peasant for a consult. After having a talk with Publius Crassus, the peasant had an opinion closer to the truth than to his interests. Galba saw the peasant going away very sad and asked him why. After having known what he listened by Crassus, he blamed him; then Crassus replied that he was sure of his opinion by his competence on right. And yet, Galba insisted with a kind but smart eloquence and Crassus could not face him: in conclusion, Crassus demonstrated that his opinion was well founded on the books of his brother Publius Micius and in the commentaries of Sextus Aelius, but at last he admitted that Galba's thesis looked acceptable and close to the truth . There are several kinds of trials, in which the orator can ignore civil right or parts of it, on the contrary, there are others, in which he can easily find a man, who is expert of right and can support him. In my opinion, says Antonius to Crassus, you deserved well your votes by your sense of humour and graceful speaking, with your jokes, or mocking many examples from laws, consults of the Senate and from everyday speeches. You raised fun and happiness in the audience: I cannot see what has civil right to do with that. You used your extraordinary power of eloquence, with your great sense of humour and grace. Antonius further critiques Crassus. Considering the allegation that the young do not learn oratory, despite, in your opinion, it is so easy, and watching those who boast to be a master of oratory, claiming that it is very difficult, For ordinary and everyday situations, cannot we have a generic knowledge? Cannot we be taught about civil right, in so far as we feel not stranger in our country? Fundamentals of rhetorics according to Antonius. Shall I conclude that the knowledge of civil right is not at all useful for the orator? But the notions that an orator needs are so many, that I am afraid he would be lost, wasting his energy in too many studies. Nonetheless, nobody would advice the young who study oratory to act like an actor. Nonetheless, no practising orator would be advised by me to care about this voice like the Greek and the tragic actors, who repeat for years exercise of declamation, while seating; then, every day, they lay down and lift their voice steadily and, after having made their speech, they sit down and they recall it by the most sharp tone to the lowest, like they were entering again into themselves. The Romans behave much better, claiming that law and right were guaranteed by persons of authority and fame. Old age does not require study of law. As for the old age, that you claim relieved by loneliness, thanks to the knowledge of civil right, who knows that a large sum of money will relieve it as well? Roscius loves to repeat that the more he will go on with the age the more he will slow down the accompaniment of a flute-player and will make more moderate his chanted parts. If he, who is bound by rhythm and meter, finds out a device to allow himself a bit of a rest in the old age, the easier will be for us not only to slow down the rhythm, but to change it completely. You, Crassus, certainly know how many and how various are the way of speaking. Nonetheless, your present quietness and solemn eloquence is not at all less pleasant than your powerful energy and tension of your past. Many orators, such as Scipio and Laelius, which gained all results with a single tone, just a little bit elevated, without forcing their lungs or screaming like Servius Galba. Do you fear that you home will no longer be frequented by citizens? On the contrary I am waiting the loneliness of the old age like a quiet harbour: I think that free time is the sweetest comfort of the old age General culture is sufficient. As regards the rest, I mean history, knowledge of public right, ancient traditions and samples, they are useful. If the young pupils wish to follow your invitation to read everything, to listen to everything and learn all liberal disciplines and reach a high cultural level, I will not stop them at all. I have only the feeling that they have not enough time to practice all that and it seems to me, Crassus, that you have put on these young men a heavy burden, even if maybe necessary to reach their objective. Indeed, both the exercises on some court topics and a deep and accurate reflexion, and your "stilus" (pen), that properly you defined the best teacher of eloquence, need much effort. Even comparing one's oration to another's and improvise a discussion on another's script, either to praise or to criticize it, to strengthen it or to refute it, need much effort both on memory and on imitation. This heavy requirements can discourage more than encourage persons and should more properly be applied to actors than to orators. Indeed, the audience listens to us, the orators, the most of the times, even if we are hoarse, because the subject and the lawsuit captures the audience; on the contrary, if Roscius has a little bit of hoarse voice, he is booed. Eloquence has many devices, not only the hearing to keep the interest high and the pleasure and the appreciation. Practical exercise is fundamental. Antonius agrees with Crassus for an orator, who is able to speak in such a way to persuade the audience, provided that he limits himself to the daily life and to the court, renouncing to other studies, although noble and honourable. Let him imitate Demosthenes, who compensated his handicaps by a strong passion, dedition and obstinate application to oratory. He was indeed stuttering, but through his exercise, he became able to speak much more clearly than anyone else. Besides, having a short breath, he trained himself to retain the breath, so that he could pronounce two elevations and two remissions of voice in the same sentence. We shall incite the young to use all their efforts, but the other things that you put before, are not part of the duties and of the tasks of the orator. Crassus replied: "You believe that the orator, Antonius, is a simple man of the art; on the contrary, I believe that he, especially in our State, shall not be lacking of any equipment, I was imaging something greater. On the other hand, you restricted all the task of the orator within borders such limited and restricted, that you can more easily expose us the results of your studies on the orator's duties and on the precepts of his art. But I believe that you will do it tomorrow: this is enough for today and Scaevola too, who decided to go to his villa in Tusculum, will have a bit of a rest. Let us take care of our health as well". All agreed and they decided to adjourn the debate. Book II. "De Oratore" Book II is the second part of "De Oratore" by Cicero. Much of Book II is dominated by Marcus Antonius. He shares with Lucius Crassus, Quintus Catulus, Gaius Julius Caesar, and Sulpicius his opinion on oratory as an art, eloquence, the orator’s subject matter, invention, arrangement, and memory. Oratory as an art. Antonius surmises "that oratory is no more than average when viewed as an art". Oratory cannot be fully considered an art because art operates through knowledge. In contrast, oratory is based upon opinions. Antonius asserts that oratory is "a subject that relies on falsehood, that seldom reaches the level of real knowledge, that is out to take advantage of people's opinions and often their delusions" (Cicero, 132). Still, oratory belongs in the realm of art to some extent because it requires a certain kind of knowledge to "manipulate human feelings" and "capture people's goodwill". Eloquence. Antonius believes that nothing can surpass the perfect orator. Other arts do not require eloquence, but the art of oratory cannot function without it. Additionally, if those who perform any other type of art happen to be skilled in speaking it is because of the orator. But, the orator cannot obtain his oratorical skills from any other source. The orator's subject matter. In this portion of Book II Antonius offers a detailed description of what tasks should be assigned to an orator. He revisits Crassus' understanding of the two issues that eloquence, and thus the orator, deals with. The first issue is indefinite while the other is specific. The indefinite issue pertains to general questions while the specific issue addresses particular persons and matters. Antonius begrudgingly adds a third genre of laudatory speeches. Within laudatory speeches it is necessary include the presence of “descent, money, relatives, friends, power, health, beauty, strength, intelligence, and everything else that is either a matter of the body or external" (Cicero, 136). If any of these qualities are absent then the orator should include how the person managed to succeed without them or how the person bore their loss with humility. Antonius also maintains that history is one of the greatest tasks for the orator because it requires a remarkable "fluency of diction and variety". Finally, an orator must master “everything that is relevant to the practices of citizens and the ways human behave” and be able to utilize this understanding of his people in his cases. Invention. Antonius begins the section on invention by proclaiming the importance of an orator having a thorough understanding of his case. He faults those who do not obtain enough information about their cases, thereby making themselves look foolish. Antonius continues by discussing the steps that he takes after accepting a case. He considers two elements: "the first one recommends us or those for whom we are pleading, the second is aimed at moving the minds of our audience in the direction we want" (153). He then lists the three means of persuasion that are used in the art of oratory: "proving that our contentions are true, winning over our audience, and inducing their minds to feel any emotion the case may demand" (153). He discerns that determining what to say and then how to say it requires a talented orator. Also, Antonius introduces ethos and pathos as two other means of persuasion. Antonius believes that an audience can often be persuaded by the prestige or the reputation of a man. Furthermore, within the art of oratory it is critical that the orator appeal to the emotion of his audience. He insists that the orator will not move his audience unless he himself is moved. In his conclusion on invention Antonius shares his personal practices as an orator. He tells Sulpicius that when speaking his ultimate goal is to do good and if he is unable to procure some kind of good then he hopes to refrain from inflicting harm. Arrangement. Antonius offers two principles for an orator when arranging material. The first principle is inherent in the case while the second principle is contingent on the judgment of the orator. Memory. Antonius shares the story of Simonides of Ceos, the man whom he credits with introducing the art of memory. He then declares memory to be important to the orator because "only those with a powerful memory know what they are going to say, how far they will pursue it, how they will say it, which points they have already answered and which still remain" (220). Book III. De Oratore, Book III is the third part of De Oratore by Cicero. It describes the death of Lucius Licinius Crassus. They belong to the generation, which precedes the one of Cicero: the main characters of the dialogue are Marcus Antonius (not the triumvir) and Lucius Licinius Crassus (not the person who killed Julius Caesar); other friends of them, such as Gaius Iulius Caesar (not the dictator), Sulpicius and Scaevola intervene occasionally. At the beginning of the third book, which contains Crassus' exposition, Cicero is hit by a sad memory. He expresses all his pain to his brother Quintus Cicero. He reminds him that only nine days after the dialogue, described in this work, Crassus died suddenly. He came back to Rome the last day of the ludi scaenici (19 September 91 BC), very worried by the speech of the consul Lucius Marcius Philippus. He made a speech before the people, claiming the creation of a new council in place of the Roman Senate, with which he could not govern the State any longer. Crassus went to the curia (the palace of the Senate) and heard the speech of Drusus, reporting Lucius Marcius Philippus' speech and attacking him. In that occasion, everyone agreed that Crassus, the best orator of all, overcame himself with his eloquence. He blamed the situation and the abandonment of the Senate: the consul, who should be his good father and faithful defender, was depriving it of its dignity like a robber. No need of surprise, indeed, if he wanted to deprive the State of the Senate, after having ruined the first one with his disastrous projects. Philippus was a vigorous, eloquent and smart man: when he was attacked by the Crassus' firing words, he counter-attacked him until he made him keep silent. But Crassus replied:" You, who destroyed the authority of the Senate before the Roman people, do you really think to intimidate me? If you want to keep me silent, you have to cut my tongue. And even if you do it, my spirit of freedom will hold tight your arrogance". Crassus' speech lasted a long time and he spent all of his spirit, his mind and his forces. Crassus' resolution was approved by the Senate, stating that "not the authority nor the loyalty of the Senate ever abandoned the Roman State". When he was speaking, he had a pain in his side and, after he came home, he got fever and died of pleurisy in six days. "How insecure is the destiny of a man! ", Cicero says. Just in the peak of his public career, Crassus reached the top of the authority, but also destroyed all his expectations and plans for the future by his death. This sad episode caused pain, not only to Crassus' family, but also to all the honest citizens. Cicero adds that, in his opinion, the immortal gods gave Crassus his death as a gift, to preserve him from seeing the calamities that would befall the State a short time later. Indeed, he has not seen Italy burning by the social war (91-87 BC), neither the people's hate against the Senate, the escape and return of Gaius Marius, the following revenges, killings and violence.

more appropriate answer

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=953415

South Shore is one of 77 defined community areas of Chicago, Illinois, United States. A predominantly African-American neighborhood on the city's South Side, the area is named for its location along the city's southern lakefront. Although South Shore has seen a greater than 40% decrease in residents since Chicago's population peaked in the 1950s, the area remains one of the most densely populated neighborhoods on the South Side. The community benefits from its location along the waterfront, its accessibility to Lake Shore Drive, and its proximity to major institutions and attractions such as the University of Chicago, the Museum of Science and Industry, and Jackson Park. History. Like all of what is now the City of Chicago, what is now the South Shore community area was inhabited by a number of Algonquian peoples, including the Mascouten and Miami. After the expulsion of Native Americans by white settlers in the nineteenth century, became characterized by small settlements; Essex, Bryn Mawr, Parkside, Cheltenham Beach, and Windsor Park. The area, bounded by 67th and 79th streets to the north and south and by Stony Island Avenue and Lake Michigan to the west and east, was mostly swampland in the 1850s when Ferdinand Rohn, a German truck farmer, utilized trails along the area's high ground to transport his goods to Chicago. In 1861, the Illinois General Assembly incorporated Hyde Park Township, which included South Shore. The area's population grew as workers in the nearby steel industry settled in the area. Following the June 29, 1889 elections, the South Shore community area was annexed into the City of Chicago with the entirety of Hyde Park Township. The location of the World's Columbian Exposition in nearby Jackson Park prompted the sale of land and building lots. As in other parts of Chicago, the desire for affordable housing at the start of the twentieth century led to the large scale construction of bungalows. Unlike other areas in which bungalows were built en masse, South Shore's bungalow residents were largely affluent. Additionally, Shore Shore was the destination for white flight from Washington Park as immigrants and African Americans moved there. After racially restrictive covenants were declared unconstitutional by "Shelley v. Kraemer", African American families began to move out of the overcrowded black neighborhoods into South Shore. The South Shore Commission initiated a program they called "managed integration", designed to check the physical decline of the community and to achieve racial balance. The initiative was largely unsuccessful on both counts. Per the 1950 census, South Shore had 79,000 residents and was 96% white with a large Jewish population. In 1960, the population had fallen to 73,000 people and was 90% White and 10% black. Other white residents chose to resist this change through violence against African Americans who chose to move to the neighborhood. By 1970, the population had risen to 81,000 and was 69% black and 28% white. By 1980, the population had fallen slightly to 78,000, but was 94% black. By the late 1990s South Shore had developed into a middle-class African American community. Although the commercial strips on 71st and 75th still struggled, developers built a shopping plaza at 71st and Jeffery which is relatively successful. The cultural life of the area has been enhanced since the Park District purchased the waning South Shore Country Club in 1972, converting it into a cultural center. South Shore remains a destination for some who desire a congenial middle-class community on Chicago's South Side. The South Shore Current Magazine was launched with a mission to share the "Good News from Chicago's Cultural Soul Coast." The masthead reads: "Thriving as a catalyst for economic development, reflecting a truthful image, and a virtual meeting place for the South Shore Community." On July 14, 2018, the community clashed with the Chicago Police Department after a local barber, Harith Augustus, was shot multiple times by a police officer at 71st Street and Chappel Avenue. Body camera footage without audio was released immediately contrary to past practices of months-long waits for video in other police shootings. Footage taken by body cameras of other officers has not been released. Neighborhoods and sub-areas. Jackson Park Highlands. The Jackson Park Highlands District is a sixteen block area bounded by East 67th Street on the north. East 71st Street on the south, South Cregier Avenue on the west, and South Jeffrey Boulevard on the east. The Jackson Park Highlands District is a historic district in the South Shore community area of Chicago. The district was built in 1905 by various architects. It was designated a Chicago Landmark on October 25, 1989. It is regarded as one of the South Side's upper-middle to affluent neighborhoods; others being Hyde Park, Kenwood, Bridgeport, Beverly, Mount Greenwood, and the western section of Morgan Park, and parts of Chatham. Jackson Park Highlands has homes that feature large front yard setbacks and lots wide. The area takes its name from a ridge that formerly overlooked Jackson Park. Architectural styles represented in this district include American Foursquare, Classical Revival, Queen Anne, Dutch Colonial, Colonial Revival, Tudor, and Prairie School. The neighborhood has numerous cul-de-sacs with limited vehicular access. Directly north of the neighborhood lies the 18-hole Jackson Park Golf Course, a part of the Chicago Park District's Jackson Park, the third largest park in the city and home of the 1893 Columbian World Exposition. The neighborhood was commissioned in the early 20th century. Its initial purpose was as a collection of model homes that would overlook the prized Jackson Park, which had hosted the World's Fair less than a decade prior. The neighborhood featured some of the most innovative concepts of the time, including large front yard setbacks, lot widths, underground utilities, and no alleys. When Chicago annexed Hyde Park just in time for the 1890 census (to beat out Philadelphia as the second largest metro area in the nation), the Highlands were left under governorship of the South Shore area. Jeffery–Cyril Historic District. The Jeffery–Cyril Historic District is a national historic district in the South Shore neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois. The district comprises a cluster of six apartment buildings on Jeffery Boulevard, 71st Place, and Cyril Avenue. All six buildings were built between 1927 and 1929. The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places on May 5, 1986. South Shore Bungalow Historic District. The South Shore Bungalow Historic District is a residential historic district in the South Shore neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois. The district contains 229 Chicago bungalows and twenty other residential buildings built between 1911 and 1930. The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 10, 2008. Architecture. The South Shore Cultural Center, previously the South Shore Country Club, began as a lakefront retreat for the wealthiest of Chicago's movers and shakers. The firm of Marshall and Fox, architects of the Drake, Blackstone, and Edgewater Beach hotels, were hired to design an opulent, Mediterranean-style clubhouse for a membership that included some of Chicago's most prominent families. The grounds provided private stables and members-only beach, and golf course. Tennis, horseback riding, and skeet shooting were enjoyed by guests the likes of Jean Harlow, Will Rogers, and Amelia Earhart. Between the first and second World Wars, a housing boom brought a development of luxury cooperative apartments and mansions to the neighborhood surrounding the club. In 1974 the club held its last members-only event. Today, the Chicago Park District owns the property. It has been restored to its original design and is now open to the public. A major drawback to the South Shore and surrounding South Chicago neighborhoods is that they are one of the few remaining Chicago lakefront neighborhoods that lack a fully publicly accessible neighborhood shoreline. There are lakefront gaps between the existing South Shore Cultural Center and Rainbow Beach to its south. Even larger masses of lakefront land along the South Chicago neighborhood (at the abandoned USX steel mill) with their beautiful vistas of the city's lakefront and Chicago skyline are undergoing development as parks and not completely available for recreational enjoyment by the adjacent neighborhood residents. Presently, Chicago Lakeside Development has proposed plans that call for the completion of this southern portion of lakefront with the development of new parklands, beaches, and a continuous waterfront bicycle and jogging path that will link Calumet Park and Beach in the East Side neighborhood to the South Shore Cultural Center in South Shore. Completion of such a project would result in improved access to Chicago's southern lakefront and connect it to neighborhoods such as Hyde Park and Bronzeville to the north. At the northern end of South Shore is the historic district Jackson Park Highlands, one of Chicago's greatest examples of structural history and 19th-century architecture, with an abundance of homes in the style of American Foursquare, Colonial Revival, and Renaissance Revival on suburban-sized lots. Located in the Bryn Mawr section of South Shore is the Allan Miller House at 7121 South Paxton Avenue. Commissioned by advertising executive Allan Miller, this home is an excellent example of Prairie-style architecture. Built in 1915, it is Chicago's only surviving building designed by John Van Bergen, a former member of Frank Lloyd Wright's architecture firm. Politics. The South Shore community area has supported the Democratic Party in the past two presidential elections by overwhelming margins. In the 2016 presidential election, the South Shore cast 18,130 votes for Hillary Clinton and cast 373 votes for Donald Trump (96.07% to 1.98%). In the 2012 presidential election, South Shore cast 22,515 votes for Barack Obama and cast 222 votes for Mitt Romney (98.77% to 0.97%). Culture and religion. The Nation of Islam National Center and Mosque Maryam are at 7351 South Stony Island Avenue. The National Black United Front has its headquarters in the community. Transportation. The South Shore community area has five stations along the South Chicago Branch of the Metra Electric District. In South Shore, the South Chicago Branch runs eastward along East 71st Street making stops at Stony Island, Bryn Mawr, South Shore stations before going southeast along South Exchange Avenue making stops at Windsor Park, and Cheltenham stations. In addition, the 75th Street station is on the Greater Grand Crossing side of the border between that area and South Shore. Education. Chicago Public Schools operates district public schools. In addition Urban Prep Academies operates the South Shore Campus. Muhammad University of Islam, a Nation of Islam-affiliated primary and secondary school, is adjacent to the Mosque Maryam. Religion. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago operates Catholic churches. On July 1, 2020, Our Lady of Peace, St. Bride, and St. Philip Neri in South Shore and Our Lady Gate of Heaven Church in Jeffery Manor will merge.

happy stories

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15745829

Từ Đàm Temple () is a Buddhist temple located on a street of the same name in the Trường An District of Huế. History. The temple was built and opened under the direction of Zen master Thích Minh Hoằng, who was the 34th in the lineage of the Lâm Tế Zen lineage. The temple was built in the late 17th century under the rule of Emperor Lê Hy Tông, on Long Sơn hill. However, the area was then under the rule of the Nguyễn lords, who nominally declared their allegiance to the Lê Dynasty but in reality ran their own independent state, under Nguyễn Phúc Chu. At the time, the temple was also known as the Ấn Tôn Temple. In 1703, the ruling Nguyễn Lord, Nguyễn Phúc Chu gave the title "Sắc Tứ Ấn Tôn Tự". In 1841, Vietnam had been unified in its modern state by the Nguyễn Dynasty and Emperor Thiệu Trị ordered that the temple be renamed so that it did not conflict with his name. The temple was one of the three national pagodas in Huế during the Nguyễn Dynasty era. Over the last 150 years, the temple has been one of the main spiritual facilities of Huế and the surrounding central region of Vietnam. Over the years, the temple has been renovated and expanded many times, under the direction of Thích Thiệt Vinh, Thích Minh Hoằng and Thích Đạo Trung. Under Thích Từ Vân, two major bells were cast and installed. In 1932, a nun, Thích Diệu Không, created a monastery for nuns. For a period the Association of Buddhist Studies of central Vietnam was based at the temple, during which time the main ceremonial hall was rebuilt. In 1939, Suzanne Karpelès, Secretary General of the Buddhist Studies Association of Phnom Penh in Cambodia, arranged for a bodhi tree offshoot to be taken from the original bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya under which Gautama Buddha achieved enlightenment, to be brought to the Từ Đàm pagoda. It was planted in the front yard of the temple, where it was grown up and become a permanent fixture. In 1951, the temple was the venue for a meeting of 51 notable Buddhist monks from across Vietnam, representing six different groups, to create a unified nationwide Buddhist organisation for all of Vietnam. At this meeting Thích Tịnh Khiết was chosen to be the head of Buddhism in Vietnam. It was during this meeting that the internationally designed Buddhist flag was first flown on the grounds of the pagoda. As Decree No. 10 by Bảo Đại prohibited the use of the name "church" by any other religion aside from the Catholic Church, the body called itself the General Association of Buddhists. In 1961, the administration of the temple along with the Association for Buddhist Studies organised for the construction of the a variety of buildings to increase the amount of activities that were able to be hosted by the temple. Buddhist crisis and pagoda raids. South Vietnam's Buddhist majority had long been discontented with the rule of President Ngô Đình Diệm since his rise to power in 1955. Diệm had shown strong favouritism towards Catholics and discrimination against Buddhists in the army, public service and distribution of government aid. In the countryside, Catholics were "de facto" exempt from performing corvée labour and in some rural areas, Catholic priests led private armies against Buddhist villages. Discontent with Diệm exploded into mass protest in Huế during the summer of 1963 when nine Buddhists died at the hand of Diệm's army and police on Vesak, the birthday of Gautama Buddha. In May 1963, a law against the flying of religious flags was selectively invoked; the Buddhist flag was banned from display on Vesak while the Vatican flag was displayed to celebrate the anniversary of the consecration of Archbishop Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục, Diệm's elder brother. Buddhists defied the ban and a protest that began with a march starting from Từ Đàm to the government broadcasting station was ended when government forces opened fire. As a result, Buddhist protests were held across the country and steadily grew in size, asking for the signing of a Joint Communique to end religious inequality. Từ Đàm pagoda was a major organising point for the Buddhist movement and was often the location of hunger strikes, barricades and protests. This was because Thích Trí Quang, the abbot of Từ Đàm, was the main figure in the Buddhist movement, and at the time he was the head of the GAB in central Vietnam. Self-immolations were used as a form of protest, an on 16 August, one such occurrence occurred at Từ Đàm when an elderly nun set herself alight. As the tension increased and opposition to Diệm increased, the key turning point came shortly after midnight on 21 August, when Ngô Đình Nhu's Special Forces raided and vandalised Buddhist pagodas and temples across the country, rounding up thousands of monks and leaving hundreds dead. Across the town of Huế, the approach of government forces were met by the beating of Buddhist drums and cymbals to alert the populace. The townsfolk left their homes in the middle of the night in an attempt to defend the city's pagodas. At Từ Đàm, monks attempted to burn the coffin of a monk who had self-immolated during previous protests. Government soldiers, firing M1 rifles, overran the pagoda and confiscated the coffin. They also demolished a statue of Gautama Buddha and looted and vandalized the pagoda. An explosion was set off by the troops, which leveled much of the pagoda. Many Buddhists were shot or clubbed to death. Later years. During 1968, the pagoda was heavily damaged during the Tet Offensive of the Vietnam War, some of which still remains unrepaired. In 1966, a bronze statue of the Gautama Buddha was cast to replace the one destroyed during the pagoda attacks of Diệm's regime. The pagoda is still inhabited by monks, and is the provincial headquarters of the Buddhist Association.

administration funds

2403-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=366663

Body language is a type of nonverbal communication in which physical behaviors, as opposed to words, are used to express or convey the information. Such behavior includes facial expressions, body posture, gestures, eye movement, touch and the use of space. Body language exists in both animals and humans, but this article focuses on interpretations of human body language. It is also known as kinesics. Although body language is an important part of communication, most of it happens without conscious awareness. Body "language" must not be confused with sign language, as sign languages are languages and have their own complex grammar systems, as well as being able to exhibit the fundamental properties that exist in all languages. Body language, on the other hand, does not have a grammar system and must be interpreted broadly, instead of having an absolute meaning corresponding with a certain movement, so it is not a language, and is simply termed as a "language" due to popular culture. In a society, there are agreed-upon interpretations of particular behavior. Interpretations may vary from country to country, or culture to culture. On this note, there is controversy on whether body language is universal. Body language, a subset of nonverbal communication, complements verbal communication in social interaction. In fact some researchers conclude that nonverbal communication accounts for the majority of information transmitted during interpersonal interactions. It helps to establish the relationship between two people and regulates interaction, but can be ambiguous. Physical expressions. Facial expressions. Facial expression is a part of body language and the expression of emotion. An accurate interpretation of it relies on interpreting multiple signs in combination- such as the movement of the eyes, eyebrows, lips, nose and cheeks- in order to form an impression of a person's mood and state of mind; it should always be additionally considered in regard to the context in which it is occurring and the person's likely intention. Whilst facial body language can be interpreted as a sign of genuine emotion, a lack of it may suggest a lack of sincerity. For example, a lack of wrinkles around the eyes suggests a potentially fake smile. At one point, researchers believed that making a genuine smile was nearly impossible to do on command. When someone is smiling joyfully they wrinkle around their eyes. When someone is faking it, they do not. If someone is trying to look happy but really is not, one will not see the wrinkles. More recently, however, a study conducted by researchers at Northeastern University found that people could convincingly fake a Duchenne smile, even when they were not feeling especially happy. The pupil of the eye can be considered specifically: as its action also corresponds to mood it can thereby communicate the mood of a person when it is observed. For instance, the research found that the person has no control over his pupils and they expanded when someone was interested in another person, or when they were looking at something. “As an indicator, check a friend's pupil size when you're talking to them about something interesting, then change the subject to something less interesting and watch their pupils contract!”. Normally, one's eyes need to instinctively blink at around 6-10 times per minute, but merely looking at a person or object the viewer finds "attractive" can slow this rate down and can be a good indicator that a person is attracted to the person they're talking to, and, thus, it may be a sign of flirting. Studies and behavioural experiments have shown that facial expression and bodily expression are congruent in terms of conveying visible signs of a person’s emotional state. This means that the brain processes the other's facial and bodily expressions simultaneously. Subjects in these studies judged emotions based on facial expression with a high level of accuracy. This is because the face and the body are normally seen together in their natural proportions and the emotional signals from the face and body are well integrated. Head and neck signals. The body language of the head should be considered in conjunction with that of the neck. In terms of general posture, the head should be positioned in a manner which feels natural. Body language conveyed by the head and neck involves various ranges of movement. However, it is important to note that the positioning of the head should not cause the neck to be stretched or compressed for too long a period of time without relief. If the neck is strained in this manner, it may inhibit the ability to use it to convey body language messages effectively. In addition, some researchers and health practitioners have found that there is a relationship between prolonged poor posture of the head and neck, and negative mental states. As such, body language which involves the head and neck should not cause strain and seek to be as natural as possible. As with all forms of body language, it is useful to understand as many other connected factors as possible in order to accurately identify the meaning. Nodding of the head is generally considered as a sign of saying 'yes'. When used in conversation it may be interpreted as a sign of approval and encourage the speaker to go on. A single nod of the head is a sign of acknowledging another person in a respectful manner; in this manner it is similar to the Asian practice of bowing to a person as a sign of respect. Shaking the head is usually interpreted as meaning 'no'. In terms of meaning, it is the opposite of nodding. In India, a head bobble is the tilting of the head from side to side and is a common sign of saying yes, ok, or I understand in some manner. Its interpretation can be ambiguous and depends very much on the context in which it is applied. When a lowering of the head is emphasised in conjunction with the eyes then this may indicate a sign of submission. A raising of the head from a lowered posture may indicate an increase in interest in what someone is saying. A tilting of the head to the side can be an expression of interest in what the other person is communicating. On this basis it may be a sign of curiosity, uncertainty or questioning. If the head is propped up by the hand when the head is tilted then this may be a sign of thinking about something or, in terms of an ongoing conversation, disinterest. A head which is tilted forwards slightly whilst being pulled backwards may indicate being suspicious. General body postures. Emotions can also be detected through body postures. Research has shown that body postures are more accurately recognised when an emotion is compared with a different or neutral emotion. For example, a person feeling angry would portray dominance over the other, and their posture would display approach tendencies. Comparing this to a person feeling fearful: they would feel weak, submissive and their posture would display avoidance tendencies, the opposite of an angry person. Sitting or standing postures also indicate one's emotions. A person sitting till the back of their chair, leans forward with their head nodding along with the discussion implies that they are open, relaxed and generally ready to listen. On the other hand, a person who has their legs and arms crossed with the foot kicking slightly implies that they are feeling impatient and emotionally detached from the discussion. In a standing discussion, a person stands with arms akimbo with feet pointed towards the speaker could suggest that they are attentive and is interested in the conversation. However, a small difference in this posture could mean a lot. Standing with arms akimbo is considered rude in Bali. The superman pose, both hands or fists near the hips or lower back and the package pose is moving the elbows inwards and hands with/without fingers dug into or resting on the belt or pants suggest male attraction to women. If a person has adopted the same body posture for too long a period of time they may look stiff or strained. They may avoid this effect by adjusting their posture regularly, even if only by a small amount. Chest specifically. The posture and movement of the chest is a factor of fundamental importance when considering the messages the body as a whole sends out. In general terms, the relative fullness or shallowness of the chest, especially around the sternum, can be a key indicator of both mood and attitude. When the body language of the chest is assessed in everyday circumstances, it involves an instinctive assessment of these factors of shape and volume. When the posture of the chest is fuller, and it is positioned relatively forward, then this is a sign of confidence. If it is thrusting prominently forward, then this may be an indication that the person wants to be socially prominent and make a statement of physical confidence. When the chest is pulled back then this can indicate a less confident attitude. If a person positions their chest closer towards another person it may be a sign of paying closer attention to them as part of a conversation, or, in other circumstances, it may be a sign of physical assertion and aggression. Touching the chest can indicate different things. A person who places two hands over their heart may do so to emphasise that they are being sincere in what they are saying. Rubbing the chest, especially over the heart, can be a sign of discomfort, possibly from stress and tension. As with other examples of chest body language, it may be related to a person’s heart rate. Shoulders specifically. 'The shoulders [...] shape what others think of us, they reveal our health and emotions, and they assist us in communicating' Similarly to the chest, the posture of the shoulders is an easily observable body language sign. When the shoulders are back with the chest forwards this generally indicates confidence. If the shoulders are positioned forwards with the body hunched then this can be a sign of low confidence or self-esteem; it may also be demonstrative of a feeling of dejection or sadness. Usually if a person is relaxed their shoulders are positioned lower; if they are feeling tense or anxious then they are held in a raised position. A shrugging of the shoulders, a quick up and down movement, is often given as a sign of not knowing something or being unable to help in some manner. Partly due to their prominent position on the body, strong and flexible shoulders can help to communicate a sense of vitality and natural rhythm. Contrarily, if the shoulders are weak and lacking in mobility, perhaps due to the frequent adoption of a slumped posture, then this can convey the impression that the person is depressed. Gestures. Gestures are movements made with body parts (example hands, arms, fingers, head, legs) and they may be voluntary or involuntary. Arm gestures can be interpreted in several ways. In a discussion, when one stands, sits or even walks with folded arms, it is normally not a welcoming gesture. It could mean that they have a closed mind and are most likely unwilling to listen to the speaker's viewpoint. Another type of arm gesture also includes an arm crossed over the other, demonstrating insecurity and a lack of confidence. According to Barbara Pease and Allan Pease, authors of "The Definitive Book of Body Language", everybody does shoulder shrug. The shrug is a good example of a universal gesture that is used to show that a person does not understand what you are saying. "It's a multiple gesture that has three main parts," they continue. "Exposed palms to show nothing is being concealed in the hands, hunched shoulders to protect the throat from attack, and raised brow, which is a universal, submissive greeting." Hand gestures often signify the state of well-being of the person making them. Relaxed hands indicate confidence and self-assurance, while clenched hands may be interpreted as signs of stress or anger. If a person is wringing their hands, this demonstrates nervousness and anxiety. Finger gestures are also commonly used to exemplify one's speech as well as denote the state of well-being of the person making them. In certain cultures, pointing using one's index finger is deemed acceptable. However, pointing at a person may be viewed as aggressive in other cultures – for example, people who share Hindu beliefs consider finger pointing offensive. Instead, they point with their thumbs. Likewise, the thumbs up gesture could show "OK" or "good" in countries like the United States, South Africa, France, Lebanon and Germany. But this same gesture is insulting in other countries like Iran, Bangladesh and Thailand, where it is the equivalent of showing the middle finger in the US. In most cultures the Head Nod is used to signify 'Yes' or agreement. It's a stunted form of bowing – the person symbolically goes to bow but stops short, resulting in a nod. Bowing is a submissive gesture so the Head Nod shows we are going along with the other person's point of view. Research conducted with people who were born deafblind shows that they also use this gesture to signify 'Yes'. Handshakes. Handshakes are regular greeting rituals and commonly used when meeting, greeting, offering congratulations, expressing camaraderie, or after the completion of an agreement. They often portray levels of confidence and/or emotion through factors such as grip and eye contact. Studies have categorized several handshake styles, e.g. the finger squeeze, the bone crusher (shaking hands too strongly), the limp fish (shaking hands too weakly), etc. Handshakes are popular in the United States and are appropriate for use between men and women. However, in Muslim cultures, men may not shake hands or touch women in any way and vice versa. Likewise, in Hindu cultures, Hindu men may never shake hands with women. Instead, they greet women by placing their hands as if praying. This is very common in India. A firm, friendly handshake has long been recommended in the business world as a way to make a good first impression, and the greeting is thought to date to ancient times as a way of showing a stranger you had no weapons. Breathing. Body language related to breathing and patterns of breathing can be indicative of a person's mood and state of mind; because of this, the relationship between body language and breathing is often considered in contexts such as business meetings and presentations. Generally, deeper breathing which uses the diaphragm and abdomen more is interpreted as conveying a relaxed and confident impression; by contrast, shallow, excessively rapid breathing is often interpreted as conveying a more nervous or anxious impression. Some business advisers, such as those who promote neuro-linguistic programming, recommend mirroring a person's breathing pattern in order to convey an impression of mutual understanding. Different physical movements. Covering one's mouth suggests suppression of feeling and perhaps uncertainty. This could also mean that they are thinking hard and may be unsure of what to say next. What you communicate through your body language and nonverbal signals affects how others see you, how well they like and respect you, and whether or not they trust you. Unfortunately, many people send confusing or negative nonverbal signals without even knowing it. When this happens, both connection and trust are damaged. Other subcategories. Oculesics. Oculesics, a subcategory of body language, is the study of eye movement, eye behavior, gaze, and eye-related nonverbal communication. As a social or behavioral science, oculesics is a form of nonverbal communication focusing on deriving meaning from eye behavior. It is also crucial to note that Oculesics is culturally dependent. For example, in traditional Anglo-Saxon culture, avoiding eye contact usually portrays a lack of confidence, certainty, or truthfulness. However, in the Latino culture, direct or prolonged eye contact means that you are challenging the individual with whom you are speaking or that you have a romantic interest in the person. Also, in many Asian cultures, prolonged eye contact may be a sign of anger or aggression. Haptics. Haptics, a subcategory of Body Language, is the study of touching and how it is used in communication. As such, handshakes, holding hands, back slapping, high fives, brushing up against someone or patting someone all have meaning. Based on the Body Language Project, touching is the most developed sense at birth and formulates our initial views of the world. Touching can be used to sooth, for amusement during play, to flirt, to express power and maintain bonds between people, such as with baby and mother. Touching can carry distinct emotions and also show the intensity of those emotions. Touch absent of other cues can signal anger, fear, disgust, love, gratitude and sympathy depending on the length and type of touching that is performed. Many factors also contribute to the meaning of touching such as the length of the touch and location on the body in which the touching takes place. Research has also shown that people can accurately decode distinct emotions by merely watching others communicate via touch. Heslin outlines five haptic categories: The amount of touching that occurs within a culture is also culturally dependent. Proxemics. Another notable area in the nonverbal world of body language is that of spatial relationships, which is also known as Proxemics. Introduced by Edward T. Hall in 1966, proxemics is the study of measurable distances between people as they interact with one another. In the book, "Body Language", Julius Fast mentioned that the signals that we send or receive to others through body language are reactions to others’ invasions of our personal territories, which links Proxemics an important part of Body Language. Hall also came up with four distinct zones in which most men operate: Intimate distance for embracing, touching or whispering Personal distance for interactions among good friends or family members Social distance for interactions among acquaintances Public Distance used for public speaking In addition to physical distance, the level of intimacy between conversants can be determined by "socio-petal socio-fugal axis", or the "angle formed by the axis of the conversants' shoulders". Changing the distance between two people can convey a desire for intimacy, declare a lack of interest, or increase/decrease domination. It can also influence the body language that is used. For example, when people talk they like to face each other. If forced to sit side by side, their body language will try to compensate for this lack of eye-to-eye contact by leaning in shoulder-to-shoulder. It is important to note that as with other types of Body Language, proximity range varies with culture. Hall suggested that "physical contact between two people ... can be perfectly correct in one culture, and absolutely taboo in another". In Latin , people who may be complete strangers may engage in very close contact. They often greet one another by kissing on the cheeks. Norths, on the other hand, prefer to shake hands. While they have made some physical contact with the shaking of the hand, they still maintain a certain amount of physical space between the other person. Tone of voice. Particular tones of voice are linked with particular types of body language. For example, if someone's tone of voice conveys the impression that they are happy, then their body language will ordinarily convey a similar impression. One of the reasons for this is that when a person's mood changes so does their breathing pattern. This influences their body language, and also their intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) which is a direct influence on, and discernible in, their tone of voice. For example, if a person is feeling confident, then their breathing pattern will deepen, their IAP will increase, and their tone of voice will sound fuller and stronger. If they are feeling anxious, their breathing will become too shallow, their IAP will decrease, and their voice will sound thinner and weaker. Thus, based upon a person's mood being reflected in their breathing pattern- which is a fundamental influencing factor to both tone of voice and body language- their tone of voice will tend to convey the same sense of mood as their body language, and vice versa. Notably, hands-free devices which use a digital voice, such as Amazon.com’s "Alexa", tend to omit or limit the sound of IAP from the digital voice. The voice therefore lacks a human-like fullness of tone and sounds more robotic. Certain body postures can significantly influence the tone of voice. For instance, if someone is speaking whilst sitting in a chair with a hunched back, then this obstructs the breathing system, including the throat, and may muffle the tone of voice and convey the impression of being deenergised, unhappy or bored. Whereas if they were sitting up straight, this would allow the breathing system to be unobstructed and the tone of voice to be clearer, more energetic and focused. Attitude. Human communication is extremely complex and one must look at the whole in order to make any determination as to the attitudes being expressed.Body language is a major contributor to the attitude a person conveys to others. Albert Mehrabian maintains that during a conversation dealing with feelings and attitudes (i.e., like-dislike), 7% of what is communicated is via what is said, 38% is via tone of voice, and the majority, 55%, is via body language. This is also referred to as the ‘7%–38%–55% Rule’, and is often considered in studies of human communications. Whilst there is a wider debate about the percentage share which should be attributed to each of the three contributing factors, it is generally agreed upon that body language plays a fundamental role in determining the attitude a person conveys. A person may alter their body language in order to alter the attitude they convey; this may in turn influence the rapport they have with another person. Whether a formal or informal attitude is conveyed may influence the other person's response. For instance, if an interviewer conveys a formal attitude then this gives a more business like impression, which may encourage the interviewee to give more serious answers. This may develop a more professional rapport overall between them. Alternatively, if the interviewer conveys an informal attitude, then this conveys a more open and casual impression. This may be used to elicit a more open response from the interviewee, encourage them to give more revealing answers, and potentially develop a more personal rapport. Readiness. When you get onto a basketball court, all your teammates beside you, pumped up and ready to go, you form impressions of the other side, their strength and unity, their mood and body language. Of course the physicality element is stronger in sport, but something similar happens in politics, where you can read the mood of one side or the other simply by looking at them, sitting there all together. Body language can convey the impression of a readiness to take action. Whilst this is always observable in the physical sense it can be further categorised as being ‘readiness for physical exertion’ or ‘readiness for social interaction’. Such states of readiness influence the person’s whole body, tone of voice, and what impression they convey through their body language. A state of increased readiness may also be referred to as being in a state of high energy or intensity. Relative to states of unreadiness, most states of readiness typically involve a deeper breathing pattern, increased excitation of the nervous system, and an increased heart rate. Such physiological effects also influence the person’s skin and its fullness of appearance. In relative terms, a person’s skin will usually look fuller and more taut whilst in a state of readiness, and thinner and more flaccid in a state of unreadiness. A readiness for physical exertion typically means that these effects are increased further in terms of their intensity and visual prominence. Readiness for physical exertion. This is when a person prepares themselves for significant physical exertion. For example, before a sports person begins to play they have prepared themselves by warming up their body and psychologically focusing on the task ahead. They are thereby in a state of readiness to exert themselves. To an observer they appear to be ‘pumped up’. Their body language is suggestive that they are about to move quickly and more energetically, they appear physically larger, and their movements are often bigger. Aggressive posturing exaggerates, or mimics, the pumped up appearance in order to convey the impression of potential physical violence, which thereby intimidates someone. As such, and due to the fact that the torso is noticeably expanded more than usual, other colloquial terms for this form of preparation are 'bracing' or 'ballooning'; and due to the preloading of the body's muscular system for action it is sometimes referred to as 'loading up'. Aggressive posturing may also sometimes involve a clenching of the fists. Readiness for social interaction. Readiness for social interaction also involves a pumping up effect but in a different manner, which is usually less pronounced. Due to the different intention, in terms of the future actions, a readiness for social interaction may also involve a person preparing their head, neck and throat for speech, their arms for gesturing, and their legs and torso for the stance they intend to adopt while speaking i.e. preparing how to stand and what shifts of bodyweight to use before giving a speech. When a person is planning to socially interact their body language will in general become more open as they prepare to engage conversationally. This means that they will appear more confident with, and receptive to, another person. For example, if someone was seated with open body language, then they may face someone with their arms open and resting on the sides of the chair; whereas if they were sitting with closed body language they may sit facing away slightly from the other person with their arms folded. This may signal that they are uncomfortable or disinterested in the conversation. Each type of body language indicates a readiness for the conversation to progress in a particular way: either more willingly or more hesitantly. If a person was sitting forward in their chair, this may indicate a willingness to get up: in conversational terms this seated readiness posture may be interpreted as an eagerness to begin a project or other venture. Alternatively, it may simply signal a desire to conclude the conversation. A body language warm up routine consisting of power poses may also be used by people to prepare themselves for a social engagement. Harvard professor Amy Cuddy suggested in 2010 that two minutes of power posing - "standing tall, holding your arms out or toward the sky, or standing like Superman, with your hands on hips" - could increase confidence, but retracted the advice and stopped teaching it after a 2015 study was unable to replicate the effect. Universal vs. culture-specific. Scholars have long debated on whether body language, particularly facial expressions, are universally understood. In Darwin's (1872) evolutionary theory, he postulated that facial expressions of emotion are inherited. On the other hand, scholars have questioned if culture influences one's bodily expression of emotions. Broadly, the theories can be categorized into two models: Cultural equivalence model. The cultural equivalence model predicts that "individuals should be equally accurate in understanding the emotions of ingroup and outgroup members" (Soto & Levenson, 2009). This model is rooted in Darwin's evolutionary theory, where he noted that both humans and animals share similar postural expressions of emotions such as anger/aggression, happiness, and fear. These similarities support the evolution argument that social animals (including humans) have a natural ability to relay emotional signals with one another, a notion shared by several academics (Chevalier-Skolnikoff, 1974; Linnankoski, Laakso, Aulanko, & Leinonen, 1994). Where Darwin notes similarity in expression among animals and humans, the Cultural Equivalence Model notes similarity in expression across cultures in humans, even though they may be completely different. One of the strongest pieces of evidence that supports this model was a study conducted by Paul Ekman and Friesen (1971), where members of a preliterate tribe in Papua New Guinea reliably recognized the facial expressions of individuals from the United States. Culturally isolated and with no exposure to US media, there was no possibility of cross-cultural transmission to the Papuan tribesmen. Cultural advantage model. On the other hand, the cultural advantage model predicts that individuals of the same race "process the visual characteristics more accurately and efficiently than other-race faces". Other factors that increase accurate interpretation include familiarity with nonverbal accents. There are numerous studies that support both the cultural equivalence model and the cultural advantage model, but reviewing the literature indicates that there is a general consensus that seven emotions are universally recognized, regardless of cultural background: happiness, surprise, fear, anger, contempt, disgust, and sadness. Recently, scholars have shown that the expressions of pride and shame are universal. Tracy and Robins (2008) concluded that the expression of pride includes an expanded posture of the body with the head tilted back, with a low-intensity face and a non-Duchenne smile (raising the corner of the mouth). The expression of shame includes the hiding of the face, either by turning it down or covering it with the hands. Applications. Fundamentally, body language is seemed as an involuntary and unconscious phenomena that adds to the process of communication. Despite that, there have been certain areas where the conscious harnessing of body language – both in action and comprehension – have been useful. The use of body language has also seen an increase in application and use commercially, with large volumes of books and guides published designed to teach people how to be conscious of body language, and how to use it to benefit them in certain scenarios. The use of body language can be seen in a wide variety of fields. Body languages has seen applications in instructional teaching in areas such as second-language acquisition and also to enhance the teaching of subjects like mathematics. A related use of body language is as a substitution to verbal language to people who lack the ability to use that, be it because of deafness or aphasia. Body language has also been applied in the process of detecting deceit through micro-expressions, both in law enforcement and even in the world of poker. Sometimes, Language Barrier could be such a problem to foreign people. Therefore, body language would be very beneficial to be used in communication. Instructional teaching. Second-language acquisition. The importance of body language in second-language acquisition was inspired by the fact that to successfully learn a language is to achieve discourse, strategic, and sociolinguistic competencies. Sociolinguistic competence includes understanding the body language that aids the use of a particular language. This is usually also highly culturally influenced. As such, a conscious ability to recognize and even perform this sort of body language is necessary to achieve fluency in a language beyond the discourse level. The importance of body language to verbal language use is the need to eliminate ambiguity and redundancy in comprehension. Pennycook (1985) suggests to limit the use of non-visual materials to facilitate the teaching of a second language to improve this aspect of communication. He calls this being not just bilingual but also 'bi-kinesic'. Enhancing teaching. Body language can be a useful aid not only in teaching a second language, but also in other areas. The idea behind using it is as a nonlinguistic input. It can be used to guide, hint, or urge a student towards the right answer. This is usually paired off with other verbal methods of guiding the student, be it through confirmation checks or modified language use. Tai in his 2014 paper provides a list of three main characteristic of body language and how they influence teaching. The features are intuition, communication, and suggestion. Detecting deceit. Law enforcement. Despite the absence of evidence indicating that non-verbal lie detection works (whether by law enforcement or others) and its rejection by the scholarly community as an effective way to detect lies, law enforcement still relies on it. Numerous Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) "Law Enforcement Bulletins" have addressed body language as a purported tool for "evaluation truthfulness and detecting deception." Another side of body language is that of the investigators themselves. The body language of the members of law enforcement might influence the accuracy of eyewitness accounts. Poker. The game of poker involves not only an understanding of probability, but also the competence of reading and analyzing the body language of the opponents. A key component of poker is to be able to bluff opponents. To spot bluffing, players must have the ability to spot the individual "tics" of their opponents, known in poker as their "tells". Players also have to look out for signs that an opponent is doing well. Kinesics. Kinesics is the study and interpretation of nonverbal communication related to the movement of any part of the body or the body as a whole; in layman's terms, it is the study of body language. However, Ray Birdwhistell, who is considered the founder of this area of study, never used the term "body language", and did not consider it appropriate. He argued that what can be conveyed with the body does not meet the linguist's definition of language. Birdwhistell pointed out that "human gestures differ from those of other animals in that they are polysemic, that they can be interpreted to have many different meanings depending on the communicative context in which they are produced". And, he "resisted the idea that 'body language' could be deciphered in some absolute fashion". He also indicated that "every body movement must be interpreted broadly and in conjunction with every other element in communication". Despite that, "body language" is still more widely used than "kinesics". Dr. Maziar Mir in his book Body Language of Iran, has defined body language as follows: to all gestures, postures, movements, human behavior, body gestures, and even model and gesture of speaking, or all postures of making sounds without making a sound that is based on The age, sex, height, weight, and social or geographical status of human beings are referred to as body language or body language or body language or non-verbal communication.

very approachable indication

1234-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2145387

Kisekae Set System (commonly known as KiSS) is a blending of art with computers originally designed to allow creation of virtual "paper dolls". Kisekae is short for "kisekae ningyou"; a Japanese term meaning "dress-up dolls". Unlike "computer art" which creates or displays traditional art via a computer, KiSS uses the computer as the medium, allowing the art to be not only animated, but also interactive. Availability. KiSS is an Open standard which has to some extent been implemented on many platforms, including several PDAs. It has also been implemented in Java and on the web. History. KiSS originated in Japan in 1991 with "dolls" based on shōjo manga characters. The original dolls, a series of simple, static images, could be moved about and layered on top of one another to look as if the doll image was wearing the clothing. Using computer graphics had the advantage over traditional paper dolls in allowing multiple layers to move in unison, including visually separate pieces, giving an illusion of depth not possible with physical paper. The initial viewer software was designed for NEC PC-9800 series using a palette of 16 colours to display the doll. Shortly after, an enhanced standard was put forward (General Specification 2 known as 'KiSS/GS2') which included support for VGA cards and 256 or multiple 16 colour palettes. This standard is still the basis of KiSS, but several additional specifications have been incorporated into viewers since then, in particular "French KiSS", generally called FKiSS, for controlling interactivity and animation and "Cherry KiSS" (i.e. CKiSS) for 32-bit "true" colour support. By the late 1990s KiSS had spread from the Japanese BBS communities internationally via the Internet with artists creating "dolls", programmers creating support tools, and fans appearing worldwide. Note that although KiSS sets are often referred to generically as 'dolls' they are not confined to dress-up — in fact they can be anything and there are "build-your-own" faces, wedding cakes, dollhouses, battleships, as well as puzzles, games and much more. Nonetheless such "unusual" sets are sometimes referred to as "aberrant" KiSS. Format. A KiSS set consists of many files of a number of different formats. These are packaged for distribution as a single set or 'doll' in LZH format (a preferred archive format in Japan) which viewer programs can read as a whole to obtain the individual files. Most files are 'cel' files which are raw, uncompressed graphics data analogous to animation cels. KiSS/GS2 specification cels also require a KCF (KiSS Colour File) as a palette, but CKiSS specification cels do not. A KCF also can control background colour and contain multiple palettes that can be swapped for lighting and colour change effects. All KiSS binary files (KCF, standard and CKiSS cels) since KiSS/GS2 share a common 32 byte binary header record identifying the size, type and format of KiSS data they contain. A configuration file is also required to control field size, layering, cel position, use of palettes, and interaction and animation events. In addition Midi files for music and WAV files for sound clips may be used, and generally some form of text documentation is included by the artist. Expansions. KiSS sets are allowed to acquire resources from other KiSS sets by a process called 'Expansion'. This allows new versions of a doll without incorporating the original cells into the new set, meaning that earlier versions did not have to be replaced, and different artists could add to the doll without confusion as to who the original artist was. This dates from some of the earliest viewers, but the details of loading an expansion set remain somewhat viewer dependent. Extensions. A number of features have been added to KiSS but never formally incorporated into the main KiSS format. For compatibility and to hide them from viewers that don't support them they are disguised as comments in the configuration file. Each type of extension (except user grouping) was initially introduced in Japan, however all (except Cherry KiSS) have later been extended by international viewers. French KiSS. 'French' KiSS (or 'FKiSS') is an event driven scripting language created as an experimental add-on to the KiSS/GS2 specifications. It was introduced in Japan to allow animation and greater interactivity in KiSS. It was the first extension, and intended only for testing but it proved so popular that it became entrenched as is. All FKiSS directives appear preceded in the first column of their configuration line by: The ";" normally indicates the beginning of a comment, which originally hid the directive if a viewer didn't handle FKiSS although it is now standard in all viewers. FKiSS itself has been extended several times: Initialization Tags. These are additions to the cell definitions to control start up properties. They appear as a comment at the end of the cell definition that immediately starts with a % and a code. The first (%t - to control initial transparency) was added when the first level of FKiSS was finalized. Other properties added with FKiSS4 include display status (%u), clickability (%g) and offset overrides (%x and %y). Pragmas. These are comment added to the configuration to suggest to the viewer program how best to automatically display the set. Originally used in Japan to indicate other KiSS sets of which the current one is an expansion (;INCLUDE -- i.e. where to find referenced resources not included in the set), later viewers use them to indicate optimal settings for the set being loaded (;HINT). Cherry KiSS. Commonly called 'CKiSS', this is an extension to the binary data header record, and unlike other extensions makes no changes to the configuration file. It is a specification allowing a cell file to contain raw 24-bit colour data and an 8 bit alpha channel for variable transparency. CKiSS cells tend to use a lot of disk space compared to palette-based cels, and do not compress well, so they are used sparingly by most artists. Groupings. User groupings were added along with FKiSS4 to simplify controlling large numbers of cells (or uniquely identify specific cells) for testing and animation. Creating KiSS. There are many programs on most platforms which can convert from standard graphics formats (most commonly BMP, GIF or PSD files) to KiSS cel and KCF files, allowing the artist to create the original images with any freeware or proprietary graphics program. In addition, GIMP is a fully featured graphics program which can open and save CEL files directly, leaving no need for conversion. The configuration file is written with a text editor (standard as part of any Operating System software). Once the basic files are created a KiSS viewer is used to display and fine tune the set, then an archiver with LZH capability is used for packaging. All the software needed is freely available on the internet, as are detailed tutorials for KiSS creation. Community. The modern KiSS community on the internet resembles the dolling community with which there is a degree of overlap, though the two are distinct and each is protective of its own art. However, since KiSS art is more specialized the KiSS community is centralized around the largest archive of dolls on the internet, the BiG KiSS Page. Unfortunately in recent years bandwidth costs have forced the BKP to allow most doll downloads by subscription only, which has had negative impacts on the size of the active community. Because being able to dress a doll implies being able to undress as well there has always been a subgenre of 'adult' KiSS which exists independently of the main community.

kiss society

11824-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=716499

The Kobuk River ("Kuuvak" in Iñupiaq) (also Kooak, Kowak, Kubuk, Kuvuk, or Putnam) is a river located in the Arctic region of northwestern Alaska in the United States. It is approximately long. Draining a basin with an area of , the Kobuk River is among the largest rivers in northwest Alaska with widths of up to 1500 feet (460 m) and flow at a speed of 3–5 miles per hour (5–8 km per hour) in its lower and middle reaches. The average elevation for the Kobuk River Basin is above sea level, ranging from near sea level to 11,400 feet (3,475 m). Topography includes low, rolling mountains, plains and lowlands, moderately high rugged mountainous land, and some gently sloped plateaus and highlands. The river contains an exceptional population of sheefish ("Stenodus leucicthys"), a large predatory whitefish within the salmon family, found throughout the Arctic that spawns in the river's upper reaches during the autumn. A portion of the vast Western Arctic Caribou Herd utilize the Kobuk river valley as winter range. Course. It is commonly assumed that the Kobuk River issues from Walker Lake. However, the headwaters of the river are to the east of Walker Lake in the Endicott Mountains within the Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve, just north of the Arctic Circle. It flows briefly south, descending from the mountains through two spectacular canyons (Upper and Lower Kobuk Canyon), then flows generally west along the southern flank of the western Brooks Range in a broad wetlands valley. In the valley it passes a connected community of inland native villages, including Kobuk, Shungnak, and Ambler, where it receives the Ambler River. In the river's lower reaches, where it passes between the Baird and Waring mountains, it traverses Kobuk Valley National Park, the location of the Kobuk Sand Dunes. It then passes Kiana. The river enters its broad delta approximately 10 miles (16 km) southwest of Kiana. The delta is located in The Hotham Inlet of the Kotzebue Sound approximately 30 miles (48 km) southeast of Kotzebue. History. The Kobuk's Inuit name "Kuuvak" means "great river". It was first transcribed by John Simpson in 1850 as "Kowuk." Explored by Lt. G. M. Stoney, USN, in 1883–1886, who wrote the name "Ku-buck," but proposed that it be called "Putnam" in honor of Master Charles Putnam, USN, officer of the Rodgers, who was carried to sea on the ice and lost in 1880. Lt. J. C. Cantwell, USRCS, also explored the river in 1884 and 1885 and spelled the name "Koowak" on his map and "Kowak" in his text. Ivan Petroff spelled the river name "Kooak" in 1880, and W. H. Dall spelled it "Kowk" in 1870. Lt. H. T. Allen, USA, obtained the Koyukon Indian name in 1885 which he spelled "Holooatna" and "Holoatna." Native peoples have hunted, fished, and lived along the Kobuk for at least 12,500 years and it has long been an important transportation route for inland peoples. In 1898 the river was the scene of a brief gold rush called the Kobuk River Stampede, which involved about 2,000 prospectors in total. Hearing of gold along the Kobuk and its tributaries, miners set out from Seattle and San Francisco on ships to reach the mouth of the Kobuk. Upon arrival they were informed by native people that it was a scam, and only about 800 traveled upriver. The result was that little or no gold was found, and only on a few tributaries of the river. In 1980 the United States Congress designated of the river downstream from Walker Lake as the Kobuk Wild and Scenic River as part of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System. The river is considered an outstanding destination for recreational floating. Climate. The Kobuk River Basin is located just north of the Arctic Circle and has a continental climate. The summers are short and warm, while winters are long and cold. The mean annual temperature in the middle and upper portions of the Kobuk Valley is -6 °C, and the mean temperature in July is 15 °C. An average of 21 inches (53 cm) of precipitation falls in the basin. However, actual precipitation can range from 15 to 40 inches (40–100 cm) with greater amounts falling in the upper reaches of the river basin. The Kobuk River Basin is very sensitive to changes in climate. Arctic climates have warmed at approximately twice the global rate in the last several decades. Records of air-temperature from 1961 to 1990 logged at the latitudes of the Kobuk River, show a warming trend of about 1.4 °F (0.78 °C) per decade. The warming has been the strongest in the winter and spring months. Climate change is presently considered the most severe environmental stress in the Kobuk River Basin and throughout Alaska. As a specific example, climate change will cause widespread thawing of permafrost in the discontinuous zone and significant changes in the continuous zone. Thawing permafrost can lead to a landscape of irregular depressions (thermokarst) due to subsiding soils. This can alter drainage patterns and even change the course of streams; whereas other areas could become swamp-like. In addition, slope stability will decrease and permafrost degradation could lead to erosion of river banks resulting in an increase in sediment transport by the rivers. These physical changes will impact nutrient cycling and biological processes within the basin as well. Geology and soils. Permafrost regions along the Kobuk River are shown in the accompanying figure. Geomorphology. The Kobuk River is a periglacial river, fed by a remnant glacial lake (Walker Lake) and mountain snowmelt in the Brooks Range. It cuts a channel through a landscape otherwise dominated by permafrost. The Kobuk's current form and structure is a direct result of several stages of erosion and channel formation following the last glacial retreat. As the glacier first retreated and melted, large amounts of highly erodible, fine-grained sediment dropped out in relatively high mountain valleys. The availability of this fine-grained, loose sediment combined with a high gradient to turn a newly forming Kobuk River into a fast-working sediment transport system. The river picked up glacial till from its upper reaches and transported it downstream until the gradient diminished. When the river encountered flatter ground, it deposited its sediment load resulting in the creation of broad, flat floodplains, alluvial fans, and meander bends through aggradation. After the first stage of aggradation and sediment transport, the Kobuk began a new phase of erosion and landform development. The river exhausted its supply of easily erodible sediment upstream, thus decreasing its sediment load and increasing its load carrying capacity downstream. With more capacity downstream, the river began to incise into the alluvial fan it previously created, moving sediment stored for a long time on its original floodplains to newer floodplains even further downstream. Further down in the Kobuk watershed, the river worked in concert with the wind to create one of the more famous landforms in Alaska: the Kobuk Dunes. These large sand dunes are the modern ancestor of alluvial deposits that became shaped and dominated by an exchange of aeolian and fluvial processes. In moister climates, the river has more water, and thus more power, and cuts down through a sandy bed. In times of drier climate, wind dominates and blows a lot of sediment into a weaker fluvial system, leading to aggradation and floodplain re-distribution. Currently, the Kobuk River in its middle and lower reaches is an anastomizing stream, with several braided channels in places, wide migrating meander bends, and oxbow lakes. It is controlled by yearly cycles of freeze and thaw, much like its surrounding landscape. For six months of the year, the river is largely still, frozen on top by a thick layer of ice. In the spring, warmer temperatures cause this ice to begin to melt. But the resulting process is not gradual. Rather, the pressure of melting ice from upstream builds up upon ice "dams" in the river's channel, eventually causing an "ice break-up" event, in which a flood of ice and water moves powerfully downstream. These annual spring break-up events have several important consequences. First, the river has deeply undercut and eroded banks, caused by large, fast-moving chunks of ice carving out the river's channel before it begins spilling out onto its floodplain, which is 1 to 6 miles (1.6-9.7 km) wide except at the confluence of major tributaries. Second, the river moves laterally very quickly and dramatically, re-inventing side channels every year as its secondary streams become drowned in each yearly flood by an overwhelming amount of sediment. Lastly, since the river is surrounded mostly by permafrost and because during the spring break-up event there are still large parts of frozen ground close to its banks, floods often transports large amounts of fine sediment across broad expanses of floodplain in thin sheets of water that slide easily across the frozen ground. These characteristics also translate into a relatively variable habitat for the Kobuk's native species. Farthest west, the Kobuk empties into Hotham Inlet, the easterly arm of Kotzebue Sound. During recent geologic times however, when sea level was lower, the Noatak, Kobuk, and Selawik Rivers were joined. Now, they have separate deltas with many lakes and swamps and intricately webbed channel systems. The deltas are composed primarily of silt, sand, and gravel. Surface water and hydrology. The Kobuk River is ice covered 6 months of the year and in general, late October to late May is a period of relatively low flow. Annually, the hydrograph reflects two flood peaks: the first is associated with spring break-up and the second, a lesser peak, is associated with late summer precipitation. As the snowpack begins to melt toward the end of May, flow in the Kobuk River increases with most of the runoff occurring during June. Flow during the summer (July through September) is dominated by variable precipitation events. Most of the major tributaries of the Kobuk River flow from the north, draining the mountains in the southern Brooks Range. From east to west, these include the Reed River, Beaver Creek, Mauneluk River, Kogoluktuk River, Shungnak River, Ambler River, Akillik River, Tutuksuk River, Salmon River, and the Squirrel River. Within Kobuk Valley National Park, are the Kallarichuk, Kaliguricheark, and Adillik rivers. All of their headwaters are in the Baird Mountains. The major tributaries flowing north from the Waring Mountains are the Pah River, Pick River, and Niaktuvik Creek. The Pah River drains a lowland area of the basin. Most major tributaries draining high relief areas have higher unit runoff than tributaries draining the lower relief areas. Walker Lake is at an altitude of in the headwaters of the Kobuk River. Other surface water features within the basin include Lake Selby, Nutuvukti Lake, and Norutak Lake. Additionally, numerous small lakes and ponds occur in the lowlands along the river, some formed as detached oxbows of the meandering river and others formed where permafrost has melted and caused depressions. Flow records are available from USGS monitoring stations at Ambler and Kiana. Average annual flow for the Kobuk River at Ambler has ranged from to over the period of record 1966–78, with peak discharge ranging from to . Near Kiana, average annual flow has ranged from to for the period 1977–99 with peaks of to . Peak flows can result from large volumes of water released when ice jams fail. Flow records are also available for Dahl Creek, a tributary of the Kobuk River with a confluence near the town of Kobuk.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10586320

Tri-X is a black and white photographic film produced by Eastman Kodak Company, and distributed by Kodak Alaris. The combination of hand held cameras and high speed Tri-X film was transformative for photojournalism and for cinema. Overview. Introduced around 1940 in sheets rated at ASA daylight 200 and tungsten 160, it was one of Kodak's first high-speed (for the time) black and white films. Tri-X was released in 35 mm and 120 formats in 1954. Currently it is available in two speeds, ISO 320/26° (320TXP) and 400/27° (400TX). Tri-X 400 is the more common of the two, available in 24- and 36-exposure rolls of 35 mm and rolls of 120 as well as 50 and 100 ft bulk rolls of 35 mm. Tri-X 320 is available in 4×5", 5×7", and 8×10" sheets. Tri-X 400 is usually rated at ISO 400 when processed in standard developers and remains among the fastest black and white films today. Push processing Tri-X to a higher "exposure index" of EI 800 in a standard developer yields very good results, while further pushing to EI 1600 requires more sophisticated processing. A popular method for pushing Tri-X film is using highly diluted developers with little or no agitation and extended development times. This method which is referred to as "stand" or "semi-stand" development, can allow the film to be pushed to speeds up to EI 3200 or 6400. In 2004 Kodak celebrated 50 years of Tri-X's introduction on November 1, 1954 in 35 and 120 formats. Tri-X panchromatic film was once one of the most popular films used by photojournalists and many amateurs. It was manufactured by Eastman Kodak in the U.S., Kodak Canada, and Kodak Ltd in the UK. Kodak data-sheets once recommended different processing times depending on where the film was manufactured. Its sales declined in the 1970s and 1980s due to the falling price and increasing popularity of color film. Since the advent of digital photography, Tri-X has all but fallen out of use in newspaper journalism, though it remains popular in documentary journalism. Tri-X has undergone a number of minor engineering changes during its long history. An early change in ASA (ISO) speed from 200 to 400, around 1960, was due to a change in the ASA standard rather than the film. In 2007, Tri-X was extensively re-engineered, receiving the new designation 400TX in place of TX or TX400, and became finer-grained. The amount of silver in the film stock was reduced. Tri-X also exists as a reversal film for the 16 mm and Super-8 cine film formats. The speed for tungsten lighting (3200 K) is ISO 160 and for daylight ISO 200 when processed as reversal. It can also be processed as a negative at a small loss of speed while the grain will be slightly increased.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11654634

The Mongstad scandal was a crisis in the Norwegian oil company Statoil in 1987–88. The company exceeded the NOK 8 billion budget by NOK 6 billion in upgrading the oil refinery at Mongstad. Retrospectively the reasons for the overexpenditure were attributed to bad planning, technical miscalculations and bad project management. The executives in Statoil were also accused of inability to act and for withholding information from the Norwegian Ministry of Petroleum and Energy. At the time the incident aroused considerable media attention. The first warnings of a budget overspend came on 25 September 1987, when the over-expenditure was estimated at NOK 3,8 billion. On 20 November most of the board of directors had to resign. The board was led by chairman Inge Johansen and deputy chairman Vidkunn Hveding since 1984. The other board members who also resigned were Thor Andreassen (member since 1978), Fredrik Thoresen (member since 1984), Guttorm Hansen (member since 1986) and Toril V. Lundestad (member since 1986). The only board members not to resign were the three employee representatives. Two days later chief executive officer Arve Johnsen also resigned, at the time the only CEO in the history of the company to resign. In January 1988 reports of a possibility of the overexpenditure accumulating another billion NOK were presented. By April the anticipated overspend was believed to be in the order of NOK 8 billion, although the final sum came to NOK 6 billion. The enormous shock effect of the Mongstad scandal should be understood in the light of the social and political situation of Norway in 1988. Statoil was at the time a limited company wholly owned by the Norwegian Ministry of Petroleum and Energy, who managed the entire profit. After the company had started to make a profit around 1980 it had become the guarantor for welfare in the country in the minds of people. The company's transfers to government treasury coffers exceeded that of income tax at the time. CEO Arve Johnsen was the man who could do nothing wrong, the Labour Party man who controlled Statoil even during a conservative government. Prime Minister Kåre Willoch's attempt to clip Statoil's wings a few years earlier had failed. And at the same time came the bankruptcy in the largest bank, Den norske Creditbank that had announced the start of the fall of the Yuppie age. The media attention on the Mongstad scandal in 1988 was enormous, and was front-page material almost daily. The tabloid newspapers battles fiercely in trying to visualise the, at the time, almost unimaginable size of NOK 6 billion. The sum was creatively recalculated in kindergarten places, retirement home places, fighter jets etc. Sometimes the coverage became absurd with parallels such as "Dagbladet"'s example of 6 billion = enough to buy one AG3 assault rifle for each of the country's 4,5 million inhabitants. For years the term "one mong" was used as a synonym for the number 6 billion.

closing amount

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55998514

Breakout is a 2013 Canadian action thriller film written and directed by Damian Lee starring Dominic Purcell and Brendan Fraser. It was released to straight-to-DVD in the USA on September 17, 2013. Plot. In the Ontario province of Canada, Jack Damson (Brendan Fraser) is an ecologically conscious father. During a protest in the woods by Jack and his group, Jack notices a logger viciously assaulting a woman from Jack's group. Jack tries to stop the logger, and when the logger tries to fight Jack, he ends up knocking the logger down. The logger accidentally hits his head on a rock, and sustains a fatal head injury. Jack is imprisoned for that. The logger who was killed worked for a powerful company called Conpine, which hates environmentalists. Now, 8 years later, Jack's wife Maria (Amy Price-Francis), who is also his attorney, is living with their 17-year-old daughter Jenny (Holly Deveaux) and 13-year-old son Mikey (Christian Martyn). Jack's friend Chuck (Daniel Kash), a fellow environmentalist, invites Jenny and Mikey to go camping in the woods. Jenny has become bitter during the past 8 years. Jenny thinks that Jack loves his cause more than he loves her. Maria visits Jack, and says that Conpine is offering him a deal -- Jack will be freed in two weeks if he consults for Conpine, and no longer slams Conpine in the media. Maria says that she'll give herself and Jack another chance together if he agrees to the deal, so Jack agrees, even though he's not a fan of the deal because he doesn't like Conpine. A man named Tommy Baxter (Dominic Purcell) travels, in his pick-up truck, with his mentally handicapped younger brother Kenny (Ethan Suplee) from Georgia to a cabin that Tommy has rented for them in Ontario -- in the same forest that Chuck, Jenny, and Mikey are camping in. Tommy and Kenny had an abusive mother, who was a hooker. She regularly beat them with a fireplace poker, and turned tricks in the bed next to them. Now, Tommy's temper bubbles to the surface, and he kills a convenience store clerk named Mack (Adnan Pjevic), because Mack callously made fun of Kenny. Later, the cabin's landlord, Harkin (Layton Morrison), shows up and tries to evict them from the cabin because he rented it to someone else after Tommy's check bounced, so Tommy kills Harkin too, but Tommy is spotted by Mikey. Tommy, who has a rifle, pursues Jenny and Mikey. Jenny and Mikey find Chuck, and tell him what happened. Chuck knows he has to get Jenny and Mikey out of the woods. But Tommy takes Chuck hostage, ties him to the front of the pick-up truck, and orders him to tell Jenny and Mikey to come to him, or Tommy will kill Chuck. But Chuck tells them to run instead. Jenny loses her cell phone, and a confused Kenny finds the phone and calls Maria, believing that she's his mother. After Kenny hangs up, Maria calls 911, and the cops coldly tell Maria that Jenny and Mikey can't be considered missing until they've been missing for 24 hours. A frantic Maria visits Jack, and tells him what's happening. With Maria's help, a desperate Jack escapes from prison to do what the cops won't do -- try to rescue Jenny and Mikey. Kenny keeps calling Maria, who goes along with Kenny's conversations with her in order to get information, and Kenny promises to keep Jenny and Mikey safe. A pair of cops show up at Maria's house, and one of them says "Mrs. Damson, any help you can provide locating your husband--" Maria cuts him off, angrily saying "What about my children?" The cop says "Mrs. Damson--" She cuts him off again, angrily saying "What about helping them? You weren't too quick on that, were you?" The cop says "Mrs. Damson, you can be charged as an accessory." Maria says "You go ahead. You charge me, and see where it gets you." Maria, angry that the cops care more about finding Jack instead of helping Jenny and Mikey, slams the door in their faces. Jack finds Chuck, who tells him that Tommy and Kenny are looking for Jenny and Mikey, because Mikey saw Tommy kill someone. Jack frees Chuck. When Chuck finds Kenny and tries to take the phone away from him, Kenny kills Chuck, and Kenny immediately feels devastated about it, because he never actually wanted to kill anyone. Jack, who has a shotgun, finds Jenny and Mikey, and they find Chuck dead. They try to get across a nearby river on a canoe, but Tommy shoots a hole in the canoe, and Jack, Jenny, and Mikey end up in the rapids. Tommy fires at them, but he misses, and Kenny doesn't want Tommy to kill anyone else. Jack and Jenny get out of the river, but they can't find Mikey. And then they see Tommy dragging Mikey out of the river, and Tommy revives Mikey. Tommy wants to use Mikey to draw Jack out. Tommy tells Mikey to call out for Jack, or Mikey will be killed. Jack, who has told Jenny to run, sneaks up on Tommy, and tries to stab him, but Tommy stops him. Jack manages to stab Tommy through his right hand, and Jack escapes with Mikey. They search for Jenny, but Kenny gets to her first. Maria calls the phone, and Kenny lets her talk to Jenny. Maria tells Jenny how she has to talk to Kenny. Kenny promises to get Jenny out of there safely. But Jack jumps Kenny and starts beating him up, while Jenny tells Jack to stop, because he doesn't understand that Kenny is mentally handicapped. Jack, Jenny, and Mikey escape up a hill when Tommy fires at them. Later, night is approaching. Jenny apologizes to Jack for not visiting him in prison. At the same time, Kenny prays for Jenny and Mikey to be safe. On the next morning, Tommy resumes his hunt, while Jack, Jenny, and Mikey keep running. They come upon a park ranger, but Tommy fires a shot that kills the ranger. Jack uses the ranger's gun to fire back at Tommy. As Jack turns to run, Tommy shoots him in the back. And Mikey's leg gets caught in a bear trap that was placed by poachers. Tommy picks up the ranger's gun, and finds Jenny and Mikey. Tommy aims his rifle at them, and Kenny steps in the way to keep Tommy from shooting them. Jack comes up behind Tommy and stabs him, causing Tommy to accidentally shoot Kenny. Tommy collapses and dies. With his last bit of strength, Kenny helps Jack and Jenny free Mikey's leg from the bear trap. And then Kenny passes away. Jenny, shaken up by it, says "I'm sorry, Kenny. I'm sorry, Kenny. I'm sorry." Jack embraces Jenny and Mikey, and Jack is later pardoned for what he was accused of 8 years ago. Production. The film was produced under the working title "Split Decision" before the title was changed to "Breakout".

the final shred

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39319124

is a Japanese role-playing game for the PlayStation 3 released on November 1, 2012, in Japan. It is the fourteenth core product in the "Tales" series and was developed and published by Bandai Namco Games. The game was localized for North America and Europe in August 2014. The game takes place after "Tales of Xillia" and follows Ludger Will Kresnik; the Kresnik family has the ability to infiltrate and destroy parallel dimensions. Since the spirit Origin is unable to support the abundance of souls, a famous company hires Ludger to destroy these dimensions to keep the world in balance. The game's central theme is . Gameplay. "Tales of Xillia 2" consists primarily of two major areas: the field map and the battle screen. The field map is a realistically scaled 3D environment where the player character traverses and interacts with non-player characters, items, or mob avatars. On the field map, character interactions between the party can also be viewed in the form of a sketch story; these sketch stories are referred to as skits and consist of animated portraits and voice acting. When coming into contact with a mob avatar, the environment switches to the battle screen, a 3D representation of an area in which the player commands the characters in battles against the CPU-controlled mobs. During battle sequences, the game uses the "Cross Dual Raid Linear Motion Battle System", a similar system to the prequel. Four characters from the party are chosen to battle and characters not controlled by a player are controlled by artificial intelligence with instructions set by the players beforehand. The enemy mob's number, appearances and behavior vary and are dependent on the mob's avatar. Both sides' objective is to deplete the other side's health points (HP) using attacks and skills. When a party member's health falls to zero, the party member faints until revived with items, by a healer, or resting at an inn on the field map; Mobs with zero HP disappear from the arena. Killing all the mobs will yield experience points, items, and allows the player to return to the field map. If all four participating party members are defeated, a game over will occur. Battles take place in real-time. Player actions include moving, dashing, standard attacks, and artes; artes are special attacks which consume "Technical Points" (TP), the in-game synonym for magic points. Dashing, standard attacks, and artes usage are also restricted by the "Assault Counter" (AC), a synonym for action points. Party members are able to link to each other to perform unified attacks called linked artes. While linked, the supporting partner provides unique abilities to the character, while also increasing the Linked Artes Gauge. When the Linked Artes Gauge is full, the player character can enter Over Limit which gives them immunity to stagger, unlimited AC, and allows them to use linked artes in succession. Plot. The game takes place a year after "Tales of Xillia". Under orders from her father to find the mystical Land of Canaan, Elle Mel Marta boards a train which is hijacked before its departure. Ludger Will Kresnik follows her onboard and works with Jude Mathis to retake the train. The train crashes and the resulting medical treatment from Spirius Corporation puts Ludger in debt. Aware of the Kresnik family's ability to destroy parallel dimensions, Spirius CEO, Bisley Karscy Bakur, hires Ludger for this purpose since the spirit Origin can no longer sustain the abundance of souls in the worlds. At the same time, Ludger searches for his brother, Julius Will Kresnik, who has been declared the train hijacking's instigator. As Ludger works for Spirius, he is joined by the protagonists from "Tales of Xillia" in addition to Gaius and Muzét. It is slowly revealed that the world's current predicament is a millennia aged trial arranged by the spirits Origin, Maxwell, and Chronos, as a test on whether humanity was worth preserving. The first person to reach the Land of Canaan will have a wish granted by Origin. As part of the trial, Chronos gave the Kresnik their powers called Chromatus; overusing the Chromatus turns the user into a divergence catalyst which is the core of a parallel dimension. If the number of dimensions reach a million, Origin will release a miasma which will kill everything but spirits. In addition, a special Kresnik is born every generation with the power to take items from parallel dimensions and is dubbed the Key of Kresnik. To reach Canaan, a Key of Kresnik must obtain five objects, called Waymarkers, from parallel dimension. Having used Elle's Key of Kresnik powers, Ludger is able to gather four Waymarkers. In search of the final Waymarker, the party learns that Elle originates from a parallel dimension and her father, Victor, is a Waymarker and that dimension's Ludger. Victor tries to kill Ludger to replace him in the prime dimension but is killed instead. With all five Waymarkers gathered, the entrance to Canaan is revealed. Bisley takes Elle with him to Canaan, intending to use Origin's wish to enslave spirits. With Julius' sacrifice, the party follows and defeats Bisley. The party uses Origin's wish to destroy all parallel dimensions and Ludger is given a choice resulting in two endings: If Ludger does nothing, Elle's transformation into a divergence catalyst causes her to disappear with the other dimensions. Years later, Ludger is the CEO of Spirius and meets Lara Mel Marta during a business deal. If Ludger offers his life to save Elle's, Ludger disappears with the other dimensions. Years later, an adult Elle highlights the party's accomplishments. Development and release. On May 9, 2012, Weekly Shōnen Jump announced a "Tales" game will be revealed on June 2, 2012. On May 14, 2012, Bandai Namco Games opened a website counting down to the reveal. Hideo Baba described the game as more modernized than past games and the phrase "Are you prepared to destroy the world for the girl?" as a tie to the game's plot. On the reveal date, "Tales of Xillia 2" was revealed along with its new characters and battle system. The game will also have a bundle with a specially designed DualShock 3. The day after, the official site revealed the game's central theme is revealed to be . On June 27, 2012, Baba announced the game's release date for November 1, 2012 during a live broadcast. On July 18, 2012, Baba stated there were no Western localization plans at the time but expressed interest in localizing the game to complement with the prequel's English localization. Between August 1 and 7, Bandai Namco Games hosted a survey on Famitsu to determine which version of the game's demo will be playable at an event. On September 23, 2012, the games theme song is revealed to be "Song 4 U" by Ayumi Hamasaki. On July 6, 2013, a localization for North America and Europe was announced. The localization was announced to be released on August 19 and 22 in North America and Europe, respectively. Conception. The concept for "Tales of Xillia 2" originated during the development of the original "Xillia", but did not enter active development, instead undergoing extensive conceptual work in preparation for production should it be called for. Active development began in 2011, after "Xillia" was completed. The game was the first mainline "Tales" title to be developed by Bandai Namco Studio, a studio founded as an in-house development environment after Namco Tales Studio was absorbed into its parent company in 2011. Baba conceived the game's plot while thinking about "Tales of Xillia"s plot and imagined what the history and aftermath of "Xillia" was like. Because a large proportion of the world and lore of "Xillia" had only been referred to in speech or text, the decision was made to create a sequel, with a central theme inspired by the choices that must be made by people in both casual and dire situations. A choice mechanic was implemented to help players form a deeper connection with Ludger. Several concepts for alternate timelines went unused, and the original plot differed substantially from that in the final product. The script was handled by multiple writers: Naoki Yamamoto, who had handled "Xillia"s side events, wrote the main scenario. Daisuke Kiga, "Xillia"s main scenario writer, handled the character scenarios. Other writers also contributed to add to the variety of the script. A silent protagonist was chosen so the main character would feel like a full extension of the player. Ludger's transforming abilities and debt needed to be created through cooperation between the writers and designers. Downloadable content. "Tales of Xillia"s downloadable content is usable in "Tales of Xillia 2". Aside from the prequel's content, "Tales of Xillia 2" offers new costumes for the playable characters. A preorder bonus for the game is a costume of Emil Castagnier for Ludger. The first print of the game contains a Yuri Lowell costume for Jude and an Asbel Lhant costume for Milla. On the game's release date, a "Code Geass" costume set was made available. On November 8, a hairstyle and a sports theme set were made available. On November 15 there were four sets of DLC released: a "Puella Magi Madoka Magica" costume set for Milla, Elize, and Leia; A school themed set and a swimsuit set were released for Ludger, Gaius, and Muzét; and a set of doll attachments were released. On November 22, a "Tales" set for Ludger, Gaius, and Muzét were released to make them resemble other characters from the "Tales "series. On the same day, a hat set and an additional set of doll attachments were released. Media adaptations. Manga. "Tales of Xillia 2" spawned four manga adaptions: two anthology series and two traditional manga series. The first anthology series is by Ichijinsha with two volumes released in February 2013 and January 2014. The second is by DNA Media Comics which released a volume in March 2013. The "Tales of Xillia 2" manga series is an adaption of the game's storyline. Its prelude was published in the December 2012 issue of "Viva Tales of Magazine". It began serialization in Dengeki Maoh beginning January 2013. The series is published by ASCII Media Works. It takes place between the first and second "Xillia" games and follows Jude and Alvin. Books. "Tales of Xillia 2" had three different strategy guides published; one each from Yamashita Books, Shueisha, and Enterbrain. The book was released by Yamashita Books and details the in-universe information of the game. It was released on March 2, 2013. was published by Bandai Namco Games and Yamashita Books. It details the in-game plot and acts as a guide. Audio CDs. A drama CD called by Frontier Works was released in January 2014. was released by Avex Group on November 2, 2012 in a regular and limited edition. It peaked 87th on Oricon's charts. Reception. "Tales of Xillia 2" was received with generally positive reviews, albeit usually lower than its predecessor. It sold half a million copies in Japan and failed to meet Namco Bandai Game's target sales. Famitsu's review of the game was positive and commented on how the game will meet expectations of fans of the series. Hardcore Gamer gave the game a 4/5, calling it a "well-designed RPG bursting with content." It was also well received in western releases.

precedent editions

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4814874

Hosea Jan "Ze" Frank (; born March 31, 1972) is an American online performance artist, composer, humorist and public speaker based in Los Angeles. Personal life. Frank was born to German-American parents (his father is Chemistry Nobel Laureate Joachim Frank) and raised in a suburb of Albany, New York. He has a sister, who is a painter, as was indicated in "the show". He was educated at Montessori school, known for its constructivist teaching methods, and graduated with a B.S. in Neuroscience from Brown University in 1995. At the university, he played guitar and sang lead vocals for a funk/jam band called Dowdy Smack, along with Blues Traveler bassist Tad Kinchla, until its dissolution in 1998. In 2003 he married his longtime girlfriend Jody Brandt whom he met at Brown University. Brandt is a licensed psychologist. At the end of 2008, Frank and his wife moved from Brooklyn Heights, NYC, to Westwood, Los Angeles, CA. He was listed as second author on a paper published in "The Journal of Neuroscience", which was featured briefly in episode 21 of "a show" on May 25, 2012 called My Pupils, explaining that his study of neuroscience of vision was motivated by his harmless anisocoria condition. Career. In 2001, Frank created an online birthday invitation and sent it to seventeen of his closest friends. Forwarded wildly, the invitation soon generated millions of hits and over 100 gigabytes of daily web traffic to Frank's personal website. The site grew to include interactive group projects, short films, animations, and video games, many Flash-based, including children's educational videos featuring handy tips such as "Don't vacuum your face." Frank won a 2002 Webby Award for Best Personal Website (People's Voice) and in 2005, he was featured in Time Magazine's "50 Coolest Websites." Frank debuted onstage at Mark Hurst's first annual Gel conference in 2003. In 2006, his YouTube channel "zefrank1" was created, which hosts the popular "True Facts" series. He has spoken for many years at TED Conferences, with presentations in 2004, 2005, 2008, 2010, and 2014. Frank has served as an adjunct professor at ITP/NYU, Parsons School of Design, and SUNY Purchase. Discussing his work in the digital medium, and the potential of new platforms like Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter, Frank said, "For me, experimentation is not about the technology. In an ever-changing technological landscape, where today's platforms are not tomorrow's platforms, the key seems to be that any one of these spaces can use a dose of humanity and art and culture." Frank was formerly the president of BuzzFeed Motion Pictures, and from January 2018 he served as the chief research and development officer for BuzzFeed. As of April 2019 Frank has moved on from BuzzFeed to pursue other endeavors. "the show". On March 17, 2006, Frank launched the daily video program "the show with zefrank". The format of the program combined commentary on media and current events with viewer contributions and activities. Each tightly edited three-to-five-minute episode combined "Daily Show"-style commentary on world events with songs, observations, and occasional games or challenges for his viewers to participate in. Thousands of photos, videos, and music files were contributed by the audience, including over 1,000 photos in one 20-hour period. The show appeared each weekday until its final episode on March 17, 2007, exactly one year after its start. Following the success of the show, Frank signed with the United Talent Agency of Beverly Hills, California for representation. The Show's style has influenced many popular video bloggers today, such as the Vlogbrothers. In October 2013, Frank posted the entire library of the show episodes on YouTube, having removed them several weeks earlier from previous host blip.tv. The entire catalog was also available for purchase from his web-store at zefrank.com. "a show". On February 27, 2012, Ze Frank announced that he was going to do a thrice-weekly show, that will be "same same but different" from "The Show". Similar to his other projects, Frank's new venture would be a collaboration between him and his audience. The new show, titled "a show" was funded by a Kickstarter campaign that raised $146,752 in eleven days. It debuted on April 9, 2012 with an episode titled "An Invocation for Beginnings". Animated dreams (short animations built around audio submitted by viewers of 'a show') were a regular weekly feature. Eight months later, with the release of the "Body Karaoke" episode on November 30, 2012, "a show" and its related collaborative efforts, including "projects" and "missions" went on unannounced hiatus. No official announcement has been made regarding the status of "a show" or whether series production would resume. On January 12 and 13, 2013, Frank hosted a public participatory showcase event at the Santa Cruz Museum of Art and History in Santa Cruz, California, entitled "Ze Frank Weekend", featuring hands-on workshops and activities, exhibits related to "a show", and the results of collaborative "projects" and "missions" developed between April and November of the previous year. The show continued to run on the YouTube channel "zefrankenfriends" until November 2013. "True Facts". In December 2012 Ze Frank released a video titled "True Facts About Baby Echidnas" that featured footage of echidnas and a voiceover by Frank including facts and reactions to the video footage, which has been viewed over 10 million times. Frank later released other videos in the series focusing on animals including "True Facts About the Octopus" which has been viewed over 13 million times, and one video which instead focused on actor Morgan Freeman titled "True Facts About Morgan Freeman" which was viewed over 12 million times.

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The following is a list of episodes in Thomas Pynchon's 2006 novel "Against the Day". The pagination is the USA/Penguin paperback edition, which is the same as the first hardback edition. One: The Light Over the Ranges. Episode 1 (Pages 2-9). The "Chums of Chance", the five-member crew of the hydrogen skyship "Inconvenience" sails for the 1893 Chicago World's Fair. Composing the crew are Randolph St. Cosmo, the ship commander; Darby Suckling, the "baby" of the crew who serves as both factotum and mascot; Lindsay Noseworth, second-in-command and Master-at-Arms; Miles Blundell, the Handyman Apprentice; and Chick Counterfly, the newest member of the crew. Also present is Pugnax, a literate dog of no particular breed who is reading Henry James's The Princess Casamassima, a book about the rise of World Anarchism. Episode 2 (Pages 10-20). Having almost crashed on landing, the Chums of Chance arrive at the Fair. Episode 3 (Pages 21-25). Lindsay and Miles enter the World's Fair through an alternative gate and are immediately confronted by the spectacle of unsavory acts and exhibits on the fringe of the Fair. Miles, in an act of divination, wins ten dollars at a game of three-card monte. Meanwhile, Randolph St. Cosmo agrees to contract the services of the Chums of Chance and the "Inconvenience" to the White City Detectives for the purposes of surveillance. Episode 4 (Pages 26-35). The "Chums" meet a photographer (Merle Rideout) and his fully attired model (Chevrolette McAdoo), who seems to have just stepped out of a ladies' magazine. The Chums also meet Professor Heino Vanderjuice of Yale, who will be seen bargaining with an evil force that is widely celebrated mogul Scarsdale Vibe. On Vibe's way to the lobby, an elderly woman, respectably though not sumptuously dressed, approached him, crying, "If I were your mother I would have strangled you in your cradle." Episode 5 (Pages 36-44). Lew Basnight, who wasn't sure what anarchists are, is recruited by the Chums. Episode 6 (Pages 45-56). Lew, in his work for White City Investigations, guards Archduke Franz Ferdinand at the fair. Episode 7 (Pages 57-80). Merle Rideout's history with Dahlia. Merle and Dally drift from town to town, and Merle's talents for photography and alchemy emerge. Webb Traverse is introduced by meeting with Merle. They discuss the equivalent of the Philosopher's Stone for explosives. Episode 8 (Pages 81-96). On the Fourth of July, Webb and his vodka drinking Finnish friend Veikko set to blow up a railway bridge in Colorado. Veikko isn't a fan of the Russian Tsar's regime compares it to American capitalism. Webb dislikes the treatment of the mine workers and originally plans to blow up a passing train, hoping to kill a mine manager or two. Episode 9 (Pages 97-106). Kit Traverse is in Colorado Springs working for Dr. Tesla on one of his latest projects. Kit and his sidekick Jack Gigg meet Foley Walker who persuades Kit to attend Yale with full funding provided by Scarsdale Vibe. We find out that Walker was paid to replace Vibe in the Civil War conscription and was shot and wounded. (The bullet lodged in his brain receives long-range communications, allowing him to advise Scarsdale on investments.) Foley and Scarsdale later became friends and are known as 'The Twin Vibes'. Episode 10 (Pages 107-118). Now 1899, the Chums receive a telephone call with instructions to head southwest and await course correction via the airship's new Tesla device (or radio). The "Inconvenience" sails over several unknown and sparsely populated islands, where work details can be observed from the deck, until finally setting down on an island called St. Masque, the last island where they could take on perishable supplies. The Chums receive their assignment from extended radio communiques, arriving at a volcano antipodal to Colorado Springs, to observe what would happen there during Dr. Tesla's experiments in Colorado. Waiting for the experiment, the Chums begin a quarrelsome debate over what the replacement figurehead should be (having lost their previous one of President McKinley's head in a collision with a Chicago skyscraper). On the eve of the Fourth of July the Chums are treated to a mandatory fireworks display, after which Tesla's experiment commences. After the boys make their observations, they get ready to leave, resolving the figurehead dispute in the meantime, finally settling on a "draped female personage, perhaps more maternal than erotic." Noseworth reminds them that they should all learn a lesson from the dispute, namely to develop protocols against secularity. The Upper Hierarchy sends a new assignment to the Chums through a "Special Japanese Oyster" (which uses crystals of Iceland spar to separate rays of light into "ordinary" and "extraordinary" beams). The message told them to intercept the schooner "Étienne-Louis Malus" and attempt to persuade its commander to abandon their expedition, led by Dr. Alden Vormance. To reach the ship quickly, the Chums traverse the hollow Earth, entering into a portal in Antarctica. While nearing the Northern exit point, they receive a distress signal from the indigenous population, wearing blue pointed hats, claiming to be under attack by a horde of hostile gnomes. The Chums stay for a day and a night. Helping to fight against the Legion of Gnomes and narrowly escape through the ever-shrinking Northern portal. Two: Iceland Spar. Episode 1 (pages 121-137). The Chums encounter their Russian counterparts, the Tovarishchi Slutchainyi, in their vessel, the "Bol'shaia Igra", captained by Igor Padzhitnoff, who says a Zone of Emergency has been declared in the area. Despite the Russian's warning about a mysterious, unnamed and dangerous creature in the Zone, the Chums continue to chase the "Etienne-Louis Malus", after just missing the schooner at Ísafjörður. The narrator tells of Adam of Bremen, who related the story of Ginnungagap, the lightless primordial void. Hunter Penhallow, heir to the Iceland spar fortune of his forebears, plans to stow away on the "Malus", but heads south instead in another vessel. In the Hotel Borealis, the Expedition Headquarters, Dr. Vormance and his companions argue Quaternionist theory and time through the night. Among the guests on board is Fleetwood Vibe, the son of Scarsdale, who has bankrolled the expedition. His son is on board to keep tabs on expenditures. Episode 2 (pages 138-148). Fleetwood Vibe recalls a meeting with the Chums, who having inspected a mysterious object recovered by Vormance and his crew from the lee of a nunatak, warn them of its danger. Fleetwood, Vormance and others of the Expedition are given a tour of the control cabin of the "Inconvenience", which is full of scientific gear including Manganin resistance-boxes, a Tesla coil, a Poulsen's Telegraphone and more. The "Malus" sails to a 'great city' in the south, perhaps New York, with the object on board. Vibe disembarks and tries to leave for Washington D.C., but can't because thanks to the object, the city is being "brought to sorrow and ruin." Episode 3 (pages 149-155). The great city is in chaos when the Chums arrive, having failed in an attempt to intercept the "Malus". The people have erected structures to propitiate the "Destroyer." Hunter Penhallow appears, lost in the distorted grid of city streets. He stumbles upon others readying to escape the city and follows them out on a curious underground conveyance. Episode 4 (pages 156-170). Kit Traverse goes to the Yale-Harvard football game, where he meets Scarsdale Vibe for the first time. We learn about Kit's time at Yale so far, including his friendship with Colfax Vibe, a pleasant Rooseveltian type. Kit also meets Mrs. Edwarda Vibe, Scarsdale's wife; Scarsdale's brother R. Wilshire, and Cousin Dittany Vibe, with whom Kit has sex. We learn about the family's history, including Fleetwood Vibe's time in Africa. Vibe has a low opinion of the "crock of cucumbers" he has sired and intimates that Kit might have a place in the old man's heart. Episode 5 (pages 171-188). Lew Basnight in Colorado. He fears that he's being followed by the Kieselguhr Kid, a notorious dynamiter, who Basnight is meant to be tracking down. He hears many stories about the Kid, none of them particularly trustworthy. We flashback to his time in Chicago, where he started to feel that a battle for his soul was taking place between the Union men and the 'Powers.' He meets Nate Privett in the Anarchist saloon, and figures out that the Kid he's meant to be chasing doesn't exist. The following night Basnight starts associating with anarchists, and gets hooked on a dynamite-derived hallucinogen. He almost dies in an explosion, but is rescued by two England dandies, Nigel and Neville, who decide to take him to England. Episode 6 (pages 189-198). Webb Traverse has become shift boss at the mine, but Lake is prostituting herself on the weekends. When he confronts her about it, she leaves home. Feeling the loss, Webb throws himself into the Union, whose members suggest he move to a different mine. There he meets Deuce Kindred, who works with his sidekick Sloat Fresno for mine-owners. They abduct Webb and intend to take him to Jeshimon. Episode 7 (pages 199-208). Frank and Reef Traverse go to Nevada. At Nochecita they meet Estrella 'Stray' Briggs, Reef's lover, with whom he's had a fight. They party with townsfolk. Then Reef gets a phone call from Jimmy Drop, to say that Webb's been taken by Deuce. Reef tries to convince Frank to look after Mayva and Lake while he goes out for revenge. They travel towards Jeshimon together. Episode 8 (pages 209-218). Reef goes to Jeshimon, a Utah town of evil-doers and priests, under the martial rule of The Governor. Reef finds Webb atop a "tower of silence," and takes him down under the eyes of Deuce and Sloat, who run off. He returns to Telluride with Webb's corpse. On the road he reads 'The Chums of Chance at the Ends of the Earth,' a story about the Chums in the Arctic, which he finds strangely real. Webb's corpse starts speaking to him. The Traverse family buries Webb; Frank and Reef will "what Joe Hill calls organize." Mayva gives the boys Webb's old pistol, but they leave it for her. Reef returns to Nochecita, where Stray gives birth to a baby boy. Reef will take on his father's dynamiting trade, which means lying to Stray about what he gets up to when he disappears for days at a time... Episode 9 (pages 219-232). Neville, Nigel and Lew make it to England, where it turns out that Neville and Nigel are members of True Worshipers of the Ineffable Tetractys (T.W.I.T.). Lew becomes a postulant in the order and meets the Grand Cohen of the London Chapter of T.W.I.T., Nicholas Nookshaft and Tzaddik Yashmeen Halfcourt. They have a complicated mystical system and explanation for evil, based on the Tarot, none of which Lew entirely buys into: there are 22 people in the world who are committing some sort of "ongoing Transgression... the invasion of Time into a timeless world." Later, Madame Natalia Eskimoff gives a spiritualist sitting, in which she listens in on various geopolitical intrigues to do with the rights to railways in the Ottoman Empire. It turns out that Madame Eskimoff was once a member of the 22, and now works against them. Episode 10 (pages 233-242). Lew misses his dynamite-derived hallucinogen and asks Neville and Nigel to procure him something similar. They proceed to take a lot of drugs. They meet Dr. Coombs De Bottle, who is working on explosives in the interests of saving anarchists' lives. Madame Eskimoff predicts that the British will regain the Ashes the following year, provided they select Bosanquet. Lew goes to Cambridge with The Cohen to meet one of the 22, Professor Renfrew, who asks Lew to track down an anarchist bombing cricket player. He then tells him that the German Professor Werfner (another of the 22) has been following the laying of railways. Lew tells The Cohen that Renfrew offered him a job, and has therefore become a double agent. Episode 11 (pages 243-259). The Chums of Chance are in Venice. They are to follow the Sfinciuno Itinerary, a map of routes into Asia, one of which possibly leads - not via the usual geographical routes - to Shambhala. The itinerary is encoded by a 'paramorphoscope' made of Iceland Spar, and can possibly be decoded using devices found at the underwater Isle of Mirrors. Miles relives St Mark's vision "in reverse." Chick Counterfly meets a young woman who reads his Tarot cards, and predicts that the Campanile will fall. They run into the Russian airmen again, and engage in battle, in the course of which the Campanile does, in fact, fall. The two air-crews blame each other, then discuss the 'Manchurian Question;' Chick points out that the Russian captain Padzhitnoff refused to talk about the Trans-Siberian railroad. Episode 12 (pages 260-272). Deuce and Sloat are eating at Curly Dee's road ranch, where Lake is working. Deuce and Lake flirt; Mayva tries to put a stop to it, but fails. Deuce asks Lake to marry him, and she runs off with him, much to Sloat's incomprehension. Lake and Deuce do get married; soon the three of them are carrying out a range of sexual fantasies. Despite Webb's death, the "dynamite outrages continue," and the mine company representatives think Deuce and Sloat might have failed to kill him after all; they might be trying to kill Deuce for that failure. Sloat abandons them. Episode 13 (pages 273-280). Frank wanders the country, and starts to suspect that people are looking for him. He asks about Webb's death, and starts to suspect that Vibe Corp. is behind it. He goes to Leadville, where people are trying to turn mounds of slag into something valuable. He meets an anthropologist called Wren Provenance there; he takes her to a house of ill repute, which she very much enjoys for anthropological purposes. The prostitutes there ruin her "for everyday bourgeois sexuality." She has theories about Aztlan, the mythical home of the Mexican people, which are vaguely apocalyptic. At a bar Frank learns that Bulkley Wells is looking for him. Reef was last seen in Glenwood Springs, so Frank takes it upon himself to follow up on the Wells lead. Wren decides not to go with him. Episode 14 (pages 281-295). Frank arrives in Telluride. He goes to see Ellmore Disco, who runs a kind of proto-department store in town, and might be able to get Frank an interview with Cap'n Bulkley Wells. Ellmore says he'll need to go through Bob Meldrum to get to him, and asks why he wants to see Wells. Frank says he has a new system for concentrating gold ore by use of magnetism; Disco is skeptical. They wander the town and see 'La Blanca,' Meldrum's wife. Finally Frank goes to bed, but is woken by the slightly deaf Bob Meldrum threatening him, and accusing him of sleeping with La Blanca. Frank sets the record straight, and tries to set up a meeting with Wells. He pitches his new magnetic system to Merle Rideout (just passing by); Merle is skeptical, but agrees to set up the meeting. The Japanese trade delegation happens by the bar, and their mania for taking photographs precipitates a brawl; then they ask about the spirit of the west. Merle suggests that American has no 'national soul.' Episode 15 (pages 296-317). Frank heads out to Little Hellkite mine to meet with Merle, who isn't there. Frank looks into the mines, where Dahlia Rideout is working, and sees duendes. They meet once Merle returns; he knows Frank is Webb's son, and warns him off Wells, but shows him a photo of Deuce and Sloat. Bob Meldrum comes to the mine, and Dahlia helps Frank escape via a mine tunnel. They go to the Gallows Frame saloon. We learn about Dahlia's unconventional upbringing, in a whorehouse. Frank goes to stay at the Silver Orchid to avoid Bob. Merle finds him there and tries to sell him on a method for turning silver into gold, which involves Iceland Spar; he shows him an example of it. This 'Emmens process' could reduce the price of gold dramatically, in theory. Merle says Emmens has been selling transmuted gold to the U.S. Mint since 1897. They go back to the mines and see duendes playing poker and pool; these little people have been stealing dynamite and detonator caps. Frank meets Doc Turnstone, who had his heart broken by Lake... and tells Frank that she's run off with Deuce. He suggests Frank go see Jimmy Drop about this, who explains as best he can what happened. Back at the Gallows Frame, Ellmore helps Frank make an escape by joining a group of itinerant musicians. Frank talks to Webb's ghost. Dahlia is leaving too, to look for her mother in New York City. Episode 16 (pages 318-335). Kit gets a letter from Lake letting him know that Webb is dead; it had been opened before he got it and he suspects the Vibes. Professor Vanderjuice tells Kit that he, too, was hired by the Vibes, but came to feel uncomfortable about it, not to mention that they were dangerous. He suggests that Kit should go to Germany to work with Minkowski and Hilbert. Kit and Colfax boat out to an island to look at a tower Tesla has been building, but get caught in a storm. They stay the night on the island and hitch a ride back to New York the next morning, and Colfax tells Kit that the Vibe interest knows how unhappy he is. Kit tells Scarsdale that he wants to go to Germany. After he leaves the office, Scarsdale and Foley discuss their crusade against the "abscesses suppurating in the body of our Republic," concluding that they should smite the lot of them. But Scarsdale can't bring himself to kill Kit, and they come up with a different plan: stipend for Mayva and Lake, a job for Frank, a modest jackpot for Reef. But doubts remain. Episode 17 (pages 336-357). Dahliah takes the train east, and ends up taking a job as an actress in the white-slave simulation industry in New York's Chinatown. She moves in with Katie and then gets a contract with a talent scout of sorts: R. Wilshire Vibe. When she goes shopping with Katie, she sees her mother. Dally and Katie go to a ball at R. W. Vibe's townhouse. A magician maneuvers Dally into the cabinet of mystery, and next thing she knows she's in front of her rooming house. She goes to the Zombini residence to see her mother and the rest of the family, who are trained as magicians. She discusses magic with Zombini, who seems to have 'sawed' people using Iceland spar, so that two individuals are walking around. But he can't work out how to unify them again. To fix it he needs to go to the Island of Mirrors in Venice; the whole family is going to Venice. Erlys tells Dally that Merle wasn't her father. Episode 18 (pages 358-373). Mayva meets Stray in Durango; the next day Stray and Reef headed to Arizona. It turns out that Reef has taken up the family business of outlawry. He goes to look for Frank in Denver, supposedly, and gets caught in an avalanche, which was probably caused by somebody hunting him. Reef and Stray separate, and he takes on the identity of "East Coast nerve case Thrapston Cheesely III," traveling with a touring Englishwoman. He separates from her and meets up with an Irishman looking for the Kieselguhr Kid. He's one of a crew of anarchists. Episode 19 (pages 374-396). Frank traipses around for months, and meets up with Ewball Oust. They go to Mexico looking for Iceland spar. Frank does amalgamation work at a mine, then the two of them are thrown in some sort of prison, but manage to escape with an anarchist crew headed by El Nato. They want to steal silver from the Mexican Mint, but Frank talks them out of it. Soldiers are chasing them; the anarchists ride on but Frank stays behind with a group of Tarahumares, who feed him peyote. They split up and Frank rides north, finding Sloat Fresno in the process. He shoots him dead. Episode 20 (pages 397-405). The Chums of Chance set up camp in Central Park. Chick and Darby track down Dr. Zoot, who claims to have a time machine—somewhere near where Hunter was translocated in Episode 3--and they 'travel' in it, perhaps getting a vision of world war I. Zoot tells them he got the machine at Candlebrow U., from Alonzo Meatman. Episode 21 (pages 406-428). The Chums of Chance go to a conference at Candlebrow University. They go to a municipal dump, filled with failed time machines, none of which look like Zoot's. They go looking for Meatman, but fail to find him; Chick stays behind in the bar when they leave, and Meatman reveals himself. He takes Chick to meet a group of time travelers from the future, "a time of worldwide famine, exhausted fuel supplies, terminal poverty—the end of the capitalistic experiment," who tell him that the Chums' missions are intended to prevent them from entering our time-regime. They offer Chick eternal youth if he'll help them. The other chums are skeptical. Miles accompanies Chick on his next visit to the future people, and says he has seen their leader, Mr. Ace, in a vision. Miles is concerned that someone is double-crossing the Chums. Once they all learn that they can grow old, though, they get scared, some go over to the 'Trespassers.' The group of Chums we've been following immerse themselves at Candlebrow U. as a harmonica band. After some time, they come to their senses and return to the 'Inconvenience'; Meatman takes them a copy of the map they'd been searching for in Venice. It will require them to travel beneath the sand. Three: Bilocations. Episode 1 (pages 431-448). Following up on rumors of an "escape nook to Asia," the Chums travel ‘into the sands of the Inner Asian desert’ in search of Shambhala aboard the ‘subdesertine frigate "Saksaul"’, whose crew, ‘The Viscosity Gang’, is led by Captain Toadflax. Navigation is handled by Stilton Gaspereaux, ‘a civilian passenger… who prove[s] to be a scholarly adventurer in the Inner Asian tradition’. Chick and Randolph become aware of a broader ‘plot’ afoot in the region—that of oil prospecting. Chick finds it ‘distressing’ that ‘once again [they] are being used to further someone’s hidden plans'; Randolph becomes ‘obsessed, recklessly so’, by the Saksaul's logbooks’ other (monetary rather than sublime) plot potential. Having returned the Chums to the "Inconvenience", ‘H. M. S. F. "Saksaul" [comes] to grief’, attacked by an unknown force, ‘the copy of the Sfinciuno Itinerary which the Chums in their innocence had brought aboard [having] led the "Saksaul" into ambush and disaster’. Gaspereaux is ordered by Toadflax to escape to London, which he does under protest. He appears in London in disguise, contriving his arrest in order to meet with Inspector Sands, whom he warns that Shambhala has been located but is under increasing threat of ‘sustained conflict over possession… in regimental strength if not larger’. Episode 2 (pages 449-459). Following Dally's departure for New York, Merle heads back east, though ‘only as far as he [has] to’. Arriving in Audacity, Iowa, Merle briefly works at DREAMTIME MOVY, the town's ‘moving-picture house’; he reflects on the relationship of light and time. Merle arrives in Candlebrow, whose university is hosting a conference on Time, at which Vectorists and Quaternionists dispute time's linearity. The university is frequented by ‘undisputably "always the same tornado"’ named Thorvald, who is apparently sentient. Bounce Roswell arrives, via the "Inconvenience". He is an inventor known for taking on Scarsdale Vibe in court over intellectual property. Roswell is heading to California in pursuit of ‘the future of light… in particular the moving pictures’. Roswell laments film's indebtedness to linear time, referring to feature films as ‘clock movies’; he and Merle fall into partnership. German mathematician Hermann Minkowski visits the university. Bounce and Merle do not understand his lecture, delivered in German, but speculate that Minkowski's workings confirm their respective theses on light and time. Episode 3 (pages 460-471). Frank, ‘or the spur line of his destiny’, gravitates toward Nochecita, where Linnet Dawes directs him to Fickle Creek, on the outskirts of which she informs him Stray is living with Jesse. He finds Stray living above the town's ‘pancake emporium’ with ‘regionally famous… motor outlaw’ Vang Feeley, but she does not recognise Frank. Returning to Denver, Frank is informed by Reverend Moss Gatlin that Mayva is living in Cripple Creek. He visits her, and she expresses contentment at Frank's murder of Sloat, and discourages him from ‘[feeling] like that you need to give me no happy endings here’ in hunting down Deuce, and, with him, Lake. Episode 4 (pages 472-488). Deuce and Lake move to Wall o’ Death, Missouri, Deuce having been made the town's Deputy in error. While on duty, he receives official report of Sloat's death and sets out for revenge. He returns a week later, despondent, and is haunted by Sloat's ghost. Though the subject is never directly confronted, it becomes ‘clear to [Deuce] that [Lake] knew, and to her that he knew she knew’ about the circumstances of Webb's death; Deuce falls into supplication and the couple try unsuccessfully for a child. When Deuce imitates Webb, Lake assaults him, but stops short of murder. Episode 5 (pages 489-504). At Cambridge, Cyprian Latewood, despite his reputation as ‘a sod’, has fallen in love with Yashmeen Halfcourt, who too ‘prefers, her, own, sex’. Halfcourt obsesses over G. F. B. Riemann's ‘Zeta function’ and sets off to Göttingen to examine his papers. Renfrew takes an interest in Halfcourt, which may owe to her rumoured ‘eastern’ origins, or to Werfner's residence in Göttingen. Cyprian sees Yashmeen off, but the disconsolation he anticipates fails to arrive. Episode 6 (pages 505-524.). Erlys and Dally depart aboard the S.S. "Stupendica"; Erlys tells her daughter of meeting Merle and Luca. Erlys observes that a Yale mathematician is giving her the eye; this is Kit, who spends his time in fourth class with another mathematician Roots Tubsmith. Kit and Dally meet; she recognises him, while he seems to better remember Katie. She recalls meeting Frank. The "Stupendica" lives a bilocated existence as the S.M.S. "Emperor Maximilian". While being built in Trieste, the two ships ‘merged’, despite being in two different locations. When the ship comes under apparent attack by torpedo, it metamorphoses from the "Stupendica" into the "Emperor Maximilian". Kit gets trapped in the engine room, becoming the ‘Phantom of the Lower Decks’. The ship reaches Morocco, where Kit comes ashore, being taken on by the crew of fishing trawler Fomalhaut, bound for Ostend. Along the way the trawler is inundated with fish. The "Emperor Maximilian" arrives safely in its ‘home’, Trieste. Dally wonders what became of Kit. Episode 7 (pages 525-547). In Ostend, Kit comes across a group of Quaternioneers from Trinity, Dublin. He stays with them at the Grand Hôtel de la Nouvelle Digue, where he also encounters a ‘living cell of belgian nihilists’, and Rocco and Pino, who are conducting tests on a manned torpedo, the Siluro Dirigibile a Lenta Corsa. Kit also becomes reacquainted with Roots Tubsmith, and on a trip to the casino they meet Pléiade Lafrisée, whom Kit desires but does not trust. Pléide is liaising with Piet Woevre, a violent member of the Belgian Force Publique who is investigating the Siluro Dirigibile a Lenta Corsa. Pléiade arranges a rendezvous with Kit at the Regional Mayonnaise Works, promising to teach him more about the sauce. Finding the largely automated factory abandoned, Kit is submerged in mayonnaise and nearly drowns. He is rescued by Rocco and Pino, who arrive aboard their torpedo. Episode 8 (pages 548-556). The " Inconvenience " arrives in Brussels to pay respects at a memorial service for General Boulanger, held every 30 September. The crew is granted ground leave in Ostend, where a convention of Quarterionists-in-exile is underway. Miles meets Ryder Thorne, a Quaternionist he met at Candlebrow, who invites him on a bicycle ride along the road from Ypres to Menin. The two share an interest in the ukulele. Thorne tells him that the Quaternionists know what will happen here. He wants to know what the Chums know of it. Thorne tells him that "Flanders will be the mass grave of History." Episode 9 (pages 557-567). Viktor Mulciber, arms tycoon, discusses the Q-weapon, "a weapon based on Time," with the Quarterioneers. Piet Wovre buys the Q weapon from Edouard Gavaert in Brussels. Kit and Umeki's relationship intensifies. They discuss Hamilton's discovery of the Quaternions. Kit flees with Pino and Rocco to Bruges, where he encounters Wovre. Wovre shoots at Kit and attempts to use the Q-weapon but hands it over to Kit after it backfires. Umeki examines the Q-weapon which contains a crystal "the size of a human eyeball." Kit has a mystical dream about Q-waves. He gives the Q-weapon to Umeki and they part ways. Episode 10 (pages 568-587). Dally feels at home in Venice, where the Zombinis' show is becoming popular. The Zombinis explore their Venetian roots, leading them to Isola degli Specchi, where Luca discusses mirrors and magic with Ettore Sananzolo. Dally decides to stay in Venice while the Zombinis move on. Dally practices magic in Venice and befriends Hunter Penhallow, a painter who might be a time traveler from the future. Penhallow believes there will be a Great War in Europe. Dally runs into Bria Zombini who is visiting Venice. Hunter introduces Dally to his abstract painter friend Andrea Tancredi, whose crazy-inventor talks about Time remind her of Merle. Episode 11 pages 588- 604). Kit, studying at Göttingen, meets Yashmeen. They discuss the Riemann zeta function until being interrupted by Gottlob and Humfried, who discuss Kronecker and Cantor. Yashmeen appears to pass through a wall. The Russian Revolution of 1905 takes place and Kit falls for Yashmeen, who falls for wealthy coffee scion Günther von Quassel. Kit and Günther fight over Yashmeen, agree to duel, but instead argue about mathematics. As a consequence of the Revolutions, Russians flee en masse, many appearing in Göttingen and Yashmeen thinks she recognizes among them an Eastern personage named Chong. Kit and Yashmeen discuss vectors and the zeroes of the zeta function. Episode 12 (pages 605-614). At Chunxton Crescent, Lew Basnight confers with breakfasting Police Inspector Vance Aychrome who suspects one Lamont Replevin of sending encrypted messages through gas lines. Lew heads to the suburb of Stuffed Edge to pursue Replevin who is believed to possess a map of Shambhala. He finds Replevin hanging from the ceiling by one foot, breathing in gas from his oven. Lew pretends to be an insurance salesman and takes pictures of Replevin's map and statues. Replevin discusses the connection between gas, chaos, and Akasha, a Hindu concept analogous to Aether. Episode 13 (pages 615-636). Kit is summoned to the Bank of Prussia where he learns he's been financially cut off from the Vibes. Yashmeen offers to help him find a position with T.W.I.T. Kit encounters Foley Walker, “the angel, if not of death at least of deep shit,” and decides he needs to leave Göttingen soon. He attends a chloral hydrate party and is pursued by Walker until taking refuge in a hospital. Kit is moved to a mental hospital where the patients await the arrival of a Dirigible. At the hospital, Kit meets a patient who pretends to be a Berliner (jelly-doughnut) and is released from the mental hospital. Lionel Swome, T.W.I.T. travel agent, advises Kit to pretend to elope with Yashmeen to Switzerland. Yashmeen may be at risk as a pawn for Aubron Halfcourt's adversaries. From Switzerland Kit is advised to head to Inner Asia without Yashmeen where he is to help search for information regarding Aubron Halfcourt's whereabouts and any information he may have on Shambhala. Kit, Yashmeen, and Günther visit a mathematics museum and prepare to say farewell. Episode 14 (pages 637-643). Frank and Ewball Oust are dealing war materials in Tampico, Mexico. Frank meets Günther, who is working on his father's coffee plantation. The atmosphere amongst colonial powers is rife with paranoia of a native insurrection. The three attend a party thrown by Ewball's past acquaintance Steve/Ramón. An arms deal between Frank and Günther puts Frank in touch with Wolfe Tone O’Rooney. Frank agrees to help facilitate a weapons deal with former jailmate Dwayne Provecho despite Ewball's protests. Episode 15 (pages 644-651). Frank runs into Stray, and they wonder if Reef is still alive. A violent confrontation nearly breaks out between Frank, Stray, a policeman named Hatch and his pointy-eared companion. Frank is haunted by a dream of trying to open a door with Webb on the other side. Frank and Stray finalize an arms deal and flirt. Episode 16 (pages 652-660). Reef works in Europe drilling tunnels through mountains. The Alpine mountains are believed to be haunted by Tatzelwurms. Ruperta Chirpingdon-Groin appears at the mine. After she and Reef sleep together, she invites him to Venice where Scarsdale Vibe is rumored to be buying up Renaissance art. Reef kills a Tatzelwurm and, on the train to Venice, encounters a ghostly presence who urges him to kill Scarsdale Vibe. Episode 17 (pages 661-677). Yashmeen and Kit visits Riemann's grave. Kit and Reef reunite at Sanatorium Böplfi-Spazzoletta. Ruperta entrusts Reef with her dog, Moufeutte, from whom Reef unsuccessfully tries to solicit oral sex. Kit and Reef discuss the possibility of killing Scarsdale Vibe. Madame Natalia Eskimoff, a psychic medium, leads a seance with the brothers. After Eskimoff unconvincingly tries to summon Webb's spirit, a skeptical Reef successfully channels his father. Kit dreams about Webb playing cards and decides to accompany Reef to Venice. Episode 18 (pages 678-693). Lew accompanies Neville and Nigel to the opera where he runs into Max Khäutsch, Renfrew, and Werfner. He learns that Renfrew/Werfner is actually one person with the ability to be in two places at once. Lew studies up on bilocation. Renfrew tells Lew about a mysterious project called “das Interdikt” that Werner plans to build across the Balkan Peninsula. Lew thinks he sees the Gentleman Bomber. He finds Chunxton Crescent largely abandoned and decides to leave T.W.I.T. Four: Against the Day. Episode 1 (pages 697-711). Opening the fourth section is a chapter devoted to Cyprian Latewood, an Englishman living in Vienna. Cyprian meets two unsavory Russians, Misha and Grisha and gets involved in a weekly S&M gig with “The Colonel”, where he is blindfolded, brought to said Colonel's house and whipped to climax. Cyprian runs into an old friend, Ratty McHugh, who he confides in about his current “situation”, violating Misha and Grisha's instructions to never speak of their arrangement with the Colonel. Ratty agrees to aid Cyprian in his effort to flee Vienna by introducing him to Derrick Theign. Derrick helps Cyprian by giving him the required documents to exit Vienna. Theign eventually relocates Cyprian to Venice where he takes a sexual interest in him and uses him in a vague capacity. The chapter ends with Cyprian relocated once again back to Vienna and scared for his life. Episode 2 (pages 712-723). Cyprian readjusts to life in Vienna and meets some of Theign's acquaintances. He runs into Yashmeen, who is working for a dressmaker and suspects T.W.I.T. secret surveillance. Ratty McHugh interrogates Yashmeen to try to understand why T.W.I.T. deserted Chunxton Crescent. Yashmeen brings Cyprian to orgasm with her foot under a table at a cafe. Theign flies into a rage and is reluctant to help Cyprian make arrangements for Yashmeen to leave Vienna. Episode 3 (pages 724-747). In Venice, Foley Walker and Scarsdale Vibe discuss Kit leaving the Vibe corp and his knowledge of Scarsdale's role in Webb's murder. Meanwhile, Kit and Reef profile Scarsdale and Foley, contemplating assassination. The brothers run into Dally and Penhallow, who seems to have a history with Ruperta Chirpingdon-Groin. Dally notices that her employer, Princess Spongiatostas, seems to have shady business interests with a number of castle visitors including Derrick Theign. Kit tells Dally his plan to flee to Inner Asia after avenging Webb. Dally is eager to help the brothers and introduces them to Andrea Tancredi, who is plotting his own attack on Vibe. Princess Spongiatosta invites Dally to a party that Vibe will also be attending. Tancredi is seen approaching the party and is killed by Vibe's henchmen. Believing he's been spotted by Vibe, Kit leaves Venice. Dally is heartbroken and Reef is disgruntled. Takes place in the Venetian sestiere of Cannaregio. Episode 4 (pages 748-767). The section opens with a letter from Yashmeen expressing her disenchantment with T.W.I.T. and desire to transcend tyranny. Kit travels by rail through Inner Asia to the oasis city of Kashgar where Yashmeen's adopted father Auberon lives a life of hotel luxury in the company of a Russian colonel named Yevgeny Prokladka. The Russians discuss a desert prophet known as "The Doosra." Auberon is approached by Al Mar-Foud, who asks on behalf of the Doosra that the city be surrendered. After reading Yashmeen's letter (delivered by Kit), Auberon is strongly affected by the thought of her reappearance. Kit agrees to travel eastward with Auberon to establish relations with the Tungusic population in "shamanic Asia." Auberon disappears for a few weeks and returns determined to find Shambhala. Episode 5 (pages 768-778). Kit has an epiphanic reaction to Lake Baikal as Kit and Hassan travel through Tushuk Tash ("the Prophet's Gate"), Kit has a vision of a city in the distance. Kit, Prance, and Hassan travel deeper into Inner Asia, encountering various foreign parties and animals. Hassan disappears, and Kit and Prince meet Auberon's associate Swithin Poundstock, who supplies them with counterfeit coins. Prance explains to Kit his theories about religion. Episode 6 (pages 779-791). "A heavenwide blast of light" -- the Tunguska Event -- occurs. Captain Padzhitnoff and his crew struggle to interpret the cause. Prance becomes hysterical and attributes the explosion to an otherworldly force. Kit wonders if the Tunguska Event could have been caused by the discharge of a Q weapon. In the aftermath of the explosion, people, animals, and the landscape undergo surreal changes. A white reindeer named Ssagan communicates with Kit and Prance and leads them to an area with Tuvan throat singers. Prance is picked up by the Chums of Chance. Kit falls in with a band of Siberian ex-cons and encounters Fleetwood Vibe, who is searching for lost cities. Fleetwood says that Scarsdale is "no longer of sound mind" after his visit to Italy. Kit disappears in the night during a midnight storm. Episode 7 (pages 792-805). The Chums of Chance witness the Tunguska Event and communicate about it with Professir Vanderjuice, located at the antipode of the event, and with Padzhitnoff, after arranging a sky rendezvous. Photographs emerge; seismographic recordings suggest to Vanderjuice, a singularity. In the strange nocturnal light in Venice, Dally is warned by the Princess not to fall into the "mala vita." Cyprian works with a cryptologist named Bevis Moist Leigh. Reef is abandoned by Ruperta and hears a voice from the sky telling him to rededicate himself to settling the family vendetta. In Vienna, Yashmeen has a romantic episode with Noellyn Fanshawe, a former schoolmate. Afterwards, both note the queer luminosity of the sky at eleven in the evening. It went on for a month before people took less notice and began to return to the usual means of getting through the night in preparation against the day. Episode 8 (pages 806-820). Austria announces its intention to annex Bosnia. Theign tells Cyprian he's sending him to the Balkans and Cyprian examines a small map of Austria with Bevis. Yashmeen is evicted by her anti-Semitic landlord. Cyprian tells Ratty he's worried about Yashmeen, and arranges for her to go to Trieste. Theign refuses to help Yashmeen and Cyprian insults Theign. In Trieste, Yashmeen and Cyprian kiss as Cyprian heads to the Balkans. Amidst fierce winds, Yashmeen has an abrupt sexual encounter with Cyprian's friend Vlado Clissan. They develop an erotic relationship and visit the island Zengg, where Vlado tells Yashmeen about his Uskok heritage. Episode 9 (pages 821-848). Cyprian takes an Austrian ship to Pola, Croatia to pick up Bevis Moistleigh. Aboard the vessel we are introduced to Jacintha Drulov, a young spy in training whom Bevis is quite smitten with. Bevis, taking a keen interest in Jacintha, teaches her about a spy technique called Applied Idiotics. Cyprian and Bevis eventually disembark in Metkovic, Herzegovina making their way to Serajevo to rendezvous and aid Danilo Ashkil, who has proved valuable for intelligence purposes. In leaving the area, Cyprian runs into Misha and Grisha who harbor no ill feelings towards him and lead him to Colonel Khäutsch, who Cyprian begins stalking but is unable to find. Danilo tells Cyprian he was on a dummy assignment to be captured by the Austrians in Bosnia and that the English no longer have a use for him. This sets him, Bevis and Danilo out on a path to flee their pursuers through some treacherous Balkan terrain. Cyprian and Danilo lose Bevis spurring a fools errand to find him and eventually get trapped on a mountainside in which Danilo injures himself and they both almost die due to winter conditions and tough terrain. Eventually the two make their way to Danilo's hometown of Salonica where his cousin Vesna is overjoyed to see him. Cyprian stays for a while though eventually departs for Trieste. By sheer coincidence Cyprian disembarks before getting to Trieste and runs into Bevis Moistleigh who has been living with Jacintha in Cetinje, Montenegro. Episode 10 (pages 849-863). Reef encounters his old friend Flaco in Nice. As they sit at a café, a bomb explodes and Reef sees Kit in a vision. Vlado gives Yashmeen a mysterious book called The Book of the Mask. Reef returns to Venice and runs into Pino, Rocco, and Yashmeen. After a shootout, Pino and Rocco help Reef and Yashmeen escape by towing their boat. Reef masturbates while watching Yashmeen sleep. After they have sex, Yashmeen changes her hair to avoid being recognized. Theign pressures Vlado for information about Yashmeen. Yashmeen and Reef win much money gambling. Yashmeen studies the book given to her by Vlado and is amazed. Episode 11 (pages 864-891). Cyprian returns to Italy and looks for Yashmeen. He runs into Ratty McHugh, who sends Cyprian to Ca Spongiatosta to speak with the Prince. When Cyprian finds him at home, he speaks with the Prince about history and politics. Cyprian encounters Yashmeen and Reef before heading to Trieste to plot revenge with Vlado's cousin and the Uskoks. Cyprian targets Theign in a series of mischievous acts and eventually approaches him with a gun. Theign is apprehended by the Uskoks who take out his eyes with a woodworker's gouge. Cyprian and Yashmeen embark on several bouts of serious S&M sex. The gang travel to an outer island for the Carnesvale festival. Cyprian, Reef, and Yashmeen have a threesome. Cyprian and Reef continue their intimacy and Reef confides in Cyprian about his son. Reef dreams about Webb. The three flee Venice to live among anarchists and end up gambling, running into Wolfe Tone O'Rooney, and arguing. Yashmeen learns she's pregnant. Episode 12 (pages 892-907). In London, Ruperta introduces Dally to Arturo Naunt, a sculptor looking for models for Angel of Death statues. Ruperta has a transformative experience attending a Ralph Vaughan Williams concert with Hunter. Dally begins an acting gig courtesy of R. Wilshire Vibe and is pursued by suitors male and female. She catches the attention of Clive Crouchmas who works for arms dealer Basil Zaharoff. After Dally becomes slightly intimate with Crouchmas, she meets Lew Basnight who asks for her help investigating Crouchmas's shady business dealings. Crouchmas is saddened when he learns that Dally is working against him. He learns from "Doggo" Spokeshave that B. Zaharoff is going to Japan to look into buying the Q weapon. Dally and Lew head to Constantinople. Episode 13 (pages 908-918). Crouchmas sends two henchmen, Imi and Ernö, to abduct Dally, who is saved by the reappearance of Kit. Kit turns out to be fleeing Pera after a scuffle with the Committee of Union and Progress. Kit and Dally escape the train, have sex, and attend an operetta, "The Burgher King," starring Hungarian actor Bela Blasko aka Bela Lugosi. They consider heading to London and continually get intimate. Episode 14 (pages 919-930). Frank is being treated for a gunshot wound in a church in Chihuahua. He sees the Indian shaman El Espinero, Estrella, and Ewball Oust, who discusses anarchy and vengeance. Frank trips off of a psychedelic cactus given to him by El Espinero. Stray and Ewball leave together, and as Frank recovers, he and Wren Provenance become intimate. The couple investigates an Aztec ruin and contemplate the destruction of sacred ways of life. Frank works for and consults with El Espinero. Wren leaves for Harvard. Episode 15 (pages 931-975). At an anarchist spa, Cyprian, Yashmeen, and Reef run into Ratty McHugh, who has abandoned government work for communal life with his wife Jenny and their companion Sophrosyne Hawkes. With Coombs De Bottle, they examine a mysterious map given by Renfrew that seems to forecast major historical change. Cyprian reluctantly agrees to accompany Ratty to the Balkans to investigate groups who are scared of strange musical modes. Yashmeen and Reef accompany Cyprian to the Balkan Peninsula and they continue their sexual adventures aboard the train en route. The trio breaks away from the musical expedition to find Das Interdikt. At Gabrovo Slim's farm, Yashmeen gives birth to a girl, Ljubica. Reef and Cyprian, guided by R.U.S.H. cyclist Mihaly Vamos, are troubled to learn the Interdikt is part of a shady project to create a light weapon. The group finds a rock archway that locals say has special powers. After stumbling on a convent with roots in Greek mysticism, Cyprian decides to devote himself to a life of spirituality. Reef, Yashmeen, and Ljubica head west as war breaks out. In Albania, Reef is nearly killed by three rifleman but saved at the last minute by Ramiz. After coming to safety in the town of Corfy, Yashmeen and Reef run into Auberon Halfcourt, who is now dating Umeki. Episode 16 (pages 976-981). Ewball takes Stray to Denver to meet his parents. Ewball Sr. attacks his son, and Mayva Traverse intervenes. Mayva and Stray talk about Frank. Episode 17 (pages 982-999). Frank has joined the revolutionary forces in Mexico. After helping dynamite, he decides to head back to the U.S. soon. In the meantime, he works with his old friend Günther von Quassel on coffee bean processing machines. Frank spends time with Melpomene, a possibly telepathic girl who shows Frank a powerful species of glowing beetles. The political situation in Mexico worsens and Frank has a flashback to his cactus hallucination. In Denver, Frank happens to run into Dr. Willis Turnstone, who takes him to a Chinese acupuncturist named Dr. Zhao. Here Frank sees Wren who tells Frank where to find Stray. In pursuit, Frank runs into Ewball who says Mayva is close by. Episode 18 (pages 1000-1017). Scarsdale Vibe encounters a strange malignant being on his private train. In Trinidad, Colorado, Frank and Ewball attempt to kill Scarsdale and Foley, but are undermined when Foley kills Scarsdale. Stray flees Trinidad to a strikers camp where she finds her son Jesse, who becomes interested in firearms and begins sneaking out at night. Frank arrives and helps fight forces hostile to the strikers and bonds with Stray and Jesse before he departs emotionally. Episode 19 (pages 1018-1039). The Chums of Chance attempt to take the Inconvenience into a massive Saharan updraft and end up on Antichthon, a counter-earth. They're approached by a shadowy Russian agent who asks them to help find Padzhitnoff, who has gone missing. The Chums become dimly aware of World War I and encounter Padzhitnoff and his crew in French airspace. The two ships head to Geneva where the crews help move goods and people over to the Swiss border. After Armistice is declared, the boys receive a lucrative offer for work in California and bid goodbye to Padzhinoff. Heading west, they meet their female counterparts, the Sodality of Aethernauts. The Chums land in L.A. to find their job a dead end. Chick runs into his father "Dick" who operates an early film projector. "Dick" and Chick visit Merle Rideout and Roswell Bounce, who are working to reanimate photographs and seek the protection of Lew Basnight. Episode 20 (pages 1040-1062). Lew Basnight, now in L.A., is contacted by Chester Le Street to investigate a night club singer named Jardine Maraca. Lew heads to a hotel, the Royal Jacaranda, and calls in his friend Emilio, a toilet gazer, who gets bad vibes. Merle contacts Lew and, in a pre-War flashback, spends time with the Zombinis in Santa Barbara. Roswell and Merle ask for Lew's help and show him their photo reanimation techniques. Lew examines a photo of Jardine Maraca. Following a lead from Emilio, he meets Lake at her home. After they have sex, Deuce arrives and threatens Lew, who is rescued by his secretary. Deuce is arrested after waking up next to a corpse after a party. Lew finds Jardine Maraca, who tells him Deuce will get the death penalty. Lew reanimates a picture of Troth to see how she would've grown old, and Merle uses the machine to see Dally in the present living in Paris. Five: Rue du Départ. Episode 1 (pages 1065-1085). We learn that Dally has separated from Kit and married Clive Crouchmas. Kit spends time with his friend Renzo, who enjoys dive bombing with his plane. Reef, Yashmeen and Ljubica head to the U.S. and pose as Italian immigrants. In Montana, they run into Frank, Stray, and Jesse. Kit discusses mathematical and logical mysteries in Lwow. Professor Vanderjuice appears and then disappears. The book ends with a description of the expanding operations on board the Inconvenience, which grows to city-like proportions and flies toward grace. See also. References

obvious invasion

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46385265

Ossip (Yosef) Klarwein (6 February 1893 – 9 September 1970) was a Polish-born German-Israeli architect who designed many works in Germany and Israel. Between 1921 and 1933 he was employed with Johann Friedrich Höger, and became chief design architect. Klarwein was an important representative of Northern German Brick Expressionism and of modern architecture in Israel. Life. Germany. Klarwein was born in Warsaw, Poland. His father Menachem Klarwein was a Hebrew teacher and a Zionist. As Jews, the family immigrated to Germany because of the anti-Semitism growing in Poland and Russia after the failed revolution of 1905 in the Russian Empire. Klarwein studied architecture at the Technical University of Munich from 1917-1919, but he was not awarded a university degree. In 1920, he studied with Hans Poelzig in the master's studio for architecture of the Prussian Academy of Arts in Berlin. In 1921, Klarwein joined the architectural firm of Fritz Höger in Hamburg. Höger's office grew considerably in these years with increasing work orders, requiring additional personnel. Klarwein's designs were at the time published under Höger's name. Höger said that Klarwein was "one of the very best" employees. Between 1930 and 1933 Klarwein supervised the construction of the brick expressionist Church at Hohenzollernplatz following his designs in Berlin. Mandatory Palestine / Israel. In 1934, Klarwein emigrated with his non-Jewish wife Elsa (née Kühne), an opera singer, and their son Mati during the Fifth Aliyah to the British Mandate of Palestine, because they saw no future in Nazi Germany. Klarwein changed his first name from the Slavic name variant Ossip to the Hebrew form Yosseph. In Haifa, Klarwein became an independent architect. Most of his works are public and commercial buildings, as well as development plans for cities and neighborhoods scattered throughout Israel. Klarwein's original design for the Knesset building unanimously won the 1957 architecture competition, and he continued to work on the project until completion, but some modifications were made to the plans. He designed with Richard Kauffmann and Heinz Rau, the campus of the Hebrew University.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3823007

Lady Manners School is an English secondary school located in Bakewell, a market town in the Peak District National Park, Derbyshire. It was founded on 20 May 1636 by Grace, Lady Manners, who lived at Haddon Hall, the current home of Lord and Lady Edward Manners, and has also in the past been known as the Bakewell Grammar School. It is now a member of the Peak 11 group of secondary schools in the Peak District. History. Lady Manners has a long history of providing education in the Peak District area. It began as a boys' school, but later changed to admit girls as well. It was a successful grammar school, but later changed to become a comprehensive school. Beginnings. In May 1636 Grace, Lady Manners bought some land at Elton which was to provide an annual income of £15 for "the mayntayninge of a Schoolemaister for ever to teach a free Schoole within the Townshippe of Bakewell, for the better instructinge of the male children of the Inhabitants of Bakewell and Great Rowsley aforesaid..." The schoolmaster would "be appointed by the Lords of the Manor of Haddon, in the said Countie of Derby, being the heires or posteritie of the said Grace, Ladie Manners..." and as with the Pursglove Grammar School in Tideswell, the deed stipulated that the schoolmaster was to remain unmarried, and "if the said Schoolemaister shall at any time afterward marry, or shall live disorderly or scandalously, that then the said Schoolemaister shall have noe benefitt by the said Annuitie or rente charge, but shall be displaced from the said Schoole". Additional to his annuity, the schoolmaster was permitted to take a registration fee of a shilling for each new boy. Additionally the schoolmaster would have received a pay rise following Grace's death as her 1649 will allowed for the all the monies generated by the land at Elton to be used for school use (during her life she had kept 25% of the income). The school is first referred to as a "Grammer Schoole" in her will. The original school day ran from 7 to 11 a.m. and 1 to 5 p.m. "except Sundays and holidays". 19th century. In 1806 the schoolmaster, Rev. M. Chapman handed over to the Rev. J. Browne who was appointed by the Duke of Rutland receiving an annual salary of £50 and, for a while, the school became known as "Mr. Browne's". Up until now, the school had shared accommodation with the older Chantry School, South Church Street, Bakewell. In 1826, the school moved around the corner to The Old Town Hall, King Street. The Old Town Hall had been built in 1709 and, as well as being Town Hall, and Buttermarket, the upper floor had been used for Court and Quarter Sessions. In 1846 Rev. T. Hurst, a graduate of Pembroke College, Cambridge, and a curate at the Parish Church, took over as schoolmaster. According to White's Directory of Derbyshire (1857) – Under "Charities", White's Directory adds "Lady Manners, in 1637, left a rent charge of £15 per annum, out of lands at Elton, to a schoolmaster, for the instruction of male children of the township of Bakewell and Great Rowsley. The master also receives a voluntary addition of £40 from the Duke of Rutland, making in the whole, £55 per annum; and according to the revised regulations and rules, 20 youths are admitted on the foundation, on the payment of 1s. for registration, and instructed in English generally, Latin, and Greek. at 5s. 3d. per quarter. Mr. Wm. Kay, L.C.P., the master, has good accommodation for boarders, at his own residence, Bridge street." In 1862 the school was briefly annexed to Mr. William Kay's private Grammar and Commercial Academy in Bridge Street but remained in the King Street premises. A School Inquiry Report of 1866 states that the Foundation had become "a mere appendage and advertisement to an inferior commercial boarding school kept by the headmaster". At this time "there were then thirty-two boarders, fourteen dayboys not on the Foundation, and seven who were". When Mr. Kay died in 1874, Archdeacon Balston, then Vicar of Bakewell, and a former Headmaster of Eton, recommended that the school should be closed, and in the absence of a suitable successor the monies from Lady Manners' Foundation should be allowed to accumulate. The school closed in 1874, and remained closed for 22 years. Lady Manners School ceased to exist. A new start. The Charity Commissioners decided that a new building could be built "to be used as a grammar school by day, earning through its examinations grants from the Science and Art Department, and as a centre for technical classes in the evenings". The new school backed onto Bath Gardens and was opened on 22 September 1896. The school now admitted girls as well as boys – a pre-condition of the County Council's grant of £600 towards the building costs. This was the first time an endowed School of this type had become co-educational. The school opened with fifty pupils on roll, all between the ages of eight and eighteen. The first Headmaster was Charles J. Mansford, B.A.(London). Subjects taught were Religious Knowledge, English, Classics, Mathematics, Science, French and Drawing. Boys did Woodwork, girls did Domestic Science. The Bakewell Show Ground was used for games. Fees were £2 per head, but this meant the school operated at a loss and so the County Council agreed to fund 12 scholarships. The school was one of the first to establish a more modern curriculum. An article in "Review of Reviews" (1898) says "Within the school there is a School of Science, affiliated with South Kensington, about one half of the scholars being so classed. Girls are taught exactly the same science, for instance, as boys, and at the same time, in the same room. So far the science taught embraces Practical and Theoretical Chemistry, with Practical and Theoretical Physics". The 20th century. In 1900 two boarding houses were set up, at Dagnall for boys, and in The Avenue for girls, and in 1909 the Old Bath House (now Haig House) was bought as extra premises for Fifth and Sixth Form, and Staff. In 1919 four acres of land who bought in Shutts Lane for use as a playing field. This remains part of the school playing field today. The Foundation Stone of new school buildings, on the present School site in Shutts Lane, was laid by the Duke of Rutland on 20 May 1936, on the 300th anniversary of the founding of the School by Grace, Lady Manners in 1636. The new buildings were opened on 24 February 1938. During World War II Lady Manners School shared their building with North Manchester High School for Boys who had been evacuated. On a two-week rotation, Lady Manners pupils went to school in the morning (including Saturday), and Manchester Grammar pupils in the afternoon. The following week, this was reversed. In the 1960s the school had around 550 boys and girls and was a voluntary controlled school. In 1972 Grace, Lady Manners Grammar School became a secondary comprehensive, admitting all pupils within its catchment for secondary education. By the late 1970s it had around 1300 boys and girls. The school became grant maintained in the early 1990s. Emblem and motto. The school's peacock emblem is the crest above the arms of the Manners family. The motto, 'Pour y parvenir', is also derived from the Manners family and its translations include "To attain", or "Strive to Attain". The house system. The House system was created in 1912. At that time there were three Houses established called Town, North and South. The planning for this took place during 1911 and the reason for creating the Houses was to help develop Sport in school so that, with a competitive dimension, students would enthusiastically play for their Houses. They provided a chance for students to achieve success and enjoy friendly yet meaningful competition. So Sports Day on 21 June 1912, which was actually the Fourteenth Annual Sports Day, was the first time that the Houses competed against one another for the Wrench Shield. The first ever winners were Town House (the equivalent of the current Glossop House). After the First World War, in 1919, the Houses were renamed and an extra House was added. The principle of allocation to the Houses was still geographical. The Houses were then called Nesfield (the South area – Matlock and beyond), Taylor (also South as far as Darley Dale), Glossop (the Bakewell 'Town' area) and Barker (the North). These names were those of Governors who had been especially important in the reopening of Lady Manners School in 1896. In 1924 a new school was opened in Matlock (Ernest Bailey School) so fewer students came from that area and Nesfield House disappeared. Barker House also disappeared for a while at the end of 1937 because when Buxton College became a County School and the Ridgefield boarding annex was no longer needed, there were fewer students from the North area. This was a weakness of the principle of allocating students to Houses on a geographical basis. To confuse the situation a little further, there was also a 'School House' (photographs of its twenty or so members still exist for the period 1931 to 1941) which was for 'boarders'. This House did not seem to compete for the Inter-House trophies in quite the same way as the main Houses, but did have their own activities, organised internally for pupils living in the School House. By 1938, coinciding with the effective occupation of the new school buildings on Shutts Lane, the main Houses were rearranged again, now numbering four: Elton, Haddon, Glossop and Taylor. In 1947, just after the Second World War, there was another change when the number of Houses became three again and Barker reappeared, replacing Haddon and Elton. Competition between the Houses was no longer just on the basis of sport, and other activities had become important too. By 1959 there were plans to create a fourth House again and this time the new House was to be named Cockerton. This naming was a tribute to the Cockerton family that had given over 50 years of service to the School, firstly with Mr VR Cockerton and then with his son Mr RWP Cockerton. Both had been School Governors and Mr VR Cockerton had been actively involved in the establishing of the current school site. So ever since the early 1960s there have been four Houses – Barker, Cockerton, Glossop and Taylor – just like now – and students are no longer allocated to these Houses according to where they live, but according to which of the pairs of form tutor groups they are in. New buildings. The school has been repeatedly extended in recent years, from the Cavendish library (named for the family surname of the Dukes of Devonshire, the influential aristocratic family of the nearby Chatsworth estate) in the 1990s to a new sixth form centre and sports facilities opened in 2005. This latest extension was funded partly by the sale of the school's boarding house, Castle Hill, which until its sale provided catered accommodation for school pupils. The boarding house closed in 2003. Music and orchestra. Music is a major strength at the school with a wide variety of extra-curricular ensembles including Senior Orchestra (about 80 members), Senior Choir (about 100), Junior Choir (125), Brass Band (10), Senior Wind Band (60), Intermediate Strings, Junior Strings, Intermediate Wind Band, Junior Wind Band, Folk Group, clarinet choir, flute choir, etc. In July 2004, the Lady Manners School Orchestra reached the national finals of the National Festival of Music for Youth and performed in the Royal Festival Hall, London. In July 2005, the orchestra, conducted by Robert Steadman, was awarded "outstanding performance" at the National Festival Music for Youth Finals at Symphony Hall, Birmingham and in November 2005 they were invited to play at the Schools' Prom at the Royal Albert Hall where the 70+ strong orchestra performed a suite from John Williams' score from "Jurassic Park" and Elgar's "Pomp & Circumstance March No. 1" ("Land of Hope and Glory"') with indoor fireworks and a 5,000 strong audience singing along. In July 2007 the school's Senior String Orchestra, also conducted by Robert Steadman, was awarded "outstanding performance" at the National Festival of Music for Youth at Symphony Hall, Birmingham performing a programme of Edward Elgar, Robert Steadman and Edvard Grieg. In July 2008, the music department managed to achieve the unprecedented by having 5 ensembles reach the National Festival of Music for Youth: the School Orchestra (who performed "King Arthur" a new work written by Jonathan Roberts (a 6th-form student), "Nimrod" from the "Enigma Variations" by Elgar and "Riverdance" by Bill Whelan; the String Orchestra who performed two movements from the " St. Paul's Suite" by Holst, the "Prelude from Psycho" by Bernard Hermann and "Frolicsome Finale" from "Simple Symphony" by Benjamin Britten; the School Jazz Orchestra who performed a programme of four works including "Birdland"; the School Brass Band; and the Senior String Quartet who performed Dvořák and Scott Joplin. Since 2004, the music department has taken one ensemble on a short UK tour in the summer term. Most years this has been a combined brass and wind band who have visited places such as London, Edinburgh and Yorkshire giving a number of concerts. In 2009, the Senior Strings visited London and Oxford and gave performances in the Long Library, Blenheim Palace and Keble College chapel in Oxford. There are plans to take the Senior Orchestra to Hungary in summer 2010. Last year (2017), the school orchestra made it to the Music For Youth national competition, playing in the Birmingham main concert hall. In summer 2018, the senior windband are going on tour to Bamberg, Germany, being hosted by the school there. Academic performance. It gets well above average GCSE results and A-level results. In 2010, GCSE results placed Lady Manners School 7th in Derbyshire, with 70% of students achieving 5 or more GCSEs at grades A* to C including English and Mathematics (the average in England was 53.5%). In 2011, this was bettered with 76% of GCSE students achieving 5 or more GCSEs at A* to C including English and Mathematics.

single troupe

4002-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15298590

A spintria (plural, "spintriae") is a small bronze or brass Roman token, possibly for use in brothels, although none of the literature on the "spintriae" contains any evidence to support this assertion. The tokens usually depict on the obverse a motif of sexual acts or symbols and a numeral in the range I - XVI on the reverse. Name. "Spintria" was used by Suetonius to refer to young male prostitutes, from Greek σφιγκτήρ (sphinktḗr, "[anal] sphincter"). In the 16th century, the name passed from the ancient sense of the persons committing outrageous acts--in other words, sexual and/or sensual acts outside what was considered the norm--(or the place where outrageous acts occurred, such as Tiberius' gardens on the isle of Capri) to the tokens themselves. Bette Talvacchia identifies the first usage of the term "spintriae" to refer to the tokens as occurring in Sebastiano Errizo's 1559 treatise, "Discourse Concerning Ancient Medals" ("Sopra le Medaglie Antiche", Venice, 1559). Use. Some scholars, following Friedlander's (1886) suggestion that the tokens were used "auf die man in Bordelle Einlass erhielt" ("to obtain entry to brothels") have argued that "spintriae" were used to pay prostitutes, although none offer any supporting evidence. Buttrey is dismissive of the brothel token idea, asserting "there is no evidence for any of this" (Buttrey 1973, p. 53). Currently, only Simonetta and Riva are supporters of the brothel token hypothesis, which is also popular with the media (see Duggan 2016); other scholars pursue alternate lines of enquiry (Buttrey; Campana; Duggan; Fishburn; etc.). Under Caracalla, an equestrian was sentenced to death for bringing a coin with the emperor's likeness into a brothel; he was spared only by the emperor's own death. There is no direct ancient evidence, however, to support the theory that "spintriae" were created as tokens for exchange in place of official coinage. Numismatist Theodore V. Buttrey suggests that they were used as game pieces. although Duggan (2016) notes there are no archaeological finds to confirm the "spintriae" were gaming pieces. Economist Geoffrey Fishburn, following Jacobelli, suggests they may have been used as locker tokens. Duggan concludes, after Fishburn and Jacobelli, that the most convincing explanation is that they functioned as locker tokens. They seem to have been produced for only a short period, mostly in the 1st century AD. Appearance. They were usually struck from brass or bronze, and were little smaller than a 50 euro cent coin (€0.50). Some commentators suggest some of the tokens depicted homosexual acts between men, but this is not widely accepted in the literature, as some authors (Buttrey; Jacobelli; Talvacchia) assert the erotic scenes are exclusively heterosexual.

compelling clarification

13282-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1679935

Electric power quality is the degree to which the voltage, frequency, and waveform of a power supply system conform to established specifications. Good power quality can be defined as a steady supply voltage that stays within the prescribed range, steady a.c. frequency close to the rated value, and smooth voltage curve waveform (resembles a sine wave). In general, it is useful to consider power quality as the "compatibility between what comes out of an electric outlet and the load that is plugged into it". The term is used to describe electric power that drives an electrical load and the load's ability to function properly. Without the proper power, an electrical device (or load) may malfunction, fail prematurely or not operate at all. There are many ways in which electric power can be of poor quality and many more causes of such poor quality power. The electric power industry comprises electricity generation (AC power), electric power transmission and ultimately electric power distribution to an electricity meter located at the premises of the end user of the electric power. The electricity then moves through the wiring system of the end user until it reaches the load. The complexity of the system to move electric energy from the point of production to the point of consumption combined with variations in weather, generation, demand and other factors provide many opportunities for the quality of supply to be compromised. While "power quality" is a convenient term for many, it is the quality of the voltage—rather than power or electric current—that is actually described by the term. Power is simply the flow of energy and the current demanded by a load is largely uncontrollable. Introduction. The quality of electrical power may be described as a set of values of parameters, such as: It is often useful to think of power quality as a compatibility problem: is the equipment connected to the grid compatible with the events on the grid, and is the power delivered by the grid, including the events, compatible with the equipment that is connected? Compatibility problems always have at least two solutions: in this case, either clean up the power, or make the equipment tougher. The tolerance of data-processing equipment to voltage variations is often characterized by the CBEMA curve, which give the duration and magnitude of voltage variations that can be tolerated. Ideally, AC voltage is supplied by a utility as sinusoidal having an amplitude and frequency given by national standards (in the case of mains) or system specifications (in the case of a power feed not directly attached to the mains) with an impedance of zero ohms at all frequencies. Power Quality Deviations. No real-life power source is ideal and generally can deviate in at least the following ways: Waveform. Each of these power quality problems has a different cause. Some problems are a result of the shared infrastructure. For example, a fault on the network may cause a dip that will affect some customers; the higher the level of the fault, the greater the number affected. A problem on one customer’s site may cause a transient that affects all other customers on the same subsystem. Problems, such as harmonics, arise within the customer’s own installation and may propagate onto the network and affect other customers. Harmonic problems can be dealt with by a combination of good design practice and well proven reduction equipment. Power conditioning. Power conditioning is modifying the power to improve its quality. An uninterruptible power supply can be used to switch off of mains power if there is a transient (temporary) condition on the line. However, cheaper UPS units create poor-quality power themselves, akin to imposing a higher-frequency and lower-amplitude square wave atop the sine wave. High-quality UPS units utilize a double conversion topology which breaks down incoming AC power into DC, charges the batteries, then remanufactures an AC sine wave. This remanufactured sine wave is of higher quality than the original AC power feed. A Dynamic Voltage Regulator (DVR) and static synchronous series compensator or (SSSC) are utilized for series voltage sag compensation. A surge protector or simple capacitor or varistor can protect against most overvoltage conditions, while a lightning arrester protects against severe spikes. Electronic filters can remove harmonics. Smart grids and power quality. Modern systems use sensors called phasor measurement units (PMU) distributed throughout their network to monitor power quality and in some cases respond automatically to them. Using such smart grids features of rapid sensing and automated self healing of anomalies in the network promises to bring higher quality power and less downtime while simultaneously supporting power from intermittent power sources and distributed generation, which would if unchecked degrade power quality. Power quality compression algorithm. A power quality compression algorithm is an algorithm used in the analysis of power quality. To provide high quality electric power service, it is essential to monitor the quality of the electric signals also termed as power quality (PQ) at different locations along an electrical power network. Electrical utilities carefully monitor waveforms and currents at various network locations constantly, to understand what lead up to any unforeseen events such as a power outage and blackouts. This is particularly critical at sites where the environment and public safety are at risk (institutions such as hospitals, sewage treatment plants, mines, etc.). Power quality challenges. Engineers have at their disposal many meters, that are able to read and display electrical power waveforms and calculating parameters of the waveforms. These parameters may include, for example, current and voltage RMS, phase relationship between waveforms of a multi-phase signal, power factor, frequency, THD, active power (kW), reactive power (kVAr), apparent power (kVA) and active energy (kWh), reactive energy (kVArh) and apparent energy (kVAh) and many more. In order to sufficiently monitor unforeseen events, Ribeiro et al. explains that it is not enough to display these parameters, but to also capture voltage waveform data at all times. This is impracticable due to the large amount of data involved, causing what is known the “bottle effect”. For instance, at a sampling rate of 32 samples per cycle, 1,920 samples are collected per second. For three-phase meters that measure both voltage and current waveforms, the data is 6-8 times as much. More practical solutions developed in recent years store data only when an event occurs (for example, when high levels of power system harmonics are detected) or alternatively to store the RMS value of the electrical signals. This data, however, is not always sufficient to determine the exact nature of problems. Raw data compression. Nisenblat "et al." proposes the idea of power quality compression algorithm (similar to lossy compression methods) that enables meters to continuously store the waveform of one or more power signals, regardless whether or not an event of interest was identified. This algorithm referred to as PQZip empowers a processor with a memory that is sufficient to store the waveform, under normal power conditions, over a long period of time, of at least a month, two months or even a year. The compression is performed in real time, as the signals are acquired; it calculates a compression decision before all the compressed data is received. For instance should one parameter remain constant, and various others fluctuate, the compression decision retains only what is relevant from the constant data, and retains all the fluctuation data. It then decomposes the waveform of the power signal of numerous components, over various periods of the waveform. It concludes the process by compressing the values of at least some of these components over different periods, separately. This real time compression algorithm, performed independent of the sampling, prevents data gaps and has a typical 1000:1 compression ratio. Aggregated data compression. A typical function of a power analyzer is generation of data archive aggregated over given interval. Most typically 10 minute or 1 minute interval is used as specified by the IEC/IEEE PQ standards. A significant archive sizes are created during an operation of such instrument. As Kraus "et al." have demonstrated the compression ratio on such archives using Lempel–Ziv–Markov chain algorithm, bzip or other similar lossless compression algorithms can be significant. By using prediction and modeling on the stored time series in the actual power quality archive the efficiency of post processing compression is usually further improved. This combination of simplistic techniques implies savings in both data storage and data acquisition processes. Power Quality Standards. The quality of electricity supplied is set forth in international standards and their local derivatives, adopted by different countries: EN50160 is the European standard for power quality, setting the acceptable limits of distortion for the different parameters defining voltage in AC power. IEEE-519 is the North American guideline for power systems. It is defined as "recommended practice" and, unlike EN50160, this guideline refers to current distortion as well as voltage. IEC 61000-4-30 is the standard defining methods for monitoring power quality. Edition 3 (2015) includes current measurements, unlike earlier editions which related to voltage measurement alone.

correct electricity

3240-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45484485

The W.F. Stewart Company was an American carriage body and automotive body manufacturer founded in 1881 by William Francis Stewart and based in Flint, Michigan. The company specialized in the design and manufacture of wooden carriage bodies for horse-drawn transport and later automotive bodies. The company also briefly produced light aircraft, but went out of business in the Great Depression. History. Company founder William Francis Stewart was born on the family homestead farm near London, Ontario, Canada in 1846. He started his work life as an apprentice carriage maker with a series of companies. After the American Civil War ended he and his brother both moved to the United States and became journeyman carriage builders at a number of the leading manufacturers in New York City. In 1868 both brothers moved to Pontiac, Michigan and William Francis Stewart started working for carriage maker Parsons & Page there. He then moved to Flint, Michigan and was employed at Roosevelt & Stewart, with whom his brother was a partner. The two brothers did not get along well and William Francis Stewart returned to Pontiac and the employ of Parsons & Page until 1871 when he again moved to Flint to work for carriage maker W.A. Patterson Company. William Francis Stewart worked for Patterson until 1881, when he left to start his own company, leasing the top floor of a small factory building in Pontiac, where he constructed carriage bodies and other sub-assemblies. Most of his work was sold to his former employer, W.A. Patterson. Stewart's work proved to be of good quality and his business soon expanded to include the Durant-Dort Carriage Company, the Flint Wagon Works, as well as the W.A. Patterson Co as customers. Stewart was able to expand his company, building a large new factory in Flint and a smaller plant in Bay City, Michigan to supply carriage builders in the Saginaw, Michigan district. On 31 January 1893 the Pontiac plant suffered a boiler explosion that demolished the building and seriously injured many of the fifty workers at the plant. The factory was rebuilt under the supervision of one of Stewart's sons, Samuel Sidney Stewart, with the Flint operation taking up the work of the Pontiac plant. After the Pontiac operation was restored, Samuel Sidney Stewart continued as manager until 1898. In that year he returned to Flint and was joined there by his younger brother, a U.S. Army veteran of the Spanish–American War, William E. Stewart. Since the two brothers did not get along well and wishing to retire, William Francis Stewart divided the company, creating the Flint Body Company for William E. Stewart to run. William Francis Stewart remained president of both companies, while his sons were made vice-presidents. W.F. Stewart Company comprised half of the Flint factory and the Pontiac operation, while the Flint Body Company ran the Bay City location and the other half of the Flint plant. By the turn of the 20th century both enterprises turned their ambitions to horseless carriages and the potential for working in this new industry. William Francis Stewart was an initial investor in the Buick Motor Company and served for many years on its board of directors. William E. Stewart's Flint Body Company started producing wooden automotive bodies first and in 1903 sold 200 units to the Merchants' Specialty Company of New York City. The demand for Buicks was big enough that car production was moved from Flint to Jackson, Michigan. When William C. Durant bought Buick in 1904 he returned the facility to Flint and W.F. Stewart Company constructed a new factory on the Buick Hamilton Farm complex. In 1908 the newly formed General Motors, which had taken over Buick, purchased Stewart’s plant for US$240,000 in GM stock and then leased the building to Buick, with W.F. Stewart Company retaining their head offices in the complex. The father, William Francis Stewart, died in 1911, leaving the companies to his two sons. William E. Stewart retained the Flint Body Company, while Samuel Sidney Stewart took over the W.F. Stewart Company. By the spring of 1912 Flint Body was in receivership, with liabilities of US$64,000. William E. Stewart eventually recovered from the loss and started the W.E. Stewart Manufacturing Company, becoming a Buick and General Motors supplier. By 1916, during the First World War, the W.F. Stewart Company had doubled its size and Samuel Sidney Stewart was appointed to serve as a board member or officer of several companies, including as vice president of the Union Industrial Trust Company and on the boards of the Union Industrial Bank and Union Trust Savings Bank. He also became a major shareholder in General Motors. For his part William E. Stewart also became a major GM share holder and was on the board of the National Bank of Flint. By the dawn of the 1920s the W.F. Stewart Company was still building a few parts for horse-drawn carriages but the majority of the company business was as an automotive supplier, building car bodies for Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, Dort Motor Car Company, Durant's Flint Division, Oakland Motor Car Company and the Peerless Motor Company. Due to changes in the industry and in particular GM's acquisition of Fisher Body, business volume shrunk and the company started to specialize in custom work. In 1928, just after Charles Lindbergh's high-profile May 20–21, 1927 solo transatlantic flight, Samuel Sidney Stewart became interested in building aircraft as a means of diversification. A hangar at the corner of Saginaw and Maple Roads in Flint became the company's aviation division to build the prototype, John L. Hunt designed, Stewart M-1 monoplane. The design was not very aesthetically attractive and did not attract any orders for production examples. In 1930 the second design flew. The Stewart M-2 was again a John Hunt design, assisted by Lionel Kitchen. This was a much more modern aircraft with twin engines, but it was introduced just as the Great Depression was in full swing and no orders were forthcoming. Samuel Sidney Stewart still believed aviation had a bright future and collaborated with E.T. Strong, the president of Buick, in building the Bishop International Airport a project finished in 1934. W.F. Stewart Company ceased operations in 1935, although the company existed until 1939 as a paper entity, a victim of the Great Depression.

career path

757-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7031126

Hurricane Dennis caused severe flooding in Miami-Dade County, Florida, in August 1981. The tenth tropical cyclone and fourth named storm of the season, Dennis developed from a tropical wave well south of Cabo Verde on August 7. The depression intensified into a tropical storm early the next day. Dennis then encountered strong wind shear, causing the storm to weaken to a tropical depression on August 11. After crossing the Windward Islands on August 12, Dennis degenerated into a tropical wave several hours later over the Caribbean Sea. The wave became a tropical depression again late on August 15 while approaching Cuba. Dennis reintensified into a tropical storm before landfall in Matanzas Province. The cyclone emerged into the Straits of Florida on August 16, before striking the Florida Keys and then Monroe County early the next day. It drifted across Florida, reaching the Atlantic near Cape Canaveral on August 19. Dennis continued to intensify and made landfall near Emerald Isle, North Carolina, but moved east-northeastward and soon tracked offshore. Late on August 20, Dennis deepened into a hurricane with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h), before weakening to a tropical storm over colder waters on August 21. Dennis became extratropical northeast of Bermuda early on August 22 and persisted until being absorbed by a frontal system on August 26. In the Caribbean, Dennis dropped heavy rainfall on some islands, including Martinique, Saint Lucia, Virgin Islands, and the Greater Antilles. Flooding in Jamaica left at least 50 people homeless. In Florida, heavy rain fell in many areas to the east of the storm's path. Much of southeast Florida received at least of precipitation, while over of rain fell in Homestead. Nearly all of Miami-Dade County was flooded to the south of Kendall Drive. Many businesses and homes in cities such as Homestead and Florida City suffered water damage. However, the worst damage was incurred to crops, which experienced a loss of over $17.26 million (1981 USD). One death and nearly $18.5 million in damage occurred in Florida. Further north, Dennis also caused flooding in the Carolinas, inundating many streets and causing crop damage in both states. A weather-related traffic accident in South Carolina resulted in two fatalities. Twenty families in Columbus County, North Carolina evacuated after the Waccamaw River overran its banks. Overall, Dennis left caused three deaths and about $28.5 million in damage. Meteorological history. Satellite imagery indicated that a well-organized tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on August 5. The wave headed westward and organized further, developing into a tropical depression at 06:00 UTC on August 7 while situated about south-southwest of the Cabo Verde Islands. Early on August 8, satellite imagery indicated that the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Dennis. The cyclone strengthened slightly further, reaching winds of 45 mph (75 km/h); wind shear prevented additional deepening and eventually caused Dennis to weaken to a tropical depression while approaching the Lesser Antilles on August 11 Early on August 12, the system crossed through the Windward Islands with a poorly-defined circulation, making landfall in or passing close to Martinique. Dennis continued weakening after entering the Caribbean Sea, degenerating back into a tropical wave at 00:00 UTC on August 13 while located about south of Dominican Republic. The remnant tropical wave gradually curved northwestward and brushed western Jamaica on August 14. As the wave approached the south coast of central Cuba, it rapidly re-organized into a tropical cyclone, becoming a tropical depression again at 18:00 UTC on August 15. Around 00:00 UTC the following day, the depression re-intensified into a tropical storm and made landfall in Cuba near Playa Girón in Matanzas Province. Dennis moved northward across the island and emerged into the Straits of Florida near Cárdenas shortly after 06:00 UTC. While crossing the Straits of Florida, deep convection associated with the cyclone attempted to become concentrated near the center and develop an eyewall. However, interaction with a trough prevented Dennis from intensifying despite passing over warm sea surface temperatures. The storm decelerated while approaching Florida due to weak steering currents. Late on August 16, Dennis moved across the middle Florida Keys as a minimal tropical storm. Between 06:00 UTC and 12:00 UTC on August 17, Dennis made landfall in rural mainland Monroe County with winds of 40 mph (65 km/h). The cyclone moved slowly north-northeastward across Florida until emerging into the Atlantic just north of Cape Canaveral early on August 19. Dennis continued to deepen while moving offshore the Southeastern United States. The storm curved northeastward and made landfall near Emerald Isle, North Carolina, with winds of 65 mph (100 km/h). Dennis then accelerated east-northeastward and soon re-emerged into the Atlantic from Hatteras Island. Later on August 20, a reconnaissance aircraft flight observed sustained winds of and a barometric pressure of – the lowest pressure associated with the storm. On this basis, Dennis was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane on Saffir–Simpson scale at 18:00 UTC. The hurricane intensified slightly further, peaking with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph (130 km/h) around 00:00 UTC on August 21. However, Dennis soon entered a region of increasingly colder sea surface temperatures, weakening into a tropical storm about six hours later. The system also began losing tropical characteristics, transitioning into an extratropical cyclone about 425 mi (685 km) south of Sable Island at 00:00 UTC on August 22. After Dennis became extratropical, the ship "Carista Express" observed sustained winds of . The remnants turned northward on August 24 and began weakening. By August 26, the extratropical storm was absorbed by a frontal system. Preparations and impact. Dennis passed through the Caribbean Sea as a tropical depression and during its tropical wave stage, limiting impacts to heavy rainfall on Martinique, Saint Lucia, the Virgin Islands, Hispaniola, and the Greater Antilles. In Jamaica, portions of the island received about of precipitation. The resultant flooding forced the evacuation of dozens of residents and left at least 50 people homeless. As Dennis approached the Florida Keys, several gale warnings were issued, with the first from Long Key to Dry Tortugas at 04:00 UTC on August 16. These gale warnings were posted progressively farther north along the East Coast of the United States, reaching as far north as Windmill Point in Virginia. Additionally, a hurricane watch was issued in South Florida from Fort Myers to Palm Beach, including the Florida Keys. Hundreds of people were evacuated from the campgrounds of Bahia Honda and John Pennekamp state parks. Shelters were also prepared to open in the Florida Keys if necessary. Typically, when a tropical cyclone approaches South Florida, the South Florida Water Management District drains Lake Okeechobee using the floodgates. However, due to a severe drought, water was instead directed into the lake from the connector canals. The storm resulted in a postponement of a second spraying to combat the spread of Mediterranean fruit flies in the Tampa Bay Area. About 40,000 tourists fled Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, including about 500 people from a campground, causing a loss of about $2 million to tourism. Some United States Military vessels were sent out to sea, while about 70 A-10 jets at the Myrtle Beach Air Force Base were flown to England Air Force Base near Alexandria, Louisiana. Rainfall totals in South Florida were generally between . However, little precipitation fell in Lake Okeechobee. Rainfall amounts in portions of southern Miami-Dade County ranged from , with a peak total of in Homestead. An aerial survey of Miami-Dade County indicated that an approximately area from the eastern edge of the Everglades from just south of Miami to the southern tip of Florida was flooded with of water – described as a "solid sheet of water from Kendall Drive all the way south" – while Homestead and West Kendall were inundated with water about in depth. At a trailer park in Homestead, water approached the doors of the mobile homes. A number of other homes in Homestead and Florida City were flooded. Many businesses in downtown Homestead closed after water began entering the buildings, with some store owners placing sandbags in front of their business. Dozens of cars were abandoned as roads began to flood. News reports noted that homes resembled islands, while roads were reduced to "an impassable goo." Flooding at Homestead Air Force Base forced officials to evacuate 86 aircraft. There were major losses to commercial and residential buildings due to roof failures caused by Dennis. Damage to private property was estimated at slightly more than $983,000. Heavier losses was sustained to the agriculture of Florida due to slow draining water in some areas. Fruit and vegetable crops suffered just over $17.26 million in damage. Tropical vegetables and avocados in particular experienced extensive losses. Damage to the former reached about $5.1 million, with production losses occurring to of calabaza, cassava, eddoe, and sweet potatoes. Approximately of avocado trees were destroyed, causing a loss of more than 100,000 boxes, with the fruit suffering over $3.5 million in damage. The standing water also caused health issues for local residents, including septic tanks contaminating water wells. The storm spawned two tornadoes, one on Plantation Key and the other in northern Miami-Dade County, though both resulted in only minor damage. Approximately 122,500 businesses and homes in Broward, Miami-Dade, and Palm Beach counties were left without electricity, while more than 8,000 people lost telephone service – mostly in southern Miami-Dade County. Restoration of telephone services took over a week, with the telephone company suffering about $500,000 in damage. One death occurred in the area after a man attempted to drive in high water, but his car swerved and crashed into a palm tree. Overall, Dennis left nearly $18.5 million in damage in Florida. In response to the flooding, Governor of Florida Bob Graham signed an executive order authorizing 10 high-axle combat vehicles and 20 National Guardsmen to assist in the evacuation of residents south of Miami. At least 25 households were rescued, while dozens of other families left before becoming stranded, some of them by canoe. Three evacuation shelters were opened for those displaced from their homes. On September 24, over a month after Dennis dropped heavy rainfall in far southeastern Florida, Governor Graham issued a disaster declaration for a area just outside the eastern Everglades, where standing water remained. The storm also brought heavy rainfall to states farther north, such as South Carolina and North Carolina, where similar, but less extensive losses to agriculture occurred. In the former, areas from north of Charleston to northeast Horry County observed of precipitation in a 24-hour period. The Waccamaw River reached its highest level since 1945. In downtown Charleston, several streets were flooded, forcing residents to park their cars on higher ground several blocks away. Two deaths occurred in North Charleston as a result of a traffic accident. Much of southeastern North Carolina observed at least of precipitation, with a peak of of rainfall to the north of Wilmington. Many creeks and streams in that portion of the state swelled significantly. At Pireway, an unincorporated community in Columbus County, about 20 families evacuated after the Waccamaw River exceed its banks. Flooding caused about $10 million in damage to crops in the county. Inundation by water caused several roads to close in New Hanover, Pamlico, and Pender counties. Along the coasts of North Carolina, Virginia, and Delaware, gusty winds and abnormally high tides left generally minor erosion and coastal flooding, though some homes were damaged at Willoughby Spit in Norfolk, Virginia. About to the northeast of Virginia Beach, Virginia, a husband and wife on a schooner became caught in waves, though they were both rescued by the Coast Guard.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58230624

Celebrity influence in politics, also referred to as "celebrity politics," or "political star power," is the act of a prominent person using their fame as a platform to influence others on political issues or ideology. According to Anthony Elliott, celebrity is a central structuring point in self and social identification, per-forming as it does an increasingly important role in self-framings, self-imaginings, self-revisions and self-reflection. The influential people considered celebrities can be anyone with a major following such as professional athletes, actors/actresses, television personalities, or musicians. Celebrities have two kinds of specific power; the abilities to shed light on issues and persuade audiences. Social media is one of the most common areas for celebrities to discuss specific issues or current events that are being politicized; the individuals may also speak out in public forums such as television talk shows, events, or during their own widely attended performances. History. The use of media. The adoption of wide-reaching mediums has made it easier for celebrities to exert influence in politics that began with the creation of television. According to John Street, celebrity influence in politics began with television, as the medium is intimate and focused more on the human side of people, including political candidates, than any other medium. He further states that celebrities were able to use television to reach a wide audience and that their influence affected others' understandings of certain topics. As different mediums emerged, such as social media, where celebrities could voice their opinions on various topics, their influence had a greater effect. Mark Wheeler has opined that this led to one of the main critiques of celebrity involvement in politics in that celebrities could be viewed as a manufactured product, one fabricated through media exposure. Examples of celebrities in politics. Celebrities such as movie stars, professional athletes, musicians, and reality television stars have campaigned for and against political parties, candidates, and on political issues. Examples include Oprah Winfrey and George Clooney endorsing Barack Obama's presidential campaign in 2008 and a song written by American musician Hank Williams Jr. endorsing Senator John McCain's campaign in the same election. Prior to winning the 2016 United States presidential election, President Donald Trump was a businessman and television personality who actively appeared on Fox News to discuss politics and endorsed political candidates. Michael Higgins concludes that Trump's media-centered politics amounts to a "pseudo presidency", confounding orthodox forms of political accountability. According to John Street, this is evident in how he is represented, how he performs and how his 'fans' respond to him. It is also symptomatic of wider changes in the conduct and form of the contemporary, mediatised political realm. In India, Amitabh Bachchan and Smriti Irani have campaigned for various political parties and positions. Selena Gomez wrote an essay expressing her opinion on immigration, detailing her family's past immigration background. Gomez addresses the struggles of immigration to the United States and talks about how its more than just a political issue. Reality T.V. star, entrepreneur and influencer, Kim Kardashian West has also used her celebrity influence to get the opportunity to talk with President Donald Trump and advocate for him to grant clemency for Alice Marie Johnson, who was sentenced to life in prison for a first time drug offense. Since then she has helped with the release of Momolu Stewart, Crystal Munos, Judith Negron, and Tynice Hall to name a few. She has also helped establish a partnership between a prison reform initiative, #cut50, and Lyft to help released inmates get reliable transportation to job interviews. Her legal journey can be seen in the documentary, The Justice Project, in which she claims that, "I want to help elevate these cases to a national level to effect change, and this documentary is an honest depiction of me learning about the system and helping bring tangible results to justice reform.” There are multiple cases of celebrities who have performed well in the polls and have become important political figures in their respective countries. Examples include Austrian-American bodybuilder and movie star Arnold Schwarzenegger, Italian comedian Beppe Grillo, Israeli television host Yair Lapid, Brazilian singer and composer Gilberto Gil, and Panamanian salsa singer and actor Rubén Blades. Celebrities within ambassadorial programs and organizations. Various organizations and programs utilize the celebrity limelight in order to utilize their fanbase. UNICEF is a policy organization branching from the United Nations. According to the UNICEF website, it utilizes their celebrity ambassadorial program in order to gain public recognition. Film, television, sports, and social media stars collaborate to "raise awareness" and "fundraise, advocate, and educate on behalf of UNICEF". Alyssa Milano, P!nk, Gigi Hadid, and other influential persons all claim positions within this program and assist its mission statement. Although this organization is the most politically present, there are various other examples of organizations and programs utilizing this very format in order to achieve their political goals. Examples of politicians in televised networks. In the fifth episode (“2016”) of season three of the Comedy Central show “Broad City”, the main characters encounter and openly support and gush over the 2016 presidential candidate, Hillary Clinton. The episode was written by Chris Kelly and directed by Todd Biermann. Although it was publicly specified as an episode that was not meant to be political, the show's characters displayed a clear support for said candidate. The show was originally created and scripted by Ilana Glazer and Abbi Jacobson, two comedians who regularly utilize their social media platforms to speak on political topics. This episode aired on March 16, 2016 in the midst of the presidential campaign. The twenty-second episode (“Moving Up”) of the sixth season within “Parks and Recreation” featured a brief cameo by the first lady, Michelle Obama. This episode aired on April 24, 2014, well within President Barack Obama’s time in office. Written by Aisha Muharrar & Alan Yang and directed by Michael Schur, the episode featured the first lady convincing the main character, Leslie Knope, to move forward with her decision to work in Chicago, Illinois. Leslie Knope is portrayed by Amy Poehler, a comedian who also starred within SNL and several films. There are several other cases of politicians utilizing televised networks and celebrity affiliation to increase polling opinion and public interest. Social media celebrities. Social media has risen as a platform for stardom utilized by average individuals. Many teenagers, children, and adults have amassed a public following on platforms such as TikTok and Youtube. The platforms have even given names to such stars who have received a large amount of media attention. These video sharing applications allow for content to be uploaded and enjoyed by the public. Many of these social media niche stars have become public celebrities: starring in films, shows, etc. Many these individuals allocate their mass following to enjoy their other content. Social media platforms and influence. Social Media stars also known as "Micro-celebrities" or "Internet Celebrities" are a relatively new form of influencer who has arisen from the various social media content creation platforms: namely YouTube, Vine, TikTok. These individuals spawn from ordinary users who upload their own personal content and gather a following. These followers become fans and eventually a micro-celebrity is born. Although, the origination of the name was given to individuals who share a niche platform and audience, they have grown with the popularity of social media applications and websites. Social Media starts like Lily Singh, Cody Ko, and Philip De Franco have all utilized platforms to star in television and web-series: opening up their fanbase. Additionally, some Social Media stars have even gone on to sign media contracts with television networks such as MTV. MTV has personally produced various shows starring Social Media stars like Tana Mongeau and Jake Paul. Youtubers. Youtubers is a name given to those who have reached high numbers of viewers and followers. They become celebrities of said application and continue to manufacture content that their viewers find appealing. These individuals are often idolized by their viewers and fans. Many of these celebrities also use their platform to collaborate with businesses and organizations to advertise their products and services. Additionally, they not only use this platform as a consistent monetary income, YouTube has always been a platform for ideas and a spread of political knowledge. Many of these users display clear bias towards a particular side. TikTokers. TikTok is the latest social media craze with the highest number of users to date. This platform allows for fifteen to one-minute long videos. The high number of users allows for a high following. Charli D'Amelio, the 16-year old leading TikToker, has accumulated over 75 million followers in the span of a year. She is publicly recognized as the most followed user in the application and has used her platform to stand with political and social events in relation to the current Black Lives Matter movement. As a result, the video accumulated over 25 million views and over 8 million “likes” within the application. There have additionally been a variety of other TikTokers utilizing their platform in support of the same movement as well. This, in turn, educates the young viewers and encourages them to be socially and politically aware and active. Many of these users and content creators have acknowledged the death of George Floyd, and stand in solidarity. Impact on the public. General influence. Through their activism on the world stage, a self-selected cast of celebrities have begun to have a significant impact on policy, shaping the agenda on a range of global humanitarian issues. Celebrities play a growing role as part of an emerging strategy for political advocacy. Spawned by the difficulty most groups have making news, and made possible by the evolution of technology and the public sphere, this new celebrity advocacy strategy represents one aspect of the broader shift in American politics being ushered in by the digital age. Celebrities have the ability to generate parasocial relationships (feelings of a personal connectedness despite the lack of direct contact with the consumers). According to Brian Loader et al., young citizens are generally cautiously positive about both politicians and celebrities using social media but feel that they should learn to use it appropriately if they are to rebuild trust and credibility. In the United States and Canada, there is empirical confirmation of celebrities having a positive effect on the willingness of young people to support specific causes. According to Anubhav and Abhinav Mishra, the credibility of the endorser will likely translate to that of the political group that celebrity is endorsing. Politics in Branding. Political sway could be heavily influenced by public media fans. As more individuals become involved with the opinions of their idols, they could potentially be swayed into a specific political scope. Influence is a pivotal part of politics. Monetary donations are extremely influential in order to utilize the public. When a campaign is in the position of having more monetary resources, they are able to purchase more air-time on television, radio, and web-ads. In fact, within the year of 2019 over $700 million was donated to political campaigns in support of presidential candidates. Many of these donations originate from people in socially powerful positions: celebrities. A majority of these socially powerful individuals utilize their platform and fanbase to sway public opinion towards a more socially aware option. There are many examples of televised propaganda utilized by celebrity platforms in order to publicly favor a specific political candidate. Identification. Identification is the process by which individuals are thought to develop a deep connection with celebrities. This increases the likelihood that the viewer will perform the behaviors advocated by the celebrity as well as adopt similar attitudes and beliefs. Individuals go through the process of identification where they start to believe in the values, convictions and behaviors portrayed by the celebrity endorser and eventually adopt them as their own. Because it is easier to identify with people who have a connection or relationship, individuals are more likely to identify with celebrities that are closer to them in age. Scholars consider identification a significant component in the persuasion process through which celebrities influence audience behavior. Critiques. Various concerns have been raised over celebrity involvement in politics. According to John Street, one of the main criticisms of celebrity involvement in politics is when celebrities take an office. In his article, as his example of this Street mentions Arnold Schwarzenegger becoming the Governor of California. He cites the main concerns surrounding celebrities holding office is lacking the qualities necessary to be a representative of the people. Street also argues that reliance on intimate mediums, such as television shifts the criteria by which politicians are judged from leadership skills to populist empathy. In Mark Wheeler's book, "Celebrity Politics," he mentions that outside of politicians holding public office, their advocacy on political issues can cause skewed understanding of that particular topic. Wheeler suggests these critiques of celebrity involvement in politics reflect the values of the Frankfurt School. The school's critical theorists contended that media has become an expression of dominate ideology, which celebrities advocate for.

meaningful relationship

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5453823

White Clothing and Religious Traditions. White clothing has significance in many religious faith traditions. For example, the wearing of the color white is mentioned in the Holy Bible's Old Testament section, Ecclesiates, in the "Live Joyfully" text that appears in 9:8 "Let thy garments always be white: and let thy head lack no ointment.". The Old Testament is a foundation for many religions such as Judaism, Christianity, the Moslem religion, and some offshoot religions. Some of these traditions of wearing white clothing in different cultures around the world include: Care of White Clothing, History of Laundry of White Clothing. White clothing is also easy to clean naturally since ancient times, and that also made it a popular way to dress—the use of milk to wash the clothes and then hanging them outdoors in sunlight, a natural bleach. Other easy ways to clean white clothes used since ancient times are washing them with lemon or vinegar, and hanging them in the sun to dry. Many of these types of successful laundry methods are still used today in some areas of the world. White Clothing enters into popularity in the 1800s and later. In modern times, white clothing is worn by more than 20 professions in some countries. Chefs, bakers, doctors, nurses, lab technicians, and painters often wear white uniforms in the United States. White is the official color of dress for tennis players at Wimbledon, London’s All England Lawn Tennis and Racquet Club's in Great Britain, and some tennis clubs around the world just allow the wearing of white tennis outfits. The sport of Croquet also uses white attire in most of their clubs. There are a few other sports that also have a white clothing dress code, such as the Japanese martial arts forms of Karate and Jujitsu "The martial arts uniform or 'gi' in Japanese, is very important. The gi itself symbolizes your spirit and readiness to train. Most traditional Karate and Jujitsu school will use white when practicing empty handed to represent a pure heart and good intentions . . . ." Beginners in these martial arts forms often start out with a white belt, and different color belts are given for showing the level of training, and often white uniforms are used by all skill levels for formal occasions.>ref<www.peacefulwarriorphx.com/uniforms-and-rank.html</ref> Most of the European white clothing began popularity in the Victorian era. The popularity of the white shirt as casual wear and elegant wear, was unfortunately led by France's Queen Marie Antionette (1755 – 1842), and a popular portrait of her wearing a very fancy ruffled cotton white attire since it encouraged the African slave trade that was occurring during that time, as many slaves were forced into extremely harsh labor to produce cotton in the Americas and Caribbean. White wool (merino) clothing entered popularity in Ireland, as the cable knit sweater due to the Aran Isle off of the coast of Ireland. Knitting began in the 17th Century in Ireland, and many years later cable knit designs were produced. "Visitors also come to bring home an authentic Aran souvenir. Here is the story of how a tiny cottage industry evolved to give the world a generic term now used to describe any white patterned garment with embossed decoration . . .The first Aran sweaters or geansaís (ganseys) as the islanders called them, made their debut on young island boys in the late 1920s and early 1930s. They were worn for First Holy Communions or to Mass on Sundays. Made from the bawneen - 'little white' in Irish - or homespun, undyed wool, many were knitted initially like socks 'in the round,' i.e. on four needles and, given that they were for special, sacramental occasions, great effort and pride went into their design. The cable knits entered in the 1900s were helpful in identifying lost sailors found deceased or not conscious on shore, as each village had its own cable knit design. So, the fisherman and sailors helped create a modern cable knit sweater boom that became popular in many parts of the world. The History of the White Wedding Dress. Queen Victoria's marriage to Prince Albert changed wedding dress tradition, as the color white was not used before., The History of Men's White Ties and White Dinner Jackets. “'White Tie' describes the most formal evening dress for men; 'Black Tie' is less formal, and less uncomfortable, since a starched bib-front shirt, white vest, and scratchy, rigid collar were not necessary with a tuxedo . . .The white or off-white 'dinner jacket' was usually worn with black tuxedo trousers. "The white dinner jacket began to appear in the 1930s . . .The white dinner jacket was worn by Humphrey Bogart in Casablanca. The cinematic turn emphasized the connection of the jacket with glamorous, tropical resort imagery. In the 1950s, the jacket was synonymous with the debonair flair of Havana. Travel posters and postcards often featured dapper travelers in the signature white jacket." And, white dinner jackets frequently appear on the USA's Hollywood entertainment awards ceremonies, on the Red Carpet. The History of Wearing White Apparel. "From the tomb of Tutankhamen remains of gloves were found that were decorated with a plaited, scale-motif design to later Kings and noble men that were often buried or interned into lavish tombs many of which would have had white silk gloves adorned with pearls, precious metals and gem stones." "Everyone in Egypt wore clothing made from a fabric called linen. Linen is made from spinning the fibers from the stems of a flax plant. Linen fabric is strong and doesn’t trap heat next to the body like heavy wool. For that reason, linen is comfortable and cool to wear. It is the perfect fabric for a hot climate. Egyptian clothing is almost always white, the natural color of flax, because it was hard to dye linen.". "Linen clothing was almost always white or off-white. Differences in status were shown by the fineness of the cloth. The finest, 'royal linen' was almost diaphanous, and much softer and whiter than other linen. Many of the finest garments would have been bleached white in the sun, and enhanced with pleating or fringes. Though white was the predominant colour, clothing found in excavations show that coloured threads were woven into cloth to make stripes. Kings and queens wore clothes that were bright with woven patterns of coloured threads, and embroidery." The Wearing of White Gloves when handling Archives. "Welcome to the White Glove Debate. When I was in library school, the white gloves question came up in all of my archive classes. The professors and the visiting archivists all had the same answer: Don't wear gloves unless you're handling photographs or a material that could be harmed by fingerprints. The gloves could do more harm than good. How could gloves hurt paper. Gloves reduce your sense of touch. Simply put, you're clumsier when you wear gloves. You stand a greater chance of ripping or creasing the paper because you cannot feel the paper and you've lost fine dexterity . . .The use of gloves in archives is not a centuries-old tradition . . . More and more archives are moving away from requiring white gloves for some of their archival material. The National Archives and Record Administration (US), the Library of Congress, The National Archives (UK), and the British Library are just some of the major repositories that allow researchers to handle some documents without gloves." Freemasons and their White Gloves and White Aprons. "Dr. Robert Plot, a non-mason, states in his "Natural History of Staffordshire", 1686, that "the Society of Freemasons presented their candidates with white gloves for themselves and their wives . . .In the general regulations of George Payne approved by the Grand Lodge in London in 1721, Article 7 reads: "Every new brother at his making is decently to cloath the Lodge, that is, all the brethren present, ... By 'clothing the Lodge' is meant furnishing all the brethren present with white aprons and gloves. In the Masonic apron two things are essential for the preservation of its symbolic character, its color and the material. Its color must be white, because that color denotes Purity, Simplicity and Candor, Innocence, Truth and Hope. The Ancient Druids, and the Priests generally of antiquity, used to wear white vestments when they officiated in any sacred service. The white lambskin apron is, to us, a constant reminder of that purity of life and rectitude of conduct, of higher thoughts and nobler deeds, which are the distinguishing characteristics of a Free and Accepted Mason." The Knights Templar eliminated White Clothing after 10 years. The monastic medieval Knights Templar originally had white regalia, as a symbol of them being a monastic organization, but after 10 years switched to a sandy color light brown because they felt that white clothes would encourage those not worthy of them to wear them. Images of white robes with large red crosses belong to the ”fraternity of Freemasons” dress code starting in the 15th Century. Confusion of Templar dress code happened when “The Templar King Richard the Lionheart used white with straight-lined red crosses (different from the Templar cross-paté, although this officially represented Knights of the British Crown, and not the Templar Order”). "The Temple Rule of 1129 AD from Saint Bernard is evidence that the white robes from the first few years of the original Knights Templar were quickly ruled out. The original text (Rule 68) indicates that within less than 10 years after the Order was created, white was eliminated, and Templar regalia was ordered to be a natural 'burell' shade of light brown . . ." White Gloves and animated Cartoon Characters. Many of USA's Walt Disney's animated cartoon characters such as Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse, Donald Duck, Pinnochio, Goofy, and others often wear white gloves, it became so popular that his rivals used them also. Some suggest it is racist parody of black minstrel vaudeville shows of the past, and others suggest it made animation of hands easier. "MICKEY MOUSE was based on blackface minstrels, according to a new video exploring Disney’s roots . . . In the 1929 cartoon, The Opry House, Mickey put on a big Vaudeville show, a form of theatrical variety entertainment which was popular from the 1880s to the 1930s. The narrator says: 'That film and many of the animations that predated it, were inextricably linked to Vaudeville performance and the blackface ministry shows of the time. '", "The Opry House reveals how inextricably linked vaudeville performance and blackface minstrelsy were to early animation. Nicholas Sammond writes in his book Birth of an Industry that early animators often performed at these shows. They also studied the performances of many of the vaudeville artists and translated those characters studies to paper when they were inventing their own cartoons. Sammond writes, 'Mickey Mouse isn’t like a minstrel; he is a minstrel.' Blackface minstrels and vaudeville performers of the time dawned loose fitting clothes, exaggerated makeup, and they wore white gloves. ", Walt Disney famously put this into practice with his very own Mickey Mouse in 1929 in The Opry House. 'We didn't want (Mickey Mouse) to have mouse hands, because he was supposed to be more human,' Walt Disney wrote. 'So we gave him gloves. Five fingers looked like too much on such a little figure, so we took one away. That was just one less finger to animate.' So it was just easier. That's not the end of the story though, there's the cultural background too. There's a big vaudeville show where Mickey plays the piano - the white gloves meant viewers could see his hand movements as well as making him seem more human." So, the "Common accessory for 'cartoony' characters, especially those from the early 1900s and shout outs based on that era. Simply, the character wears puffy white gloves, even if he doesn't wear much else. The gloves can be any length, and at least cover the whole hand (and all four of its fingers). Those that cover only the hand may occasionally have a wrist band and knuckle indentations as well." White gloves appear in animation in the popular British "Alice in Wonderland," where "The White Rabbit is the first creature Alice sees, anxiously running into the rabbit hole in order to not be late. He is a very distinguished rabbit, with a large house and a gardener and always wearing gloves, a waistcoat and a pocket watch, but he is always in a hurry. His fear of the Queen of Hearts while at the croquet tournament makes him a little rude and short with Alice." White Gloves as a Symbol of Wealth and Power. White Opera Gloves "also known as Evening Gloves" Opera gloves (also known as evening gloves) have been a must have fashion accessory throughout the centuries. The most famous example is the mousquetaire which is the long, over the elbow style glove, typically made with silk or kidskin leather. It has buttons at the wrist which allowed women to free their hands without completely taking off the glove for occasions such as eating. Wearing gloves was considered a mandatory form of etiquette in the Victorian times especially amongst the upper class. Although no longer a formal requirement, they are still commonly used today to accessorise special occasion dresses like a wedding dress or prom gown. Opera gloves are also frequently used in popular culture for glamorous female characters like Jessica Rabbit or Cinderella. So why not try a pair and feel like a princess for a day." White Gloves as a Victorian symbol of a Woman's Purity. "In the Victorian era, when gloves were often seen as a symbol of a woman’s purity, painting and literature sometimes used them to define the moral character of protagonists. For example, in Charles Dickens’s 'Great Expectations' Miss Skiffins who refuses any physical contact with Wemmick until they are married, is the embodiement of purity . . . In contrast, William Holman Hunt’s The Awakening Conscience uses a glove to suggest a woman’s lost innocence. The painting, which depicts a woman standing up from her lover's lap, shows his glove upon the floor symbolizing of her lost innocence and her social deterioration." During the Victorian era in a period of mourning, "If white gloves were worn, they were stitched with black thread . . ." The White Shirt in the popular modern German film “Die Welle”/“The Wave”. "The Wave" is a 2008 German socio-political thriller film directed by Dennis Gansel and starring Jürgen Vogel, Frederick Lau, Jennifer Ulrich and Max Riemelt in the leads. It is based on Ron Jones' social experiment The Third Wave and Todd Strasser's novel, "The Wave". The White Shirt becomes part of a social dress code to help high school students learn how easily and gradually fascism can take over with simple group manipulation methods. White Clothes used in phrases. White Glove Test--"White gloves being used to test the thoroughness of a cleaning job. If you run your finger across the mantelpiece, shelf, or back of a chair and if it comes back clean, you know a good job was done. Truth in Television (the basic motion, with or without the gloves)." <ref?tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/WhiteGloveTest</ref> Handle with Kid Gloves--"To handle or treat something with kid gloves is to do so with special consideration or in a tactful manner, often due to a perceived sensitivity." "Kid leather is soft and smooth, making it a perfect material for handling objects (such as silverware) without leaving smudges. It was the material used to make the classic white gloves worn by house servants, for example, or by those handling museum artifacts. Before long, kid gloves were associated with the aristocracy, a staple of foppish characters. The White Rabbit carries a pair in Alice in Wonderland . . ." "Use of the figurative phrase with kid gloves took hold by the end of the 19th century. The earliest citation shown in the Oxford English Dictionary is from James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce in his 1888 work The American Commonwealth, and by the 20th century the phrase connoted timidity or fecklessness: 'But in exposing the alliance of Tammany Hall and the unscrupulous corporation managers, [New York City mayor Seth Low] should not have shrunk from mentioning names. This, the most serious menace to the cause of good government, cannot be handled with kid gloves. —editorial, The Nation, 29 Oct. 1903. . .'" and "Pack leaders Donald Trump and Texas Sen. Ted Cruz have taken the kiddie gloves off and have finally started to pummel each other, specifically with Trump going after Cruz for being born in Canada. —Scott Sutton, The Chicago Sun-Times, 14 Jan. 2016" Whitewash--as a noun, "anything, as deceptive words or actions, used to cover up or gloss over faults, errors, or wrongdoings, or absolve a wrongdoer from blame . . . " as a verb, to cover up or gloss over the faults or errors of; absolve from blame. . . . The metaphor used in the figurative sense of the word is that of painting over flaws to cover them up instead of actually fixing them. This often involves only superficially addressing the problem, trying to distract from it, or trying to change the subject. as a noun, "Sports Informal. A defeat in which the loser fails to score," as a verb, "Sports Informal. to defeat by keeping the opponent from scoring: The home team whitewashed the visitors eight to nothing." "More recently, the word whitewash has become a slang term meaning to cast a white actor to play a character of color, such as in a TV show or movie. For example, if a movie were made based on a comic book in which a character was Asian, casting a white actor to play that character would be an instance of whitewashing. Whitewash is also used in situations in which members of a marginalized group are excluded or erased through substitution with members of the dominant cultural group, such as in fictional representations of historical events." An "Example: Finally, we get a film in which we see a realistic depiction of the Black and Indigenous women behind the movement—not a version of the story that has been whitewashed by Hollywood. ", "Diversity in the entertainment industry has been a hot topic for a while—Variety published essays in 1956 about the paucity of black actors on television and the big screen—but lately the discussion has moved to the forefront. The confluence of an all-white Oscar slate with the casting of the white actor Joseph Fiennes to play black musician Michael Jackson has led to renewed charges of Hollywood whitewashing. ", Also, "Someone who is looked at as leaving behind or neglecting their culture and assimilating to a white, western culture. That exchange student has really been 'white washed.'"

compulsory way

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4644691

Airsoft is considered to be a modern shooting sport. Airsoft guns themselves are legal in many parts of the world, although some countries, states, and cities have specific restrictions against the items. For example, California State Law states that peoples of all age can use these items, classing them as both tools and toys. Safety regulations in many areas require bright markings on the items (such as an orange tip). They are officially classed as "soft air devices" or "air compressed toys", depending on the location. Australia. Importation of airsoft guns (referred officially as toy models by the Department of Immigration and Border Protection), regardless of their legal status by state, requires an Australian Customs "B709 Importation of Firearms – Police Confirmation and Certification Form". These forms can be obtained from the relevant state's police department, however some states may require operators hold a valid license for the class of firearm wished to import before the forms will be issued even though airsoft possession is generally not considered a valid reason for obtaining a firearms license. In light of these prohibitions on airsoft guns, Gel Ball Blasters are legal in some states and territories in Australia. As a general rule, the following types of airsoft guns are illegal in all states: In addition, each state has its own legislation regarding possession and use of airsoft guns: Airsoft is regulated in New South Wales under the "Firearms Act 1996" that classifies them as firearms, which the New South Wales Police do not allow for any reason. Airsoft articles are not permitted in Victoria under the Victorian Legislation, and Victoria Police Licensing & Regulation Division (LRD) will not issue any authorization for their importation on the basis that "no genuine reason exists to own them, because there is no approved range in Victoria to undertake these war games" and "their militaristic appearance also plays a part in their perceived undesirability". Airsoft weapons, under current state legislation, irrespective of muzzle velocity, cannot be lawfully possessed in Queensland. As airsoft guns cannot be used in Queensland lawfully it cannot be imported into Queensland. Changes to South Australian law (in particular the "Firearms Amendment Act 2008") mean that airsoft guns with a muzzle velocity of "less" than are considered "regulated imitation firearms", while those guns exceeding this limit are considered real firearms. In practice, both types fall under the same licensing and storage requirements, as "regulated imitations" are considered "de facto" firearms by law; furthermore, they are considered to belong to the class of firearm they imitate — for example, a Marushin M1 Carbine would be considered a ClassD firearm, as it imitates a semi-automatic center-fire rifle. Regardless of this, South Australian Police will refuse to register an airsoft gun. Airsoft articles are prohibited in Western Australia and Western Australian Police will not issue any authorization for their importation. Paintball guns are allowed in the Northern Territory, and all other airsoft firearms are legal with the right firearms licence. The ACT is governed by the Australian Federal Police; all airsoft guns that resemble semiautomatic or automatic military rifles or shotguns adapted for military purpose are considered prohibited weapons, as are an imitation or replica of any firearm (including an imitation or replica pistol, shortened firearm, machine gun or submachine gun) unless it is of a type approved by the Registrar. Due to the nature of the sport of airsoft (as with paintball) it is classified as a "war game" which is defined in the "Firearms Act 1996" as a simulated military exercise or similar activity in which a firearm is used or carried by a person. Section 119 of the "Firearms Act 1996 (TAS)" prohibits a person from taking part in, allowing, causing, assisting or advertising or promoting any war games. As a result, war games such as paintball and airsoft are prohibited in Tasmania. It has previously been established that an airsoft gun would be categorized as an air rifle or air pistol for which a Category A (air rifle) or Category H (air pistol) firearms licence would be required. However, the Firearms Act does not provide for an appropriate "genuine reason" to possess a firearm for airsoft activities; therefore, an airsoft gun would not be able to be registered in Tasmania, as the applicant could not provide a satisfactory reason for wanting to own and possess the firearm. In short, the playing of the sport of airsoft and the possession of airsoft guns in Tasmania is currently banned, and that position will most likely not change in the near future. Argentina. In Argentina, Airsoft guns can be bought and used by anyone over the age of 18, however the import, sale and manufacture of replica guns requires a permit by federal law 26.216 (edited March 2018) Armenia. Airsoft guns with muzzle energy below three joules (muzzle velocity 173.2 m/s or 568 ft/s for a 0.20 g projectile) are legal. They are not considered weapons and do not require any permission. Belgium. In Belgium, weapons that launch a projectile without the use of a combustion/fire are unrestricted, it is stipulated as a free-to-purchase weapon which can be bought only by persons aged 18 years or older, as checked from any form of identification. The only exclusions are those on the Forbidden Weapons List. This includes those used for airsoft and Paintball. However, if a weapon is shorter than 60 cm, or has a barrel shorter than 30 cm and shoots 7.5 joules of energy (0.20g pellet travelling at 273.9 m/s or 898.5 ft/s) or above (measured 2.5 meters from the muzzle), it is classified as a firearm and needs registration. Commercial sales/imports/exports may be done only by licensed firearms dealers. Non-commercial sales or owner transfers can be freely done by anyone aged 18 years or older. In general, all events must take place in private locations. Organizations may host airsoft events under the condition that they are not affiliated with ideological or religious agendas. Also the local authorities such as the mayor's administration and the police need to be notified and their consent has to be given. In the Flemish region and when organizing more than two times per year with maximum four days in a row, it is mandatory to have an environment permit, also when organizing in a designated forest area a permission from the regional nature and forest agency is needed. In the Walloon area in general it is sufficient to inform the local authorities. There is no clear law on how to transport airsoft replicas, but it is commonly accepted among players to transport replicas as if they were real firearms, as to avoid any chance of hassle with the authorities. This means that the replicas must be covered while transporting them through public domain, in a gun-bag for example. Also when carrying/transporting airsoft replicas, a plausible explanation has to be given when asked by law enforcement authorities. Also due to strict environmental laws, it is mandatory to use bio-degradable BB's. The use of gun-mounted lasers or night-vision scopes/sights is illegal for civilians, however the use of regular scopes/sights (even illuminated ones) and night-vision-goggles is not. This is because gun-mounted lasers and night-vision scopes/sights are looked upon as being only useful in a military context or for assassination (which is, of course, illegal). Also the possession and using a real silencer is forbidden for the same reasons though a dummy/fake silencer is legal. Brazil. Airsoft is a very recent shooting sport in Brazil. In the past, due to lack of regulation, airsoft was usually misinterpreted as a firearm clone or replica. Nowadays, airsoft is legal but there are strong restrictions. Based on the current minutes that have gone public, airsoft guns are not considered firearms, but they are still considered controlled items. To import is necessary to pay import taxes of 60% of the value of the product including the freight plus about 150 reais (around 50 dollars) for administrative fees. It is also necessary before importing any weapon or accessory of weapon to make an application of CII (International Import Certificate) to the Brazilian Army containing the data of the equipment that wants to import, location of the airport or port of departure in the country of foreigner and in the national arrival, store and buyer data and product values. This request can be approved or denied and can take up to three months (this response must be sent to the seller to attach to the outside of the merchandise if it does not have CII when the merchandise arrives in Brazil it will be confiscated). This bureaucracy causes a gigantic delay in the domestic market with the international market, it also causes the lack of use of low prices abroad and as Brazil has high-interest rates( along with import taxes) the product often comes to triple the price. All Guns do not need any transportation permit after import. People under 18 are not allowed to buy airsoft guns and commercial entities/importers are obliged to retain documentation of airsoft buyers for five years. An Orange tip or red tip is required in order to differentiate it from firearms. There are still strong restrictions to import accessories such as holographic sights, red dots, and magazines (need CII and administrative taxes). Airsoft is also expensive in Brazil, as it costs almost the same as a real firearm in the US, which will make it very hard for airsoft to become popular in Brazil. However, now the sport has grown quite large due to the youtubers and it is estimated almost 100 thousand participants(11/14/2017). The Brazilian market due to the high import rates are loaded with cheap weapons of entry of brands like CYMA, JG, King Arms, Cybergun, and Umarex. The airsoft community adopts national speed limits but there is no compelling law. The most usual limits are: Assault: 400FPS. Sniper Semi-Auto (M110 SASS, PSG-1 etc. ): 500FPS and do not shoot less than 15 meters, mandatory secondary up to 400 fps. Sniper: 550FPS and do not shoot less than 15 meters, mandatory secondary up to 400 fps. DMR: 450FPS and not shoot less than 15 meters, mandatory secondary up to 400 fps. Bulgaria. Airsoft is a legal sport in Bulgaria and there are no restrictions placed on the guns apart from a parents' permission for people under 18. As airsoft guns are considered air guns by the Bulgarian law, no documents or licenses are needed to possess them. There are no restrictions about lasers, flashlights etc. Moreover, there is no need for the end of the barrel to be painted in orange (like in the United States). There are neither restrictions about the power of the air guns/airsoft guns (although there are official rules, enforced by the individual airsoft fields or by Airsoft Sofia in games, that they organize) nor about carrying them in public areas, although it is highly advisable not to carry replica firearms in public places outside of a carry case or an appropriate backpack. This rule is unofficially enforced by the Airsoft Sofia organisation and is punishable by ban from official games (temporary or permanent), as it creates an unwanted friction between the players and the authorities and public. Shooting in "protected" (quote from the law) areas is forbidden. Protected areas include schools, administrative buildings, public property, and public areas. Now it is required that private regulated land must obtain urban planning application / consent to make it public land before starting a paintball field with an internal boundary of 3 m. A lot of the people in Bulgaria have their own field rules which usually require to have 18 years of age. There are some exceptions though:The CRG airsoft field in slanchev bryag has no age limit (http://www.crgroup.bg/) and the Airsoft Sofia Field has an age restriction of 16, and players between the age of 16 and 18 can participate with parental permission. (http://airsoftsofiafield.com) Canada. Airsoft guns are not illegal or heavily restricted in Canada. Under the Canadian Firearms Program, Airsoft guns resembling with near precision an existing make and model of an arm, other than an antique arm, and with a muzzle velocity below 366 feet per second, are considered replica arms and therefore are prohibited devices. Models resembling antique arms may be allowed. Generally, antique arms are those manufactured before 1898. Individuals may keep replica guns they owned on 1December 1998 and no license is required, however the import or acquisition of replica firearms is prohibited. If the replica firearm is taken out of Canada it will not be allowed back in. Air guns (other than replicas) with a minimum muzzle velocity of 111.6 m/s (366 ft/s) and maximum muzzle velocity of 152.4 m/s (500 ft/s) or a maximum muzzle energy of 5.7 joules (4.2 foot-pounds) are exempt from licensing, registration, and other requirements; and from penalties for possessing an arm without a valid license or registration certificate but are considered a firearm under the Criminal Code if used to commit a crime. Airsoft guns that exceed both the maximum velocity and maximum muzzle energy are subject to the same licence, registration, and safe handling requirements that apply to conventional firearm. A Airsoft (bb) gun may be imported if it meets the required markings. An airsoft gun that is obviously a child's toy, i.e. made out of clear plastic, that fires only a very light pellet (less than 2g) no faster than 152.4 m/s (500 ft/s) would not be classified as a firearm under the Canadian Firearms Act. In Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, the minimum age to purchase an airsoft gun is 18. Children under that age are still able to use airsoft guns but only if supervised by someone over 18. Overseas/international retailers may sell Canadian-ready guns, or offer services to make them meet Canada's requirements. On February 16th, 2021, BILL C-21, "An Act to amend certain Acts and to make certain consequential amendments (firearms)" was introduced. While the proposed changes are to "combat intimate partner and gender-based violence and self-harm involving firearms, fight gun smuggling and trafficking, help municipalities create safer communities, give young people the opportunities and resources they need to resist lives of crime, protect Canadians from gun violence, and subject owners of firearms prohibited on May 1, 2020 to non-permissive storage requirements, should they choose not to participate in the buyback program," it also aims to change the criminal code on airsoft guns (known as uncontrolled firearms or "mid velocity replicas"). The bill would make all airsoft guns full replicas and aims to "Ensure mid-velocity 'replica' firearms are prohibited" by: The bill is still being debated and has not yet passed any level of legislation. The Conservative Party of Canada and the New Democratic Party however, along with at least 2 Liberals, have shown opposition to this section of the bill, recognizing it as a safe recreational activity. Jack Harris of the NDP has stated "Banning of airsoft rifles is putting them in the same category as prohibited weapons and that is wrong." Shannon Stubbs stated "The Liberals are actually imposing a ban on airsoft and a partial ban on paintball. Any rational common sense person can see that toy guns are not responsible for shootings causing deaths in Canadian cities. Criminals and gangs with illegal guns are tragically ending the lives of Canadians while this provision and C-21's ends hundreds of livelihoods, legacies and jobs and outlaws an entirely harmless hobby enjoyed by more than 60,000 Canadians." Charlottetown Liberal MP Sean Casey said to the CBC there are good reasons to include replica firearms in Bill C-21, but he believes that the bill as it stands goes too far by saying "It isn't just the military-style assault replicas that are being banned by this bill; it's anything that resembles a firearm … An airsoft replica of a hunting rifle is banned, and that's wrong and that's overreaching." As the bill was going into the committee stage, he continued with "It's at that stage where those in the airsoft business will have an opportunity to come before the public safety committee to lay out their concerns, to suggest changes to make the bill better and quite frankly, I hope that their input will result in some common-sense changes to the bill." Chile. Chile recognized airsoft as a legal sport activity under Exempt Resolution No. 245 of 20 January 2011 by the National Institute of Sports. Although airsoft replicas are not clearly regulated under Chilean gun law, modifying toy guns to use real ammunition and carrying an unconcealed weapon in a public area is illegal and punishable by law. There is currently no law that restricts who may acquire or use an airsoft gun. However, stores and sport clubs usually only permit their use or acquisition to individuals that are 18 years old or older. China. In People's Republic of China, despite the common belief that airsoft is outright banned, the official stance on airsoft is that it is technically just "tightly controlled". However, the control standards are so strict and the punishments are so heavy-handed, that involvement in the sport (regarded as "wargame" or "live action CS") is considered too impractical for common individuals in Mainland China. According to the "Identification Standards of Imitation Guns" (仿真枪认定标准) dictated by the Ministry of Public Security (the central coordinating agency of the Chinese police system) in 2008, a replica ("imitation") gun is recognized according to "any" one of the following criteria: If a replica exceeds "any" single criterion, it will no longer be categorized as a replica/toy gun, but rather considered a real weapon, and therefore illegal to purchase and possess. Offenders can be judged as arms traffickers and subjected to penalties as high as capital punishment and life imprisonment. Prior to the Beijing Olympics, airsoft was an increasingly popular sport among Chinese military enthusiasts. However, since the 2008 standards came out, there have been thousands of arrests and seizures made on toy gun merchants and consumers for "arms trafficking" and "illegal possession of firearms", because people are often unaware that their hobbies are now suddenly spelt as illegal under the new standards, and the Ministry of Public Security or police never actively informed the public about the change. Law enforcement is also highly arbitrary, and many of the merchandises confiscated are actually either non-functional props or well below the replica limit. This is also compounded by hyped moral panics from the mass media and parents groups who exaggerate the safety threat posed by these toys. Such examples include confusing the definition of airsoft guns with the far more powerful air guns, slippery slope arguments that airsoft weapons can be easily modified to shoot more lethal projectiles or even converted into real firearms, or alarmist overgeneralization of danger citing demonstrations from inappropriately designed experiments of how airsoft guns are capable of penetrate paper targets at point-blank range, all appealing for a blanket ban on replica toys out of concerns for child safety. As a result of the crackdown by the authorities and negative social sentiments from various moral entrepreneurs, airsoft is in effect banished from the public eyes, and domestic manufacturers and importers have become essentially extinct. However, despite all the negativities against the sport, many people (even some police officers) still take risks to acquire airsoft replicas (often bought from Hong Kong, then secretly smuggled back into the Mainland via Shenzhen). To avoid the government tracing online, various underground airsoft community forums often refer the commonly seen battery-powered automatic airsoft guns as "electric dogs" (, playing a joking near-homophone on the English word "gun") or "pets" (). Alternative MilSim activities using gel ball shooters (similar to Maya's Xploderz) or even foam dart shooters (similar to Hasbro's Nerf Blaster) as replacements have also become increasingly popular. There has also been ongoing debates in the blogosphere against the official "1.8 J/cm2" definition, since the pre-2008 Chinese criteria defined that a minimal muzzle-ratio kinetic energy (MRKE) of 16 J/cm2 was needed to breach human skin at close range and hence qualifiable as a real firearm — nine times higher than the current standards. In comparison, the maximum MRKE allowed for replica guns in Hong Kong is at 7.077 J/cm2, Taiwan at 20 J/cm2 and Japan at 3.2 J/cm2, while most other countries like Germany and United States are often at up to 78.5 J/cm2 (though with restrictions on minimal engagement distances). Some netizens even accused the legislative and law enforcement authorities of procrastinative/corrupt practices because it is much more convenient for police officers to claim commendations and promotions from picking on soft targets such as the generally law-abiding toy gun owners, rather than risking violence to confront the often threatening real criminals. This sentiment was often reinforced by reports of selective enforcements, where offenders of special backgrounds (foreign nationals, ethnic minorities, political/social elites and associates) were given significantly lighter penalty than other average citizens. Some legal academics and lawyers have also pointed out that the Ministry of Public Security, who solely dictated the above-mentioned definition on real guns vs. replicas, is a law enforcement body but not a legislative one, and thus has no jurisdiction in defining legal standards, meaning that the current replica gun standard is in fact unconstitutional. Croatia. Airsoft replicas fall into the D category of weapons and to buy one, users have to be at least 18 years old. The maximum allowed muzzle velocity for various categories of rifles by Croatian Airsoft Federation are: AEG - 1,49J (joules) - max 1,56J Machinegun - 1,49J (joula) - max 1,56J DMR - 2,32J (joules) – max 2,42J (minimum allowed range of action is 20 m, mandatory sidearm and integrated optics to enlarge ) Bolt-action - 3,34J (joules) - max 3,46J (minimum allowed range of action is 30 m, mandatory sidearm and integrated optics to enlarge ) use automatic ( burst ) mode shooting replicas in enclosed spaces is allowed if the replicas do not have a kinetic energy greater than 0,84J ( joules ), mandatory reporting of such replicas to the organizer, it is referred to in the manner and at the discretion of the organizers - ALLOWED use only replicas which are in reality DMR any other conversions are not allowed AK / M4 ff . - Replicas of the DMR, which are not mechanically unable to switch to auto -fire regime can not be used at the meeting Czech Republic. Airsoft guns in the Czech Republic are "category D firearms", which are regulated by Czech Firearms and Ammunition act (). Weapons and ammunition can be purchased, owned and used by anyone older than 18 years old. There is no need to have any certificate or permission. Airsoft weapons are prohibited to use in public places where they might threaten other people or damage property. Airsoft guns are limited to 16 joules, but this is a limitation for all weapons in categoryD, those with higher muzzle energy are categoryC-I weapons and require a Firearm License (Zbrojní průkaz) and registration of the weapon. However, most airsoft guns have much lower muzzle energy than 16 Joules. Carrying any visible firearm by a civilian in public places is prohibited. Denmark. Airsoft guns are mentioned as exempt in the Danish "Våbenlov" (arms control legislation). Persons have to be at least 18 years old to buy, hand over, or possess airsoft guns. They may be used on police-approved sites, with a permission slip, at the age of 16. A firearms certificate is not required. All airsoft guns have to be transported concealed in a bag, in a trunk, etc. Egypt. Airsoft guns are legal to own or possess in Egypt, it's sold by some weapon stores. Civilians cannot import or order Airsoft Weapons, only weapon stores can import them as Air Guns. You may also find some low quality unbranded Airsoft Guns in Toy Stores or Gift Store During Ramdan, Eid el-Fetr or Eid el-Adha. Currently, civilians interested in the sport are appealing to the Egyptian government to allow the importation and ownership of airsoft guns. Estonia. The law does not mention or recognize airsoft guns in detail but sets restrictions on the public carry of firearm replicas. While the current firearm law would classify airsoft guns as airguns, it also sets restrictions for airguns to not exceed 4.5mm diameter pellets (.177 caliber,) making 6mm BB's "de jure" illegal. Despite laws being unclear, the sport is practiced widely without any actual issues so far. Customs enable import without any limitations, local law enforcement is aware of public sales and organized events, and even the military has acquired airsoft guns for urban and close-quarters combat training. Finland. Airsoft guns are not treated as firearms in law, but visible transportation of any replica firearms in public areas is forbidden. All replica firearms must be covered with something, for example, a firearm case, when moving on public area. Land owner's permission is needed to play airsoft in any area. Jokamiehenoikeus ("Everyman's right") rights do not apply to airsoft, you cannot use this right as a basis to play in government forests. Minors (under the age of 18) are able to purchase airsoft guns only with written permission from their legal guardians. France. Visible transportation of replica firearms in public areas is forbidden. They must be covered with something like a firearm case. Land owner's permission is needed to play airsoft in any area. An orange marking on the tip is not needed. Minors (under 18) can only buy airsoft guns that are under 0.08 joules in power. Airsoft guns may only have a muzzle energy under two joules (464 fps with 0.2g bb's), otherwise they are no longer qualified as airsoft replicas but firearms and owners should follow the French weapons law (dated 2013). Germany. Airsoft guns under 0.5 joules are deemed to be toy guns and can be used by all people above the age of 14. Some shops do still require a legal guardian to be in attendance and give permission when buying a <0.5 joule airsoft gun, however most shops sell these toy guns to anybody above the age of 14. In addition, they must not be worn in public as they can be authentic looking weapons. If the muzzle energy is between 0.5 and 7.5 joules, Airsoft guns are no longer seen as toy guns. In that case, they are treated as air rifles, the minimum age for purchasing and / or using an airsoft gun is 18 years. These guns need a special marking, the so-called "F in a pentagon" and have to be not able to shoot fully automatically, otherwise they are illegal to possess. The trade and possession of Airsoft guns is otherwise mainly unrestricted, but transportation is permitted only in a closed container. Transportation of toys with a weapon like look requires a locked container. The shoot or ready access port is permitted only on a closed private property and if this doesn't disturb any other people. The possession of lasers and lamps mounted on airsoft guns is illegal. The possession of a device that is intended to be mounted on a gun and project light in any form in front of the muzzle is illegal. A violation constitutes an offense. Greece. Airsoft is basically an underground sport in Greece because the law is a little foggy. According to the law, airsoft guns fall into the same general category as air guns, which are not real firearms, and are free to be purchased from specialized shops. However, the purchase and use of airsoft guns is not permitted for people under 18 years old. It is prohibited to have any replica gun in public sight. This is treated similarly to illegal possession of a real firearm. Hong Kong. In Hong Kong, airsoft guns are considered toys as long as they are not able to be fired with a muzzle energy above two joules of kinetic energy, above which they are considered as a firearm and need registration, and possession of an unregistered firearm is illegal. Under the Section 13 of Cap 238 Firearms and Ammunition Ordinance of the Hong Kong Law, unrestricted use of firearms and ammunition requires a license. Those found in possession without a license could be fined HKD$100,000 and be imprisoned for up to 14 years. Airsoft guns in Hong Kong are not required to have an orange tip. However, public possession or exposure of airsoft gun is not recommended by the police department in Hong Kong, as it is difficult to identify whether it is a real firearm or not. It is also not required to obtain a licence to sell an airsoft gun in Hong Kong. Hungary. In Hungary the law classifies airsoft guns as air guns. They can be owned from the age of 18 without any license... Indonesia. In Indonesia, there are no strict rules about airsoft and there still has been no consideration by the government as to whether airsoft guns are treated as "toys" or are equal to real guns. However, when airsoft was first brought to Indonesia in 1996, founders of Indonesian airsoft communities put some restrictions on airsoft games. For example, airsoft players are encouraged not to upgrade their gun above 450 fps, or they will be rejected from the community. Moreover, anyone who wants to buy an airsoft gun, must be at least 18 years old and know the regulations and rules about the airsoft gun. Some events have occurred that are perceived as endangering the continuity of the hobby, such as some robberies in which airsoft replicas were used. Therefore, in order to control its growth, there is a government-authorized club called Perbakin (Indonesian Shooting Club) which is currently appointed by police to accommodate airsoft as a new-born sport. Other authorized clubs that exist in Indonesia to accommodate airsoft and all of its users include the (), the Airsoft Brotherhood Unity (ABU), and the Indonesian Airsoft Federation (FAI). In recent developments in the start of 2013, the police and people from the airsoft communities have exchanged words and are now in a negotiation to legalize the sport provided the players make their units (AEGs or GBBRs) distinctive from a real firearm through the use of orange tipped muzzle brakes India. Airsoft is an unrecognized sporting activity in India. Officially, mention of this sport does not exist in Indian sports guidelines, laws or documents. Therefore, it does not come under any category of sports or recreational activities. India does not have an airsoft manufacturing sector like most other nations. Thus every need for this activity has to be met through imports. Since the Indian Customs and the government are not aware about the existence of this sport or the nature of equipment used, imports will get seized citing resemblance to firearms. Inclusion of these items under Toy category rarely happens due to lack of awareness. There is also the risk of wrong classification under prohibited airgun caliber since only .177 cal is allowed for conditional civilian import into India. Detained items may be destroyed or sent for lab tests depending on the situation, with long waiting periods to obtain results. Another side of non-recognition is the pseudo legal nature of this activity, since it is not mentioned anywhere. This has resulted in a thriving black market which effectively destroyed the true nature of this sport in India. Entry level equipment are being sold at more than premium prices with active support from corrupt authorities. This ended up turning airsoft into a collection activity than a field sport. This does not mean airsoft as a sport is not happening in India. It is unorganized and in a much smaller scale than developed nations. Also some imports are successful, but these are mostly exception than norm. There is also recognized airsoft community in India like Airsoft Sporting Community of India (ASCI). Ireland. The status of airsoft in Ireland was changed after the 2006 Criminal Justice Act, which amended the previous Firearms Acts. Where once authorisation or a license was required for all devices which fired a projectile from a barrel, the law now defines a firearm as (amongst other things): "an air gun (including an air rifle and air pistol) with a muzzle energy greater than one joule of kinetic energy or any other firearm incorporating a barrel from which any projectile can be discharged with such a muzzle energy" The aim of this change was to establish a classification of firearms in order to eliminate the legal oddity where toy suction cup dart guns and the like were legally classified as firearms, thus bringing Ireland into line with the rest of the EU. In this case, one joule was used as the limit, as opposed to seven joules in Germany, twelve foot-pounds force (16.2 J) in the UK and so on. The one-joule limit most likely arose from UK case law where it was found that energies in excess of one joule were required to penetrate an eyeball (thus causing serious injury). As a result, airsoft devices under one joule of power have been declassified and have become legal to possess and use within Ireland. No airsoft site in Ireland would allow any player to use an airsoft device in excess of one Joule. Israel. Airsoft guns are classified as "dangerous toys" in Israel which makes airsoft legal to import, manufacture and sell by licensed retailers only. Due to the fact that this law is not related to criminal acts, thus not being very well enforced, until the year 2010, it was possible to find private retailers who import MPEG and AEG level airsoft guns. Currently, purchase of airsoft guns of all levels is possible only through one or two licensed retailers. Israeli airsofters have created airsoft associations in an attempt to make airsoft legal − Girit "Girit Airsoft Association in Israel" ("גירית – עמותת איירסופט לישראל") and ASI − Association of Israeli Strikeball (עמותת סטרייקבול ישראלית). Girit is cooperating with the Israeli Shooting Federation, joining it shortly as a member and cooperating with other governmental authorities in an attempt to make airsoft legal in Israel. Girit Airsoft Association has established cooperation with USAPSA, Ukrainian, Slovenian, Swedish, and Czech airsofters. An Israeli national airsoft tactical shooting competition took place near Beit Berel March 2007. As of Jul 2010, the Israeli airsoft associations had finished negotiations with the Israeli government. Since then, every association (or Tacticball Club Member) can carry airsoft gear (guns, parts, etc.) at home. Also transportation and carrying of airsoft guns may be done only if a tip of the barrel painted in red or orange color. Italy. Airsoft guns and pistols are allowed a muzzle energy equal or minor to one joule. Under the law, airsoft guns are not classified as firearms, but as toys. One can buy and sell them both from stores and from another private citizen, either domestically or from abroad. Internet purchasing and mail shipping is legal and unrestricted. No license or registration is required. There is no mandatory minimum age to purchase airsoft and use it. The Italian Ministry of Interior only "recommends" that their sale be restricted to people over the age of 18 or 14 if accompanied by a parent or legal tutor or if the replica is not particularly realistic or powerful (i.e. low-grade airsoft products). Red tips must be present on the barrel ends of the airsoft gun when they are imported and sold by a store. Once owning the airsoft gun, one may remove the red tip. However, the similarity between genuine firearms and airsoft replicas is close enough to provoke interaction with law enforcement personnel if an airsoft gun is mistaken for its real counterpart. Airsoft used to commit a crime is treated as if using the real gun, assault weapons carry an extra mandatory sentence in addition to the regular punishment for the crime committed. Usage and open carriage of airsoft guns in public places is forbidden. One can play on private property away from public sight or in a well-delimited private or state property after having asked the local authorities for a limited-time permit (usually from six to 48 hours) and having alerted the local police command to avoid alarmed citizens calling for emergency. As the law limits the muzzle energy that an airsoft replica can develop before being classified by law as an air gun, modifying an airsoft gun to deliver more power or to shoot anything other than 6 mm BB plastic pellets is a felony. Airsoft rental is illegal in Italy. You’ll need a license to rent every time, but it’s legal to buy one without a license. Japan. In Japan, airsoft guns are legal, but may not shoot with a muzzle energy above 3.5 J/cm². This means a maximum of 0.989J in case of using 6mm BBs and 1.64J using 8mm BBs. And for adolescents, 0.135 joules. (Currently there are no 10+ 8mm airsoft guns) Legal requirements are based on an airsoft model manufacturers to prevent any possibility of replica firearms being converted into actual firearms. Standards include (but are not limited to) use of low-melting point metals and non-ballistic plastics in structural components and incompatibility of mechanical components with actual firearm components and mechanisms. The overall litmus test used by the Japanese National Police Authority is whether the replica firearm can be made to chamber and fire an actual round of ammunition. These standards have proven successful within Japan, as it has been found that criminal elements discovered that it is significantly easier to purchase an actual illegal firearm in comparison to modifying a comparatively fragile replica into a functional firearm. Due to this reality, most crimes involving a threat of physical violence are perpetrated with edged weapons, as firearms seen in public are (by default) believed to be toys by the public at large. Kuwait. In Kuwait, airsoft guns used to be legal and there was even a milsim but it is banned now. Latvia. As of 2020, 1,5 Joules is the maximum allowed muzzle energy limit for use in airsoft games. Airsoft guns are now considered low-energy airguns and as such are only sold to persons over the age of 18. Lithuania. Registration of any sort is not required for airsoft firearms. If the gun has under 2.5 Joules of energy, it is not considered a weapon and only those over 18 years of age can purchase airsoft. Macau. Airsoft guns with under two joules muzzle energy are legal. Malta. Airsoft guns were legally introduced in 1985. They have been classified under the category of air guns. In this classification, one finds air rifles (any power limit), airsoft guns, and paintball guns. At that time, to own and purchase any of these guns, one must have a Target Shooter B license and be member of a registered and licensed club. Now, there is an amendment to the current regulation which came into effect in 2013 for airsoft and paintball guns, which are non-lethal guns. It is no longer required to have a Target shooter license B to purchase, use, and own airsoft or paintball devices. Mexico. Airsoft is not currently regulated in Mexico and replicas are not governed by the Federal Law on Firearms and Explosives nor its regulations. Accordingly, the practice of Airsoft as well as the ownership and possession of Airsoft replicas and accessories is a legal activity in the country under the Constitution. The import of Gas Blow Back Airsoft replicas or other replicas powered by a compressed gas and its parts are in fact regulated, requiring a permit issued by the Ministry of National Defense. Airsoft replicas powered by a piston and spring mechanism, such as bolt action replicas and AEGs, are not subject to an import permit. For purposes of the General Law on Import and Export Tariffs, Airsoft replicas as well as Paintball guns and any other artifacts shooting projectiles of any kind through the use of compressed gasses (air, CO2, propane, green gas, red gas, etc.) that are not the result of the conflagration of gunpowder or similar substances, are classified under Heading 93 (Weapons) of the Tariff, subheading 04 pertaining to (Other Weapons - actioned by spring or compressed gases), and would generally fall within the scope of subheading 9304.00.99 (Others), as provided by notes four, five and six of the Explanatory Notes to the Import Tariff, published by the Ministry of Economy on July 7, 2007 in the Official Gazette of the Federation. Under the Executive Order that governs the sections of the Import Tariff that are subject to prior permit from the Ministry of National Defense and its modification published in the Official Gazette of the Federation on 10 June 2014, the import of merchandise classified in tariff 9304.00.99 is subject to a permit when dealing with Compressed gas contained in pressurized containers, such as CO2 or carbonic gas. Weapons based on air compressed by spring or piston are specifically excluded therefrom. Refer to the following regulations: Acuerdo que establece la clasificación y codificación de las mercancías cuya importación o exportación están sujetas a regulación por parte de la Secretaría de la Defensa Nacional, published in the Official Gazette of the Federation (Diario Oficial de la Federación) 30 June 2007, modified by executive orders published in October 2014, and 13 January 2016. Even though AEGs and Spring Powered replicas are not required to process an import permit from the Ministry of Defense, care should be taken by anyone importing any such replicas as customs will seize the replica and direct the importer of record to get an Import Permit with the Ministry of Defense. The importer must be well prepared with documentation in Spanish showing the technical specifications and characteristics of the replicas in question, before the Customs authorities will authorize the extraction of the replica from customs premises. For any doubts as to whether a particular item is subject to an import permit, any individual or entity can submit a consultation with the National Defense Authority addressed to Dirección General del Registro Federal de Armas de Fuego y Control de Explosivos, Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra número 596, Campo Militar número 1-J, Predio Reforma, D.F., colonia Irrigación, CDMX, México. Netherlands. On 1 January 2013, new Dutch laws regarding airsoft came into effect. Airsoft devices are air, gas, or spring powered weapons with a maximum shooting energy of 3.5 Joule and look almost completely like real firearms. Those who wish to possess an airsoft replica or participate in a skirmish will have to be registered with a certified airsoft organization. As of May 2016, only the NABV, the Dutch Airsoft Sport Association, was registered. Participation in a skirmish for non members is allowed up to six times per Year, but the Dutch Airsoft Sports Association will need to receive certain details about the player, this is usually done when you Rent at an airsoft Site. In order to obtain membership with the NABV a person must pass a police background check and must not have committed any crimes in the last eight years. Since 1 April 2019 a new regulation has been introduced that ensures that replicas are now measured with joules instead of fps, this is done with bb's of at least 0.3 grams instead of 0.2. Replicas have the following joule values: Bolt action sniper: 2.3 joules (499 fps with 0.2 grams), DMR: 1.7 joules (430 fps with 0.2 grams), AEG: 1.2 joules (360 fps with 0.2 grams). Replicas with two seconds delay are no longer part of the sniper class and are identified as DMR. Also AEG are only allowed to shoot up to 0.3 grams bb's while DMR and BAS can shoot up to 0.4 grams this change was made for safety. Any player who is not a Dutch citizen can play without membership in the Netherlands, but they have to file for Exemption at the Dutch Airsoft Sport Association New Zealand. Air-powered firearms are legal to possess and use in New Zealand, provided that the person is either over 18 years of age or 16 with a firearms license. A person under 18 may not possess an air gun, but may use one under the direct supervision of someone over 18 or a firearms license holder (Direct supervision requires that the license holder be able to take control of the firearm at all times, so they must remain within arms reach). It is illegal to use these firearms in any manner that may endanger or intimidate members of the public except where there is reasonable cause such as an airsoft game. In order to import an airsoft gun, one must meet one of these stipulations: Norway. The arms control legislation (Våpenforskrift) requires that one has to be at least 18 years old to buy airsoft but can use and own airsoft as a minor if they are wearing protection and have approval by parents. Using an airsoft firearm while committing a crime receives the same punishment as the one received for using a real weapon. One is also required to carry firearms inside a bag, or some other kind of container to conceal the firearm from the public. Philippines. In the Letter of Instruction 1264, a Presidential Directive, signed by former President Ferdinand Marcos in 1982, bans the import, sale and public display of gun replicas. to classify what constitutes a gun replica and airsoft guns were deemed different from replicas, therefore the common legal interpretation is that there may be no need to repeal LOI 1264 in order to achieve full legalization of airsoft in the Philippines. Republic Act No. 10591 declassified airsoft weapons as actual firearms. A ban places airsoft guns on the list of banned firearms. It classifies that no person is permitted to carry firearms in public except for security officers, police officers and military personnel on duty. Poland. Airsoft guns as well as the sport of Airsoft are legal in Poland. The law does not distinguish Airsoft guns from Airguns, thus the only requirement is that they cannot exceed 17J of energy, which would classify them as pneumatic weapons. Open carrying an Airsoft replica in a public area is prohibited. Using an Airsoft replica is not a crime, but a lot of events take place in woods or abandoned buildings, so using grenades during the games may attract attention of police officers (normally they give you a warning and go away). One must be 18 to buy an Airsoft gun but there are no age restrictions to who can use one. Usually power limits are only for playing in buildings from 350fps to 450fps depending on the region with single fire restriction for stronger guns. In some regions no fps limits apply, this may vary from event to event so checking with the event organizer is a must. Portugal. With the new revision of the "Firearms and Ammunition Act", airsoft guns are not considered as firearms. Currently, the formal definition of an Airsoft gun is a recreational firearm reproduction (a"replica" have a different legal application under the same law). However, in order to be characterized as a recreational firearm reproduction, its muzzle energy must not exceed 1.3 J (equivalent to a muzzle velocity of 374 fps with a 0,2g BB). The minimum age to purchase and use these reproductions is 18 years old but can drop to 16 if a written parental consent is issued. Under the same act, to purchase and operate an Airsoft gun, one must be a member of an APD - Sport Promotion Association. Recognition of this APD is made by the IPDJ - Portuguese Youth and Sports Institute as it represents the state. The Firearms and Ammunition Act also states that after being approved by the IDP, the APD must be enlisted as such by the Portuguese law enforcement authority. There are several APDs for Airsoft in Portugal, CAM - Clube de Airsoft da Maia, ALA (FPA) Associação Lusitana de Airsoft, APA - Associação Portuguesa de Airsoft, ANA - Associação Nacional de Airsoft, APMA - Associação Portuguesa de Milsim e Airsoft, ADAPT - Associação Desportiva de Airsoft Português, and AACP - Associação Airsoft Costa de Prata. In addition, Airsoft guns have to be painted either in fluorescent yellow or fluorescent red and be in compliance with the following criteria: Republic of Korea. Airsoft guns in Republic of Korea are deemed to be toy guns (not for sports) but considered illegal and imitation guns if any of laws are broken. According to the "ENFORCEMENT DECREE OF THE CONTROL OF FIREARMS, SWORDS, EXPLOSIVES, ETC. ACT", (총포·도검·화약류등단속법시행령) in 2017, imitation guns are recognized according to any one of the following criteria: <br> 1. An object manufactured by metal or non-metal material, very similar to shape of the gun that can be high possibility to use for crime.<br> 2. An object manufactured by metal or non-metal material, shoots metal or non-metal projectile, or make sound/fire that any one of the following criteria:<br> a. Diameter of the projectile is less than 5.7mm<br> b. Weight of the projectile is over 0.2g<br> c. Kinetic energy (destructive power) of the projectile is over 0.02kgm<br> d. Head of the projectile is sharp that not round treated<br> e. An object make instant explosion sound is over the 90db or make combustible flame Romania. Law nr. 295 (Regimul Armelor şi Muniţiilor) regulates all use of firearms and associated ammunition. The law is quite unclear (concerning airsoft firearms) as to whether this kind of firearm classifies as a "non-lethal weapon" or "toy." The law regulates the use of air-powered firearms (e.g. sport/competition use that use a metal projectile) under the "non-lethal" category and solely requires that one is at least 18 years old to purchase and register the firearm at the police precinct nearest to one's location. Any air/gas-powered weapon that shoots plastic projectiles only and does not exceed the velocity of 220 m/s (e.g. : airsoft guns) can be purchased by anyone who has 18+ years old without any need of registering. The law specifies that usage of night vision (infrared) or laser aiming devices "designed for military use" is completely restricted to members of the army and associated entities even if the aiming device is used on a lower-restriction category firearm (e.g. such as on an airsoft gun). The law, however, does not restrict in any way the use of aiming devices not designed for military use. The use or show of airsoft guns replicas is not permitted in public places, they can be used only in dedicated or non populated areas with the permission of the owner / administrator. For transporting, the airsoft replica must be unloaded and secured from public view (transportation bag). Furthermore, the law specifies that, should one attempt to use a non-lethal or replica gun to perform (or attempt to perform) armed robbery, one shall be prosecuted as if a real firearm had been used. Russia. Airsoft guns with a muzzle energy below three joules (muzzle velocity 173.2 m/s for 0.20 g projectiles) are legal, are not considered weapons, and do not require any permission. Serbia. According to the Law on Weapons and Ammunition, airsoft guns fall into category D in classification of weapons, which means anyone over 16 may legally acquire an airsoft gun. No licensing is required. There are no special regulations regarding shape, function or other characteristics of an airsoft gun. Slovakia. Airsoft guns have a status similar to the Czech Republic and Slovakia, where they are considered to be firearms. All firearms are governed by law 190/2003. Here, airsoft guns fit into firearm class D (§7b) and no permit is needed. The use of airsoft guns is allowed by players that are least 18 years old. Guns may not have an energy greater than 15 joules. The use of night vision scopes is forbidden. The owner of a gun is required by law to secure the firearm when not using it. Importation of airsoft guns (from outside of EU), all critical parts/components of airsoft guns and aiming devices (optics, RDS, etc.) are permitted only with a weapon importation license. For airsoft parts, most monitored on customs are barrels, optics, magazines, receivers and accessories like grenades. Springs, gears, hop-ups, pistons, cylinders, switches, triggers are usually let through. External and non-critical parts like rails, holders, bipods, etc. can be legally imported without the license. Slovenia. There is no age restriction on playing airsoft in Slovenia, but most stores enforce 18+ rule or to be accompanied with a parent or a guardian to buy a replica. For games, in serious clubs, the age limit is usually 14+ with the parents or guardians written consent although there is no legal requirement for this. For bigger events 18+ rule is usually enforced by the organisers. Replicas are forbidden to be carried in public as the police will treat them as real weapons. Singapore. In Singapore, airsoft guns were once allowed in civilian ownership until October 2001 when the country's Weapons and Firearms Act was amended to prohibit airsoft gun ownership after police reports of people getting hurt by such guns were filed. After the new amendment, only shooting clubs in Singapore can legally purchase airsoft guns with a valid licence from the Singapore Police Force. Spain. Players have to comply with their Town Halls' requirements, which differ from town to town. Some towns however require players to provide a clear Criminal Record Certificate, pass a psychological exam (usual for firearms), have the guns serialized by a certified armorer, and have them inspected to check that the serial numbers match the declared ones. It is legal to buy, possess and sell airsoft replicas and accessories. Attention !<br> Since December 27, 2012, the airsoft guns are now considered 4th category weapons, for which we need to have them duly registered. Last update published on 10/23/2017 of the Spanish Weapon Regulations:<br> https://www.boe.es/buscar/pdf/1993/BOE-A-1993-6202-consolidado.pdf<br> And also the last update on specific laws in airsoft and paintball guns on 02/05/2013:<br> https://www.boe.es/buscar/pdf/2013/BOE-A-2013-153-consolidado.pdf<br> Section 3. Classification of statutory weapons<br> Article 3.<br> 4th category:<br> 1. Carbines and pistols, semi-automatic and repeating shot; and double revolvers action, driven by air or other compressed gas not assimilated to shotguns.<br> 2. Carbines and pistols, of smooth or striped bore, and of a single shot, and revolvers of simple action, driven by air or another compressed gas not assimilated to shotguns.<br> Weapons cards:<br> http://www.interior.gob.es/web/servicios-al-ciudadano/seguridad/armas-y-explosivos/tarjetas-de-armas<br> http://www.guardiacivil.es/es/servicios/armasyexplosivo/controldearmas/autorizaci_armas/tarjetas_armas/index.html<br> Required documentation: Certificate of criminal record in force. Photocopy of the applicant's DNI Purchase bill of the weapon Weapons cards Present the weapon for which the Card is requested Weapons transport<br> To carry and use weapons of the fourth category, they must be documented individually by a weapon card according to article 105 of the Weapons Regulation.<br> Articles 146, 147, 148 and 149 of said Weapons Regulation also apply.<br> Sweden. One must be at least 18 years old to buy and use airsoft firearms. Minors (under the age of 18) can be arrested and subject to juvenile detention for multiple years. In order to possess a CO2, air, or spring operated firearm without a license, the impact energy of a projectile fired at a distance of four meters (from the muzzle) must be less than ten joules. As of 2 January 2015 it is legal to own and import gas operated airsoft weapons. Switzerland. In Switzerland, airsoft guns are considered weapons. Airsoft guns may not be sold to or possessed by persons who are under 18 or who have a criminal conviction. Additionally, airsoft guns may not be sold to individuals from Albania, Algeria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Serbia, Turkey or Sri Lanka. The importation of airsoft guns is restricted to companies and individuals who hold weapons import licences. Private individuals can apply for a permit to import up to three airsoft guns which is valid for six months. For private sales to take place, there must be a written contract between both parties. Both parties are required to retain the contract for a period of ten years. As long as they contain no propellant, there is no restriction on the purchase or import of airsoft BBs. It is illegal to carry any airsoft guns in a public place, however it is permissible to transport them directly between a player's home and an event site. Thailand. Only Whitelist shops that can sell Airsoft guns and supplies, the law is a bit vague. Paintball guns, BB guns, and airsoft guns are not considered firearms, but for import/export need to have license that have quota how many you can import/export per year and renew the license every year, so it is legal to possess them without having a permit or registering them. However the owner must comply with the following conditions: The gun is considered illegal if any of these rules are broken. Ukraine. Ukrainian law is the same as in Russia. United Arab Emirates. Airsoft guns are legal to own or possess in the UAE. Airsoft guns are sold by weapon stores. Civilians are not permitted to import Airsoft guns, but weapon stores can import them with special permits. Tasleeh Shooting (Abu Dhabi) uses electronic vests (made by the MAHA7 company) to detect BB hits. The sensor covers the front vest, back vest, helmet and glasses, and is controlled wirelessly be the marshals. The sensor is activated only by BB hits, and once activated, will show a red light, and activate a sound to register a hit. The equipment also registers the time of the hit. Airsoft is not registered as an organised sport, although there are official Airsoft and paintball arenas. Airsoft players in UAE typically play with Airsoft guns with a round speed under 450 FPS (feet per second). It is legal to buy and use tactical gear in the UAE except that which is used by the military or law enforcement. It is illegal to openly carry or use Airsoft guns in public areas. Airsoft guns can be used only inside official airsoft and paintball facilities, and must be kept in a safe location. Criminal charges will apply for violating or misusing Airsoft guns as per UAE government law. United Kingdom. There are currently certain restrictions on the possession of airsoft replicas, which came in with the introduction of the ASBA (Anti-Social Behaviour Act 2003) Amendments, prohibiting the possession of any firearms replica in a public place without good cause (to be concealed in a gun case or container only, not to be left in view of public at any time). According to Section 36 of the VCRA (Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006) which came into effect on 1October 2007, RIF's (Realistic Imitation Firearms) may not be sold, imported, or manufactured. Unrealistic imitation firearms (IF's) must have their principal color as transparent, bright red, bright orange, bright yellow, bright blue, bright green, bright pink, or bright purple or have dimensions of no more than a height of 38 millimetres and a length of 70 millimetres (as defined in the Home Office regulations for the VCRA). Exceptions to the act are available for the following: The notes for the VCRA state the following: "The regulations provide for two new defenses. The first is for the organisation and holding of airsoft skirmishing. This is defined by reference to "permitted activities" and the defence applies only where third party liability insurance is held in respect of the activities." and "The defence for airsoft skirmishing can apply to individual players because their purchase of realistic imitation firearms for this purpose is considered part of the "holding" of a skirmishing event." The airsoft defence is based on whether or not a person is a skirmisher. One of the measures put in place by retailers was the forming of a centrally recorded and maintained database. This system is managed by the United Kingdom Airsoft Retailers Association or UKARA. UKARA shares the database of registered skirmishers with the member retailers allowing verification that the purchaser is allowed to buy a RIF under the VCRA skirmisher defence. To qualify for the UKARA database, a person must skirmish three or more times over a period of at least 56 days, and typically at one site. The airsoft site they register at must hold Public Liability Insurance. It is an offence for anyone under 18 to purchase an airsoft gun (realistic or otherwise) or to sell one to a person under 18. Gifting is not an offence, therefore a person over 18 can buy one for a minor. Following an amendment to the Policing and Crime Act 2017 which came into effect on 2May 2017, airsoft guns (realistic or otherwise) are defined in UK law by the velocity at which they are capable of firing a projectile and exempted from firearms legislation. An airsoft gun firing a projectile with a greater velocity than the ones outlined in the PCA 2017 are no longer considered to an airsoft gun and fall under firearms legislation. United States. Under federal law, airsoft guns are not classified as firearms and are legal for all ages, so a person of any age may use one (and with the permission of their parents, for anyone under 18). This is also the case for the laws in each state. However, in some major cities, the definition of a firearm within their respected ordinances includes propulsion by spring or compressed air, thus making airsoft subject to applicable laws. For example, airsoft guns within the state of California can be bought only by a person above the age of 18. However, no laws indicate an age requirement to sell airsoft guns. Generally speaking, toy, look-alike, and imitation firearms must have an orange tip during shipping and transportation. Airsoft guns in the United States are generally sold with a 0.24in. or longer orange tip on the barrel in order to distinguish them from real firearms, as is required by federal law. Manufacturers and importers may cite Part 272 of Title 15 of the Code of Federal Regulations on foreign commerce and trade (15 CFR 272), which stipulates that "no person shall manufacture, enter into commerce, ship, transport, or receive any toy, look-alike, or imitation firearm" without approved markings; these may include an orange tip, orange barrel plug, brightly colored exterior of the whole toy, or transparent construction. However these restrictions do not apply to "traditional B-B, paint-ball, or pellet-firing air guns that expel a projectile through the force of compressed air, compressed gas, or mechanical spring action, or any combination thereof." This language exempts airsoft guns from these requirements, placing them in the same category as bb-guns, pellet, air, and paintball, none of which are conventionally sold or used with an orange tip, and many of which bear as much resemblance to real firearms as airsoft guns do. Airsoft guns' trademarks must be removed where the manufacturer does not have an existing license agreement with the manufacturer of the real fire arm. For example: Classic Army has a Sublicensing agreement with ActionSportGames® A/S (ASG) which holds the worldwide rights for ArmaLite and others, so the trademarks can stay on imported replicas of ArmaLite's weapons. In practice, enforcement is a hit or a miss. One might get an "unlicensed" gun through customs with trademarks intact, while a licensed gun might be held in customs by a uniformed customs agent. In early 2007, a United States House of Representatives resolution to allow imports to retain trademarks, even without agreement between the real firearms manufacturer and the replica manufacturer, was unsuccessful. In addition, the similarity between genuine firearms and airsoft replicas is close enough to provoke interaction with local law enforcement personnel if an airsoft gun is carried openly in public. If someone were to, for example, attempt a robbery with an airsoft gun, they would be charged as if the airsoft gun were a real firearm. In some recent cases, people carrying or brandishing airsoft guns have been fatally shot by law enforcement personnel: Selected local requirements. California makes it illegal to sell Airsoft/BB guns to anyone under 18 without their parent's permission and all airsoft guns are required to be fitted with an orange blaze barrel for sale and transport. Since 2016, the state will also require all airsoft guns to have fluorescent coloration over the trigger guard and grip (with additional requirements for rifles or long guns). During 1987 in New York City, more than 1400 toy imitation weapons involved in criminal acts were seized by New York City police; approximately 80 percent higher from the previous four years. On the basis of legislative intent dealing with the increasing volume of criminal acts in correlation with toy imitation weapons, New York City introduced new guidelines regulating the manufacture, importation, distribution, and sale of such imitation weapons. New York City requires that all realistic toy or imitation firearms be made of clear or brightly colored plastics. Furthermore, New York City makes possession of any pistol or rifle or similar instrument in which the propelling force is a spring or air unlawful without a license. "See" New York City Administrative Code § 10-131(b) and New York City Administrative Code § 10-131(g)(1)(a). Michigan formerly required airsoft guns to visually indicate that they are "replicas", usually with an orange tip. In 2015, SB 85 modified areas of Michigan law to distinguish air and spring-fired guns from other traditional firearms. The change in law also forbid localities from adding additional restrictions to airsoft guns beyond the state regulations. Texas allows airsoft guns to be owned, but most cities require that the airsoft guns be discharged only while outside city limits. Some cities in Illinois consider shipping or distributing airsoft guns illegal. In Minnesota, it is illegal for a child under the age of 14 to possess an airsoft gun unless under the supervision of a parent or adult. It is also illegal for any child under 16 to purchase an airsoft gun without parental advisory involvement. In Saint Paul and Minneapolis, airsoft guns cannot be carried in public unless they either have an orange tip or the airsoft guns are clear or brightly colored. It is legal to possess airsoft guns in these cities as long as they are transported in a closed and fastened gun case (in accordance with Minnesota firearm transportation laws) and unloaded. The vast majority of municipalities (Excluding Duluth and Rochester) in Minnesota ban the firing of an airsoft gun within the city limits. Arkansas has passed a bill which went into effect in January 2010 which mirrors the federal law on airsoft guns in that it bans the sale or transport airsoft guns without orange tips, a transparent/translucent body, or colored other than black/brown/blue/silver/metallic. Guns that are translucent or clear are allowed to be sold or transported. The bill bans "imitation firearms", but has the following to say about the definition of "imitation firearms" in section 2B: "Imitation firearm" does not include: (1) A nonfiring, collector replica of an antique firearm developed before 1898. (2) Traditional BB, paintball, or pellet-firing air guns that expel a projectile through the force of air pressure. (3) A device: (A) For which an orange solid plug or marking is permanently affixed to the muzzle end of the barrel for a depth of not more than six millimeters (6 mm). (B) For which the entire exterior surface is predominantly colored other than black, brown, blue, silver, or metallic. (C) That is constructed of transparent or translucent materials that permit unmistakable observation of the complete contents of the device. Therefore, the bill bans neither: imitation firearms (including airsoft guns) that are predominantly colored something other than black, brown, blue, silver or metallic; nor imitation firearms that are built of predominantly transparent or translucent materials, allowing anyone to determine the contents of the firearm; nor those which have bright orange tips which indicate that they are a "toy" and not a real firearm. In New Jersey, airsoft guns currently do not fall under the state's definition of firearms. Instead, like other 'toy' guns, they are regulated as 'imitation firearms', but how they are regulated can vary differently from city to city. It seems their role in state law comes from the fact that airsoft guns do not typically carry enough force combined with the materials of the projectile to cause an assured level of damage akin to that of real steel firearms or their more conventional cousins, the airgun or BB gun. Airsoft guns typically deliver projectiles at a lower velocity than airguns and fire polymer BB's which are not typically capable of piercing clothing, flesh, or bone in the same manner as full metal BB's or pellets or real steel ammunition. Between 2006 and 2012, bills such as S810, the last descendant of four bills to have been introduced to the senate, were created to revise the legislature and "clarify" that airsoft guns fall under the state's definition of firearms. It did so by adding that "polymer balls and metallic-coated polymer balls" identify as one of the projectiles launched by airguns. All four bills have been unsuccessful in becoming law, thus airsoft guns have retained their status as imitation firearms. Under NJ law, imitation firearms are fake guns that can be reasonably mistaken for real firearms. Very few cities in New Jersey regulate airsoft guns, and the ones that do also regulate imitation firearms such as cap guns, etc., in the same manner. Most cities and counties in the Garden State regard airsoft guns as "toys" and as such are subject to federal and state imitation firearm laws which almost completely mirror the laws of their real steel counterparts. As they are not real steel firearms, airsoft guns do not require permits nor a Firearms Purchaser Identification card (also known as an FID) to purchase or own. However, to purchase an airsoft gun, one must be at least 18 years old and the gun must be sold with an orange tip in compliance with federal law. However, it is very much expected and encouraged by New Jersey law enforcement as well as its citizens that airsoft guns be treated with the same respect as their real steel counterparts. It is a crime to fire or brandish airsoft guns in public view; airsoft guns should be fired indoors, on private property, or anywhere designated for use of airsoft guns such as an outdoor or indoor airsoft field. When transporting airsoft guns they must be stored in a gun bag away from public view. While transporting by vehicle they must remain inside their bag(s), and in the trunk of said vehicle. Carrying an airsoft gun on one's person, for example in one's waistband, outside or off of personal private property, and not in a bag or fastened case is cause for alarm in New Jersey. Should an observer assume it is a real firearm, it can lead to confiscation of the airsoft gun and in some cases prosecution for possession of an imitation firearm for unlawful purpose. If determined by an observer or law enforcement that a person is carrying an airsoft gun to commit a crime or using one during the commission of a crime, that person will be charged with possession of an imitation firearm for unlawful purpose. This charge can accompany crimes as low as disorderly conduct to generating public alarm to assault to armed robbery. As earlier mentioned, a few cities in New Jersey have their own separate laws regarding imitation firearms. However, the majority follow federal and state guidelines regarding these guns. Atlantic City, in particular, has placed a ban on the sale and possession of "realistic-looking toy guns" within the city unless if they are colored in a manner that can immediately identify them as toys. Clear imitation firearms are also acceptable. An exception applies to this ban if said imitation firearms are non-firing antiques or movie props. As such, information about airsoft and other imitation firearms laws in local areas should be retrieved from the city in question's police department. For current state laws, it is best to contact the Firearms Investigation Unit of the New Jersey State Police, or the office of the Attorney General. In Illinois, you have to be 18 to buy one at the counter, but to shoot one you can be of any age. References. http://scag.darkbb.com/front-page-f9/pnp-circular-no-11-t222.htm

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Fidel V. Agcaoili ( - ), also known as Ka Fidel, was a Filipino activist and revolutionary. He was a member of the Communist Party of the Philippines' Central Committee, along with Jose Maria Sison and Luis Jalandoni during the Marcos dictatorship. In 1974, he was arrested and became the longest detained political prisoner under Marcos, being imprisoned for 11 years. On his release, Agcaoili founded the "Samahan ng mga Ex-Detainee Laban sa Detensyon at Aresto" (SELDA), a prisoners' rights organization. From 1989 until his death, Agcaoili was involved in peace negotiations between the Government of the Republic of the Philippines and the National Democratic Front of the Philippines. Most notably, he was instrumental in signing the Comprehensive Agreement on the Respect for Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law (CARHRIHL) in 1998. Agcaoili continued to serve in the peace panel, becoming co-chair of the GRP-NDFP Joint Monitoring Committee in 2004, and eventually succeeding Jalandoni as chief negotiator in 2017. Early life and activism. Agcaoili was born to an "upper class family" and "could have easily attained an endless series of high positions in the ruling system. His father had an insurance company and was an established lawyer, and was a classmate and friend of Ferdinand Marcos in the UP College of Law. His family lived in Philamlife Homes. Agcaoili first became a student at the University of the Philippines Diliman in the early 1960s, taking up Political Science. As a freshman, he was first exposed to activism when he became a member of the Student Cultural Association of the University of the Philippines (SCAUP). As a member of SCAUP, he encouraged his friends and neighbors in Philamlife Homes to join in mass actions organized by SCAUP. He also joined a fraternity in UP, encouraging his fraternity "brods" to be politically active. Norberto Basilio, who would eventually become the Philippine ambassador to Greece and Bangladesh introduced Agcaoili to Jose Maria Sison and Julie de Lima. Agcaoili joined a Marxist study organized by Sison, which took place in the private residence of ambassador Emilio Bejasa. His son, Emilio, Jr. was also a member of SCAUP, and his father had a collection of Marxist works. Basilio, Bejasa, Jr., and Agcaoili would continue to maintain close contact during the Martial Law years as members of the Communist Party of the Philippines. In 1963, his father sent him to study in California, fearing that he was "straying too far into revolutionary activism." While in the United States, he became a part of the protests against the Vietnam War. He returned a year later, in time to participate in the founding of Kabataang Makabayan in 1964. It was also during this time when he met, eloped, and married his wife, Rosario. At some point, Agcaoili became a high-ranking officer in his father's insurance company. He also became a member of the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas-1930 during this time, which was undergoing a split between the old Lava faction and the younger faction led by Sison. He organized studies, produced publications, and entered negotiations with other local and foreign parties, and eventually contributed to the reorganization brought about by the First Great Rectification Movement. Marcos dictatorship and Martial Law. In 1970, Agcaoili became part of the Central Committee of the CPP. He also became the chair of the CPP's Finance Committee. Agcaoili was involved in "discreet" action as part of the CPP. Although he did not take an active part, he was present in the Battle of Mediola on January 30, 1970. Agcaoili and Satur Ocampo were also involved in aiding Victor Corpus' defection to the New People's Army, assisting in the 1970 raid of the Philippine Military Academy raid in Baguio. Agcaoili, Rosario, and their two children went underground before the imposition of Martial Law in September 1972. State forces interrogated his family in a bid to know their whereabouts. While underground, Agcaoili became instrumental in founding the National Democratic Front of the Philippines on April 23, 1973. He was also reportedly involved in the purchase of the "M/V Karagatan", which was used by the New People's Army in an attempt to land arms in Palanan, Isabela, and the "M/V Doña Andrea II" in a similar attempt in 1974. Arrest and detention. Agcaoili and his family were eventually arrested on May 12, 1974, in Balicon Subdivision, Calasiao, Pangasinan. A military tribunal charged with rebellion related to the "M/V Karagatan" incident. Agcaoili was incarcerated in various detention centers while contesting the charges, such as Camp Crame, Bilibid, and lastly in Camp Bagong Diwa, Taguig. Agcaoili, like other political prisoners, was subject to torture, solitary confinement, and other methods of abuse. State agents gave him morphine injections to induce addiction, the idea being that the withdrawal would be so severe as to force him to give up information. The military considered him to be one of the "hard-cores" alongside other prominent figures in the revolutionary movement such as Sison and Bernabe Buscayno. While in prison, Agcaoili continued to push for better living conditions, visiting hours, and so on. In 1976, Agcaoili and more than 140 other political prisoners staged a 14-day hunger strike to demand the release of two nursing mothers and their babies. They were subject to brutal retaliation from soldiers, and the strike's leaders, including Agcaoili, were forcibly taken by soldiers from their cells. A "literal tug-of-war" occurred between soldiers and the other detainees over Agcaoili, but he eventually willingly went with the soldiers to prevent injuries on the detainees. During the visit of Pope John Paul II to the Philippines in 1981, Agcaoili and other political prisoners were transferred to Bilibid prison in Muntinlupa, where they were threatened by armed gangs inside the prison. Agcaoili reportedly called all the gang leaders in a meeting and said, "We know you are all armed. But we political prisoners, we have an army outside prison, the New People's Army. If you harm any of us, you will be held accountable by the NPA." The threats ended and the gangs eventually joined the political prisoners in protest actions. The lifting of Martial Law in 1981 resulted in the release of multiple political prisoners. Agcaoili, however, was not scheduled for release due to his status. He first applied for bail in 1982, but no action was taken by the court. He filed a petition for mandamus on April 14, 1984, to compel the government to release him on bail. He was eventually released on October 24, 1984, more than ten years after his initial arrest. Post-detention. On his release, Agcaoili returned to activism. He formed the "Samahan ng mga Ex-Detainee Laban sa Detensyon at Aresto" (SELDA), a prisoners' rights group. He also helped organize Families of Victims of Involuntary Disappearance (FIND) in 1985, becoming its Executive Director. The overthrow of the Marcos dictatorship gave renewed energy to both the leftist progressive movement and the revolutionary movement. Agcaoili, Sison, and others, began laying the groundwork for peace negotiations on the request of the new Corazon Aquino administration, through Executive Secretary Joker Arroyo, but peace negotiations stalled and eventually broke down. Agcaoili was also involved in the Preparatory Committee which established the "Partido ng Bayan" (PnB, precursor to Bagong Alyansang Makabayan) on August 30, 1986. Agcaoili took over as Chairman when labor leader Rolando Olalia and his driver Leonor Alay-ay were kidnapped and murdered by elements of the Armed Forces of the Philippines as part of the "God Save the Queen" plot, in time for the 1987 senatorial elections. In 1988, Agcaoili was targeted for arrest and decides to go on voluntary exile in Europe, taking a job with the Spanish non-government organization "Instituto de Estudios Políticos para América Latina y Africa (IEPALA)". Alongside other former political prisoners under Marcos, SELDA filed a landmark class-action lawsuit against the Marcos estate for reparations on account of the grave human rights abuses they suffered during the time of Martial Law. Agcaoili and Ocampo collated the names and experiences of some 10,000 victims of human rights abuses during the Marcos dictatorship and brought the case to court in Hawaii. Agcaoili was also a representative of the International Network of Philippine Studies, and became instrumental in organizing the International League of People's Struggle with Sison. Agcaoili also continued his key role in representing the NDFP in negotiations with other parties, organizations, and movements, as well as organizing migrant Filipino workers. Peace talks. Agcaoili joined exploratory talks between the GRP and the NDFP in 1989 when President Aquino sent Jose Yap to the Netherlands to negotiate. Talks continued on and off at the tail-end of the Aquino administration and into the Fidel V. Ramos administration. On September 1, 1992, when both sides adopted the Hague Joint Declaration as the framework of the GRP-NDFP peace negotiations, Agcaoili assumed the role of Vice Chairperson of the NDFP Negotiating Panel. Agcaoili also headed the NDFP Reciprocal Working Committee for Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law, which drafted the Comprehensive Agreement on the Respect for Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law, adding specific provisions for the respect of rights for political prisoners. CARHRIHL was formally signed on March 16, 1998 In 2004, Agcaoili served as the co-chair of the GRP-NDFP Joint Monitoring Committee which looked into CARHRIHL violations. He continued in this position until his death. In 2016, he replaced Luis Jalandoni as chairperson of the NDFP Negotiating Panel, in time for the resumption of peace talks under Rodrigo Duterte. Agcaoili engaged in a series of talks with Duterte which paved the way for the resumption of peace talks in August 2016. Death. On July 23, 2020, the National Democratic Front of the Philippines announced that Agcaoili died, 12:45 pm, in Utrecht, Netherlands. The cause of death was a pulmonary arterial rupture which caused massive bleeding. Agcaoili was cremated on July 30 in Crematorium Daelwijck in Utrecht, and was sent to the Philippines for burial. A tribute was also streamed live over the internet on August 8, 2020, on what was to be Agcaoili's 76th birthday. Agcaoili was survived by his wife Rosario, five children, and multiple grand-children. Legacy. The Communist Party of the Philippines called Agcaoili "one of the most beloved and respected leaders of the Party, the NDFP, and the Filipino people." It also declared August 8 as a "National Day of Remembrance and Tribute" to Agcaoili. Jorge "Ka Oris" Madlos, spokesperson for the New People's Army, stated that Agcaoili's "life, his militance, commitment and determination to advance the revolutionary struggle for national freedom and social liberation will forever serve as inspiration for all Red fighters of the NPA and for the Filipino people." SELDA released a joint statement alongside other human rights organizations, praising Agcaoili as a "staunch champion and defender of human rights." They described him as"blunt, yet funny; serious and gentle, and always imparting lessons from his life in the revolutionary struggle." Contemporaries remembered Agcaoili as taking on the smallest details, such as making travel arrangements and picking up consultants at the airports, despite his high-ranking position. His counterparts in the GRP Negotiating Panel regarded him as "kind, flexible on the negotiating panel, yet strict and firm on principles." Former Quezon City mayor Herbert Bautista, who was also a part of the GRP Panel, called Agcaoili "funny, but firm and serious on the negotiating table." Idun Tvedt, the Royal Norwegian Special Envoy to the Philippine Peace Process, said Agcaoili was "a professional and dedicated negotiator in the search for a peace solution to the armed conflict in the Philippines." Her predecessor, Elisabeth Slattum, called him a negotiator "with great dedication and heart for the cause." The Communist Party of Canada (Marxist-Leninist) published a short statement in its publication, calling Agcaoili's death a "great loss to the CPP, the NDFP and the entire Filipino people." The Workers World Party also sent its "deepest condolences and firm solidarity", saying his " lifelong dedication to organizing working and oppressed people must be held high as an example and inspiration for revolutionaries around the world and in particular the youth." Journalists remembered him as "always eager to clarify issues." Danny Buenafe called him the "toughest" between him, Sison, and Jalandoni. After his death, Julieta de Lima-Sison was appointed interim chairperson of the NDFP Negotiating Panel, being the "most senior and most available" member of the peace panel.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8883202

Shey Phoksundo National Park (Nepali: शे-फोकसुण्डो She-Phoksundo) is the largest and only trans-Himalayan national park in Nepal. It was established in 1984 and covers an area of in the districts of Dolpa and Mugu in the Mid-Western Region, Nepal. The protected area ranges in elevation from . Phoksundo Lake is the park's prominent feature, located at an elevation of . The park's headquarters are in Palam, Dolpa District. Features. Shey Phoksundo National Park provides a diversity of spectacular landscapes and ranks among the most scenic mountain parks in the world. Much of the park lies north of the Himalayan crest. Elevations range from in the southeast near Ankhe to at the summit of Kanjiroba Himal, which lies at the southern edge of the Tibetan plateau. Phoksundo Lake lies at an elevation of in the upper reaches of the Suligad river. It is surrounded by glaciers and famous for its magnificent turquoise color. Near the lake’s outlet is the country’s highest waterfall. Phoksundo Lake has a water surface of , and was declared a Ramsar site in September 2007. The lake is up to deep, measured using echo-sounding technology. The Langu river drains the high Dolpo plateau located in the north-east of the park. The Suligad and Jugdual rivers form the southern catchment flowing south into the Thuli Bheri river. Climate. Spanning the northern and southern aspects of the Himalayan crest, the park experiences a wide climatic range and lies in the transition zone from a monsoon dominated to an arid climate. Annual precipitation reaches in the south, whereas on northern slopes less than of rain falls. Most of the precipitation occurs during monsoon from July to September. The Dhaulagiri and Kanjiroba massifs form a massive barrier preventing most of the rain from reaching the Trans-Himalayan area. Winters are quite severe with frequent snowfalls above and temperatures remaining below freezing above through much of the winter. Flora and fauna. The flora found within the park is extremely diverse. The northern regions contain barren areas of the upper Himalayas. The Trans-Himalayan slope lands consist of some rhododendron, caragana shrubs, salix, juniper, white Himalayan birch, and the occasional silver fir dominate the high meadows of the Himalayas. Less than five percent of the park is forested, with much of it lying in the southern portion. The Suligad Vally’s flora consists of blue pine, spruce, hemlock, cedar, silver fir, poplar, rhododendron, and bamboo. The park also contains 286 species of ethnobotanical importance. The park provides important habitat for endangered species including the snow leopard, grey wolf, musk deer, and blue sheep. Goral, great Tibetan sheep, Himalayan tahr, leopard, jackal, Himalayan black bear and yellow-throated marten are also found in the park. The park is home to six reptiles and 29 species of butterfly, including the highest flying butterfly in the world, Paralasa nepalaica. The park provides habitat for over 200 species of birds, such as Tibetan partridge, wood snipe, white-throated tit, wood accentor and crimson-eared rosefinch. Culture. The park contains many gompas and religious sites, many of which have been renovated. Shey Gompa, the most famous, was established in the 11th century. Thashung Gompa located near Phoksundo Lake was built about 900 years ago to conserve wildlife. Ringmo village, a typical Tibetan village, is scenically nestled in the park. The park is home to more than 9,000 people, and their villages are among the highest settlements on earth. The local people are subsistence farmers growing potatoes, buckwheat, mustard, beans and some barley; and keeping livestock for food and wool. They barter with Tibetans for salt and wool. Their lifestyle is typically Tibetan. Most of them are Buddhists; the people around Phoksundo area practice Bön. There are communal gompas in most of the villages.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11180

Functional analysis is a branch of mathematical analysis, the core of which is formed by the study of vector spaces endowed with some kind of limit-related structure (e.g. inner product, norm, topology, etc.) and the linear functions defined on these spaces and respecting these structures in a suitable sense. The historical roots of functional analysis lie in the study of spaces of functions and the formulation of properties of transformations of functions such as the Fourier transform as transformations defining continuous, unitary etc. operators between function spaces. This point of view turned out to be particularly useful for the study of differential and integral equations. The usage of the word "functional" as a noun goes back to the calculus of variations, implying a function whose argument is a function. The term was first used in Hadamard's 1910 book on that subject. However, the general concept of a functional had previously been introduced in 1887 by the Italian mathematician and physicist Vito Volterra. The theory of nonlinear functionals was continued by students of Hadamard, in particular Fréchet and Lévy. Hadamard also founded the modern school of linear functional analysis further developed by Riesz and the group of Polish mathematicians around Stefan Banach. In modern introductory texts to functional analysis, the subject is seen as the study of vector spaces endowed with a topology, in particular infinite-dimensional spaces. In contrast, linear algebra deals mostly with finite-dimensional spaces, and does not use topology. An important part of functional analysis is the extension of the theory of measure, integration, and probability to infinite dimensional spaces, also known as infinite dimensional analysis. Normed vector spaces. The basic and historically first class of spaces studied in functional analysis are complete normed vector spaces over the real or complex numbers. Such spaces are called Banach spaces. An important example is a Hilbert space, where the norm arises from an inner product. These spaces are of fundamental importance in many areas, including the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics, machine learning, partial differential equations, and Fourier analysis. More generally, functional analysis includes the study of Fréchet spaces and other topological vector spaces not endowed with a norm. An important object of study in functional analysis are the continuous linear operators defined on Banach and Hilbert spaces. These lead naturally to the definition of C*-algebras and other operator algebras. Hilbert spaces. Hilbert spaces can be completely classified: there is a unique Hilbert space up to isomorphism for every cardinality of the orthonormal basis. Finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces are fully understood in linear algebra, and infinite-dimensional separable Hilbert spaces are isomorphic to formula_1. Separability being important for applications, functional analysis of Hilbert spaces consequently mostly deals with this space. One of the open problems in functional analysis is to prove that every bounded linear operator on a Hilbert space has a proper invariant subspace. Many special cases of this invariant subspace problem have already been proven. Banach spaces. General Banach spaces are more complicated than Hilbert spaces, and cannot be classified in such a simple manner as those. In particular, many Banach spaces lack a notion analogous to an orthonormal basis. Examples of Banach spaces are formula_2-spaces for any real number Given also a measure formula_3 on set then sometimes also denoted formula_4 or has as its vectors equivalence classes formula_5 of measurable functions whose absolute value's formula_6-th power has finite integral, that is, functions formula_7 for which one has If formula_3 is the counting measure, then the integral may be replaced by a sum. That is, we require Then it is not necessary to deal with equivalence classes, and the space is denoted written more simply formula_11 in the case when formula_12 is the set of non-negative integers. In Banach spaces, a large part of the study involves the dual space: the space of all continuous linear maps from the space into its underlying field, so-called functionals. A Banach space can be canonically identified with a subspace of its bidual, which is the dual of its dual space. The corresponding map is an isometry but in general not onto. A general Banach space and its bidual need not even be isometrically isomorphic in any way, contrary to the finite-dimensional situation. This is explained in the dual space article. Also, the notion of derivative can be extended to arbitrary functions between Banach spaces. See, for instance, the Fréchet derivative article. Major and foundational results. Important results of functional analysis include: Uniform boundedness principle. The uniform boundedness principle or Banach–Steinhaus theorem is one of the fundamental results in functional analysis. Together with the Hahn–Banach theorem and the open mapping theorem, it is considered one of the cornerstones of the field. In its basic form, it asserts that for a family of continuous linear operators (and thus bounded operators) whose domain is a Banach space, pointwise boundedness is equivalent to uniform boundedness in operator norm. The theorem was first published in 1927 by Stefan Banach and Hugo Steinhaus but it was also proven independently by Hans Hahn. Theorem (Uniform Boundedness Principle). Let "X" be a Banach space and "Y" be a normed vector space. Suppose that "F" is a collection of continuous linear operators from "X" to "Y". If for all "x" in "X" one has then Spectral theorem. There are many theorems known as the spectral theorem, but one in particular has many applications in functional analysis. Theorem: Let "A" be a bounded self-adjoint operator on a Hilbert space "H". Then there is a measure space and a real-valued essentially bounded measurable function "f" on "X" and a unitary operator such that where "T" is the multiplication operator: and formula_17 This is the beginning of the vast research area of functional analysis called operator theory; see also the spectral measure. There is also an analogous spectral theorem for bounded normal operators on Hilbert spaces. The only difference in the conclusion is that now formula_7 may be complex-valued. Hahn–Banach theorem. The Hahn–Banach theorem is a central tool in functional analysis. It allows the extension of bounded linear functionals defined on a subspace of some vector space to the whole space, and it also shows that there are "enough" continuous linear functionals defined on every normed vector space to make the study of the dual space "interesting". Hahn–Banach theorem: If is a sublinear function, and is a linear functional on a linear subspace which is dominated by on , i.e. then there exists a linear extension of to the whole space , i.e., there exists a linear functional such that Open mapping theorem. The open mapping theorem, also known as the Banach–Schauder theorem (named after Stefan Banach and Juliusz Schauder), is a fundamental result which states that if a continuous linear operator between Banach spaces is surjective then it is an open map. More precisely,: The proof uses the Baire category theorem, and completeness of both "X" and "Y" is essential to the theorem. The statement of the theorem is no longer true if either space is just assumed to be a normed space, but is true if "X" and "Y" are taken to be Fréchet spaces. Closed graph theorem. The closed graph theorem states the following: If "X" is a topological space and "Y" is a compact Hausdorff space, then the graph of a linear map "T" from "X" to "Y" is closed if and only if "T" is continuous. Foundations of mathematics considerations. Most spaces considered in functional analysis have infinite dimension. To show the existence of a vector space basis for such spaces may require Zorn's lemma. However, a somewhat different concept, Schauder basis, is usually more relevant in functional analysis. Many very important theorems require the Hahn–Banach theorem, usually proved using the axiom of choice, although the strictly weaker Boolean prime ideal theorem suffices. The Baire category theorem, needed to prove many important theorems, also requires a form of axiom of choice. Points of view. Functional analysis in its includes the following tendencies:

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Animatronics refers to mechatronic puppets. They are a modern variant of the automaton and are often used for the portrayal of characters in films and in theme park attractions. Before the term "animatronics" became common, they were usually referred to as "robots". Since then, robots have become known as more practical programmable machines that do not necessarily resemble living creatures. Robots (or other artificial beings) designed to convincingly resemble humans are known as "androids". Animatronics is a multi-disciplinary field which integrates puppetry, anatomy and mechatronics. Animatronic figures can be implemented using both computer control and human control, including teleoperation. Motion actuators are often used to imitate muscle movements and create realistic motions in limbs. Figures are usually covered with body shells and flexible skins made of hard and soft plastic materials and finished with details like colors, hair and feathers and other components to make the figure more lifelike. Etymology. "Animatronics" is a portmanteau of "animate" and "electronics." The term Audio-Animatronics was coined by Walt Disney in 1961 when he started developing animatronics for entertainment and film. Audio-Animatronics does not differentiate between animatronics and androids. "Autonomatronics" was also defined by Disney Imagineers, to describe a more advanced Audio-Animatronic technology featuring cameras and complex sensors to process information around the character's environment and respond to that stimulus. History. Origins in automata. Animatronics stand in a very long tradition of mechanical automata, that could be powered by for instance hydraulics, pneumatics or clockwork. Early descriptions are found in Greek mythology and ancient Chinese writings. The oldest extant examples date to the 16th century. Modern attractions. The first animatronics characters to be displayed to the public were a dog and a horse. Each were the attraction at two separate spectacles during the 1939 New York World's Fair. Sparko, The Robot Dog, pet of Elektro the Robot, performs in front of the public at the 1939 New York World's Fair but Sparko is not like normal robots. Sparko represents a living animal, thus becoming the very first modern day animatronic character, along with an unnamed horse which was reported to gallop realistically. The animatronic galloping horse was also on display at the 1939 World's Fair, in a different exhibit than Sparko's. Walt Disney is often credited for popularizing animatronics for entertainment after he bought an animatronic bird while he was vacationing, although it is disputed whether it was in New Orleans or Europe. Disney's vision for audio-animatronics was primarily focused on patriotic displays rather than amusements. In 1951, two years after Walt Disney discovered animatronics, he commissioned machinist Roger Broggie and sculptor Wathel Rogers to lead a team tasked with creating a 9" tall figure that could move and talk simulating dance routines performed by actor Buddy Ebsen. The project was titled 'Project Little Man' but was never finished. A year later, Walt Disney Imagineering was created. Disney used a supposedly animatronic bird in 1962 for the film "Mary Poppins" (released in 1964). This was actually controlled fully by bicycle cables. After "Project Little Man", the Imagineering team at Disney's first project was a "Chinese Head" which was on display in the lobby of their office. Customers could ask the head questions and it would reply with words of wisdom. The eyes blinked and its mouth opened and closed. The Walt Disney Production company started using animatronics in 1955 for Disneyland's ride, the Jungle Cruise, and later for its attraction Walt Disney's Enchanted Tiki Room which featured animatronic Enchanted Tiki Birds. The first fully completed human audio-animatronic figure was Abraham Lincoln, created by Walt Disney in 1964 for the 1964 World's Fair in the New York. In 1965, Disney upgraded the figure and coined it as the Lincoln Mark II, which appeared at the Opera House at Disneyland Resort in California. For three months, the original Lincoln performed in New York, while the Lincoln Mark II played 5 performances per hour at Disneyland. Body language and facial motions were matched to perfection with the recorded speech. Actor Royal Dano voiced the animatronics version of Abraham Lincoln. Lucky the Dinosaur is an approximately green Segnosaurus which pulls a flower-covered cart and is led by "Chandler the Dinosaur Handler". Lucky is notable in that he was the first free-roving audio-animatronic figure ever created by Disney's Imagineers. The flower cart he pulls conceals the computer and power source. The Muppet Mobile Lab is a free-roving, audio-animatronic entertainment attraction designed by Walt Disney Imagineering. Two Muppet characters, Dr. Bunsen Honeydew and his assistant, Beaker, pilot the vehicle through the park, interacting with guests and deploying special effects such as foggers, flashing lights, moving signs, confetti cannons and spray jets. It is currently deployed at Hong Kong Disneyland in Hong Kong. A Laffing Sal is one of the several automated characters that were used to attract carnival and amusement park patrons to funhouses and dark rides throughout the United States. Its movements were accompanied by a raucous laugh that sometimes frightened small children and annoyed adults. Film and television. The film industry has been a driving force revolutionizing the technology used to develop animatronics. Animatronics are used in situations where a creature does not exist, the action is too risky or costly to use real actors or animals, or the action could never be obtained with a living person or animal. Its main advantage over CGI and stop motion is that the simulated creature has a physical presence moving in front of the camera in real time. The technology behind animatronics has become more advanced and sophisticated over the years, making the puppets even more lifelike. Animatronics were first introduced by Disney in the 1964 film "Mary Poppins" which featured an animatronic bird. Since then, animatronics have been used extensively in such movies as "Jaws", and "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial", which relied heavily on animatronics. Directors such as Steven Spielberg and Jim Henson have been pioneers in using animatronics in the film industry; a film co-directed by the latter, "The Dark Crystal", was promoted as the first to feature no human characters, and showcased groundbreaking puppets designed by Brian Froud and created by Henson's then recently established Creature Shop in London. The 1993 film "Jurassic Park" used a combination of computer-generated imagery in conjunction with life-sized animatronic dinosaurs built by Stan Winston and his team. Winston's animatronic "T. rex" stood almost , in length and even the largest animatronics weighing were able to perfectly recreate the appearance and natural movement on screen of a full-sized "Tyrannosaurus rex". Jack Horner called it "the closest I've ever been to a live dinosaur". Critics referred to Spielberg's "dinosaurs" as "breathtakingly — and terrifyingly — realistic". The 1999 BBC miniseries "Walking with Dinosaurs" was produced using a combination of about 80% CGI and 20% animatronic models. The quality of computer imagery of the day was good, but animatronics were still better at distance shots, as well as closeups of the dinosaurs. Animatronics for the series were designed by British animatronics firm Crawley Creatures. The show was followed up in 2007 with a live adaptation of the series, "Walking with Dinosaurs: The Arena Spectacular". Geoff Peterson is an animatronic human skeleton that serves as the sidekick on the late-night talk show "The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson". Often referred to as a "robot skeleton", Peterson is a radio-controlled animatronic robot puppet designed and built by Grant Imahara of "MythBusters". Advertising. The British advertisement campaign for Cadbury Schweppes titled "Gorilla" featured an actor inside a gorilla suit with an animatronically animated face. The Slowskys was an advertising campaign for Comcast Cable's Xfinity broadband Internet service. The ad features two animatronic turtles, and it won the gold Effie Award in 2007. Toys. Some examples of animatronic toys include Teddy Ruxpin, Big Mouth Billy Bass, FurReal, Kota the triceratops, Pleo, WowWee Alive Chimpanzee, Microsoft Actimates, and Furby. Well-known brands include Cuddle Barn, Gemmy Industries, Tickle Me Elmo, and Dan Dee. Design. An animatronics character is built around an internal supporting frame, usually made of steel. Attached to these "bones" are the "muscles" which can be manufactured using elastic netting composed of styrene beads. The frame provides the support for the electronics and mechanical components, as well as providing the shape for the outer skin. The "skin" of the figure is most often made of foam rubber, silicone or urethane poured into moulds and allowed to cure. To provide further strength a piece of fabric is cut to size and embedded in the foam rubber after it is poured into the mould. Once the mould has fully cured, each piece is separated and attached to the exterior of the figure providing the appearance and texture similar to that of "skin". Structure. An animatronics character is typically designed to be as realistic as possible and thus, is built similarly to how it would be in real life. The framework of the figure is like the "skeleton". Joints, motors, and actuators act as the "muscles". Connecting all the electrical components together are wires, such as the "nervous system" of a real animal or person. Frame or skeleton. Steel, aluminum, plastic, and wood are all commonly used in building animatronics but each has its best purpose. The relative strength, as well as the weight of the material itself, should be considered when determining the most appropriate material to use. The cost of the material may also be a concern. Exterior or skin. Several materials are commonly used in the fabrication of an animatronics figure's exterior. Dependent on the particular circumstances, the best material will be used to produce the most lifelike form. For example, "eyes" and "teeth" are commonly made completely out of acrylic. Latex. White latex is commonly used as a general material because it has a high level of elasticity. It is also pre-vulcanized, making it easy and fast to apply. Latex is produced in several grades. Grade 74 is a popular form of latex that dries rapidly and can be applied very thick, making it ideal for developing molds. Foam latex is a lightweight, soft form of latex which is used in masks and facial prosthetics to change a person's outward appearance, and in animatronics to create a realistic "skin". "The Wizard of Oz" was one of the first films to make extensive use of foam latex prosthetics in the 1930s. Silicone. Disney has a research team devoted to improving and developing better methods of creating more lifelike animatronics exteriors with silicone. RTV silicone (room temperature vulcanization silicone) is used primarily as a molding material as it is very easy to use but is relatively expensive. Few other materials stick to it, making molds easy to separate. Bubbles are removed from silicone by pouring the liquid material in a thin stream or processing in a vacuum chamber prior to use. Fumed silica is used as a bulking agent for thicker coatings of the material. Polyurethane. Polyurethane rubber is a more cost effective material to use in place of silicone. Polyurethane comes in various levels of hardness which are measured on the Shore scale. Rigid polyurethane foam is used in prototyping because it can be milled and shaped in high density. Flexible polyurethane foam is often used in the actual building of the final animatronic figure because it is flexible and bonds well with latex. Plaster. As a commonplace construction and home decorating material, plaster is widely available. Its rigidity limits its use in moulds, and plaster moulds are unsuitable when undercuts are present. This may make plaster far more difficult to use than softer materials like latex or silicone. Movement. Pneumatic actuators can be used for small animatronics but are not powerful enough for large designs and must be supplemented with hydraulics. To create more realistic movement in large figures, an analog system is generally used to give the figures a full range of fluid motion rather than simple two position movements. Emotion modeling. Mimicking the often subtle displays of humans and other living creatures, and the associated movement is a challenging task when developing animatronics. One of the most common emotional models is the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) developed by Ekman and Friesen. FACS defines that through facial expression, humans can recognize 6 basic emotions: anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, and surprise. Another theory is that of Ortony, Clore, and Collins, or the OCC model which defines 22 different emotional categories. In 2020 Disney revealed its new animatronics robot that can breathe, move its eyes very much like humans, and identify people around it in order to select "an appropriate" response, as opposed to previous Disney animatronics that were used in purely scripted, non-interactive situations, like theme park rides. Training and education. Animatronics has been developed as a career which combines the disciplines of mechanical engineering, casting/sculpting, control technologies, electrical/electronic systems, radio control and airbrushing. Some colleges and universities do offer degree programs in animatronics. Individuals interested in animatronics typically earn a degree in robotics which closely relate to the specializations needed in animatronics engineering. Students achieving a bachelor's degree in robotics commonly complete courses in: Animatronics and artificial intelligence. The fusion of animatronics with artificial intelligence results in androids, as is usually known, robots that imitate human behavior. We have a technique capable of providing the appearance and behavior of living beings to machines. We are 'humanizing' robots. But it's not only the movements that look very real, but also, it seems real thanks to the synthetic skin they have used and makeup. The Disney company is about to use animatronics and artificial intelligence to simulate one of their characters in real life: Pascal, one of the characters in the movie "Tangled". On the other hand, Dubai is already using police robots created by PAL Robotics.

generic substance

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4052456

The Intermediate dispute was a major split in Scottish football which lasted from 1925 to 1931 and concerned the compensation that Junior clubs received when one of their players moved to a Senior football league side. Although largely confined to the West of Scotland, the dispute involved many of the best Junior clubs in the country, setting them in direct conflict with both the Scottish Football Association (SFA) and their own organisation, the Scottish Junior Football Association (SJFA). History. The dispute was principally led by the Glasgow Junior Football League (GJL). The GJL was the strongest Junior league in Scotland, having provided fifteen of the twenty-six Scottish Junior Cup winners since the turn of the century. Its clubs were increasingly dissatisfied with the behaviour of Senior clubs, in both Scotland and England, who would often approach a player without first contacting the Junior club themselves, then offering little or no compensation for that player if signed. In 1925, the GJL introduced a new player registration form, known as the "White Form". This document gave clubs a two-year option on a players services, enabling greater compensation to be demanded and became the principle to unite the Intermediate movement. In March 1927, sixty-two clubs met to form the Scottish Intermediate Junior Football Association and a split with the Scottish Junior Football Association became inevitable. The SJFA sympathised with the Intermediate cause but would not sanction a breakaway. The Intermediates for their part, felt that the SJFA had failed to negotiate powerfully enough on their behalf with the Scottish Football Association. The reaction of the SFA was simply to prohibit the signing of any registered Intermediate player. In practice however, once a transfer fee was agreed between Senior and Intermediate clubs, a players registration was cancelled, evidence destroyed, and the player could sign as a free agent. In June 1927, the powerful GJL dissolved itself at its AGM and its twenty member clubs were joined by a further twenty from other leagues to form the breakaway "Scottish Intermediate Football League". In Ayrshire, the Western Junior Football League reformed as the Western Intermediate Football League at the same time with sixteen out of the eighteen clubs supporting the dispute. Clubs in Fife also showed an interest however the prospect of increased travel meant their participation was not viable. From the beginning of season 1927–28, Intermediate clubs began to compete in separate competitions, including their own Scottish Intermediate Cup (i.e. they did not take part in the Scottish Junior Cup). For the next four seasons, despite much negotiation, both sides in the dispute maintained their positions. Numbers in the Intermediate leagues however were beginning to dwindle. A combination of clubs folding and defections to Junior leagues meant that by 1931, only forty-two Intermediate sides remained. Some influential clubs, including Irvine Meadow, started to push for a resolution. A series of meetings in February 1931 led to one final meeting on 27 May 1931 when the Intermediate clubs and SFA agreed terms with only two clubs voting against. A standard transfer fee of £75 was introduced for a professional Junior player. Provisional transfer arrangements also made it easier for clubs to keep their players whilst still involved in major competitions. With this compromise reached, the Scottish Intermediate Association renamed itself the West of Scotland Junior FA. It was also decided not to reform the GJL but to keep the Scottish Intermediate League format as the Central Junior Football League. The Scottish Intermediate Cup was also renamed as the West of Scotland Junior Cup, and whilst it was initially only open to the 'breakaway' clubs it is now open to all junior clubs in the region. Winners of Intermediate competitions. Scottish Intermediate Cup 1927–28 Ashfield 1928–29 Ashfield 1929–30 Clydebank Juniors 1930–31 Yoker Athletic Scottish Intermediate League 1927–28 Baillieston<br> 1928–29 Ashfield<br> 1929–30 Clydebank Juniors<br> 1930–31 Bridgeton Waverley<br> Scottish Intermediate League Cup 1927–28 Kirkintilloch Rob Roy 1928–29 Ashfield 1929–30 Clydebank Juniors 1930–31 Pollok Glasgow Intermediate Cup 1927–28 Kirkintilloch Rob Roy 1928–29 Ashfield 1929–30 Clydebank Juniors 1930–31 Pollok Western Intermediate League 1927–28 Kilwinning Rangers<br> 1928–29 Irvine Meadow XI<br> 1929–30 Kilwinning Eglinton<br> 1930–31 Kilwinning Rangers<br> Western Intermediate League Cup 1927–28 Irvine Meadow XI 1928–29 Irvine Meadow XI 1929–30 Kilwinning Rangers 1930–31 Darvel

more traveling

8890-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1561351

Pescadero is a census-designated place (CDP) in San Mateo County, California two miles (3 km) east of State Route 1 and Pescadero State Beach. The center of town, on Pescadero Creek Road, is located at latitude 37.255 and longitude 122.38028. The town is south of Half Moon Bay. The ZIP Code is 94060 and the community is inside area code 650. The population was 643 at the 2010 census. About. Pescadero is a farming and ranching community near the Pescadero Marsh, a wildlife refuge. Pescadero Creek, the longest stream in San Mateo County, is an annual creek that empties into the Pacific Ocean near the town. Many of the buildings in town date from the 19th Century. Pescadero is situated near the Pacific Ocean about south of Half Moon Bay and about north of Santa Cruz. Pescadero is also a weekend tourist destination during the summer months because of beaches, parks including Memorial Park and Butano State Park, Pigeon Point Lighthouse and Hostel, as well as extensive rural roads for biking and trails for hiking in the Santa Cruz Mountains. Attractions include Duarte's Tavern, Arcangeli Grocery Co. (Norm's Market / Bakery), Sante Family Wines, Made in Pescadero (a furniture store), Downtown Local (a coffee shop), The Sunshine (a boutique grocery store), Pescadero Essentials (a health/beauty shop), South Coast Children's Services Thrift Shop, Luna Sea art gallery, the Pie Ranch Farmstand, the Pescadero Farmers Market (that runs from June through October), and Taqueria y Mercado de Amigos, an acclaimed taqueria in the local gas station. Pescadero is host to a number of successful agricultural ventures some of which offer high-quality produce and value-added products throughout San Mateo County and much of the Bay area. These include: Harley Farms Goat Dairy, Blue House Farm, Tomkat Ranch, Simms Organic, Fifth Crow Farm, R & R Herbs, and many others. Pescadero hosts the annual Pescadero Art and Fun Fair (PAFF) on the third weekend of each August. The Alto Velo Bicycle Racing Club holds the annual Pescadero Coastal Classic Road Race, which travels through the town and nearby countryside, in early- to mid-June. The town is home to Pescadero High School. The Pescadero High School and Middle School Teams are the Vikings and the Panthers, respectively. Non-profits in Pescadero play a central role in much of the town's economy and the well-being of its residents. Puente de la Costa Sur serves as the only resource community center in this region of San Mateo County, providing valuable aid to farmworkers and community members alike. Educational organizations such as Pie Ranch work with the state to generate land access opportunities for impoverished communities, and stimulate regenerative agriculture initiatives. KPDO, at 89.3 FM, is Pescadero's community radio station. Pescadero Marsh. Located at the confluence of Pescadero Creek and Butano Creek, the area known as Pescadero Marsh has for decades been a thriving habitat for both migratory and native wildlife. Besides being a refuge and nesting ground for wintering waterfowl, the Marsh is a critical spawning area and nursery for coho salmon, steelhead trout, tidewater goby, and many other threatened or endangered fish, amphibian, and reptile species. Due to many causes, both natural and man-made, the health of Pescadero Marsh is deteriorating rapidly. Anoxic water conditions result in annual "die-offs" of hundreds of juvenile fish, crabs, and other species. As water levels fluctuate, many species are cut off from supportive habitat, and the entire eco-system degrades. Since 1998 concerned citizens and other wildlife agencies have repeatedly asked California State Parks to take immediate corrective action. The Parks department has moved to request further studies. Meanwhile, native species populations in the marsh have reached critically low levels. According to a study by Dr. Jerry Smith, San Jose State Professor, estimates in 1985 showed that 10,000 steelhead were rearing in the lagoon. As of 2008, 750 steelhead were counted in the same area. Geography. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP covers an area of 4.0 square miles (10.4 km), 99.79% of it land, and 0.21% of it water. Demographics. The 2010 United States Census reported that Pescadero had a population of 643. The population density was 159.4 people per square mile (61.5/km). The racial makeup of Pescadero was 314 (48.8%) White, 2 (0.3%) African American, 2 (0.3%) Native American, 5 (0.8%) Asian, 1 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 294 (45.7%) from other races, and 25 (3.9%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 402 persons (62.5%). The Census reported that 624 people (97.0% of the population) lived in households, 19 (3.0%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized. There were 195 households, out of which 82 (42.1%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 98 (50.3%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 23 (11.8%) had a female householder with no husband present, 16 (8.2%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 17 (8.7%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 3 (1.5%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 41 households (21.0%) were made up of individuals, and 8 (4.1%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.20. There were 137 families (70.3% of all households); the average family size was 3.75. The population was spread out, with 179 people (27.8%) under the age of 18, 58 people (9.0%) aged 18 to 24, 197 people (30.6%) aged 25 to 44, 130 people (20.2%) aged 45 to 64, and 79 people (12.3%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33.5 years. For every 100 females, there were 110.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 123.1 males. There were 216 housing units at an average density of 53.5 per square mile (20.7/km), of which 86 (44.1%) were owner-occupied, and 109 (55.9%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.3%; the rental vacancy rate was 4.4%. 205 people (31.9% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 419 people (65.2%) lived in rental housing units. Weather. Pescadero has cool, wet winters and mild, mostly dry summers. Fog and low overcast are common throughout the year, particularly during the summer months. Strong winds sometimes blow off the nearby Pacific Ocean. January is the coolest month with an average maximum of and an average minimum of . September is the warmest month with an average maximum of and an average minimum of . Winter temperatures seldom drop below freezing, and summer temperatures rarely exceed . Average annual precipitation is , mostly falling as rain since snow is extremely rare on the coast. The nearest National Weather Service cooperative weather station is in the nearby village of San Gregorio, north of Pescadero on Stage Road. History. The town of Pescadero is located on the Rancho Pescadero Mexican land grant; former Mission Santa Cruz pasture given to Juan José Gonzalez in 1833. Alexander Moore (1823–1902), an American pioneer, built his home in Pescadero Valley in 1853. The rich, fertile soil of the valley had attracted other settlers, and in the 1860s Pescadero was a prosperous town surrounded by farms and lumber mills. According to a guidebook published by the California Coastal Commission, the residents of Pescadero recovered a large quantity of white paint from the 1853 wreck of the clipper ship "Carrier Pigeon" at Pigeon Point. The paint was "used liberally on all the town's buildings", and residents have since maintained the tradition of painting their houses white. However, other sources credit the 1896 wreck of the steamer "Columbia" as the source of the white paint. An article in the "Wells Fargo Messenger" states that a stagecoach salvaged from the "Carrier Pigeon" was laboriously hoisted up the cliffs onto the road, and put into service within a week. The coach, built in Concord, New Hampshire, carried passengers and freight on the Pescadero road for the Wells Fargo Company for forty years, and, in 1914, was listed among the company's prized possessions. Another tale relates that an Irishman named John Daly, who was employed driving pigs from Santa Cruz to Alexander Moore's Pescadero ranch, discovered some lumps of coal from the steamer "Sea Bird"'s cargo on the beach at Ano Nuevo. Mr. Daly endeavored to parley his discovery into money which he might spend on whiskey. Since coal deposits had been rumored to exist in the area, Mr. Daly proceeded with his lumps of coal to Santa Cruz, announcing to Captain Brannan and three others that he had discovered a coal mine at Gazos Creek. After collecting his monetary reward, he led the four men up Gazos Creek in search of the alleged coal outcropping, with the intention of escaping and leaving his benefactors behind empty-handed. However, Captain Brannan, who was armed, managed to capture Daly and extracted a confession. Daly was administered a whipping on the spot and later fled the area.

Steps to intervene

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32823075

The Bulgarian dvoyanka is a double flute made of a single piece of wood, with six sound holes on one side. It is most frequently made of ash-wood, plum tree, pear tree, cornel or boxwood. The tune is played on the right pipe, while the left pipe provides a flat tone (or drone) as accompaniment. The playing structure on the right pipe is similar to that of the music played on the kaval. Line-dances and lively melodies are frequently played on it. The dvoyanka has traditionally been an instrument favored by shepherds. Shepherds directed their flocks by their playing, since sheep remember and recognize a melody in time. A shepherd could "teach" his flock to start from the pen towards the pasture at one melody, and to return to the village in the evening at another. The instrument bears similitudes to the dvojnica, an instrument typical for the regions of Central and Western Serbia and Serbian regions across the river Drina, which is made and played somewhat differently. The dvoyanka is a double pipe (gaida), which has a form of a rectangular prism or which is more rarely is composed form two parallel cylindrical tubes. It has a length from 30 to 40 cm. All of the two tubes begin with a bill formed nozzle in which the tone is produced with an ordinary blowing. When playing on a duduk the two tubes are temporarily blown. Dvoyanka is a wind musical instrument in the form of a rectangular prism with two parallel channels. The one channel sets the tone, and the other on which the six holes are situated reproduces the melody. This double flute is also called "the little bagpipe". It's made from plum tree, cherry, pear tree, maple, ash, beech, oak, or corneal tree. Music performed on the double flute has a very specific coloring. Related instruments. Similar instruments are found in Albania (cyla-diare), Macedonia (piska), Greece (disavli), Romania (fluierul gemanat), and Serbia (dvojnice) in one build or another. One difference, however, is that where the Bulgarian dvoyanka is rectangular in shape, where the two tubes are bored straight through a single block of wood and the material in between remains intact, in Albania and Serbia the wood between the tubes may be cut away so that they resemble two separate "legs" (the instrument then resembles an upside-down Y; see other instruments in this case).

some design

8792-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=630402

Mary Louisa "Polly" Toynbee (; born 27 December 1946) is a British journalist and writer. She has been a columnist for "The Guardian" newspaper since 1998. She is a social democrat and was a candidate for the Social Democratic Party in the 1983 general election. She now broadly supports the Labour Party, although she was critical of its left-wing leader, Jeremy Corbyn. Toynbee previously worked as social affairs editor for the BBC and also for "The Independent" newspaper. She is vice-president of Humanists UK, having previously served as its president between 2007 and 2012. She was also named Columnist of the Year at the 2007 British Press Awards. She became a patron of right to die organization My Death My Decision in 2021. Background. Toynbee was born at Yafford on the Isle of Wight, the second daughter of the literary critic Philip Toynbee by his first wife Anne Barbara Denise (1920-2004), daughter of Lieutenant George Powell, of the Grenadier Guards. Her grandfather was the historian Arnold J. Toynbee, and her great-great-uncle the philanthropist and economic historian Arnold Toynbee, after whom Toynbee Hall in the East End of London is named. Her parents divorced when Toynbee was aged four and she moved to London with her mother, who remarried to the philosopher Richard Wollheim. Toynbee attended Badminton School, a girls' independent school in Bristol, followed by Holland Park School, a state comprehensive school in London, as she had failed the 11-plus examination. She passed one A-level, obtained a scholarship to read history at St Anne's College, Oxford, but dropped out of university after eighteen months. During her gap year, in 1966, she worked for Amnesty International in Rhodesia (which had just unilaterally declared independence) until she was expelled by the government. She published her first novel, "Leftovers", in 1966. Following her expulsion from Rhodesia, Toynbee revealed the existence of the "Harry" letters, which detailed the alleged funding of Amnesty International in Rhodesia by the British government. After Oxford, she found work in a factory and a burger bar, hoping to write in her spare time. She later said: "I had a loopy idea that I could work with my hands during the day and in the evening come home and write novels and poetry, and be Tolstoy... But I very quickly discovered why people who work in factories don't usually have the energy to write when they get home." She went into journalism, working on the diary at "The Observer", and turned her eight months of experience in manual work (along with "undercover" stints as a nurse and an Army recruit) into the book "A Working Life" (1970). Career. Toynbee worked for many years at "The Guardian" before joining the BBC where she was social affairs editor (1988–1995). At "The Independent", which she joined after leaving the BBC, she was a columnist and associate editor, working with then editor Andrew Marr. She later rejoined "The Guardian". She has also written for "The Observer" and the "Radio Times"; at one time she was an editor for the "Washington Monthly". Following in the footsteps of Barbara Ehrenreich's "Nickel and Dimed" (2001), she published in 2003 ' about an experimental period voluntarily living on the minimum wage, which was £4.10 per hour at the time. She worked as a hospital porter in a National Health Service hospital, a dinnerlady in a primary school, a nursery assistant, a call-centre employee, a cake factory worker and a care home assistant, during which time she contracted salmonella. The book is critical of conditions in low pay jobs in Britain. She also contributed an introduction to the UK edition of Ehrenreich's '. Currently Toynbee writes for "The Guardian", and serves as President of the Social Policy Association. She is chair of the Brighton Festival and deputy treasurer of the Fabian Society. Political history and opinions. Toynbee is a member of the Labour Party. She and her first husband, Peter Jenkins (from 1970), were supporters of the Social Democratic Party (SDP) breakaway from Labour in 1981, both signing the Limehouse Declaration. Toynbee stood for the party at the 1983 general election for Lewisham East, garnering 9351 votes (22%) and finishing third. She was one of the few SDP members who believed in unilateral nuclear disarmament, founding an unsuccessful group "Unilateralists for Social Democracy". She later refused to support the subsequent merger of the SDP with the Liberals (to form the Liberal Democrats), reacting instead by rejoining Labour when the rump SDP collapsed. In 1995, Toynbee criticised Metropolitan Police Commissioner Paul Condon's comments that 80% of mugging cases were committed by black people, stating that it was "an over-simplification that is seriously misleading". She approvingly quoted academic researcher Michael Keith, who said: "If you were to standardise for everything else – education, unemployment, housing estates, life chances – race on its own would have virtually no significance." In a 2002 debate hosted by the Royal Society of Arts and "Prospect" magazine, Toynbee argued that the West should pursue liberal internationalism by intervening through the United Nations to promote democracy around the world: "Spreading people's right to self-determination, and their right to think and vote for themselves, is a moral obligation… We should be intervening now in the Congo and Sudan." Toynbee strongly supports state education, though she had two of her three children partly educated in the private sector, leading to accusations of hypocrisy. Although consistently critical of many of Tony Blair's New Labour reforms, she wrote in 2005 that his government "remains the best government of my political lifetime". During the 2005 General Election, with dissatisfaction high among traditional Labour voters, Toynbee wrote several times about the dangers of protest voting, "Giving Blair a bloody nose". She urged "Guardian" readers to vote with a clothes peg over their nose if they had to, to make sure Michael Howard's Conservatives would not win thanks to vote splitting. "Voters think they can take a free hit at Blair while assuming Labour will win anyway. But Labour won't win if people won't vote for it." In December 2006, Greg Clark (a former SDP member, later to be a Conservative minister) claimed Toynbee should be an influence on the modern Conservative Party, causing a press furore. Reacting to this, Conservative leader David Cameron said he was impressed by one metaphor in her writings – of society being a caravan crossing a desert, where the people at the back can fall so far behind they are no longer part of the tribe. He added, "I will not be introducing Polly Toynbee's policies." Toynbee expressed some discomfort with this embrace, adding, "I don't suppose the icebergs had much choice about being hugged by Cameron either." In response to the episode, Boris Johnson, at the time a Conservative MP and journalist who had been severely criticised by Toynbee, rejected any association with Toynbee's views, writing that she "incarnates all the nannying, high-taxing, high-spending schoolmarminess of Blair's Britain. Polly is the high priestess of our paranoid, mollycoddled, risk-averse, airbagged, booster-seated culture of political correctness and 'elf 'n' safety fascism". Having advocated for Gordon Brown to succeed Blair as prime minister, Toynbee continued to endorse him in the early part of his premiership. By spring 2009 she had become sharply critical of Brown, arguing that he had failed to introduce the social-democratic policies he promised, and was very poor at presentation too. She subsequently called for his departure, voluntary or otherwise. In the European Elections of June 2009 she advocated a vote for the Liberal Democrats. During the 2010 general election she advocated a tactical vote for whichever candidate was best able to keep the Conservatives out of power. In October 2010, Toynbee was criticised for an article in "The Guardian" in which she said the government's benefits changes would drive many poor people out of London and could be seen as a "final solution" for their situation. Some people interpreted this as a reference to the Nazis, which Toynbee said was not her intention. A Press Complaints Commission report in the matter ruled the comments were "insensitive", but did not breach any rules as the organisation's remit does not cover matters of taste and offence. She later apologised for using the term. Toynbee has been described as "the queen of leftist journalists", and in 2008 topped a poll of 100 "opinion makers", carried out by Editorial Intelligence. She was also named the most influential columnist in the UK. Andrew Marr has said that "[w]hat makes her stand out as a journalist is not only her strong views but also her ferocious appetite for research. In a media world in which too many media columnists simply voice their top-of-the-head opinions, Polly always arrives heavily armed with hard facts". With her current partner, former Social Affairs editor of "The Guardian" David Walker (Peter Jenkins died in 1992), Toynbee co-authored two books reviewing the successes and failures of New Labour in power. In "Unjust Rewards" (2008) they argued that "excess at the top hurts others". Toynbee hoped that Theresa May would work to reduce poverty in the United Kingdom when she became prime minister, and that a Working Tax Credit will be increased to reduce child poverty. Toynbee does not believe the public sector needs steadily less money every year. She argues that the government has plenty of money to finance tax cuts for better off people. She wrote in March 2017 that "They plan to cut the size of the state permanently to 36% of GDP, from 45% in 2010. New faces in No 10 and 11 Downing Street are only casting changes for the same old script, ideologically identical." In late June 2017, after the 2017 general election Toynbee wrote, "There are a million fewer public servants than in 2010, a loss keenly felt in every field. ... From depleted Whitehall's frantic scramble to hire thousands more experts to cope with Brexit, to the critical shortage of nurses and carers, cuts in environmental health officers and 90% fewer health and safety at work inspections, voters now see a threadbare public sector." A week after the 2017 general election, Toynbee responded to the Grenfell Tower fire and wrote that "Political blame spreads right through the Conservative party, with no escape on offer. This goes far beyond the precise shockers – the Tory MPs who mockingly rejected housing regulation; the cuts to funding to councils responsible for retro-fitting fire suppressants; the disregard of coroner's instructions after the 2009 Lakanal House tragedy; and even the plan to opt out of EU safety regulations. Conservative Kensington and Chelsea council allegedly blocking its ears to tenants' well-founded anxiety is just the immediate scandal. But this event reaches far deeper, to the very sinews of its party's policy." Toynbee believes the National Health Service is badly underfunded. In January 2017 she wrote that "When the Royal College of Surgeons protests at cancer operations cancelled, is that a tipping point? When nearly half of all hospitals declare major alerts for lack of beds, that's an emergency. Theres no winter flu, no Arctic weather, just pressure from underfunding, like an aneurysm about to burst. But the prime minister is not for turning, not yet." Toynbee also wrote, "But May can't defy the NHS laws of gravity that force every prime minister to U-turn on underfunding. Margaret Thatcher, John Major and Tony Blair all buckled. This crisis looks set to outdo all those, says Chris Ham, NHS historian and head of the King's Fund. History shows – and this was proved in the Blair years – that when the NHS reaches roughly EU funding levels, its results soar. When funding falls too far, trolleys pile up in corridors." She is a strong opponent of Brexit. Views on religion. An atheist, Toynbee is an Honorary Associate of the National Secular Society, a distinguished supporter of the Humanist Society Scotland, and was appointed President of the British Humanist Association in July 2007. Since 2012, she has been the BHA's Vice President. She has said that she is simply a consistent atheist, and is just as critical of Christianity, Islam and Judaism. She wrote: "The pens sharpen – Islamophobia! No such thing. Primitive Middle Eastern religions (and most others) are much the same – Islam, Christianity and Judaism all define themselves through disgust for women's bodies." In 1997 she declared "I am an Islamophobe and proud of it". In 2005 she opposed the Bill to outlaw incitement to religious hatred: "Race is something people cannot choose and it defines nothing about them. But beliefs are what people choose to identify with...The two cannot be blurred into one – which is why the word Islamophobia is a nonsense". In 2003 upon the 25th anniversary of Pope John Paul II's papacy, she wrote that he "is a hate-figure and with good reason… No one can compute how many people have died of Aids as a result of Wojtyla's power, how many woman have died in childbirth needlessly, how many children starved in families too large and poor to feed them. But it is reasonable to suppose these silent, unseen, uncounted deaths at his hand would match that of any self-respecting tyrant or dictator". Toynbee had agreed to debate with the philosopher William Lane Craig during his UK October visit, but subsequently pulled out, saying "I hadn't realised the nature of Mr Lane Craig's debating style, and having now looked at his previous performances, this is not my kind of forum." Toynbee has mixed feelings about the Church of England; she has opposed both religious and secular dogmatic beliefs. In April 2014, she wrote: Honours. Toynbee was awarded an Honorary Degree by the University of Essex in 1999 and by London South Bank University in 2002. In 2005, she was made an Honorary Doctor of The Open University for "her notable contribution to the educational and cultural well-being of society". The University of Kent awarded Toynbee the honorary title of Doctor of Civil Law in November 2007 in recognition of her concern with poverty and welfare. This was followed in 2008 when University of Leeds awarded her fourth Honorary Doctorate. She won the Orwell Prize for journalism in 1998 (for journalism published by "The Independent"), and in 2007 was named 'Columnist of the Year' at the British Press Awards. Toynbee declined to be made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 2000. Personal life. Toynbee lives in Lewes, East Sussex. She also owns a villa in Tuscany. She is a member of the Arts Emergency Service.

clear criticism

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1283132

The Bombing of Darwin, also known as the Battle of Darwin, on 19 February 1942 was the largest single attack ever mounted by a foreign power on Australia. On that day, 242 Japanese aircraft, in two separate raids, attacked the town, ships in Darwin's harbour and the town's two airfields in an attempt to prevent the Allies from using them as bases to contest the invasion of Timor and Java during World War II. Darwin was lightly defended relative to the size of the attack, and the Japanese inflicted heavy losses upon Allied forces at little cost to themselves. The urban areas of Darwin also suffered some damage from the raids and there were a number of civilian casualties. More than half of Darwin's civilian population left the area permanently, before or immediately after the attack. The two Japanese air raids were the first, and largest, of more than 100 air raids against Australia during 1942–43. Background. In 1942, Darwin – whilst it was the capital of the Northern Territory – was a small town with limited civil and military infrastructure. Due to its strategic position in northern Australia, the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) and Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) had constructed bases near the town in the 1930s and the early years of World War II. Darwin's pre-war population was 5,800. As early as August 1941, Darwin had been a key in the South Pacific air ferry route designed to avoid routes through the Japanese mandate in the central Pacific for bomber reinforcement of the Philippines. The first flight to use the route occurred when nine B-17D bombers of the 14th Bombardment Squadron (H) left Hawaii on 5 September and passed through Darwin 10–12 September. By October 1941 plans were underway to position fuel and supplies with two ships, including , being chartered and actively engaged in that purpose when war came. By November 1941 Australia had agreed to allow the establishment of training bases, maintenance facilities, munitions storage, communications, and improvement of airfields, including at Darwin, to meet the needs of the B-17 bombers in Australia. Following the outbreak of the Pacific War in early December 1941, Darwin's defences were strengthened. In line with plans developed before the war, several Australian Army and RAAF units stationed in the town were sent to the Netherlands East Indies (Dutch East Indies; NEI) to strengthen the defences of the islands of Ambon and Timor. An improvised plan for support of the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies was completed in Washington on 20 December 1941 by the U.S. Army General Staff. It envisioned Darwin as the hub of transshipment efforts to supply those forces by landing supplies at Brisbane, shipping overland to Darwin, and onward by air and blockade-running ships. In reality, transport to Darwin by sea was necessary. Supplies and shipping intended both to build the Darwin base and to support the Java and Philippine forces were gathered in Darwin and the vicinity. In the two months before the air raids, all but 2,000 civilians were evacuated from the town. Japanese submarines "I-121" and "I-123" laid mines off Darwin in January 1942. By mid-February 1942 Darwin had become an important Allied base for the defence of the NEI. The Japanese had captured Ambon, Borneo, and Celebes between December 1941 and early-February 1942. Landings on Timor were scheduled for 20 February, and an invasion of Java was planned to take place shortly afterwards. In order to protect these landings from Allied interference, the Japanese military command decided to conduct a major air raid on Darwin. On 10 February a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft overflew the town, and identified an aircraft carrier (actually the seaplane tender ), five destroyers, and 21 merchant ships in Darwin Harbour, as well as 30 aircraft at the town's two airfields. Among the ships in harbour were those returned the morning before the attack from the convoy escorted by involved in the failed effort to reinforce Timor. "Houston" had departed for Java but left "Mauna Loa" and the "Meigs" which had attempted to transport Australian troops to Timor and the U.S. Army transports "Portmar" and "Tulagi" which had embarked a U.S. infantry regiment at Darwin. Prelude. Opposing forces. Despite Darwin's strategic importance to the defence of Australia, the city was poorly defended. The Australian Army's anti-aircraft defences comprised sixteen QF 3.7-inch AA guns and two 3-inch AA guns to counter aircraft flying at high altitude and a small number of Lewis Guns for use against low-flying raiders. The crews of these guns had conducted little recent training due to ammunition shortages. The air forces stationed in and near the town comprised No. 12 Squadron, which was equipped with CAC Wirraway advanced trainers (which had been pressed into service as fighters), and No. 13 Squadron which operated Lockheed Hudson light bombers. Six Hudsons, 3 from No. 2 Squadron and 3 from No. 13 Squadron also arrived at Darwin on 19 February after having been evacuated from Timor. None of the six Wirraways at Darwin on the day of the raid were serviceable. At the time of the event, there was no functional radar to provide early warning of air raids, and the town's civil defences were dysfunctional. The Lowe Commission, which was appointed to investigate the raids shortly after they occurred, was informed that the Australian military estimated that Darwin would have needed 36 heavy anti-aircraft guns and 250 fighter aircraft to defend it against a raid of the scale which occurred on 19 February. In addition to the Australian forces, ten United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) Curtiss P-40 Warhawks were passing through Darwin en route to Java on the day of the attack. The P-40 pilots were in the main little experienced in combat. A total of 65 Allied warships and merchant vessels were in Darwin harbour at the time of the raids. The warships included the United States Navy (USN) destroyer and seaplane tender . The RAN ships in port were the sloops and , corvettes and , auxiliary minesweepers and , patrol boat "Coongoola", depot ship , examination vessel , lugger , and four boom-net ships. Several USN and Australian troopships were in the harbour along with a number of merchant vessels of varying sizes. Most of the ships in the harbour were anchored near each other, making them an easy target for air attack. Moreover, no plans had been prepared for how the ships should respond to an air raid. In addition to the vessels in port, the American Army supply ships "Don Isidro" and "Florence D.", former Philippine vessels acquired as part of the South West Pacific Area command's permanent Army fleet earlier in February, were near Bathurst Island bound for the Philippines with arms and supplies on the morning of the raid. Darwin was attacked by aircraft flying from aircraft carriers and land bases in the NEI. The main force involved in the raid was the 1st Carrier Air Fleet which was commanded by Vice-Admiral Chūichi Nagumo. This force comprised the aircraft carriers , , , and and a powerful force of escorting surface ships. All four carriers had participated in the attack on Pearl Harbor at the start of the Pacific War. In addition to the carrier-based aircraft, 54 land-based bombers also struck Darwin in a high-level bombing raid nearly two hours after the first one struck at 0956. These comprised 27 G3M "Nell" bombers flying from Ambon and another 27 G4M "Betty" bombers operating from Kendari in Celebes. Air raids. First raid. The four Japanese aircraft carriers launched 188 aircraft on the morning of 19 February. The main objective of their crews was attacking ships and port facilities in Darwin Harbour. Their aircraft comprised 81 Nakajima B5N ("Kate") light bombers, 71 Aichi D3A ("Val") dive bombers, and an escort of 36 Mitsubishi A6M ("Zero") fighters. While the B5N was a purpose-built torpedo bomber, it could instead carry up to of bombs and there is no evidence of torpedoes being used on this occasion; the D3A could carry up to of bombs. All of these aircraft were launched by 8.45 am. This wave was led by Commander Mitsuo Fuchida, who had also commanded the first wave of attackers during the raid on Pearl Harbor. On their way to Darwin, Zeros shot down a US Navy PBY Catalina and strafed a USAAF C-47 Skytrain on the ground, near Melville Island. At 9.35 am Father McGrath of the Sacred Heart mission on Bathurst Island, who was also an Australian coastwatcher, sent a message using a pedal radio to the Amalgamated Wireless Postal Radio Station at Darwin that a large number of aircraft were flying overhead and proceeding southward. The message was then relayed to the Royal Australian Air Force Operations at 9.37 am. No general alarm was given until about 10 am as the RAAF officers there wrongly judged that the aircraft which had been sighted were the ten USAAF P-40s, which were returning to Darwin at the time after reports of bad weather forced them to abort a flight to Java via Kupang, West Timor. As a result, the air raid sirens at Darwin were not sounded before the raid. Flying escort in a Zero fighter, Petty Officer Yoshikazu Nagahama was separated from his squadron while he was attacking the PBY flying boat and arrived over the city alone ahead of the strike force, which was making a turn to attack from the south. He engaged five US Army Air Force P-40 Warhawk fighters and single-handedly shot down four of them. The Japanese raiders began to arrive over Darwin at 9:58 am. HMAS "Gunbar" was the first ship to be attacked, being strafed by several Zero fighters. At about this time, the town's air raid sirens were belatedly sounded. The Japanese bombers then conducted dive bombing and level bombing attacks on the ships in Darwin Harbour. These attacks lasted for 30 minutes, and resulted in the sinking of three warships and six merchant vessels, and damage to another ten ships. The ships sunk were the USS "Peary", HMAS "Mavie", , (which exploded while docked at Darwin's main wharf), , , . The oil tanker "Karalee" and the coal storage hulk "Kelat" sank later. At least 21 labourers working on the wharf were killed when it was bombed. All but one of the P-40s was shot down or destroyed on the ground at RAAF Darwin. Japanese aircraft bombed and strafed the base and civil airfield, as well as the town's army barracks and oil store. All of these facilities were seriously damaged. The bombers began to leave the Darwin area at about 10:10. On their way back to the carriers, their crews noted two Philippine-registered freighters lying just outside the port:"Florence D." and "Don Isidro". This information contributed to planning for the second raid that afternoon (which sank both vessels). Japanese losses may have been as few as five aircraft and three crew. However, another 34 Japanese aircraft landed safely with battle damage. Warrant Officer Katsuyoshi Tsuru and First Petty Officer (1st class) Takezo Uchikado were killed when their Aichi dive bomber (bu. no. "3304"; tail no. AII-254) crashed near RAAF Darwin. Sergeant Hajime Toyoshima (a.k.a. Tadao Minami) was taken prisoner after crash-landing his damaged Zero (bu. no. b. n."5349"; tail no. BII-124) on Melville Island. Those who ditched near the Japanese fleet and were rescued included Flyer 1st class Yoshio Egawa and the Aichi crew of Flyer 1st class Takeshi Yamada and Flyer 1st class Kinji Funazaki. In 2013, a reference was discovered in Japanese records to a Nakajima torpedo bomber suffering wheel damage from a "gunshot" and both crew (names unknown) being rescued after ditching (by the destroyer "Tanikaze"). Allied ground fire was relatively intense and may have claimed all but two of the Japanese aircraft lost. Only one of the USAAF P-40 pilots remained airborne throughout the first attack, 1st Lieutenant Robert Oestreicher, who has also been credited by US and Japanese sources with one Aichi shot down and one damaged. Toyoshima's Zero is considered to have been brought down by small arms fire from Sappers Tom Lamb and Len O'Shea of the 19th Battalion. Most aviation historians believe Tsuru and Uchikado's Aichi was brought down by ground fire, possibly from a major Australian Army camp at Winnellie. Egawa reported that the damage to his Zero came from hitting a tree at Darwin. Second raid. The second wave, made up of 54 land-based medium bombers (27 Mitsubishi G3M and 27 Mitsubishi G4M) arrived over Darwin just before midday. The town's air raid sirens were sounded at 11:58 am when the bombers were sighted. The Japanese force separated into two groups flying at . One of these formations attacked RAAF Base Darwin from the south-west while the other approached from the north-east. The two formations arrived over the base at the same time, and dropped their bombs simultaneously. The Japanese bombers then turned, and made a second attack on the base. Due to defective fuses, the Australian heavy anti-aircraft flak gunners were unable to shoot down or damage any of the high-flying Japanese aircraft. The bombers left the Darwin area at about 12:20 pm. This raid inflicted extensive damage on the RAAF base, though casualties were light. Of the RAAF aircraft at the base, six Hudson light bombers were destroyed and another Hudson and a Wirraway were badly damaged. Two American P-40s and a B-24 Liberator bomber were also destroyed. Six RAAF personnel were killed. Lewis and Ingman list 30 aircraft destroyed. The Japanese carrier force launched a small number of D3A dive bombers during the afternoon of 19 February to attack the "Florence D." and "Don Isidro". "Don Isidro" was the first of these two ships to be attacked, and was rapidly sunk north of Melville Island. Eleven of her 84-strong crew were killed. The dive bombers also attacked "Florence D." and sank her off Bathurst Island with the loss of four crewmen. All of the survivors from "Don Isidro" were rescued by the corvette on 20 February. Some of "Florence D."s survivors landed on Bathurst and Melville Islands while the remainder were rescued by "Warrnambool" on 23 February. Among the survivors of "Florence D." were the rescued crew of a U.S. Navy PBY piloted by then Lt Thomas H. Moorer (later to become Chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff). "Admiral Halstead", strafed and with plates damaged by near misses, was brought to the pier where U.S. Army volunteers along with survivors of the U.S. and Philippine vessels helped unload her 14,000 drums of aviation gasoline. Aftermath. Consequences. Of major military consequence was the loss of most of the cargo shipping available to support efforts in Java and the Philippines with Java being effectively sealed off from further surface shipments from Australia. The air raids caused chaos in Darwin, with most essential services including water and electricity being badly damaged or destroyed. Fears of an imminent invasion spread and there was a wave of refugees, as some of the town's civilian population fled inland. There were reports of looting, with provost marshals being among the accused. According to official figures, 278 personnel belonging to RAAF North-Western Area Command (NWA) were considered to have deserted as a result of the raids, although it has been argued that the "desertions" were mostly the result of ambiguous orders given to RAAF ground staff after the attacks. In the words of journalist Douglas Lockwood, after the second Japanese air raid, the commander of RAAF Darwin, Wing Commander Stuart Griffith summoned his senior administrative officer, Squadron Leader Swan, and gave a verbal order that all airmen were to move half a mile down the main road and then half a mile inland. At this vague rendezvous point ... arrangements would be made to feed them. The order led to utter chaos. In being passed by word of mouth from one section to another, sometimes with officers present and sometimes not, it became garbled to the extent it was unrecognisable against the original. In its ultimate form it was interpreted, especially by those desiring such an interpretation, of an impending order for immediate and general evacuation of the area. Highly exaggerated rumours of an impending Japanese invasion had already reached the base from the town and spread quickly among those wanting to believe them. In the absence of restraint, men gathered their belongings and abandoned their stations. While the NWA staff could see what was happening and issued countermanding orders "the damage was done and hundreds of men were already beyond recall". The Australian Army also faced difficulty controlling some of its own troops from looting private property, including "furniture, refrigerators, stoves, pianos, clothes[,] [and] even children's toys" due to the breakdown of law and order after the bombing and the ensuing chaos. Many civilian refugees never returned, or did not return for many years, and in the post-war years some land they owned in Darwin had been expropriated by government bodies in their absence, made legal by the "Darwin Lands Acquisition Act 1945". The bombing of Darwin resulted in the destruction of 7 of the 11 above ground storage tanks, located on Stokes Hill, in raids on 19 February 16 March and 16 June 1942. This led to the construction of underground oil storage tunnels in Darwin in 1943. Casualties and damage. The number of people killed during 19 February raids is disputed. The Lowe Commission, which investigated them in March 1942, estimated 243 victims but, assuming a few were unidentified, concluded "I am satisfied that the number is approximately 250 and I doubt whether any further investigation will result in ascertaining a more precise figure." Some researchers and government officials, including John Bradford (author of "In the Highest Traditions – RAN Heroism Darwin 19 February 1942"), Dr. Peter Stanley (the Australian War Memorial's Principal Historian and author of several books about Australian military history), Tom Womack (author of "The Dutch Naval Air Force against Japan"), Paul Rosenzweig (author of "Darwin 1942: a reassessment of the first raid casualties"), and Rear Admiral Kevin Scarce (governor of South Australia) have said there were 250–262 fatalities. However, a plaque unveiled in Darwin in 2001 gave the total as 292. The plaque indicated 10 sailors had been killed aboard the USS "William B. Preston" but the US Navy said there were 13 fatalities and Peter Grose, author of "An Awkward Truth", said fifteen – he wrote: "With the William B. Preston total corrected to 15, a figure of 297 known dead is the best count anyone is likely to achieve...the full death toll is likely to be a little over 300, perhaps as many as 310 or 320." Lewis and Ingman have revised that to 14 in their 2013 book "Carrier Attack". In 2000, Darwin historian Peter Forrest, who spoke to survivors and researched the attacks for an unpublished book, said (as paraphrased by a journalist), "the first Japanese air raids on Darwin probably killed more than double the official figure of 243", but by 2002 had lowered his estimate to "anything up to double that 243". Other estimates put the toll far higher: one soldier who was there claimed to have seen barges filled with bodies towed out to sea, a member of one of the burial teams recounted seeing uncounted bodies "shoved in a large hole dug by a bulldozer" (paraphrased), according to some sources, former Darwin Mayor (1921–1922) Jack Burton estimated 900 people were killed; Harry Macredie, who helped rescue survivors and recover bodies in the harbour said, "we definitely estimate over 1,000", Rex Ruwoldt, one of the soldiers attacked that day, says that a few days after the raid he was told over the field telephone that Army Intelligence estimated 1,100 were killed. According to an AP article about the 50th anniversary of the attacks "some estimates say as many as 1,000 died". Bradford and Forrest said they spoke to survivors who estimated as many as 1,500 people died. Stanley, Grose, Rosenzweig, and Tom Lewis rejected such numbers. The former said "it was certainly not the 1,024 claimed recently in unsubstantiated reports" and Grose wrote "numbers such as 1,100 are fancifully high". By contrast, there is less dispute over the number of injured during the attacks. The Lowe Commission estimated "between 300 and 400" people were wounded. Lewis said the number was over 400, about 200 of which were seriously injured. Womack wrote that 311 were wounded. Australian military historian Chris Coulthard-Clark put the total between 250 and 320. Grose wrote: "if 900 or 1100 died, why were the numbers of injured so low? The count of the injured is more accurate, because they were treated in hospital or shipped out aboard the "Manunda" [a hospital ship]. The hospitals and "Manunda" noted names and numbers of those they treated." Myths and inaccuracies. The Japanese raid was unlike the attack on Pearl Harbor in that it was launched against a nation that had already declared war on Japan (on 8 December 1941). It was similar in that it was a successful aerial surprise attack on a naval target that came as a great shock to the attacked nation. While the number of bombs dropped on Darwin (681 bombs weighing by 205 bombers) exceeded those dropped on Pearl Harbor (457 bombs [including 40 torpedoes]) weighing by 273), loss of life was much greater at Pearl Harbor (more than 2,400 people) than Darwin (236 people) due to the presence of capital ships and the catastrophic loss of a single battleship, the USS "Arizona", and its 1,177 men. A frequently repeated myth is that the Australian government downplayed the damage from the bombing raids on Darwin, in a "cover-up". The newspapers of the day disprove this claim. On the day of the attack the Prime Minister is quoted on the front pages of most newspapers: "Damage to property was considerable", he said, "but reports so far to hand do not give precise particulars about the loss of life." "The Government regards the attacks as most grave, and makes it quite clear that a severe blow has been struck on Australian soil." Further Japanese raids. After the 19 February 1942 Japanese raid, the Northern Territory and parts of Western Australia's north were bombed approximately 100 times between 4 March 1942 and 12 November 1943. One of the heaviest attacks took place on 16 June 1942 when a Japanese force set fire to the oil fuel tanks around the harbour and inflicted severe damage to the vacant banks, stores and railway yards. The Allied navies largely abandoned the naval base at Darwin after the initial 19 February attack, dispersing most of their forces to Brisbane, Fremantle, and other, smaller, seaports. Conversely, Allied air commanders launched a build-up in the Darwin area, building more airfields and deploying many squadrons. The four IJN aircraft carriers ("Akagi", "Kaga", "Hiryū", and "Sōryū") that participated in the Bombing of Darwin were later sunk during the Battle of Midway in June 1942. Commemoration and depictions in popular culture. A memorial ceremony has been held every year since at least 2009. On 19 February at the Cenotaph in Darwin, at 9:58 am, a World War II air-raid siren sounds to mark the precise time of the first attack. A fictionalised version of the raid features prominently in the 2008 film "Australia".

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=927435

Patricia Bruder (born April 14, 1936 in Brooklyn, New York) is an American actress. She attended the James Madison High School, and graduated in June 1954. Her most enduring television role was her portrayal of Ellen Lowell on the soap opera "As the World Turns", which she played from 1960 to 1995, taking the role over from actress Wendy Drew. Bruder grew in time with her character, as who gradually changes from a young woman into a mature matriarch, marrying two respected doctors - Tim Cole and David Stewart - on the serial. Bruder's major storylines center on the murder of David's housekeeper, Franny Brennan, when Franny threatened to tell her son Jimmy (also known as Dr. Dan Stewart) the truth about his parentage. She went to prison where she met her best friend Sandy Wilson (Dagne Crane) who later married Bob Hughes (Don Hastings). Later storylines focus on being the moral support for daughters Annie and Dee. In 1995, her character was written out for the third time, but she made a guest appearance in 1998. Bruder continues to be a popular voice for voice-over work. She is married to Charles Debrovner, a physician. She has two daughters, Caroline and Diane, and one granddaughter, Jane. When she is not acting, she enjoys playing the piano.

favorite candidate

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=61838819

The Northern Ireland national football team represents Northern Ireland in international association football. From 1882 to 1921 all of Ireland was represented by a single side, the Ireland national football team, organised by the Irish Football Association (IFA). In 1920 Ireland was partitioned into Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland. In 1922, The south of Ireland gained independence as the Irish Free State, later to become Republic of Ireland. Amid these political upheavals, a rival football association, the Football Association of Ireland (the F.A.I. ), emerged in Dublin in 1921 and organised a separate league and later a national team. In 1923, during a period when the home nations had dis-affiliated from the governing body, the FAI was recognised by FIFA as the governing body of the Irish Free State on the condition that it changed its name to the "Football Association of the Irish Free State". At the same time, the IFA continued to organise its national team on an all-Ireland basis, regularly calling up Free State players. During this era at least one Northerner, Harry Chatton, also played for the Irish Free State and from 1936, the FAI began to organise their own all–Ireland team. Both teams now competed as "Ireland" and during this era at least 39 dual internationals were selected to represent both teams. Between 1928 and 1946 the IFA were not affiliated to FIFA and the two "Ireland" teams co-existed, never competing in the same competition. In April 1951, FIFA decreed that the IFA team could not select "citizens of Eire". An exception was for British Home Championship games, as a 1923 IFAB agreement at Liverpool prevented FIFA intervention in relations between the four Home Nations. However, the exception would only apply "if the F.A. of Ireland do not object", and was never availed of. At FIFA's 1953 congress, its Rule 3 was amended so that an international team must use "that title ... recognised politically and geographically of the countries or territories". The FAI initially claimed Rule 3 gave them the right to the name "Ireland" (see names of the Irish state), but FIFA subsequently ruled neither team could be referred to as "Ireland", decreeing that the FAI team be officially designated as the "Republic of Ireland", while the IFA team was to become "Northern Ireland". The IFA objected and in 1954 was permitted to continue using the name "Ireland" in Home Internationals, based on the 1923 agreement. This practice was discontinued in the late 1970s. This is a list of the Ireland national football team results from 1900 to 1929.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19300782

Westmoreland Street is a street in the southern city-centre of Dublin, Ireland. It is currently a one-way street and part a north-bound section of the R138 road. Location. It is one of the two broad avenues - along with D'Olier Street - that converge at their northern ends at O'Connell Bridge over the River Liffey. Westmoreland Street links the bridge to Trinity College at College Green at its southern end, from where traffic diverges between Grafton Street to the south and Dame Street to the west. Westmoreland Street also constitutes the eastern border of Temple Bar. History. The street is named after John Fane, 10th Earl of Westmorland, who was Lord Lieutenant of Ireland from 1789 to 1794. Architecture. One of the dominant buildings on the street is the former Educational Chambers on the corner of Fleet Street. The original building and facade was significantly altered with a design by architect Sam Stephenson in the early 1970s for EBS. The terracotta facade was demolished and replaced with dark mirror glass which was dubbed a "diabolical black box" by a city councillor at the time it was constructed. The EBS had also acquired three adjoining buildings, the Paradiso restaurant, the main office of "The Irish Times", and Graham's pharmacy with plans to demolish these and replicate the dark glass treatment. However, the planers insisted on solid granite elements to this side of the facade, which rendered the whole scheme lop-sided. The facade of the former Paradiso, an art nouveau design, was retained within the centre of the redevelopment and houses the building's atrium. Luas. Westmoreland Luas stop is on the Green Line (northbound only). This line connects with the Red line and runs from Broombridge in North Dublin and Bride's Glen. Construction started in June 2013 with services beginning in December 2017.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67716745

The PNR North Main Line (, simply known as PNR North or Northrail) is one of the two trunk lines of the Philippine National Railways in the island of Luzon, the other being the PNR South Main Line. The line during its maximum extent led to various cities and municipalities in Central Luzon and the Ilocos Region. The project was originally proposed in 1875 during the Spanish era, and was constructed in stages between the 1880s and the 1890s as the "Ferrocarril de Manila a Dagupan" (). The line was opened to Dagupan, Pangasinan on November 24, 1892. Further extensions to the line reached as far as Bacnotan, La Union with passenger trains terminating at San Fernando station in the provincial capitol. It also briefly reached Sudipen near the provincial border with Ilocos Sur during World War II but was later dismantled in 1945. Services peaked in the 1960s and the early 1970s until several factors such as fierce competition with the national highway system, increasing maintenance costs, natural disasters and the 1997 Asian financial crisis eventually led to the closure of the line in the late 1990s. The line only served as a connection for trains returning to the Caloocan depot. After 21 years of inactivity, services on the North Main Line resumed on August 1, 2018 with the reopening of Solis station in Tondo, Manila. More stations opened for the next few months with the latest being on December 3 that year. Like its counterpart to the south, the line is also slated to be rebuilt. The North–South Commuter Railway (NSCR) is being constructed in the area of Bulacan. Once completed, it will connect Tutuban station with Clark International Airport in Pampanga, and New Clark City in Tarlac. To its west of the line is the Subic–Clark railway which will initially be built for freight trains between the Subic Special Economic and Freeport Zone and Clark Airport with an extension to New Clark City. Other railroad lines that are separate from the NSCR are collectively referred as the PNR North Long Haul. Currently, this last project is still being proposed. History. The railroad network in Luzon, predecessor to today's Philippine National Railways, was first proposed on August 6, 1875. To the north of Manila are two main lines, one leading to Laoag, Ilocos Norte and the other leading to Tuguegarao, Cagayan. The system was approved by the Spanish East Indies government in 1880, but construction did not commence until 1887 due to the lack of a concession operator. Unlike the South Main Line which was built to its planned terminus in Legazpi, Albay, the North Main Line network never reached its intended termini in Laoag for the northwestern line and Tuguegarao for the northeastern line. Spanish era. The Manila Railway Company, Limited was created on June 1, 1887 and construction began. Initial site inspection was presided by Lieutenant Colonel José Gago y Palomo (1849–1908), who was renowned for building fortifications and trails in Mindanao for Spanish Army General Valeriano Weyler. According to Gary Satre on an investigative article in 1999, the use of 3 feet, 6 inches gauge was made both as a cost-cutting measure and to allow tighter curves in order to suit the island's mountainous terrain. One of the main obstacles in the construction stage is crossing the Rio Grande de Pampanga, after which a box truss bridge was built. At the same time, several tank locomotives were ordered by the Manila Railway. This began with an order for 2 Manila Railway Manila class locomotives in 1886 from English manufacturer Hunslet Engine Company. These were later named "Manila" and "Dagupan" after the line's two planned termini. Between 1888 and 1890, thirty Manila Railway Dagupan class locomotives were ordered from Neilson and Company and Dübs and Company. Various passenger railcars and boxcars were also ordered from unknown British manufacturers. Prior to the opening of the full length of the line to Pangasinan, José Rizal was one of the most popular commuters of the early Ferrocarril de Manila a Dagupan. He used the line to recruit potential La Liga Filipina members prior to his exile. On February 23, 1892 he took a train to San Fernando station in Pampanga. He then commuted to various other locations in Central Luzon, until he took his last train with a trip to Tarlac on June 26. He wrote that the trip took 5 hours, 40 minutes. This was 2 weeks prior to his exile to Dapitan. On November 24, 1892, the line to Dagupan was inaugurated. Revolutionary and American era. Manila Railway trains were used by both the Philippine Revolutionary Army and the United States Army forces during the Philippine–American War. President Emilio Aguinaldo and his cabinet ministers used First Class car Z4 as their primary method of travel on the railroad, especially during their retreat to northern Luzon. On the other hand, the advancing American forces used the Manila Railway to carry freight and Army soldiers. Trains were also used as mobile hospitals, carrying soldiers who were either injured or killed during the fighting. A river bridge in Bamban, Tarlac was destroyed along with one of the "Dagupan" class locomotives used by the US Army. This is to prevent the American advance to Central Luzon. However, the efforts to sabotage the network were futile as Filipino forces were eventually defeated and President Aguinaldo was captured in 1901. After the war, the network was repaired and expanded. The British owners were still allowed to operate for the following years, having reorganized into the Manila Railway Company (1906) Limited. Meanwhile, an American operator named the Manila Railroad Company (MRR) Corporation was established in New Jersey that same year. By 1909, the Manila Railroad took control of the system, although Horace L. Higgins still leads as its general manager in the country and the "Annual Report" was still prepared with British conventions. New lines were defined by Insular Government Act No. 1905 as the Northern Lines. This include the Manila–Dagupan main line, the Antipolo branch of the Southern Lines, the Cabanatuan branch, the Fort Stotsenburg branch, and shortline railroads serving the Port of Manila and within Dagupan. The "Baguio Special", the Philippines' first named express train service, was inaugurated in 1911. Originally only stopping at Damortis in Rosario, La Union with a luxury car service heading for the hill station of Baguio, this train started the scramble for a direct rail service. Construction for the Aringay–Baguio line started in 1914 but was never finished and the tunnel leading to the city was never completed, citing British involvement in World War I as the reason. This later made the Manila Railway's remaining Philippine unit to be absorbed into the Manila Railroad on January 8, 1917, with general manager Horace L. Higgins replaced by Colonel Henry Bayard McCoy. Under McCoy's leadership, the Manila Railroad modernized its locomotive fleet with the purchase of several American-built tender locomotives over the next few years. Meanwhile, the American Car and Foundry provided both regular passenger and sleeping cars, starting with the new "Baguio Night Special" service. After his death in 1923, he was then succeeded by Jose Paez, the first Filipino general manager of the company. Paez continued the fleet modernization started by McCoy as well as expanded the network to its established termini at San Fernando, La Union on March 16, 1929 and a seamless network to the Bicol Region was opened on May 8, 1938. World War II and Japanese occupation. Although the line was damaged after the First Philippines campaign during World War II, the Japanese briefly extended it to Sudipen near the La Union–Ilocos Sur border, some north of San Fernando. After the Second Philippines campaign, the line has been closed. The line was eventually dismantled so that track materials would give way for the reconstruction of the Main Line South's network. Additionally, the Aringay–Tuba section of the Baguio line was closed and the 300 class rack tank locomotives used for this service were scrapped in 1945. However, the tracks remained by as late as the 1960s and were built over by paddy fields. Post-war era. Only over a third of the Manila Railroad system was usable after the war, amounting to . Around eighty percent of its rolling stock were also destroyed. The system was eventually rebuilt, but not all branch lines were restored. In 1951, Ramon Magsaysay was appointed as general manager of the Manila Railroad. Under Magsaysay's term as general manager despite being only three months, made the company extend its network to Bacnotan. He would also preside the beginning of the Cagayan Valley extension. Magsaysay later became the President of the Philippines in 1953 and under his term, the Manila Railroad underwent another fleet modernization. Its entire steam locomotive fleet will be replaced by diesel locomotives starting in 1954. On August 1956, the modernization has been completed and all steam locomotives were relegated to maintenance work or retired altogether. Yards along the North Main Line in Pampanga became the storage location of these locomotives until they were all scrapped in the 1960s and onwards. PNR era. By 1964, the Manila Railroad was reorganized and renamed into the present Philippine National Railways. The renaming took inspiration from the Japanese National Railways. The early days of the PNR was also claimed to be the agency's golden years. While operations were smaller in scale to its southern counterpart, the North Main Line was still a popular means of travel leading out of Metro Manila. The line sought an estimated daily ridership of 3,000 passengers. Decline and closure. The 1970s were the beginning of the decline of operations on the North Main Line. The Cagayan Valley extension was never fully realized and PNR trains only terminated at San Jose, Nueva Ecija. The tunnel boring machines were then sold-off as debt payment for the project, and track work has been reverted into roads. A later investigation found that the Marcos government transferred the funds to the construction of the Maharlika Highway. The 1980s started the closure of the line due to decreasing ridership. A bridge collapse in 1984 ordered the closure of the services to the Ilocos Region. The line was then reduced to Caloocan in 1988, leaving the South Main Line the only operational intercity line at that point. There was a brief return of a commuter rail service to Malolos as part of the "Metrotren" program between 1990 and 1997. Since then, the Ramos administration took advantage of the recently-closed North Main Line to revitalize plans to electrify the commuter rail service in Metro Manila. The project was originally proposed by the Japan International Cooperation Agency in 1978. This was named as the Manila–Clark rapid railway project with the assitance of Spain. Construction continued as the Northrail project during the presidency of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, but stopped during the presidency of Benigno Aquino III due to disagreements with its Chinese backers. The project was never completed and ended like the failed Hopewell Project of Bangkok, Thailand. It was not until the 2010s when the present form was realized as the North–South Commuter Railway. Another railway project was also proposed during the late 1990s as part of the Philippines 2000 program under President Ramos. In 1995, the Manila–Rizal–Laguna–Quezon Growth Corridor (MARILAQUE) was proposed and the MARILAQUE Commission was established for the development of the area. They were tasked by the national government to implement the "Silangan Railway Express 2000" project. The line would have connected the northern half of Metro Manila to Rizal similar to the pre-war Antipolo and Marikina lines. It would then be extended eastward towards eastern Rizal province and northern Quezon, both more rural than the areas once plied by the two aforementioned lines. While plans continued under the term of President Joseph Estrada with the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) by as late as 1999, it never materialized and was not considered to be built by future administrations. Reopening and contemporary history. There were no services on the North Main Line during much of the 2000s, although the line was still used for trains heading to PNR's maintenance facility in Caloocan. Trial service on the North Main Line were planned later on. Between 2009 and 2010, PNR stations were renovated including a number of stations on the North Main Line. Some second-hand 12 series coaches were also acquired from the East Japan Railway Company as the NR class. These coaches were later reassigned to the South Main Line. Despite these initial plans not continuing as planned, the line was eventually reactivated. A "Shuttle Service" was opened from 10th Avenue station in Caloocan to Dela Rosa station in Makati on August 1, 2018. Since then, a regular "Metro North Commuter" service has been opened and the "Shuttle Service" was expanded to Bicutan station in Parañaque. Since 2020, the newly-purchased PNR 8000 class diesel multiple units were then assigned to the line and replaced second-hand KiHa 350s and KiHa 52s DMUs. Station list. The North Main Line currently only has stations within northern Metro Manila, though it previously had stations in Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, Pangasinan and La Union. Branch lines also led to Nueva Ecija, while tracks and track bed were already placed in Isabela and Cagayan prior to the Cagayan Valley extension project's cancellation in the 1970s. Services. Only two commuter rail services run on the North Main Line, both of which only operate within Metro Manila. This is unlike its counterpart to the south that would have some trains lead to neighboring Laguna province during rush hour. Active. There are only two services that run on the North Main Line as of 2019: Defunct. The North Main Line hosted both intercity and commuter trains like its southern counterpart. While its intercity services have been discontinued since 1988 and much of the right of way has been converted to roads, its commuter service was reconstructed and reopened in 2018. However, not all of its historic commuter operations are in active service and these are set to be replaced within the 2020s either by rapid transit or the NSCR. Commuter rail. There were several commuter rail services leading in and out of Manila on the North Main Line during its history. Some of the lines were eventually closed, and their reconstruction were later deemed unnecessary to restore because of existing rapid transit infrastructure from other systems. Intercity rail. The North Main Line was first opened when the Manila–Dagupan Railway was opened in 1892. At its height between the 1950s and 1960s, the line went from Tutuban to Dagupan and also served until San Fernando, La Union. The line also boasted several rail yards. It also had branch lines to various areas in Central Luzon. However, its services severely deteriorated in the 1980s. All regular operations outside Metro Manila first ended in 1988, and the line was closed in 1997. "Amianan Express". The Amianan Express was a night train service that opened in 1974. It left Manila by 11 PM and arrived in San Fernando by 4:30 AM the next day. It was serviced by then-new PNR 900 class diesel-electric locomotives and five coaches capable of seating 912 people. After ending in San Fernando station, commuters would take the bus to Ilocos Norte and Sur, and Benguet. Later, it was expanded into two services, the "Amianan Day Express" and the "Amianan Night Express". The "Amianan Night Express" ran faster than its day counterpart, the "Amianan Day Express", making the run to San Fernando, La Union in five hours. Baguio train-road services. The difficulty of terrain to build new train lines prevented both MRR and PNR to have direct train services to Baguio City, then a small hill station in the Cordillera Region. There were already plans for a rail line to the town, but was ultimately cancelled in 1917 due to lack of funding. "Dagupan Express". The Dagupan Express opened on February 10, 1979. It was serviced by the MCBP class diesel multiple units, the intercity version of the MC-300 multiple units of 1968. Like the "Amianan Express", the "Dagupan Express" also ended in 1984 after all North Main Line services terminated in Tarlac. "Ilocos Express". The Ilocos Express was inaugurated on March 15, 1930. The services includes a dining car with catering provided by the Manila Hotel. Another variant of the service was the "Baguio-Ilocos Express". Following the modernization program of the Manila Railway Company in 1955, the Ilocos Express featured a 7A class "De Luxe" coach until 1979, when the lack of operable air-conditioned coaches caused a switch to a "Tourist"-class coach. The company also operated the "Paniqui Express" in the 1930s, but that was eclipsed by the "Ilocos Express". There were two accidents involving the service, one in 1939 and another in 1959. Rolling stock. Due to the North Main Line only running a few kilometers north to Malabon, the line runs relatively few trains. The line currently uses PNR Hyundai Rotem DMUs and PNR 8000 class trainsets. Ex-JNR rolling stock such as KiHa 35 and KiHa 52 have been out of service for the line. Reconstruction. The Build! Build! Build! Infrastructure Program provided an overview of the planned system in northern and central Luzon. All new lines are standard-gauge railways. NSCR North. The North section of the North–South Commuter Railway, also known as NSCR North and PNR Clark, is a section that shall rebuild the historic commuter services to Malolos in Bulacan, as well as San Fernando and Angeles in Pampanga before terminating at the Clark International Airport. The line shall also be extended to New Clark City, with a targeted opening date between 2023 and 2025. Development started after the old Northrail project was cancelled when the Department of Transportation and Communications attempted to reactivate the construction of a new electrified commuter rail line. Canadian firm CPCS Transcom Limited was commissioned to conduct a feasibility study for a Malolos–Los Baños commuter line as part of a larger effort to reform Metro Manila's public transport system. This was eventually approved as the North–South Railway Project (NSRP) in 2014. On August 2015, the track gauge for the NSRP was changed from standard gauge to narrow gauge so there will be no need of an overhaul of the existing network. This was later reverted to standard gauge after the North–South Commuter Railway in its present form was announced on June 1, 2018. Construction. Pre-construction work such as clearing of the right of way was started on January 6, 2018. The groundbreaking and construction from Tutuban to Malolos started on February 15, 2019. The contract for the construction of NSCR North 1 was awarded to the Filipino-Japanese consortium of DMCI Holdings and Taisei Corporation on May 21, 2019. The contract for the construction of the railway viaduct from Tutuban to Bocaue was awarded in December 2020 to Swiss firm VSL International, a subsidiary of French conglomerate Bouygues. NSCR North 2 was then awarded starting on August 2020 to various consortiums of local and international companies. On April 12, 2021, clearing works began for the new Calumpit station in Barangay Iba Oeste (West), Calumpit, Bulacan. The three-floor building will be the first station to be constructed for the NSCR North Phase 2. Prior to May, construction work for Apalit station commenced. As of May 1, concrete pouring has been completed on some of the piers while geotechnical engineering work are still ongoing. Electric stock. The NSCR will be the PNR's first electrified mainline. With this move to electrification, the DOTr has allotted a total of 360 electric multiple units for this service. The first batch of 104 "Sustina Commuter" EMUs commuter trains were already ordered from the Japan Transport Engineering Company. Another batch of 200 commuter EMUs and 56 airport express trains are also being procured. Northeast Commuter Line. PNR requested a feasibility study for the reconstruction of the old Cabanatuan branch line in January 2019. Once approved, this will become the Northeast Commuter Line. It will start on NSCR tracks in Makati and will branch off the main line at Balagtas station in Bulacan. The line proper will continue for at least northeast towards Nueva Ecija, ending at the city of Cabanatuan. There are also plans for an extension to San Jose, Nueva Ecija, sealing a loop with the NSCR northward extension there. The Environmental Protection Division (Enro) of Cabanatuan held a stakeholders' consultation meeting on July 29, 2020. This also announced that the line has 17 stations with the extension to San Jose. At Guiguinto, the line will take a new right-of-way compared to the old Cabanatuan line. At San Rafael, Bulacan, the Northeast Commuter will then follow the old route to Cabanatuan. Another new route will be built towards San Jose. This will join with the Tarlac–San Jose extension of the NSCR (NSCR North 4) towards North Long Haul East, which will then terminate at Tuguegarao. PNR general manager Junn Magno stated on an interview with local TV show "Motoring Today" on February 7, 2021 that the agency is still developing proposals for the line. Once completed, it will shorten travel times between job centers in Metro Manila and commuter towns in eastern Bulacan within 55 to 60 minutes. Freight railroads. Both rail lines shall be interconnected to the North Long Haul via the Subic–Clark Railway, and to the South Long Haul via the overhaul of the existing tracks of the PNR Metro Commuter Line. Freight stock. Two Chinese designs are being considered for the freight service. The first is the CNR CKD9, a cab forward diesel-electric locomotive based on the New Zealand DL class locomotive designed by CRRC Dalian, then known as CNR Dalian during production. This will have a dual cab design similar to the PNR 9000 class locomotives due to its orientation. The other is a conventional half-width cab hood unit design based on the South African Class 45-000. It is CRRC Zhuzhou Locomotive and CRRC Dalian's derivative of the GE Evolution Series. It would also be similar with the older PNR 900 class, predecessor to the 9000 class and a derivative of the GE Universal Series, also originally designed by GE Transportation. One scale model for each of the DL class and the Class 45-000 were presented by CNR Dalian prior to the handover of the MRTC Class 3100 light rail vehicles. The actual locomotives to be used are yet to be determined, especially that the two designs are being utilized for narrow-gauge railroads while the PNR aims to convert its network to standard gauge. Currently, promotional material for future PNR freight services such as the SCRP uses an image of the China Railways HXN5 for reference. The locomotive is another derivative of the Evolution Series as the Class 45-000. Additionally, there is an issue of conflicting track gauges between the existing narrow-gauge stock and the proposed infrastructure that is in standard gauge. This caused delays to the North–South Commuter Railway and the PNR South Long Haul when plans for conversion to standard gauge were scrapped due to increased amount of land to be acquired for the project. As of 2017, the workaround strategy is to utilize dual gauge track where the right-of-way of the newly-proposed projects meets existing infrastructure. This would include new trainsets from Industri Kereta Api (PT INKA) which entered service between 2019 and 2020. North Long Haul. The North Long Haul project shall revive the intercity section of the North Main Line north of New Clark City station in Capas. It shall also expand into regions that were not served by railways. The line is set to be connected to the South Main Line through the NSCR, the SCRP and the North Dry Port projects. A majority of the project's main lines have been proposed since 1875, long before intercity services were opened in 1892. The Cagayan Valley Extension, predecessor to the North Long Haul East, initially had some of its right of way built in the 1950s and 1960s. However, construction was cancelled after 1966 and the equipment used was later sold. Contemporary efforts to reviving the North Main Line were first announced in 2017 during a DOTr's presentation to the South Korean Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It is expected that the system will be electrified with 1.5 kV DC electrification, being future extensions of the NSCR North and the SCRP. The upgrades shall happen once enough traffic has been reached to justify their implementation. The system consists of two lines:

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18791403

BAALC is a gene that codes for the: brain and acute leukemia cytoplasmic protein. The official symbol (BAALC) and official name (brain and acute leukemia cytoplasmic) is maintained by the HGNC. The function of BAALC is not fully understood yet but has been suggested to have synaptic roles involving the post synaptic lipid raft. Lipid rafts are microdomains that are enriched with cholesterol and sphingolipids, lipid raft functions include membrane trafficking, signal processing, and regulation of the actin cytoskeleton. The postsynaptic lipid raft possesses many proteins and is one of the major sites for signal processing and postsynaptic density (PSD). Along with its involvement in the post synaptic lipid rafts, BAALC expression has been associated with Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Acute Myeloid Leukemia. Genetics. BAALC gene is located on the long arm (q) of chromosome 8 at position 22.3 (8q22.3). The human BAALC gene contains eight exons, spans 89 613 bases of genomic DNA, and the transcript contains 180 amino acids. The BAALC gene is highly conserved in mammals, domestic pigs, mice and rats. But "BAALC" is not seen in lower organisms such as: "Drosophila. melanogaster, Saccharomyces. cerevisiae," and "Caenorhabditis. elegans". BAALC and its protein are expressed highly in neural tissues such as the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Spinal Cord, and less expressed in neuroectodermal-derived tissues like the adrenal glands. The BAALC protein is not expressed in peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL), lymph nodes, or nonneural tissues. BAALC expression has only been found in Bone Marrow (BM) when expressed from CD34+ progenitor cells, besides this BAALC expression has not been visualized. The expression of BAALC from the CD34+ progenitor cells suggest the gene has neuroectodermal and hematopoietic cell functions. BAALC expression is higher in neuroectodermal-derived tissues such as the frontal part of the brain, more specifically in the hippocampus, and neocortex. The BAALC gene has eight different transcripts that result into six different protein isoforms. Isoforms that carry the exon number two do not express protein and it is believed that the termination in exon two results in an unstable protein after translation. The isoforms 1-6-8 and 1-8 are neuroectodermal isoforms and these are highly conserved in the above-mentioned mammals. Function. The BAALC gene initially was discovered in the neuroderm of both the human and the mouse. The function of BAALC protein is not understood very well, but it is predicted to be associated with the cytoskeleton network. When expressed in Bone Marrow CD34+ progenitor cells, BAALC has neuroectodermal and hematopoietic cell functions. Differentiation failure caused by cell shape, motility and adhesion in association between cells are all possible outcomes due to the little known effects and unclear mechanism sites of the BAALC genes. The role of the BAALC gene causing leukemia in immature acute leukemic cells has been found by knocking out the function of BAALC gene using hairpin (stem loop) RNA in a human leukemia cell line KG1a. The result of knocking out BAALC expression is a decrease in uncontrolled cell growth and an increase in programmed cell death. The BAALC protein isoform 1-6-8, has been found to interact and associate with the CAMKII alpha subunit and not with the beta subunit. The interaction with the CAMKII alpha subunit is in the CAMKII protein's regulatory region and near the autophosphorylation site, this suggested a regulatory function of the 1-6-8 isoform on the alpha subunit. BAALC 1-6-8 isoform also gets targeted to post synaptic lipid rafts, which are thought to have functions involved in: signal processing, membrane trafficking, and regulation of the actin cytoskeleton. BAALC may play a role in the regulation of the CAMKII protein through interactions with the alpha subunit, no interactions have been found with the beta subunit of this protein. Evidence has shown the BAALC protein to be an intracellular protein with cytoskeleton network roles, these roles include regulation of the actin cytoskeleton which is an associated role of postsynaptic lipid rafts. Clinical significance. In studies it has been found that overexpression of BAALC is seen in 28% of people with AML and 65% of people with ALL. BAALC is ruled out as a marker for neoplasia because it is not expressed in other cancer cells. BAALC is seen in acute leukemia in immature myoblasts and early progenitor cells, but is excluded from mature hematopoietic cells. It has been found in studies that acute myeloid leukemia patients who over expressed BAALC (BAALC Positive) had a median of approximately 5 months of event free survival, but those who were BAALC negative had a median of around 15 months. Research has found when BAALC is combined with the oncogene Hoxa9, BAALC blocks myeloid differentiation. This blocking induces leukemogenesis. BAALC over-expression is associated with IDH1 and IDH2 wild type in Chinese cytogenetically normal acute myeloid leukemia patients. The results found by Zhou et al. are different than that found by Weber et al. where no difference in mutations in IDH1 and IDH2 were seen depending on expression of BAALC. IGFBP7 is another gene involved in leukemia, this was found conducting gene expression profiles (GEP) with BAALC. This gene has BAALC characteristics and, unlike BAALC, may have a role in drug resistance and the mechanism of leukemogenesis. It has been found that treatment for some acute leukemias failed due to BAALC and this suggests BAALC to be a potential surrogate marker. The use of BAALC expression in acute leukemia prognosis is unclear and being studied. The prognosis of patients with AML and BAALC over-expression has been found to be poor or worse than poor. Over-expression of the BAALC gene and considerable accumulation of the gene production has been found to have caused drug resistance in patients. Expression in Cancers. Overexpression of the BAALC gene is seen in Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) and Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL). It has been found that BAALC can cause the start of Leukemia (leukemogenesis) by stopping the differentiation of myeloid. Silencing BAALC lowers the amount of proliferation and increased cell death (apoptosis) in leukemic cell lines KG1a It has also been found with the over-expression of the BAALC genes to cause low levels of complete remission in cancer patients, and low amount of overall survival in patients. Structure. The human BAALC gene contains eight exons, spans 89 613 bases of genomic DNA, and the transcript contains 180 amino acids. This gene codes for eight different transcripts that are translated into six different protein isoforms. Isoforms containing exon number two (1-2-6-8 and 1-2-5-6-8) do not code protein and so exon two contains a termination codon. The isoforms 1-6-8 and 1-8 are neuroectodermal isoforms and these are highly conserved in mammals. BAALC protein isoform 1-6-8 is modified by myristoylation and palmitoylation at the N-terminal. These modifications occur on the Glycine 2 and Cysteine 3 amino acids of the protein. These modifications are used for targeting the protein to the lipid rafts. Little phosphorylation of the BAALC isoform 1-6-8 by the CAMK2A protein has been found as well. Interactions. CAMK2A See also. CAMK2A Acute Myeloid Leukemia Acute lymphoblastic Leukemia CD34 IGFBP7

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1806296

Pope Cyril IV of Alexandria (Abba Kyrillos IV), Coptic: Ⲡⲁⲡⲁ Ⲁⲃⲃⲁ Ⲕⲩⲣⲓⲗⲗⲟⲩ ⲇ̅ 110th Pope of Alexandria & Patriarch of the See of St. Mark. He was born David (Daoud) in 1816. Despite his relatively short papacy, he is regarded as the "Father of Reform" of the Coptic Orthodox Church in modern times. He is credited for establishing a great printing house and printing many Church books. While abbot of the Monastery of Saint Anthony, he was sent to Ethiopia at the request of Peter VII to mediate between Abouna Salama and his opponents in the Ethiopian Church, as well as "prevent the sympathies for the Catholic missionaries and their teaching from increasing further." While he was in Ethiopia, the Patriarch died. The former Ichege Gebre Mariam, who was in Cairo to press for the Ethiopian rights to the convent in Jerusalem, used this opportunity to exert pressure for his cause. As a result, the majority choice for Patriarch Peter's successor, Du'ad, was kept from taking his seat for two years. As Patriarch, Cyril returned to Ethiopia at the request of viceroy Sa'id of Egypt, the first recorded visit by the head of the Coptic church to that country. Emperor Tewodros II, whom Trimingham described as "unable to conceive how a Christian prelate could consent to act as the envoy of a Muslim prince", received Pope Cyril unfavorably December 1856. Sven Rubenson records that when the Patriarch expressed an interest in reviewing the Emperor's army, Tewodros II suspected him of being a spy, and confined him with Abouna Salama to their house; only after the Ethiopian clergy intervened, were both men released. During a flare-up of tempers between the Abouna and Emperor in November of the following year, which led to the Abouna excommunicating Emperor Tewodros II, Patriarch Cyril lifted the interdict against the wishes of Abouna Salama; the Patriarch left Ethiopia soon after.

winner selected by more than half the population

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1370440

A melee weapon, hand weapon or close combat weapon is any handheld weapon used in hand-to-hand combat, i.e. for use within the direct physical reach of the weapon itself, essentially functioning as an additional (and more impactful) extension of the user's limbs. By contrast, a ranged weapon is any other weapon capable of engaging targets at a distance beyond immediate physical contact. Etymology. The term "melee" originates in the 1640s from the French word "", which refers to disorganized hand-to-hand combat, a close-quarters battle, a brawl, or a confused fight; especially involving many combatants. The 1812 tabletop war game "Kriegsspiel" referred to the hand-combat stage of the game as a "melee". Later war games would follow this pattern. From there, gamers would eventually begin to call the weapons used in that stage "melee weapons". Categories. Melee weapons can be broadly divided into three categories : Many weapons fit into multiple categories, or fit in between them; many polearms such as halberds, lucerne hammers, and add edged and blunt methods of attack to a spear base, and various hooked weapons such as billhooks, , falxes, and evade simple classification; while flexible weapons such as whips don't fall into any of these categories.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=398045

Cannaregio () is the northernmost of the six historic "sestieri" (districts) of Venice. It is the second largest "sestiere" by land area and the largest by population, with 13,169 people . Isola di San Michele, the historic cemetery island, is associated with the district. History. The Cannaregio Canal, which was the main route into the city until the construction of a railway link to the mainland, gave the district its name (Canal Regio is Italian for Royal Canal). Development began in the eleventh century as the area was drained and parallel canals were dredged. Although elegant palazzos were built facing the Grand Canal, the area grew primarily with working class housing and manufacturing. Beginning in 1516, Jews were restricted to living in the Venetian Ghetto. It was enclosed by guarded gates and no one was allowed to leave from sunset to dawn. However, Jews held successful positions in the city such as merchants, physicians, money lenders, and other trades. Restrictions on daily Jewish life continued for more than 270 years, until Napoleon Bonaparte conquered the Venetian Republic in 1797. He removed the gates and gave all residents the freedom to live where they chose. In the 19th century, civil engineers built a street named Strada Nuova through Cannaregio, and a railway bridge and road bridge were constructed to connect Venice directly to Mestre. Today, the areas of the district along the Grand Canal from the train station to the Rialto Bridge are packed with tourists, but the rest of Cannaregio is residential and relatively peaceful, with morning markets, neighborhood shops, and small cafés. Churches. See: "List of Churches in Cannaregio"

Hebrew common routines

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1558214

Shimano Total Integration (STI) is a gearshift system designed by Shimano for racing bicycles. It combines the braking and gear shifting controls into the same component. This allows shifting gears without having to remove a hand from the bars, unlike previous down tube shifting systems. This component is usually referred to as a "shifter" or "dual-control levers", or occasionally "brifters". In late 1989, Shimano introduced their "Rapidfire" shifting for mountain bikes. This brought indexed shifting to the handlebars - something previously only available on downtube shifters or thumb shifters. This mechanism operates like a ratchet, the larger lever applying tension to the gear cable, the smaller one incrementally releasing it. The Rapidfire mechanism was subsequently adapted to be used in STI levers. In 1990, Shimano introduced their STI shifting levers for road bicycles, which completely integrated the brake lever and shifter. It also redesigned the brake "hoods" where riders commonly rest their hands. This new design worked like a normal brake lever in the longtitudinal plane, but also allowed the rider to shift to a larger cog by pushing the lever so that it pivots laterally. Behind the brake lever, there is a smaller lever that shifts to a smaller cog when pushed towards the inside. This system helped Shimano take the lead in groupset manufacturing. In 1992, the other major global producer in bicycle components, Campagnolo, collaborated with the Sachs company to produce their ErgoPower system, differing substantially in its design and operation. In 2003, Shimano introduced "dual-control levers" or STI for mountain bikes in their XTR groupset. Like the road shifters, XTR used the same lever for braking and shifting. This was met with some resistance as they limited the choice of disc brakes to only those made by Shimano. They are nicknamed, "flippity shifters" for the brake lever's ability to move in the vertical plane. STI and ErgoPower have largely displaced downtube shifting, even though some cyclists still use downtube shifters for various reasons, including less expense, less weight, more flexibility, and better reliability. A compromise is to use bar-end shifters or Barcons. This type places the shifters closer to the hand positions, but still offer a simple reliable system, especially for touring cyclist. Drawbacks to STI and ErgoPower systems include the higher weight and the higher price. There are many more parts in an STI or ErgoPower lever than in a downtube system. Since the creation of the STI shifting system the main improvements have included reducing weight and increasing cog count. Weight savings have come from using new materials such as Duralumin in Shimano's component groups and carbon fiber in Campagnolo's parts. Some cyclists, including Lance Armstrong, installed a standard STI shifter on climbing-specific bikes for the cassette and a downtube shifter for the chainrings in order to reduce weight. This is done because the chain is shifted across the cassette much more often than the chainrings. This setup might save up to of the total bike weight. Compared to the minimum legal racing weight permitted by the Union Cycliste Internationale, , 200 grams is about 3% of the total weight.

spots where you place your fingers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8212867

The Jazz–Rockets rivalry is a National Basketball Association (NBA) rivalry between the Utah Jazz and the Houston Rockets. The rivalry began in the 1990s when the Rockets, led by dominant center Hakeem Olajuwon and college teammate Clyde Drexler, and the Jazz, led by the pick-and-roll duo of Karl Malone and John Stockton, were playoff powers in the Midwest Division. The teams faced each other four times in the NBA playoffs during the decade. In all four instances, the winner was the eventual Western Conference champion and played in the NBA Finals. In 2007, the rivalry was restored as the two teams met again in the playoffs and a showdown of two of the best 1–2 combos of Tracy McGrady and Yao Ming of the Rockets and Deron Williams and Carlos Boozer of the Jazz. In 2018, the rivalry was once again restored as the two teams met in the Western Conference Semifinals, where the Rockets won the series 4–1. In 2019, the two teams met once again in the playoffs, but in the First Round, with the Rockets once again winning the series 4–1. History. Stock, The Mailman, and The Dream arrive. The major players of both squads, Olajuwon, Drexler, Malone, and Stockton, were all drafted in the mid-1980s, an era in which many other great players were drafted, mostly in the same years as each other. Hakeem Olajuwon and Clyde 'the Glide' Drexler led the University of Houston's "Phi Slama Jama" squad to three Final Four appearances. Drexler was drafted in 1983 by Portland, and traded to Houston during their championship run. Olajuwon was drafted first overall by Houston in 1984. John Stockton, on the other hand, was drafted sixteenth by Utah from Gonzaga in the same year and was relatively unknown at the time. The Jazz pulled off another draft steal when they selected Karl Malone thirteenth overall from Louisiana Tech University the next year. The first meeting in the playoffs between the Rockets and the Jazz was in the 1985 NBA Playoffs. Houston, led by its "Twin Towers" of Ralph Sampson and Olajuwon, amassed a 48–34 record in 1984–85, earning a second-place finish in the Midwest Division and the third seed in the playoffs. Utah, tied for fourth in the Midwest with San Antonio, wound up as the sixth seed, reaching the postseason for only the second time in franchise history. Utah, with Stockton, Adrian Dantley, and shot-blocking center Mark Eaton (who won the shot-blocking title and set all-time league records for total blocks (456) and blocks per game (5.6), defeated Houston and its Twin Towers in 5 games despite losing Eaton to an injured right knee. 1994 NBA Playoffs, Western Conference Finals. The teams met in their first major clash with each other in the 1994 NBA Playoffs. Olajuwon was widely considered not only the best post player in the league during an era of great centers, but ever since Michael Jordan's first retirement from the NBA, the best player in the league, winning both the NBA Most Valuable Player Award and his second consecutive NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award for the 1993–94 season. Along with Otis Thorpe, Kenny Smith, Vernon Maxwell, Robert Horry, Mario Elie, and Sam Cassell, the Rockets proved to be a force in the Western Conference. They won the Midwest Division Title with a record of 58–24. As the second seed in the Western Conference, they ousted the Clyde Drexler-led Blazers three games to one, but had trouble with Charles Barkley's Suns, who won the first two games in Houston. The Rockets won the series, four games to three. The Jazz, with their established duo of Malone (who finished fifth in the league with 25.2 points per game and topped 19,000 career points to move into 25th place on the all-time list) and Stockton (who led the league in assists for the seventh straight season with 12.6 assists per game) and the pick and roll offense, also had Jeff Hornacek (acquired in a trade with Philadelphia for Jeff Malone), veteran forward Tom Chambers, and center Felton Spencer to complement the two leaders. The team posed a challenge to the Rockets for the Midwest Division Title when it won ten straight games from late February to early March and then eight of nine games to finish the season 53–29. Utah defeated San Antonio three games to one, but received a scare from the Denver Nuggets (the eighth seed that upset first-seeded Seattle in the first round) when a 3–0 series lead for the Jazz evaporated into a 3–3 series tie. The Jazz advanced to the Western Conference Finals for the second time in three years to face Houston. The Rockets won the first two games in Houston, then the teams split two games in the Delta Center in Salt Lake City, the Jazz won the first of the two. Game 5 was held in Houston on May 31, 1994. The Rockets hit eight three-pointers in the first three quarters to build a 24-point lead, but the Jazz came back in the fourth quarter and cut the lead to eight. Robert Horry and Olajuwon made clutch shots down the stretch to win it for the Rockets, 94–83, claiming the Western Conference Title and sent the Rockets to the NBA Finals for the first time since . The Rockets won the Championship against Olajuwon's old college rival, Patrick Ewing, and the New York Knicks in a 7-game series. Knicks home court hosted the New York Rangers first Stanley Cup celebration in 54 years, the Rockets also denied New York City the distinction of having both NBA and NHL championships in the same year. 1995 NBA Playoffs, First Round. The next year, the two faced off again, this time in the first round of the 1995 NBA Playoffs. Houston struggled throughout much of the season, and finished with a record of 47–35 for the sixth seed in the West. On February 14, 1995, the Rockets traded Otis Thorpe to the Blazers for Clyde Drexler and Tracy Murray. An injury to Carl Herrera forced him to miss most of the second half of the season and the entire postseason and left the power forward position vulnerable. The addition of Drexler as a starter made former starter Vernon Maxwell frustrated enough to take a leave of absence. These issues provided fuel for critics of the Thorpe-Drexler deal. The Jazz, ended the season on a high note with a record of 60–22, then a franchise record thanks partly to a 15-game winning streak on the road in December and January, the second-longest such streak in NBA history. The starting five of Malone, Stockton, Hornacek, David Benoit, and Felton Spencer, was solid, and the bench possessed key contributors in Adam Keefe, Antoine Carr, James Donaldson, Tom Chambers, and Blue Edwards. The major setback came on January 13, when Spencer suffered a torn left Achilles tendon, which took him out for the rest of the season and the entire postseason. Spencer was not an All-Star, but he was still crucial to the Jazz's championship chances because he was a big body who could hold his own against the great centers in the Western Conference, especially against Hakeem Olajuwon. With the second best record in the Midwest Division to the San Antonio Spurs, the Jazz ended up with the third seed in the West. The Jazz barely won the first game in the Delta Center 102–100, but the Rockets beat the Jazz in Game 2 140–126 for a split in Utah. The series moved to Houston, where the Jazz won 95–82, going up in the series 2–1. The Rockets regrouped to win Game 4 123–106 to force a Game 5 at the Delta Center. In Game 4, Drexler scored 41 points while Olajuwon scored 40. Game 5 was a tightly fought contest, the Rockets defeated the Jazz 95–91, and eliminated Utah for the second straight year. The Rockets repeated as Champions, convincingly beating the Orlando Magic in the finals and are the lowest-seed to win the Championship. 1997 NBA Playoffs, Western Conference Finals. The two clubs met again in the 1997 NBA Playoffs, this time in the Western Conference Finals. For the first time in franchise history, Utah finished as the top Western Conference team with a 64-18 record (the best in franchise history) and stormed past both the Clippers and Lakers before meeting Houston. An off-season trade with Phoenix gave the Rockets Charles Barkley for Sam Cassell, Chucky Brown, Mark Bryant, and Robert Horry. Matt Maloney manned the point as the only first-year player to start in all 82 games. Other key acquisitions included veterans Kevin Willis, Sedale Threatt and Eddie Johnson to provide an already potent Rockets starting lineup a deep bench. The Rockets finished second in both the Midwest Division and the Western Conference with a 57–25 record and the third seed. The Rockets swept the Minnesota Timberwolves in the first round and then survived a seven-game series with the Seattle SuperSonics in the Western Cenference Semifinals, avenging last year's sweep. The Rockets advanced to the Western Conference Finals, where the Jazz were waiting. Utah won the first two games at home in the Delta Center, while the Rockets responded at home with wins in games 3 and 4, thanks to the heroics of Eddie Johnson, who scored 31 points off the bench in Game 3 and hit a buzzer-beating, game-winning, three-pointer in Game 4 to even the series at 2. The Jazz won Game 5 at home. Stockton scored 15 of his 25 points in the fourth quarter to help the Jazz claw back from a 12-point deficit, including his most heroic effort at the final buzzer. After tying the game in the final minute, with time for one final offensive play, Bryon Russell made the inbounds pass to Stockton, Malone set the pick, and this forced Malone's man, Barkley, to try to guard Stockton. But Barkley was too late: though he managed to get a hand in Stockton's face, Stockton buried the three-pointer. This spectacular winning play was performed off Utah's signature play: the pick and roll. Stockton's 3 gave the Jazz a 103–100 victory over Houston and sent them on their first-ever trip to the NBA Finals, where they lost to the Chicago Bulls in 6. 1998 NBA Playoffs, First Round. They met each other in the first round of the 1998 NBA Playoffs. The Jazz finished tied with the best record with Chicago at 62–20, having swept the regular-season series against the Bulls, guaranteeing home court advantage throughout the entire playoffs. However, the eighth-seeded Houston Rockets, who finished with a record of 41–41 due to numerous injuries, nearly gave the Jazz a scare when the Rockets, led by Drexler's 22 points, won the first game in the Delta Center 103–90. After the Jazz won Game 2 105–90, the Rockets won a grinding Game 3 89–85, led by a team-high 28 points and 12 rebounds from Olajuwon. The Utah Jazz were now one loss away from becoming only the second first-seeded team to lose to an eighth seed. The Rockets looked poised to win the fourth game, but Charles Barkley received an elbow to his forearm, tearing a triceps muscle and ending his season. The Jazz won the last two games of the series over the shorthanded Rockets, ending the retiring Clyde Drexler's career. Ending era and rivalry. After the retirements of Drexler, Barkley, and Olajuwon, the Rockets did not return to the playoffs until 2004, when a team of Yao Ming, Steve Francis, and Cuttino Mobley faced the Lakers (the team which Malone joined the last off-season to try and win a title). The previous year, Stockton retired, the Jazz ended its twenty-year streak of postseason appearances. In 2007, everything changed. The return of the rivalry (2007–08). The rivalry was restored in the 2007 season. Near the end of the season, the Jazz were holding the fourth-best record in the Western Conference, but skidded and allowed the Rockets to have home court advantage during the playoffs. Pressure was on Rockets star Tracy McGrady with questions regarding if he could take the Rockets to the second round for the first time in his career. The pressure showed in Game 1 as he only scored 1 point in the first half with the Rockets down 9. He came out strong in the second half though as he scored 16 points in the third quarter and finished with 23 as the Rockets took Game 1 84–75. Game 2 was a similar story as Houston won 98–90 behind McGrady's 31 points and Yao's 27 despite Carlos Boozer's career-high tying 41 points. The series shifted to Salt Lake City and the Jazz finally found their groove as they took Game 3 81–67, despite another impressive performance from Yao and T-Mac. The Jazz then tied the series with a 95–85 victory in Game 4. The series went back to Houston for Game 5. T-Mac had one of the best performances of the series as he tallied 26 points and a career-high 16 assists as they took Game 5 96–92. McGrady was one game shy of winning his first playoff series. He had to wait as the Jazz took Game 6 94–82. The series shifted back to Houston for the crucial Game 7. Up to this point, the home team had won every game of the series. This would not hold up as the Jazz emerged victorious, 103–99. Yao and McGrady each had 29, but it was not enough to overcome Boozer's 35 as the Jazz came back from an 0–2 deficit for the first time in franchise history. The Jazz went on to the Conference Finals, but succumbed to the champion Spurs in five games. In 2008, the two teams faced each other again in the first round as the Jazz were the 4-seed and the Rockets were the 5-seed. The Rockets have homecourt advantage against the Jazz but they were playing without Yao Ming who suffered a stress fracture injury just months before the Playoffs. The Jazz took the first two games in Houston, and looked poised to sweep the Rockets at home, but the Rockets responded in Game 3, where in the final seconds Carl Landry blocked Deron Williams' shot that could have won the game for the Jazz. After the Game 3 loss, the Jazz responded in Game 4 and took a 3–1 lead. In Game 5 the Rockets outplayed the Jazz, but in Game 6, despite a 41-point performance by Tracy McGrady, the Rockets couldn't overcome injuries to starting point guard Rafer Alston as well as Yao and McGrady was unable to get out of the first-round again, falling for the second year in a row in the first round to the Utah Jazz. He would not play a game in the second round until 2013 despite the Rockets advancing in 2009, which McGrady missed due to a season-ending injury. 2018 and 2019 playoffs. Both the Jazz and the Rockets underwent a rebuilding process at the start of the 2010s. Carlos Boozer departed as a free agent, long-time Jazz coach Jerry Sloan resigned early in the 2010–11 season, and Deron Williams was traded away shortly afterwards. Meanwhile, Yao Ming's foot injuries led to his retirement after that season, while Tracy McGrady was traded away the season before. Under head coach Quin Snyder and new additions Rudy Gobert and Donovan Mitchell, the Jazz returned to relevance by the end of the decade. The Rockets also returned to prominence behind James Harden, becoming a regular playoff participant since Harden's arrival in . Both teams met in the and playoffs. In the 2018 playoffs, Houston entered as the top seed while Utah made it as the fifth seed after eliminating the Oklahoma City Thunder in the first round. In the 2019 playoffs, Houston and Utah faced each other in the first round as the fourth and fifth seed. In both occasions, the Rockets eliminated the Jazz in five games, but were then ousted by the Golden State Warriors in the next round. NBA Playoffs. 1985 Western Conference First Round. Utah Jazz win series 3–2. 1994 Western Conference Finals. Houston Rockets win series 4–1. 1995 Western Conference First Round. Houston Rockets win series 3–2. 1997 Western Conference Finals. Utah Jazz win series 4–2. 1998 Western Conference First Round. Utah Jazz win series 3–2. 2007 Western Conference First Round. Utah Jazz win series 4–3. 2008 Western Conference First Round. Utah Jazz win series 4–2. 2018 Western Conference Semifinals. Houston Rockets win series 4–1. 2019 Western Conference First Round. Houston Rockets Win series 4–1

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5146476

The mechanisms of reproductive isolation are a collection of evolutionary mechanisms, behaviors and physiological processes critical for speciation. They prevent members of different species from producing offspring, or ensure that any offspring are sterile. These barriers maintain the integrity of a species by reducing gene flow between related species. The mechanisms of reproductive isolation have been classified in a number of ways. Zoologist Ernst Mayr classified the mechanisms of reproductive isolation in two broad categories: pre-zygotic for those that act before fertilization (or before mating in the case of animals) and post-zygotic for those that act after it. The mechanisms are genetically controlled and can appear in species whose geographic distributions overlap (sympatric speciation) or are separate (allopatric speciation). Pre-zygotic isolation. Pre-zygotic isolation mechanisms are the most economic in terms of the natural selection of a population, as resources are not wasted on the production of a descendant that is weak, non-viable or sterile. These mechanisms include physiological or systemic barriers to fertilization. Temporal or habitat isolation. Any of the factors that prevent potentially fertile individuals from meeting will reproductively isolate the members of distinct species. The types of barriers that can cause this isolation include: different habitats, physical barriers, and a difference in the time of sexual maturity or flowering. An example of the ecological or habitat differences that impede the meeting of potential pairs occurs in two fish species of the family "Gasterosteidae" (sticklebacks). One species lives all year round in fresh water, mainly in small streams. The other species lives in the sea during winter, but in spring and summer individuals migrate to river estuaries to reproduce. The members of the two populations are reproductively isolated due to their adaptations to distinct salt concentrations. An example of reproductive isolation due to differences in the mating season are found in the toad species "Bufo americanus" and "Bufo fowleri". The members of these species can be successfully crossed in the laboratory producing healthy, fertile hybrids. However, mating does not occur in the wild even though the geographical distribution of the two species overlaps. The reason for the absence of inter-species mating is that "B. americanus" mates in early summer and "B. fowleri" in late summer. Certain plant species, such as "Tradescantia canaliculata" and "T. subaspera", are sympatric throughout their geographic distribution, yet they are reproductively isolated as they flower at different times of the year. In addition, one species grows in sunny areas and the other in deeply shaded areas. Behavioral isolation. The different mating rituals of animal species creates extremely powerful reproductive barriers, termed sexual or behavior isolation, that isolate apparently similar species in the majority of the groups of the animal kingdom. In dioecious species, males and females have to search for a partner, be in proximity to each other, carry out the complex mating rituals and finally copulate or release their gametes into the environment in order to breed. Mating dances, the songs of males to attract females or the mutual grooming of pairs, are all examples of typical courtship behavior that allows both recognition and reproductive isolation. This is because each of the stages of courtship depend on the behavior of the partner. The male will only move onto the second stage of the exhibition if the female shows certain responses in her behavior. He will only pass onto the third stage when she displays a second key behavior. The behaviors of both interlink, are synchronized in time and lead finally to copulation or the liberation of gametes into the environment. No animal that is not physiologically suitable for fertilization can complete this demanding chain of behavior. In fact, the smallest difference in the courting patterns of two species is enough to prevent mating (for example, a specific song pattern acts as an isolation mechanism in distinct species of grasshopper of the genus "Chorthippus"). Even where there are minimal morphological differences between species, differences in behavior can be enough to prevent mating. For example, "Drosophila melanogaster" and "D. simulans" which are considered twin species due to their morphological similarity, do not mate even if they are kept together in a laboratory. "Drosophila ananassae" and "D. pallidosa" are twin species from Melanesia. In the wild they rarely produce hybrids, although in the laboratory it is possible to produce fertile offspring. Studies of their sexual behavior show that the males court the females of both species but the females show a marked preference for mating with males of their own species. A different regulator region has been found on Chromosome II of both species that affects the selection behavior of the females. Pheromones play an important role in the sexual isolation of insect species. These compounds serve to identify individuals of the same species and of the same or different sex. Evaporated molecules of volatile pheromones can serve as a wide-reaching chemical signal. In other cases, pheromones may be detected only at a short distance or by contact. In species of the "melanogaster" group of "Drosophila", the pheromones of the females are mixtures of different compounds, there is a clear dimorphism in the type and/or quantity of compounds present for each sex. In addition, there are differences in the quantity and quality of constituent compounds between related species, it is assumed that the pheromones serve to distinguish between individuals of each species. An example of the role of pheromones in sexual isolation is found in 'corn borers' in the genus "Ostrinia". There are two twin species in Europe that occasionally cross. The females of both species produce pheromones that contain a volatile compound which has two isomers, E and Z; 99% of the compound produced by the females of one species is in the E isomer form, while the females of the other produce 99% isomer Z. The production of the compound is controlled by just one locus and the interspecific hybrid produces an equal mix of the two isomers. The males, for their part, almost exclusively detect the isomer emitted by the females of their species, such that the hybridization although possible is scarce. The perception of the males is controlled by one gene, distinct from the one for the production of isomers, the heterozygous males show a moderate response to the odour of either type. In this case, just 2 'loci' produce the effect of ethological isolation between species that are genetically very similar. Sexual isolation between two species can be asymmetrical. This can happen when the mating that produces descendants only allows one of the two species to function as the female progenitor and the other as the male, while the reciprocal cross does not occur. For instance, half of the wolves tested in the Great Lakes area of America show mitochondrial DNA sequences of coyotes, while mitochondrial DNA from wolves is never found in coyote populations. This probably reflects an asymmetry in inter-species mating due to the difference in size of the two species as male wolves take advantage of their greater size in order to mate with female coyotes, while female wolves and male coyotes do not mate. Mechanical isolation. Mating pairs may not be able to couple successfully if their genitals are not compatible. The relationship between the reproductive isolation of species and the form of their genital organs was signaled for the first time in 1844 by the French entomologist Léon Dufour. Insects' rigid carapaces act in a manner analogous to a lock and key, as they will only allow mating between individuals with complementary structures, that is, males and females of the same species (termed "co-specifics"). Evolution has led to the development of genital organs with increasingly complex and divergent characteristics, which will cause mechanical isolation between species. Certain characteristics of the genital organs will often have converted them into mechanisms of isolation. However, numerous studies show that organs that are anatomically very different can be functionally compatible, indicating that other factors also determine the form of these complicated structures. Mechanical isolation also occurs in plants and this is related to the adaptation and coevolution of each species in the attraction of a certain type of pollinator (where pollination is zoophilic) through a collection of morphophysiological characteristics of the flowers (called floral syndromes), in such a way that the transport of pollen to other species does not occur. Gametic isolation. The synchronous spawning of many species of coral in marine reefs means that inter-species hybridization can take place as the gametes of hundreds of individuals of tens of species are liberated into the same water at the same time. Approximately a third of all the possible crosses between species are compatible, in the sense that the gametes will fuse and lead to individual hybrids. This hybridization apparently plays a fundamental role in the evolution of coral species. However, the other two-thirds of possible crosses are incompatible. It has been observed that in sea urchins of the genus "Strongylocentrotus" the concentration of spermatocytes that allow 100% fertilization of the ovules of the same species is only able to fertilize 1.5% of the ovules of other species. This inability to produce hybrid offspring, despite the fact that the gametes are found at the same time and in the same place, is due to a phenomenon known as "gamete incompatibility", which is often found between marine invertebrates, and whose physiological causes are not fully understood. In some "Drosophila" crosses, the swelling of the female's vagina has been noted following insemination. This has the effect of consequently preventing the fertilization of the ovule by sperm of a different species. In plants the pollen grains of a species can germinate in the stigma and grow in the style of other species. However, the growth of the pollen tubes may be detained at some point between the stigma and the ovules, in such a way that fertilization does not take place. This mechanism of reproductive isolation is common in the angiosperms and is called "cross-incompatibility" or "incongruence". A relationship exists between self-incompatibility and the phenomenon of cross-incompatibility. In general crosses between individuals of a self-compatible species (SC) with individuals of a self-incompatible (SI) species give hybrid offspring. On the other hand, a reciprocal cross (SI x SC) will not produce offspring, because the pollen tubes will not reach the ovules. This is known as "unilateral incompatibility", which also occurs when two SC or two SI species are crossed. Post-zygotic isolation. A number of mechanisms which act after fertilization preventing successful inter-population crossing are discussed below. Zygote mortality and non-viability of hybrids. A type of incompatibility that is found as often in plants as in animals occurs when the egg or ovule is fertilized but the zygote does not develop, or it develops and the resulting individual has a reduced viability. This is the case for crosses between species of the frog genus, where widely differing results are observed depending upon the species involved. In some crosses there is no segmentation of the zygote (or it may be that the hybrid is extremely non-viable and changes occur from the first mitosis). In others, normal segmentation occurs in the blastula but gastrulation fails. Finally, in other crosses, the initial stages are normal but errors occur in the final phases of embryo development. This indicates differentiation of the embryo development genes (or gene complexes) in these species and these differences determine the non-viability of the hybrids. Similar results are observed in mosquitoes of the genus "Culex", but the differences are seen between reciprocal crosses, from which it is concluded that the same effect occurs in the interaction between the genes of the cell nucleus (inherited from both parents) as occurs in the genes of the cytoplasmic organelles which are inherited solely from the female progenitor through the cytoplasm of the ovule. In Angiosperms, the successful development of the embryo depends on the normal functioning of its endosperm. The failure of endosperm development and its subsequent abortion has been observed in many interploidal crosses (that is, those between populations with a particular degree of intra or interspecific ploidy), and in certain crosses in species with the same level of ploidy. The collapse of the endosperm, and the subsequent abortion of the hybrid embryo is one of the most common post-fertilization reproductive isolation mechanism found in angiosperms. Hybrid sterility. A hybrid may have normal viability but is typically deficient in terms of reproduction or is sterile. This is demonstrated by the mule and in many other well known hybrids. In all of these cases sterility is due to the interaction between the genes of the two species involved; to chromosomal imbalances due to the different number of chromosomes in the parent species; or to nucleus-cytoplasmic interactions such as in the case of "Culex" described above. Hinnies and mules are hybrids resulting from a cross between a horse and a donkey or between a mare and a donkey, respectively. These animals are nearly always sterile due to the difference in the number of chromosomes between the two parent species. Both horses and donkeys belong to the genus "Equus", but "Equus caballus" has 64 chromosomes, while "Equus asinus" only has 62. A cross will produce offspring (mule or hinny) with 63 chromosomes, that will not form pairs, which means that they do not divide in a balanced manner during meiosis. In the wild, the horses and donkeys ignore each other and do not cross. In order to obtain mules or hinnies it is necessary to train the progenitors to accept copulation between the species or create them through artificial insemination. The sterility of many interspecific hybrids in angiosperms has been widely recognised and studied. Interspecific sterility of hybrids in plants has multiple possible causes. These may be genetic, related to the genomes, or the interaction between nuclear and cytoplasmic factors, as will be discussed in the corresponding section. Nevertheless, it is important to note that in plants, hybridization is a stimulus for the creation of new species – the contrary to the situation in animals. Although the hybrid may be sterile, it can continue to multiply in the wild by asexual reproduction, whether vegetative propagation or apomixis or the production of seeds. Indeed, interspecific hybridization can be associated with polyploidia and, in this way, the origin of new species that are called allopolyploids. "Rosa canina", for example, is the result of multiple hybridizations. or there is a type of wheat that is an allohexaploid that contains the genomes of three different species. Multiple mechanisms. In general, the barriers that separate species do not consist of just one mechanism. The twin species of "Drosophila", "D. pseudoobscura" and "D. persimilis", are isolated from each other by habitat ("persimilis" generally lives in colder regions at higher altitudes), by the timing of the mating season ("persimilis" is generally more active in the morning and "pseuoobscura" at night) and by behavior during mating (the females of both species prefer the males of their respective species). In this way, although the distribution of these species overlaps in wide areas of the west of the United States of America, these isolation mechanisms are sufficient to keep the species separated. Such that, only a few fertile females have been found amongst the other species among the thousands that have been analyzed. However, when hybrids are produced between both species, the gene flow between the two will continue to be impeded as the hybrid males are sterile. Also, and in contrast with the great vigor shown by the sterile males, the descendants of the backcrosses of the hybrid females with the parent species are weak and notoriously non-viable. This last mechanism restricts even more the genetic interchange between the two species of fly in the wild. Hybrid sex: Haldane's rule. Haldane's rule states that when one of the two sexes is absent in interspecific hybrids between two specific species, then the sex that is not produced, is rare or is sterile is the heterozygous (or heterogametic) sex. In mammals, at least, there is growing evidence to suggest that this is due to high rates of mutation of the genes determining masculinity in the Y chromosome. It has been suggested that Haldane's rule simply reflects the fact that the male sex is more sensitive than the female when the sex-determining genes are included in a hybrid genome. But there are also organisms in which the heterozygous sex is the female: birds and butterflies and the law is followed in these organisms. Therefore, it is not a problem related to sexual development, nor with the sex chromosomes. Haldane proposed that the stability of hybrid individual development requires the full gene complement of each parent species, so that the hybrid of the heterozygous sex is unbalanced (i.e. missing at least one chromosome from each of the parental species). For example, the hybrid male obtained by crossing "D. melanogaster" females with " D. simulans" males, which is non-viable, lacks the X chromosome of " D. simulans". Genetics. Pre-copulatory mechanisms in animals. The genetics of ethological isolation barriers will be discussed first. Pre-copulatory isolation occurs when the genes necessary for the sexual reproduction of one species differ from the equivalent genes of another species, such that if a male of species A and a female of species B are placed together they are unable to copulate. Study of the genetics involved in this reproductive barrier tries to identify the genes that govern distinct sexual behaviors in the two species. The males of "Drosophila melanogaster" and those of "D. simulans" conduct an elaborate courtship with their respective females, which are different for each species, but the differences between the species are more quantitative than qualitative. In fact the "simulans" males are able to hybridize with the "melanogaster" females. Although there are lines of the latter species that can easily cross there are others that are hardly able to. Using this difference, it is possible to assess the minimum number of genes involved in pre-copulatory isolation between the "melanogaster" and "simulans" species and their chromosomal location. In experiments, flies of the "D. melanogaster" line, which hybridizes readily with "simulans", were crossed with another line that it does not hybridize with, or rarely. The females of the segregated populations obtained by this cross were placed next to "simulans" males and the percentage of hybridization was recorded, which is a measure of the degree of reproductive isolation. It was concluded from this experiment that 3 of the 8 chromosomes of the haploid complement of "D. melanogaster " carry at least one gene that affects isolation, such that substituting one chromosome from a line of low isolation with another of high isolation reduces the hybridization frequency. In addition, interactions between chromosomes are detected so that certain combinations of the chromosomes have a multiplying effect. Cross incompatibility or incongruence in plants is also determined by major genes that are not associated at the self-incompatibility "S locus". Post-copulation or fertilization mechanisms in animals. Reproductive isolation between species appears, in certain cases, a long time after fertilization and the formation of the zygote, as happens – for example – in the twin species "Drosophila pavani" and "D. gaucha". The hybrids between both species are not sterile, in the sense that they produce viable gametes, ovules and spermatozoa. However, they cannot produce offspring as the sperm of the hybrid male do not survive in the semen receptors of the females, be they hybrids or from the parent lines. In the same way, the sperm of the males of the two parent species do not survive in the reproductive tract of the hybrid female. This type of post-copulatory isolation appears as the most efficient system for maintaining reproductive isolation in many species. The development of a zygote into an adult is a complex and delicate process of interactions between genes and the environment that must be carried out precisely, and if there is any alteration in the usual process, caused by the absence of a necessary gene or the presence of a different one, it can arrest the normal development causing the non-viability of the hybrid or its sterility. It should be borne in mind that half of the chromosomes and genes of a hybrid are from one species and the other half come from the other. If the two species are genetically different, there is little possibility that the genes from both will act harmoniously in the hybrid. From this perspective, only a few genes would be required in order to bring about post copulatory isolation, as opposed to the situation described previously for pre-copulatory isolation. In many species where pre-copulatory reproductive isolation does not exist, hybrids are produced but they are of only one sex. This is the case for the hybridization between females of "Drosophila simulans" and "Drosophila melanogaster" males: the hybridized females die early in their development so that only males are seen among the offspring. However, populations of "D. simulans" have been recorded with genes that permit the development of adult hybrid females, that is, the viability of the females is "rescued". It is assumed that the normal activity of these speciation genes is to "inhibit" the expression of the genes that allow the growth of the hybrid. There will also be regulator genes. A number of these genes have been found in the "melanogaster" species group. The first to be discovered was "Lhr" (Lethal hybrid rescue) located in Chromosome II of "D. simulans". This dominant allele allows the development of hybrid females from the cross between "simulans" females and "melanogaster" males. A different gene, also located on Chromosome II of "D. simulans" is "Shfr" that also allows the development of female hybrids, its activity being dependent on the temperature at which development occurs. Other similar genes have been located in distinct populations of species of this group. In short, only a few genes are needed for an effective post copulatory isolation barrier mediated through the non-viability of the hybrids. As important as identifying an isolation gene is knowing its function. The "Hmr" gene, linked to the X chromosome and implicated in the viability of male hybrids between "D. melanogaster" and "D. simulans", is a gene from the proto-oncogene family "myb", that codes for a transcriptional regulator. Two variants of this gene function perfectly well in each separate species, but in the hybrid they do not function correctly, possibly due to the different genetic background of each species. Examination of the allele sequence of the two species shows that change of direction substitutions are more abundant than synonymous substitutions, suggesting that this gene has been subject to intense natural selection. The Dobzhansky–Muller model proposes that reproductive incompatibilities between species are caused by the interaction of the genes of the respective species. It has been demonstrated recently that "Lhr" has functionally diverged in "D. simulans" and will interact with "Hmr" which, in turn, has functionally diverged in "D. melanogaster" to cause the lethality of the male hybrids. "Lhr" is located in a heterochromatic region of the genome and its sequence has diverged between these two species in a manner consistent with the mechanisms of positive selection. An important unanswered question is whether the genes detected correspond to old genes that initiated the speciation favoring hybrid non-viability, or are modern genes that have appeared post-speciation by mutation, that are not shared by the different populations and that suppress the effect of the primitive non-viability genes. The "OdsH" (abbreviation of "Odysseus") gene causes partial sterility in the hybrid between "Drosophila simulans" and a related species, "D. mauritiana", which is only encountered on Mauritius, and is of recent origin. This gene shows monophyly in both species and also has been subject to natural selection. It is thought that it is a gene that intervenes in the initial stages of speciation, while other genes that differentiate the two species show polyphyly. "Odsh" originated by duplication in the genome of "Drosophila" and has evolved at very high rates in "D. mauritania", while its paralogue, "unc-4", is nearly identical between the species of the group "melanogaster". Seemingly, all these cases illustrate the manner in which speciation mechanisms originated in nature, therefore they are collectively known as "speciation genes", or possibly, gene sequences with a normal function within the populations of a species that diverge rapidly in response to positive selection thereby forming reproductive isolation barriers with other species. In general, all these genes have functions in the transcriptional regulation of other genes. The "Nup96" gene is another example of the evolution of the genes implicated in post-copulatory isolation. It regulates the production of one of the approximately 30 proteins required to form a nuclear pore. In each of the "simulans" groups of "Drosophila" the protein from this gene interacts with the protein from another, as yet undiscovered, gene on the X chromosome in order to form a functioning pore. However, in a hybrid the pore that is formed is defective and causes sterility. The differences in the sequences of "Nup96" have been subject to adaptive selection, similar to the other examples of "speciation genes" described above. Post-copulatory isolation can also arise between chromosomally differentiated populations due to chromosomal translocations and inversions. If, for example, a reciprocal translocation is fixed in a population, the hybrid produced between this population and one that does not carry the translocation will not have a complete meiosis. This will result in the production of unequal gametes containing unequal numbers of chromosomes with a reduced fertility. In certain cases, complete translocations exist that involve more than two chromosomes, so that the meiosis of the hybrids is irregular and their fertility is zero or nearly zero. Inversions can also give rise to abnormal gametes in heterozygous individuals but this effect has little importance compared to translocations. An example of chromosomal changes causing sterility in hybrids comes from the study of "Drosophila nasuta" and "D. albomicans" which are twin species from the Indo-Pacific region. There is no sexual isolation between them and the F1 hybrid is fertile. However, the F2 hybrids are relatively infertile and leave few descendants which have a skewed ratio of the sexes. The reason is that the X chromosome of "albomicans" is translocated and linked to an autosome which causes abnormal meiosis in hybrids. Robertsonian translocations are variations in the numbers of chromosomes that arise from either: the fusion of two acrocentric chromosomes into a single chromosome with two arms, causing a reduction in the haploid number, or conversely; or the fission of one chromosome into two acrocentric chromosomes, in this case increasing the haploid number. The hybrids of two populations with differing numbers of chromosomes can experience a certain loss of fertility, and therefore a poor adaptation, because of irregular meiosis. In plants. A large variety of mechanisms have been demonstrated to reinforce reproductive isolation between closely related plant species that either historically lived or currently live in sympatry. This phenomenon is driven by strong selection against hybrids, typically resulting from instances in which hybrids suffer reduced fitness. Such negative fitness consequences have been proposed to be the result of negative epistasis in hybrid genomes and can also result from the effects of hybrid sterility. In such cases, selection gives rise to population-specific isolating mechanisms to prevent either fertilization by interspecific gametes or the development of hybrid embryos. Because many sexually reproducing species of plants are exposed to a variety of interspecific gametes, natural selection has given rise to a variety of mechanisms to prevent the production of hybrids. These mechanisms can act at different stages in the developmental process and are typically divided into two categories, pre-fertilization and post-fertilization, indicating at which point the barrier acts to prevent either zygote formation or development. In the case of angiosperms and other pollinated species, pre-fertilization mechanisms can be further subdivided into two more categories, pre-pollination and post-pollination, the difference between the two being whether or not a pollen tube is formed. (Typically when pollen encounters a receptive stigma, a series of changes occur which ultimately lead to the growth of a pollen tube down the style, allowing for the formation of the zygote.) Empirical investigation has demonstrated that these barriers act at many different developmental stages and species can have none, one, or many barriers to hybridization with interspecifics. Examples of pre-fertilization mechanisms. A well-documented example of a pre-fertilization isolating mechanism comes from study of Louisiana iris species. These iris species were fertilized with interspecific and conspecific pollen loads and it was demonstrated by measure of hybrid progeny success that differences in pollen-tube growth between interspecific and conspecific pollen led to a lower fertilization rate by interspecific pollen. This demonstrates how a specific point in the reproductive process is manipulated by a particular isolating mechanism to prevent hybrids. Another well-documented example of a pre-fertilization isolating mechanism in plants comes from study of the 2 wind-pollinated birch species. Study of these species led to the discovery that mixed conspecific and interspecific pollen loads still result in 98% conspecific fertilization rates, highlighting the effectiveness of such barriers. In this example, pollen tube incompatibility and slower generative mitosis have been implicated in the post-pollination isolation mechanism. Examples of post-fertilization mechanisms. Crosses between diploid and tetraploid species of Paspalum provide evidence of a post-fertilization mechanism preventing hybrid formation when pollen from tetraploid species was used to fertilize a female of a diploid species. There were signs of fertilization and even endosperm formation but subsequently this endosperm collapsed. This demonstrates evidence of an early post-fertilization isolating mechanism, in which the hybrid early embryo is detected and selectively aborted. This process can also occur later during development in which developed, hybrid seeds are selectively aborted. Effects of hybrid necrosis. Plant hybrids often suffer from an autoimmune syndrome known as hybrid necrosis. In the hybrids, specific gene products contributed by one of the parents may be inappropriately recognized as foreign and pathogenic, and thus trigger pervasive cell death throughout the plant. In at least one case, a pathogen receptor, encoded by the most variable gene family in plants, was identified as being responsible for hybrid necrosis. Chromosomal rearrangements in yeast. In brewers' yeast "Saccharomyces cerevisiae", chromosomal rearrangements are a major mechanism to reproductively isolate different strains. Hou et al. showed that reproductive isolation acts postzygotically and could be attributed to chromosomal rearrangements. These authors crossed 60 natural isolates sampled from diverse niches with the reference strain S288c and identified 16 cases of reproductive isolation with reduced offspring viabilities, and identified reciprocal chromosomal translocations in a large fraction of isolates. Incompatibility caused by microorganisms. In addition to the genetic causes of reproductive isolation between species there is another factor that can cause post zygotic isolation: the presence of microorganisms in the cytoplasm of certain species. The presence of these organisms in a species and their absence in another causes the non-viability of the corresponding hybrid. For example, in the semi-species of the group "D. paulistorum" the hybrid females are fertile but the males are sterile, this is due to the presence of a "Wolbachia" in the cytoplasm which alters spermatogenesis leading to sterility. It is interesting that incompatibility or isolation can also arise at an intraspecific level. Populations of "D. simulans" have been studied that show hybrid sterility according to the direction of the cross. The factor determining sterility has been found to be the presence or absence of a microorganism "Wolbachia" and the populations tolerance or susceptibility to these organisms. This inter population incompatibility can be eliminated in the laboratory through the administration of a specific antibiotic to kill the microorganism. Similar situations are known in a number of insects, as around 15% of species show infections caused by this symbiont. It has been suggested that, in some cases, the speciation process has taken place because of the incompatibility caused by this bacteria. Two wasp species "Nasonia giraulti" and "N. longicornis" carry two different strains of "Wolbachia". Crosses between an infected population and one free from infection produces a nearly total reproductive isolation between the semi-species. However, if both species are free from the bacteria or both are treated with antibiotics there is no reproductive barrier. "Wolbachia" also induces incompatibility due to the weakness of the hybrids in populations of spider mites ("Tetranychus urticae"), between "Drosophila recens" and "D. subquinaria" and between species of "Diabrotica" (beetle) and "Gryllus" (cricket). Selection. In 1950 K. F. Koopman reported results from experiments designed to examine the hypothesis that selection can increase reproductive isolation between populations. He used "D. pseudoobscura" and "D. persimilis" in these experiments. When the flies of these species are kept at 16 °C approximately a third of the matings are interspecific. In the experiment equal numbers of males and females of both species were placed in containers suitable for their survival and reproduction. The progeny of each generation were examined in order to determine if there were any interspecific hybrids. These hybrids were then eliminated. An equal number of males and females of the resulting progeny were then chosen to act as progenitors of the next generation. As the hybrids were destroyed in each generation the flies that solely mated with members of their own species produced more surviving descendants than the flies that mated solely with individuals of the other species. In the adjacent table it can be seen that for each generation the number of hybrids continuously decreased up to the tenth generation when hardly any interspecific hybrids were produced. It is evident that selection against the hybrids was very effective in increasing reproductive isolation between these species. From the third generation, the proportions of the hybrids were less than 5%. This confirmed that selection acts to reinforce the reproductive isolation of two genetically divergent populations if the hybrids formed by these species are less well adapted than their parents. These discoveries allowed certain assumptions to be made regarding the origin of reproductive isolation mechanisms in nature. Namely, if selection reinforces the degree of reproductive isolation that exists between two species due to the poor adaptive value of the hybrids, it is expected that the populations of two species located in the same area will show a greater reproductive isolation than populations that are geographically separated (see reinforcement). This mechanism for "reinforcing" hybridization barriers in sympatric populations is also known as the "Wallace effect", as it was first proposed by Alfred Russel Wallace at the end of the 19th century, and it has been experimentally demonstrated in both plants and animals. The sexual isolation between "Drosophila miranda" and "D. pseudoobscura", for example, is more or less pronounced according to the geographic origin of the flies being studied. Flies from regions where the distribution of the species is superimposed show a greater sexual isolation than exists between populations originating in distant regions. On the other hand, interspecific hybridization barriers can also arise as a result of the adaptive divergence that accompanies allopatric speciation. This mechanism has been experimentally proved by an experiment carried out by Diane Dodd on "D. pseudoobscura". A single population of flies was divided into two, with one of the populations fed with starch-based food and the other with maltose-based food. This meant that each sub population was adapted to each food type over a number of generations. After the populations had diverged over many generations, the groups were again mixed; it was observed that the flies would mate only with others from their adapted population. This indicates that the mechanisms of reproductive isolation can arise even though the interspecific hybrids are not selected against. Notes. a. The DNA of the mitochondria and chloroplasts is inherited from the maternal line, i.e. all the progeny derived from a particular cross possess the same cytoplasm (and genetic factors located in it) as the female progenitor. This is because the zygote possesses the same cytoplasm as the ovule, although its nucleus comes equally from the father and the mother.

almost 33 percent

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17915931

Caning is used as a form of corporal punishment in Malaysia. It can be divided into at least four contexts: judicial/prison, school, domestic, and sharia/syariah. Of these, the first is largely a legacy of British colonial rule in the territories that are now part of Malaysia, particularly Malaya. Similar forms of corporal punishment are also used in some other former British colonies, including two of Malaysia's neighbouring countries, Singapore and Brunei. Judicial caning, the most severe of the four forms of corporal punishment in Malaysia, can be ordered as part of a criminal sentence imposed by civil courts on male convicts. Always ordered "in addition to" a prison sentence for adult offenders, it is inflicted with a long and thick rattan cane on the prisoner's bare buttocks in an enclosed area in the prison. Convicts who were not sentenced to caning earlier in a court of law may also be punished by caning in the same way if they commit aggravated offences while serving time in prison. In schools, students may be caned with a light rattan cane on the buttocks over clothing or the palm of the hand for serious misconduct. Although legally only boys can be caned, the caning of girls is common in Malaysia. In the domestic setting, it is legally and culturally acceptable for parents to punish their children with a light rattan cane for misbehaviour. Sharia courts can sentence Muslim men and women (including Muslim foreigners) to caning for committing certain offences. This form of caning is much less severe compared to judicial caning and it is designed to humiliate the offender rather than to inflict physical pain. Malaysia has been criticised by human rights groups for its use of judicial caning, which Amnesty International claims "subjects thousands of people each year to systematic torture and ill-treatment, leaving them with permanent physical and psychological scars". Judicial caning. History. Caning, as a form of legally sanctioned corporal punishment for convicted criminals, was first introduced to Malaya (present-day peninsular Malaysia and Singapore) by the British Empire in the 19th century. It was formally codified under the "Straits Settlements Penal Code Ordinance IV" in 1871. In that era, offences punishable by caning were similar to those punishable by birching or flogging (with the cat o' nine tails) in England and Wales. They included robbery, aggravated forms of theft, burglary, assault with the intention of sexual abuse, a second or subsequent conviction of rape, a second or subsequent offence relating to prostitution, and living on or trading in prostitution. The practice of judicial caning was retained as a form of legal penalty after the Federation of Malaya declared independence from Britain in 1957. It is largely a legacy of British colonial rule and has nothing to do with "Islamic justice" even though the majority of the Malaysian population are Muslims. Legal basis. Sections 286–291 of the Criminal Procedure Code lay down the procedures governing caning, which is referred to as "whipping" in the Code in accordance with traditional British legislative terminology. The procedures include the following: Boys aged between 10 and 18 may be sentenced to a maximum of 10 strokes with a light rattan cane. The following groups of people shall not be caned: Offences punishable by caning. Malaysian criminal law prescribes caning for a wide range of offences, always "in addition to" a prison term and never as a punishment by itself except for juvenile offenders in some cases. Caning is usually a routine punishment for serious offences, notably those involving rape, violence or drug trafficking, but also for lesser offences such as illegal immigration, bribery, and criminal breach of trust. Every year, thousands of illegal immigrants (mostly from Indonesia) are briefly incarcerated, punished with one or two strokes of the cane, and then deported. Unlike in Singapore, foreigners who overstay their visa in Malaysia are not sentenced to caning. In November 2003, illegal moneylending was added to the list of offences punishable by caning. Malaysians have called for caning to be imposed as a punishment for illegal bike racing, snatch theft, traffic offences, deserting one's wife, perpetrating get-rich-quick schemes, and vandalism (cf. Singapore's Vandalism Act). However, these offences still remain outside the list of offences punishable by caning. Statistics. Although the Malaysian government does not release overall figures of the number of offenders sentenced to caning every year, in 2010 Amnesty International used statistical sampling to estimate that as many as 10,000 prisoners were caned in a year. In 2004, the Malaysian Deputy Home Affairs Minister stated that 18,607 undocumented migrants were caned in the first 16 months since caning for immigration offences started in August 2002. In 2009, the Malaysian parliament revealed 34,923 foreigners were caned between 2002 and 2008. Over 60 percent of them were Indonesians, 14 percent were Burmese, and 14 percent were Filipinos. Caning officers. The criteria for the selection of caning officers are very stringent, with maybe only two out of every 30 applicants being chosen. Those selected undergo special training. They are trained to swing the cane at a speed of at least and produce a force upon impact of at least . In 2005, they were paid 10 ringgit for each stroke as compared to three ringgit previously. The cane. Two types of rattan canes are used for judicial caning: The thicker cane is about long and thick. Administration procedure. For adult offenders. The punishment cannot be carried out until after seven days from the date when the offender was sentenced to caning. If the offender made an appeal to an appellate court, the sentence must be confirmed by the court before it can be carried out. The punishment cannot be carried out within 24 hours of the sentence being passed except by special order in case of emergency. The offender is not told in advance when he will be caned; he is notified only on the day his sentence is to be carried out or, in some instances, one day before. The uncertainty often puts offenders through much fear and psychological suffering. On the day, a medical officer inspects him and determines whether he is in a fit state of health to undergo the punishment. If the medical officer certifies that the offender is not in a fit state of health to be caned, the offender will be sent back to the court for the caning sentence to be remitted or converted to a prison term of up to 24 months, in addition to the original prison term he was sentenced to. If the medical officer certifies the offender fit, the offender is then confined in a holding area with other prisoners who are going to be caned on the same day. The offender is escorted to the caning area when it is his turn to be punished. The caning is conducted in an open yard surrounded by walls in the prison, out of the view of the public and other prisoners. The prison director oversees the caning, along with the medical officer and other prison officers. He reads the terms of punishment to the offender and asks him to confirm the number of strokes. While the prison staff present at the caning scene are usually all men, sometimes female doctors from government hospitals might be ordered to participate because it was part of their duties as government employees. In practice, the offender is required to strip completely naked for the punishment. However, he may be given a piece of loincloth-like garment or a "sarong" to cover his genitals. After he confirms the number of strokes, he is taken to an A-shaped wooden frame, to which he is secured throughout the duration of the punishment. The front of his body rests against a padded cushion on the frame while his arms are tied above his head and his legs spread apart and secured tightly to the frame (see the mannequin in the adjacent picture). A "torso shield" is fastened around his body, exposing only his buttocks while protecting his lower back (the kidneys and lower spine area) and upper thighs (near the genitals) from any strokes that might land off-target. A prison officer stands in front of the offender and wraps his hands around the offender's head in case he jerks back his head and injures his neck. The caning is administered on the offender's bare buttocks. The caning officer stands beside the frame and delivers the number of strokes specified in the sentence at intervals of about 30 seconds. To ensure maximum effect, he ensures the tip of the cane comes in contact with the target area and drags it quickly along the skin to break it. Sanitary procedures are observed as a precaution against HIV transmissions. Each cane is soaked in antiseptic before use to prevent infection. In the case of an HIV-positive subject, the cane used is burnt after the punishment is over. Caning officers also sometimes wear protective smocks, gloves and goggles. For juvenile offenders. The Criminal Procedure Code stipulates that juvenile offenders (below the age of 18) sentenced to caning shall receive the punishment "in the way of school discipline using a light rattan cane." The legal limit for juveniles is 10 strokes. According to press reports from between 2012 and 2014, the punishment is administered by a police officer inside the courtroom in full view of everyone present there, immediately after the judge announced the sentence. The offender keeps his clothes on and receives the punishment on the buttocks over clothing while bending over a table. A medical officer is also present to supervise the punishment and ensure safety. A lawyer who represented a juvenile offender who was sentenced to public caning in court defended the punishment by saying that it was part of a plea bargain with the prosecution to ensure that the offender would be punished "in the way of school discipline" instead of the manner in which adult offenders are caned in prison. She also added that such punishments are common in Malaysia and that she had witnessed six of such cases in her five years of legal practice. However, another lawyer pointed out there were errors in the way the sentence was ordered and carried out. Medical treatment and the effects. A 2010 report by Amnesty International described the severity of judicial caning as follows, "In Malaysian prisons specially trained caning officers tear into victims' bodies with a metre-long cane swung with both hands at high speed. The cane rips into the victim's naked skin, pulps the fatty tissue below, and leaves scars that extend to muscle fibre. The pain is so severe that victims often lose consciousness." As the caning officers are trained to strike the target and drag the tip of the cane across the wound, the laceration will cause the skin to come off immediately and thus draw blood. Due to the physical pain and intense fear, the offender may lose control over his urinary and bowel functions, or even lose consciousness altogether. Offenders have variously described the pain as "intense", "burning", "being bitten by red ants", "like an electric shock", "worst pain in my life", etc. In any case, judicial caning usually leaves permanent scars on the offender's buttocks. After the caning, the offender is released from the frame and taken to the prison clinic for medical treatment. Malaysian caning videos. In August 1991, Malaysia's TV3 broadcast a two-part documentary on prison life shot by "Majalah Tiga" at Kajang Prison and Pudu Prison with permission from the Malaysian Prison Department. The second part focused on corporal and capital punishment. Wan Zaleha Radzi, the documentary's anchorperson, said that her team filmed an actual caning scene. However, direct camera shots of the cane striking prisoners' bare buttocks were edited out from the telecast because they were deemed too sensitive for viewers. In the mid 2000s, the Malaysian government released three graphic videos featuring several genuine judicial canings, ranging from one stroke to 20 strokes. The canings were filmed in Seremban Prison near the national capital, Kuala Lumpur. Comparison of judicial caning in Brunei, Malaysia and Singapore. Judicial caning is also used as a form of legal punishment for criminal offences in two of Malaysia's neighbouring countries, Brunei and Singapore. There are some differences across the three countries. Prison caning. Under Malaysian law, the officer in charge of a prison (holding the rank of Assistant Commissioner of Prison and above) may impose caning on prisoners who commit aggravated prison offences even if they were not sentenced to caning earlier in a court of law. The prisoner is given an opportunity to hear the charge and evidence against him and make his defence. Sharia caning. Being a Muslim majority country, Malaysia also has a parallel justice system of sharia courts, which can order caning for Muslim men and women under Section 125 of the Syariah Criminal Offences (Federal Territories) Act 1997. This kind of caning is rarely implemented, and is quite different from, and much less severe than, judicial caning under Malaysian criminal law. It is intended to be shaming rather than particularly painful. Before the caning is carried out, a medical officer must certify that the offender is fit to undergo the punishment. A rattan cane about in diameter is used. The punishment is normally carried out in an enclosed area out of the view of the public, even though the Syariah Criminal Procedure (Sabah) Enactment 1993 allows the court to determine where the caning is to take place. The offender remains fully dressed; men remain standing when they receive the punishment while women are seated. Although the law states that the offender can be caned on all parts of the body except the face, head, stomach, chest or private parts, in practice the caning is usually administered on the offender's back. It is carried out by an officer of the same sex as the offender. Each stroke is executed with average force so as not to break the skin, and the officer delivers the punishment with a "limp wrist" and without raising his/her hand. A medical officer is also present throughout the procedure to ensure safety. This form of caning is also practised in Indonesia's Aceh Province, where it is more common. School caning. In Malaysian primary and secondary schools, caning is a legal disciplinary measure. Although permitted for boys only, in practice it is sometimes also used on girls. A survey conducted by YouGov in 2019 found that 81 percent of parents in Malaysia supported the use of corporal punishment. 47 percent supported its use in schools. The survey also found that 85 percent of the parents had been physically disciplined growing up. Government guidelines on school caning. The Education Ministry discourages the caning of primary school students. However, based on numerous reported cases, caning is still common in both primary and secondary schools. Public caning has been discouraged in schools after the Education Regulations came into force. However, there are many cases suggesting that the caning of both boys and girls in front of the class/school is common. There are many reported cases suggesting that the caning of girls on the clothed bottom, arms, legs, or palm of the hand is a common practice. Anecdotal evidence suggests that, especially in Chinese-medium schools, every girl would undoubtedly be caned at least once or more. While serious infringements such as theft, smoking, gangsterism and bullying are among offences punishable by caning, minor transgressions are also frequently dealt with by physical punishment. Chinese-language medium schools. Caning is especially prevalent Malaysia's Chinese-language medium schools, where it is a daily occurrence for girls and boys of all ages instead of being a "special punishment" reserved for serious offences. Typically, a student is caned on the spot in front of his or her class/school for transgressions such as: This will typically be administered on the palm of the hand or clothed bottom, albeit less serious or forceful than an "official" caning for serious disciplinary breaches. Anecdotally, these will cause the palm/buttocks to sting, especially after multiple consecutive strokes. Mass punishments are not uncommon. As a result, it is common for a student to receive 30 to a few hundred strokes of the cane a day for various offences. Domestic caning. Corporal punishment of children with a rattan cane by their parents is lawful and culturally accepted in Malaysia. This is done for various reasons, including misbehaviour, laziness or poor results. Sometimes, parents may cane their children after learning that they had been caned in school. However, when the act of caning causes physical and mental injuries, it becomes an offence under the law. Criticism. Malaysia has been criticised by human rights groups for its use of judicial caning. A 2010 report by Amnesty International criticises the increasing use of judicial caning in Malaysia and claims the punishment "subjects thousands of people each year to systematic torture and ill-treatment, leaving them with permanent physical and psychological scars". Amnesty International estimates that some 10,000 people are caned each year, many of them for immigration offences. The charity argues the practice could cause long-term disabilities and trauma and said many of the foreigners sentenced to caning did not get legal representation or understand the charge. Malaysian officials reject the accusation of torture. The Prison Department states that canings are carefully supervised by prison authorities and attended by medical doctors.

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