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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24925114

Prophecy of the Shadow is a 1992 fantasy role-playing video game developed by Strategic Simulations for MS-DOS. The game was released in both English and German versions. Plot. In "Prophecy of the Shadow", the land is slowly dying, and it is the player's mission to find out why. The player's character is a disciple of Larkin of Bannerwick. When the player's master is murdered, the player is blamed for his death. The player has magical powers, but the king has outlawed all magic. Gameplay. The game plays from an isometric top-down viewpoint, similar to a contemporary game of the time, "". The player character has three statistics: Health, Magic, and Agility. Health reflects the character's stamina, life, and strength. Magic is the amount of power the player possesses to conjure spells. Agility is the ability to dodge an enemy's blows. The game uses an overhead perspective, with icons to the left of the screen which allow the character to drop, use, or give items, attack or talk to others, and enter buildings. Reception. "The New Straits Times" in 1992 called "Prophecy of the Shadow" the game that Richard Garriott would have produced were he an SSI employee. It wrote that "Gameplay could not be better", citing the user interface, large world to explore, and use of humor. The newspaper concluded "I can wholeheartedly say, 'Good show, old chaps! Just don't give us any more recycled trash like "Dark Queen of Krynn"." "QuestBusters" called the game "a significant improvement over [SSI's] Gold Box series — and a lot of fun to play". It liked the "beautiful digitized graphics and over 50 sound effects", and user interface, and concluded that the game was "just plain fun". The game was reviewed in 1993 in "Dragon" #189 by Hartley, Patricia, and Kirk Lesser in "The Role of Computers" column. The reviewers gave the game 3 out of 5 stars. "Computer Gaming World" called "Prophecy of the Shadow" "a refreshingly enjoyable adventure, targeted primarily at role-playing neophytes". The magazine stated that "the quality of the digitized animation is surprisingly good", and recommended the game both to new adventure gamers and those "looking for something new and refreshing". It received a 4 out of 5 review in "Datormagazin" Vol 1992 No 14 (Aug 1992), reviewed by Göran Fröjdh.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14764073

Probable ATP-dependent RNA helicase DDX20, also known as DEAD-box helicase 20 and gem-associated protein 3 (GEMIN3), is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the "DDX20" gene. Function. DEAD box proteins, characterized by the conserved motif Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp (DEAD), are putative RNA helicases. They are implicated in a number of cellular processes involving alteration of RNA secondary structure such as translation initiation, nuclear and mitochondrial splicing, and ribosome and spliceosome assembly. Based on their distribution patterns, some members of this family are believed to be involved in embryogenesis, spermatogenesis, and cellular growth and division. This gene encodes a DEAD box protein, which has an ATPase activity and is a component of the survival of motor neuron (SMN) complex. SMN is the spinal muscular atrophy gene product, and may play a catalytic role in the function of the SMN complex on RNPs. Biological Implication. Previous research has revealed that DDX20 may act as a tumor suppressor in hepatocellular carcinoma and as a tumor promoter in breast cancer. DDX20 deficiency enhances NF-κB activity by impairing the NF-κB-suppressive action of microRNAs, and suggest that dysregulation of the microRNA machinery components may also be involved in pathogenesis in various human diseases. Such as miRNA-140 which acts as a liver tumor suppressor, and due to a deficiency of DDX20, miRNA-140 function gets impair, this subsequent functional impairment of miRNAs could lead to hepatocarcinogenesis. Similarly, DDX20 may promote the progression of Prostate cancer (PCa) through the NF-κB pathway. In a clinical based study it has been observed that positive DP103/NF-κB feedback loop promotes constitutive NF-κB activation in invasive breast cancers and activation of this pathway is linked to cancer progression and the acquisition of chemotherapy resistance. It makes DP103 has potential as a therapeutic target for breast cancer treatment. Interactions. DDX20 has been shown to interact with:

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=750943

The city of Seattle, Washington, contains many districts and neighborhoods. The city's former mayor Greg Nickels has described it as "a city of neighborhoods". Early European settlers established widely scattered settlements on the surrounding hills, which grew into neighborhoods and autonomous towns. Conurbations tended to grow from such towns or from unincorporated areas around trolley stops during the 19th and early 20th centuries; the city has consequently suffered from transportation and street-naming problems. Definition of Seattle neighborhoods. Seattle was established during an economic boom fueled by the timber industry; its early years were characterized by hasty expansion and development, under which residential areas were loosely defined by widely scattered plats. This arrangement was further solidified by the establishment of locally initiated community clubs, public libraries, public schools, and public parks, which created a sense of community and civic participation. At the beginning of the 20th century, Seattle's community clubs became influential in the organization of public improvements. These had a significant effect upon the character of their neighborhoods and allowed them to remain distinct from the surrounding areas. Some community clubs used covenants to restrict the ethnicity of residents. Establishing public library branches can define districts as well as neighborhoods. Public libraries are among the most heavily used buildings. Seattle elected its city council at large from 1910 to 2014, and community clubs lobby councilors for the interests of local residents – such as for a library branch. The community organizations build a voting constituency, and in so doing define a neighborhood. In the absence of ward politics, this and campaign finance legislation are seen as more open alternatives. The Greenwood-Phinney Commercial Club was particularly active in organizing toward the Greenwood branch that opened in 1928. The Lake City Branch Library opened in 1935 as a few shelves of books in part of a room in Lake City School, shared with the Works Progress Administration (WPA), sponsored by the Pacific Improvement Club community group. The library moved into a new building in 1955. Elementary public schools effectively defined many neighborhoods, which are often synonymous with the name of the elementary school when the neighborhood and school were established. Many of the neighborhoods contain a few smaller neighborhoods. Mann and Minor neighborhoods in the Central District, were built around their schools. The University Heights school (1903) in the north of the University District was named for the neighborhood, as was the Latona School (1906) in Wallingford. Parks similarly define some neighborhoods. Madrona Beach and Cowen and Ravenna Parks were privately established to encourage residential development upon otherwise unusable land. The plan for Olmsted Parks fulfilled its goal and significantly influenced the character of neighborhoods around parks and playgrounds. East Phinney and West Meridian neighborhoods are sometimes called Woodland Park, as well as South Green Lake or North Wallingford for Meridian. Covenants and racial restrictions. Housing covenants became common in the 1920s and were validated by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1926. Minorities were effectively limited to the International District and parts of some neighborhoods in south-east Seattle for Asian- and Native Americans; or the Central District for Blacks, clearly defining those neighborhoods. Ballard – Sunset Hill, Beacon Hill, Broadmoor, Green Lake, Laurelhurst, Magnolia, Queen Anne, South Lake City, and other Seattle neighborhoods and blocks had racially or ethnically restrictive housing covenants, such as the following sample: No person or persons of [any of several minorities] blood, lineage, or extraction shall be permitted to occupy a portion of said property ... except a domestic servant or servants who may actually and in good faith be employed by white occupants. Further restrictions on conveyance (rental, lease, sale, transfer) were often included, effectively defining most of the neighborhoods in Seattle during the first decades after establishment. The Supreme Court ruled in 1948 that racial restrictions would no longer be enforced. The Seattle Open Housing Ordinance became effective in 1968. Although unenforceable, legal complications prevent the covenants from being expunged from property title documents. Wards and Little City Halls. Seattle initially adopted a ward system, however in 1910, this system was replaced by non-partisan, at-large representation. Variations on ward systems were proposed and rejected in 1914, 1926, 1974, 1995, and 2003 and convictions for campaign-related money laundering followed the 1995 campaign. Critics claimed that district-style elections of the city council would result in Tammany Hall-style politics. In 1973, inspired by Boston's model, Mayor Wes Uhlman's administration implemented a system of "Little City Halls", where Community Service Centers (CSCs) assumed responsibility for coordinating municipal services. Uhlman's political opponents called the CSCs a thinly disguised ward system designed to promote Uhlman's reelection. CSCs became a setting for political arguments between the city council and the mayor; controversies over accountability, cronyism, and ward politics occurred in 1974, 1976, and 1988. In 1991 the CSCs were renamed Neighborhood Service Centers (NSCs) and were placed under the jurisdiction of the Department of Neighborhoods. More recently, their number has been reduced. As of 2011, there are NSCs located in Ballard, Lake City, the University District, the Central District, West Seattle, Southeast Seattle, and Delridge. Local Improvement Districts. A Local Improvement District (LID) is a method by which a group of property owners can share the cost of transportation infrastructure improvements. This involves improving the street, building sidewalks and installing stormwater management systems. Without Seattle's LID assessment system, the city would be unable to maintain its rapid growth in population and territory. LIDs have helped define neighborhoods by localizing decisions about issues like sidewalks, vegetation and other features of the public space, permitting neighborhoods to remain distinct from their neighbors. Transportation. Minor arterial roads are generally located along the boundaries of neighborhoods, with streets and highways built according to the street classification system. These effectively help define neighborhoods. Development in accordance with the street classification system maintains the quality of life of city neighborhoods and improves efficiency of the road system. The classification system discourages rat running through local neighborhood streets. Transportation hubs, such as business zones and transit stations, such as Park and Ride facilities, provide focal points for districts of neighborhoods the same way trolley stops defined neighborhoods before cars. Informal districts. No official neighborhood boundaries have existed in Seattle since 1910. Districts and neighborhoods are thus informal; their boundaries may overlap and multiple names may exist for a single district. Boundaries and names can be disputed or change over time. In 2002 a Department of Neighborhoods spokeswoman said, "I've seen my area go from the 'CD' to 'Madrona' to 'Greater Madison Valley' and now 'Madrona Park.' " Some neighborhoods, such as northwest Seattle, do not have widely recognized names for their greater districts. Throughout Seattle one can find signs indicating the boundaries of neighborhoods; the locations of these signs have been specified by the city's many community councils. However, the boundaries suggested by these signs routinely overlap and differ from delineations on maps. For example, signs indicate that Lake City Way NE is the southeastern boundary of the Maple Leaf neighborhood, while the city clerk's archival map places that district's southern boundary at 85th Street. Another example of boundary ambiguity is "Frelard," which local residents call the area shared by Fremont and Ballard between 3rd and 8th Avenues NW. Signs facing opposite directions on NW Leary Way reveal the overlap. Further difficulty in defining neighborhoods can result from residents' identification with neighborhoods different from those marked on signs and maps. After an acrimonious development dispute in 1966, a group of concerned Wallingford citizens enlisted the University of Washington Community Development Bureau to survey their neighborhood; the survey revealed that more residents of southwest Wallingford considered themselves citizens of Fremont than of Wallingford. List of districts and neighborhoods. Despite complications in Seattle's system of neighborhoods and districts, the names and boundaries in the following list are generally accepted and widely used. They are based on the "Seattle City Clerk's Neighborhood Map Atlas", which in turn is based on a variety of sources, including a 1980 neighborhood map produced by the now-defunct Department of Community Development, Seattle Public Library indexes, a 1984-1986 "Neighborhood Profiles" feature series in the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer", numerous park, land use and transportation planning studies, as well as records in the Seattle Municipal Archives. The following table is largely based on maps from the Seattle City Clerk's Neighborhood Atlas, but also includes designations from other sources. Annexations. Seattle annexed eight municipalities between 1905 and 1910, nearly doubling the area size of the city. Annexations by law were begun by the annexee and had to be approved by the Seattle City Council. The appeal of the inexpensive and accessible electric power and water system services of the public utilities were the primary motivations for the annexation movements. Ballard was its own incorporated town for 17 years, annexed as its own ward. West Seattle incorporated in 1902, then annexed Spring Hill, Riverside, Alki Point, and Youngstown districts. It was the largest of the incorporated towns to be annexed. Southeast Seattle merged the towns of Hillman City and York with other Rainier Valley neighborhoods, then incorporated for the only reason of being annexed. Similarly, the town of South Seattle consisted of mostly industrial Duwamish Valley neighborhoods (except Georgetown); one enclave adjacent to Georgetown omitted at this time was annexed 1921; some land near the river in this area remains part of unincorporated King County. In 1910 Georgetown was the last of this sequence of small incorporated cities and towns to be annexed to Seattle before the 1954 annexation of Lake City. The following previously incorporated cities and towns were annexed by Seattle. This list is in order of annexation. Other areas annexed to Seattle, were unincorporated before annexation. Examples of the latter include the northern part of Queen Anne Hill, the University District, and the northern area of the city that were once part of then-unincorporated Shoreline. Future. Because of the cost of providing city services, low-density residential neighborhoods represent a net revenue loss for municipalities. Because vehicle-license revenue is no longer used to subsidize unincorporated areas, these neighborhoods have become increasingly orphaned. In April 2004, the City Council voted to defer a decision on Mayor Nickels' proposal to designate the West Hill and North Highline neighborhoods, part of unincorporated King County, as potential annexation areas (PAAs) for at least a year. Because of the tax revolt that took place in Washington in the late 1990s and early 21st century, the county's budget has been reduced and the county has said it is unlikely to be able to maintain adequate levels of funding for urban services in unincorporated areas. The nearby city of Burien, however, has issued a 2004 draft report for its own annexation of all or part of North Highline. North Highline, which adjoins SeaTac, Burien, and Tukwila in addition to Seattle, consists of the Boulevard Park neighborhood and part of White Center. West Hill, which abuts Tukwila and Renton as well as Seattle, consists of Bryn Mawr-Skyway, Lakeridge, and Earlington. Its 2010 population is 15,645. On December 11, 2006, the Seattle City Council agreed to designate North Highline a "potential annexation area".

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5000686

The Italian presidential election of 2006 was held on 8–10 May 2006. The result was the election of Giorgio Napolitano, the first time a former member of the Italian Communist Party had been elected to the Presidency of the Italian Republic. Only members of Parliament and regional delegates were entitled to vote, most of these electors having been elected in the 2006 general election. As head of state of the Italian Republic, the President has a role of representation of national unity and guarantees that Italian politics comply with the Italian Constitution, in the framework of a parliamentary system. Procedure. In accordance to the Italian Constitution, the election was held in the form of a secret ballot, with the Senators, the Deputies and 58 regional representatives entitled to vote. The election was held in the Palazzo Montecitorio, home of the Chamber of Deputies, with the capacity of the building expanded for the purpose. The first three ballots required a two-thirds majority of the 1,009 voters in order to elect a president, or 673 votes. Starting from the fourth ballot, an absolute majority was required for candidates to be elected, or 505 votes. The presidential mandate lasts seven years. The term of the incumbent president, Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, was due to end on 18 May 2006 (, but eventually already on 15 May). The election was presided over by the President of the Chamber of Deputies Fausto Bertinotti, who proceeded to the public counting of the votes, and by the President of the Senate Franco Marini. Chronology. On 2 May 2006 the President of the Chamber of Deputies Fausto Bertinotti, in agreement with President of the Senate Franco Marini, convened the two houses of the Italian Parliament, integrated with a number of representatives appointed by the twenty Italian regions, in a common session on 8 May in order to commence voting for the election of the new President of the Italian Republic. Outgoing President Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, 85, was asked to run for another mandate by the centre-right coalition House of Freedoms, with the strong support of the centre-left coalition The Union. However Ciampi declined to run again, noting that "none of the past nine presidents of the Republic has been re-elected. I think this has become a meaningful rule. It is better not to infringe it". On 10 May 2006 Giorgio Napolitano, the candidate endorsed by the center-left coalition, was elected on the fourth ballot with 543 votes. His term officially started with a swearing-in ceremony held on 15 May 2006. Ballots. First ballot (May 8). The Union initially proposed lifetime Senator Giorgio Napolitano as its official candidate, in an attempt to reach an agreement with the House of Freedoms, whose votes would have been necessary to have a successful election at the first ballot; however, the centre-right opposition declared it did not intend to vote for Napolitano, and instead announced its own members would vote for Gianni Letta. After this announcement, the Union declared that its members would cast a blank vote in the first ballot, in order not to waste Napolitano's candidacy, with the exception of the Rose in the Fist, which would vote for either Adriano Sofri or Emma Bonino. Inside the centre-right, the Christian Democracy for the Autonomies and the New Italian Socialist Party voted for the journalist Giuliano Ferrara. The voting operations started at 16:00 CEST; as no candidate obtained the 673 votes requested to win the election, a new ballot was held in the morning of May 9. Results. Among the other votes cast, there were one vote each for Linda Giuva, wife of Massimo D'Alema, singer/songwriter Francesco Guccini and controversial writer Oriana Fallaci. A vote for Giorgio Almirante, historical leader of the Italian Social Movement who died in 1988, was declared invalid. Second ballot (May 9). This ballot, as well as the first, required a majority of 673 votes. After several discussions about the opportunity to vote for Giorgio Napolitano, the House of Freedoms decided to cast a blank vote too. However, the Union of Christian and Centre Democrats declared its members could vote for Napolitano in the next ballot, an opinion that was not shared within the coalition. Due to the lack of consensus and the row in the opposition, the Union members decided to continue withholding their votes for Napolitano. Rather than casting a blank vote, the centre-left party UDEUR instead decided to vote in this ballot for an own symbolic candidate, Giuseppe De Rita. The voting operations started at 11:30 CEST. Results. Among the other votes, there were one vote each for rock musician Vasco Rossi and Luciano Moggi, general manager of the football team Juventus F.C.. Third ballot (May 9). After the second ballot, Silvio Berlusconi declared his coalition would never vote for either Giorgio Napolitano or any other candidate associated with the Democrats of the Left, and would continue casting blank votes for both the third and probably also the fourth ballot. However, Pier Ferdinando Casini, leader of the Union of Christian and Centre Democrats, an ally of Berlusconi in the House of Freedoms, declared that his party considered it "a mistake not to vote for Giorgio Napolitano as President of the Republic" and expressed a wish for a large consensus among the political forces on Napolitano's name. On the other hand, the Union declared its members would again cast a blank vote in this ballot, but would vote for Napolitano in the fourth ballot, to be held on May 10, for which a plain majority of votes would be required for a successful election. The voting operations started at 17:00 CEST. Fourth ballot (May 10). The fourth ballot is the first one that requires only a simple majority for a successful election, that is, 505 votes; thus, the Union could elect its own candidate without needing to find agreement with the House of Freedoms. The Union declared its members would vote for Giorgio Napolitano in this ballot. The House of Freedoms declared that its members would cast a blank vote; however, the decision was not taken unanimously, as the Union of Christian and Centre Democrats clearly showed its approval of Napolitano's candidacy. Former secretary of the party Marco Follini declared he would vote for Napolitano. The voting operations, started at 9:30 CEST, resulted in the election of Giorgio Napolitano as President of the Italian Republic. Criticisms and reactions. There has been criticism from across the political spectrum about the presidential elections, mostly from the minority right-wing coalition. Since the speakers of both houses of parliament were chosen by the winning coalition, the House of Freedoms demanded an impartial candidate for the role of president. The Union stressed the fact that the Italian Constitution demands that the president be a defender of the constitution, hinting that such a quality was scarce among the opposition members. Most of the criticism focused on how the president was to be elected. Surprisingly, given the enormous heat and animosity shown in the preceding general elections, the two coalition leaders organized a meeting to try to come up with a candidate that was acceptable to both. The attempts failed quickly, with the Union arguing that the House of Freedom was not interested in any candidate, and the House of Freedom arguing that the Union was not proposing any that were acceptable. Silvio Berlusconi, the leader of the opposition, was the most vocal opponent of any candidate that came from the former Italian Communist Party, in line with the anti-communist stance he had taken in the campaign. His allies, especially the Union of Christian and Centre Democrats (UDC), openly disagreed with his intransigence but vowed to stick with their ally's decision. Yet, when Napolitano was elected, Silvio Berlusconi gave an interview to one of his political magazines Panorama saying that the UDC betrayed him by letting 60 of his electors cast a blank vote on the first ballot, instead of supporting the official candidate Gianni Letta. When the UDC argued that this might have spelled the end of the Coalition, Silvio Berlusconi quickly changed his stance by saying, as he often had, that he had been "misunderstood" and that he never gave that journalist an interview. The candidacy of Massimo D'Alema was supported by his party, the Democrats of the Left, and by others parties of the coalition, such as the Party of Italian Communists, the Communist Refoundation Party and Democracy is Freedom – The Daisy, but opposed by others, such as the Rose in the Fist, arguing that his candidacy was driven by a particracy's mentality. Also, part of the left-wing coalition considered D'Alema far too willing to conduct backroom deals with the opposition. Some moderate journalists liked D'Alema because his presidency would have given Romano Prodi a stabler government, since the biggest party of the Union had not been rewarded with any institutional position. In the opposition coalition, while Silvio Berlusconi vehemently opposed a D'Alema presidency, some of his aides, such as Marcello Dell'Utri, and some aligned newspapers, such as Il Foglio, campaigned for D'Alema. However, the official stance of the centre-right was that D'Alema, being an important left-wing politician and having participated in the election campaign, was ill-suited for president, a role that it is supposed to be impartial. However, when the Union proposed Giorgio Napolitano, a senator for life that in recent years had not had a prominent role in politics, the House of Freedom objected that the Union should have presented a list of names. In the end, the House of Freedom chose to cast a blank vote. Some right-wing newspapers protested the communist background of the new president.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25365169

Pendant vaulting is considered to be a type of English fan vaulting. The pendant vault is a rare form of vault, attributed to fifteenth century English Gothic architecture, in which large decorative pendants hang from the vault at a distance from the walls. In some cases, the pendants are a large form of boss. In his book on fan vaults, Walter Leedy defines the fan vault stating: “Fan vaults have the following specific interrelated visual and structural characteristics: (1) vaulting conoids of regular geometric form, (2) vertical ribs, each of consistent curvature and placement, (3) a distinct central spandrel panel, (4) ribs perpendicular to the vaulting surface, and (5) applied surface patterning.” Origins. The beginning of fan vaulting dates to the 14th century when Romanesque and Norman buildings were adapted by inserting a “shell form” into the existing structure. This “shell form” differed from earlier versions of Gothic vaulting primarily in its structural character. Whereas earlier Gothic vaulting directed load paths to its ribs, fan vaulting distributed loads across the curved vaulting. For the conoid to function properly, it had to be supported on all sides; as “walls that support it vertically, the "tas-de-charge" supports its bottom, and the central spandrel panel provides the necessary compressive load along its upper edge.” With fan vaulting done in stone, the vaulting would serve as both an ornamental and fireproof layer. The stone in turn would be protected from the elements by a steep wooden roof. As fan vaulting was expensive to construct, a majority of the examples of the vaulting are found in chantry chapels, commissioned by wealthy patrons. A variety of building methods were employed as builders of the vaults were more concerned with keeping to the aesthetic aggregate of the finished product rather than technical particulars. The structural innovations allowed for developments in vaulting decoration. As Salter states, “Unlike the Gothic vault, where the expression of forces is described by ribs and spandrels, the blocks of the fan vault conoid are free to be carved to the reticulated design of the enclosure.”  A 1901 pamphlet on English fan vaults furthers this notion, calling this period the “apogee of Gothic art” and stating, “The sturdy vigor and rational construction necessitated by the struggle to overcome physical difficulties were giving place to the fanciful refinements of the designer and craftsman who no longer feared that his building might not stand, but, with accumulated knowledge and experience, could play with his materials, and work out unfettered the creations of his imagination.” The development of decoration in fan vaults is notable in later forms, such as pendant vaulting. In pendant vaulting the form and ornamentation of the vault evolve as “pendants as elongated voussoirs are dropped from a constructive pointed arch, concealed above the vaulting, and form abutments to support the pendant conoids.” Examples of pendant vaulting. Of particular note are the pendant vaults at the Divinity School at Oxford, built in 1480 and designed by William Orchard, and at Henry VII Chapel at Westminster Abbey, built between 1503-1509 and plausibly designed by Robert and William Vertue. The application of vaulting at the Divinity School at Oxford visually separates the arch from the conoids. According to Jacques Heyman, the vaulting at the divinity school intended to “astonish and delight” and possibly makes reference to “Villard’s lodge-book of c.1235; when the arch under construction has been completed, the tree trunk may be removed to leave a hanging voussoir.” At Henry VII’s chapel, the development of ornamentation and design in pendant vaulting is furthered as the arch is concealed within the conoid. In differentiating pendant vaulting from other types of fan vaulting at the chapel, Heyman states, “First, it is constructed throughout of jointed masonry; the ribs and panels are cut from a single stone, so that the ribs are effectively surface decoration, giving visual definition to the shape of the vault. Second, the fans spring not from the walls of the Chapel, but from pendants placed about 2m from the walls.”  Here, concealed transverse arches intersect the conoids and provide support for the hanging pendants. While fan vaulting is purported to be confined to England, versions of pendant vaulting came to be characteristic of the Flamboyant period in France. An example of this can be found at Caudebec, France.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30644304

Thomas Bratton Warren (August 1, 1920 – August 8, 2000) was an American professor of philosophy of religion and apologetics at the Harding School of Theology in Memphis, Tennessee, USA, and was an important philosopher and theologian in the Churches of Christ during the latter half of the twentieth century. Warren had been in failing health for many years when he died at the age of 80. Early life. Warren was born in Carrizo Springs, Texas, USA. He was married to the former Faye C. Brauer (1921–2001) in 1941. They had three children. Warren served in the United States Air Force as an aerial navigator in World War II. Education. Warren received a B.S. in mathematics from Abilene Christian College, the M.A. in religion from the University of Houston, and the M.A. and Ph.D. in philosophy from Vanderbilt University. His dissertation topic foreshadowed his long-time interest in apologetics: "God and Evil: Does Judeo-Christian Theism Involve a Logical Contradiction?" Teaching career. Warren taught mathematics and Bible at Abilene Christian College, Abilene, Texas, USA during the 1946-47 academic year. From 1959-61 he chaired the Department of Bible at Fort Worth Christian College where he also served as President. At Freed-Hardeman College in Henderson, Tennessee, USA, Warren chaired the Department of Bible from 1964-1971. His most fruitful academic appointment was as Professor of Philosophy of Religion and Apologetics at Harding Graduate School of Religion, where he served from 1971-79. He was co-founder and Dean of the Graduate School and Professor of Philosophy and Christian Doctrine and Apologetics at Tennessee Bible College in Cookeville, Tennessee, USA. In addition, Warren served as minister of several Churches of Christ throughout his career. Philosophical research and debates. Warren's earliest published work in philosophy was modified from the final chapter of his Vanderbilt University dissertation and was published in 1972. In "Have Atheists Proved There is No God? ", Warren develops a version of a soul-making theodicy to answer J. L. Mackie's argument from evil against theism. Warren's chief claim to fame outside the Churches of Christ are his debates with Antony Flew and Wallace Matson on the existence of God, and his debate with Joe E. Barnhart on the adequacy of utilitarian ethics. The debate with Flew, a major proponent of atheism famous for his argument that theism is not falsifiable, was held at North Texas State University (now the University of North Texas) in Denton, Texas, USA from September 20–23, 1976. This was an exceptionally well attended debate, and Flew describes it as the best attended of his many debates with theists on the existence of God, with audiences each night ranging from 5,000-7,000 people. The Warren-Matson Debate took place in Tampa, Florida, USA from September 11–14, 1978. Matson, a professor of philosophy at the University of California at Berkeley was, like Flew, a long-time proponent of atheism. The Warren-Barnhart Debate took place at North Texas State University on November 3–6, 1980. Barnhart has retired as Professor of Philosophy at the University of North Texas. Philosophical views. Warren was a strong evidentialist on the issue of God's existence. He believed that there is proof beyond a reasonable doubt for the existence of God. In his two debates on the existence of God, Warren prefers versions of the Teleological Argument for the existence of God, using (in his debate with Flew) the alveoli in the lungs and the process of oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange as proof for an intelligent designer; in his debate with Matson, he used the circulatory system. Warren was also known for his logical traps, for example, his challenge to Flew to answer the question, "Which came first, a human mother or a human baby?" Flew struggled to answer Warren's question; however, Matson replied with, "When did Latin become French," arguing that in biological evolution, as in language, there are times when it is difficult to assign a language (or a life form) into a specific category. In his theological writings, especially in his articles in the magazine he edited, "The Spiritual Sword", Warren argued that specific Christian beliefs, such as the resurrection of Christ and the inspiration of the Bible, could be proved by natural reason. Involvement in theological controversy. In the context of the Churches of Christ and the Restoration Movement, Warren was a strict restorationist: he believed that the noninstrumental Churches of Christ followed the strict New Testament pattern of Christian doctrine, worship, and practice. He held that any deviation from that pattern by a church would exclude it from being part of the Christian community. Warren consistently argued that members of the noninstrumental Churches of Christ are "the only Christians." This put Warren at odds with more liberal leaders in the Churches of Christ such as Rubel Shelly, who argued that members of Christian bodies outside the Churches of Christ could also be Christians. Warren also staunchly defended the traditional hermeneutic of the Churches of Christ: that only direct commands from the Bible, apostolic examples, or necessary (deductive) inferences from direct commands and examples were authoritative for Christians. This hermeneutic was consistent with Warren's strong epistemological rationalism. Another area of controversy in Churches of Christ in which Warren played a role was the issue of divorce and remarriage. Warren's position was that a divorced individual could only be remarried if (1) the divorce was due to adultery, and (2) the individual desiring a second marriage was the innocent partner in the first marriage. Unless these two conditions were fulfilled, the remarried individual was not truly remarried, but "living in adultery." The proper action, according to Warren, for that person is to return to his or her first spouse. Legacy. Thomas B. Warren was one of the first trained philosophers to teach at colleges associated with churches of Christ. His debate with Flew on the existence of God is still known in many Fundamentalist and Evangelical Christian circles. He was an influential figure in the Churches of Christ from the 1940s through the early 1980s. Many of his writings are still read among members of the churches of Christ. Warren's influence remains strong. After Warren's death, a number of his former students and others influenced by his thought worked to establish a center in Christian apologetics. It is currently in the planning stages and will be built in Vienna, West Virginia, USA. Selected writings. "Christians Only and the Only Christians"'. Jonesboro: National Christian Press, 1986. "Have Atheists Proved There is no God?" Nashville: Gospel Advocate Company, 1972. "Keeping the Lock in Wedlock: A Critical Analysis of the Doctrine of Dr. James D. Bales on Divorce and Remarriage". Jonesboro, AR: National Christian Press, 1980. "Logic and the Bible". Jonesboro, AR: National Christian Press, 1982. "Sin, Suffering, and God". Jonesboro, AR: National Christian Press, 1980. . (with Joe E. Barnhart). "The Warren-Barnhart Debate on Christian Ethics versus Utilitarian (Psychological Hedonistic) Ethics". Jonesboro, AR: National Christian Press, 1981. (with Antony Flew). "The Warren-Flew Debate on the Existence of God". Jonesboro, AR: National Christian Press, 1977. (with Wallace Matson). "The Warren-Matson Debate on the Existence of God". Jonesboro, AR: National Christian Press, 1978. "When is an Example Binding?" Jonesboro, AR: National Christian Press, 1975.

right move

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29025276

Indira Park is a public greenspace and park in the heart of Hyderabad, India. The foundation stone for the Indira Park was laid during September 1975 by Late Faqruddin Ahmed, the then president of India and it was open for the people in the year 1978 with complete landscaping. Indira Park is having 76 acres (31 ha) of area. The park is managed by the Hyderabad Metropolitan Development Authority. It is located in Domalguda, a residential locality which lies along the Hussain Sagar lake. The park contains an award-winning rock garden. Because of its large size and the presence of a large lake in the midst of an urban area, Indira Park is an urban oasis. Facilities. In 2001, the civic authorities of Hyderabad planned to construct a rock garden inside the park. Besides the garden, which was to be constructed over an area of , other recreational facilities were planned to be set up. A man-made desert and purification of the lake within the park so as to enable a boating facility were also to be taken up. These new plans were to assist the park in its promotion as a tourist destination. Subrata Basu, the then local commissioner of customs and excise duty, had earlier succeeded with a similar rock sanctuary in Shilparamam, an arts and handicrafts village near Hyderabad. In 2002, the rock garden was readied as per the ideas of Basu's designs. While explaining his zeal in design the garden, Basu said that the natural rock formations were in danger from real estate developers. He only wished to preserve them. In the same year, the local government honored Basu's contribution with an award. The Park has a pathway (dubbed "Statue Path") which showcases abstract cast iron statues. These include various human, animal and abstract forms. Sandalwood trees are spread across the park's interiors. Though the sandalwood is inferior in its quality as compared to trees growing in other regions, the bark could be used as firewood and can also be used as an ingredient in cosmetics products. The park has a large lake which is fed from controlled flow from Hussain Sagar lake. There are boating activities on this lake for recreation. As a center of agitations. The park has been a center of agitations by various strata of the society since early 2000. Rallies or sit-ins have been organized towards achieving goals by dalit rights groups, auto rickshaws unions, students and teachers, political leaders, and others. On an average, three such rallies are given permission by the local authorities. Due to these rallies, normal life has been affected. Mainly school children, college students and medical emergencies get affected because of the traffic that is caused by people congregating for these rallies. Though the local police designs a plan for the participants, their inability to control their movement results in traffic jams. Due to this infamy, the local media satirically proposed new names such as Dharna Chowk, "Dharnagunj" and "Dharnaguda" to Domalguda, the area that houses the park. Despite a ban on such rallies in the arterial routes of the city, the local police remained ineffective in enforcing this.

regional patrol officer

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3280353

The Kingdom, Op. 51, is an English-language oratorio composed in 1906 by Edward Elgar. It was first performed at the Birmingham Music Festival on 3 October 1906, with the orchestra conducted by the composer, and soloists Agnes Nicholls, Muriel Foster, John Coates and William Higley. The dedication is "A. M. D. G." Elgar wrote "The Kingdom" for choral and instrumental forces. Overview. Following "The Dream of Gerontius" and "The Apostles", the Birmingham Triennial Music Festival commissioned Elgar to produce another large oratorio for the 1906 festival. This was "The Kingdom", which continues the narrative of the lives of Jesus's disciples. It depicts the community of the early church, Pentecost, and the events of the next few days. Elgar had been planning a work depicting the Apostles as ordinary men, reacting to extraordinary events, for many years. His ideas outgrew the confines of a single work: parts of "The Kingdom" were written before "The Apostles", and later Elgar considered them as the first two parts of a trilogy. "The Kingdom" is, in effect, its slow movement. In the event, the projected third part was never written. Performers. "The Kingdom" is written for a large orchestra, of typical late Romantic proportions. There is a double chorus with semichorus, and four soloists representing: The Blessed Virgin (soprano), Mary Magdalene (contralto), St John (tenor), and St Peter (bass). Synopsis. The work is in five parts, and is preceded by a prelude. Each part is played without a break. Words were selected by Elgar from the Acts of the Apostles, supplemented by material mainly from the Gospels. As in Elgar's other mature oratorios, the Prelude introduces the main musical themes and sets the mood. The music is lyrical and mystical, with less narrative drive than in "The Apostles". Its most memorable moments are the ecstatic depiction of Pentecost, Mary's glowing aria "The sun goeth down", and the devotional setting of the "Lord's Prayer". Novello's published a book of the words, with analytical and descriptive notes by Elgar's friend August Jaeger. History. As has been said, the ideas of the unfinished trilogy had been on Elgar's mind for many years. Definite musical sketches date from 1902, and parts were completed before "The Apostles". Composition began in earnest in early 1906, and proceeded with speed and confidence. The first performance, conducted by Elgar, was a success, as was the first London performance the following November. The German translation was done by Julius Buths. The work continues to be sung by talented choral societies, particularly in England, although less frequently than "The Dream of Gerontius". Some of Elgar's more percipient supporters, including Adrian Boult, consider it his greatest choral work, of more consistent quality than even "Gerontius". As Elgar was an amateur chemist, the original manuscript of the work is stained with chemicals from his home laboratory.

predictable grade

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21150680

Price-based selling is a specific selling technique in which a business exclusively reduces their price in attempt to close the sales cycle. Price-based selling clearly exists in businesses such as: commodity sales, auto sales, hospitality, and even some retail stores. However, it is only recommended that commodity items like petroleum be sold exclusively by price. Selling on price is even more apparent now in the current US economy as most businesses make the switch to the lowest price approach in attempt to attract more consumers. Car insurance companies like Progressive Auto Insurance advertise specifically with their price, as they promote the amount of money that can be saved by making the switch. Price-based selling may result in a good or service becoming a commodity and a commodity by definition is a product or service that has no differentiating qualities or characteristics from competing products or services in its class. A survey of Canadian consumers by Wishabi in 2009 finds that only 10% of shoppers see price as the only factor, but a 2007 Shopzilla survey of 2000 shoppers showed that 49% of consumers feel that price was the most important factor in their buying decision. Thus it can be seen that while pricing is not the only factor that matters, it is probably the most important. Relationship to sales. Most businesses sell their items, whether they are expensive automobiles, or inexpensive services based upon price. They do this not because it is the most profitable, but because they believe it is the easiest way to attract customers. Consumers and Business-to-Business buyers alike may be easily enticed to buy based upon price. Consumers are always hunting for the best bargain and price has a direct impact on whether or not they will buy a product or service. Businesses know that offering the lowest price gives them a competitive advantage against other similar products the customer may be looking at. Big chains like Wal-Mart and Target have the most control over the pricing in their industry. However, to be able to sell at the lowest price, these chains are continually pushing, if not demanding, that their suppliers give them the lower prices as well. Sales Goal. The goal of price based selling is to capture the business of price sensitive sellers. Customers who shop purely based on product cost will have the most interest in bargain buys. Pricing is directly related to the revenue management department of a business, and any good revenue manager will make sure they are doing everything possible to maximize profits. Various Methods. Price-matching guarantees. Price-matching guarantees are commonly used in consumer and industrial markets. Lowe's Home Improvement Warehouse is a great example, as they frequently state that they are the ‘lowest’ price store, and they will match the competitors. Best Buy has always been known for their price-matching guarantee as well. While a store with price matching guarantees has no fear of losing customers to rivals’ price cuts, it has every incentive to raise its own price to charge a higher price to its loyal customers. It is an anti-competitive tactic that warns competitors not to attempt to steal market share by undercutting prices. Price-match guarantees are also criticized as being misleading to consumers. The guarantees typically require shoppers to provide proof of a lower advertised price on an identical item in stock at a nearby competitor’s store before a price match will be approved. However, many big-box retailers work directly with manufacturers and sell products with unique model numbers. As a result, the retailer can deny a price-match request, as no other store carries an "identical" item. Other common reasons for denial: the competitor is not "local," the ad lists a percent discount rather than a specific price, or the customer doesn't offer acceptable proof of the competitor's price. Even if all criteria are met, retailers grant price-matching requests on a case-by-case basis at the discretion of store employees. Price slashing. Price cutting, or undercutting, is a sales technique that reduces the retail prices to a level low enough to eliminate competition. Businesses will implement this as a way to under-cut the competition and offer the best price to the consumer. Discounting. Discounting is something seen in almost every retail store, and grocery store. Discounting is present in just about every business in some way, whether it be coupons, advanced purchases, or bulk buying, businesses are quick to offer a pricing discount. Coupons and promotions give an economic incentive for the customer to use when purchasing a brand. The effect on consumer redemption of coupons has mostly been positive as it attracts customers, and gives them interest in a particular brand. On the other hand, discounting can really hurt a business as seen with Nordstrom this past holiday season. The clothing retailer reported that their fourth quarter earnings fell 68%, in large part due to the heavy discounting. According to a Cornell University study, in the hotel business, discounting in attempt to gain more occupancy does more harm than good, lowering the RevPAR and creating less profit. Haggling. Haggling, otherwise known as bargaining, is most present in businesses where items have no fixed price. Sellers will often price the item higher than they want to sell it, knowing that buyers are going to want to negotiate the price. Houses, cars, and services are the most common products sold using this model. Maintaining product integrity. If the customers do not find value and integrity in the products they are buying they will be quick to leave for the next lowest price. Selling on pure price turns the product into a commodity. Commoditization does more harm than good for the brand or company selling. A commodity is something for which there is demand, but which is supplied without qualitative differentiation across a market. It is a product that is the same no matter who produces it, such as petroleum, notebook paper, or milk. In other words, copper is copper. Rice is rice. These kinds of items have a set price no matter where you buy. Commodities are and should be sold predominantly upon their price. Products sold primarily based on price. There are a select group of products that should be sold based primarily upon their price and this includes all: consumables that have very little direct impact upon the consumer. Examples include items like: sand, gravel, and aggregate used in construction. With the advent of the Internet, price, service and support are often the only contact points with the customer. Identical products shipped across state lines with no tax have no other differentiators. Refusal to provide an upfront price is very hostile to Internet customers who will purchase a good or service elsewhere. Drawback to Price Based Selling. When a business specifically cuts prices in order to make a sale, the customer can sense that the original price must be inflated if the business is so quick to slash the price. As a result, the customer may lose respect for the business and realize the prices are too high to begin with. Good customer service must show value to the customers. By cutting the price on one service, the client will most likely think you are willing to cut the price on other products and services. In some cases they may even demand that you do in order to keep their business. Other recommended selling techniques. Most marketing gurus will lean towards the "sell value, not price" approach when it comes to marketing. This is called value based selling; the business is helping the customer understand what they are purchasing with their dollar, instead of just the obvious product, the sales associate is selling everything the product can do for the customer. Price based selling is arguably a very common approach for businesses, however it should be combined with other approaches, like value selling in order to close the sales cycle.

communication moments

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56683615

A mass mortality event (MME) is an incident that kills a vast number of individuals of a single species in a short period of time. The event may put a species at risk of extinction or upset an ecosystem. This is distinct from the mass die-off associated with short lived and synchronous emergent insect taxa which is a regular and non-catastrophic occurrence. Causes of MME's include disease and human-related activities such as pollution. Climatic extremes and other environmental influences such as oxygen stress in aquatic environments play a role, as does starvation. In many MME's there are multiple stressors. An analysis of such events from 1940 to 2012 found that these events have become more common for birds, fish and marine invertebrates, but have declined for amphibians and reptiles and not changed for mammals. Known mass mortality events. Migratory birds (1904). In March 1904, 1.5 million migrating birds died in Minnesota and Iowa during a strong snowstorm. According to "The Guardian", this was the largest avian mortality event on record in the region. Records of MMEs have been kept since the 1880s. MMEs of this size are rare, however, and few before or since have been as big as the 1904 event. According to the records, MMEs "are always associated with extreme weather events such as a drop in temperature, snowstorm or hailstorm". George River caribou (1984). In 1984, about 10,000 caribou of the George River caribou herd—one of Canada's migratory woodland caribou herds—drowned during their bi-annual crossing of the Caniapiscau River when the James Bay Hydro Project flooded the region. Harbour seals (1988). In 1988, the deaths of 20,000 harbour seals in the North Sea were found to be caused by phocine distemper virus. Ten years later, two strains of bacteria were implicated in the deaths of approximately 1,600 New Zealand sea lions. On Marion Island in 2007, some 250–300 adult male subantarctic fur seals died in a two-week period. It was suggested, though not proven, that this gender-biased mortality was caused by "Streptococcus sanguinis", a bacterium carried by the house mouse, an alien species accidentally introduced to the island in the 1800s. Mule deer (2003). In the Inyo National Forest in California, there are several records of large numbers of migrating mule deer falling to their deaths by slipping on ice while crossing mountain passes. This has occurred when heavy snowfalls have persisted until fall, and have been turned to ice by frequent thawing and refreezing. In 2003, a rain-on-snow event encased the ground in ice, resulting in the starvation of 20,000 muskoxen on Banks Island in the Canadian Arctic. Drum fish (2010). In the final week of December 2010, approximately 83,000 dead and dying drum fish washed up along a 20-mile stretch of the Arkansas River about 100 miles west of Beebe, Arkansas. The cause was speculated to be disease while full test results were expected after one month. Birds (2010). Shortly before midnight on New Year's Eve 2010, between 3,000 and 5,000 red-winged blackbirds fell from the sky in Beebe, Arkansas. Most died upon hitting the ground, but some were living but dazed. Laboratory tests were performed and the Arkansas Livestock and Poultry Commission, the National Wildlife Health Center in Madison, Wisconsin, and the University of Georgia's wildlife disease study group procured specimens of the dead birds. In addition to the blackbirds, a few grackles and starlings also fell from the sky in the same incident. A test report from the state poultry lab concluded that the birds had died from blunt trauma, with an unlicensed fireworks discharge being the likely cause. Seabirds and marine life (2010–2013). The months-long Deepwater Horizon oil spill that began in April 2010 in the coastal waters of the Gulf of Mexico resulted in about 600,000 to 800,000 bird mortalities. Dolphins and other species of marine life continued to die in record numbers into 2013. Birds (2011). The Beebe, Arkansas bird deaths were repeated again on New Year's Eve of the following year, 2011, with the reported number of dead birds being 5,000. On January 3, 2011, more than five hundred starlings, red-winged blackbirds, and sparrows fell dead in Pointe Coupee Parish, Louisiana. On January 5, "hundreds" of dead turtle doves were found at Faenza, Italy. According to Italian news agencies, a huge number of the birds were found to have blue stains on their beaks that may have been caused by paint or hypoxia. Over the weekend of January 8–9, "over a hundred" dead birds were found clustered together on a California highway, while "thousands of dead gizzard shad" (a species of fish) turned up in the harbors of Chicago. Fish (2011). Between 28 December 2010 and 3 January 2011, 100 tons of dead fish washed ashore on the Brazilian coast. On 3 January, an estimated two million dead fish were found floating in the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland. On 7 March, millions of small fish, including anchovies, sardines, and mackerel, were found dead in the area of King Harbor at Redondo Beach, California. An investigation by the authorities within the area concluded that the sardines had become trapped within the harbor and depleted the ambient oxygen, which resulted in the deaths. The authorities stated that the event was "unusual, but not unexplainable." Cows (2011). On 14 January, approximately two hundred cows were found dead in a field in Stockton, Wisconsin. The owner of the cattle has told deputies that he suspected the animals died of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), or bovine virus diarrhea (BVD). Authorities in Wisconsin sent samples from the carcasses to labs in Madison in order to determine cause of death. Saiga antelope (2015). In 2015, some 200,000 saiga antelope died within a period of one week in a 20 km2 area of the Betpak-Dala desert region of Kazakhstan. They had gathered in large groups for their annual calving. It was determined that warm and humid temperatures had caused "Pasteurella multocida", a strain of bacteria that normally lives harmlessly in their tonsils, to cross into their bloodstream and cause hemorrhagic septicemia. This event wiped out 60% of the population of this critically endangered species. Mass mortality events are not uncommon for saiga. In 1981, 70,000 died; in 1988 there were 200,000 deaths; and more recently, in 2010, 12,000 died. Seabirds (2015–2016). Starting in the summer of 2015 and continuing into the spring of 2016, about 62,000 dead or dying birds were found on Pacific Ocean beaches from California to Alaska. Some researchers believe that as many as one million common murres may have died in the massive die-off. Fish (2016). In May 2016, the "Los Angeles Times" reported that millions of fish had washed ashore along the coast of north-central Vietnam, stretching over 125 miles of beaches. This included the shoreline in the Phu Loc district, in Thua Thien Hue province. Possible causes include industrial pollution, as government researchers had found that "toxic elements" had caused the "unprecedented" fish mortalities. Concerns were raised about a "massive Taiwanese-owned steel plant" that was allegedly "pumping untreated wastewater" into the ocean. Brumby (2019). In 2019, an extreme heatwave with temperatures exceeding 42 °C in central Australia lead to the death of approximately 40 brumbies. Bats. In 2014 and 2018, heatwaves in Australia killed significant portions of local bat populations. Migratory birds (2020). In August 2020, observers reported that hundreds of dead migratory birds heading south for the winter had been found at the White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico. By September, the number had increased to tens of thousands, and the die-off had spread across at least New Mexico, Colorado, Texas, Arizona, and farther north into Nebraska. The birds were migrating species, including "owls, warblers, hummingbirds, loons, flycatchers, and woodpeckers". They seemed to be emaciated, as if they had just kept on flying until they dropped. Possible causes of the deaths include climate crisis and wildfires, according to "The Guardian". Explanations. According to most scientists, massive die-offs of animals are not necessarily unusual in nature and may happen for any of a wide variety of reasons, both preventable and unpreventable. Natural causes often include severe weather, volcanic eruptions, disease outbreaks, and accidental poisonings, while human-caused die-offs are typically due to pollution (especially major oil and chemical spills) and climate change adding to the stresses on wildlife. The U.S. Geological Survey's website listed about 90 mass deaths of birds and other wildlife from June through 12 December 2010; Louisiana's State Wildlife Veterinarian Jim LaCour stated that there had been 16 similar mass blackbird deaths in the previous 30 years. Sudden or short-term die-offs must also be distinguished from much longer-term extinction events, which have occurred naturally for countless species throughout the Earth's history and for many extant species are often demonstrated to be ongoing, if gradually, in the modern era. On the other hand, some mass die-offs appear to be unique because there are no previous records of similar occurrences, or because the likely cause of death can be pinpointed to a novel man-made event that has never previously existed; human technologies of a type or scale unknown at any prior point in history are frequently implicated in catastrophic mortality events. These types of mass die-offs are, then, unusual by definition. According to Italy's WWF president Giorgio Tramonti, mass dove deaths like the ones that occurred in Italy had never happened before 2010. The event in Arkansas was attributed primarily to an unexpected temperature change causing atmospheric turbulence (visible on NEXRAD Doppler weather radar images) above the birds' roosting areas, which likely disoriented them. Apocalypse. Some Christians assert that this particular cluster of animal mass deaths is a sign of the Apocalypse. They reference a passage in the "Book of Hosea" in the Hebrew Bible which reads: "By swearing, and lying, and killing, and stealing, and committing adultery, they break out, and blood toucheth blood," and the prophecy continues "Therefore shall the land mourn, and every one that dwelleth therein shall languish, with the beasts of the field, and with the fowls of heaven; yea, the fishes of the sea also shall be taken away." The term "aflockalypse" was adopted by some media commentators in reference to the 2010–2011 bird deaths. "Aflockalypse" is a portmanteau of the words "flock" and "apocalypse".

oceanic organisms

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=317266

Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds, (20 February 1632 – 26 July 1712), was a prominent English politician. Under King Charles II (and known at the time as Lord Danby), he was the leading figure in the government for around five years in the mid 1670s. He fell out of favour due to corruption and other scandals, and was impeached and eventually imprisoned in the Tower of London for five years until the accession of James II of England in 1685. In 1688 he was one of the Immortal Seven group that invited William III, Prince of Orange to depose James II as monarch during the Glorious Revolution. He was again the leading figure in government, known at the time as the Marquess of Carmarthen, for a few years in the early 1690s. Early life, 1632–1674. Osborne was the son of Sir Edward Osborne, Baronet of Kiveton, Yorkshire, and his second wife Anne Walmesley, widow of Thomas Middleton; she was a niece of Henry Danvers, 1st Earl of Danby. Thomas Osborne was born in 1632. He was the grandson of Sir Hewett Osborne and great-grandson of Sir Edward Osborne, Lord Mayor of London, who, according to the accepted account, while an apprentice to Sir William Hewett, clothworker and lord mayor in 1559, made the fortunes of the family by leaping from London Bridge into the river and rescuing Anne (d. 1585), the daughter of his employer, whom he afterwards married. Osborne's father was a staunch Royalist who served as Vice President of the Council of the North. Thomas's elder half-brother Edward was killed in an accident in 1638, when the roof of the family home collapsed on him; according to a family legend, Thomas survived because he had been searching for his cat under a table at the time of the disaster. Their father, a loving parent, is said never to have fully recovered from the loss. Osborne, the future Lord Treasurer, succeeded to the baronetcy and estates in Yorkshire on his father Edward's death in 1647, and, after unsuccessfully courting his cousin Dorothy Osborne, married Lady Bridget, daughter of Montagu Bertie, 2nd Earl of Lindsey, in 1651. Introduction to public life, 1665–1674. Osborne was introduced to public life and to court by his neighbour in Yorkshire, George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham. In 1661 he was appointed High Sheriff of Yorkshire and was then elected MP for York in 1665. He made the "first step in his future rise" by joining Buckingham in his attack on the Earl of Clarendon in 1667. In 1668 he was appointed joint Treasurer of the Navy with Sir Thomas Lyttelton, and subsequently sole treasurer. He succeeded Sir William Coventry as commissioner for the state treasury in 1669, and in 1673 was appointed a commissioner for the admiralty. He was created Viscount Osborne in the Scottish peerage on 2 February 1673, and a privy councillor on 3 May. On 19 June, on the resignation of Lord Clifford, he was appointed lord treasurer and made Baron Osborne of Kiveton and Viscount Latimer in the peerage of England, while on 27 June 1674 he was created Earl of Danby, by Charles II when he surrendered his Scottish peerage of Osborne to his third son Peregrine Osborne; (he was on his mother's side a great-nephew of the previous Earl of Danby). He was appointed the same year lord-lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire, and in 1677 received the Garter. Leading the King's government, 1674–1678. Danby was a statesman of very different calibre from the leaders of the Cabal Ministry, Buckingham and Arlington. His principal aim was no doubt the maintenance and increase of his own influence and party, but his ambition corresponded with definite political views. A member of the old Cavalier party, a confidential friend and correspondent of Lauderdale, he desired to strengthen the executive and the royal authority. At the same time he was a keen partisan of the established church, an enemy of both Roman Catholics and dissenters, and an opponent of all toleration. He is often credited with inventing "Parliamentary management", the first conscious effort to convert a mass of country backbenchers into an organised Government lobby. While he made full use of patronage for this purpose, he undoubtedly regarded patronage as an essential tool of Royal policy; as he wrote in 1677 "nothing is more necessary than for the world to see that he (the King) will reward and punish". Politics of religion. In 1673 Osborne opposed Charles II's Royal Declaration of Indulgence, supported the Test Act, and spoke against the proposal for giving relief to the dissenters. In June 1675 he signed the paper of advice drawn up by the bishops for the king, urging the rigid enforcement of the laws against the Roman Catholics, their complete banishment from the court, and the suppression of conventicles. A bill introduced by him imposing special taxes on recusants and subjecting Roman Catholic priests to imprisonment for life was only thrown out as too lenient because it secured offenders from the charge of treason. The same year he introduced a Test Oath by which all holding office or seats in either House of Parliament were to declare resistance to the royal power a crime, and promise to abstain from all attempts to alter the government of either church or state; but this extreme measure of retrograde toryism was rejected. The king opposed and also doubted the wisdom and practicability of this "thorough" policy of repression. Danby, therefore, ordered a return from every diocese of the numbers of dissenters, both Catholic and Protestant, in order to prove their insignificance, in order to remove the royal scruples (this became known as the Compton Census). In December 1676 he issued a proclamation for the suppression of coffee-houses because of the "defamation of His Majesty's Government" which took place in them, but this was soon withdrawn. In 1677, to secure Protestantism in case of a Roman Catholic succession, he introduced a bill by which ecclesiastical patronage and the care of the royal children were entrusted to the bishops; but this measure, like the other, was thrown out. Foreign affairs. In foreign affairs, Danby showed a stronger grasp of essentials. He desired to increase English trade, credit and power abroad. He was a determined enemy both to Roman influence and to French ascendancy. As he wrote in a memorandum in the summer of 1677, an English Minister must consider only how England's interests stand, and all considerations including trade, religion, and public opinion pointed to the Dutch Republic, not France, as the desired ally. He terminated the war with the Dutch Republic in 1674, and from that time maintained a friendly correspondence with William of Orange. In 1677, after two years of tedious negotiations, he overcame all obstacles, and in spite of James's opposition, and without the knowledge of Louis XIV, effected the marriage between William and Mary that was the germ of the Revolution and the Act of Settlement. This national policy, however, could only be pursued, and the minister could only maintain himself in power, by acquiescence in the king's personal relations with the king of France settled by the Treaty of Dover in 1670, which included Charles's acceptance of a pension, and bound him to a policy exactly opposite to Danby's, one furthering French and Roman ascendancy. Though not a member of the Cabal ministry, and in spite of his own denial, Danby must, it would seem, have known of the relations between King Charles and King Louis after becoming Lord Treasurer. In any case, in 1676, together with Lauderdale alone, he consented to a treaty between Charles and Louis according to which the foreign policy of both kings was to be conducted in union, and Charles received an annual subsidy of £100,000. In 1678 Charles, taking advantage of the growing hostility to France in the nation and parliament, raised his price, and Danby by his directions demanded through Ralph Montagu (afterwards Duke of Montagu) six million livres a year (£300,000) for three years. Simultaneously with negotiating the royal policy of an Anglo-French alliance, Danby guided through parliament a bill for raising money for a war "against" France; a league was concluded with the Dutch Republic, and troops were actually sent there. That Danby, in spite of his compromising transactions on the King's behalf, remained in intention faithful to the national interests, appears clear from the hostility with which he was still regarded by France. In 1676, Ruvigny described Danby to Louis XIV as intensely antagonistic to France and French interests, and as doing his utmost to prevent the treaty of that year. In 1678, on the rupture of relations between Charles and Louis, a splendid opportunity of paying off old scores was afforded Louis by disclosing Danby's participation in Charles's demands for French gold. Fall from grace, 1678–1688. The circumstances of Danby's acts (and King Charles's) now came together to bring about his fall. Although both abroad and at home his policy had generally embodied the wishes of the ascendant party in the state, Danby had never obtained the confidence of the nation. His character inspired no respect, and during the whole of his long career, he could not rely on the support of a single individual. Charles is said to have told him when he made him treasurer that he had only two friends in the world, himself and his own merit. He was described to Samuel Pepys as "one of a broken sort of people that have not much to lose and therefore will venture all", and as "a beggar having £1100 or £1200 a year, but owes above £10,000". His office brought him in £20,000 a year, and he was known to make large profits by the sale of offices; he maintained his power by corruption and by jealously excluding from office men of high standing and ability. Gilbert Burnet described him as "the most hated minister that had ever been about the king". Worse men had been less detested, but Danby had none of the amiable virtues which often counteract the odium incurred by serious faults. John Evelyn, who knew him intimately, described him as "a man of excellent natural parts but nothing of generosity or gratefulness". The Earl of Shaftesbury, doubtless no friendly witness, spoke of him as an inveterate liar, "proud, ambitious, revengeful, false, prodigal and covetous to the highest degree", and Burnet supported his unfavourable judgment. His corruption, his submission to a tyrannical wife, his greed, his pale face and lean person, which had replaced the handsome features and comeliness of earlier days, were the subject of ridicule, from the witty sneers of Halifax to the coarse jests of the anonymous writers of innumerable lampoons. By his championship of the national policy he raised up formidable foes abroad without securing a single friend or supporter at home, and his fidelity to the national interests was now, through an act of personal spite, to be the occasion of his downfall. Kenyon describes the Danby administration by the autumn of 1678 as "weak, discredited, unpopular and unsuccessful"; it required only the Popish Plot to bring it down. Danby was accused of using the insane "revelations" of Israel Tonge for his own advantage; but as Kenyon notes, the King gave Danby an explicit order to investigate Tonge's claims, and whatever Danby's personal views, he had no choice but to comply. Impeachment and attainder. In appointing a new secretary of state, Danby had preferred Sir William Temple, a strong adherent of the anti-French policy, to Ralph Montagu (later the Duke of Montagu). Montagu, after a quarrel with the Duchess of Cleveland, was dismissed from the king's employment. He immediately went over to the opposition, and in concert with Louis XIV and Paul Barillon, the French ambassador, who supplied him with a large sum of money, arranged a plan for effecting Danby's ruin. He obtained a seat in parliament; and in spite of Danby's endeavour to seize his papers by an order in council, on 20 December 1678 caused two incriminating letters written by Danby to him to be read aloud to the House of Commons by the Speaker. The House immediately resolved on Danby's impeachment. At the foot of each of the letters appeared the king's postscripts, "I approve of this letter. C.R. ", in his own handwriting; but they were not read by the Speaker, and were entirely ignored in the proceedings against the minister, thus emphasising the constitutional principle that obedience to the king's orders is not a bar to impeachment. Danby was charged with having assumed royal powers by treating matters of peace and war without the knowledge of the council, with having raised a standing army on pretence of war with France, with having obstructed the assembling of Parliament, and with corruption and embezzlement in the treasury. Danby, when communicating the "Popish Plot" to Parliament, had from the first expressed his disbelief in Titus Oates's revelations, he now stood accused of having "traitorously concealed the plot". He was voted guilty by the Commons; but while the Lords were disputing whether the accused peer should have bail, and whether the charges amounted to more than a misdemeanour, Parliament was prorogued on 30 December and dissolved three weeks later. While Danby had few friends, the debate in the Lords showed a notable reluctance to impeach a Crown servant for simply carrying out Crown policy: Charles Dormer, 2nd Earl of Carnarvon, in a remarkably witty speech, reminded his peers of how many of their predecessors had taken part in impeachments, only to end up being impeached themselves. In March 1679, a new Parliament hostile to Danby was returned, and he was forced to resign the treasurership; but he received a pardon from the king under the Great Seal, and a warrant for a marquessate. His proposed advancement in rank was severely reflected upon in the Lords, Halifax declaring it in the king's presence the recompense of treason, "not to be borne". In the Commons, his retirement from office did not appease his antagonists. The proceedings against him were revived, a committee of privileges deciding on 23 March 1679 that the dissolution of Parliament did not abate the impeachment. The Lords passed a motion for his committal, and, as in Clarendon's case, his banishment. This was rejected by the Commons, who passed a bill of attainder. Danby had gone to the country, but returned to London on 21 April to protest the threatened attainder, and was sent to the Tower of London. In his written defence, he pleaded the King's pardon, but on 5 May 1679, this plea was pronounced illegal by the Commons. The declaration that a Royal Pardon was no defence to impeachment by the House of Commons was repeated by the Commons in 1689, and was finally embodied in the Act of Settlement 1701. The Commons now demanded judgment against the prisoner from the Lords. Further proceedings, however, were stopped by the dissolution of Parliament in July; but for nearly five years Danby remained in the Tower. A number of pamphlets asserting his complicity in the Popish Plot, and even accusing him of the murder of Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey, were published in 1679 and 1680; they were answered by Danby's secretary, Edward Christian in "Reflections". In May 1681 Danby was indicted by the Grand Jury of Middlesex for Godfrey's murder on the accusation of Edward Fitzharris. His petition to the king for a trial by his peers was refused, and an attempt to prosecute the publishers of the false evidence in the king's bench was unsuccessful. For some time all appeals to the king, to Parliament, and to the courts were unavailing; but on 12 February 1684 his application to Chief Justice Jeffreys was successful, and he was set at liberty on bail of £40,000, to appear in the House of Lords in the following session. He visited the king the same day, but took no part in public affairs for the rest of the reign. Return to court under William III, 1688–1702. Following the accession of James II, Danby was discharged from his bail by the Lords on 19 May 1685, and the order declaring dissolution of Parliament not to be abatement of impeachment was reversed. He took his seat in the Lords as a leader of the moderate Tory party. Though a supporter of the hereditary principle, he soon found himself more and more opposed to James, and in particular to James's attacks on Anglicanism. He was visited by Dykvelt, William of Orange's agent; and in June 1687 he wrote to William assuring him of his support. On 30 June 1688, he was one of the seven politicians in the Revolution who signed the "Invitation to William". In November, he occupied York for William, returning to London to meet William on 26 December. He appears to have thought that William would not claim the crown, and at first supported the theory that as the throne had been vacated by James's flight, the succession fell to Mary. This met with little support and was rejected both by William and by Mary herself, so he voted against the regency and joined with Halifax and the Commons in declaring the prince and princess joint sovereigns. Friction with the Whig ascendancy. Danby had rendered extremely important services to William's cause. On 20 April 1689 he was created Marquess of Carmarthen and made lord-lieutenant of the three ridings of Yorkshire. He was, however, still greatly disliked by the Whigs, and William, instead of reinstating him as Lord Treasurer, appointed him to the lesser post of Lord President of the Council in February 1689. His overt vexation and disappointment at this turn of events were increased by the appointment of Halifax as Lord Privy Seal. The antagonism between the "black" and the "white" marquess (the latter being the nickname given to Carmarthen in allusion to his sickly appearance), which had been forgotten in their common hatred to the French and to Rome, revived in all its bitterness. He retired to the country and was seldom present at the council. In June and July, motions were made in Parliament for his removal; but notwithstanding his great unpopularity, on Halifax's retirement in 1690 he again acquired the chief power in the state, which he retained until 1695 by bribes in Parliament and the support of the king and queen. Advisor to the Queen, and return to prominence. In 1690, during William's absence in Ireland, Carmarthen was appointed Mary's chief advisor. In 1691, attempting to compromise Halifax, he discredited himself by the patronage of an informer named Fuller, who was soon shown to be an impostor. He was absent in 1692 when the Place Bill was thrown out. In 1693, Carmarthen presided in great state as Lord High Steward at the trial of Lord Mohun; and on 4 May 1694 he was created Duke of Leeds. The same year he supported the Triennial Bill, but opposed the new treason bill as weakening the hands of the executive. Meanwhile, fresh attacks were made upon him. He was accused unjustly of Jacobitism. In April 1695, he was impeached once more by the Commons on suspicion of having received a bribe of 5000 guineas to procure a new charter for the East India Company. Although he had not actually accepted the gold, he had allowed it to remain in his house for over a year, only returning it when the inquiry began. In his defense, while denying that he had intended to take the money ("it had been left with him only to be counted by his secretary") and appealing to his past services, Leeds did not attempt to conceal the fact that according to his experience bribery was an acknowledged and universal custom in public business, and that he himself had been instrumental in obtaining money for others. Meanwhile, his servant, who was said to have been the intermediary between the duke and the company, fled the country; and with no evidence to convict, the proceedings fell apart. In May 1695, Danby was ordered to cease his attendance at the council. He returned in October but was not included among the Lords Justices appointed regents during William's absence in this year. In November he was granted a DCL by the University of Oxford. In December, he became a commissioner of trade, and in December 1696, governor of the Royal Fishery Company. He opposed the prosecution of Sir John Fenwick, but supported the action taken by members of both Houses in defence of William's rights in the same year. In 1698, he entertained Tsar Peter the Great at Wimbledon. He had for some time lost the real direction of affairs, and in 1699 he was compelled to retire from office and from the lord-lieutenancy of Yorkshire. Retirement from public life, 1702–1712. In Queen Anne's reign, in his old age, the Duke of Leeds was described as "a gentleman of admirable natural parts, great knowledge and experience in the affairs of his own country, but of no reputation with any party. He hath not been regarded, although he took his place at the council board". The veteran statesman, however, by no means acquiesced in his enforced retirement, and continued to take an active part in politics. As a zealous churchman and Protestant, he still possessed a following. In 1705 he supported a motion that the Church of England was in danger, and humiliated Thomas Wharton, 1st Marquess of Wharton, who spoke against the motion, by reminding him that he had once used a church pulpit as a lavatory. In 1710 in Henry Sacheverell's case, he spoke in defence of hereditary right. In November of this year he obtained a renewal of his pension of £3500 a year from the post office which he was holding in 1694, and in 1711 at the age of eighty was a competitor for the office of Lord Privy Seal. Leeds's long and eventful career, however, terminated soon afterwards by his death in Easton Neston, Northamptonshire, England on 26 July 1712. Osborne was buried in the Osborne family chapel at All Hallows Church, Harthill, South Yorkshire. He had purchased the Harthill estate while Earl of Danby, and had a fine mortuary chapel built in the north-east corner of All Hallows Church. Leeds's estates and titles passed to eldest surviving son and heir Peregrine (1659–1729), who had been in the house of Lords as Baron Osborne since 1690, but is best remembered as a naval officer in the Royal Navy, where he rose to the rank of vice admiral. Family. Thomas Osborne and his wife Bridget, daughter of Montagu Bertie, 2nd Earl of Lindsey married in 1651. They had nine children: Bridget, Duchess of Leeds, died at Wimbledon in June 1703.

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The Cheadle Center for Biodiversity and Ecological Restoration (CCBER) is a research center under the Office of Research at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) whose mission is to preserve regional biodiversity and restore ecosystems on campus lands. CCBER has three main functions: curation and preservation of natural history collections, native coastal ecosystem and habitat restoration on campus lands, and education and outreach for both UCSB students and local community schools. History. In 1954, a UCSB faculty member, Dr. Cornelius H. Muller, founded a herbarium to be used for research and teaching. Another faculty member, Mary Erickson, founded a vertebrate collection with similar goals. In 1995, the two facilities merged to become the Museum of Systematics and Ecology (MSE). In 2005, MSE teamed up with the UCSB ecological restoration program, whose director was Wayne Ferren, to become CCBER. CCBER's first director was Jennifer Thorsch, a botanical researcher at UCSB. CCBER was named after Vernon and Mary Cheadle. Vernon Cheadle was the chancellor at UCSB between 1962 to 1977, but also a botanist who, along with Katherine Esau, contributed thousands of specimens to CCBER's natural history collections. Vernon Cheadle and Katherine Esau formed a research partnership at UC Davis in 1950, and when Cheadle became the chancellor of UCSB in 1962, Esau followed so they could continue their collaboration. Katherine Esau, a pioneering plant anatomist, focused much of her work on phloem, the food conducting cells in higher plants. Esau published numerous award winning botany textbooks, including "Plant Anatomy," published in 1953. The Cheadle and Esau families have made generous donations that have ensured the long-term operation of CCBER. The current senior staff at CCBER are: Katja Seltmann (Kathrine Esau Director), Lisa Stratton (Director of Ecosystem Management), and Gregory Wahlert (Shirley Tucker Curator of Biodiversity Collections and Botanical Research). Projects and Programs. Ecological Restoration. CCBER conducts varying amounts of native ecosystem and habitat restoration and management on over 300 acres of open-space on the UCSB campus, between the Goleta Slough and Elwood Mesa in Goleta, California. The open space areas are used for multiple purposes, such as ecosystem and native habitat restoration and conservation, education, research, outreach, and community involvement. According to Section 30607.1 of the California Coastal Act, when UCSB plans to develop and potentially damage land, specifically wetlands, they must undertake restoration projects on separate pieces of land of equal or greater area and biological productivity in order to mitigate the ecological impacts of construction. Many of these restoration efforts are handed over to CCBER, including San Clemente wetland, the lot 38 bioswale, North Bluff and the Campus Lagoon. Some of the open space areas managed by CCBER already contained portions of intact native vegetation and/or wetlands that are protected by the Clean Water Act and Coastal Act, as well as areas that are being restored after significant human impacts, such as North Bluff, Campus Lagoon, Manzanita Village, Storke Wetlands, San Clemente wetlands, and the 136-acre (55 ha) North Campus Open Space. While many of CCBER's restoration projects are products of this agreement, many are also volunteer based restoration projects. Examples of CCBER's volunteer based restoration projects include parts of Campus Lagoon, and most of North Campus Open Space. CCBER's management areas include: East Bluff, Campus Lagoon, Lot 38 Bioswale, Manzanita Village, North Bluff, North Campus Open Space (NCOS), North Parcel, San Clemente, San Joaquin, Sierra Madre, South Parcel, and Storke Wetland. The open spaces managed by CCBER are characterized by coastal dune, oak woodland, coastal sage scrub, grassland, and wetland ecosystems. Restoration methods include non-native species removal, reintroduction of native species, and often the creation of wetland features such as bioswales and vernal pools. In some cases, the restoration involves the removal or conversion of structures built during previous uses or ownership of the land. For example, nearly half of the area that comprises NCOS was the site of a former golf course before CCBER began restoring the wetland and upland habitats that previously existed there. Natural History Collections. CCBER runs the UCSB Natural History Collection, which houses around half a million individual plant, insect, and vertebrate specimens including: invertebrates, mammals, birds, reptiles, vascular plants, algae, and lichen. This collection is maintained by CCBER for educational, research, and outreach purposes. The UCSB Natural History Collections at CCBER provide data for research and support mentoring and training for collection curators and student-driven research projects. "Capturing California's Flowers," one of CCBER's current projects made possible through a National Science Foundation grant, will allow CCBER to digitize more than 900,000 plant specimens. Digitalization of these specimens will make them available online for anyone to use for research and education. Another National Science Foundation grant of $4.3 million will allow Katja Seltmann, the center's Collections Director, to investigate terrestrial parasite species. Investigation of these species is conducted because arthropods are major carriers of diseases to humans worldwide, and scientists like Seltmann are investigating how they will respond to the shifting climate. Seltmann uses an online data server called Ontobee to share data with the 27 other research institutions working on the Terrestrial Parasite Tracker project. CCBER also conducts research by monitoring wildlife, partnered with iNaturalist and the Audubon Society. Access to Collections and Research. For over 60 years CCBER's collections have contributed to the research and educational missions of UCSB. Natural history collections and collection-based research are vital to discovering, understanding, and documenting biodiversity and to inform public policy on such issues as invasive species, climate change, evolution, and emerging public health threats. Natural history collections represent the irreplaceable documentation of life on Earth. CCBER's collections are available for use by university faculty, researchers, staff, and students as well as community members, including biological consultants, governmental agencies, K-12 educators and their students. The digitalization of CCBER's collection will make their specimens available to a global audience. CCBER is conducting research to help understand how ecosystems will shift as a result of climate change, with a goal of developing adaptation and mitigation strategies. CCBER's primary research areas include the Coastal Ecosystem Restoration Research Program, Arthropods of Coastal California, Plant Speciation via Hybridization and Allopolyploidy, Natural History Collection Information Science, and Endangered Endemic Plants. Education. CCBER involves itself in community education through UCSB courses, field guides, placement of interpretive placards, workshops, seminars, a K-12 environmental education program, and tours. It also provides field and lab-based resources for faculty, staff, and students at UCSB. Affiliates and Funding. CCBER is funded through grants for scientific research and restoration from institutions like the National Science Foundation and Museum and Library Services, and agencies such as CalTrans and U.S. Fish and Wildlife. CCBER is a non-profit and relies largely on donations and grants to do program work. A grant awarded in 2013 by the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS), will allow CCBER to digitize around 70,000 of the specimens in their Natural History collection. Another way CCBER receives funding is through UCSB construction and UCSB's relationship with the California Coastal Commission. According to Section 30607.1 of the California Coastal Act, when UCSB plans to develop and potentially damage land, specifically land containing wetlands, they must hand over an equal area of land, with equal or greater biological productivity for restoration efforts. CCBER serves as a campus agency that helps with locating and restoring these mitigation areas.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56487810

Sir John Kendrick (or Kendricke; d. 1661) was an English merchant and politician who was Lord Mayor of London in 1652. Family. John Kendrick was the son of Hugh Kendrick, of Chester, and his wife Anne Moulson. His paternal family was kin to the Kendrick baronets as well as the merchant John Kendrick. His maternal grandfather, Sir Thomas Moulson, was Lord Mayor of London in 1634, while his maternal grandmother, Ann (Radcliffe) Mowlson, was the namesake of Radcliffe College. He seems to have had five sisters. Kendrick married Katherine Evelyn, a cousin of the noted author John Evelyn, and is mentioned in Evelyn's famous diary as "a fanatic Lord Mayor, who had married a relation of ours." Career. Kendrick was a member of London's Grocer's Company, one of the city's livery companies. He was elected as Sheriff of London in 1645, serving alongside future mayor Thomas Foote. He was elected Lord Mayor of London in 1651. Kendrick was noted as a staunch Puritan and Republican. He was one of the aldermen who in 1648 was appointed by Parliament as part of a committee to form a militia to defend the rights and liberties of the city of London. During his mayoral term, he witnessed the Oath of Abjuration undertaken by William Petre, 4th Baron Petre to regain his lost estates by renouncing Catholicism. He also was the primary audience for a sermon by the Puritan divine Nathaniel Holmes after a great eclipse during his mayoralty. He had business dealings with the Irish faith healer Valentine Greatrakes, who purchased an interest in Kendrick's estates in Tipperary. Death. Kendrick died in 1661. His old associate Valentine Greatrakes acted as a representative for his heirs; several former owners of Kendrick's Irish estates sought to repossess the estates under the Act of Settlement 1662, and Greatrakes assisted Kendrick's heirs in their efforts to keep their inheritance intact.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6376911

A Cloake board is a piece of equipment used in beekeeping to facilitate raising queen bees. Invented by New Zealander Henry Cloake, the Cloake board consists of a queen excluder mounted to a wooden frame. The wooden frame contains a slot which allows a "temporary" floor (solid divider) to be inserted. Cloake method of queen rearing. The Cloake method of queen rearing involves a series of stages which divide a colony into a queenright lower colony and a queenless upper colony to improve acceptance of grafted larva, or to facilitate the creation of queen cells naturally. Stage one. Cloake board insertion: The Cloake board is placed between two hive bodies when the queen is known to be in the lower hive body. Because a Cloake board either contains or is used with a queen excluder, the laying queen will be restricted to the lower hive body from this point forward. Frames containing larvae should be moved to the upper box to encourage nurse bees to come up, these will be needed to attend to the future queen cells. At this time the lower entrance to the hive is reversed so that it faces the opposite direction and then closed. Without the slide in floor in place, the Cloake Board functions as an upper entrance for workers, who re-orient to enter the hive using the upper entrance. Stage two. Slide in the metal divider (insert): By sliding the divider into the Cloake board, the single functioning colony is now divided into two parts – a queenright lower colony and a queenless upper colony. The lower entrance is re-opened, allowing bees in the queenright section to exit the hive. When those bees return, they will do so to the upper entrance, but not be able to enter the lower colony. This results in a higher population of bees in the upper colony. The upper colony is typically left alone for 24 hours for a settling period, in which the bees determine that they are queenless, and prepare to replace their missing queen. Stage three. Grafted cells Installed: The queenless upper colony is now prepared to raise queens, and by inserting queen rearing bars with grafted larvae, the beekeeper provides candidates for new queens. At this time any emergency queen cells will be removed by the beekeeper. Stage three continues for one to two days, long enough for the cells to be fully accepted and built up. Stage four. Rejoin colonies as a "Finisher": The slide-in-divider is removed from the Cloake board. The queen excluder continues to retain the laying queen in the lower colony while the combined colony incubates the grafted queens. The queen cells will be removed before they hatch and transferred to mating nucs. Following the removal of the ripe queen cells the cloake board can be removed to re-establish the single united colony. Alternate method – no grafting. A cloake board can also be employed to create queen cells on existing frames without grafting. The steps are basically the same as above with the following modifications:

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56372100

John Joseph McGuire III (born August 24, 1968) is a member of the Virginia House of Delegates. He was first elected in 2017, and represents the 56th district comprising areas to the North and West of Richmond, Virginia. McGuire is a former United States Navy SEAL. Overcoming severe injuries, McGuire founded a business, SEAL Team Physical Training Inc., that provides preparation for Team aspirants, and also trains athletes at such Richmond-area schools as Virginia Commonwealth University. Political career. In 2017, McGuire ran for the Virginia House of Delegates for the 56th district, then held by retiring Republican incumbent Peter Farrell. He told the ‘’Richmond Times-Dispatch’’ that his main motivation for running was “interested in growing businesses in Virginia and wants to continue providing support for veterans and law enforcement officers.” McGuire won a hotly contested June 2017 Republican primary with 31% of the vote, defeating five other candidates. McGuire won the endorsement of Virginia Right! Blog, which noted he “came back from a horrible accident to walk and live a decent life again,” as well as his Navy service and conservative views. McGuire was attacked for allegedly moving into the 56th district for the race, although this was disputed by McGuire and supporters. McGuire nevertheless prevailed. In the general election, McGuire defeated health care consultant Melissa Dart by a 59% to 40% margin., despite a fundraising disadvantage, the Democrats’ huge 2017 statewide gains, and Hillary Clinton's 2016 victory among district voters. In October 2019, while seeking re-election to the Virginia House, McGuire refused to commit to completing his second term in office if re-elected. In November 2019, after winning re-election in the 56th, McGuire announced his candidacy for U.S. Congress for Virginia's 7th congressional district. Legislative bills and positions. McGuire spent his first two years with Republicans holding a narrow majority in the House of Delegates. His bill to put veterans’ ID on Virginia drivers’ licenses won approval and was signed into law. Running for re-election in 2019, McGuire cited “giving teachers a 5% pay raise without raising your taxes while balancing the budget” as the key legislative achievement of his first two years, and “Jobs, the opioid crisis, and education” as the three top issues facing the next general Assembly. McGuire's second term saw Democrats in control of the House of Delegates for the first time since 1999. He voted against Medicaid expansion, HB5001, in the 2018 legislative session. The bill passed 68–30 in the House of Delegates with bipartisan support. McGuire voted against the Equal Rights Amendment in the 2020 legislative session. The constitutional amendment passed 59–41 in the House of Delegates with bipartisan support. McGuire spoke against the ratification on the House floor pointing out that the resolution has missed its deadline for ratification. McGuire voted against a bill to eliminate a law banning sexual intercourse before marriage in the 2020 legislative session. The bill passed 91–5 with bipartisan support in the house. In the 2019 session, McGuire sponsored: -- HB 2043 Child care providers; require background checks, provide portability of those checks.—HB 2299 Commercial sex trafficking, prostitution, etc. ; increases penalties. In the 2020 session, McGuire sponsored: -- HB 424 School resource officers; required in every school.—HJ 39 Kratom; require the VA Board of Pharmacy to study whether it should be classified as a controlled substance.—HB 1474 Short-term rentals; require local regulations to comply with state rental and state / local zoning laws.—HB 1475 Assault and battery against a family or household member; require a mandatory minimum term if there's a prior conviction for similar offense within past 10 years.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21073593

The Venezuelan Ministry of Education ("Spanish:" Ministerio del Poder Popular para la Educación) is the federal-level department responsible for organising the education system of Venezuela. In 2001 it was the Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture, with responsibility for Culture and Sport being assigned to separate ministries on 14 February 2005 and 6 January 2007. Administration. The Ministry itself has four sub-departments, each overseeing different areas of education. They are the Department of Primary and Secondary Education, the Department of Higher Education and Research, the Department of Special Programs in Education, and the Department of Administration and Service. The Ministry maintains strict control over the curriculum, meaning it is almost identical at every level across the country in all institutions; in 2009, even more curriculum control was given to a council that is run as part of the United Socialist Party of Venezuela, which prompted protests. There are two education laws in the country, the 1940 Ley de Educación and the 1980 Ley Orgánica de Educación. In 1969 the government also adopted decrees 120 and 136, with plans to reform the general education curriculum. Since the entrance of the Chávez government, early-education reform took place to introduce "Bolivarian schools" that teach students up to the age of 14 inline with the principles of Bolivarianism and emphasize serving the country. There has been debate in the university community over curriculum reforms at this level; though university management staff agree that new laws may be needed to address deficits in teaching 21st century information, they fear that any attempts to push reform through a Chavist government will take away what little autonomy they have from the powers many universities in the country reject. Since 1976, the Ministry has run the country's Open University to provide distance learning for adults. Ministers. The current Education Minister is Aristóbulo Istúriz. Financing. The Ministry is in charge of all educational funding in Venezuela from a budget provided entirely by the government, and subsequently how it is spent. This budget is typically about 15% of the entire government budget, and of this, higher education has the largest share, usually about a third of the whole Education budget. Pre-school and primary education. State-funded preschools are free to attend, but are underfunded; private alternatives have taken over at this level of education. As preschool is not compulsory in Venezuela, many of those who do attend are enrolled at the private schools and as such are from wealthier backgrounds. Primary schools are compulsory, and see good attendance, though more in urban areas than in rural. No matter their public or private status, all schools in Venezuela are under the oversight of the Ministry. Secondary education. Private education is particularly popular at the secondary education level. The Bolivarian missions launched in 2003 were also seen as a success for providing outreach to improve literacy and university opportunities in rural areas. Higher education. Universities have a certain level of autonomy, and are allowed to receive funds from other sources, including private donations and from their research (e.g. patents) and other marketable pursuits, as long as this does not exceed the funding received from the Ministry. The ultimate responsibility for the management of the university also belongs to the Ministry, so universities cannot be independent from government control and the Minister for Education is able to take charge of all university activities if it deems necessary, including curriculum, research, policy, and the university management itself. Higher education facilities and individual students in Venezuela may also receive recurrent funding from the private sector for the establishment of scholarships or fellowships. In the 1970s, a program called the Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho Foundation (Fundayacucho) was started by the government to encourage external training in subjects for necessary vocations, sending many students to Spain, the United States, and the United Kingdom. However, while tuition was paid for by the government at the foreign institution, no employment support was given in Venezuela, resulting in many of the students returning or staying in the countries they had been sent to. This also led a shortage of trained professionals in the areas that were planned to improve the country. In the 21st century, Fundayacucho has instead become a government loan provider for students, but still provides loan forgiveness if students maintain a certain GPA. In 2012, the Ministry of Higher Education introduced currency controls on students, only allowing university students with approved permission to seek education or training abroad in certain specific degrees to exchange currency. None of these degree pathways are humanities or social sciences, and biology is not included, either. Research. The standard of research in Venezuela has been described as "generally weak", with the system said to "not foster a research environment" at all. Institutions at large cannot maintain research projects due to a lack of modern facilities, and those who leave the country for education tend to remain abroad to conduct research. Academics who used to work in Venezuela have also left the country in a brain drain that has particularly affected the sciences because of the lack of funding given in Venezuela. The government also sponsors CONICIT (National Science Council), which provides highly competitive funding for any kind of research or further training and education. According to the World Education Review, in 2013 there were more Venezuelan scientists working in the US alone than in Venezuela, by 150%.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36097989

i12 Katong, formerly Katong Mall and Katong People's Complex, also commonly known as 112 Katong, is a seven-storey shopping mall in the east of Singapore located at the intersection of East Coast Road and Joo Chiat Road. The mall is currently closed for renovations since March 2020 and will reopen in late 2021. History. Completed in late 1983 as Katong People's Complex, it had an exterior facade resembling a prison cell, such as having exposed blue pipes. It was a strata titled mall back then, comprising a department store and various shops and eateries. There are also numerous medical clinics inside the mall. In 1995, the facade was revamped and the mall was renamed Katong Mall. The department store was replaced by Cold Storage supermarket, and various education centres occupied the upper floors of the mall. The mall's basements contained an electronics store and various strata titled units. In 2009, because of bad business, Pua Seck Guan, former chief executive of CapitaLand Retail, bought Katong Mall in a $247.55 million deal as part of an en bloc sale. A private trust called Perennial Katong Retail Trust was subsequently formed to buy the mall from Tuan Sing Holdings' Golden Cape Investment. The trust's investors included corporate and institutional investors and Pua. The mall closed its doors in mid 2010 for a major makeover, to help revitalize the mall. When it reopened as I12 Katong in late 2011, it featured a Peranakan theme, as a reminder of its location. The mall also featured a Golden Village cinema, a Food Republic food court, a gourmet supermarket by Cold Storage, banks and more than 150 specialty shops. It also featured a wet and dry playground on the fourth floor. In early 2016, Keppel Land acquired a 22.4% stake in the mall from the owners at $51.4 million. In May 2016, plans were announced to redevelop the play deck on the fourth floor into an alfresco dining area. There are plans for a non-profit organisation to take up space in the mall too. In December 2018, Keppel Land acquired the remaining 77.6% stake of the mall from the subsidiary of Alpha Asia Macro Trends Fund at the price of $56.6m. The mall is closed since March 2020 for extensive revitalization works and is slated to reopen in late 2021, in order to "capture the charm and character of Katong". In April 2021, it was announced that the mall is currently 50% tenanted, with returning anchors CS Fresh, Golden Village, United World Preschool and Wine Connection. New tenants include Climb Asia, Guzman Y Gomez, Kindermusik With Love Studios, Malaysia Boleh, PS Café, Signature KOI, We are Sultans and Scoop Wholefoods, along with 180 new speciality shops. The atrium will also be relocated to Level 1, and it will have three zones, Fashion Lifestyle, Home and Living and Family Entertainment, which will be shared later this year. The Peranakan theme will be done away as well, coupled with its rebranding to reflect current trends.

establishment for digital equipment

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36971117

The Hyperloop is a proposed mode of passenger and freight transportation, first used to describe an open-source vactrain design released by a joint team from Tesla and SpaceX. Hyperloop is described as a sealed tube or system of tubes with low air pressure through which a pod may travel substantially free of air resistance or friction. The Hyperloop could potentially convey people or objects at airline or hypersonic speeds while being energy efficient compared with existing high-speed rail systems. This, if implemented, may reduce travel times compared to train and airplane travel over distances of under approximately . Elon Musk first publicly mentioned the Hyperloop in 2012. His initial concept incorporated reduced-pressure tubes in which pressurized capsules ride on air bearings driven by linear induction motors and axial compressors. The Hyperloop Alpha concept was first published in August 2013, proposing and examining a route running from the Los Angeles region to the San Francisco Bay Area, roughly following the Interstate 5 corridor. The Hyperloop Genesis paper conceived of a hyperloop system that would propel passengers along the route at a speed of , allowing for a travel time of 35 minutes, which is considerably faster than current rail or air travel times. Preliminary cost estimates for this LA–SF suggested route were included in the white paper— for a passenger-only version, and for a somewhat larger-diameter version transporting passengers and vehicles. However, transportation analysts expressed doubts that the system could be constructed on that budget, including some predictions that the Hyperloop would be several billion dollars overbudget once construction, development, and operation costs are taken into consideration. The Hyperloop concept has been explicitly "open-sourced" by Musk and SpaceX, and others have been encouraged to take the ideas and further develop them. To that end, a few companies have been formed, and several interdisciplinary student-led teams are working to advance the technology. SpaceX built an approximately subscale track for its pod design competition at its headquarters in Hawthorne, California.TUM Hyperloop set the world record of 463 km/h (288 mph) in July 2019 during the Hyperloop pod competition at SpaceX. Virgin Hyperloop conducted the first human trial in November 2020 at its test site in Las Vegas. History. The vactrain concept was first proposed by Robert H. Goddard in 1904. The concept was also depicted in the 1973 movie "Genesis II" where an elaborate "subshuttle" subterranean rapid transit system was constructed to interlink cities and continents. Musk first mentioned that he was thinking about a concept for a "fifth mode of transport", calling it the "Hyperloop", in July 2012 at a PandoDaily event in Santa Monica, California. This hypothetical high-speed mode of transportation would have the following characteristics: immunity to weather, collision free, twice the speed of a plane, low power consumption, and energy storage for 24-hour operations. The name "Hyperloop" was chosen because it would go in a loop. Musk envisions the more advanced versions will be able to go at hypersonic speed. In May 2013, Musk likened the Hyperloop to a "cross between a Concorde and a railgun and an air hockey table". From late 2012 until August 2013, a group of engineers from both Tesla and SpaceX worked on the conceptual modeling of Hyperloop. An early system design was published in the Tesla and SpaceX blogs which describes one potential design, function, pathway, and cost of a hyperloop system. According to the alpha design, pods would accelerate to cruising speed gradually using a linear electric motor and glide above their track on air bearings through tubes above ground on columns or below ground in tunnels to avoid the dangers of grade crossings. An ideal hyperloop system will be more energy-efficient, quiet, and autonomous than existing modes of mass transit. Musk has also invited feedback to "see if the people can find ways to improve it". The Hyperloop Alpha was released as an open source design. The word mark "HYPERLOOP", applicable to "high-speed transportation of goods in tubes" was issued to SpaceX on 4 April 2017. In June 2015, SpaceX announced that it would build a test track to be located next to SpaceX's Hawthorne facility. The track would be used to test pod designs supplied by third parties in the competition. By November 2015, with several commercial companies and dozens of student teams pursuing the development of Hyperloop technologies, the "Wall Street Journal" asserted that "The Hyperloop Movement", as some of its unaffiliated members refer to themselves, is officially bigger than the man who started it." The MIT Hyperloop team developed the first Hyperloop pod prototype, which they unveiled at the MIT Museum on 13 May 2016. Their design uses electrodynamic suspension for levitating and eddy current braking. On 29 January 2017, approximately one year after phase one of the Hyperloop pod competition, the MIT Hyperloop pod demonstrated the first ever low-pressure Hyperloop run in the world. Within this first competition the Delft University team from the Netherlands achieved the highest overall competition score, winning the prize for "best overall design". The award for the "fastest pod" was won by the team WARR Hyperloop from the Technical University of Munich (TUM), Germany. The team from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) placed third overall in the competition, judged by SpaceX engineers. The second Hyperloop pod competition took place from 25–27 August 2017. The only judging criterion was top speed, provided it was followed by successful deceleration. WARR Hyperloop from the Technical University of Munich won the competition by reaching a top speed of 324 km/h (201 mph) and therefore breaking the previous record of for Hyperloop prototypes set by Hyperloop One on their own test track. A third Hyperloop pod competition took place in July 2018. The defending champions, the WARR Hyperloop team from the Technical University of Munich, beat their own record with a top speed of 457 km/h (284 mph) during their run. The fourth competition in August 2019 saw the team from the Technical University of Munich, now known as TUM Hyperloop (by NEXT Prototypes e.V. ), again winning the competition and beating their own record with a top speed of 463 km/h (288 mph). The first-ever passenger test of Hyperloop technology was successfully conducted by Virgin Hyperloop with two employees of the company in November 2020. Theory and operation. Developments in high-speed rail have historically been impeded by the difficulties in managing friction and air resistance, both of which become substantial when vehicles approach high speeds. The vactrain concept theoretically eliminates these obstacles by employing magnetically levitating trains in evacuated (airless) or partly evacuated tubes, allowing for speeds of thousands of kilometres per hour. However, the high cost of maglev and the difficulty of maintaining a vacuum over large distances has prevented this type of system from ever being built. The Hyperloop resembles a vactrain system but operates at approximately of pressure. Initial design concept. The Hyperloop concept operates by sending specially designed "capsules" or "pods" through a steel tube maintained at a partial vacuum. In Musk's original concept, each capsule floats on a layer of air provided under pressure to air-caster "skis", similar to how pucks are levitated above an air hockey table, while still allowing higher speeds than wheels can sustain. Hyperloop One's technology uses passive maglev for the same purpose. Linear induction motors located along the tube would accelerate and decelerate the capsule to the appropriate speed for each section of the tube route. With rolling resistance eliminated and air resistance greatly reduced, the capsules can glide for the bulk of the journey. In Musk's original Hyperloop concept, an electrically driven inlet fan and axial compressor would be placed at the nose of the capsule to "actively transfer high-pressure air from the front to the rear of the vessel", resolving the problem of air pressure building in front of the vehicle, slowing it down. A fraction of the air is shunted to the skis for additional pressure, augmenting that gain passively from lift due to their shape. Hyperloop One's system does away with the compressor. In the alpha-level concept, passenger-only pods are to be in diameter and are projected to reach a top speed of to maintain aerodynamic efficiency. (Section 4.4) The design proposes passengers experience a maximum inertial acceleration of 0.5 g, about 2 or 3 times that of a commercial airliner on takeoff and landing. Proposed routes. A number of routes have been proposed for Hyperloop systems that meet the approximate distance conditions for which a Hyperloop is hypothesized to provide improved transport times (distances of under approximately ). Route "proposals" range from speculation described in company releases to business cases to signed agreements. Open-source design evolution. In September 2013, Ansys Corporation ran computational fluid dynamics simulations to model the aerodynamics of the capsule and shear stress forces that the capsule would be subjected to. The simulation showed that the capsule design would need to be significantly reshaped to avoid creating supersonic airflow, and that the gap between the tube wall and capsule would need to be larger. Ansys employee Sandeep Sovani said the simulation showed that Hyperloop has challenges but that he is convinced it is feasible. In October 2013, the development team of the OpenMDAO software framework released an unfinished, conceptual open-source model of parts of the Hyperloop's propulsion system. The team asserted that the model demonstrated the concept's feasibility, although the tube would need to be in diameter, significantly larger than originally projected. However, the team's model is not a true working model of the propulsion system, as it did not account for a wide range of technological factors required to physically construct a Hyperloop based on Musk's concept, and in particular had no significant estimations of component weight. In November 2013, MathWorks analyzed the proposal's suggested route and concluded that the route was mainly feasible. The analysis focused on the acceleration experienced by passengers and the necessary deviations from public roads in order to keep the accelerations reasonable; it did highlight that maintaining a trajectory along I-580 east of San Francisco at the planned speeds was not possible without significant deviation into heavily populated areas. In January 2015, a paper based on the NASA OpenMDAO open-source model reiterated the need for a larger diameter tube and a reduced cruise speed closer to Mach 0.85. It recommended removing on-board heat exchangers based on thermal models of the interactions between the compressor cycle, tube, and ambient environment. The compression cycle would only contribute 5% of the heat added to the tube, with 95% of the heat attributed to radiation and convection into the tube. The weight and volume penalty of on-board heat exchangers would not be worth the minor benefit, and regardless the steady-state temperature in the tube would only reach above ambient temperature. According to Musk, various aspects of the Hyperloop have technology applications to other Musk interests, including surface transportation on Mars and electric jet propulsion. Researchers associated with MIT's department of Aeronautics and Astronautics published research in June 2017 that verified the challenge of aerodynamic design near the Kantrowitz limit that had been theorized in the original SpaceX Alpha-design concept released in 2013. In 2017, Dr. Richard Geddes and others formed the Hyperloop Advanced Research Partnership to act as a clearinghouse of Hyperloop public domain reports and data. In February 2020, Hardt Hyperloop, Hyper Poland, TransPod and Zeleros formed a consortium to drive standardisation efforts, as part of a joint technical committee (JTC20) set up by European standards bodies CEN and CENELEC to develop common standards aimed at ensuring the safety and interoperability of infrastructure, rolling stock, signalling and other systems. Mars. According to Musk, Hyperloop would be useful on Mars as no tubes would be needed because Mars' atmosphere is about 1% the density of the Earth's at sea level. For the Hyperloop concept to work on Earth, low-pressure tubes are required to reduce air resistance. However, if they were to be built on Mars, the lower air resistance would allow a Hyperloop to be created with no tube, only a track. Hyperloop companies. Virgin Hyperloop. Virgin Hyperloop (formerly Hyperloop One, Virgin Hyperloop One, and before that, Hyperloop Technologies) was incorporated in 2014 and has built a team of 280+, including engineers, technicians, welders, and machinists. It has raised more than in capital from investors including DP World, Sherpa Capital, Formation 8, 137 Ventures, Caspian Venture Capital, Fast Digital, GE Ventures, and SNCF. Hyperloop One was founded by Shervin Pishevar and Brogan BamBrogan. BamBrogan left the company in July 2016, along with three of the other founding members of Arrivo. Hyperloop One then selected co-founder Josh Giegel, a former SpaceX engineer, to be CTO; Giegel now serves as CEO. Hyperloop One has a 75,000-square foot Innovation Campus in downtown LA and a 100,000-square foot machine and tooling shop in North Las Vegas. By 2017, it had completed a 500m Development Loop (DevLoop) in North Las Vegas, Nevada. On 11 May 2016, Hyperloop One conducted the first live trial of Hyperloop technology, demonstrating that its custom linear electric motor could propel a sled from 0 to 110 miles an hour in just over one second. The acceleration exerted approximately 2.5 g on the sled. The sled was stopped at the end of the test by hitting a pile of sand at the end of the track, because the test was not intended to test braking components. In July 2016, Hyperloop One released a preliminary study that suggested a Hyperloop connection between Helsinki and Stockholm would be feasible, reducing the travel time between the cities to half an hour. The construction costs were estimated by Hyperloop One to be around ( at 2016 exchange rates). In August 2016, Hyperloop One announced a deal with the world's third largest ports operator, DP World, to develop a cargo offloader system at DP World's flagship port of Jebel Ali in Dubai. Hyperloop One also broke ground on DevLoop, its full-scale Hyperloop test track. In November 2016, Hyperloop One disclosed that it has established a high-level working group relationship with the governments of Finland and the Netherlands to study the viability of building Hyperloop proof of operations centers in those countries. Hyperloop One also has a feasibility study underway with Dubai's Roads and Transport Authority for passenger systems in the UAE. Other feasibility studies are underway in Russia, Los Angeles, and the Netherlands. On 12 May 2017, Hyperloop One performed its first full-scale Hyperloop test, becoming the first company in the world to test a full-scale Hyperloop. The system-wide test integrated Hyperloop components including vacuum, propulsion, levitation, sled, control systems, tube, and structures. On 12 July 2017, the company revealed images of its first generation pod prototype, which will be used at the DevLoop test site in Nevada to test aerodynamics. On 12 October 2017, the company received a "significant investment" from the Virgin Group founder Richard Branson, leading to a rebrand of the name. In February 2018, Richard Branson of Virgin Hyperloop One announced that he had a preliminary agreement with the Maharashtra State government of India to build the Mumbai-Pune Hyperloop. In 2019, a partnership was formed between Virgin Hyperloop One, the University of Missouri, and engineering firm Black & Veatch to investigate a Missouri Hyperloop In March 2019, Missouri governor Mike Parson announced the creation of a "Blue Ribbon" panel to examine the specifics of funding and construction of the Missouri Hyperloop. The route would connect Missouri's largest cites including St. Louis, Kansas City, and Columbia. This comes after a 2018 feasibility study found the route viable, the first such study in the United States. In June 2019, a partnership with the Sam Fox School of Washington University of St. Louis was announced to further investigate different proposals for the Missouri Hyperloop. In July 2019, Government of Maharashtra State of India and Hyperloop One set a target to create the first hyperloop system in the world between Pune and Mumbai. In November 2020, Company co-founder Josh Giegel and head of Passenger Experience Sara Luchian were part of the first crewed Hyperloop trip on the company's DevLoop in Nevada, reaching a speed of . Hyperloop Transportation Technologies. Hyperloop Transportation Technologies (HTT) is the first Hyperloop company created (founded in 2013), with a current workforce of more than 800 engineers and professionals located around the world. Some collaborate part-time; others are full-time employees and contributors. Some members are full-time paid employees; others work in exchange for salary and stock options. After Musk's Hyperloop concept proposal in 2012, Jumpstarter, Inc founder Dirk Ahlborn placed a 'call to action' on his Jumpstarter platform. Jumpstarter started pooling resources and amassed 420 people to the team. HTT announced in May 2015 that a deal had been finalized with landowners to build a test track along a stretch of road near Interstate 5 between Los Angeles and San Francisco. In December 2016, Hyperloop Transportation Technologies and the government of Abu Dhabi announced plans to conduct a feasibility study on a Hyperloop link between the UAE capital and Al Ain, reducing travel time between Abu Dhabi and Al Ain to just under 10-minutes. In September 2017, HTT announced and signed an agreement with the Andhra Pradesh state government of India to build a track from Amaravathi to Vijayawada in a public-private partnership, and suggested that the more than one hour trip could be reduced to 5 minutes through the project. For yet undisclosed reason, neither the test track that HTT announced in May 2015 nor any other test track has been built in the last 3 years. In June 2018, Ukraine's Infrastructure Ministry reached an agreement with Hyperloop Transportation Technologies to develop its high-speed vacuum transport technology in Ukraine. According to minister, Volodymyr Omelyan, a joint research and development center will be created in Kyiv or Dnipro, which will not only work on Hyperloop but new “materials and components for modern transportation systems.” Later in 2018, the company signed an agreement with the Guizhou province of China to build a Hyperloop. In its China deal, HTT will provide technology, engineering expertise, and essential equipment in the venture, while Tongren will take charge of relevant certifications, regulatory framework, and construction of the system, the press release said. The venture will be a public private partnership in which 50 percent of the funds will come directly from Tongren, it added. In May 2019, the company and TÜV SÜD presented the EU with generic guidelines for hyperloop design, operation and certification. In June 2019,Hyperloop Transportation Technologies met with officials from the United States Department of Transportation, USDOT, at HyperloopTT's research facilities in Toulouse, France. Simultaneously, other members of HyperloopTT met with the USDOT at the agency's offices in Washington D.C. presenting a technical overview of Hyperloop technology and the certification guideline completed by TÜV SÜD. HyperloopTT is now beginning the process of integrating their full-scale passenger capsule for human trials in 2020. TransPod. TransPod Inc. is a Canadian company designing and manufacturing ultra-high-speed tube transportation technology and vehicles. In November 2016 TransPod raised a seed round from Angelo Investments, an Italian high-tech holding group, specializing in advanced technologies for the railway, space, and aviation industries. In September 2017, TransPod released a scientific peer-reviewed publication in the journal Procedia Engineering. The paper was premiered at the EASD EURODYN 2017 conference, and presents the physics of the TransPod system. TransPod vehicles are being designed to travel at over 1,000 km/h between cities using fully electric propulsion and zero need for fossil fuels. The TransPod tube system is distinct from the hyperloop concept proposed by Elon Musk's Hyperloop Alpha white paper. The TransPod system uses moving electromagnetic fields to propel the vehicles with stable levitation off the bottom surface, rather than compressed air. TransPod is stated to contain further developments beyond hyperloop. To achieve fossil-fuel-free propulsion, TransPod "pods" take advantage of electrically-driven linear induction motor technology, with active real-time control and sense-space systems. The cargo transport TransPod pods will be able to carry payloads of 10–15 tons and have compatibility with wooden pallets, as well as various unit load devices such as LD3 containers, and AAA containers. At the InnoTrans Rail Show 2016 in Berlin, TransPod premiered their vehicle concept, alongside implementation of Coelux technology—an artificial skylight to emulate natural sunlight within the passenger pods. TransPod has partnered with investor Angelo Investments' member companies MERMEC, SITAEL, and Blackshape Aircraft. With international staff of over 1,000 employees, 650 of whom are engineers, they will collaborate with the development and testing of the TransPod tube system It has since expanded from its Toronto, Canada headquarters at MaRS Discovery District to open offices in Toulouse, France and Bari, Italy. TransPod is additionally partnered with university researchers, engineering firm IKOS, REC Architecture and Liebherr-Aerospace. TransPod is developing routes worldwide and in Canada such as Toronto-Montreal, Toronto-Windsor, and Calgary-Edmonton. TransPod is preparing to build a test track for the pod vehicles in Canada. This track will be extendable as part of a full route pending a combination of private and public funding to construct the line. In July 2017, TransPod released an initial cost study which outlines the viability of building a hyperloop line in Southwestern Ontario between the cities of Windsor and Toronto. The study indicates a TransPod tube system would cost half the projected cost of a high-speed rail line along the same route, while operating at more than four times the top speed of high speed rail. TransPod has announced plans for a test track to be constructed in the town of Droux near Limoges in collaboration with the French department of Haute-Vienne. The proposed test track would exceed 3 km in length, and operate as a half-scale system 2 m in diameter. In February 2018 Vincent Leonie, vice president of Limoges Métropole and a deputy mayor of Limoges, has announced agreements for the "Hyperloop Limoges" organization have been signed to promote and accelerate the technology. DGWHyperloop. Established in 2015, DGWHyperloop is a subsidiary of Dinclix GroundWorks, an engineering company based in Indore, India. DGWHyperloop's initial proposals include a Hyperloop-based corridor between Delhi and Mumbai called the Delhi Mumbai Hyperloop Corridor (DMHC). The company has partnered with many government agencies, private companies, and institutions for its research on Hyperloop. DGWHyperloop is the only Indian company working on implementing the Hyperloop system across the nation. Arrivo. Arrivo was a technology architecture and engineering company founded in Los Angeles in 2016. In November 2017, it disclosed a plan to build a link for automobiles to Denver International Airport using maglev train technology by 2021. On 14 December 2018 Technology news site The Verge reported Arrivo was shutting down, due to being unable to secure Series A funding. On 17 October 2019, The Verge reported the Intellectual Property from Arrivo was purchased by rLoop, a reddit-born engineering group. Hardt Global Mobility. Hardt Global Mobility was founded in 2016 in Delft, emerging from the TU Delft Hyperloop team who won at the Hyperloop pod competition. The Dutch team is setting up a full-scale testing center for hyperloop technology in Delft. Hardt has received over €600,000 in funding for the initial rounds of testing, with plans to raise more to build a high-speed test line by 2019. At the unveiling of the test track, Dutch Minister of Infrastructure and Environment Schultz van Haegen said a Hyperloop system could help cement the Netherlands' position as a gateway to Europe by transporting freight arriving at Rotterdam's sprawling port. On 9 October 2017 a report was released with information from Hardt Global Mobility and Hyperloop One. The report has been sent to the Dutch House of Representatives and judges the added value of a hyperloop test track facility. The report recommends building a test track of 5 km in Flevoland. Zeleros. Zeleros was founded in Valencia (Spain) in November 2016 by Daniel Orient (CTO), David Pistoni (CEO) and Juan Vicén (CMO), former leaders of the Hyperloop UPV team from Universitat Politècnica de València. The team was awarded "Top Design Concept" and "Propulsion/Compression Subsystem Technical Excellence" at SpaceX's Hyperloop Design Weekend, the first phase of the Hyperloop Pod Competition conducted at Texas A&M University on 29–30 January 2016. After building Spain's first Hyperloop prototype with the support of Purdue University and building a 12-meter research test-track in Spain at the university, the company was awarded in November 2017 the international Everis Foundation prize. Zeleros has the support of the Silicon Valley accelerator Plug and Play Tech Center, its partner Alberto Gutierrez, (partner of Plug and Play Spain and founder of Aqua Service), and the Spanish venture capital fund Angels Capital owned by the Spanish businessman Juan Roig, owner of Mercadona. By June 2018, the corporation signed an agreement with the rest of the Hyperloop European companies (Hyper Poland and Hardt) and the Canadian TransPod to collaborate with the European Union and other international institutions for the implementation of a definition of the standards to ensure the interoperability and the security of a Hyperloop. In August 2018, Zeleros held a meeting with Pedro Duque, the ministry of science to push for his support of the European initiative. By September 2018, the corporation announced the construction of a 2 km test track to perform dynamic tests of the system. The test track will be allocated in Sagunto in 2019 with the support of the Sagunto council and the Generalitat Valenciana. In November 2018, Zeleros received the international award in the World Transport Congress in Mascate, Omán. By February 2019, the corporation was formed by a team of 20 engineers and doctors specialized in different fields, developing and testing the systems and subsystems of the Hyperloop integrators. In June 2020 Zeleros raised more than €7 million in financing, with plans to use them in the development of its core technologies, the construction of a European Hyperloop Development Centre in Spain and building a 3 km test track. Nevomo (previously Hyper Poland). Nevomo (until November 2020 "Hyper Poland") is a Polish company founded in 2017 by Przemysław Pączek, Katarzyna Foljanty, Paweł Radziszewski and Łukasz Mielczarek, mostly graduates from the Warsaw University of Technology. In the summer of 2017, acting as the "Hyper Poland University Team", they built a hyperloop vehicle model which took part in the SpaceX Pod Competition II in California. In March 2018, the company was recognized as one of the best startups in the mobility sector in Europe. Unlike other companies in the Hyperloop sector, Nevomo develops a system aimed at offering a low-cost upgrade to existing conventional railway corridors. The system - dubbed ‘magrail’ - is based on magnetic levitation, linear motor and autonomous control systems and can be transformed into a full-fledged, vacuum Hyperloop at a later stage. Key differentiator of Nevomo’s magrail technology is its interoperability with conventional railway systems which allows for the functionality of both the magrail system and conventional trains on the same tracks and promises reduced infrastructure costs and faster implementation by using existing and regulatorily approved railway corridors. In its initial implementation stage, the system is designed for speeds comparable to today's conventional high-speed rail (300–415 km/h), but at significantly lower implementation costs. The system allows a subsequent upgrade into a vacuum system with speeds of up to 600 km/h on conventional tracks and 1,000 km/h on HSR lines. In the first half of 2019, Nevomo secured a EUR 3.8 million grant from the Polish National Center for Research and Development and two pre-seed rounds on a UK equity crowdfunding platform of EUR 820k total. In October 2019, Nevomo presented its 'magrail' prototype vehicle and a track in 1:5 scale. Nevomo has completed the first magrail tests on a medium-sized track and plans to start full-scale tests in mid-2021. Hyperloop research programs. TUM Hyperloop (previously WARR Hyperloop). Research program that emerged in 2019 from the team of Hyperloop pod competition from the Technical University of Munich. The TUM Hyperloop team had won all four competitions in a row, achieving the world record of 463 km/h (288 mph), which is still valid today. The research program has the goals to investigate the technical feasibility by means of a demonstrator, as well as by simulation the economic and technical feasibility of the Hyperloop system. The planned 24m demonstrator will consist of a tube and the full-size pod. The next steps after completion of the first project phase are the extension to 400m to investigate higher speeds. This is planned in the Munich area, in Taufkirchen, Ottobrunn or at the Oberpfaffenhofen airfield. Eurotube. EuroTube is a non-profit research organization for the development of vacuum transport technology. EuroTube is currently developing a 3.1 km test tube in Collombey-Muraz, Switzerland. The organization was founded in 2017 at ETH Zurich as a Swiss association and became a Swiss foundation in 2019. The test tube is planned on a 2:1 scale with a diameter of 2.2 m and designed for 900 km/h (560mph). Hyperloop pod competition. A number of student and non-student teams were participating in a Hyperloop pod competition in 2015–16, and at least 22 of them built hardware to compete on a sponsored hyperloop test track in mid-2016. In June 2015, SpaceX announced that they would sponsor a Hyperloop pod design competition, and would build a subscale test track near SpaceX's headquarters in Hawthorne, California, for the competitive event in 2016. SpaceX stated in their announcement, "Neither SpaceX nor Elon Musk is affiliated with any Hyperloop companies. While we are not developing a commercial Hyperloop ourselves, we are interested in helping to accelerate development of a functional Hyperloop prototype." More than 700 teams had submitted preliminary applications by July, and detailed competition rules were released in August. "Intent to Compete" submissions were due in September 2015 with more detailed tube and technical specification released by SpaceX in October. A preliminary design briefing was held in November 2015, where more than 120 student engineering teams were selected to submit "Final Design Packages" due by 13 January 2016. A "Design Weekend" was held at Texas A&M University 29–30 January 2016, for all invited entrants. Engineers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology were named the winners of the competition. While the University of Washington team won the Safety Subsystem Award, Delft University won the Pod Innovation Award as well as the second place, followed by the University of Wisconsin–Madison, Virginia Tech, and the University of California, Irvine. In the Design Category, the winner team was Hyperloop UPV from Universitat Politecnica de Valencia, Spain. On 29 January 2017, Delft Hyperloop (Delft University of Technology) won the prize for the "best overall design" at the final stage of the SpaceX Hyperloop competition, while WARR Hyperloop of the Technical University of Munich won the prize for "fastest pod". The Massachusetts Institute of Technology placed third. The second Hyperloop pod competition took place from 25–27 August 2017. The only judging criteria being top speed provided it is followed by successful deceleration. WARR Hyperloop from the Technical University of Munich won the competition by reaching a top speed of 324 km/h (201 mph). A third Hyperloop pod competition took place in July 2018. The defending champions, the WARR Hyperloop team from the Technical University of Munich, beat their own record with a top speed of 457 km/h (284 mph) during their run. The fourth competition in August 2019 saw the team from the Technical University of Munich, now known as TUM Hyperloop (by NEXT Prototypes e.V. ), again winning the competition and beating their own record with a top speed of 463 km/h (288 mph). Criticism and human factor considerations. Some critics of Hyperloop focus on the experience—possibly unpleasant and frightening—of riding in a narrow, sealed, windowless capsule inside a sealed steel tunnel, that is subjected to significant acceleration forces; high noise levels due to air being compressed and ducted around the capsule at near-sonic speeds; and the vibration and jostling. Even if the tube is initially smooth, ground may shift with seismic activity. At high speeds, even minor deviations from a straight path may add considerable buffeting. This is in addition to practical and logistical questions regarding how to best deal with safety issues such as equipment malfunction, accidents, and emergency evacuations. Other maglev trains are already in use, which avoid much of the added costs of Hyperloop. The SCMaglev in Japan has demonstrated without a vacuum tube, by using an extremely aerodynamic train design. It also avoids the cost and time required to pressurize and depressurize the exit and entry points of a Hyperloop tube. There is also the criticism of design technicalities in the tube system. John Hansman, professor of aeronautics and astronautics at MIT, has stated problems, such as how a slight misalignment in the tube would be compensated for and the potential interplay between the air cushion and the low-pressure air. He has also questioned what would happen if the power were to go out when the pod was miles away from a city. UC Berkeley physics professor Richard Muller has also expressed concern regarding "[the Hyperloop's] novelty and the vulnerability of its tubes, [which] would be a tempting target for terrorists", and that the system could be disrupted by everyday dirt and grime. Political and economic considerations. The alpha proposal projected that cost savings compared with conventional rail would come from a combination of several factors. The small profile and elevated nature of the alpha route would enable Hyperloop to be constructed primarily in the median of Interstate 5. However, whether this would be truly feasible is a matter of debate. The low profile would reduce tunnel boring requirements and the light weight of the capsules is projected to reduce construction costs over conventional passenger rail. It was asserted that there would be less right-of-way opposition and environmental impact as well due to its small, sealed, elevated profile versus that of a rail easement; however, other commentators contend that a smaller footprint does not guarantee less opposition. In criticizing this assumption, mass transportation writer Alon Levy said, "In reality, an all-elevated system (which is what Musk proposes with the Hyperloop) is a bug rather than a feature. Central Valley land is cheap; pylons are expensive, as can be readily seen by the costs of elevated highways and trains all over the world". Michael Anderson, a professor of agricultural and resource economics at UC Berkeley, predicted that costs would amount to around . The Hyperloop white paper suggests that of each one-way passenger ticket between Los Angeles and San Francisco would be sufficient to cover initial capital costs, based on amortizing the cost of Hyperloop over 20 years with ridership projections of 7.4 million per year in each direction and does not include operating costs (although the proposal asserts that electric costs would be covered by solar panels). No total ticket price was suggested in the alpha design. The projected ticket price has been questioned by Dan Sperling, director of the Institute of Transportation Studies at UC Davis, who stated that "there's no way the economics on that would ever work out." However, some critics have argued that, being designed to carry fewer passengers than typical public train systems, it could make it difficult to price tickets to cover the costs of construction and running. The early cost estimates of the Hyperloop are a subject of debate. A number of economists and transportation experts have expressed the belief that the price tag dramatically understates the cost of designing, developing, constructing, and testing an all-new form of transportation. "The Economist" said that the estimates are unlikely to "be immune to the hypertrophication of cost that every other grand infrastructure project seems doomed to suffer." Political impediments to the construction of such a project in California will be very large. There is a great deal of "political and reputation capital" invested in the existing mega-project of California High-Speed Rail. Replacing that with a different design would not be straightforward given California's political economy. Texas has been suggested as an alternate for its more amenable political and economic environment. Building a successful Hyperloop sub-scale demonstration project could reduce the political impediments and improve cost estimates. Musk has suggested that he may be personally involved in building a demonstration prototype of the Hyperloop concept, including funding the development effort. The solar panels Musk plans to install along the length of the Hyperloop system have been criticized by engineering professor Roger Goodall of Loughborough University, as not being feasible enough to return enough energy to power the Hyperloop system, arguing that the air pumps and propulsion would require much more power than the solar panels could generate. Related projects. Historical. The concept of transportation of passengers in pneumatic tubes is not new. The first patent to transport goods in tubes was taken out in 1799 by the British mechanical engineer and inventor George Medhurst. In 1812, Medhurst wrote a book detailing his idea of transporting passengers and goods through air-tight tubes using air propulsion. In the early 1800s, there were other similar systems proposed or experimented with and were generally known as an atmospheric railway although this term is also used for systems where the propulsion is provided by a separate pneumatic tube to the train tunnel itself. One of the earliest was the Dalkey Atmospheric Railway which operated near Dublin between 1844 and 1854. The Crystal Palace pneumatic railway operated in London around 1864 and used large fans, some in diameter, that were powered by a steam engine. The tunnels are now lost but the line operated successfully for over a year. Operated from 1870 to 1873, the Beach Pneumatic Transit was a one-block-long prototype of an underground tube transport public transit system in New York City. The system worked at near-atmospheric pressure, and the passenger car moved by means of higher-pressure air applied to the back of the car while somewhat lower pressure was maintained on the front of the car. In the 1910s, vacuum trains were first described by American rocket pioneer Robert Goddard. While the Hyperloop has significant innovations over early proposals for reduced pressure or vacuum-tube transportation apparatus, the work of Goddard "appears to have the greatest overlap with the Hyperloop". In 1981 Princeton physicist Gerard K. O'Neill wrote about transcontinental trains using magnetic propulsion in his book "". While a work of fiction, this book was an attempt to predict future technologies in everyday life. In his prediction, he envisioned these trains which used magnetic levitation running in tunnels which had much of the air evacuated to increase speed and reduce friction. He also demonstrated a scale prototype device that accelerated a mass using magnetic propulsion to high speeds. It was called a mass driver and was a central theme in his non-fiction book on space colonization "The High Frontier". Swissmetro was a proposal to run a maglev train in a low-pressure environment. Concessions were granted to Swissmetro in the early 2000s to connect the Swiss cities of St. Gallen, Zurich, Basel, and Geneva. Studies of commercial feasibility reached differing conclusions and the vactrain was never built. China was reported to be building a vacuum based maglev train in August 2010 according to a laboratory at Jiaotong University. It was expected to cost ( at the August 2010 exchange rate) more per kilometer than regular high-speed rail. , it has not been built. The ET3 Global Alliance (ET3) was founded by Daryl Oster in 1997 with the goal of establishing a global transportation system using passenger capsules in frictionless maglev full-vacuum tubes. Oster and his team met with Elon Musk on 18 September 2013, to discuss the technology, resulting in Musk promising an investment in a prototype of ET3's proposed design.

triumphant group

3230-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=173575

Birdwatching, or birding, is a form of wildlife observation in which the observation of birds is a recreational activity or citizen science. It can be done with the naked eye, through a visual enhancement device like binoculars and telescopes, by listening for bird sounds, or by watching public webcams. Birdwatching often involves a significant auditory component, as many bird species are more easily detected and identified by ear than by eye. Most birdwatchers pursue this activity for recreational or social reasons, unlike ornithologists, who engage in the study of birds using formal scientific methods. Birding, birdwatching, and twitching. The first recorded use of the term "birdwatcher" was in 1891; "bird" was introduced as a verb in 1918. The term "birding" was also used for the practice of "fowling" or hunting with firearms as in Shakespeare's "The Merry Wives of Windsor" (1602): "She laments sir... her husband goes this morning a-birding." The terms "birding" and "birdwatching" are today used by some interchangeably, although some participants prefer "birding", partly because it includes the auditory aspects of enjoying birds. In North America, many birders differentiate themselves from birdwatchers, and the term "birder" is unfamiliar to most lay people. At the most basic level, the distinction is perceived as one of dedication or intensity, though this is a subjective differentiation. Generally, self-described birders perceive themselves to be more versed in minutiae like identification (aural and visual), molt, distribution, migration timing, and habitat usage. Whereas these dedicated "birders" may often travel specifically in search of birds, "birdwatchers" have been described by some enthusiasts as having a more limited scope, perhaps not venturing far from their own yards or local parks to view birds. Indeed, in 1969 a "Birding Glossary" appeared in "Birding" magazine which gave the following definitions: "Twitching" is a British term used to mean "the pursuit of a previously located rare bird." In North America, it is more often called "chasing". The term "twitcher", sometimes misapplied as a synonym for birder, is reserved for those who travel long distances to see a rare bird that would then be "ticked", or counted on a list. The term originated in the 1950s, when it was used for the nervous behaviour of Howard Medhurst, a British birdwatcher. Prior terms for those who chased rarities were "pot-hunter", "tally-hunter", or "tick-hunter". The main goal of twitching is often to accumulate species on one's lists. Some birders engage in competition to accumulate the longest species list. The act of the pursuit itself is referred to as a "twitch" or a "chase". A rare bird that stays long enough for people to see it is "twitchable" or "chaseable". Twitching is highly developed in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Denmark, Ireland, Finland and Sweden. The size of these countries makes it possible to travel throughout them quickly and with relative ease. The most popular twitches in the UK have drawn large crowds; for example, approximately 2,500 people travelled to Kent, to view a golden-winged warbler ("Vermivora chrysoptera"), which is native to North America. Twitchers have developed their own vocabulary. For example, a twitcher who fails to see a rare bird has "dipped out"; if other twitchers do see the bird, he may feel "gripped off". "Suppression" is the act of concealing news of a rare bird from other twitchers. Many birders maintain a "life list", that is, a list of all of the species they have seen in their life, usually with details about the sighting such as date and location. The American Birding Association has specific rules about how a bird species may be documented and recorded in such a list if it is submitted to the ABA; however, the criteria for the personal recording of these lists are very subjective. Some birders "count" species they have identified audibly, while others only record species that they have identified visually. Some also maintain a "country list", "state list", "county list", "yard list", "year list", or any combination of these. The history of birdwatching. The early interest in observing birds for their aesthetic rather than utilitarian (mainly food) value is traced to the late 18th century in the works of Gilbert White, Thomas Bewick, George Montagu and John Clare. The study of birds, and natural history in general, became increasingly prevalent in Britain during the Victorian Era, often associated with collection, eggs and later skins being the artifacts of interest. Wealthy collectors made use of their contacts in the colonies to obtain specimens from around the world. It was only in the late 19th century that the call for bird protection began leading to the rising popularity of observations on living birds. The Audubon Society was started to protect birds from the growing trade in feathers in the United States while the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds began in Britain. The phrase "bird watching" appeared for the first time as the title of the book "Bird Watching" by Edmund Selous in 1901. In North America, the identification of birds, once thought possible only by shooting was made possible by the emergence of optics and field identification guides. The earliest field guide in the US was "Birds through an Opera Glass" (1889) by Florence Bailey. Birding in North America was focused in the early and mid-20th century in the eastern seaboard region, and was influenced by the works of Ludlow Griscom and later Roger Tory Peterson. "Bird Neighbors" (1897) by Neltje Blanchan was an early birding book which sold over 250,000 copies. It was illustrated with color photographs of stuffed birds. The organization and networking of those interested in birds began through organizations like the Audubon Society that was against the killing of birds and the American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). The rising popularity of the car increased the mobility of birdwatchers and this made new locations accessible to those interested in birds. Networks of birdwatchers in the UK began to form in the late 1930s under the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO). The BTO saw the potential to produce scientific results through the networks, unlike the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) which like the Audubon Society originated from the bird protection movement. Like the AOU in North America, the BOU had a focus mainly on collection based taxonomy. The BOU changed focus to ecology and behaviour only in the 1940s. The BTO movement towards 'organized birdwatching', was opposed by the RSPB which claimed that the 'scientification' of the pastime was 'undesirable'. This stand was to change only in 1936 when the RSPB was taken over by Tom Harrisson and others. Harrisson was instrumental in the organization of pioneering surveys of the great crested grebe. Increased mobility of birdwatchers ensured that books like "Where to Watch Birds" by John Gooders became best-sellers. By the 1960s air-travel became feasible and long distance holiday destinations opened up with the result that by 1965, Britain's first birding tour company, "Ornitholidays" was started by Lawrence Holloway. Travelling far away also led to problems in name usage, British birds like "wheatear", "heron" and "swallow" needed adjectives to differentiate them in places where there were several related species. The falling cost of air travel made flying to remote birding destinations a possibility for a large number of people towards the 1980s. The need for global guides to birds became more relevant and one of the biggest projects that began as the "Handbook of the Birds of the World" which started in the 1990s with Josep del Hoyo, Jordi Sargatal, David A. Christie, and ornithologist Andy Elliott. Initially, birdwatching was a hobby undertaken in developed countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States of America. Since the second half of the 20th century an increasing number of people in developing countries have engaged in this activity, such as in the Degua Tembien district of Ethiopia. Transnational birding has played an important role in this, as birders in developing countries usually take up the pastime under the influence of foreign cultures with a history of birding. Economic and environmental impact. In the 20th century, most of the birding activity in North America was done on the east coast. The publication of Roger Tory Peterson's field guide in 1934 led to the initial increase in birding. Binoculars, an essential piece of birding equipment, became more easily available after World War II, making the hobby of birding more widely accessible. The practice of travelling long distances to see rare bird species was aided by the rising popularity of cars. About 4% of North Americans were interested in birding in the 1970s and in the mid-1980s at least 11% were found to watch birds at least 20 days of the year. An estimate of 61 million birders was made in the late 1980s. The income level of birders has been found to be well above average. The 2000 publication of "The Sibley Guide to Birds" sold 500,000 copies by 2002. but it was found that the number of birdwatchers rose but there appeared to be a drop in birdwatching in the backyard. According to a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service study, birders contributed $36 billion to the US economy in 2006, and one fifth (20%) of all Americans are identified as birdwatchers. North American birders were estimated to have spent as much as US$32 billion in 2001. The spending is on the rise around the world. Kuşcenneti National Park (KNP) at Lake Manyas, a Ramsar site in Turkey was estimated to attract birders who spent as much as US$103,320,074 annually. Guided bird tours have become a major business with at least 127 companies offering tours worldwide. An average trip to a less-developed country costs $4000 per person and includes about 12 participants for each of 150 trips a year. It has been suggested that this economic potential needs to be tapped for conservation. One of the expectations of ecotourism is that the travels of birders to a place will contribute to the improvement of the local economy which and in turn ensure that the environment is valued and protected. Numerous positive and negative impacts of birding have been identified. Impacts include disturbance to birds, the environment, local cultures and the economy. Methods to reduce negative impact and improve the value to conservation are the subject of research. Activities. Many birders occupy themselves with observing local species (birding in their "local patch"), but may also make specific trips to observe birds in other locales. The most active times of the year for birding in temperate zones are during the spring or fall migrations when the greatest variety of birds may be seen. On these occasions, large numbers of birds travel north or south to wintering or nesting locations. Early mornings are typically better as the birds are more active and vocal making them easier to spot. Certain locations such as the local patch of forest, wetland and coast may be favoured according to the location and season. Seawatching, or pelagic birding, is a type of birding where observers based at a coastal watch point, such as a headland, watch birds flying over the sea. This is one form of pelagic birding, by which pelagic bird species are viewed. Another way birders view pelagic species is from seagoing vessels. Weather plays an important role in the occurrence of rare birds. In Britain, suitable wind conditions may lead to drift migration, and an influx of birds from the east. In North America, birds caught in the tail-end of a hurricane may be blown inland. Monitoring. Birdwatchers may take part in censuses of bird populations and migratory patterns which are sometimes specific to individual species. These birdwatchers may also count all birds in a given area, as in the Christmas Bird Count or follow carefully designed study protocols. This kind of citizen science can assist in identifying environmental threats to the well-being of birds or, conversely, in assessing outcomes of environmental management initiatives intended to ensure the survival of at-risk species or encourage the breeding of species for aesthetic or ecological reasons. This more scientific side of the hobby is an aspect of ornithology, coordinated in the UK by the British Trust for Ornithology. The Cornell Lab of Ornithology hosts many citizen-science projects to track the number and distribution of bird species across North America. These surveys help scientists note major changes from year to year which may occur as a result of climate change, disease, predation, and other factors. Environmental education. Due to their accessibility and ubiquity, birds are a useful tool for environmental education and awareness on environmental issues. Birds easily transmit values on respect to nature and the fragility of ecosystems. Competition. Birding as a competitive event is organized in some parts of the world. The birding competitions encourage individuals or teams to accumulate large numbers of species within a specified time or area with special rules. Some birdwatchers will also compete by attempting to increase their life list, national list, state list, provincial list, county list, or year list. Such events have been criticised, especially those claimed to aid conservation when they may actually mask serious environmental issues, or where competitive birding involves large amounts of driving. The American Birding Association was originally started as a club for "listers", but it now serves a much broader audience. Still, the ABA continues to publish an official annual report of North American list standings. Competitive birdwatching events include: Networking and organization. Prominent national and continental organizations concerned with birding include the British Trust for Ornithology and Royal Society for the Protection of Birds in the United Kingdom, and the American Birding Association and the Cornell Lab of Ornithology in North America. Many statewide or local Audubon organizations are also quite active in the United States, as are many provincial and local organizations in Canada. BirdLife International is an important global alliance of bird conservation organizations. Many countries and smaller regions (states/provinces) have "rarities committees" to check, accept or reject reports of rare birds made by birders. Equipment and technology. Equipment commonly used for birding includes binoculars, a spotting scope with tripod, a smartphone, a notepad, and one or more field guides. Hides (known as "blinds" in North America) or observation towers are often used to conceal the observers from birds, and/or to improve viewing conditions. Virtually all optics manufacturers offer specific binoculars for birding, and some have even geared their whole brand to birders. Sound equipment. Recognition of bird vocalizations is an important part of a birder's toolkit. Sound information can assist in the locating, watching, identification and sexing of birds. Recent developments in audio technology have seen recording and reproduction devices shrink in both size and price, making them accessible to a greater portion of the birding community. The non-linear nature of digital audio technology has also made selecting and accessing the required recordings much more flexible than tape-based models. It is now possible to take a recording of every bird call you are likely to encounter in a given area out into the field stored on a device that will slip into your pocket and to retrieve calls for playback and comparison in any order you choose. Photography. Photography has always been a part of birding, but in the past, the cost of cameras with super-telephoto lenses made this a minority, often semi-professional, interest. The advent of affordable digital cameras, which can be used in conjunction with a spotting scope or binoculars (using the technique of afocal photography, referred to by the neologism "digiscoping" or sometimes "digibinning" for binoculars), have made this a much more widespread aspect of the hobby. Videography. As with the arrival of affordable digital cameras, the development of more compact and affordable digital video cameras has made them more attractive and accessible to the birding community. Cross-over, non-linear digital models now exist that take high-quality stills at acceptable resolutions, as well as being able to record and play audio and video. The ability to easily capture and reproduce not only the visual characteristics of a bird, but also its patterns of movement and its sound, has wide applications for birders in the field. Portable media players. This class of product includes devices that can play (some can also record) a range of digital media, typically video, audio and still image files. Many modern digital cameras, mobile phones, and camcorders can be classified as portable media players. With the ability to store and play large quantities of information, pocket-sized devices allow a full birding multimedia library to be taken into the field and mobile Internet access makes obtaining and transmitting information possible in near real-time. Remote birdwatching. New technologies are allowing birdwatching activities to take place over the Internet, using robotic camera installations and mobile phones set up in remote wildlife areas. Projects such as CONE allow users to observe and photograph birds over the web; similarly, robotic cameras set up in largely inhospitable areas are being used to attempt the first photographs of the rare ivory-billed woodpecker. These systems represent new technologies in the birdwatcher's toolkit. Communication. In the early 1950s, the only way of communicating new bird sightings was through the postal system and it was generally too late for the recipients to act on the information. In 1953 James Ferguson-Lees began broadcasting rare bird news on the radio in Eric Simms' "Countryside" program but this did not catch on. In the 1960s people began using the telephone and some people became hubs for communication. In the 1970s some cafes, like the one in Cley, Norfolk run by Nancy Gull, became centers for meeting and communication. This was replaced by telephone hotline services like "Birdline" and "Bird Information Service". With the advent of the World-Wide Web, birders have been using the Internet to convey information; this can be via mailing lists, forums, bulletin-boards, web-based databases and other media. While most birding lists are geographic in scope, there are special-interest lists that cater to bird-identification, 'twitchers', seabirds and raptor enthusiasts to name but a few. Messages can range from the serious to trivial, notifying others of rarities, questioning the taxonomy or identification of a species, discussing field guides and other resources, asking for advice and guidance, or organizing groups to help save habitats. Occasional postings are mentioned in academic journals and therefore can be a valuable resource for professional and amateur birders alike. One of the oldest, Birdchat (based in the US) probably has the most subscribers, followed by the English-language fork of Eurobirdnet, Birding-Aus from Australia, SABirdnet from South Africa and Orientalbirding. Several websites allow users to submit lists of birds seen, while others collate and produce seasonal statistics, distribution maps. Code of conduct. As the numbers of birdwatchers increases, there is growing concern about the impact of birdwatching on the birds and their habitat. Birdwatching etiquette is evolving in response to this concern. Some examples of birdwatching etiquette include promoting the welfare of birds and their environment, limiting use of photography, pishing and playback devices to mitigate stress caused to birds, maintaining a distance away from nests and nesting colonies, and respecting private property. The lack of definite evidence, except arguably in the form of photographs, makes birding records difficult to prove but birdwatchers strive to build trust in their identification. One of the few major disputes was the case of the Hastings Rarities. Socio-psychology. Ethologist Nikolaas Tinbergen considers birdwatching to be an expression of the male hunting instinct while Simon Baron-Cohen links it with a male tendency for "systemizing". There have been suggestions that identification of birds may be a form of gaining status which has been compared with "Kula valuables" noted in Papua New Guinean cultures. A study of the motivations for birdwatching in New York concluded that initial motivations were largely similar in males and females, but males who participate actively in birding are more motivated by "sharing knowledge" with others, and active female birders are more motivated by their "intellectual" interest in studying birds, and by the "challenge" of identifying new and rare birds and improving their skills. Another study suggested that males lean towards competitive birding, while females prefer recreational birdwatching. While the representation of women has always been low, it has been pointed out that nearly 90% of all birdwatchers in the United States are white, with only a few African Americans. Other minority groups have formed organizations to support fellow birders, such as the Gay Birders Club and the Disabled Birders Association. The study of birdwatching has been of interest to students of the sociology of science. Famous birdwatchers. There are about 10,000 species of bird and only a small number of people have seen more than 7000. Many birdwatchers have spent their entire lives trying to see all the bird species of the world. The first person who started this is said to be Stuart Keith. Some birders have been known to go to great lengths and many have lost their lives in the process. Phoebe Snetsinger spent her family inheritance travelling to various parts of the world while suffering from a malignant melanoma, surviving an attack and rape in New Guinea before dying in a road accident in Madagascar. She saw as many as 8,400 species. The birdwatcher David Hunt who was leading a bird tour in Corbett National Park was killed by a tiger in February 1985. In 1971, Ted Parker travelled around North America and saw 626 species in a year. This record was beaten by Kenn Kaufman in 1973 who travelled 69,000 miles and saw 671 species and spent less than a thousand dollars. Ted Parker was killed in an air-crash in Ecuador. In 2012, Tom Gullick, an Englishman who lives in Spain, became the first birdwatcher to log over 9,000 species. In 2008, two British birders, Alan Davies and Ruth Miller, gave up their jobs, sold their home and put everything they owned into a year-long global birdwatching adventure about which they a wrote a book called "The Biggest Twitch". They logged their 4431st species on 31 October 2008. Noah Strycker recorded 6,042 species during 2015, overtaking Davies and Miller. In 2016, Arjan Dwarshuis became the world-record holder for most species seen during a big year. Dwarshuis logged 6852 bird species in 40 different countries. Birdwatching literature, field guides and television programs have been popularized by birders such as Pete Dunne and Bill Oddie. In media. The 2011 film "The Big Year" depicted three birders competing in an American Birding Association Area big year, and the 2019 film "Birders" is a short documentary. See also. Similar activities Institutions:

"Opera Glass"

13518-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23915414

Colegio Arubano (English: Aruban High School) is a secondary school in Aruba that serves students in grades seven through twelve (measured in Ciclo Basico as equivalents to seventh and eighth grades and in VWO [four-year program] / HAVO [three-year program] as equivalents to American high school grades nine through twelve) from one of its two campuses in either the capital city of Oranjestad or the southern community of Sint Nicolaas. The two campuses have been separated now, and the school in Sint Nicolaas has become a different school with the new name Colegio San Nicolas. About. On 15 February 2008, demonstrations took place surrounding the quality of education in Colegio Arubano and other schools on the island of Aruba; a 2007 study in the Colegio Arubano student body indicated that about 70% of students graduate from lower grade feeder schools and are eligible to enter Colegio Arubano. 72% of students participating in VWO pass final exams, whilst 65% of all HAVO students pass the HAVO final exam. The under-directors are Mariana Jimenez (acting), Milouschka Wernet, Richelle Noel, and Igmar Davelaar. The school had around 100 teachers and 1657 students as of 2019. The school teaches the Papiamento, Dutch, English, Spanish and French languages. When a student is going from the third grade to the fourth grade, the student may choose their subjects. For the HAVO section the student must choose from three different courses, or profiles: MM: Mens En Maatschappij (Economy, Management & Organisation, Statistics, Math and History), NW: Natuurwetenschappen (Math, Physics, Biology and Chemistry), and HU: Humaniora (Spanish, History, Geography, Economics and Drama classes). VWO students are not eligible to opt for the Humaniora course. Each subject combination has a compulsory specialized component which includes a project relating to the pupil’s specialized subjects. In addition, students choose one or two optional subjects relating to their subject combination and one other optional subject. For their school leaving examinations, HAVO pupils take seven subjects and VWO pupils take eight. Starting May 1, 2015, former director and biology teacher left Colegio Arubano. H. Timmermans became the new director and Dutch professor. After the first month into his new position, students protested against the new director. Timmermans left Colegio Arubano in mid-December 2015 without an explanation. In March 2016 his contract was terminated. As of 2019, Michella van Loon is the director of Colegio Arubano. Classes start at 7:30 AM, but the last hour of school is different for every class and depends largely on the profile of each individual student. Students from VWO 3 (9th grade), HAVO 4 (10th grade) and on, generally will have school time from 7:30 AM to 1.25PM or 2:10 PM and occasionally to 3:00 PM. Every period lasts 45 minutes, with the exception of the week in which the teachers and mentors of the students come together and discuss the report cards. In that week all periods are cut with 10 minutes. This usually happens the week before the report cards are given to the parents, in which this period every class lasts 35 minutes. Certain subjects such as CKV (Acting/Dance/Music/Painting class) and LO (physical education) which are given once a week occur in a two-period timespan, thus lasting one hour and thirty minutes. Other subjects are also often given this, commonly subjects relevant to the grade or depending on the difficulty of the material dealt with during that specific year. The number of hours given to each subject is generally equal to all classes of the same grade, with certain differences between HAVO and VWO. English, Dutch and mathematics are considered to be the most principal and essential subjects. Admission. Admission to Colegio Arubano is known to be tenacious. Potential students take part in rigorous testing on the fields of mathematics and the Dutch language. The admission exam was utilized to test the academic level of the potential students, and to control and limit the number of students admitted into the school, owing to the limited capacity of availability the school has to offer. The admission exam was heavily critiqued and debated due to the fact that the test was considered strenuous and was also considered what many thought to be 'a snapshot of the academic performance of elementary students', leading in distorted results of the admission exam. It is believed an estimated of three quarters would pass the exam. As of the academic year 2019-2020, the Ministry of Education conjoined with the Department of Education of Aruba, is introducing a Domestic Continuance Exam for all elementary school students. The domestic exam will replace the admission exam of Colegio Arubano. The Domestic Continuance Exam, in addition to the elementary school teacher of the particular elementary school student will establish the eligibility of the student to continue onward to the school of their particular level. It is believed that the number of students admitted to the school due to the newly introduced Domestic Continuance Exam will strongly increase. Periods. This schedule is in rotation every workday of the week. Student schedules differ. Festivities. Several national holidays are observed and celebrated. On nationally celebrated days, such as "Dia di Betico", which commemorates the birth of Gilberto Francois "Betico" Croes on the 25th of January, all schools are closed. Every year, during the celebration of carnival, class queens are chosen from the different grades and compete for the crown of the school queen. The Key Club branch of Kiwanis Aruba on Colegio Arubano organizes several events, such as the selling of roses, candy and stuffed animals for Valentine's Day; bake sales; and fundraising for charity. Another festivity which has risen in popularity in recent years are the water balloon fights. These are coordinated by students of different grades, albeit often happening on the last day of school for the ones who have finished their exams successfully or on the last day of school in general. These fights have been going on for several years, each year with a new twist. On the last official school day in 2014, balloons were prepared early in the morning, some containing glitter or ink. These 'fights' are often harmless and enjoyable. Bottles are also filled with water and emptied on laughing or surprised students as a second resort for balloons. As of 2019, the water balloon fights are prohibited due to the fact that these festivities pose a safety hazard to students. HAVO/VWO. Ciclo Basico (Elemental Program) consists of the CB1 (7th grade) and CB2 (8th grade). The academic performance of the student in CB2 determines whether the student is admitted to the three-year HAVO program or the four-year VWO program. In the United States this stage is known as middle school. The HAVO program is known as Senior General Secondary Education (SGSE) in the English language, and is a three-year program (9th grade through 11th grade). This program allows students to enroll in a vocational university (Hoger Beroepsonderwijs) following the completion of their high school degree. The VWO program is known as Pre-University in the English language, and is a four-year program (9th grade through 12th grade). This program allows students to directly enroll to a university (Wetenschappelijk onderwijs) following the completion of their high school degree.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1877672

Firle (; Sussex dialect: "Furrel" ) is a village and civil parish in the Lewes District of East Sussex, England. Firle refers to an old-English/Anglo-Saxon word "fierol" meaning overgrown with oak. Although the original division of East Firle and West Firle still remains, East Firle is now simply confined to the houses of Heighton Street, which lie to the east of the Firle Park. West Firle is now generally referred to as Firle although West Firle remains its official name. It is located south of the A27 road four miles (9 km) east of Lewes. History of the village. During the reign of Edward the Confessor (1042–66) Firle was part of the Abbey of Wilton's estate. Following the Norman conquest of England the village and surrounding lands were passed to Robert, Count of Mortain. Half-brother of King William I, Robert was the largest landowner in the country after the monarch. The village is mentioned in the Domesday Book, referred to as 'Ferla'. The value of the village is listed as being £44, which was amongst the highest in the county. The manor house, the site on which Firle Place now stands, was occupied from the early 14th century by the 'de Livet' (Levett) family, an ancient Sussex gentry family of Norman descent who owned the manor. The Levett family would later include founders of Sussex's iron industry, royal courtiers, knights, rectors, an Oxford University dean, a prominent early physician and medical educator, and even a lord mayor of London. An ancient bronze seal found in the 1800s near Eastbourne, now in the collection of the Lewes Castle Museum, shows the coat-of-arms of John Livet and is believed to have belonged to the first member of the family named lord of Firle in 1316. On the bankruptcy of lord of the manor Thomas Levett in 1440, the ownership passed to Bartholomew Bolney, whose daughter married William Gage in 1472. Following the death of Bolney in 1476 without a male heir, the seat of Firle Place was passed to William Gage and has remained the seat of the Viscount Gage ever since. During the Second World War, Firle Plantation to the south of the village was the operational base of a four-man Home Guard Auxiliary Unit. The Greengage at Hengrave Hall, Suffolk. The commonly used word greengage is linked with another branch of the Gage family who lived at Hengrave Hall in Suffolk. It would appear that Sir William Gage, 2nd bart (c. 1650-1727), introduced the Gross Reine Claude fruit tree to England from France ca. 1725, and later became known as the greengage plum. Francis Young, author of The Gages of Hengrave, Suffolk Catholicism 1640-1767 Village features. St Peter's Church notably contains an alabaster effigy of Sir John Gage wearing his Order of the Garter and lying beside his wife Philippa. It also has a John Piper stained-glass window in warm colours, depicting Blake's Tree of Life. There are also memorials for those named Bolney, Moreton, Levett, Swaffield and others. The current vicar is the Reverend Peter Owen-Jones. The "Ram Inn" is the only remaining one of the village's three original public houses, that previously all acted as resting stops on the Lewes to Alfriston coach road. It was also the village court room where the rents for tenants farmers were collected and set. The area in front of the Ram is called the Beach, not to be confused with the Dock which is further up the street. Firle Cricket Club was founded in 1758 and is said to be one of the oldest in the country. Even earlier in 1725 Sir William Gage, 7th Baronet challenged the Duke of Richmond to a game of cricket, one of the first recorded matches. The club continues to be central to village life and has two teams which both compete in the East Sussex Cricket League. The Firle 1st XI are in ESCL Division 3 and the Firle 2nd XI are in ESCL Division 9. Previously both teams played in the Cuckmere Valley League; 2007 was their first year in the ESCL. South of the village lie the South Downs and Firle Beacon, which reaches a height of 712 feet (217 m). The beacon was once a lighting beacon used as part of a warning system during the time of the Spanish Armada in 1588. On the site there are also around 50 Bronze Age burial barrows. Firle Bonfire Society is first mentioned in 1879 in a diary of the then vicar of Firle, Reverend Crawley, though it was re-formed in 1982 to encourage and promote traditional bonfire festivities in the village. The society forms part of a network of bonfire societies in the Lewes area which serve the purpose both of remembering the Gunpowder Plot and of recalling the fate of the Sussex Martyrs. The village holds its celebrations in October before the main event in Lewes. Traditionally the Firle Bonfire Society Pioneers wear Valencian costumes. It is customary to burn an effigy other than Guy Fawkes; in 2003 an effigy of a Gypsy family in a caravan was burned, sparking a controversy that resulted in members of the bonfire society being arrested. Governance. On a local level, Firle is governed by Firle Parish Council, which meets every two months in the Firle village memorial hall. Its responsibilities include footpaths, street lighting, playgrounds and minor planning applications. The parish council has five seats available which were uncontested in the May 2007 election. The next level of government is the district council. The parish of Firle lies within the Ouse Valley and Ringmer ward of Lewes District Council which returns three seats to the council. The election on 4 May 2007 elected two Liberal Democrats and one Conservative. East Sussex County Council is the next tier of government, for which Firle is within the Ouse Valley East division. The council has responsibility for education, libraries, social services, civil registration, trading standards and transport. Elections for the county council are held every four years. The Liberal Democrat Thomas Ost was elected in the 2005 election. The UK Parliament constituency for Firle is Lewes. The Liberal Democrat Norman Baker served as the constituency MP since 1997, before losing his seat in the 2015 general election to the Conservative Maria Caulfield. She had her majority reduced to just over 2,000 in the 2019 general election by runner up Lib Dem candidate, Oli Henman. Landmarks. Firle Escarpment is a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) within the parish which extends into the neighbouring parish of Beddingham. The site is an extensive area of chalkland which hosts a wide range of flora. The rarest of these is the early spider orchid "Ophrys sphegodes".

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4855106

Domnall mac Áedo (died 642), also known as Domnall II, was a son of Áed mac Ainmuirech and his consort Land, the daughter of Áed Guaire mac Amalgada of Airgíalla. Domnall was High King of Ireland from 628 until his death. He belonged to the Cenél Conaill kindred of the Northern Uí Néill. The year of Domnall's birth is not known, and even an approximation depends on the date of the convention of Druim Cett, which is debated. Certainly he must have been born around 570 at the earliest, and around 590 at the latest. According to Adomnán's "Life of Saint Columba", Domnall mac Áedo met Columba at Druim Cett while still a boy. Columba prophesied great success and a peaceful death in old age for Domnall. Domnall's brother Máel Cobo (died 615) is said to have been High King of Ireland, and his father Áed also, but both claims are later inventions based on the Annals of the Four Masters and similar writings. The list of High Kings found in the "Baile Chuinn Cétchathaigh" (The Frenzy of Conn of the Hundred Battles), which is dated to before 695, includes Domnall. The original writer of the Annals of Ulster named just twelve "kings of Ireland", starting with Domnall in 628–642, and ending with Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair in 1166–1186. The first reference to Domnall in the Annals of Ulster is for 628, a report of the battle of Both where Domnall was defeated by the reigning High King, his distant Uí Néill cousin Suibne Menn of the Cenél nEógain. Shortly after, Suibne Menn was killed by Congal Cáech, the Dál nAraidi king of the Ulaid. Later in the year Domnall took his army raiding into Leinster. Success in warfare was the usual test of a new king, and afterwards the Annalists assume Domnall was acknowledged as High King. In 629, the Annals tell of battles at Fid Eóin and Dún Ceithirn, although it is not clear which was fought first. At Fid Eóin, Máel Caích mac Sgannail defeated the army of the Dál Riata, clients of the Cenél Conaill. The king of Dál Riata, Connad Cerr, and two grandsons of Áedán mac Gabráin were killed in the defeat. At Dún Ceithirn, Domnall inflicted a defeat on Congal Cáech and the armies of the Ulaid and Dál nAraidi. In addition to the defeat of the Ulaid, constant enemies of the Cenél Conaill, Domnall's hold on power can only have been helped by fighting amongst the other kindreds of the Uí Néill, war amongst Cenél nEógain reported in 630, and between Clann Cholmáin and the Síl nÁedo Sláine in 634–635. In 637, Domnall faced another challenge from Congal Cáech and the Ulaid. Congal was joined by Domnall Brecc, king of Dál Riata, and by the Cenél nEógain. Domnall was aided by the Síl nÁedo Sláine. The battle of Mag Rath (Moira, County Down) was a decisive victory for the High King and Congal Cáech was killed. On the same day as Mag Rath, the battle of Sailtír (off Kintyre), fought between Domnall's fleet, led by his nephew Conall Cáel mac Máele Cobo, and a fleet of the Cenél nEógain and Dál Riata, was won by the High King's forces. The Ulaid were not the main sufferers, however, as the Dál Riata are thought to have lost their lands in County Antrim as a result of the battle. Mag Rath was attached to the Buile Shuibhne, the tale of a fictitious Dál nAraidi king named Suibhne Gelt, which is probably much older in origin. The "Annals of Tigernach" report the death of Domnall's wife Duinseach in 641. Domnall died at the end of January of 642, perhaps after a long illness. Domnall was followed as king of the Cenél Conaill by his nephew Cellach mac Máele Cobo. Domnall's sons included Óengus mac Domnaill (died 650), father of Loingsech mac Óengusso (died 703), high king of Ireland; Fergus Fanát, father of Congal Cennmagair (died 710), also high king; Ailill Flann Esa (died 666) as well as Conall and Colcu (both died 663).

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=315377

Martin Osborne Johnson CBE (born 9 March 1970) is an English retired rugby union player who represented and captained England and Leicester in a career spanning 16 seasons. He captained England to victory in the 2003 Rugby World Cup, and is regarded as one of the greatest locks ever to have played, and one of England's greatest ever players. Johnson made his debut for Leicester Tigers in 1989 and in 1993 debuted for as well as being a late call up to the 1993 British Lions tour to New Zealand. He was a try scorer in the final when Leicester won the 1993 Pilkington Cup and a member of the side which won the 1994-95 Courage League. Johnson was an ever-present as England won the Grand Slam in the 1995 Five Nations Championship. In 1997 he was named as captain for the victorious British Lions tour to South Africa, in 2001 he became the first man to captain the Lions twice as he led the 2001 British & Irish Lions tour to Australia. He became England captain in 1999 and led the side in 39 matches, the third most ever. He was captain as England reached the quarter finals of the 1999 Rugby World Cup, won the Grand Slam in the 2003 Six Nations Championship and as England won the 2003 Rugby World Cup. The 2003 Rugby World Cup Final was his 84th and final international match. During his club career he played 362 games for Leicester, his only senior club, and as well as the cup in 1993 and the league in 1995, he was also captain of the side as they won the 1997 Pilkington Cup and four consecutive Premiership titles between 1999–2002, and became the first side to retain the European Cup, winning in 2001 and 2002. His final season was in 2004-05. On 1 July 2008 he became the England team manager. Under his management England won the 2011 Six Nations Championship, their first since 2003. He left the post in November 2011 following England's quarter final defeat at the 2011 Rugby World Cup and has not taken another management position in the game since. Early life. Johnson was born in Shirley, Solihull, the second of three brothers – his younger brother Will is a former back row forward for Leicester. At the age of seven, his family moved to Market Harborough, Leicestershire, where Martin attended Ridgeway Primary School, Welland Park School and Robert Smyth School. Early career. Johnson briefly played American football for the Leicester Panthers as a tight end or defensive end. In 1989 he was approached by former All Black Colin Meads to try out for the King Country side in New Zealand. Johnson's trial run was successful and he played two seasons for King Country. In 1990 he was even selected for the New Zealand under-21 side which went on a tour of Australia playing a side that included another of the all-time great lock forwards, John Eales. Playing career. 1989-92: Club debut and early seasons. Johnson made his Leicester debut on 14 February 1989 against the R.A.F. rugby team. His Courage League debut came against champions Bath at Welford Road; Tigers won 15-12 to deny Bath an undefeated season. Johnson did not feature for the first team again until 1990 as he played in New Zealand. His return to the first team was again against Bath; on 15 November 1990, due to an injury to Alex Gissing, Johnson started in the third round of 1990-91 Pilkington Cup and Tigers won, the first cup game that Bath had lost at The Rec since 1982. In 1990, Johnson moved to New Zealand to play for King Country and was selected to play for the Under 21 All Blacks. A recurrence of a shoulder injury limited Johnson to just 5 games for Leicester in the 1990/91 season, though he did make his divisional debut for the Midlands. Johnson returned to action in August 1991 as Leicester toured Canada, but Gissing was still preferred for the early season club matches. Johnson established himself in the side in early 1991 playing 11 consecutive games from October onward and only missing 5 of the next 26 matches. Although he made his Leicester debut in the same season, 1988/89, as fellow lock Matt Poole, the pair did not start a game together until 5 November 1991 against Cambridge University. They went on to play together 129 times, a club record for a second row partnership. 1992-93: Cup success, England and Lions debut. Johnson was now firmly established in Leicester's first choice line up. He played every game in the 1992-93 Pilkington Cup as Tigers defeated London Scottish, Nottingham, Exeter and Northampton to set up a final at Twickenham against Harlequins. Johnson scored Leicester's second try, after taking the ball from a tap penalty 5 meters out, as Leicester won 23–16. He made his test debut against in the opening game of the 1993 Five Nations Championship on 16 January 1993. He was due to play in an England 'A' game when he was unexpectedly summoned to Twickenham to replace the injured Wade Dooley. With only a 20-minute line-out session with his new teammates before the game, Johnson was thrown into the deep end. An early clash of heads with French prop Laurent Seigne left Johnson concussed, but he continued to play as England won 16–15. Johnson did not feature again for England in the Five Nations that season but was called up for an uncapped tour to Canada. After featuring in England's loss to Canada he was called up, again as a replacement for Dooley, for the 1993 British Lions tour to New Zealand. Dooley had returned to England for his father's funeral and was blocked from returning to the tour by the Lions' own committee. Johnson played in the final two tests against New Zealand. 1993-95: First League title, Grand Slam and Rugby World Cup. In 1993/94 season Johnson again was an ever-present in Tigers run to the cup final but this time Leicester fell short to rivals Bath, losing 21–9. Leicester were also runners up in the league to Bath, Johnson played in 15 of Leicester's 18 matches. Johnson celebrated the first of his 5 league titles in 1995. That season the league was played in two main blocks with sporadic fixtures in between; the first 9 games were played on consecutive weekends from 10 September 1994 to 5 November 1994, two games were played in January 1995, one in February 1995 and one at the beginning of March 1995 before finishing with 5 games in 6 weeks from 25 March to 29 April. Johnson played in all 9 games in the first period as Tigers won 7, drew against Bath away, and lost to Bristol to leave them 2nd in the table. Against Orrell R.U.F.C. on 14 January 1995 Johnson captained Leicester for the first time, regular captain Dean Richards and vice captain John Wells being unavailable. Tigers won 29–19. He was ever-present in the England side that won the 1995 Grand Slam. Preparations for the 1995 Rugby World Cup, which started in May, were deemed all important so Johnson, along with England colleague Rory Underwood, missed Leicester's February league match against Gloucester where Leicester slipped to a second defeat. Johnson returned for the matches against West Hartlepool, which saw Leicester go top, and the crucial wins against Bath and Sale. England duties meant he missed the last game of the season against Bristol which clinched the title. Johnson was again an ever-present in England's 1995 Rugby World Cup Campaign, featuring in group stage wins against , and as well as the quarter final against , the losing semi-final against and the third place play off against . 1995-97: Professionalism and near misses. Open professionalism was declared in August 1995, though a moratorium was declared by the RFU until the next season. After interest from Sale, Richmond and Newcastle Johnson signed his first professional contract with Leicester in 1996, a 5-year deal worth "six figures" per year. Johnson gave up his previous career with Midland Bank. The 1995/96 season had been another of just missing out to perennial rivals Bath. The Somerset side clinched the league on the final day of the season; despite Bath only drawing at home with Sale, Tigers were unable to beat Harlequins at Welford Road, losing 21–19. Leicester's full back John Liley had a poor day kicking at goal missing 6 of 9 kicks including a last minute attempt which would have sealed the match, and with it the title. Bath secured a league and cup double after defeating Leicester in the Cup Final. The match is perhaps best remembered for the controversial penalty try awarded by referee Steve Lander for repeated infringement which gave the match to Bath, and after the final whistle Leicester flanker Neil Back pushing Lander to the ground. The second-place finish in the league did secure Tigers place in the second season of the Heineken Cup, the English clubs were not involved in the first season. Dean Richards was still the club captain in 1996/97 but age and injury limited him to 23 starts, in his place Rory Underwood captained 5 of the first 9 games before Johnson became the regular stand in captain. He led the side in the short lived Anglo-Welsh League against Bridgend then again in Leicester's Heineken Cup debut against Leinster at Donnybrook. Johnson was an ever-present in Leicester's side as they reached the 1997 Heineken Cup Final in Cardiff; Leicester beat Leinster, Scottish Borders, Pau and Llanelli in the group stage before beating Harlequins (quarter finals) and Toulouse (semi finals) to set up the final against Brive. The match was close at half time, Leicester were behind 8-6 but the French side ran riot in the second half to win 28–9. That season Johnson captained Leicester in 12 matches including the 1997 Pilkington Cup Final, which Leicester won beating Sale 9–3 in the final. Johnson captained Leicester in the 6th Round against Bath then again in the quarter finals and semi finals. Lions Tour 1997. Johnson was selected to captain the 1997 British Lions tour of South Africa. The Lions convincingly won the first test at Newlands 25–16 with Neil Jenkins kicking five penalties and Matt Dawson and Alan Tait scoring tries. Despite scoring three tries in the second test at Durban, the Springboks suffered from some woeful goal kicking and failed to land any penalties or conversions, while for the Lions Neil Jenkins once again kicked five penalties to level the scores at 15–15 before Jeremy Guscott dropped a goal for an 18–15 lead for the Lions. The Lions then held off a ferocious South African fightback, Lawrence Dallaglio putting in a try-saving tackle, to win the match 18–15 and take the series. The third test at Ellis Park proved a match too far for the Lions squad and they lost 35–16. The tour was seen as a triumph for the Lions management of Fran Cotton (manager), Ian McGeechan (head coach), Jim Telfer (assistant coach) and especially Johnson as captain. 1997-2000: Domestic Success. After returning from the victorious 1997 Lions tour Johnson was formally appointed Leicester's captain. The season started with the Heineken Cup and Leicester secured a quarter final play off after finishing second in their group containing Leinster, Toulouse and Amatori Milan. Tigers beat the Italian side twice but lost away to Leinster and at home to Toulouse. In the quarter final play off Leicester beat Glasgow 90-19 but lost in the quarter final proper away to Pau. Domestically Tigers were a mixed bag, winning 12, losing 8 and drawing 2 games to finish 4th in the Allied Dunbar Premiership. In February 1998 Johnson's predecessor as Leicester captain Dean Richards was appointed as Director of Rugby following Bob Dwyer's sacking. Following a dispute between the English clubs and European Cup organisers there was no English involvement in the 1998-99 Heineken Cup; this led to an expanded Premiership of 14 clubs and 28 games. Tigers started the new season well with a 49–15 win against Harlequins and wins against London Scottish, Northampton and Bedford to see Tigers top the table at the end of September. Losses against Saracens and London Irish in rounds 5 & 7 saw Tigers slip to 3rd in October; Leicester regained the lead in the table after victories against Richmond and West Hartlepool and were never to lose it despite a loss to Wasps two weeks later. Dreams of the double were dashed by Richmond in the quarter finals of the cup, Johnson received a white card (at the time signifying 10 minutes in the sin bin) and during his absence the Londoners scored their two tries in a 15–13 win. The next week Johnson was sin binned again, this time in a league match against closest challengers Northampton, but even with Pat Howard also sin binned and Leicester down to 13 men for a period so outstanding was Johnson's play they won 22–15. Mathematically Johnson's second English championship title was sealed in the penultimate match of the season away to Newcastle Falcons. Johnson's form was such that he was named as the Premiership's Player of the Season. By now appointed England captain, Johnson missed the start of the 1999-2000 Premiership season due to the 1999 Rugby World Cup. He returned in the 7th game of the season a 12-all draw against Newcastle that left Leicester in 4th position. Johnson then missed much of the season, including the start of the Six Nations, with an Achilles tendon injury. Returning to the first team against Bedford in March Johnson captained Leicester in the last 9 games of the league season as Leicester retained their Premiership crown. 2001 & 2002: European Champion. Having dominated domestic rugby for the previous two years Leicester were desperate to avenge their 1997 Heineken Cup Final defeat and claim their first European title. Local rivals Northampton Saints had claimed the previous season's title with perennial rivals Bath claiming the title in 1998. Tigers were drawn with Pau, Glasgow and Pontypridd in their Heineken Cup pool. Johnson played in the first four games of the group; wins at home to Pau and away to Glasgow before a loss in Wales to Pontypridd that was quickly avenged a week later at Welford Road. On 9 November 2000 Johnson was one of only three then current players named in Leicester's "Team of the Century". Johnson missed the final two pool games and the quarter final against Swansea due to a 5-week ban picked up against Saracens in the Tetley's Bitter Cup quarter final. Domestically Leicester were again top of the table and at this stage 11 points clear of Northampton in second place. The gap was pushed to 18 points on 10 March 2001 when Tigers beat Northampton at Franklin's Gardens and Johnson's fourth English league title was formally sealed on 17 March 2001. With the domestic title sealed, Johnson led Leicester into the Heineken Cup semi finals against Gloucester. Leon Lloyd's try gave Leicester a 19–15 win, despite Johnson spending time in the sin bin, to set up the final in the Parc des Princes against Stade Francais. In the final Johnson was again sin binned, for punching Christophe Juillet, but Tigers prevailed winning 34-30 to secure the club's first continental title. Tigers had won the inaugural Premeriship play offs the week before so also sealed an unprecedented treble. Leicester became the first side to retain a European title after beating Munster in 2002. Johnson also led Leicester in retaining their Premiership title. Returning from the 2001 Lions tour Johnson was rested for the first game of the Premiership season and was kept on the bench for a further two games, not making his seasonal debut until 22 September 2001 against Bath. The next two weeks he started Leicester's Heineken Cup pool games against Llanelli and Calvisano but shortly after picked up the injury that would keep him out of England's rearranged Six Nations game with Ireland. Johnson returned to fitness to see Leicester through to the Heineken Cup semi finals against Llanelli but as with the season before missed mid-season matches due to a ban picked up in a game against Saracens. The ban was controversial as it was felt that the RFU did not have the right to hold the hearing, the incident having been seen and dealt with by way of a sin bin at the time, and that having then decided to ban Johnson he was only banned for Leicester game becoming available once England's games resumed. Johnson though returned to Leicester after the Six Nations and helped Leicester secure their fourth successive title against Newcastle on 13 April 2002 at Welford Road. Two weeks later Johnson captained Leicester as they traveled to Nottingham's City Ground for the Heineken Cup semi final against Llanelli. Tigers won thanks to a Tim Stimpson penalty which hit both the post and the cross bar before going through the posts. Tigers again victorious in the final winning 15–9 against Munster; the match is best remembered for Austin Healey's try and Neil Back's handling in a last-minute scrum on the Tigers' line. Though Johnson did have a try of his own ruled out after 10 minutes, with Tigers also having a first minute score from Freddie Tuilagi ruled out. In 2002 he was the third England captain after John Pullin and Will Carling to beat , and after beating the All Blacks 31–28. 2003 Rugby World Cup and Grand Slam. The 2003 international season started with the 2003 Six Nations Championship. Johnson featured in four of England's five games, wins against France, Wales, Scotland and the Grand Slam decider against Ireland. This success, the first England Grand Slam since 1995 was followed by a successful 2 match tour to New Zealand and Australia. England's first match was a 15–13 win over the All Blacks, during which the 6-man England scrum held off sustained pressure to clinch England's first win over the All Blacks in New Zealand since 1973. During the match, Johnson famously told his comrades in the scrum to "get down and shove". When asked about what was going through his head in the scrum he replied "my spine". In England's second match, a 20–17 victory over Australia, Johnson also performed at a monumental level, leading the former Australian captain, John Eales (who retired in 2001), to commend his display as 'among the best ever by a lock forward'. They took this into the 2003 World Cup, where they won crucial matches against South Africa, Wales and France, beating Australia in the final to win the cup with an extra time drop goal. 2003-05: Final Seasons. Johnson continued to play for Leicester until 2005. Leicester struggled after winning the 2002 League and European double, slumping to 6th in the 2002-03 Premiership season. As focus was on Johnson and co. in Australia for the 2003 Rugby World Cup Leicester's troubles continued, finding themselves in 11th place when their world champions returned. Dean Richards was sacked with John Wells his assistant taking charge. Wells led Leicester into 5th and qualification for the 2004-05 Heineken Cup. Johnson announced this was to be his final season along with Neil Back, who was also retiring, and coach Wells, who was leaving Leicester to join the England coaching staff. Tigers topped the table and went straight to the 2005 Premiership Final against Wasps, but lost 39–14. In the European Cup Leicester won away against Leinster in the quarter finals but were defeated by Toulose 27–19 at the Walkers Stadium. Awards. Johnson was awarded the Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1997 following his success in captaining the victorious 1997 British Lions tour to South Africa. After the 2003 Rugby World Cup victory he was awarded the Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2004 New Year honours and was second in the BBC Sports Personality of the Year awards behind Jonny Wilkinson. Johnson's testimonial match and farewell to competitive rugby, held at Twickenham on 4 June 2005, was one of the biggest rugby events of the year. It was historic in another way as the match marked the return of All Blacks legend Jonah Lomu after a recent kidney transplant. Johnson's XV defeated Lomu's 33–29. On 24 October 2011, at the IRB Awards in Auckland, Johnson was inducted into the IRB Hall of Fame alongside all other Rugby World Cup-winning captains and head coaches from the tournament's inception in 1987 through 2007 (minus the previously inducted John Eales). England head coach. In November 2006 it was rumoured the then England head rugby coach, Andy Robinson, was to be sacked and Johnson was one of many names speculated by the press as his replacement. The Rugby Football Union eventually selected Brian Ashton for the role. Johnson was appointed England team manager in April 2008. England started the 2008 Autumn internationals by beating the Pacific Islands 39–13. That was followed with a loss to Australia, then a 42–6 defeat to South Africa and then another loss this time 32–6 against New Zealand at Twickenham. England had four wins under Johnson going into 2009; in the 2009 Six Nations Championship they beat Italy 36–11, France 34–10 and Scotland 26–12 but were defeated by Ireland by 14–13 and to Wales by 23–15. In the 2010 Six Nations England won their first two games against Wales and Italy, losing against Ireland, drawing with Scotland and losing their final game against France, allowing the French to win a Grand Slam. In 2011, Johnson led a new-look England side to win the 2011 Six Nations title, thanks to wins over Wales, Italy, France and Scotland, though a 24–8 loss to Ireland on the final weekend of the competition denied them the Grand Slam. He resigned on 16 November 2011 following England's poor performance on and off the field at the 2011 Rugby World Cup in New Zealand. Personal life. Martin Johnson comes from a sporting family. His great-grandfather was a wrestler. A fan of American football, Johnson is a supporter of the San Francisco 49ers and worked as a studio analyst for ITV at Super Bowl XLI, and also for BBC Sport at Super Bowl XLVII. He then worked as a studio analyst for BBC Sport during their coverage of the 2018 Six Nations Championship.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=156858

Asexuality is the lack of sexual attraction to others, or low or absent interest in or desire for sexual activity. It may be considered a sexual orientation or the lack thereof. It may also be categorized more widely to include a broad spectrum of asexual sub-identities. Asexuality is distinct from abstention from sexual activity and from celibacy, which are behavioral and generally motivated by factors such as an individual's personal, social, or religious beliefs. Sexual orientation, unlike sexual behavior, is believed to be "enduring". Some asexual people engage in sexual activity despite lacking sexual attraction or a desire for sex, due to a variety of reasons, such as a desire to pleasure themselves or romantic partners, or a desire to have children. Acceptance of asexuality as a sexual orientation and field of scientific research is still relatively new, as a growing body of research from both sociological and psychological perspectives has begun to develop. While some researchers assert that asexuality is a sexual orientation, other researchers disagree. Asexual individuals may represent about 1 percent of the population. Various asexual communities have started to form since the impact of the Internet and social media in the mid-90’s. The most prolific and well-known of these communities is the Asexual Visibility and Education Network, which was founded in 2001 by David Jay. Definition, identity and relationships. Asexuality is sometimes called "ace" (a phonetic shortening of "asexual"), while the community is sometimes called "the ace community", by researchers or asexuals. Because there is significant variation among people who identify as asexual, asexuality can encompass broad definitions. Researchers generally define asexuality as the lack of sexual attraction or the lack of sexual interest, but their definitions vary; they may use the term "to refer to individuals with low or absent sexual desire or attractions, low or absent sexual behaviors, exclusively romantic non-sexual partnerships, or a combination of both absent sexual desires and behaviors". Self-identification as asexual may also be a determining factor. The Asexual Visibility and Education Network defines an asexual as "someone who does not experience sexual attraction" and stated, small minority will think of themselves as asexual for a brief period of time while exploring and questioning their own sexuality" and that "[t]here is no litmus test to determine if someone is asexual. Asexuality is like any other identity – at its core, it's just a word that people use to help figure themselves out. If at any point someone finds the word asexual useful to describe themselves, we encourage them to use it for as long as it makes sense to do so." Asexual people, though lacking sexual attraction to any gender, might engage in purely romantic relationships, while others might not. There are asexual-identified individuals who report that they feel sexual attraction but not the inclination to act on it because they have no true desire or need to engage in sexual or non-sexual activity (cuddling, hand-holding, etc. ), while other asexuals engage in cuddling or other non-sexual physical activity. Some asexuals participate in sexual activity out of curiosity. Some may masturbate as a solitary form of release, while others do not feel a need to do so. With regard to sexual activity in particular, the need or desire for masturbation is commonly referred to as "sex drive" by asexuals and they disassociate it from sexual attraction and being sexual; asexuals who masturbate generally consider it to be a normal product of the human body and not a sign of latent sexuality, and may not even find it pleasurable. Some asexual men are unable to get an erection and sexual activity by attempting penetration is impossible for them. Asexuals also differ in their feelings toward performing sex acts: some are indifferent and may have sex for the benefit of a romantic partner; others are more strongly averse to the idea, though they do not typically dislike people for having sex. Many people who identify as asexual also identify with other labels. These other identities include how they define their gender and their romantic orientation. They will oftentimes integrate these characteristics into a greater label that they identify with. Regarding romantic or emotional aspects of sexual orientation or sexual identity, for example, asexuals may identify as heterosexual, lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer, or by the following terms to indicate that they associate with the romantic, rather than sexual, aspects of sexual orientation: People may also identify as a gray-A (such as a gray-romantic, demiromantic, demisexual or semisexual) because they feel that they are between being aromantic and non-aromantic, or between asexuality and sexual attraction. While the term "gray-A" may cover anyone who occasionally feels romantic or sexual attraction, demisexuals or semisexuals experience sexual attraction only as a secondary component, feeling sexual attraction once a reasonably stable or large emotional connection has been created. Other unique words and phrases used in the asexual community to elaborate identities and relationships also exist. One term coined by individuals in the asexual community is "friend-focused", which refers to highly valued, non-romantic relationships. Other terms include "squishes" and "zucchinis", which are non-romantic crushes and queer-platonic relationships, respectively. Terms such as "non-asexual" and "allosexual" are used to refer to individuals on the opposite side of the sexuality spectrum. Some asexuals use ace playing card suits as identities of their romantic orientation, such as the ace of spades for aromanticism and the ace of hearts for non-aromanticism. Research. Prevalence. Asexuality is not a new aspect of human sexuality, but it is relatively new to public discourse. In comparison to other sexualities, asexuality has received little attention from the scientific community, with quantitative information pertaining to the prevalence of asexuality low in numbers. S. E. Smith of "The Guardian" is not sure asexuality has actually increased, rather leaning towards the belief that it is simply more visible. Alfred Kinsey rated individuals from 0 to 6 according to their sexual orientation from heterosexual to homosexual, known as the Kinsey scale. He also included a category he called "X" for individuals with "no socio-sexual contacts or reactions." Although, in modern times, this is categorized as representing asexuality, scholar Justin J. Lehmiller stated, "the Kinsey X classification emphasized a lack of sexual behavior, whereas the modern definition of asexuality emphasizes a lack of sexual attraction. As such, the Kinsey Scale may not be sufficient for accurate classification of asexuality." Kinsey labeled 1.5% of the adult male population as "X". In his second book, "Sexual Behavior in the Human Female", he reported this breakdown of individuals who are X: unmarried females = 14–19%, married females = 1–3%, previously married females = 5–8%, unmarried males = 3–4%, married males = 0%, and previously married males = 1–2%. Further empirical data about an asexual demographic appeared in 1994, when a research team in the United Kingdom carried out a comprehensive survey of 18,876 British residents, spurred by the need for sexual information in the wake of the AIDS pandemic. The survey included a question on sexual attraction, to which 1.05% of the respondents replied that they had "never felt sexually attracted to anyone at all". The study of this phenomenon was continued by Canadian sexuality researcher Anthony Bogaert in 2004, who explored the asexual demographic in a series of studies. Bogaert's research indicated that 1% of the British population does not experience sexual attraction, but he believed that the 1% figure was not an accurate reflection of the likely much larger percentage of the population that could be identified as asexual, noting that 30% of people contacted for the initial survey chose not to participate in the survey. Since less sexually experienced people are more likely to refuse to participate in studies about sexuality, and asexuals tend to be less sexually experienced than sexuals, it is likely that asexuals were under-represented in the responding participants. The same study found the number of homosexuals and bisexuals combined to be about 1.1% of the population, which is much smaller than other studies indicate. Contrasting Bogaert's 1% figure, a study by Aicken et al., published in 2013, suggests that, based on Natsal-2 data from 2000-2001, the prevalence of asexuality in Britain is only 0.4% for the age range 16–44. This percentage indicates a decrease from the 0.9% figure determined from the Natsal-1 data collected on the same age-range a decade earlier. A 2015 analysis by Bogaert also found a similar decline between the Natsal-1 and Natsal-2 data. Aicken, Mercer, and Cassell found some evidence of ethnic differences among respondents who had not experienced sexual attraction; both men and women of Indian and Pakistani origin had a higher likelihood of reporting a lack of sexual attraction. In a survey conducted by YouGov in 2015, 1,632 British adults were asked to try to place themselves on the Kinsey scale. 1% of participants answered "No sexuality". The breakdown of participants was 0% men, 2% women; 1% across all age ranges. Sexual orientation, mental health and cause. There is significant debate over whether or not asexuality is a sexual orientation. It has been compared and equated with hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD), in that both imply a general lack of sexual attraction to anyone; HSDD has been used to medicalize asexuality, but asexuality is generally not considered a disorder or a sexual dysfunction (such as anorgasmia, anhedonia, etc. ), because it does not necessarily define someone as having a medical problem or problems relating to others socially. Unlike people with HSDD, asexual people normally do not experience "marked distress" and "interpersonal difficulty" concerning feelings about their sexuality, or generally a lack of sexual arousal; asexuality is considered the lack or absence of sexual attraction as a life-enduring characteristic. One study found that, compared to HSDD subjects, asexuals reported lower levels of sexual desire, sexual experience, sex-related distress and depressive symptoms. Researchers Richards and Barker report that asexuals do not have disproportionate rates of alexithymia, depression, or personality disorders. Some people, however, may identify as asexual even if their non-sexual state is explained by one or more of the aforementioned disorders. The first study that gave empirical data about asexuals was published in 1983 by Paula Nurius, concerning the relationship between sexual orientation and mental health. 689 subjects—most of whom were students at various universities in the United States taking psychology or sociology classes—were given several surveys, including four clinical well-being scales. Results showed that asexuals were more likely to have low self-esteem and more likely to be depressed than members of other sexual orientations; 25.88% of heterosexuals, 26.54% bisexuals (called "ambisexuals"), 29.88% of homosexuals, and 33.57% of asexuals were reported to have problems with self-esteem. A similar trend existed for depression. Nurius did not believe that firm conclusions can be drawn from this for a variety of reasons. In a 2013 study, Yule et al. looked into mental health variances between Caucasian heterosexuals, homosexuals, bisexuals, and asexuals. The results of 203 male and 603 female participants were included in the findings. Yule et al. found that asexual male participants were more likely to report having a mood disorder than other males, particularly in comparison to the heterosexual participants. The same was found for female asexual participants over their heterosexual counterparts; however, non-asexual, non-heterosexual females had the highest rates. Asexual participants of both sexes were more likely to have anxiety disorders than heterosexual and non-heterosexual participants, as were they more likely than heterosexual participants to report having had recent suicidal feelings. Yule et al. hypothesized that some of these differences may be due to discrimination and other societal factors. With regard to sexual orientation categories, asexuality may be argued as not being a meaningful category to add to the continuum, and instead argued as the lack of a sexual orientation or sexuality. Other arguments propose that asexuality is the denial of one's natural sexuality, and that it is a disorder caused by shame of sexuality, anxiety or sexual abuse, sometimes basing this belief on asexuals who masturbate or occasionally engage in sexual activity simply to please a romantic partner. Within the context of sexual orientation identity politics, asexuality may pragmatically fulfill the political function of a sexual orientation identity category. The suggestion that asexuality is a sexual dysfunction is controversial among the asexual community. Those who identify as asexual usually prefer it to be recognized as a sexual orientation. Scholars who argue that asexuality is a sexual orientation may point to the existence of different sexual preferences. They and many asexual people believe that the lack of sexual attraction is valid enough to be categorized as a sexual orientation. The researchers argue that asexuals do not choose to have no sexual desire, and generally start to find out their differences in sexual behaviors around adolescence. Because of these facts coming to light, it is reasoned that asexuality is more than a behavioral choice and is not something that can be cured like a disorder. There is also analysis on whether identifying as asexual is becoming more popular. Research on the etiology of sexual orientation when applied to asexuality has the definitional problem of sexual orientation not consistently being defined by researchers as including asexuality. Sexual orientation is defined as "enduring" and resistant to change, proving to be generally impervious to interventions intended to change it, and asexuality may be defined as a sexual orientation because it is enduring and consistent over time. While heterosexuality, homosexuality and bisexuality are usually, but not always, determined during the early years of preadolescent life, it is not known when asexuality is determined. "It is unclear whether these characteristics ["viz. ", "lacking interest in or desire for sex"] are thought to be lifelong, or if they may be acquired." Sexual activity and sexuality. While some asexuals masturbate as a solitary form of release or have sex for the benefit of a romantic partner, others do not (see above). Fischer et al. reported that "scholars who study the physiology around asexuality suggest that people who are asexual are capable of genital arousal but may experience difficulty with so-called subjective arousal." This means that "while the body becomes aroused, subjectively – at the level of the mind and emotions – one does not experience arousal". The Kinsey Institute sponsored another small survey on the topic in 2007, which found that self-identified asexuals "reported significantly less desire for sex with a partner, lower sexual arousability, and lower sexual excitation but did not differ consistently from non-asexuals in their sexual inhibition scores or their desire to masturbate". A 1977 paper titled "Asexual and Autoerotic Women: Two Invisible Groups", by Myra T. Johnson, is explicitly devoted to asexuality in humans. Johnson defines asexuals as those men and women "who, regardless of physical or emotional condition, actual sexual history, and marital status or ideological orientation, seem to "prefer" not to engage in sexual activity." She contrasts autoerotic women with asexual women: "The asexual woman ... has no sexual desires at all [but] the autoerotic woman ... recognizes such desires but prefers to satisfy them alone." Johnson's evidence is mostly letters to the editor found in women's magazines written by asexual/autoerotic women. She portrays them as invisible, "oppressed by a consensus that they are non-existent," and left behind by both the sexual revolution and the feminist movement. Johnson argued that society either ignores or denies their existence or insists they must be ascetic for religious reasons, neurotic, or asexual for political reasons. In a study published in 1979 in volume five of "Advances in the Study of Affect", as well as in another article using the same data and published in 1980 in the "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology", Michael D. Storms of the University of Kansas outlined his own reimagining of the Kinsey scale. Whereas Kinsey measured sexual orientation based on a combination of actual sexual behavior and fantasizing and eroticism, Storms used only fantasizing and eroticism. Storms, however, placed hetero-eroticism and homo-eroticism on separate axes rather than at two ends of a single scale; this allows for a distinction between bisexuality (exhibiting both hetero- and homo-eroticism in degrees comparable to hetero- or homosexuals, respectively) and asexuality (exhibiting a level of homo-eroticism comparable to a heterosexual and a level of hetero-eroticism comparable to a homosexual, namely, little to none). This type of scale accounted for asexuality for the first time. Storms conjectured that many researchers following Kinsey's model could be mis-categorizing asexual subjects as bisexual, because both were simply defined by a lack of preference for gender in sexual partners. In a 1983 study by Paula Nurius, which included 689 subjects (most of whom were students at various universities in the United States taking psychology or sociology classes), the two-dimensional fantasizing and eroticism scale was used to measure sexual orientation. Based on the results, respondents were given a score ranging from 0 to 100 for hetero-eroticism and from 0 to 100 for homo-eroticism. Respondents who scored lower than 10 on both were labeled "asexual". This consisted of 5% of the males and 10% of the females. Results showed that asexuals reported much lower frequency and desired frequency of a variety of sexual activities including having multiple partners, anal sexual activities, having sexual encounters in a variety of locations, and autoerotic activities. Feminist research. The field of asexuality studies is still emerging as a subset of the broader field of gender and sexuality studies. Notable researchers who have produced significant works in asexuality studies include KJ Cerankowski, Ela Przybylo, and CJ DeLuzio Chasin. A 2010 paper written by KJ Cerankowski and Megan Milks, titled "New Orientations: Asexuality and Its Implications for Theory and Practice", suggests that asexuality may be somewhat of a question in itself for the studies of gender and sexuality. Cerankowski and Milks have suggested that asexuality raises many more questions than it resolves, such as how a person could abstain from having sex, which is generally accepted by society to be the most basic of instincts. Their "New Orientations" paper states that society has deemed "[LGBT and] female sexuality as empowered or repressed. The asexual movement challenges that assumption by challenging many of the basic tenets of pro-sex feminism [in which it is] already defined as repressive or anti-sex sexualities." In addition to accepting self-identification as asexual, the Asexual Visibility and Education Network has formulated asexuality as a biologically determined orientation. This formula, if dissected scientifically and proven, would support researcher Simon LeVay's blind study of the hypothalamus in gay men, women, and straight men, which indicates that there is a biological difference between straight men and gay men. In 2014, Cerankowski and Milks edited and published "Asexualities: Feminist and Queer Perspectives", a collection of essays intended to explore the politics of asexuality from a feminist and queer perspective. It is broken into the introduction and then six parts: Theorizing Asexuality: New Orientations; The Politics of Asexuality; Visualizing Asexuality in Media Culture; Asexuality and Masculinity; Health, Disability, and Medicalization; and Reading Asexually: Asexual Literary Theory. Each part contains two to three papers on a given aspect of asexuality research. One such paper is written by Ela Przybylo, another name that is becoming common in asexual scholarly literature. Her article, with regard to the Cerankowski and Milks anthology, focuses on accounts by self-identified male asexuals, with a particular focus on the pressures men experience towards having sex in dominant Western discourse and media. Three men living in Southern Ontario, Canada, were interviewed in 2011, and Przybylo admits that the small sample-size means that her findings cannot be generalized to a greater population in terms of representation, and that they are "exploratory and provisional", especially in a field that is still lacking in theorizations. All three interviewees addressed being affected by the stereotype that men have to enjoy and want sex in order to be "real men". Another of Przybylo's works, "Asexuality and the Feminist Politics of "Not Doing It"", published in 2011, takes a feminist lens to scientific writings on asexuality. Pryzyblo argues that asexuality is made possible only through the Western context of "sexual, coital, and heterosexual imperatives". She addresses earlier works by Dana Densmore, Valerie Solanas, and Breanne Fahs, who argued for "asexuality and celibacy" as radical feminist political strategies against patriarchy. While Przybylo does make some distinctions between asexuality and celibacy, she considers blurring the lines between the two to be productive for a feminist understanding of the topic. In her 2013 article, "Producing Facts: Empirical Asexuality and the Scientific Study of Sex", Przybylo distinguishes between two different stages of asexual research: that of the late 1970s to the early 1990s, which often included a very limited understanding of asexuality, and the more recent revisiting of the subject which she says began with Bogaert's 2004 study and has popularized the subject and made it more "culturally visible". In this article, Przybylo once again asserts the understanding of asexuality as a cultural phenomenon, and continues to be critical of its scientific study. Pryzblo published a book, "Asexual Erotics," in 2019. In this book, she argued that asexuality poses a "paradox" in that is a sexual orientation that is defined by the absence of sexual activity entirely. She distinguishes between a sociological understanding of asexuality and a cultural understanding, which she said could include "the open mesh of possibilities, gaps, overlaps, dissonances and resonances". CJ DeLuzio Chasin states in "Reconsidering Asexuality and Its Radical Potential" that academic research on asexuality "has positioned asexuality in line with essentialist discourses of sexual orientation" which is troublesome as it creates a binary between asexuals and persons who have been subjected to psychiatric intervention for disorders such as Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder. Chasin says that this binary implies that all asexuals experience a lifelong (hence, enduring) lack of sexual attraction, that all non-asexuals who experience a lack of sexual desire experience distress over it, and that it pathologizes asexuals who do experience such distress. As Chasin says such diagnoses as HSDD act to medicalize and govern women's sexuality, the article aims to "unpack" problematic definitions of asexuality that are harmful to both asexuals and women alike. Chasin states that asexuality has the power to challenge commonplace discourse of the naturalness of sexuality, but that the unquestioned acceptance of its current definition does not allow for this. Chasin also argues there and elsewhere in "Making Sense in and of the Asexual Community: Navigating Relationships and Identities in a Context of Resistance" that it is important to interrogate why someone might be distressed about low sexual desire. Chasin further argues that clinicians have an ethical obligation to avoid treating low sexual desire per se as pathological, and to discuss asexuality as a viable possibility (where relevant) with clients presenting clinically with low sexual desire. Intersections with race and disability. Scholar Ianna Hawkins Owen writes that "Studies of race have revealed the deployment of asexuality in the dominant discourse as an ideal sexual behavior to justify both the empowerment of whites and the subordination of blacks to uphold a racialized social and political system." This is partly due to the simultaneous sexualization and de-sexualization of black women in the Mammy archetype, as well as by how society de-sexualizes certain racial minorities, as part of a bid to claim superiority by Whites. This is co-existent with the sexualization of black female bodies in the Jezebel archetype, both utilized to justify slavery and enable further control. Owen also criticizes the "...investment in constructing asexuality upon a white racial rubric (who else can claim access to being just like everyone else?)". Eunjung Kim illuminates the intersections between disability/Crip theory and asexuality, pointing out that disabled people are more frequently de-sexualized. Kim compares the idea of frigid women to asexuality and analyzes its history from a queer/crip/feminist angle. Bogaert's psychological work and theories. Bogaert argues that understanding asexuality is of key importance to understanding sexuality in general. For his work, Bogaert defines asexuality as "a lack of lustful inclinations/feelings directed toward others," a definition that he argues is relatively new in light of recent theory and empirical work on sexual orientation. This definition of "asexuality" also makes clear this distinction between behavior and desire, for both asexuality and celibacy, although Bogaert also notes that there is some evidence of reduced sexual activity for those who fit this definition. He further distinguishes between desire for others and desire for sexual stimulation, the latter of which is not always absent for those who identify as asexual, although he acknowledges that other theorists define asexuality differently and that further research needs to be done on the "complex relationship between attraction and desire". Another distinction is made between romantic and sexual attraction, and he draws on work from developmental psychology, which suggests that romantic systems derive from attachment theory while sexual systems "primarily reside in different brain structures". Concurrent with Bogaert's suggestion that understanding asexuality will lead to a better understanding of sexuality overall, he discusses the topic of asexual masturbation to theorize on asexuals and "'target-oriented' paraphilia, in which there is an inversion, reversal, or disconnection between the self and the typical target/object of sexual interest/attraction" (such as attraction to oneself, labelled "automonosexualism"). In an earlier 2006 article, Bogaert acknowledges that a distinction between behavior and attraction has been accepted into recent conceptualizations of sexual orientation, which aids in positioning asexuality as such. He adds that, by this framework, "(subjective) sexual attraction is the psychological core of sexual orientation", and also addresses that there may be "some skepticism in [both] the academic and clinical communities" about classifying asexuality as a sexual orientation, and that it raises two objections to such a classification: First, he suggests that there could be an issue with self-reporting (i.e., "a 'perceived' or 'reported' lack of attraction", particularly for definitions of sexual orientation that consider physical arousal over subjective attraction), and, second, he raises the issue of overlap between absent and "very" "low" sexual desire, as those with an extremely low desire may still have an "underlying sexual orientation" despite potentially identifying as asexual. Community. General. An academic work dealing with the history of the asexual community is presently lacking. Although a few private sites for people with little or no sexual desire existed on the Internet in the 1990s, scholars state that a community of self-identified asexuals coalesced in the early 21st century, aided by the popularity of online communities. Volkmar Sigusch stated that "Groups such as 'Leather Spinsters' defended asexual life against the pressure of culture" and that "Geraldin van Vilsteren created the 'Nonlibidoism Society' in the Netherlands, while Yahoo offered a group for asexuals, 'Haven for the Human Amoeba.'" The Asexual Visibility and Education Network (AVEN) is an organization founded by American asexuality activist David Jay in 2001 that focuses on asexuality issues. Its stated goals are "creating public acceptance and discussion of asexuality and facilitating the growth of an asexual community". For some, being a part of a community is an important resource because they often report having felt ostracized. Although online communities exist, affiliation with online communities vary. Some question the concept of online community, while others depend on the online asexual community heavily for support. Elizabeth Abbott posits that there has always been an asexual element in the population, but that asexual people kept a low profile. While the failure to consummate marriage was seen as an insult to the sacrament of marriage in medieval Europe, and has sometimes been used as grounds for divorce or to rule a marriage void, asexuality, unlike homosexuality, has never been illegal, and it has usually gone unnoticed. However, in the 21st century, the anonymity of online communication and general popularity of social networking online has facilitated the formation of a community built around a common asexual identity. Communities such as AVEN can be beneficial to those in search of answers to solve a crisis of identity with regard to their possible asexuality. Individuals go through a series of emotional processes that end with their identifying with the asexual community. They first realize that their sexual attractions differ from those of most of society. This difference leads to questioning whether the way they feel is acceptable, and possible reasons for why they feel this way. Pathological beliefs tend to follow, in which, in some cases, they may seek medical help because they feel they have a disease. Self-understanding is usually reached when they find a definition that matches their feelings. Asexuality communities provide support and information that allows newly identified asexuals to move from self-clarification to identifying on a communal level, which can be empowering, because they now have something to associate with, which gives normality to this overall socially-isolating situation. Asexual organizations and other Internet resources play a key role in informing people about asexuality. The lack of research makes it difficult for doctors to understand the causation. Like with any sexual orientation, most people who are asexual are self-identified. This can be a problem when asexuality is mistaken for an intimacy or relationship problem or for other symptoms that do not define asexuality. There is also a significant population that either does not understand or does not believe in asexuality, which adds to the importance of these organizations to inform the general population; however, due to the lack of scientific fact on the subject, what these groups promote as information is often questioned. On June 29, 2014, AVEN organized the second International Asexuality Conference, as an affiliate WorldPride event in Toronto. The first was held at the 2012 World Pride in London. The second such event, which was attended by around 250 people, was the largest gathering of asexuals to date. The conference included presentations, discussions, and workshops on topics such as research on asexuality, asexual relationships, and intersecting identities. Symbols. In 2009, AVEN members participated in the first asexual entry into an American pride parade when they walked in the San Francisco Pride Parade. In August 2010, after a period of debate over having an asexual flag and how to set up a system to create one, and contacting as many asexual communities as possible, a flag was announced as the asexual pride flag by one of the teams involved. The final flag had been a popular candidate and had previously seen use in online forums outside of AVEN. The final vote was held on a survey system outside of AVEN where the main flag creation efforts were organized. The flag colors have been used in artwork and referenced in articles about asexuality. The flag consists of four horizontal stripes: black, grey, white, and purple from top to bottom. The black stripe represents asexuality, the grey stripe representing the grey-area between sexual and asexual, the white stripe sexuality, and the purple stripe community. Ace Week. Ace Week (formerly Asexual Awareness Week) occurs on the last full week in October. It is an awareness period that was created to celebrate and bring awareness to asexuality (including grey asexuality). It was founded by Sara Beth Brooks in 2010. International Asexuality Day. International Asexuality Day (IAD) is an annual celebration of the asexuality community that takes place on 6 April. The intention for the day is "to place a special emphasis on the international community, going beyond the anglophone and Western sphere that has so far had the most coverage". An international committee spent a little under a year preparing the event, as well as publishing a website and press materials. This committee settled on the date of 6 April to avoid clashing with as many significant dates around the world as possible, although this date is subject to review and may change in future years. The first International Asexuality Day was celebrated in 2021 and involved asexuality organisations from at least 26 different countries. Activities included virtual meetups, advocacy programs both online and offline, and the sharing of stories in various art-forms. Religion. Studies have found no significant statistical correlation between religion and asexuality, with asexuality occurring with equal prevalence in both religious and irreligious individuals. Nonetheless, asexuality is not uncommon among celibate clergy, since others are more likely to be discouraged by vows of chastity. In Aicken, Mercer, and Cassell's study, a higher proportion of Muslim respondents than Christian ones reported that they did not experience any form of sexual attraction. Because of the relatively recent application of the term "asexuality", most religions do not have clear stances on it. In , Jesus mentions "For there are eunuchs who were born that way, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by others – and there are those who choose to live like eunuchs to the sake of the kingdom of heaven." Some biblical exegetes have interpreted the "eunuchs who were born that way" as including asexuals. Christianity has traditionally revered celibacy (which is not the same as asexuality); the apostle Paul, a lifelong unmarried celibate, has been described by some writers as asexual. He writes in , Nonetheless, some Christians regard asexuality as imaginary or even immoral. The Jesuit priests David Nantais and Scott Opperman write: "Asexual people do not exist. Sexuality is a gift from God and thus a fundamental part of our human identity. Those who repress their sexuality are not living as God created them to be: fully alive and well. As such, they're most likely unhappy." Discrimination and legal protections. A 2012 study published in "Group Processes & Intergroup Relations" reported that asexuals are evaluated more negatively in terms of prejudice, dehumanization and discrimination than other sexual minorities, such as gay men, lesbians and bisexuals. Both homosexual and heterosexual people thought of asexuals as not only cold, but also animalistic and unrestrained. A different study, however, found little evidence of serious discrimination against asexuals because of their asexuality. Asexual activist, author, and blogger Julie Decker has observed that sexual harassment and violence, such as corrective rape, commonly victimizes the asexual community. Sociologist Mark Carrigan sees a middle ground, arguing that while asexuals do often experience discrimination, it is not of a phobic nature but "more about marginalization because people genuinely don't understand asexuality." Asexuals also face prejudice from the LGBT community. Many LGBT people assume that anyone who is not homosexual or bisexual must be straight and frequently exclude asexuals from their definitions of "queer". Although many well-known organizations devoted to aiding LGBTQ communities exist, these organizations generally do not reach out to asexuals and do not provide library materials about asexuality. Upon coming out as asexual, activist Sara Beth Brooks was told by many LGBT people that asexuals are mistaken in their self-identification and seek undeserved attention within the social justice movement. Other LGBT organizations, such as The Trevor Project and the National LGBTQ Task Force, explicitly include asexuals because they are non-heterosexual and can therefore be included in the definition of queer. Some organizations now add an A to the LGBTQ acronym to include asexuals; however, this is still a controversial topic in some queer organizations. In some jurisdictions, asexuals have legal protections. While Brazil bans since 1999 whatever pathologization or attempted treatment of sexual orientation by mental health professionals through the national ethical code, the US state of New York has labeled asexuals as a protected class. However, asexuality does not typically attract the attention of the public or major scrutiny; therefore, it has not been the subject of legislation as much as other sexual orientations have. In the media. Asexual representation in the media is limited and rarely openly acknowledged or confirmed by creators or authors. In works composed prior to the beginning of the twenty-first century, characters are generally automatically assumed to be sexual and the existence of a character's sexuality is usually never questioned. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle portrayed his character Sherlock Holmes as what would today be classified as asexual, with the intention to characterize him as solely driven by intellect and immune to the desires of the flesh. The Archie Comics character Jughead Jones was likely intended by his creators as an asexual foil to Archie's excessive heterosexuality, but, over the years, this portrayal shifted, with various iterations and reboots of the series implying that he is either gay or heterosexual. In 2016, he was confirmed to be asexual in the "New Riverdale" Jughead comics. The writers of the 2017 television show "Riverdale", based on the Archie comics, chose to depict Jughead as a heterosexual despite pleas from both fans and Jughead actor Cole Sprouse to retain Jughead's asexuality and allow the asexual community to be represented alongside the gay and bisexual communities, both represented in the show. This decision sparked conversations about deliberate asexual erasure in the media and its consequences, especially on younger viewers. Gilligan, the eponymous character of the 1960s television series "Gilligan's Island", is classified as asexual. The producers of the show likely portrayed him in this way to make him more relatable to young male viewers of the show who had not yet reached puberty and had therefore presumably not yet experienced sexual desire. Gilligan's asexual nature also allowed the producers to orchestrate intentionally comedic situations in which Gilligan spurns the advances of attractive females. Films and television shows frequently feature attractive, but seemingly asexual, female characters who are "converted" to heterosexuality by the male protagonist by the end of the production. These unrealistic portrayals reflect a heterosexual male belief that all asexual women secretly desire men. Asexuality as a sexual identity, rather than as a biological entity, became more widely discussed in the media in the beginning of the twenty-first century. The Fox Network series "House" represented an "asexual" couple in the episode "Better Half". However, this representation has been questioned by members of the asexual community (including AVEN founder, David Jay) due to the episode concluding in the reveal that the man simply had a pituitary tumor that reduced his sex drive, and the woman was only pretending to be asexual to please him. This led to controversy over the representation and a change.org petition for Fox Network to reconsider how it represents asexual characters in the future, stating it "represented asexuality very poorly by attributing it to both medical illness and deception." Children's animated television series "SpongeBob SquarePants" was under speculation (2002) and later controversy (2005) because of claims that SpongeBob and his best friend, Patrick, are gay. This prompted the creator, Stephen Hillenburg, to clarify on both occasions that he does not consider them gay or heterosexual, but rather asexual. He also linked SpongeBob's ability to reproduce asexually by "budding" to further explain that the character doesn't necessarily need relationships. The character Evan Waxman proclaims his asexual identity upon his first appearance in a 2013 episode of the web series "High Maintenance"; the character, portrayed by Avery Monsen, reappears in several episodes, including the series' subsequent continuation on HBO. The Netflix series "BoJack Horseman" revealed in the end of the third season that Todd Chavez, one of the primary characters, is asexual. This has been further elaborated in the 4th season of the series and has been generally well accepted by the asexual community for its methods of positive representation. On the British soap opera "Emmerdale", 15-year-old character Liv Flaherty revealed that she fancies neither boys nor girls, leading to speculation that she might be asexual. The television series "Shadowhunters", based on the book series "The Mortal Instruments", includes the asexual character Raphael Santiago.

societal role

14371-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55668

The Chinese Exclusion Act was a United States federal law signed by President Chester A. Arthur on May 6, 1882, prohibiting all immigration of Chinese laborers. Building on the earlier Page Act of 1875 which banned Chinese women from immigrating to the United States, the Chinese Exclusion Act was the first, and remains the only law to have been implemented, to prevent all members of a specific ethnic or national group from immigrating to the United States. Passage of the law was preceded by anti-Chinese violence, as well as various policies targeting Chinese migrants. The act followed the Angell Treaty of 1880, a set of revisions to the U.S.–China Burlingame Treaty of 1868 that allowed the U.S. to suspend Chinese immigration. The act was initially intended to last for 10 years, but was renewed and strengthened in 1892 with the Geary Act and made permanent in 1902. These laws attempted to stop all Chinese immigration into the United States for ten years, with exceptions for diplomats, teachers, students, merchants, and travelers. The laws were widely evaded. Exclusion was repealed by the Magnuson Act on December 17, 1943, which allowed 105 Chinese to enter per year. Chinese immigration later increased with the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, which abolished direct racial barriers, and later by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which abolished the National Origins Formula. Background. The first significant Chinese immigration to North America began with the California Gold Rush of 1848–1855 and it continued with subsequent large labor projects, such as the building of the First Transcontinental Railroad. During the early stages of the gold rush, when surface gold was plentiful, the Chinese were tolerated by white people, if not well received. However, as gold became harder to find and competition increased, animosity toward the Chinese and other foreigners increased. After being forcibly driven from mining by a mixture of state legislators and other miners (the Foreign Miner's Tax), the immigrant Chinese began to settle in enclaves in cities, mainly San Francisco, and took up low-wage labor, such as restaurant and laundry work. With the post-Civil War economy in decline by the 1870s, anti-Chinese animosity became politicized by labor leader Denis Kearney and his Workingman's Party as well as by California governor John Bigler, both of whom blamed Chinese "coolies" for depressed wage levels. Public opinion and law in California began to demonize Chinese workers and immigrants in any role, with the later half of the 1800s seeing a series of ever more restrictive laws being placed on Chinese labor, behavior and even living conditions. While many of these legislative efforts were quickly overturned by the State Supreme Court, many more anti-Chinese laws continued to be passed in both California and nationally. In the early 1850s there was resistance to the idea of excluding Chinese migrant workers from immigration because they provided essential tax revenue which helped fill the fiscal gap of California. The Chinese emperor at the time was supportive of the exclusion, citing his concerns that Chinese immigration to America would lead to a loss of labor for China. But toward the end of the decade, the financial situation improved and subsequently, attempts to legislate Chinese exclusion became successful on the state level. In 1858, the California Legislature passed a law that made it illegal for any person "of the Chinese or Mongolian races" to enter the state; however, this law was struck down by an unpublished opinion of the State Supreme Court in 1862. The Chinese immigrant workers provided cheap labor and did not use any of the government infrastructure (schools, hospitals, etc.) because the Chinese migrant population was predominantly made up of healthy male adults. In January 1868, the Senate ratified the Burlingame Treaty with China, allowing an unrestricted flow of Chinese into the country. As time passed and more and more Chinese migrants arrived in the United States and California in particular, violence would often break out in cities such as Los Angeles. A strike which was broken by the replacement of all workers with over 200 Chinese men at the Beaver Falls Cutlery Company in Pennsylvania was mentioned at the Pennsylvania General Assembly and Congress. "In some measure it contributed to the eventual passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act." After the economy soured in the Panic of 1873, Chinese immigrants were blamed for depressing workmen's wages. At one point, Chinese men represented nearly a quarter of all wage-earning workers in California, and by 1878 Congress felt compelled to try to ban immigration from China in legislation that was later vetoed by President Rutherford B. Hayes. The title of the August 27, 1873 "San Francisco Chronicle" article, "The Chinese Invasion! They Are Coming, 900,000 Strong", was traced by "The Atlantic" as one of the roots of the 2019 anti-immigration "invasion" rhetoric. In 1879, however, California adopted a new Constitution which explicitly authorized the state government to determine which individuals were allowed to reside in the state, and banned the Chinese from employment by corporations and state, county or municipal governments. Three years later, after China had agreed to treaty revisions, Congress tried again to exclude working class Chinese laborers; Senator John F. Miller of California introduced another Chinese Exclusion Act that blocked entry of Chinese laborers for a twenty-year period. The bill passed the Senate and House by overwhelming margins, but this as well was vetoed by President Chester A. Arthur, who concluded the 20-year ban to be a breach of the renegotiated treaty of 1880. That treaty allowed only a "reasonable" suspension of immigration. Eastern newspapers praised the veto, while it was condemned in the Western states. Congress was unable to override the veto, but passed a new bill reducing the immigration ban to ten years. Although he still objected to this denial of entry to Chinese laborers, Arthur acceded to the compromise measure, signing the Chinese Exclusion Act into law on May 6, 1882. Scholars disagree on whether the anti-Chinese animus in California drove the federal government (the California Thesis), or Chinese racism had simply become inherent in the country at that time. At any rate, in 1882 the federal government was finally convinced to pass the Chinese Exclusion Act, which banned all immigration from China for a period of 10 years, with exceptions for diplomats, teachers, students, merchants, and travelers. After the act was passed, most Chinese workers were faced with a dilemma: stay in the United States alone or go back to China to reunite with their families. Although widespread dislike for the Chinese persisted well after the law itself was passed, of note is that some capitalists and entrepreneurs resisted their exclusion because they accepted lower wages. Content. For the first time, federal law proscribed entry of an ethnic working group on the premise that it endangered the good order of certain localities. (The earlier Page Act of 1875 had prohibited immigration of Asian forced laborers and sex workers, and the Naturalization Act of 1790 prohibited naturalization of non-white subjects.) The act excluded Chinese laborers, meaning "skilled and unskilled laborers and Chinese employed in mining," from entering the country for ten years under penalty of imprisonment and deportation. The Chinese Exclusion Act required the few non laborers who sought entry to obtain certification from the Chinese government that they were qualified to emigrate. However, this group found it increasingly difficult to prove that they were not laborers because the 1882 act defined excludables as "skilled and unskilled laborers and Chinese employed in mining." Thus very few Chinese could enter the country under the 1882 law. Diplomatic officials and other officers on business, along with their house servants, for the Chinese government were also allowed entry as long as they had the proper certification verifying their credentials. The act also affected the Chinese who had already settled in the United States. Any Chinese who left the United States had to obtain certifications for reentry, and the Act made Chinese immigrants permanent aliens by excluding them from U.S. citizenship. After the act's passage, Chinese men in the U.S. had little chance of ever reuniting with their wives, or of starting families in their new abodes. Amendments made in 1884 tightened the provisions that allowed previous immigrants to leave and return, and clarified that the law applied to ethnic Chinese regardless of their country of origin. The Scott Act (1888) expanded upon the Chinese Exclusion Act, prohibiting reentry into the U.S. after leaving. Constitutionality of the Chinese Exclusion Act and the Scott Act was upheld by the Supreme Court in "Chae Chan Ping v. United States" (1889); the Supreme Court declared that "the power of exclusion of foreigners [is] an incident of sovereignty belonging to the government of the United States as a part of those sovereign powers delegated by the constitution." The act was renewed for ten years by the 1892 Geary Act, and again with no terminal date in 1902. When the act was extended in 1902, it required "each Chinese resident to register and obtain a certificate of residence. Without a certificate, he or she faced deportation." Between 1882 and 1905, about 10,000 Chinese appealed against negative immigration decisions to federal court, usually via a petition for habeas corpus. In most of these cases, the courts ruled in favor of the petitioner. Except in cases of bias or negligence, these petitions were barred by an act that passed Congress in 1894 and was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in "U.S." vs "Lem Moon Sing" (1895). In "U.S." vs "Ju Toy" (1905), the U.S. Supreme Court reaffirmed that the port inspectors and the Secretary of Commerce had final authority on who could be admitted. Ju Toy's petition was thus barred despite the fact that the district court found that he was an American citizen. The Supreme Court determined that refusing entry at a port does not require due process and is legally equivalent to refusing entry at a land crossing. All these developments, along with the extension of the act in 1902, triggered a boycott of U.S. goods in China between 1904 and 1906. There was one 1885 case in San Francisco, however, in which Treasury Department officials in Washington overturned a decision to deny entry to two Chinese students. One of the critics of the Chinese Exclusion Act was the anti-slavery/anti-imperialist Republican senator George Frisbie Hoar of Massachusetts who described the act as "nothing less than the legalization of racial discrimination." It was primarily meant to retain white superiority especially with regards to working privileges. Congressman Rufus Dawes who voted against the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act was not reelected to Congress. The laws were driven largely by racial concerns; immigration of persons of other races was not yet limited. On the other hand, most people and unions strongly supported the Chinese Exclusion Act, including the American Federation of Labor and Knights of Labor, a labor union, who supported it because it believed that industrialists were using Chinese workers as a wedge to keep wages low. Among labor and leftist organizations, the Industrial Workers of the World were the sole exception to this pattern. The IWW openly opposed the Chinese Exclusion Act from its inception in 1905. For all practical purposes, the Exclusion Act, along with the restrictions that followed it, froze the Chinese community in place in 1882. Limited immigration from China continued until the repeal of the Act in 1943. From 1910 to 1940, the Angel Island Immigration Station on what is now Angel Island State Park in San Francisco Bay served as the processing center for most of the 56,113 Chinese immigrants who are recorded as immigrating or returning from China; upwards of 30% more who arrived there were returned to China. After the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, which destroyed City Hall and the Hall of Records, many immigrants (known as "paper sons") were able to claim familial ties to resident Chinese-American citizens. The Act exempted merchants, and restaurant owners could apply for merchant visas beginning in 1915 after a federal court ruling. This led to the rapid growth of Chinese restaurants in the 1910s and 1920s as restaurant owners could leave and reenter along with family members from China. The Chinese Exclusion Act also led to an expansion of the power of U.S. immigration law through its influence on Canada's policies on Chinese exclusion during this time because of the need for greater vigilance at the U.S.-Canada border. Shortly after the U.S. Chinese Exclusion Act, Canada established the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 which imposed a head tax on Chinese migrants entering Canada. After increasing pressure from the U.S. government, Canada finally established the Chinese Immigration Act, 1923 which banned most forms of immigration by the Chinese to Canada. There was also a need for this kind of border control along the U.S–Mexico border, however, efforts to control the border went along a different path because Mexico was fearful of expanding imperial power of the U.S. and did not want U.S. interference in Mexico. Not only this, but Chinese immigration to Mexico was welcomed because the Chinese immigrants filled Mexico's labor needs. The Chinese Exclusion Act actually led to heightened Chinese immigration to Mexico because of exclusion by the U.S. Therefore, the U.S. resorted to heavily policing the border along Mexico. Later, the Immigration Act of 1924 restricted immigration even further, excluding all classes of Chinese immigrants and extending restrictions to other Asian immigrant groups. Until these restrictions were relaxed in the middle of the twentieth century, Chinese immigrants were forced to live a life separated from their families, and to build ethnic enclaves in which they could survive on their own (Chinatown). The Chinese Exclusion Act did not address the problems that whites were facing; in fact, the Chinese were quickly and eagerly replaced by the Japanese, who assumed the role of the Chinese in society. Unlike the Chinese, some Japanese were even able to climb the rungs of society by setting up businesses or becoming truck farmers. However, the Japanese were later targeted in the National Origins Act of 1924, which banned immigration from east Asia entirely. In 1891, the Government of China refused to accept U.S. senator Henry W. Blair as U.S. minister to China due to his abusive remarks regarding China during negotiation of the Chinese Exclusion Act. The American Christian George F. Pentecost spoke out against western imperialism in China, saying: "I personally feel convinced that it would be a good thing for America if the embargo on Chinese immigration were removed. I think that the annual admission of 100,000 into this country would be a good thing for the country. And if the same thing were done in the Philippines those islands would be a veritable Garden of Eden in twenty-five years. The presence of Chinese workmen in this country would, in my opinion, do a very great deal toward solving our labor problems. There is no comparison between the Chinaman, even of the lowest coolie class, and the man who comes here from Southeastern Europe, from Russia, or from Southern Italy. The Chinese are thoroughly good workers. That is why the laborers here hate them. I think, too, that the emigration to America would help the Chinese. At least he would come into contact with some real Christian people in America. The Chinaman lives in squalor because he is poor. If he had some prosperity his squalor would cease." The "Driving Out" period. Following the passing of the Chinese Exclusion Act, a period known as the "Driving Out" era was born. In this period, anti-Chinese Americans physically forced Chinese communities to flee to other areas. Large scale violence in Western states included The Rock Springs Chinese Massacre (1885) and the Hells Canyon Massacre (1887). Rock Springs massacre of 1885. The massacre was named for the town where it took place, Rock Springs, Wyoming in Sweetwater County, where white miners were jealous of the Chinese for their employment. White miners expressed their jealous frustration by robbing, bullying, shooting, and stabbing the Chinese in Chinatown with sharp objects. The Chinese tried to flee but many were burned alive in their homes, starved to death in hidden refuge, or exposed to carnivorous animal predators in the mountains. Some were rescued by a passing train, but by the end of the event at least twenty-eight lives had been taken. In an attempt to appease the situation, the government intervened by sending federal troops to protect the Chinese. However, only compensations for destroyed property were paid. No-one was arrested nor held accountable for the atrocities committed during the riot. Hells Canyon massacre of 1887. The massacre was named for the location where it took place, along the Snake River in Hells Canyon near the mouth of Deep Creek. The area contained many rocky cliffs and white rapids that together posed significant danger to human safety. Thirty-four Chinese miners were killed in cold blood at the site. The miners were employed by Sam Yup company, one of the six largest Chinese companies at the time, which worked in this area since October 1886. The actual events are still unclear due to unreliable law enforcement at the time, biased news reporting, and lack of serious official investigations. However, it is speculated that the dead Chinese miners were not victims of natural causes, but rather victims of gun shot wounds during a robbery committed by a gang of seven armed horse thieves. Gold worth $4,000–$5,000 was thought to have been stolen from the miners. The gold was never recovered nor further investigated. Recently, attempts to formulate an accurate picture of the event were drawn from hidden copies of trial documents that contained grand jury indictment, depositions given by the accused, notes from the trial, and historical accounts of Wallowa County by J. Harland Horner and H. Ross Findley. Horner and Findley accounts. Horner and Findley were both schoolboys at the time of the massacre but their accounts had glaring discrepancies. Findley believed the massacre was a planned event with more than just a motive to steal gold from the Chinese miners. He believed the arrested culprits wanted to eliminate the Chinese miners from the area as well, which they successfully accomplished. In contrast to most accounts, Findley only recalled 31 confirmed victims, and there was no mention of a trial. On the other hand, Horner believed that the event was a spur of the moment event and affected 34 confirmed victims. The school boys initially only had intentions to steal horses, but experienced difficulty crossing the river with the stolen horses. When the Chinese miners refused to loan their boats, the boys decided to take the boats by force. The bodies. Disagreements can also be attributed to the fact that the bodies of the Chinese miners were only found downstream after two weeks. It is unclear whether the bodies were mangled in the course of human manslaughter or as the aftermath of being thrown into turbulent waters. The rapids and brute force of the current could have mangled the bodies against the rocks. However, it was confirmed that the Chinese men were shot because gunshot wounds were found on their bodies. Only ten bodies were identified on February 16, 1888: Chea-po, Chea-Sun, Chea-Yow, Chea-Shun, Chea Cheong, Chea Ling, Chea Chow, Chea Lin Chung, Kong Mun Kow, and Kong Ngan. Little is known about these identified men. The aftermath. Shortly following the incident, the Sam Yup company of San Francisco hired Lee Loi who later hired Joseph K. Vincent, then U.S. Commissioner, to lead an investigation. Vincent submitted his investigative report to the Chinese consulate who tried unsuccessfully to obtain justice for the Chinese miners. At around the same time, other compensation reports were also unsuccessfully filed for earlier crimes inflicted on the Chinese. In the end, on October 19, 1888, Congress agreed to greatly under-compensate for the massacre and ignore the claims for the earlier crimes. Even though the amount was greatly underpaid, it was still a small victory to the Chinese who had low expectations for relief or acknowledgement. Issues of the act. The Chinese Exclusion Act lasted for about thirty years, and it caused the American economy to suffer a great loss. Some sources cite the act as a sign of injustice and unfair treatment to the Chinese workers because their jobs were mostly menial. Bubonic plague in Chinatown. In 1900–1904 San Francisco suffered from the bubonic plague. It first struck San Francisco's Chinatown, causing people to fall ill and experience fevers, swollen lymph nodes, muscle aches, and fatigue. Left untreated this infection can cause complications such as gangrene, meningitis, and even death. The bubonic plague outbreak in San Francisco's Chinatown strengthened anti-Chinese sentiment in all of California despite scientific research at the time showing it was caused by "Yersinia pestis", which was spread by fleas, found in small rodents. When the first round of people died from this plague, the companies and the state denied that there was an outbreak in order to maintain San Francisco's reputation and businesses. Unsanitary conditions and population density caused outbreaks such as this one to spread quickly and consequently affect a large number of people in this community. The first deaths from the plague in San Francisco were in 1898; a French barque carried some passengers who had died of the plague. After its arrival in San Francisco, 18 more Chinatown residents died of the same symptoms. The mayor decided not to release a public warning of the outbreak, thinking it would negatively affect San Francisco's commercial business. Chinatown was quarantined, and sanitary services were suspended for some time until the bacteriological source was found. A sanitary campaign was launched, but many residents chose to avoid anything that had to do with the plague out of fear and humiliation. As the death toll increased, the city began to be more aggressive, and they started checking nearly everyone in Chinatown for any signs of disease. Consequently, the Chinese community began to distrust the government even more. Racism toward Chinese immigrants was socially accepted and social rights were oftentimes denied to this community, making it harder for people in the Chinatown community to seek medical attention for their illnesses during the plague. Impact on education in the U.S.. Recruitment of foreign students to US colleges and universities was an important component in the expansion of American influence. International education programs allowed students to learn from the examples provided at elite universities and to bring their newfound skill sets back to their home countries. As such, international education has historically been seen as a vehicle for improving diplomatic relations and promoting trade. The US Exclusion Act, however, forced Chinese students attempting to enter the country to provide proof that they were not trying to bypass regulations. Laws and regulations that stemmed from the Act made for less than ideal situations for Chinese students, leading to criticisms of American society. Policies and attitudes toward Chinese Americans in the US worked against foreign policy interests by limiting the ability of the US to participate in international education initiatives. Repeal and current status. The Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed by the 1943 Magnuson Act when China had become an ally of the U.S. against Japan in World War II, as the US needed to embody an image of fairness and justice. The Magnuson Act permitted Chinese nationals already residing in the country to become naturalized citizens and stop hiding from the threat of deportation. However, the Magnuson Act only allowed a national quota of 105 Chinese immigrants per year, and did not repeal the restrictions on immigration from the other Asian countries. The crackdown on Chinese immigrants reached a new level in its last decade, from 1956–1965, with the Chinese Confession Program launched by the Immigration and Naturalization Service, that encouraged Chinese who had committed immigration fraud to confess, so as to be eligible for some leniency in treatment. Large scale Chinese immigration did not occur until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. The first Chinese immigrants who entered the United States under the Magnuson Act were college students who sought to escape the warfare in China during World War II and study in the U.S. The establishment of the People’s Republic of China and its entry into the Korean War against the U.S., however, created a new threat in the minds of some American politicians: American-educated Chinese students bringing American knowledge back to “Red China.” Many Chinese college students were almost forcibly naturalized even they continued to face significant prejudice, discrimination, and bullying. One of the most prolific of these students was Tsou Tang, who would go on to become the leading expert on China and Sino-American relations during the Cold War. Although the exclusion act was repealed in 1943, the law in California prohibiting nonwhites from marrying whites was not struck down until 1948, in which the California Supreme Court ruled the ban of interracial marriage within the state unconstitutional in "Perez v. Sharp". Some other states had such laws until 1967, when the United States Supreme Court unanimously ruled in "Loving v. Virginia" that anti-miscegenation laws across the nation are unconstitutional. Even today, although all its constituent sections have long been repealed, Chapter 7 of Title 8 of the United States Code is headed "Exclusion of Chinese". It is the only chapter of the 15 chapters in Title 8 (Aliens and Nationality) that is completely focused on a specific nationality or ethnic group. Like the following Chapter 8, "The Cooly Trade", it consists entirely of statutes that are noted as "Repealed" or "Omitted". On June 18, 2012, the United States House of Representatives passed , a resolution which had been introduced by Congresswoman Judy Chu, that formally expresses the regret of the House of Representatives for the Chinese Exclusion Act, an act which imposed almost total restrictions on Chinese immigration and naturalization and denied Chinese-Americans basic freedoms because of their ethnicity. , a similar resolution, had been approved by the U.S. Senate in October 2011. In 2014, the California Legislature took formal action to pass measures that formally recognize the many proud accomplishments of Chinese-Americans in California and to call upon Congress to formally apologize for the 1882 adoption of the Chinese Exclusion Act. Senate Republican leader Bob Huff (R-Diamond Bar) and incoming Senate president pro-Tem Kevin de León (D-Los Angeles) served as joint authors for Senate Joint Resolution (SJR) 23 and Senate Concurrent Resolution (SCR) 122, respectively. Both SJR 23 and SCR 122 acknowledge and celebrate the history and contributions of Chinese Americans in California. The resolutions also formally call on Congress to apologize for laws that resulted in the persecution of Chinese Americans, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act. Perhaps most important are the sociological implications for understanding ethnic/race relations in the context of American history; minorities tend to be punished in times of economic, political, and/or geopolitical crises. Times of social and systemic stability, however, tend to mute any underlying tensions between different groups. In times of societal crisis—whether perceived or real—patterns of retractability of American identities have erupted to the forefront of America's political landscape, often generating institutional and civil society backlash against workers from other nations, a pattern documented by Fong's research into how crises drastically alter social relationships.

lease of life

8937-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7996446

The 87th Infantry Regiment is an infantry regiment in the United States Army. The regiment's 1st and 2nd Battalions are light infantry units assigned to the 1st and 2nd Brigade Combat Teams respectively of the 10th Mountain Division located at Fort Drum, New York. The 3d Battalion was active in the U.S. Army Reserve in Colorado. The 4th Battalion was a Regular Army unit assigned to the 3rd Brigade Combat Team of the 25th Infantry Division (Light) at Schofield Barracks, Hawaii. History. World War II. The 87th Mountain Infantry Battalion was activated on 15 November 1941 at Fort Lewis, Washington, with Lieutenant Colonel Onslow S. Rolfe as the commanding officer. This unit was the first American regiment of mountain troops. It was expanded into a regiment in 1943. On 12 May 1942, the regiment was reorganized as the 87th Mountain Infantry at Fort Lewis. The 87th joined the 10th Mountain Division at Camp Hale, Colorado and trained there during 1942–43. On 29 July 1943, the regiment sailed to the Aleutian Islands as part of Amphibious Task Force 9. Also included in Task Force Force 9 were the First Special Service Force and the 13th Canadian Infantry Brigade. The regiment was part of the Italian Campaign from January 1945 to the end of the campaign, and remained as part of the occupying force until August 1945. Postwar. The 87th Infantry was again assigned to the 10th Mountain Division on 18 June 1948, where it was reactivated as a training division at Fort Riley, Kansas. In January 1954, 10th Division became a standard infantry division and was sent to West Germany. It was inactivated on 14 June 1958 at Fort Benning, GA. During this era the Army reorganized its combat forces, abandoning three tactical infantry regiments per division for five battle groups of five companies each, known as the Pentomic organization. Effective 1 July 1957 the lineage of Company A, 87th Infantry Regiment was reorganized and redesignated as HHC, 1st Battle Group, 87th Infantry and remained assigned to the 10th Infantry Division. It was relieved effective 14 June 1958 from the 10th and reassigned to the 2d Infantry Division. The unit was reorganized and redesignated on 15 February 1963 as the 1st Battalion, 87th Infantry and relieved on 4 September 1963 from assignment to the 2d Infantry Division and assigned to the 8th Infantry Division. It remained there until it the lineage was inactivated 1 October 1983 in Germany and relieved from assignment to the 8th Infantry Division when the unit was reflagged with a different regimental designation. On 2 May 1987 the battalion was assigned to the 10th Mountain Division and activated at Fort Drum, New York. The lineage of Company B was inactivated effective 1 July 1957 in Germany, redesignated as HHC, 2d Battle Group, 87th Infantry and relieved from assignment to the 10th Infantry Division. It was redesignated on 25 January 1963 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 2d Battalion, 87th Infantry, and assigned to the 2d Infantry Division (organic elements concurrently constituted) and activated on 15 February 1963 at Fort Benning, Georgia. That same year it was relieve from assignment to the 2d Infantry Division and assigned to the 8th Infantry Division, then in Germany, where it was inactivated on 1 May 1966. It was reactivated on 31 August 1973 when the division's 1st Brigade (Airborne) in Mainz-Gonsenheim was taken off jump status and the 2d Battalion (Airborne), 509th Infantry was reorganized and reflagged as the 2d Battalion, (Mechanized) 87th Infantry. On 16 June 1986 the battalion colors were again inactivated when the unit was reflagged as a battalion of the 8th Infantry, pairing it with CONUS-based elements of the 8th Infantry under the 4th Infantry Division at Fort Carson, Colorado. On 2 May 1988 the battalion was assigned to the 10th Mountain Division and activated at Fort Drum, New York. Vietnam War. Two companies of 87th Infantry were in Vietnam during the war, both as Rifle Security units. The first was Company C, 87th Infantry, which was attached to the 92d Military Police Battalion guarding Tan Son Nhut. It was later assigned to Long Binh under the U.S. Army Support Command, Saigon. Coming from Fort Lewis, WA, it was in Vietnam from 29 November 1966 to 26 November 1972. Also coming from Fort Lewis was Company D, 87th Infantry, which was attached to the 95th Military Police Battalion at Long Binh from 1 December 1966 to 6 November 1969. The unit served a second tour in Vietnam from 30 June 1971 to 30 April 1972 when it guarded installations of the 26th General Support Group at Tan My. Both companies had an authorized strength of 151 in 1968 and 160 in 1971. "Source: Vietnam Order of Battle by Shelby Stanton, pages 154-155." Army Reserve. Effective 1 January 1975 the lineage of Company C, 87th Infantry was withdrawn from the Regular Army, allotted to the Army Reserve, redesignated as HHC, 3d Battalion, 87th Infantry and activated at Fort Carson, CO. The battalion was authorized 38 officers, 4 warrant officers and 692 enlisted personnel (later changed to 37, 2, and 754, respectively) with headquarters in Building 2344 at Fort Carson as a unit of the 96th Army Reserve Command. In addition to the 96th shoulder sleeve insignia, members of the unit wore color 10th Division shoulder sleeve insignia on the left front pocket of fatigue shirts to signify the battalion's historical link to the then-inactive division. Mountain tabs were not worn over the patch as they were almost impossible to find before the division was reactivated at Fort Drum and tabs went into production again. Units of the 3d Battalion, 87th Infantry were stationed at the following locations: A detachment of the battalion's Company C was located at 158 Bodo Drive, Durango, CO 81301; it was inactivated on 16 October 1984. Company C moved from the Denver Federal Center to 10455 East 25th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80011 effective 1 June 1985, and then to 1788 Helena Street, also in Aurora, effective 1 February 1990. The battalion was ordered into active military service on 17 January 1991. It arrived at Fort Carson for training on 19 January 1991 and moved to Germany on 5 February 1991. There it performed anti-terrorist security missions for V Corps. It returned to Fort Carson on 1 May 1991, and personnel were released for terminal leave on 15 May 1991 as the battalion reverted to reserve status. By early 1991 HHC had relocated to Building 8932, Duncan-Selix USAR Center, Fort Carson, CO. Effective 16 September 1991 the Combat Support Company (formerly Support Company) was inactivated. The battalion was organized effective 16 September 1992 to consist of 34 officers, 2 warrant officers, and 547 enlisted personnel as a light infantry unit. During the post-Cold War drawdown, when most reserve component combat arms units were concentrated in the Army National Guard, the battalion was inactivated on 15 September 1994 at Fort Carson. Schofield Barracks. Effective 16 June 1986 the lineage of World War II's Company D was redesignated as HHC, 4th Battalion, 87th Infantry Regiment and assigned to the 25th Infantry Division at Schofield Barracks, HI, as part of its 3rd Brigade Combat Team. The Catamounts deployed from Schofield Barracks in August 1991 to the Sinai Peninsula. Task Force 4/87 performed peace keeping duties as the USBATT assigned to the Multinational Force & Observers at South Camp near Sharm el Sheikh, Egypt. In February 1992, after their six-month rotation in the Sinai Desert, they redeployed back to Schofield Barracks. The Catamounts deployed again for their second real-world mission in 13 months. In the aftermath of Hurricane Iniki, a Category 4 storm which made landfall on 11 September 1992, the battalion was sent to Kauai and it effectively provided hurricane relief for immediate needs of the local population. Assistance had arrived before any requests had been made by the local officials for aid. For the next month, following Iniki's decimation of Kauai, the soldiers helped in various capacities and distributed water and MRE's. The battalion redeployed back to Oahu at the mission's end in October 1992. The 4th battalion was deactivated at Schofield Barracks and relieved from the 25th Infantry Division effective 15 July 1995. Panama. The lineage of World War II's Company E, 87th Infantry Regiment was redesignated effective 1 May 1987 as HHC, 5th Battalion, 87th Infantry, assigned to the 193d Infantry Brigade in Panama and activated. Concurrently the 1st Battalion, 187th Infantry was inactivated and its personnel and equipment were reflagged as 5-87th. The battalion was relieved from assignment to the inactivating 193d Infantry Brigade on 15 July 1994 and was itself inactivated on 15 September 1999. Operation Just Cause. On 20 December 1989 Task Force "Wildcat" (5th Battalion, 87th Infantry) and Task Force "Bayonet" (193rd Infantry Brigade), attacked and seized critical objectives in Panama City for Operation Just Cause, to include the Balboa DENI ("Direccion Especial Nacional de Investigaciones"), the PDF's investigative branch, the DNTT ("Direccion Nacional de Transporte Terrestre", which served as the headquarters of the National Police) was seized by Charlie Company 5/87th Infantry 193rd Brigade, Code Name "Panthers", the Ancon DENI, and the PDF Engineer complex on Albrook AFB. Each of these objectives lay astride the key lines of communication into the center of Panama city. In the days following the initial assault, TF 5-87 conducted stability operations and was involved in the security of the Santa Felipe, Santa Anna, El Marana, and Chorillo sections of the city. During the remainder of the operation, TF Wildcat secured key sites in Panama City and reacted to security and civil military tasking. Operation Restore Hope. 12 December 1992, 2-87th Infantry, with Co A, 1-87th infantry, deployed to Somalia in support of Operation Restore Hope as the first Army units on the ground. Co A, 1-87 was attached to 2-87 Infantry to comprise TF 2-87. TF 2-87 conducted numerous missions, including several air assault operations (such as an airfield seizure in Beledweyne, Somalia), cordon and search operations, ambushes, search and destroy missions and quick reaction force missions. Members of TF 2-87 were first awarded the Combat Infantryman Badge for actions in the Mogadishu suburb of Afgooye in January 1993. Both 2-87th and 1-87th engaged in numerous running battles with Somali guerrilla fighters all over southern Somalia. In February and March 1993, both 2-87th Inf. and 1-87 Inf. went to the aid of 3-14 Inf. and Belgian forces in the southern port city of Kismayo, after fighting erupted between rival factions. Although 1-87th Infantry never deployed to Somalia as a unit, its companies deployed as attachments to other units and participated in numerous missions, including C Co 1-87 (while attached to 2-14th Inf) and the Battle of Mogadishu. Operation Uphold Democracy. In September 1994, the 1st Brigade of the 10th Mountain Division, which included 1-87 Infantry, conducted the Army's first Air Assault operation from the deck of a naval vessel, the USS Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN-69), in support of Operation Uphold Democracy in Haiti. This was the Army's first air operation from a naval vessel since the Doolittle Raid of World War II. Twenty-first century. In the mid-1990s elements of the 87th Infantry trained in Pakistan, Panama, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan. In 1999 Co B, 1-87 was deployed to Bosnia-Herzegovina in support of Operation Joint Forge. Co C, 1-87 completed a similar deployment from October 1998 to March 1999. Other combat and peace keeping deployments of the 1st and 2d Battalions of the 87th Infantry included Iraq (1991, present), Somalia (1992–93), Haiti (1994-95), Bosnia and Afghanistan (particularly Operation Anaconda, where 1-87 was the first unit on the ground during the initial invasion of Afghanistan). A detachment (3d Platoon) from Co C, 1-87 was attached to the 2d Battalion, 14th Infantry and served as the Quick Reaction Force (QRF) during the Battle of Mogadishu. The unit never deployed to Somalia as a whole, but all of 1st Battalion was attached to other units while deployed to Somalia, including 2-87 IN, and the 2d Battalion, 14th Infantry. The 1st Battalion deployed in support of Operation Enduring Freedom from July 2003 to May 2004. Although originally slotted as a six-month deployment the unit was extended to ten months due to the invasion of Iraq in 2003. From 2005 to 2006 1-87 IN deployed to Baghdad, Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom III-IV. 1-87 deployed in 2007–2008 to the northern Kirkuk area of Iraq, near the small city of Hawijah. The unit was part of the "Surge" and remained in Kirkuk for 15 months in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom VI. 1-87 IN deployed to Northern Afghanistan in early 2010. The unit's mission was to support Operation Enduring Freedom by partnering with ISAF forces to help establish Afghan government influence in the region. The battalion was tasked with clearing and securing several districts including Aliabad, Char-a-dara, and the City of Kunduz aiding the Afghan security forces in doing so. 1-87 was sent to clear the valley of Gortepa. The battalion successfully cleared villages of Taliban presence then established Afghan local police outposts in the newly acquired areas. This task took several weeks, starting with securing the district of Aliabad to the south to impede the Talibans ability to reinforce and resupply the Gortepa valley. By the end of March 2011, 1-87 had returned to Fort Drum. The New York Times followed 1-87 throughout the deployment in order to produce an online feature titled "A Year at War." 1-87 IN deployed in 2015-2016 with 1st Brigade Combat Team to Iraq in support of Operation Inherent Resolve. Charlie company 1-87 IN deployed to Cameroon in August 2017 while the rest of the battalion deployed to Afghanistan in late September of the same year. Lineage. Constituted 31 July 1918 in the Regular Army as the 87th Infantry and assigned to the 18th Infantry Division. Organized September 1918 at Camp Dodge, Iowa from personnel of the 35th Infantry. Relieved from the 19th Division and demobilized 27 January 1919 at Camp Dodge. Reorganized and Redesignated 87th Mountain Infantry Regiment and assigned to the 10th Mountain Division 6 November 1944. Inactivated 21 June 1945 at Camp Carson, Colorado. Redesignated 87th Infantry and assigned to 10th Infantry Division 18 June 1948, allotted to the regular Army 25 June 1948. Activated 1 July 1948 at Fort Riley, Kansas. Relieved from the 10th Infantry Division 1 July 1957 and reorganized as the 87th Infantry, a parent regiment under the Combat Arms Regimental System. Distinctive unit insignia. A silver color metal and enamel device in height overall consisting of a shield blazoned: Azure, on a mountain issuant from base Argent, an ice axe, and ski pole in saltirewise, points to base Proper, a mule shoe, points to base Gules. Attached below the shield is a silver scroll inscribed "VIRES MONTESQUE VINCIMUS" in red letters. The snow-capped mountains is where the organization first received its specialized training and the normal home of mountains troops. The crossed ski pole and ice axe are symbolic of the tools used by mountain troops and the mule shoe indicates the pack element of the organization. The 87th Mountain Infantry Regiment was the only organization of its kind indicated by the single red horseshoe. The distinctive unit insignia was originally approved for the 87th Mountain Infantry Regiment on 21 October 1942. It was redesignated for the 87th Infantry Regiment on 13 December 1948. Coat of arms. The coat of arms was originally approved for the 87th Mountain Infantry Regiment on 21 October 1942. It was redesignated for the 87th Infantry Regiment on 13 December 1948. On 21 May 1956 the symbolism was amended to correct the translation of the motto. On 7 December 1964 the coat of arms was amended to change the wording in the blazonry of the shield and to add the crest. The insignia was amended to correct the translation of the motto and update the description on 26 February 2016.

Regular base

11090-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18733464

Pakistan's climate is a continental type of climate, characterized by extreme variations in temperature, both seasonally and daily, because it is located on a great landmass north of the Tropic of Cancer (between latitudes 25° and 36° N). Very high altitudes modify the climate in the cold, snow-covered northern mountains; temperatures on the Balochistan plateau are somewhat higher. Along the coastal strip, the climate is modified by sea breeze. In the rest of the country, temperatures reach great heights in the summer; the mean temperature during June is in the plains, the highest temperatures can exceed . During summer, hot winds called Loo blow across the plains during the day. Trees shed their leaves to avoid loss of moisture. Pakistan recorded one of the highest temperatures in the world, 53.7 °C (128.66 °F) on 28 May 2017, the hottest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan and also the second hottest measured temperature ever recorded in Asia. The dry, hot weather is broken occasionally by dust storms and thunderstorms that temporarily lower the temperature. Evenings are cool; the daily variation in temperature may be as much as 11 °C to 17 °C. Winters are cold, with minimum mean temperatures in Punjab of about in January, and sub-zero temperatures in the far north and Balochistan. Climate geography. The monsoon and the Western Disturbance are the two main factors which alter the weather over Pakistan; Continental air prevails for rest of the year. Following are the main factors that influence the weather over Pakistan. Pakistan has four seasons: a cool, dry winter from December through February; a hot, dry spring from March through May; the summer rainy season, or southwest monsoon period, from June through September; and the retreating monsoon period of October and November. The onset and duration of these seasons vary somewhat according to location. The climate in the capital city of Islamabad varies from an average daily low of 2 °C in January to an average daily high of 38 °C in June. Half of the annual rainfall occurs in July and August, averaging about 255 millimeters in each of those two months. The remainder of the year has significantly less rain, amounting to about fifty millimeters per month. Hailstorms are common in the spring. Pakistan's largest city, Karachi, which is also the country's industrial center, is more humid than Islamabad but gets less rain. Only July and August average more than twenty-five millimeters of rain in the Karachi area; the remaining months are exceedingly dry. The temperature is also more uniform in Karachi than in Islamabad, ranging from an average daily low of 13 °C during winter evenings to an average daily high of 34 °C on summer days. Although the summer temperatures do not get as high as those in Punjab, the high humidity causes the residents a great deal of discomfort. In Islamabad, there are cold winds from the north of Pakistan. Extreme weather events. Highest temperature and rainfall ever recorded. The weather extremes in Pakistan include high and low temperatures, heavy rainfall and flooding. The highest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan is 53.7 °C (128.66 °F), in Turbat, Balochistan on 28 May 2017. It was not only the hottest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan but also the second verified hottest temperature ever recorded in Asia and the fourth highest temperature ever recorded on earth. The highest rainfall of was recorded in Islamabad during 24 hours on 24 July 2001. The record-breaking rain fell in just 10 hours. It was the heaviest rainfall in Islamabad in the previous 100 years. Tropical cyclones and tornadoes. Each year before the onset of monsoon that is 15 April to 15 July and also after its withdrawal that is 15 September to 15 December, there is always a distinct possibility of the cyclonic storm to develop in the north Arabian Sea. Cyclones form in the Arabian sea often results in strong winds and heavy rainfall in Pakistan's coastal areas. However tornadoes mostly occur during spring season that is March and April usually when a Western Disturbance starts effecting the northern parts of the country. It is also speculated that cycles of tornado years may be correlated to the periods of reduced tropical cyclone activity. Drought. The drought has become a frequent phenomenon in the country. Already, the massive droughts of 1998-2002 has stretched the coping abilities of the existing systems to the limit and it has barely been able to check the situation from becoming a catastrophe. The drought of 1998-2002 is considered the worst drought in 50 years. According to the Economic Survey of Pakistan, the drought was one of the most significant factors responsible for the less than anticipated growth performance. The survey terms it as the worst drought in the history of the country. According to the government, 40 percent of the country's water needs went unmet. Floods. Pakistan has seen many floods, the worst and most destructive is the recent 2010 Pakistan floods, other floods which caused destruction in the history of Pakistan, include the flood of 1950, which killed 2910 people; on 1 July 1977 heavy rains and flooding in Karachi, killed 248 people, according to Pakistan meteorological department of rain fell in 24 hours. In 1992 flooding during Monsoon season killed 1,834 people across the country, in 1993 flooding during Monsoon rains killed 3,084 people, in 2003 Sindh province was badly affected due to monsoon rains causing damages in billions, killed 178 people, while in 2007 Cyclone Yemyin submerged lower part of Balochistan Province in sea water killing 380 people. Before that it killed 213 people in Karachi on its way to Balochistan. 2010 Floods. 2010 July floods swept 20% of Pakistan's land, the flood is the result of unprecedented Monsoon rains which lasted from 28 July to 31 July 2010. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and North eastern Punjab were badly affected during the monsoon rains when dams, rivers and lakes overflowed. By mid-August, according to the governmental Federal Flood Commission (FFC), the floods had caused the deaths of at least 1,540 people, while 2,088 people had received injuries, 557,226 houses had been destroyed, and over 6 million people had been displaced. One month later, the data had been updated to reveal 1,781 deaths, 2,966 people with injuries, and more than 1.89 million homes destroyed. The flood affected more than 20 million people exceeding the combined total of individuals affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the 2005 Kashmir earthquake and the 2010 Haiti earthquake. The flood is considered as worst in Pakistan's history affecting people of all four provinces and Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Kashmir region of Pakistan. 2011 Sindh floods. The 2011 Sindh floods began during the monsoon season in mid-August 2011, resulting from heavy monsoon rains in Sindh, Eastern Balochistan, and Southern Punjab. The floods have caused considerable damage; an estimated 270 civilians have been killed, with 5.3 million people and 1.2 million homes affected. Sindh is a fertile region and often called the "breadbasket" of the country; the damage and toll of the floods on the local agrarian economy is said to be extensive. At least 1.7 million acres of arable land has been inundated as a result of the flooding. The flooding has been described as the worst since the 2010 Pakistan floods, which devastated the entire country. Unprecedented torrential monsoon rains caused severe flooding in 16 districts of Sindh province.

Fiscal Review

14575-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46455614

The portrayal of parents in media sometimes depicts gender stereotypes in society, often highlighting the "traditional nuclear family" as opposed to nonconventional configurations. Social Scientists have found that home, family, and romance are three of the most important components of the way characters are presented. Moreover, these qualities are often presented in a stereotypical and traditional fashion. In the 1950s the meaning of the word "parent" coincided with the nuclear family structure—husband, wife, and children. Parents had a responsibility to uphold traditional gender roles in society. Gender roles in society were as follows: fathers work outside of the home and bring in the bread (take on the role of providers), while mothers tend to housework, make sure they are emotionally available, and look after the children (take on the role of caretakers). In today's time, the definition and responsibility of a parent has become more flexible/adjustable since the 1950s, although some parents tend to stick to their traditional gender roles. For example, two-married-parent families were the most common type of family unit a generation ago; however, in the year 2000 that particular family structure could only be found in one out of four households. Because of the shift in parenting, media outlets took it upon themselves to provide representation for certain family structures outside of the nuclear family, leaving them flexible as well. Mass media has presented a multitude of family structures and has promoted the acceptance of alternate family structures in many ways including television, newspapers, movies, commercials, books, comics, etc. Media is linked to the structure of families, given that parents and their children confide in it when questioning their own family and parenting practices. Its influence impacts parents positively and negatively, either by underrepresentation (dumb, irresponsible) or drawing the perfect picture (good mothers and fathers). Major theories. Family and gender in general. There have been a number of approaches to ultimately study the media's portrayal of the family. One theoretical approach surrounds the cultivation perspective which states that cultivation of a worldview skewed toward that of televised portrayals among heavy viewers. According to a 1976 study done by Gerber and Gross, this type of worldview becomes the social reality of television heavy viewers. Social learning theory has also been used as a theoretical framework for study the effects that the media has on the individual. Evidence also suggests that depictions can have serious consequences. Television, according to a study done by Signorielli in 1990, entrenches the cognitive schema in children that women are happy when they are doing traditional gender roles like staying home to raise children and that men are more ambitious than women are. Portrayals of fathers. Early television fathers were depicted as bumbling fathers in working-class families, for example, Homer Simpson (The Simpsons) or authoritative figures in suburban families, for example, Ward Cleaver (Leave It to Beaver). Over time, changing economic and political situations contributed to changes in family life. As women began to work outside the home and domestic gender roles were adjusted, the idea of the nuclear family changed. Fathers adapted to be more nurturing to their children and more participative in family and domestic roles. Fogel, a television media expert, refers to this as the "new father;" he is a mix of traditional masculinity and traits typically associated with mothers. Instead of simply being the breadwinner, the typical idea of the father has shifted to include traits associated with being a “good” father. This relies on both being supportive to his wife and to his children. The transition can be seen in the multi-generational family shown in "Modern Family""." Jay Pritchett, the father on the show with two adult children, says "90% of being a dad is just showing up." He represents the traditional idea of less involved parenting by the father. In comparison, Phil Dunphy, who has three adolescent children, describes his parenting style as "peerenting," meaning he seeks to be both a peer and parent to his children. His more hands-on approach marks the transition from the father who just need to show up to the "new" father who is actively involved in his children's lives. Stay-at-home fathers. The traditional role of "father" in the household is evolving; fathers are now expected to embrace more hands-on duties with their children. The roles are shifting so much that there has been an increase in "stay at home fathers", compared to previous generations. Also, increases of positively portrayed stay at home fathers in the media have been indicated. Stay at home fathers have made appearances in television shows and documentaries. An increase in media presence can contribute to the understanding and support for men who choose to care for their children. This evolution of "fatherhood" shows the dynamic nature of parental roles. A few overarching themes in fatherhood were found in a study interviewing 32 men across the United States. These themes consist of fathers feeling emotional closeness with their children, positive reaction from others about being a stay at home fathers, and importance and pride in family work. The typical reasons behind becoming a stay at home father: wives high salaries, job “issues”, and wives being relocated for their jobs. "Disneyland dads". The term "Disneyland dads" refers to fathers who are considered to be the nonresidential parent. However, any father can express this type of characteristic. "Disneyland dads" have the tendency to undertake recreational activities over real parental responsibilities that can include participating in their child's day-to-day activities. In other words, they represent the fun parent while leaving the "residential parent" to deal with child rearing. These dads can be permissive and fail to discipline their children properly. Richard Gilmore, a father and grandfather in "Gilmore Girls", is a splitting image of this. Richard is rich and tends to buy his daughter's and granddaughter's love and approval with his money, while his wife, Emily Gilmore takes on the role of the disciplinarian. Mothers can be classified as Disneyland parents also. According to Stewart, information on Disneyland moms is harder to come by given the fact that mothers are more likely to display nurturing behaviors when they are primary caregivers, leaving secondary primary caregiving to the fathers who fall back on more leisure activities. Portrayals of mothers. New momism. Susan Douglas and Meredith Michaels refer to "new momism" as shaping current Western motherhood. New momism introduces the myth of the perfect mother who assumes all the roles needed of her within the household, does so flawlessly, and emerges from the experience fulfilled and complete. Douglas and Michaels suggest that the media only superficially celebrates mothers by presenting standards, values, and practices that in reality place expectations on mothers that are impossible to reach. New momism is reinforced in the media through portrayals of perfect and unrealistic mothers, and through “news reports emphasizing the unspeakable tragedies that await children of mothers who dare deviate from the One True Path of Momism” according to Judith Stadtman Tucker. New momism also creates the false dichotomy of the “good” versus “bad” mother, and the media supplements viewers with the attitudes and practices that characterize both labels: the good mother is always in control, able to fulfill all responsibilities toward children and husband, while the bad mother is overwhelmed, disorganized, and lost among the chaos. Mommy wars. “Mommy wars," as introduced by Nina Darnton in a June 1990 "Newsweek "article, represents the media-staged tensions between stay-at-home mothers and working mothers. Stay-at-home mothers criticize working mothers for abandoning their children and homes to build a personal career, while working mothers resent stay-at-home mothers both because of the time and attention they are able to devote to their children, and because of the notion that a mother is only "good enough" if she can devote all her time and attention to the children and household. Susan Podnieks argues that the "mommy myth", as well as the supposed battle between working and stay-at-home mothers, are circulated by news media and talk shows, sparking debates about the proper sphere of women. As a result, the general public believes that "there is a bitter war in the suburban cul-de-sacs of the United States between the complacent minivan-driving stay-at-home moms and the overachieving soon-to-be-burnout working mothers who still think they can have it all." This leads to grouping mothers into rigid and rival categories, leading them to feel insecure about their mothering, and in turn leading them to devalue other mothers in order to elevate themselves. Media mother police. The media mother police refers to the media's surveillance and policing of mothers (specifically famous mothers) by dissecting and evaluating their parenting practices. Susan Douglas and Meredith Michaels use the term to describe child care experts who engage in the practice of watching over famous mothers and judge their efforts. Elizabeth Podnieks uses it to refer to reporters, the paparazzi, and all those involved within entertainment journalism who participate in maternal surveillance. The media mother police simultaneously reinforces "The Mommy Myth" by showcasing examples of perfect and airbrushed celebrity mothers, and also heightens the stigma of the "bad" mother by exposing the failures and debaucheries of certain celebrating mothers. Portrayals of single mothers. The depiction of single mothers in the media is crucial because it impacts children's views on parenthood. This topic became especially relevant after the 1990s. Between 1986 and 1989 there was a 19% increase in pregnancy for 15- to 17-year-olds, consequently the number of single mothers increased. In a study conducted by sociologist Mary Larson, participants were asked to view several soap operas and comment on the role of the single mother. The study consisted of 163 junior and senior high-school students in a rural-suburban community in Northern Illinois in 1993. The student body was 9% minority and had an average family income of $41,000. The students in the study declared that most soap operas depict the single mother as white upper middle class with a successful job. Participants also noted that coping with a job and having a child did not seem to be a problem for the mothers. Their children were allowed to attend social events and each woman had a dominant male figure who helped with the baby on a daily basis. After viewing the shows, participants were asked to answer several questions on single mothers. Most responses indicate a skewed perception of being a single mother. Most students did not believe single mothers were more likely to live in poverty and that most babies had a dominant male presence in their lives. Other scientists have determined that men are actually more commonly portrayed as single parents in prime time television. One study[which?] revealed that men outnumber women by three to one as being single parents. Additionally, women are more frequently portrayed as married in a home setting. Whereas single men never endure the conflict of balancing their work and family life, women are depicted as struggling to balance both. Portrayal of African American families. Given the changing traditional structure of the American family, it would be suspected different family dynamics are depicted by different characters and themes. For example, one would expect television to encapsulate the different themes and qualities of the African American family that are a result of prejudice and discrimination. However, studies have shown that the television characteristics of people of color do not reveal the unique experiences of being African, Latino, Native American or Asian American, but rather represent the perceptions of the White producers. From the period of 1969–1982 African American families were almost never portrayed as husband, wife and children living together under one roof. Moreover, most families were highlighted as being "poor and struggling". These representations make it appear as though African Americans cannot care for their families accurately. As pressure increased on the industry to produce a more accurate portrayal of the nuclear African American family, shows such as "The Cosby Show", "227", and "Charlie & Co" became popular. The emergence of these shows created a TV culture that more accurately depicted an intact African American family. Unfortunately, data reveals that the same cannot be said for other minority families such as Latino Americans. Portrayal of Latino American Families. In 1984, the media portrayed Latinos as illegal aliens that were on the run. This wasn't an accurate representation of who they really were and the lifestyles they lived in reality (doctors, lawyers, husbands, wives, etc.). The study "Latinwood and TV" 2000 restated that Latino Americans were not accurately presented in the media. They were highly underrepresented and superficially/negatively illustrated on screen, usually characterized as nannies, gardeners, and servants. Just as there was an uproar about media not accurately representing African Americans families properly, there was a similar issue for Latino Americans. With this issue, came the emergence of successful Latino-themed shows such as "Dora the Explorer", "George Lopez", "Ugly Betty", and "Wizards of Waverly Place." As media outlets started to present more authentic Latino representation, it gave way for these shows to make an appearance: "Jane the Virgin", "Queen of the South", "One Day at a Time", and "On My Block" which is a show that represents both Latino and African American families and their culture. Portrayal of Interracial Families. Interracial relationships are likely to be invisible in the media, or they are portrayed as problematic/ unnatural. For example, Black/White relationships are depicted as dangerous. It wasn't until an episode of "Star Trek", that the first Black/White kiss was televised. Soon after, an interracial couple on "The Jeffersons" appeared on television. In the show, Tom (White) and Helen (Black) were often taunted by their Black neighbor, George, for being two different races. Helen and Tom had a biracial daughter who George would refer to as "zebra", which was a derogatory word. George wasn't a fan of people dating outside of their race. If shows highlighting interracial couples did premiere, they were canceled after a few seasons. "The Jeffersons" was canceled after a decade, "True Colors" was canceled after two seasons and "Kevin Hill" was canceled after one season. "Happy Endings" and "Parenthood" are recent shows portraying interracial couples. Although they are recent, the shows aren't portraying interracial couples properly. Interracial couples in the media are more of an elephant in the room rather than experiencing something new. Major empirical findings. Television. Over time, television series have reflected the changing norms of real families. Viewers have regarded these television families as models of familial behavior despite the unrealistic nature of many television series. Media expert Jennifer Fogel notes that families on television have evolved to focus more on strong marital partnerships, but many shows still focus on a traditional, patriarchal family. She suggests a number of different types of families that have been seen on television in the 21st century: parents adjusting to parenthood (e.g., Yes, Dear), dysfunctional yet loyal families (e.g., Arrested Development), and blended families (e.g., The New Adventures of Old Christine). For white families, television series have included single parenthood, divorced families, and multi-generational households. In comparison, minority families on television usually conform to nuclear family roles (e.g., George Lopez, Black-ish). In an analysis of television shows, Dr. William Douglas found modern parent-child relationships to be judged as mutually respectful. Though both mothers and fathers regularly provide support for their children, mothers were particularly likely to behave in a supportive or nurturing manner. In dealing with conflict, television fathers are more likely to use strategies which include blaming, rejection, aggressive questioning, and joking. They are more focused on winning an argument than protecting the relationship. Television mothers are more likely to use strategies that include emphasizing commonalities and using empathy in dealing with conflict such that relational goals are promoted over winning the argument. In modern television families, both mothers and fathers are more likely to work outside the home. Douglas suggests that the modern television family is reflective of the modern family in their problems. He asserts families are now unable to construct a nurturing family environment, including establishment of lasting relationships and effective socialization of children, in both families on television and in reality. Scharrer (2001a) conducted a quantitative study investigating masculine roles within the home, and looked at 136 episodes of 29 domestic sitcoms airing from the 1950s to the 1990s. Scharrer found an increasing tendency to portray fathers as foolish and less adept at child care than mothers. The study revealed that fathers were the butt of 60% of all jokes involving the father in the 1990s sitcoms compared to 30% in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. Movies. Films that take place in the 1950s often portray an “ideal family” consisting of a breadwinner husband, a homemaker wife, and their children. To an extent, this is a reflection of the times: upon the conclusion of World War II, there was an increased importance put on the home. Women were not expected to complete secondary education and instead were pushed towards finding a husband. The film Mona Lisa Smile depicts a female professor's struggle with these expectations that have been put both on herself and her students. Many of the professor's students drop out over the course of the film to become housewives and she ultimately fails at her mission of keeping her female students in school. This "ideal family" model of the 1950s is outdated and unrealistic in today's world, however the myth lives on. Continued media portrayal of this shapes public opinion and influences our beliefs. Over the past 20 years, more and more women have been abandoning the homemaker role in favor of a position in the workforce. There has been a distinct shift from the male-breadwinner model to more dual-earner and single-parent households, and that is not always reflected in film. The movie "I Don't Know How She Does It" shows a working mother trying to balance a demanding job as well as familial duties. The film "Daddy Day Care" is about a father that takes on the role of homemaker. However, these two films are far from the norm in terms of familial structure as seen in today's movies. The industry has yet to catch up to the current family climate completely, but films with non-conventional families are becoming more and more common. Television commercials. Gayle Kaufman, a professor from Davidson College, explored the expanding social roles of men and women found on television in her article, "The Portrayal of Men's Family Roles in Television Commercials." Through the use of empirical observations, Kaufman's research specifically focuses on the differences in the roles of mother and fathers portrayed by the media in national television commercials. Even though the roles of both men and women have expanded from the past, majority of the commercials were found to display traditional gender ideology. Gender differences found in commercials are prevalent. Women were found to take on stereotypical roles in many types of commercials. With regards to housework, women were found to be significantly more likely to be shown doing housework than men: cooking, cleaning, washing dishes, and shopping. Now, analyzing the data more closely, the reader can find that 79–80% of all cleaning and shopping in commercials are performed by women. Women were also found to be more responsible for washing dishes at 93% compared to men. Kaufman believes that this finding is based on the socialization process. Information not shown by the table includes the detailed explanation of the actions of the individuals in the study. With cooking commercials, many times the men and children were shown to be passively waiting to be served by their spouse. In cases where no mother is present, the same stereotypical roles are shown to be passed to the daughter as the father and/or brothers are passively waiting. Also, many of the domestic activities done by males are usually very manly, according to Kaufman, like taking out the trash. However, she says that men seemed incompetent about it. There were also striking differences in other activities as well. When it came to interacting and spending time with children in commercials, men were found to be more likely than women to be with only boys. However, women were three times more likely to be seen with both boys and girls. Women were more likely to not only be with more children in commercials, they were more likely to take care of them as well. Compared to men's 17.7%, women were 35.0% likely to be involved in some type of childcare activity (giving medicine, putting on bandages, etc.) in commercials. This finding was significant. Like mentioned earlier, men, were more likely to care for care for male children more than female children. However, men did surpass women in three activities with children. Contrary to popular belief, men were found to actually teach kids lessons or read to them more than women. The data showed a significant 41% for men and only 14% for women. Men were also found to be eating with children more than women in commercials. Children's books. David Anderson and Mykol Hamilton's research focused on the portrayal of fathers and mothers in children's books and speculated on the implications of it in their 2005 article “Gender Role Stereotyping of Parents in Children’s Picture Books: The Invisible Father”. They empirically analyzed two hundred children's picture books. Out of the 139 books with parents in them. 64% of the books had mothers in them and 47.5% had fathers in them. There were sixty four books that had scenes in them with only mothers but no father scenes. Also, 19% of the books had father only scenes and no mother scenes. In general fathers were not only highly underrepresented in the children's books, but they were also not even mentioned as much as mothers. The research also focused on the activities and emotions performed by parents in the books. They found that mothers were close to 10 times more likely to care for babies than fathers were. Mothers in the books performed every measure of nursing behavior studied by the researchers two times more than fathers. Emotionally, mothers expressed varying emotions at a greater rate than the fathers. This is contrary to the opinion of the researchers who believed that fathers would express greater amounts of overall anger than did mothers. This is not the case. The findings were significant that mothers were more likely than men to express happiness, cry, or basically have any type of emotion what so ever. Mothers were also found to actually discipline more than fathers in children's books. The researchers use this to make a number of speculations. The authors use these findings to question the socialization process of our younger children and point out, what they think, is a glaring problem. Fathers from the data took a back seat in the lives of the children throughout these children's books. Anderson and Hamilton fear that these stereotypical portrayals socialize children during critical periods of early development in their lives. When these cognitive schema are formed it is hard to change them as time goes on. Children, according to the researchers, will expect caregiving from the mothers and less from the fathers who seem almost invisible. Magazines. A content analysis of women's magazines by both Keller (1994) and Douglas and Michaels (2004) revealed that the articles and ads within those magazines still reinforced traditional roles of motherhood, such as caring only for children and household tasks. Women's magazines also encourage narrow understandings of motherhood through their misrepresentation of working mothers. Smith (2001) found that articles about working mothers and daycare between 1987 and 1997 usually portrayed working mothers in a negative light, discrediting women's belonging to the public sphere (the workplace) and reaffirming their role within the private sphere (the home). A study conducted by Johnston and Swanson (2003) that analyzed 1998 and 1999 issues of women's and parenting magazines found that employed mothers were largely underrepresented compared to at-home mothers: working mothers were present in 12% of all mother-related text units as opposed to 88% for at-home mothers. Media. A study based in Hong Kong set out to examine “tween" girls in order to determine the media's influence on their perception of gender and identity roles. These girls, ages 8–12, were asked to take images from the media to illustrate what they thought girls and women should or should not do. The sources of media used by the girls in the study included images from: newspapers, magazines, photos of advertisements (in subways, elevators, etc. ), television, and Internet. The main goal of this was to find how the media influences the perception of women in the eyes of a "tween" girl. Previous studies have shown that although children might not perform behaviors the media characterizes as “normal” right away, they store these perceptions and recall them during “real life situations”. The interviewers asked the tweens two questions and the interviewee's were asked to reference a digital image they were asked to have captured. The girls were first asked how women/girls should or should not be. The responses were ultimately categorized under five major themes of how women and girls should act: The most popular responses in regards to personality were: be yourself, be brave, and be gentle. Skills and vocation responses reflected what jobs and skills a woman should have. Housekeeping was regarded as a good skill to have because boys have poor housekeeping skills. Appearance responses included what girls should look like, and how they should not (for example, girls should be presentable not sloppy). Under the category of healthy and natural interviewee's were speaking of exercise, strength, and drug free lifestyles. Among the comments made by interviewee's about manners and relationships were those about self-control, being conservative in sexual relationships, and self-representation in the public sphere. The second thing the girls were asked was what women should or should not do. The responses were categorized into themes, stated in order of most responses in a given category to least responses in a given category: 1) appearance, 2) health and safety, 3) relationships, 4) caring for people and environment, 5) work and others. The conclusions made from this study were as follows. Tweens' perceptions of gender and identity roles mostly come from their role models. Tweens have conservative attitudes toward sexuality, despite racy advertisements. Tweens heavily favor natural beauty and reject practices that aim to reduce weight drastically. Tweens rejected and labeled sexy appearance and pre-marital sex as inappropriate. This study showed the perceptions tween girls had as a result of the media, giving proper insight into how young girls envision adults, including mothers in the media. Controversies. Recent films and television shows that challenge the traditional family ideal have been critically acclaimed and celebrated. A non-traditional family structure is becoming more and more common in media. However, some of the most popular examples have been the topic of debate. The 2010 film "The Kids Are All Right" depicts a same-sex couple, Jules and Nic, and their trials in raising two children. The film was very well-received, garnering four Oscar nominations. Critics applauded the movie for its depiction of a "realistic" lesbian couple, with Roger Ebert saying: "The Kids Are All Right centers on a lesbian marriage, but is not about one. It's a film about marriage itself, an institution with challenges that are universal.” However, the family structure in the film is a traditional one: Nic is the breadwinner and Jules is the homemaker. This dynamic is a source of tension throughout the movie and is a major obstacle in their relationship. The film is regarded as progressive while at the same time criticized for the archaic model of family. Television has a similar example in "Modern Family". Premiering in 2009 and chronicling three families portraying varying degrees social norms, "Modern Family" has received awards including 21 Emmys. It has also been the subject of criticism in term of familial portrayal. Phil Dunphy, a father on the show, is portrayed as foolish and easily outmaneuvered by both his wife and children. Claire, his wife, is an uptight stay-at-home mother who has become bored in her role in the family. Many critics have pointed out that both mothers on the show are not employed. In season 5 of the show Claire did return to work after her children had matured. Although on the surface, Modern Family looks like a fresh perspective on today's family environment, it has its shortcomings. The traditional model of family can be seen in the Dunphy household despite the show's promise of a modern family. Conclusion. Society usually look to views of family planning on the social media and other raw media forms to develop a vauge notion, idea or plan of how a perfect family should be and act like. Over time, portrayals of both mothers and fathers in the media have adjusted to reflect changing familial norms. Both television and movies have reflected changes from the traditional family, though the nuclear family is still very present. Advertisements, children's books, and magazines still consistently represent traditional gender norms. Controversies have emerged in parental portrayals that seem to challenge traditional roles but, in reality, reinforce them.

research in 1976

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=62030533

Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus scroll, known also as 11QpaleoLev, is an ancient text preserved in one of the Qumran group of caves, and which provides a rare glimpse of the script used formerly by the nation of Israel in writing Torah scrolls during its preëxilic history. The fragmentary remains of the Torah scroll is written in the Paleo-Hebrew script and was found stashed-away in a cave at Qumran, showing a portion of Leviticus. The scroll is thought to have been penned by the scribe between the late 2nd-century BCE to early 1st-century BCE, while others place its writing in the 1st-century CE. The Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus scroll, although many centuries more recent than the well-known earlier ancient paleo-Hebrew epigraphic materials, such as the Royal Steward inscription from Siloam, Jerusalem (eighth century BCE), now in the Museum of the Ancient Orient, Istanbul, and the Phoenician inscription on the sarcophagus of King Eshmun-Azar at Sidon, dating to the fifth-fourth century BCE, the Lachish ostraca (ca. 6th-century BCE), the Gezer calendar (ca. 950–918 BCE), and the paleo-Hebrew sacerdotal blessing discovered in 1979 near the St Andrew's Church in Jerusalem, is of no less importance to palaeography - even though the manuscript is fragmentary and only partially preserved on leather parchment. Today, the paleo-Hebrew Leviticus scroll (11QpaleoLev) is housed at the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA), but is not on public display. Discovery. The discovery of the Dead Sea scrolls in 1947 brought in its wake a flurry of epigraphic discoveries in the Qumran region. The paleo-Hebrew Leviticus scroll was one of the last of these discoveries, discovered in a cave in January of 1956 by local Bedouins of the Taʿamireh clan, where it had been stashed along with other manuscripts in what is now known as "Qumran Cave 11," about north of "Khirbet Qumran". The entrance to the cave had been sealed-off with fallen debris and large boulders, while part of the cave's roof had also collapsed, keeping the cave inaccessible for many centuries. The cache of manuscripts found in cave no. 11 yielded, among other manuscripts, the Great Psalms Scroll (11QPs), the Temple Scroll (11QT) (being the longest of the Dead Sea Scrolls), and the paleo-Hebrew Leviticus scroll. The Leviticus scroll was obtained by the Rockefeller Museum (formerly the Palestine Archaeological Museum) in May of 1956 where it was kept in the museum's scrollery, and there remained largely untouched for 12 years, until it could be examined by researchers. When the museum came under the administration of the Israeli government after the Six-Day War in 1967, the museum assigned the Leviticus scroll to D.N. Freedman for study and publication, who published the first report on the manuscript in 1974. Today, the 11QpaleoLev is held by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA). The scroll was first photographed in 1956 by the Palestine Archaeological Museum (PAM), and again in 1970 under the auspices of the IAA, when infra-red photographs were made of the manuscript. Between 1956 and 1970 the scroll had suffered, losing at several places tiny fragments from the edges. Thus, the 1956 photographs preserve a better stage of the scroll and show readings which were lost in 1970. One fragment belonging to the 11QpaleoLev but not with the IAA is "Fragment L" (formerly, 11Q1), purchased by Georges Roux of France from the antiquities dealer Khalil Eskander Shaheen (Kando) of Bethlehem in 1967, showing Leviticus 21:7–12 / 22:21–27. Similar paleo-Hebrew fragments exist for the Books of Genesis, Exodus, Numbers and Deuteronomy, discovered in Qumran Cave 4. Historical background. The paleo-Hebrew script used is similar to the script still preserved today by the Samaritans, in the Samaritan Pentateuch, which itself is thought to be a direct descendant of the paleo-Hebrew alphabet (known in other circles as the Phoenician alphabet). The Leviticus scroll is of primary importance in helping secular and religious scholars better understand the textual development of the Hebrew Bible and can shed light on the Hebrew Pentateuch's "Urtext". Although secular linguistic experts agree that the Ashurit script (i.e. the modern square Jewish Hebrew alphabet) evolved from the earlier Paleo-Hebrew script via the Aramaic alphabet — their secular consensus view is based on palaeographic evidentiary discoveries, the timelines and assigned eras of those discoveries, and the slowly evolving letter/character morphologies as they offshoot from earlier scripts— the question remains undecided among Jewish religious sages as to whether or not the discovery of the 11QpaleoLev scroll has implications on what the original script of the first Torah was. Among some Jewish religious sages, the find of 11QpaleoLev would corroborate one rabbinic view that the Torah was originally written in the paleo-Hebrew script, which is one view found in Talmudic commentary. According to another rabbinic view in the 5th-century CE Babylonian Talmud, conversely, the find of 11QpaleoLev is inconsequential since they regard the Torah to have been given by Moses already in the "Assyrian script" (Ktav Ashuri, also known as “Ashurit”- the current modern printed Hebrew script), but then later changed to the paleo-Hebrew script, and, once again, returned to the Ashurit script during the time of Ezra the Scribe in the 5th century BCE. This latter view, however, is incongruous with secular linguistic findings. Nevertheless, the matter remains undecided and in dispute among Jewish religious sages, with some holding the opinion that the Torah was originally inscribed in the Old Hebrew (Paleo-Hebrew) script, while others that it was not. What is generally acknowledged by all Jewish religious sages is that Ezra the Scribe in the 5th century BCE was the first to enact that the scroll of the Law be written in the Assyrian alphabet (Ashurit) - the modern Hebrew script, rather than in the Old Hebrew (Paleo-Hebrew) script used formerly, and permitted that the Book of Daniel be composed in the Aramaic language with Ashurit characters. The switch from the ancient paleo-Hebrew script to the Ashurit script (modern Hebrew script), which happened after Israel's return from the Babylonian exile, officially did away with the ancient characters, but preserved the language intact, as the paleo-Hebrew letters were replaced, letter by letter, with their exact Ashurit equivalent, and where the newer characters represented the same phonetic sounds used in the Old Hebrew script. Both old and new systems consisted of 22 corresponding characters with (at that time) the same Semitic sound values. The Hebrew sages of the 1st-century CE augmented the use of the modern Hebrew script over that of the former script, declaring that sanctity only applied to those texts transcribed in the Ashurit (modern Hebrew) script, effectively doing away with the Old Hebrew (paleo-Hebrew) writing system. Description. The paleo-Hebrew Leviticus scroll consists of fifteen fragments and one scroll of seven columns, measuring in length. The scroll is thought to have been originally part of a larger Torah scroll made-up of individual sheets of parchment that were sewn together. The surviving scroll, showing portions of the Book of Leviticus, shows only the bottom portion of two sheets of parchment (ca. one-fifth of its original height), now measuring in height. The two sheets of parchment are shown sewn together; one containing three columns, and the other four columns, for a total of seven extant columns. The paleo-Hebrew script is written upon horizontal ruled lines, indented in the parchment by a semi-sharp instrument, from which the scribe "hangs" his letters. The rule lines were made mechanically and have a distinctive lighter shade of brown, and are intersected with indented vertical lines at the ends of the margins. The parchment consists of light to dark brown, tanned leather, with the ancient Hebrew writing inscribed on the grain-side of the leather, being the side where the hair once grew, and which side is usually darker than the flesh side of the leather. The leather, upon examination, is thought to belong to a small domesticated animal; either a kid of the goats or young sheep. The pattern of the grain surface in the leather resembles that of a kid, rather than a sheep. The lettering of the scroll is written in lampblack ink. Individual words are divided by dots. The top portion of the scroll is irregularly worn away, with no indication that it had been deliberately torn or cut. Letter and line calculations suggest that the scroll's height was roughly four times greater than the extant lower portion, based upon letter and scribal dot counts of columns four to six. The average number of letters per line is forty-seven. Columns 4 to 7 measure 14.9 cm. in width, except for the narrow, final column. Columns 2 and 3 measure 13.6 cm. and 12.0 cm., respectively. The scroll contains much of Leviticus chapters 22:21–27, 23:22–29, 24:9–14, 25:28–36, 26:17–26, and 27:11–19, with smaller fragments showing portions of chapters 4:24–26, 10:4–7, 11:27–32, 13:3–9, 14:16–21, 18:26–19:3, 20:1–6, "et al." Based on a cursory review and comparison of extant texts, the 11QpaleoLev Leviticus scroll is considered by many to be a primary textual witness of the Proto-Masoretic text. Orthography. A comparative study made between the Masoretic text (henceforth MT) and the Leviticus scroll shows a tradition of orthography which slightly differed from the MT with respect to plene and defective scripta, the Leviticus scroll generally showing more full spellings than the MT. At some time during the Second Temple period the Sages saw a need to bring conformity to the writing, and therefore established an authoritative text, now known as the MT. The 11QpaleoLev scroll is unique in that where the MT requires reading לו in Leviticus 25:30 as the "ḳeri" (קרי), although the text is written לא as the actual "ketiv" (כתיב) in the MT, the paleo-Hebrew Leviticus scroll shows the original reading and is written plainly as לו, without the necessity of changing its reading. This suggests that the Masoretes who transmitted the readings for words had access to an early orthographic tradition. Another unique feature of the paleo-Hebrew Leviticus scroll is that it shows an ancient scribal practice of aligning all words in the columns in a natural progressive order, without the necessity of stretching words as is typically practised by scribes in the Ashurit script (modern Hebrew script) to justify the end of the line at the left margin. To avoid a long word extending beyond the column, the scribe simply broke-off the word, writing one or several letters of that word at the end of one line, and the remaining letters of the same word at the beginning of the next line (e.g. the Tetragrammaton in Lev. 24:9, the word ישראל in Lev. 24:10, the word אל in Lev. 24:11 - all in column no. 3; the word ארצכם in Lev. 26:19 in column no. 5, "et al.") In column no. 4 of the 11QpaleoLev scroll (the second line from the bottom) it shows no section break for (), although in most MT readings the place is marked by a section break ("Closed Section"). This anomaly can be attributed to the fact that some of the "Geonim" were in dispute over whether or not the reading in Leviticus 25:35 was to be marked by a section break; some including there a section break and others omitting a section break, as disclosed by the medieval scribe Menahem Meiri in his "Kiryat Sefer". Partial translation of scroll. In the following nine lines, a translation of the paleo-Hebrew Leviticus scroll is rendered as follows: The arrangement of the lines does not necessarily follow the arrangements used by modern scribes when copying from their "Tikkun Soferim", a thing which does invalidate a Torah scroll. However, the use of section breaks follows closely the traditions bequeathed by the Masoretes, so that the "Open section" () in line no. 3 (Lev. 23:23) starts at the beginning of the margin, after the previous verse ended on the previous line, followed by a very long vacant space ("vacat") extending to the left margin, showing that it is an "Open Section", whereas line no. 6 (Lev. 23:26) is an anomaly of sorts, insofar that the MT makes it a "Closed Section" (), which should start in the middle of the column, with an intermediate space between it and the previous verse, but in the paleo-Hebrew Leviticus scroll the section here starts at the beginning of the right margin, with the previous verse ending in the previous line and followed by a short vacant space extending to the left margin (which space is equivalent to that of about 14 letters). Likewise, in column no. three, the verse Lev. 24:10 is made a "Closed Section" in the MT, but in the paleo-Hebrew Leviticus scroll the section break starts at the beginning of the right margin, preceded by a line where the previous verse ends close to the start of the line, and a solitary paleo-Hebrew letter "waw" is written in the middle of that long-extended space, a tradition which is no longer recognised today. In Leviticus 20:1–6 ("Fragment J"), the "Open Section" is preceded by a vacant space, in the middle of which the Hebrew character "waw" is written to also signify the first letter in the word וידבר in the new section. In these places and others, the solitary "waw" is characteristically used in open spaces between paragraphs when the new paragraph should have begun with that letter. The use of a solitary "waw" in the middle of the section break is consistent with the practice found in paleo-Hebrew biblical manuscripts discovered in Qumran cave no. 4, showing fragments from the Book of Exodus, tentatively dated 100–25 BCE. Paleo-Hebrew scroll vs. the parent text of the Septuagint. From this one surviving relic of Israel's distant past, it can be shown that the unknown vorlage, or parent text, used to produce the Greek Septuagint (LXX) was similar to the text of the Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus scroll in some places, such as in Lev. 26:24, where it adds the words "beḥamat ḳerī" = "in rage of froward behaviour" – the words "in rage" not appearing in the MT. In yet other places , the Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus scroll follows more closely the MT than does the Septuagint.

visual backdrop

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26158745

The Spasskaya Tower (), translated as 'Saviour Tower', is the main tower on the eastern wall of the Moscow Kremlin which overlooks Red Square. History. The Spasskaya Tower was built in 1491 by the Swiss architect Pietro Antonio Solari. Initially, it was named the Frolovskaya Tower after the Church of Frol and Lavr in the Kremlin, which is no longer there. The tower's modern name comes from the icon of 'Spas Nerukotvorny' () translated as 'The Saviour Not Made by Hands', which was placed above the gates on the inside wall in 1658 and removed in 1917. The tower is also named for the wall-painted icon of 'Spas Smolensky' () translated as 'Smolensky Saviour', which was created in the 16th century on the outside wall of tower, plastered over in 1937, but reopened and restored in 2010. The Spasskaya Tower was the first tower of the many Moscow Kremlin Towers to be crowned with the hipped roof in 1624–1625 by architects Bazhen Ogurtsov and Christopher Galloway (a Scottish architect and clock maker). According to a number of historical accounts, the clock on the Spasskaya Tower appeared between 1491 and 1585. It is usually referred to as the Kremlin chimes (Кремлёвские куранты) and designates official Moscow Time. The clock face has a diameter of . The gate of Spasskaya Tower was used to greet foreign dignitaries, and was also used during formal ceremonies or processions held on Red Square. Reverence and respect for the Tsar. The tower gate was once the main entrance into the Kremlin. In tsarist times, anyone passing through the gates had to remove their headgear, crossing themselves and dismount their horses. This practice was revived after the Icon of the Saviour was restored in 2010, but ceremonially. "The Russians have always regarded the Spasskaya Tower with great reverence. According to old legends, the tower was possessed with miraculous powers and was reputed to protect the Kremlin from enemy invasion. People passing through the gates would always observe the custom of crossing themselves and doffing their hats to show their respect, and horses passing under the gates of the tower were said to shy. In fact, legend has it that Napoleon himself could not prevent his horse from taking fright as he rode through the gates, having failed to show his respect, and the French Emperor's hat was said to have fallen from his head." The Spasskaya Tower was commissioned to be built by Ivan III, or Ivan the Great, the leader of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, and the grandfather of Ivan the Terrible. Inscription on Spasskaya Gate. On top of the gates of Spasskaya Tower, there appears the following inscription (it is inscribed in Latin): In Latin: IOANNES VASILII DEI GRATIA MAGNUS DUX VOLODIMERIÆ, MOSCOVIÆ, NOVOGARDIÆ, TFERIÆ, PLESCOVIÆ, VETICIÆ, ONGARIÆ, PERMIÆ, BUOLGARIÆ ET ALIAS TOTIUSQUE RAXIE DOMINUS, ANNO 30 IMPERII SUI HAS TURRES CONDERE FECIT ET STATUIT PETRUS ANTONIUS SOLARIUS MEDIOLANENSIS ANNO NATIVIT ATIS DOMINI 1491 KALENDIS MARTIIS IUSSIT PONERE. In English: Ivan Vasiliyevich, by the grace of God the Grand Duke of Vladimir, Moscow, Novgorod, Tver, Pskov, , Yugra, Perm, Bulghar, and for other reasons that of all of Raxis, the year of 30 their government, these towers he did [commission] a Pietro Antonio Solari of Milan in the first of March, in the year of the Lord 1491. Soviet Union and modern day uses. After the rise of the Soviet Union, in 1936 Joseph Stalin replaced the two-headed eagle on top of the Spasskaya Tower with a red star because he wanted to remove all evidence of the former Tsarist period. The star rotates in 360°. The height of the tower with the star is 71 meters. The tradition of dismounting the horse and removing the cap ended during the Soviet era, when the Kremlin became the center of government and politics. Cars approached the gate head on from the Lobnoye Mesto and the road beside the GUM department store. All other traffic was routed through the Borovitsky gate. Various cathedrals were demolished throughout the years to make room for other government buildings. It was not until 1955 during the rule of Nikita Khrushchev that the Kremlin was reopened to foreign visitors; the Kremlin was turned into a museum in 1961 and added to the World Heritage List in 1990. The daughter of Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin is the current director of the Kremlin Museums, Elena Gagarina. There are many cathedrals inside the Kremlin walls, and many of them hold church services, however irregularly because the cathedrals are still operated as museums. The Spasskaya Gate posed an issue following the collapse of communism. In the new capitalist and market-based economy, the passage of vehicles disrupted the flow of pedestrians to GUM and other shopping centers, even though few vehicles actually passed through the gate each day. In 1999, the decision was made to finally close the gate to all traffic. The signal lights and guard platforms still remain. The gate is used occasionally when repairs must be made to the Borovissky Gate. However, in that case, all traffic is routed from Vasilyevsky Spusk. Nowadays, the gate opens to receive the presidential motorcades on inauguration day, for the victory parades, and to receive the New Year's tree. Russia's President Vladimir Putin discussed building two monasteries and a church with the city's mayor, Sergey Sobyanin. Gromov would like to get the approval for demolition on one of the administration buildings. This administration building is not an "UNESCO World Heritage Site or an object that has any historical or cultural significance". Spasskaya Tower is also the honorific for the International Military Music Festival "Spasskaya Tower"., which is based within the grounds of Red Square. In August 2010 the icon of Smolensk Saviour was uncovered and restored above the gate (see picture below). This begins the tradition of the parade inspector to remove his headgear and cross himself before the inspection of troops during all Moscow Victory Day Parades. Beginning 2016 there has been an hourly guard mounting ceremony by the Kremlin Regiment within the area of the gate.

foreign threat

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23118774

The hammer and anvil is a military tactic involving the use of two primary forces, one to pin down an enemy, and the other to smash or defeat the opponent with an encirclement maneuver. It may involve a frontal assault by one part of the force, playing a slower-moving or more static role. The second phase involves a more mobile force that maneuvers around the enemy and attacks from behind or the flank to deliver a decisive blow. The "hammer and anvil" tactic is fundamentally a single envelopment, and is to be distinguished from a simple encirclement where one group simply keeps an enemy occupied, while a flanking force delivers the coup de grace. The strongest expression of the concept is where both echelons are sufficient in themselves to strike a decisive blow. The "anvil" echelon here is not a mere diversionary gambit, but a substantial body that hits the enemy hard to pin him down and grind away his strength. The "hammer" or maneuver element succeeds because the anvil force materially or substantially weakens the enemy, preventing him from adjusting to the threat in his flank or rear. Other variants of the concept allow for an enemy to be held fast by a substantial blocking or holding force, while a strong echelon, or hammer, delivers the decisive blow. In all scenarios, both the hammer and anvil elements are substantial entities that can cause significant material damage to opponents, as opposed to light diversionary, or small scale holding units. Antiquity. Battle of Issus. The tactic was used in Antiquity, as the maneuver's origins used light cavalry, ubiquitous in the ancient world. The tactic also worked with the heavy cataphracts of the Eastern world.It appeared in a number of battles fought by the ancient Greeks and Romans. In addition to being used in many of Alexander the Great's battles, it was also used during the Second Punic War during the Battle of Cannae and the Battle of Zama. Battle of Pharsalus. In 48 BC, Pompey the Great attempted to use it against Julius Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalus, in what was to be the decisive battle of the Great Roman Civil War. Caesar countered this by ambushing Pompey's "anvil" element; Pompey's infantry was to be the anvil while his cavalry 'hammer' encircled Caesar's left flank. There was significant distance between the two armies, according to Caesar. As the infantry of Caesar advanced, Pompey ordered his men not to charge, but to wait until Caesar's legions came into close quarters; Pompey's adviser Gaius Triarius believed that Caesar's infantry would be fatigued and fall into disorder if they were forced to cover twice the expected distance of a battle march. Also, stationary troops were expected to be able to defend better against pila throws. Seeing that Pompey's army was not advancing, Caesar's infantry under Mark Antony and Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus started the advance. As Caesar's men neared throwing distance, without orders, they stopped to rest and regroup before continuing the charge; Pompey's right and centre line held as the two armies collided. Caesar countered this by positioning the reserves of his 4th line to intercept the attacking cavalry. As Pompey's infantry fought, Labienus ordered the Pompeian cavalry on his left flank to attack Caesar's cavalry; as expected they successfully pushed back Caesar's cavalry. Caesar then revealed his hidden fourth line of infantry and surprised Pompey's cavalry charge; Caesar's men were ordered to leap up and use their pila to thrust at Pompey's cavalry instead of throwing them. Pompey's cavalry panicked and suffered hundreds of casualties, as Caesar's cavalry came about and charged after them. After failing to reform, the rest of the Pompey's cavalry retreated to the hills, leaving the left wing of Pompey's legions exposed to the hidden troops as Caesar's cavalry wheeled around their flank. Caesar then ordered in his third line, containing his most battle-hardened veterans, to attack. This broke Pompey's left wing troops, who fled the battlefield. After routing Pompey's cavalry, Caesar threw in his last line of reserves. Pompey lost the will to fight as he watched both cavalry and legions under his command break formation and flee from battle, and he retreated to his camp, leaving the rest of his troops at the centre and right flank to their own devices. He ordered the garrisoned auxiliaries to defend the camp as he escaped. As the rest of Pompey's army were left confused, Caesar urged his men to end the day by routing the rest of Pompey's troops and capturing the Pompeian camp. They complied with his wishes; after finishing off the remains of Pompey's men, they furiously attacked the camp walls. The Thracians and the other auxiliaries who were left in the Pompeian camp, in total seven cohorts, defended bravely, but were not able to fend off the assault. Early modern era to World War I. The Ashanti versus the British – 1874. The colonial wars of the 1800s saw some African armies deploy hammer and anvil tactics. In 1874 a strong British force under Sir Garnet Wolseley, armed with modern rifles and artillery, invaded the territory of the Ashanti Empire. The Ashanti did not confront the British immediately, and made no major effort to interdict their long, vulnerable lines of communication through the jungle terrain. Their plan appeared to be to draw the British deep into their territory, against a strong defensive anvil centred at the town of "Amoaful". Here the British would be tied down, while manoeuvring wing elements circled to the rear, trapping and cutting them off. Some historians, such as Byron Farwell, note that this was approach was a traditional Ashanti battle strategy, and was common in some African armies as well. At the village of Amoaful, the Ashantis succeeded in luring their opponents forward, but could not make any headway against the modern firepower of the British forces, which laid down a barrage of fire to accompany an advance of infantry in squares. This artillery fire took a heavy toll on the Ashanti, but they left a central blocking force in place around the village, while unleashing a large flanking attack on the left, that almost enveloped the British line and successfully broke into some of the infantry squares. Ashanti weaponry however, was poor compared to the modern weapons deployed by the British, and such superior arms served the British well in repulsing the dangerous Ashanti encirclements. As one participant noted: Wolesey had studied and anticipated the Ashanti "horseshoe" formations, and had strengthened the British flanks with the best units and reinforced firepower. He was able to shift this firepower to threatened sectors to stymie enemy maneuvers, defeating their hammer and anvil elements and forcing his opponents to retreat. One British combat post-mortem pays tribute to the slain Ashanti commander for his tactical leadership and use of terrain: World War II. Battle of Caen. When the Allies landed at Normandy, the strategy used by the commander of the British land forces, general Bernard Montgomery, was to confront the feared German panzers with constantly attacking British armies on the eastern flank of the beachhead. The role of the British forces would be to act as a great shield for the Allied landing, constantly sucking the German armour on to a great "anvil" on the left (east), and constantly grinding it down with punishing blows from artillery, tanks and Allied aircraft. As the anvil held the bulk of the German armor fast, this would open the way for the Americans to wield a great "hammer" in the west, on the right of the Allied line, breaking through the German defenses, where the Americans led by such commanders as Patton, could run free. The British role would thus not be a glamorous one, but a tough battle in a punishing cauldron of attrition, in and around the key city of Caen. The Germans had initially counterattacked the Normandy beachhead with powerful panzer and mobile forces hoping to drive to the sea by creating a wedge between the US and British armies. Failing this, they were then faced with a large, menacing British advance towards the strategic city of Caen, that threatened to collapse a great portion of their front, presenting a credible and very dangerous breakthrough threat. The British and Canadian divisions were not a secondary, defensively-oriented holding force, but aggressively sought to penetrate and destroy the German position. The Germans were thus forced to commit their strongest echelons in the theatre, the mobile panzer and SS units to avoid this peril. These were pulled deeper and deeper against the attritional anvil on the eastern flank, slowly corroding German strength and capability. The bitter confrontation tied down and weakened the Wehrmacht, thus eventually paving the way for a crushing American breakthrough in the west. As General Montgomery signaled on June 25, 1944: Supreme Allied Commander Dwight Eisenhower affirmed Montgomery's overall strategy in a message of 10 July, urging stronger efforts: Montgomery's overall "hammer and anvil" conception of the battle eventually resulted in success, but it took two months of bitter fighting in and around the city of Caen. Post World War II. Communist Insurgency in South Korea. In early 1950, prior to the North Korean People's Army's southward advance across the 38th parallel, the North frequently launched small offensives at the border and inserted thousands of guerillas infiltrators into the South as far as Jeju Island in hopes of achieving the overthrow of President Syngman Rhee and the imposition of a communist government. After a number of Republic of Korea Army (ROKA) counterinsurgency successes, the North Koreans waged a final attempt at inciting revolution by sending two battalion-sized units of guerillas under the commands of Kim Sang-ho and Ki Moo-hyon. The first unit was, over the course of several engagements with the ROKA 6th Division, destroyed with only one survivor. The second was also annihilated by a two-battalion hammer-and-anvil maneuver by units if the ROKA 6th Division. The KPA guerillas lost 584 (480 killed, 104 captured) and the ROKA troops reported 69 killed and 184 wounded. It would prove to be the last major effort of the communist north to annex the south until the invasion on 25 June 1950.

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Spanish naming customs are historical traditions that are practised in Spain for naming children. According to these customs, a person's name consists of a given name (simple or composite) followed by two surnames. Historically, the first surname was the father's first surname, and the second the mother's first surname. In recent years, the order of the surnames in a family is decided when registering the first child, but the traditional order is still usually chosen. Often, the practice is to use one given name and the first surname most of the time (e.g. "Miguel de Unamuno" for Miguel de Unamuno y Jugo); the complete name is typically reserved for legal, formal, and documentary matters. Both surnames are sometimes systematically used when the first surname is very common (e.g., Federico García Lorca, Pablo Ruiz Picasso or José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero) to get a more customized name. In these cases, it is even common to use only the second surname, as in "Lorca", "Picasso" or "Zapatero". This does not affect alphabetization: "Lorca", the Spanish poet, must be alphabetized in an index under "García Lorca", not "Lorca" or "García". Naming system in Spain. Currently in Spain, people bear a single or composite given name ("nombre" in Spanish) and two surnames ("apellidos" in Spanish). A composite given name comprises two (or more) single names; for example "Juan Pablo" is considered not to be a first and a second forename, but a single composite forename. The two surnames refer to each of the parental families. Traditionally, a person's first surname is the father's first surname ("apellido paterno"), while their second surname is the mother's first surname ("apellido materno"). For example, if a man named "Eduardo Fernández Garrido" marries a woman named "María Dolores Martínez Ruiz" (note that women do not change their name with marriage) and they have a child named "José", there are several legal options, but their child would most usually be known as "José Fernández Martínez". Spanish gender equality law has allowed surname transposition since 1999, subject to the condition that every sibling must bear the same surname order recorded in the "Registro Civil" (civil registry), but there have been legal exceptions. Since 2013, if the parents of a child were unable to agree on the order of surnames, an official would decide which is to come first, with the paternal name being the default option. The only requirement is that every son and daughter must have the same order of the surnames, so they cannot change it separately. Since June 2017, adopting the paternal name first is no longer the standard method, and parents are required to sign an agreement wherein the name order is expressed explicitly. The law also grants a person the option, upon reaching adulthood, of reversing the order of their surnames. However, this legislation only applies to Spanish citizens; people of other nationalities are issued the surname indicated by the laws of their original country. Each surname can also be composite, with the parts usually linked by the conjunction "y" or "e" (and), by the preposition "de" (of), or by a hyphen. For example, a person's name might be "Juan Pablo Fernández de Calderón García-Iglesias", consisting of a forename ("Juan Pablo"), a paternal surname ("Fernández de Calderón"), and a maternal surname ("García-Iglesias"). There are times when it is impossible, by inspection of a name, to correctly analyse it. For example, the writer Sebastià Juan Arbó was alphabetised by the Library of Congress for many years under "Arbó", assuming that "Sebastià" and "Juan" were both given names. However, "Juan" was actually his first surname. Resolving questions like this, which typically involve very common names ("Juan" is rarely a surname), often requires the consultation of the person involved or legal documents pertaining to them. Forms of address. A man named "José Antonio Gómez Iglesias" would normally be addressed as either "señor Gómez" or "señor Gómez Iglesias" instead of "señor Iglesias", because "Gómez" is his first surname. Furthermore, Mr. Gómez might be informally addressed as Very formally, he could be addressed with an honorific such as "don José Antonio" or "don José". It is not unusual, when the first surname is very common, like "García" in the example above, for a person to be referred to formally using both family names, or casually by their second surname only. For example, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero (elected President of the Spanish Government in the 2004 and 2008 general elections) is often called simply Zapatero, the name he inherited from his mother's family since Rodríguez is a common surname and may be ambiguous. The same occurs with another former Spanish Socialist leader, Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba, with the poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca, and with the painter Pablo Ruiz Picasso. As these people's paternal surnames are very common, they are often referred to by their maternal surnames (Rubalcaba, Lorca, Picasso). It would nonetheless be a mistake to index Rodríguez Zapatero under Z or García Lorca under L (Picasso, who spent most of his adult life in France, is normally indexed under "P"). In an English-speaking environment, Spanish-named people sometimes hyphenate their surnames to avoid Anglophone confusion or to fill in forms with only one space provided for the last name: for example, the Puerto Rican U.S. Representative Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez's surname is Ocasio-Cortez, in which her parents' surnames are Ocasio-Roman and Ocasio-Cortez (née Cortez). She made emphasis a few times not to confuse her surname as Cortez. Forenames. Parents choose their child's given name, which must be recorded in the "Registro Civil" (Civil Registry) to establish his or her legal identity. With few restrictions, parents can now choose any name; common sources of names are the parents' taste, honouring a relative, the General Roman Calendar "nomina" (nominal register), and traditional Spanish names. Legislation in Spain under Franco legally limited cultural naming customs to only Christian (Jesus, Mary, saints) and typical Spanish names (Álvaro, Jimena, etc.). Although the first part of a composite forename generally reflects the gender of the child, the second personal name need not (e.g. José María Aznar). At present, the only naming limitation is the dignity of the child, who cannot be given an insulting name. Similar limitations applied against diminutive, familiar, and colloquial variants not recognized as names proper, and "those that lead to confusion regarding sex"; however, current law allows registration of diminutive names. María and José. Girls are often named "María", honouring the Virgin Mary, by appending either a shrine, place, or religious-concept suffix-name to "María". In daily life, such women omit the "Mary of the ..." nominal prefix, and use the suffix portion of their composite names as their public, rather than legal, identity. Hence, women with Marian names such as "María de los Ángeles" (Mary of the Angels), "María del Pilar" (Mary of the Pillar), and "María de la Luz" (Mary of the Light), are normally addressed as "Ángeles" (Angels), "Pilar" (Pillar), and "Luz" (Light); however, each might be addressed as "María". Nicknames such as "Maricarmen" for "María del Carmen", "Marisol" for "María (de la) Soledad" ("Our Lady of Solitude", the Virgin Mary), "Dolores" or "Lola" for "María de los Dolores" ("Our Lady of Sorrows"), "Mercedes" or "Merche" for "María de las Mercedes" ("Our Lady of Mercy"), etc. are often used. Also, parents can simply name a girl "María", or "Mari" without a suffix portion. It is not unusual for a boy's formal name to include "María", preceded by a masculine name, e.g. "José María Aznar" (Joseph Mary Aznar) or Juan María Vicencio de Ripperdá (John Mary Vicencio de Ripperdá). Equivalently, a girl can be formally named "María José" (Mary Joseph), e.g. skier María José Rienda, and informally named "Marijose", "Mariajo", "Majo", "Ajo", "Marisé" or even "José" in honor of St. Joseph. "María" as a masculine name is often abbreviated in writing as "M." (José M. Aznar), "Ma." (José Ma. Aznar), or "M.ª" (José M.ª Morelos). It is unusual for any names other than the religiously significant "María" and "José" to be used in this way except for the name "Jesús" that is also very common and can be used as ""Jesús" or "Jesús María" for a boy and "María Jesús" for a girl, and can be abbreviated as "Sus", "Chus"" and other nicknames. Registered names. The "Registro Civil" (Civil Registry) officially records a child's identity as composed of a forename (simple or composite) and the two surnames; however, a child can be religiously baptized with several forenames, e.g. Felipe Juan Froilán de Todos los Santos. Until the 1960s, it was customary to baptize children with three forenames: the first was the main and the only one used by the child; if parents agreed, one of the other two was the name of the day's saint. Nowadays, baptizing with three or more forenames is usually a royal and noble family practice. Marriage. In Spain, upon marrying, one does not change one's surname. In some instances, such as high society meetings, the partner's surname can be added after the person's surnames using the preposition "de" (of). An example would be a "Leocadia Blanco Álvarez", married to a "Pedro Pérez Montilla", may be addressed as "Leocadia Blanco de Pérez" or as "Leocadia Blanco Álvarez de Pérez". This format is not used in everyday settings and has no legal value. Generational transmission. In the generational transmission of surnames, the paternal surname's precedence eventually eliminates the maternal surnames from the family lineage. Contemporary law (1999) allows the maternal surname to be given precedence, but most people observe the traditional paternal–maternal surname order. Therefore, the daughter and son of "Ángela López Sáenz" and "Tomás Portillo Blanco" are usually called "Laura Portillo López" and "Pedro Portillo López" but could also be called "Laura López Portillo" and "Pedro López Portillo". The two surnames of all siblings must be in the same order when recorded in the "Registro Civil". Patrilineal surname transmission was not always the norm in Spanish-speaking societies. Prior to the mid-eighteenth century, when the current paternal-maternal surname combination norm was adopted, Hispanophone societies often practiced matrilineal surname transmission, giving children the maternal surname and occasionally giving children a grandparent's surname (borne by neither parent) for prestige – being perceived as gentry – and profit, flattering the matriarch or the patriarch in hope of inheriting land. Spanish naming customs include the orthographic option of conjoining the surnames with the conjunction particle "y", or "e" before a name starting with 'I', 'Hi' or 'Y', (both meaning "and") (e.g., "José Ortega y Gasset", "Tomás Portillo y Blanco", or "Eduardo Dato e Iradier"), following an antiquated aristocratic usage. Not every surname is a single word; such conjoining usage is common with doubled surnames (maternal-paternal), ancestral composite surnames bequeathed to the following generations – especially when the paternal surname is socially undistinguished. "José María Álvarez del Manzano y López del Hierro" is an example, his name comprising the composite single name "José María" and two composite surnames, "Álvarez del Manzano" and "López del Hierro". Other examples derive from church place-names such as San José. When a person bears doubled surnames, the means of disambiguation is to insert "y" between the paternal and maternal surnames. In case of illegitimacy – when the child's father either is unknown or refuses to recognize his child legally – the child bears both of the mother's surnames, which may be interchanged. Occasionally, a person with a common paternal surname and an uncommon maternal surname becomes widely known by the maternal surname. Some examples include the artist Pablo Ruiz Picasso, the poet Federico García Lorca, and the politician José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero. With a similar effect, the foreign paternal surname of the Uruguayan writer Eduardo Hughes Galeano (his father was British) is usually omitted. (As a boy, however, he occasionally signed his name as "Eduardo Gius", using a Hispanicised approximation of the English pronunciation of "Hughes".) Such use of the second last name by itself is colloquial, however, and may not be applied in legal contexts. Also rarely, a person may become widely known by both surnames, with an example being a tennis player Arantxa Sánchez Vicario – whereas her older brothers Emilio and Javier, also professional tennis players, are mainly known only by the paternal surname of Sánchez in everyday life, although they would "formally" be addressed as "Sánchez Vicario". Navarrese and Álavan surnames. Where Basque and Romance cultures have linguistically long coexisted, the surnames denote the father's name and the (family) house or town/village. Thus the Romance patronymic and the place-name are conjoined with the prepositional particle "de" ("from"+"provenance"). For example, in the name "José Ignacio López de Arriortúa", the composite surname "López de Arriortúa" is a single surname, despite "Arriortúa" being the original family name. This can lead to confusion because the Spanish "López" and the Basque "Arriortúa" are discrete surnames in Spanish and Basque respectively. This pattern was also in use in other Basque districts, but was phased out in most of the Basque-speaking areas and only remained in place across lands of heavy Romance influence, i.e. some central areas of Navarre and most of Álava. To a lesser extent, this pattern has been also present in Castile, where Basque-Castilian bilingualism was common in northern and eastern areas up to the 13th century. A notable example of this system was "Joaquina Sánchez de Samaniego y Fernández de Tejada", with both paternal and maternal surnames coming from this system, joined with a "y" ("and"). Nominal conjunctions. The particle "de" (of). In Spanish, the preposition particle "de" ("of") is used as a conjunction in two surname spelling styles, and to disambiguate a surname. The first style is in patronymic and toponymic surname spelling formulæ, e.g. "Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba", "Pedro López de Ayala", and "Vasco Núñez de Balboa", as in many "conquistador" names. The spellings of surnames containing the prepositional particle "de" are written in lower-case when they follow the name, thus "José Manuel de la Rúa" ("of the street") and "Cunegunda de la Torre" ("of the tower"), otherwise the upper-case spellings "doctor De la Rúa" and "señora De la Torre" are used. Bearing the "de" particle does not necessarily denote a noble family, especially in eastern Castile, Alava, and western Navarre, the "de" usually applied to the place-name (town or village) from which the person and his or her ancestors originated. This differs from another practice established in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, i.e. the usage of "de" following the one's own name as a way of denoting the bearer's noble heritage to avoid the misperception that he or she is either a Jew or a Moor. In that time, many people, regardless of their true origins, used the particle, e.g. "Miguel de Cervantes", "Lope de Vega", etc. ; moreover, following that fashion a high noble such as "Francisco Sandoval Rojas" called himself "Francisco de Sandoval y Rojas". During the eighteenth century, the Spanish nobility fully embraced the French custom of using "de" as a nobility identifier, however, commoners also bore the "de" particle, which made the "de" usages unclear; thus, nobility was emphasised with the surname's lineage. The particle "y" (and). In the sixteenth century, the Spanish adopted the copulative conjunction "y" ("and") to distinguish a person's surnames; thus the Andalusian Baroque writer Luis de Góngora y Argote (1561–1627), the Aragonese painter Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes (1746–1828), the Andalusian artist Pablo Diego Ruiz y Picasso (1881–1973), and the Madrilenian liberal philosopher José Ortega y Gasset (1883–1955). In Hispanic America, this spelling convention was common to clergymen (e.g. Salvadoran Bishop Óscar Arnulfo Romero y Galdámez), and sanctioned by the "Ley de Registro Civil" (Civil Registry Law) of 1870, requiring birth certificates indicating the paternal and maternal surnames conjoined with "y" – thus, "Felipe González y Márquez" and "José María Aznar y López" are the respective true names of the Spanish politicians Felipe González Márquez and José María Aznar López; however, unlike in Catalan, the Spanish usage is infrequent. In the Philippines, "y" and its associated usages are retained only in formal state documents such as police records, but is otherwise dropped in favour of a more American-influenced naming order. The conjunction "y" avoids denominational confusion when the paternal surname might appear to be a (first) name: without it, the physiologist Santiago Ramón y Cajal might appear to be named "Santiago Ramón" (composite) and surnamed "Cajal", likewise the jurist "Francisco Tomás y Valiente", and the cleric "Vicente Enrique y Tarancón". Without the conjunction, the footballer Rafael Martín Vázquez, when referred to by his surnames "Martín Vázquez" mistakenly appears to be forenamed "Martín" rather than "Rafael", whilst, to his annoyance, the linguist Fernando Lázaro Carreter occasionally was addressed as "Don Lázaro", rather than as "Don Fernando" (Lázaro can be either forename or surname). Moreover, when the maternal surname begins with an "i" vowel sound, written with either the vowel "I" ("Ibarra"), the vowel "Y" ("Ybarra" archaic spelling) or the combination "Hi" + consonant ("Higueras"), Spanish euphony substitutes "e" in place of "y", thus the example of the Spanish statesman "Eduardo Dato e Iradier" (1856–1921). Denotations. To communicate a person's social identity, Spanish naming customs provide orthographic means, such as suffix-letter abbreviations, surname spellings, and place names, which denote and connote the person's place in society. Identity and descent. h. (son of): A man named like his father, might append the lower-case suffix h. (denoting "hijo", son) to his surname, thus distinguishing himself, "Juan Gómez Marcos, h.", from his father, "Juan Gómez Marcos"; the English analogue is "Jr." ("junior"). The suffix -ez. Following the Visigothic invasion of the Iberian peninsula, the local population adopted to a large extent a patronymic naming system: the suffix "-icī" (a Latin genitive meaning "son of") would be attached to the name of a man's father. This suffix gradually evolved into different local forms, depending on the language. For example, the son of Fernando would be called: This system was most common in, but not limited to, the central region of Castile. Bare surnames, i.e. the father's name without the suffix -itz/-ez/-is/-es, can also be found, and are especially common in Catalonia. This said, mass migration in the 20th century has led to a certain leveling off of such regional differences. In Catalan speaking areas the suffixed surname "Ferrandis" is most common in the South (the Valencian Country) while in the North (Catalonia) the bare surname "Ferran" is more common. Furthermore, language contact led to the creation of multiple hybrid forms, as evidenced by the multiple Catalano-Castillan surnames, found especially in the Valencian Country: "Fernàndez", "Fernandis", "Fernàndiz", "Ferrandez", "Ferràniz", "Ferranis", etc. Not every similar surname is patronymic. Due to the letters "z" and "s" being pronounced alike in Latin American dialects of Spanish, many non-patronymic surnames with an "-es" have come to be written with an "-ez". In Hispano-American Spanish, the "-ez" spellings of "Chávez" (Hugo Chávez), "Cortez" (Alberto Cortez) and "Valdez" (Nelson Valdez) are not patronymic surnames, but simply variant spellings of the Iberian Spanish spelling with "-es", as in the names of Manuel Chaves, Hernán Cortés and Víctor Valdés. For more on the "-z" surnames in Spanish see Influences on the Spanish language. A number of the most common surnames with this suffix are: Foundlings. Anonymous abandoned children were a problem for civil registrars to name. Some such children were named after the town where they were found (toponymic surname). Because most were reared in church orphanages, some were also given the surnames "Iglesia" or "Iglesias" (church[es]) and "Cruz" (cross). "Blanco" (with the meaning "blank", rather than "white") was another option. A toponymic first surname might have been followed by "Iglesia(s)" or "Cruz" as a second surname. Nameless children were sometimes given the surname "Expósito"/"Expósita" (from Latin "exposĭtus", "exposed", meaning "abandoned child"), which marked them, and their descendants, as of a low caste or social class. Due to this, in 1921 Spanish law started to allow holders of the surname "Expósito" to legally change their surname. In the Catalan language, the surname "Deulofeu" ("made by God") was often given out to these children, which is similar to "De Dios" ("from God") in Castilian. Furthermore, in Aragón abandoned children would receive the surname "Gracia" ("grace") or "de Gracia," because they were thought to survive by the grace of God. Foreign citizens. In Spain, foreign immigrants retain use of their cultural naming customs, but upon becoming Spanish citizens, they are legally obliged to assume Spanish-style names (one forename and two surnames). If the naturalised citizen is from a one-surname culture, their current surname is either doubled, or their mother's maiden name is adopted. For example, a Briton with the name "Sarah Jane Smith" could become either "Sarah Jane Smith Smith" or "Sarah Jane Smith Jones" upon acquiring Spanish citizenship. Formally, Spanish naming customs would also mean that the forename "Sarah" and middle name "Jane" would be treated as a compound forename: "Sarah Jane". Flamenco artists. Historically, flamenco artists seldom used their proper names. According to the flamenco guitarist Juan Serrano, this was because flamenco was considered disreputable and they did not want to embarrass their families: This tradition has persisted to the present day, even though Flamenco is now legitimate. Sometimes the artistic name consists of the home town appended to the first name (Manolo Sanlúcar, Ramón de Algeciras); but many, perhaps most, of such names are more eccentric: Pepe de la Matrona (because his mother was a midwife); Perico del Lunar (because he had a mole); Tomatito (son of a father known as "Tomate" (tomato) because of his red face); Sabicas (because of his childhood passion for green beans, from "niño de las habicas"); Paco de Lucía, born Francisco ("Paco") Gustavo Sánchez Gomes, was known from infancy after his Portuguese mother, Lucía Gomes (de Lucía = [son] of Lucía). And many more. However, when referring to these artists by their noms de plume, it makes no sense to shorten their name to the qualifier, as in "Lucia" or "de Lucia"; Paco, or perhaps "el de Lucia", are the only options. Spanish hypocoristics and nicknames. Many Spanish names can be shortened into hypocoristic, affectionate "child-talk" forms using a diminutive suffix, especially -ito and -cito (masculine) and -ita and -cita (feminine). Sometimes longer than the person's name, a nickname is usually derived via linguistic rules. However, in contrast to English use, hypocoristic names in Spanish are only used to address a person in a very familiar environment – the only exception being when the hypocoristic is an artistic name (e.g. Nacho Duato born Juan Ignacio Duato). The common English practice of using a nickname in the press or media, or even on business cards (such as Bill Gates instead of William Gates), is not accepted in Spanish, being considered excessively colloquial. The usages vary by country and region; these are some usual names and their nicknames: Spain's other languages. The official recognition of Spain's other written languages – Catalan, Basque, and Galician – legally allowed the autonomous communities to re-establish their vernacular social identity, including the legal use of personal names in the local languages and written traditions – banned since 1938 – sometimes via the re-spelling of names from Castilian Spanish to their original languages. Basque names. The Basque-speaking territories (the Basque Autonomous Community and Navarre) follow Spanish naming customs (given names + two family names, the two family names being usually the father's and the mother's). The given names are officially in one language (Basque or Spanish) but often people use a translated or shortened version. A bilingual Basque-Spanish speaker will not necessarily bear a Basque name, and a monolingual Spanish speaker can use a Basque name or a Basque hypocoristic of an official Spanish name; e.g. a "Francisco" (official Spanish name) may be known as "Patxi" (Basque hypocoristic). Some Basque-language names and surnames are foreign transliterations into the Basque tongue, e.g. "Ander" (English: "Andrew"; Spanish: "Andrés"), "Mikel" (English: "Michael"; Spanish: "Miguel"), or "Ane" (English: "Anne"; Spanish: "Ana"). In some cases, the name's original-language denotation is translated to Basque, e.g., "Zutoia" and "Zedarri" denote the Spanish "Pilar" (English: "Pillar"). Moreover, some originally Basque names, such as "Xabier" and "Eneko" (English "Xavier" and "Inigo") have been transliterated into Spanish ("Javier" and "Íñigo"). Recently, Basque names without a direct equivalent in other languages have become popular, e.g. "Aitor" (a legendary patriarch), "Hodei" ("cloud"), "Iker" ("to investigate"), and "Amaia" ("the end"). Some Basque names without a direct Spanish meaning, are unique to the Basque language, for instance, "Eneko", "Garikoitz", "Urtzi". Basque names, rather than Spanish names, are preponderant in the Basque Country, countering the Spanish-name imposition of the Franco régime requiring people being given only Spanish names at birth. After Franco's death and the restoration of democracy in Spain, many Basque adults changed their Spanish names to the Basque equivalent, e.g. from "Miguel" to "Mikel". A source for modern Basque names is Sabino Arana's "Deun-Ixendegi Euzkotarra" ("Basque saint-name collection", published in 1910). Instead of the traditional Basque adaptations of Romance names, he proposed others he made up and that in his opinion were truer to the originals and adapted better to the Basque phonology. For example, his brother Luis became "Koldobika", from Frankish "Hlodwig". The traditionals "Peru" (from Spanish "Pedro"), "Pello" or "Piarres" (from French "Pierre"), all meaning "Peter", became "Kepa" from Aramaic כיפא (Kepha). He believed that the suffix "-[n]e" was inherently feminine, and new names like "Nekane" ("pain"+"ne", "Dolores") or "Garbiñe" ("clean"+"ne", "Immaculate [Conception]") are frequent among Basque females. Basque surnames usually denote the patronymic house of the bearer; e.g. "Etxebarria" – "the new house", from "etxe" (house) + "barri" (new) + "a" (the), denotes "related to a so-named farmhouse"; in the same way, "Garaikoetxea" – "the house in the heights", "garai" ("height") + "etxe" ("house") + "a" (the). Sometimes, surnames denote not the house itself but a characteristic of the place, e.g. "Saratxaga" – "willow-place", from "saratze" ("willow") + "-aga" ("place of"); "Loyola", from "loi" ("mud") + "ola" ("iron smithery"); "Arriortua" – "stone orchard", from "harri" ("stone") + "ortua" ("orchard"). Before the 20th century all Basque men were considered nobles (indeed, some Basque surnames, e.g. "Irujo" or "Medoza", were related to some of the oldest Spanish noble families), and many of them used their status to emigrate with privileges to other regions of the Spanish Empire, especially the Americas, due to which some Basque surnames became common to the Spanish-American world; e.g. "Mendoza" – "cold mountain", from "mendi" ("mountain" + "hotza" ("cold"); "Salazar" – "old hall", from "sala" ("hall") + "zahar" ("old"). Until 1978, Spanish was the single official language of the Spanish civil registries and Basque surnames had to be registered according to the Spanish phonetical rules (for example, the Spanish "ch" sound merges the Basque "ts", "tx", and "tz", and someone whose surname in Standard Basque would be "Krutxaga" would have to write it as "Cruchaga", letter "k" also not being used in Spanish). Although the democratic restoration ended this policy, allowing surnames to be officially changed into their Basque phonology, there still are many people who hold Spanish-written Basque surnames, even in the same family: a father born before 1978 would be surnamed "Echepare" and his children, "Etxepare". This policy even changed the usual pronunciation of some Basque surnames. For instance, in Basque, the letter "z" maintained a sibilant "s"-like sound, while Spanish changed it; thus, a surname such as "Zabala" should be properly read similar to "sabala" (), although in Spanish, because the "z" denotes a "th" sound (), it would be read as "Tha-bala" (). However, since the letter "z" exists in Spanish, the registries did not force the Zabalas to transliterate their surname. In the Basque provinces of Biscay and Gipuzkoa, it was uncommon to take a surname from the place (town or village) where one resided, unless one was a foundling; in general, people bearing surnames such as "Bilbao" (after the Basque city of Bilbao) are descendants of foundlings. However, in the Basque province of Alava and, to a lesser extent, in Navarre, it was common to add one's birth village to the surname using the Spanish particle "de" to denote a "toponymic", particularly when the surname was a common one; for instance, someone whose surname was "Lopez" and whose family was originally from the valley of "Ayala" could employ "Lopez de Ayala" as a surname. This latter practice is also common in Castile. Basque compound surnames are relatively common, and were created with two discrete surnames, e.g. "Elorduizapaterietxe" – "Elordui" + "Zapaterietxe", a practice denoting family allegiances or the equal importance of both families. This custom sometimes conduced to incredibly long surnames, for compound surnames could be used to create others; for example, the longest surname recorded in Spain is Basque, "Burionagonatotoricagageazcoechea", formed by "Buriona"+ "Gonatar" + "Totorika" + "Beazcoetxea". Finally, the nationalist leader Sabino Arana pioneered a naming custom of transposing the name-surname order to what he thought was the proper Basque language syntax order; e.g. the woman named "Miren Zabala" would be referred to as "Zabala'taŕ Miren" – the surname first, plus the "-tar" suffix denoting "from a place", and then the name. Thus, "Zabala'taŕ Miren" means "Miren, of the Zabala family". The change in the order is effected because in the Basque tongue, declined words (such as "Zabala'taŕ") that apply to a noun are uttered before the noun itself; another example of this would be his pen name, "Arana ta Goiri'taŕ Sabin". This Basque naming custom was used in nationalist literature, not in formal, official documents wherein the Castilian naming convention is observed. Catalan names. The Catalan-speaking territories also abide by the Spanish naming customs, yet usually the discrete surnames are joined with the word "i" ("and"), instead of the Spanish "y", and this practice is very common in formal contexts. For example, the former president of the Generalitat de Catalunya (Government of Catalonia) is formally called "El Molt Honorable Senyor Carles Puigdemont i Casamajó". Furthermore, the national language policy enumerated in article 19.1 of Law 1/1998 stipulates that "the citizens of Catalonia have the right to use the proper regulation of their Catalan names and surnames and to introduce the conjunction between surnames". The correction, translation, and surname-change are regulated by the "Registro Civil" (Civil Registry) with the Decree 138/2007 of 26 June, modifying the Decree 208/1998 of 30 July, which regulates the accreditation of the linguistic correctness of names. The attributes and functions of Decree 138/2007 of 26 July regulate the issuance of language-correction certificates for translated Catalan names, by the "Institut d'Estudis Catalans" (Institute of Catalan Studies) in Barcelona. Nevertheless, there are Catalan surnames that conform to neither the current spelling rules nor to the traditionally correct Catalan spelling rules; a language-correction certification can be requested from the institute, for names such as these: Catalan hypocoristics and nicknames. Many Catalan names are shortened to hypocoristic forms using only the final portion of the name (unlike Spanish, which mostly uses only the first portion of the name), and with a diminutive suffix ("-et, -eta/-ita"). Thus, shortened Catalan names taking the first portion of the name are probably influenced by the Spanish tradition. The influence of Spanish in hypocoristics is recent since it became a general fashion only in the twentieth century ; example Catalan names are: Galician names. The Galician-speaking areas also abide by the Spanish naming customs. Main differences are the usage of Galician given names and surnames. Galician surnames. Most Galician surnames have their origin in local toponymies, being these either Galician regions (Salnés < Salnés, Carnota, Bergantiños), towns (Ferrol, Noia), parishes or villages (as Andrade). Just like elsewhere, many surnames were also generated from jobs or professions (Carpinteiro 'carpenter', Cabaleiro 'Knight', Ferreiro 'Smith', Besteiro 'Crossbowman'), physical characteristics (Gago 'Twangy', Tato 'Stutterer', Couceiro 'Tall and thin', Bugallo 'fat', Pardo 'Swarthy'), or origin of the person (Franco and Francés 'French', Portugués 'Portuguese'). Although many Galician surnames have been historically adapted into Spanish phonetics and orthography, they are still clearly recognizable as Galician words: Freijedo, Spanish adaptation of "freixedo" 'place with ash-trees'; Seijo from "seixo" 'stone'; Doval from "do Val" 'of the Valley'; Rejenjo from "Reguengo", Galician evolution of local Latin-Germanic word "Regalingo" 'Royal property'. Specially relevant are the Galician surnames originated from medieval patronymics, present in local documentation since the 9th century, and popularized from the 12th century on. Although many of them have been historically adapted into Spanish orthography, phonetics and traditions, many are still characteristically Galician; most common ones are: Some of them (namely Páez, Méndez, Vázquez) are characteristically Galician due to the drop of intervocalic -l-, -d-, -g- and -n-, but the most present surnames in Galicia could also be of Spanish origin (although Lugo is the only province in Spain with a majority of people surnamed "López"). Galician given names and nicknames. Some common Galician names are: Nicknames are usually obtained from the end of a given name, or through derivation. Common suffixes include masculine -iño, -ito (as in "Sito", from "Luisito"), -echo ("Tonecho", from "Antonecho") and -uco ("Farruco", from "Francisco"); and feminine -iña, -ucha/uxa ("Maruxa", "Carmucha", from "Maria" and "Carme"), -uca ("Beluca", from "Isabeluca"), and -ela ("Mela", from "Carmela"). Ceuta and Melilla. As the provincial "Surname distribution" map (above) indicates, Mohamed is an often-occurring surname in the autonomous Mediterranean North African cities of Ceuta and Melilla (respectively registered 10,410 and 7,982 occurrences), Hispanophone Muslims use the Spanish "Mohamed" spelling for "Muhammad". As such, it is often a component of Arabic names for men; hence, many Ceutan and Melillan Muslims share surnames despite not sharing a common ancestry. Furthermore, "Mohamed" (Muhammad) is the most popular name for new-born boys, thus it is not unusual to encounter a man named "Mohamed Mohamed Mohamed": the first occurrence is the given name, the second occurrence is the paternal surname, and the third occurrence is the maternal surname. Indexing. In English, the Chicago Manual of Style recommends that Spanish and Hispanophone names be indexed by the family name. When there are two family names, the indexing is done under the father's family name; this would be the first element of the surname if the father's and mother's or husband's family names are joined by a "y". Depending upon the person involved, the particle "de" may be treated as a part of a family name or it may be separated from a family name. The indexing of Hispanophone names differs from that of Portuguese or Lusophone names, where the final element of the name is indexed because the Portuguese custom is for the father's surname to follow, rather than precede, the mother's. The effect is that the father's surname is the one indexed for both Spanish and Portuguese names.

second custom

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=188773

Mountain biking is a sport of riding bicycles off-road, often over rough terrain, usually using specially designed mountain bikes. Mountain bikes share similarities with other bikes but incorporate features designed to enhance durability and performance in rough terrain, such as air or coil-sprung shocks used as suspension, larger and wider wheels and tyres, stronger frame materials, and mechanically or hydraulically actuated disc brakes. Mountain biking can generally be broken down into five distinct categories: cross country, trail riding, all mountain (also referred to as "Enduro"), downhill, and freeride. This sport requires endurance, core strength and balance, bike handling skills, and self-reliance. Advanced riders pursue both steep technical descents and high incline climbs. In the case of freeride, downhill, and dirt jumping, aerial maneuvers are performed off both natural features and specially constructed jumps and ramps. Mountain bikers ride on off-road trails such as singletrack, back-country roads, wider bike park trails, fire roads, and some advanced trails are designed with jumps, berms, and drop-offs to add excitement to the trail. Riders with enduro and downhill bikes will often visit ski resorts that stay open in the summer to ride downhill-specific trails, using the ski lifts to return to the top with their bikes. Because riders are often far from civilization, there is a strong element of self-reliance in the sport. Riders learn to repair broken bikes and flat tires to avoid being stranded. Many riders carry a backpack, including water, food, tools for trailside repairs, and a first aid kit in case of injury. Group rides are common, especially on longer treks. Mountain bike orienteering adds the skill of map navigation to mountain biking. History. Late 1800s. One of the first examples of bicycles modified specifically for off-road use is the expedition of Buffalo Soldiers from Missoula, Montana, to Yellowstone in August 1896. 1900s–1960s. Bicycles were ridden off-road by road racing cyclists who used cyclocross as a means of keeping fit during the winter. Cyclo-cross eventually became a sport in its own right in the 1940s, with the first world championship taking place in 1950. The Rough Stuff Fellowship was established in 1955 by off-road cyclists in the United Kingdom. In Oregon, one Chemeketan club member, D. Gwynn, built a rough terrain trail bicycle in 1966. He named it a "mountain bicycle" for its intended place of use. This may be the first use of that name. In England in 1968, Geoff Apps, a motorbike trials rider, began experimenting with off-road bicycle designs. By 1979 he had developed a custom-built lightweight bicycle which was uniquely suited to the wet and muddy off-road conditions found in the south-east of England. They were designed around 2 inch x 650b Nokian snow tires though a 700x47c (28 in.) version was also produced. These were sold under the Cleland Cycles brand until late 1984. Bikes based on the Cleland design were also sold by English Cycles and Highpath Engineering until the early 1990s. 1970s–1980s. There were several groups of riders in different areas of the U.S.A. who can make valid claims to playing a part in the birth of the sport. Riders in Crested Butte, Colorado, and Cupertino, California, tinkered with bikes and adapted them to the rigors of off-road riding. Modified heavy cruiser bicycles, old 1930s and '40s Schwinn bicycles retrofitted with better brakes and fat tires, were used for freewheeling down mountain trails in Marin County, California, in the mid-to-late 1970s. At the time, there were no mountain bikes. The earliest ancestors of modern mountain bikes were based around frames from cruiser bicycles such as those made by Schwinn. The Schwinn Excelsior was the frame of choice due to its geometry. Riders used balloon-tired cruisers and modified them with gears and motocross or BMX-style handlebars, creating "klunkers". The term would also be used as a verb since the term "mountain biking" was not yet in use. Riders would race down mountain fireroads, causing the hub brake to burn the grease inside, requiring the riders to repack the bearings. These were called "Repack Races" and triggered the first innovations in mountain bike technology as well as the initial interest of the public (on Mt. Tamalpais in Marin CA, there is still a trail titled "Repack"—in reference to these early competitions). The sport originated in California on Marin County's Mount Tamalpais. It was not until the late 1970s and early 1980s that road bicycle companies started to manufacture mountain bicycles using high-tech lightweight materials. Joe Breeze is normally credited with introducing the first purpose-built mountain bike in 1978. Tom Ritchey then went on to make frames for a company called MountainBikes, a partnership between Gary Fisher, Charlie Kelly, John Frey (Marin County mountain biking innovator) and Tom Ritchey. Tom Ritchey, a welder with skills in frame building, also built the original bikes. The company's three partners eventually dissolved their partnership, and the company became Fisher Mountain Bikes, while Tom Ritchey started his own frame shop. The first mountain bikes were basically road bicycle frames (with heavier tubing and different geometry) with a wider frame and fork to allow for a wider tire. The handlebars were also different in that they were a straight, transverse-mounted handlebar, rather than the dropped, curved handlebars that are typically installed on road racing bicycles. Also, some of the parts on early production mountain bicycles were taken from the BMX bicycle. Other contributors were Otis Guy and Keith Bontrager. Tom Ritchey built the first regularly available mountain bike frame, which was accessorized by Gary Fisher and Charlie Kelly and sold by their company called MountainBikes (later changed to Fisher Mountain Bikes, then bought by Trek, still under the name Gary Fisher, currently sold as Trek's "Gary Fisher Collection"). The first two mass-produced mountain bikes were sold in the early 1980s: the Specialized Stumpjumper and Univega Alpina Pro. In 1988, "The Great Mountain Biking Video" was released, soon followed by others. In 2007, "" was released, documenting mountain bike history during the formative period in Northern California. Additionally, a group of mountain bikers called the Laguna Rads formed a club during the mid eighties and began a weekly ride, exploring the uncharted coastal hillsides of Laguna Beach, California. Industry insiders suggest that this was the birth of the freeride movement, as they were cycling up and down hills and mountains where no cycling specific trail network prexisted. The Laguna Rads have also held the longest running dowhill race once a year since 1986. At the time, the bicycle industry was not impressed with the mountain bike, regarding mountain biking to be short-term fad. In particular, large manufacturers such as Schwinn and Fuji failed to see the significance of an all-terrain bicycle and the coming boom in 'adventure sports'. Instead, the first mass-produced mountain bikes were pioneered by new companies such as MountainBikes (later, Fisher Mountain Bikes), Ritchey, and Specialized. Specialized was an American startup company that arranged for production of mountain bike frames from factories in Japan and Taiwan. First marketed in 1981, Specialized's mountain bike largely followed Tom Ritchey's frame geometry, but used TiG welding to join the frame tubes instead of fillet-brazing, a process better suited to mass production, and which helped to reduce labor and manufacturing cost. The bikes were configured with 15 gears using derailleurs, a triple chainring, and a cogset with five sprockets. 1990s–2000s. Throughout the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, mountain biking moved from a little-known sport to a mainstream activity. Mountain bikes and mountain bike gear, once only available at specialty shops or via mail order, became available at standard bike stores. By the mid-first decade of the 21st century, even some department stores began selling inexpensive mountain bikes with full-suspension and disc brakes. In the first decade of the 21st century, trends in mountain bikes included the "all-mountain bike", the 29er and the one by drivetrain (though the first mass produced 1x drivetrain was Sram's XX1 in 2012). "All-mountain bikes" were designed to descend and handle well in rough conditions, while still pedalling efficiently for climbing, and were intended to bridge the gap between cross-country bikes and those built specifically for downhill riding. They are characterized by of fork travel. 29er bikes are those using 700c sized rims (as do most road bikes), but wider and suited for tires of two inches (50mm) width or more; the increased diameter wheel is able to roll over obstacles better and offers a greater tire contact patch, but also results in a longer wheelbase, making the bike less agile, and in less travel space for the suspension. The single-speed is considered a return to simplicity with no drivetrain components or shifters but thus requires a stronger rider. Following the growing trend in 29-inch wheels, there have been other trends in the mountain biking community involving tire size. One of the more prevalent is the new, somewhat esoteric and exotic 650B (27.5 inch) wheelsize, based on the obscure wheel size for touring road bikes. Some riders prefer to have a larger wheel in the front than on the rear, such as on a motorcycle, to increase maneuverability. Another interesting trend in mountain bikes is outfitting dirt jump or urban bikes with rigid forks. These bikes normally use 4–5" travel suspension forks. The resulting product is used for the same purposes as the original bike. A commonly cited reason for making the change to a rigid fork is the enhancement of the rider's ability to transmit force to the ground, which is important for performing tricks. In the mid-first decade of the 21st century, an increasing number of mountain bike-oriented resorts opened. Often, they are similar to or in the same complex as a ski resort or they retrofit the concrete steps and platforms of an abandoned factory as an obstacle course, as with Ray's MTB Indoor Park. Mountain bike parks which are operated as summer season activities at ski hills usually include chairlifts that are adapted to bikes, a number of trails of varying difficulty, and bicycle rental facilities. In 2020, due to COVID-19, mountain bikes saw a surge in popularity in the USA, with some vendors reporting that they were sold out of bikes under $1000 USD. Equipment. Protective gear. The level of protection worn by individual riders varies greatly and is affected by speed, trail conditions, the weather, and numerous other factors, including personal choice. Protection becomes more important where these factors may be considered to increase the possibility or severity of a crash. A helmet and gloves are usually regarded as sufficient for the majority of non-technical riding. Full-face helmets, goggles and armored suits or jackets are frequently used in downhill mountain biking, where the extra bulk and weight may help mitigate the risks of bigger and more frequent crashes. Protective gear cannot provide immunity against injuries. For example, concussions can still occur despite the use of helmets, and spinal injuries can still occur with the use of spinal padding and neck braces. The use of high-tech protective gear can result in a revenge effect, whereupon some cyclists feel safe taking dangerous risks. Because the key determinant of injury risk is kinetic energy, and because kinetic energy increases with the square of the speed, effectively each doubling of speed can quadruple the injury risk. Higher speeds of travel also add danger due to reaction time. Because higher speeds mean that the rider travels further during his/her reaction time, this leaves less travel distance within which to react safely. This, in turn, further multiplies the risk of an injurious crash. While protective gear cannot always stop the injuries from occurring investing in such things could help bicyclists to protect themselves. It is believed that a bike helmet should be replaced every five years, or sooner if it is damaged. If the helmet has been involved in an accident, replace it, even if it does not appear to be damaged in that way you will be able to protect yourself. Categories. Cross-country cycling. Cross-Country (XC) generally means riding point-to-point or in a loop including climbs and descents on a variety of terrain. A typical XC bike weighs around 9-13 kilos (20-30 lbs), and has of suspension travel front and sometimes rear. Cross country mountain biking focuses on physical strength and endurance more than the other forms, which require greater technical skill. Cross country mountain biking is the only mountain biking discipline in the Summer Olympic Games. All-mountain/Enduro. All-mountain/Enduro bikes tend to have moderate-travel suspension systems and components which are stronger than XC models, typically 160-180mm of travel on a full suspension frame, but at a weight that is suitable for both climbing and descending. Enduro racing includes elements of DH racing, but Enduro races are much longer, sometimes taking a full day to complete, and incorporate climbing sections to connect the timed downhill descents (often referred to as stages). Typically, there is a maximum time limit for how long a rider takes to reach the top of each climb. Historically, many long-distance XC races would use the descriptor "enduro" in their race names to indicate their endurance aspect. Some long-standing race events have maintained this custom, sometimes leading to confusion with the modern Enduro format, that has been adopted to the Enduro World Series. Enduro racing was commonly seen as a race for all abilities. While there are many recreational riders that do compete in Enduro races, the sport is increasingly attracting high-level riders such as Sam Hill or Isabeau Courdurier. Downhill. Downhill (DH) is, in the most general sense, riding mountain bikes downhill. Courses include large jumps (up to and including ), drops of 3+ meters (10+ feet), and are generally rough and steep from top to bottom. The rider commonly travels to the point of descent by other means than cycling, such as a ski lift or automobile, as the weight of the downhill mountain bike often precludes any serious climbing. Downhill racers must possess a unique combination of total body strength, aerobic and anaerobic fitness, mental control, as well as the acceptance of a relatively high risk of incurring serious injury. Because of their extremely steep terrain (often located in summer at ski resorts), downhill is one of the most extreme and dangerous cycling disciplines. Minimum body protection in a true downhill setting entails wearing knee pads and a full-face helmet with goggles, albeit riders and racers commonly wear full-body suits that include padding at various locations. Downhill-specific bikes are universally equipped with front and rear suspension, large disc brakes, and use heavier frame tubing than other mountain bikes. Downhill bicycles now weigh around , while the most expensive professional downhill mountain bikes can weigh as little as , fully equipped with custom carbon fiber parts, air suspension, tubeless tires and more. Downhill frames have anywhere from of travel and are usually equipped with a travel dual-crown fork. Four-cross/Dual Slalom. Four-cross/Dual Slalom (4X) is a discipline in which riders compete either on separate tracks, as in Dual Slalom, or on a short slalom track, as in 4X. Most bikes used are light hard-tails, although the last World Cup was actually won on a full-suspension bike. The tracks have dirt jumps, berms, and gaps. Professionals in "" tend to concentrate either on downhill mountain biking or 4X/dual slalom because they are very different. However, some riders, such as Cedric Gracia, used to compete in both 4X and DH, although that is becoming more rare as 4X takes on its own identity. Freeride. Freeride / Big Hit / Hucking, as the name suggests, is a 'do anything' discipline that encompasses everything from downhill racing without the clock to jumping, riding 'North Shore' style (elevated trails made of interconnecting bridges and logs), and generally riding trails and/or stunts that require more skill and aggressive techniques than XC. "Slopestyle" type riding is an increasingly popular genre that combines big-air, stunt-ridden freeride with BMX style tricks. Slopestyle courses are usually constructed at already established mountain bike parks and include jumps, large drops, quarter-pipes, and other wooden obstacles. There are always multiple lines through a course and riders compete for judges' points by choosing lines that highlight their particular skills. A "typical" freeride bike is hard to define, but typical specifications are 13-18 kilos (30-40 lbs) with of suspension front and rear. Freeride bikes are generally heavier and more amply suspended than their XC counterparts, but usually, retain much of their climbing ability. It is up to the rider to build his or her bike to lean more toward a preferred level of aggressiveness. Dirt Jumping. Dirt Jumping (DJ) is the practice of riding bikes over shaped mounds of dirt or soil and becoming airborne. The goal is that after riding over the 'lip' the rider will become airborne, and aim to land on the 'knuckle'. Dirt jumping can be done on almost any bicycle, but the bikes chosen are generally smaller and more maneuverable hardtails so that tricks such as backflips, whips, and tabletops, are easier to complete. The bikes are simpler so that when a crash occurs there are fewer components to break or cause the rider injury. Bikes are typically built from sturdier materials such as steel to handle repeated heavy impacts of crashes and bails. Trials. Trials riding consists of hopping and jumping bikes over obstacles, without touching a foot onto the ground. It can be performed either off-road or in an urban environment. This requires an excellent sense of balance. The emphasis is placed on techniques of effectively overcoming the obstacles, although street-trials (as opposed to competition-oriented trials) is much like Street and DJ, where doing tricks with style is the essence. Trials bikes look almost nothing like mountain bikes. They use either 20", 24" or 26" wheels and have very small, low frames, some types without a saddle. Urban/Street. Urban/Street is essentially the same as urban BMX (or Freestyle BMX), in which riders perform tricks by riding on/over man-made objects. The bikes are the same as those used for Dirt Jumping, having 24" or 26" wheels. Also, they are very light, many in the range of , and are typically hardtails with between 0-100 millimeters of the front suspension. As with Dirt Jumping and Trials, style and execution are emphasized. Trail riding. Trail riding or trail biking is a varied and popular non-competitive form of mountain biking on recognized, and often waymarked and graded, trails; unpaved tracks, forest paths, etc. Trails may take the form of single routes or part of a larger complex, known as trail centres. Trail difficulty typically varies from gentle 'family' trails (green) through routes with increasingly technical features (blue and red) to those requiring high levels of fitness and skill (black) incorporating demanding ascents with steep technical descents comparable to less extreme downhill routes. As difficulty increases trails incorporate more Technical Trail Features such as berms, rock gardens, uneven surface, drop offs and jumps. The most basic of bike designs can be used for less severe trails, but there are "trail bike" designs which balance climbing ability with good downhill performance, almost always having 120-150mm of travel on a suspension fork, with either a hard tail or a similar travel rear suspension. Many more technical trails are also used as routes for cross country, enduro, and even downhill racing. Marathon. Mountain Bike Touring or Marathon is long-distance touring on dirt roads and single track with a mountain bike. With the popularity of the Great Divide Trail, the Colorado Trail and other long-distance off-road biking trails, specially outfitted mountain bikes are increasingly being used for touring. Bike manufacturers like Salsa have even developed MTB touring bikes like the Fargo model. Mixed Terrain Cycle-Touring or rough riding is a form of mountain-bike touring but involves cycling over a variety of surfaces and topography on a single route, with a single bicycle that is expected to be satisfactory for all segments. The recent surge in popularity of mixed-terrain touring is in part a reaction against the increasing specialization of the bicycle industry. Mixed-terrain bicycle travel has a storied history of focusing on efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and freedom of travel over varied surfaces. Bikepacking. Bikepacking is a self-supported style of lightly-loaded single or multiple night mountain biking. Bikepacking is similar to bike touring, however the two sports generally use different bikes and the main difference is the method of carrying gear. Bikepacking generally involves carrying less gear and using smaller frame bags while bike touring will use panniers. A typical bikepacking set-up includes a frame bag, handlebar roll, seat pack, and backpack and typical gear includes lightweight and basic camping gear, and a bike repair kit. Mountain bikes are generally used as many bike packing destinations are reached via forest-service roads or singletrack trails. Mountain bikes specific to bike-packing use a slightly taller frame to get the maximum frame bag capacity. This is achieved by using a longer headtube, a more horizontal top tube, and a reduced stem degree. Generally, bikepackers tend to cover anywhere from 25 to 75 miles (40 – 120 km) in a given day as the riding can be technical. Risks. Injuries are a given factor when mountain biking, especially in the more extreme disciplines like downhill biking, free ride and dirt jumping. Injuries range from minor wounds, such as cuts and abrasions from falls on gravel or other surfaces, to major injuries such as broken bones, head or spinal injuries resulting from impacts with rocks, trees or the terrain being ridden on. Another risk factor is that mountain biking takes places in wilderness area so emergency response will be delayed in case of injury. Protective equipment can protect against minor injuries and reduce the extent or seriousness of major impacts, but may not protect a rider from major impacts or accidents. To reduce the risk of injury, a rider will also take steps to minimize the risk of accidents, and thus the potential for injury; by choosing trails which fall within the range of their experience level, ensuring that they are fit enough to deal with the trail they have chosen, and keeping their bike in top mechanical condition. Lastly, maintenance of the rider's bike is carried out more frequently for mountain biking than for utility cycling or casual commuter biking. Mountain biking places higher demands on every part of the bike. Jumps and impacts can crack the frame or damage components or the tire rims, and steep, fast descents can quickly wear out brake pads. Since the widespread adoption of hydraulic and mechanical disk brakes on most mountain bikes from the late 1990s, the issues of brake pad wear, misalignment with, or slippage of rim brake pads on rims designed for rim brakes or "V brakes", has become a non-issue. Thus, whereas a casual rider may only check over and maintain their bike every few months, a mountain biker will check and properly maintain the bike before and after every ride. Advocacy organizations. Mountain bikers have faced land access issues from the beginnings of the sport. Some areas where the first mountain bikers have ridden have faced extreme restrictions or elimination of riding. This opposition has led to the development of local, regional, and international mountain bike groups. The different groups that formed generally work to create new trails, maintain existing trails, and help existing trails that may have issues. Groups work with private and public entities from the individual landowner to city parks departments, on up through the state level at the DNR, and into the federal level. Different groups will work individually or together to achieve results. Advocacy organizations work through numerous methods such as education, trail workdays, and trail patrols. Examples of the education an advocacy group can provide include: Educate local bicycle riders, property managers, and other user groups on the proper development of trails, and on the International Mountain Bicycling Association's (IMBA), "Rules of the Trail." Examples of trail work days can include: Flagging, cutting, and signing a new trail, or removing downed trees after a storm. A trail patrol is a bike rider who has had some training to help assist others (including non-cyclists), trail users. The IMBA is a non-profit advocacy group whose mission is to create, enhance and preserve trail opportunities for mountain bikers worldwide. IMBA serves as an umbrella organization for mountain biking advocacy worldwide and represents more than 700 affiliated mountain biking groups. The group was originally formed to fight widespread trail closures. In 1988, five California mountain bike clubs linked to form IMBA. The founding clubs were: Concerned Off-Road Bicyclists Association, Bicycle Trails Council East Bay, Bicycle Trails Council Marin, Sacramento Rough Riders, and Responsible Organized Mountain. Environmental impact. According to a review published by the International Mountain Bicycling Association, the environmental impact of mountain biking, as a relatively new sport, is poorly understood. The review notes that "as with all recreational pursuits, it is clear that mountain biking contributes some degree of environmental degradation". Mountain biking can result in both soil and vegetation damage, which can be caused by skidding, but also by the construction of unauthorised features such as jumps and bridges, and trails themselves. Several studies have reported that a mountain bike's impact on a given length of trail surface is comparable to that of a hiker, and substantially less than that of an equestrian or motorized off-road vehicle. A critical literature review by Jason Lathrop on the ecological impact of mountain biking notes that while recreational trail use in general is well studied, few studies explore the specific impact of mountain biking. He quotes the Bureau of Land Management: "An estimated 13.5 million mountain bicyclists visit public lands each year to enjoy the variety of trails. What was once a low use activity that was easy to manage has become more complex". The environmental impacts of mountain biking can be greatly reduced by not riding on wet or sensitive trails, keeping speeds modest so as to minimize cornering forces and braking forces, not skidding, and by staying on the trail. Mountain biking has been demonstrated to act as a human-mediated form of seed dispersal. Due to advancements in technology mountain bikers have begun to move onto trail networks once only accessible by hikers. The nature of their movement patterns also plays an important role as a vector for seed dispersal. Mountain bikes are not bound to any specific type of infrastructure and can therefore move freely between ecological environments acting as a connecting dispersal vector between habitats. Combined with their relatively long range and speeds they also contribute to long-range dispersal. In an effort to understand and assess the socio-ecological consequences of mountain bikes as a vector for seed dispersal Fabio Weiss, Tyler J. Brummer, and Gesine Pufal conducted an environmental impact study on forest trails in Freiburg, Germany. The results of the study found that although the majority of seeds detached from tires within the first 5–20 meters; small portions of seeds were still present after 200–500 meters contributing to moderate dispersal. The potential for long-distance dispersal was found through the transport of seeds on areas of the bike that did not come into frequent contact with the ground. The study also found that the majority of participants only cleaned their bikes on average every 70 km or every two rides. Rides executed in two different areas have the potential to connect previously unconnected habitats creating the potential for unwanted plant invasions.<br> <br> To mitigate the accidental dispersal of an unwanted invasive species, the authors of the study proposed the following measures to support conservation: a) Clean the bike between rides in different habitats, before traveling and especially before entering sensitive natural areas and regions.<br> b) Control weeds and non-native species at trailheads and trail margins.<br> c) Educate mountain bike riders about the potential dispersal of different species (good stewardship begets riding privileges).<br> d) Encourage cooperation between mountain bikers and managing authorities (avoid condescending regulations, establishment of monitored designated riding areas).<br>

body of people working to advance change

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65832208

Pre-IPO, pre-initial public offering is a late-stage for a private company to raise funds in advance of its listing on a public exchange. Growing popularity. Before the dot-com bubble private firms enjoyed the largest capital flows with initial public offering. But in recent years, more and more startups succeed in getting sufficient funding, and as a result, their valuation grows before IPO. This is confirmed by a significant jump in the number of “unicorns,” privately held startup companies valued at over $1 billion. At the same time, companies take a longer time to stay private: in the United States, the number of publicly listed companies dropped by 52% in 2016 as compared to 1996. Advantages over IPO. By raising more funds, a private company get an opportunity to mature and better prepare for an IPO. At the pre-IPO stage investors invest in private firms several months or years prior to their listing: they "freeze" their investments for a longer period of time in the hope of receiving quality assets. An investor exits a pre-IPO deal after the company becomes public or is sold to a strategic investor. Higher risks that come with such deals mean that pre-IPO shares are cheaper than IPO shares. At the same time, it is difficult to objectively estimate the value of shares at the pre-IPO stage because a privately held company, unlike a public one, doesn't disclose financial statements. Another advantage is to offset the risk of loss as compared to the more recent funding stages. However, there is a risk that the company will postpone IPO for a longer period or cancel it altogether. Disadvantages over IPO. There are major risks and disadvantages to Pre IPO investing that needs to be understood. Most importantly, companies have no obligation to provide investors with any financial or fitness information about the company. In many cases, in a secondary transaction investors will get no information meaning no financials, no pitch deck, no business plan. Public markets are the opposite, companies must procure quarterly financial reports which are audited. Since public companies have public information, in depth third party analysis is common. This transparency and open dialogue doesn't exist in private markets. Also, there is not an exchange for private shares, so if you want to sell your investment there is no guarantee you can find a buyer at any price. Pre-IPO market emergence. For a long time pre-IPO was accessible only to major investors, venture funds and other specialized financial organizations. In recent years, the stock market of private companies at pre-IPO has become much more liquid. Brokers of private shares quickly emerged in the U.S.: The Nasdaq Private Market, SharesPost Inc., Forge Global and others. In autumn 2020, JPMorgan announced that the investment bank was launching a new team focused on trading pre-IPO stocks exclusively Manhattan Venture Partners has built their firm by focusing on a handful of high conviction “firm mandated transactions” instead of crossing orders across a large number of companies. Specialist broker-dealers have entered the market with a focus on the Pre IPO market.

biggest fiscal

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7118482

Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses of individuals or groups of domestic dogs to internal and external stimuli. It has been shaped by millennia of contact with humans and their lifestyles. As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs, more than any other species, have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans, and they are uniquely attuned in these fellow mammals. Behavioral scientists have uncovered a wide range of social-cognitive abilities in the domestic dog. Co-evolution with humans. The origin of the domestic dog ("Canis lupus familiaris" or "Canis familiaris") is not clear. Whole-genome sequencing indicates that the dog, the gray wolf and the extinct Taymyr wolf diverged around the same time 27,000–40,000 years ago. How dogs became domesticated is not clear, however the two main hypotheses are self-domestication or human domestication. There exists evidence of human-canine behavioral coevolution. Intelligence. Dog intelligence is the ability of the dog to perceive information and retain it as knowledge in order to solve problems. Dogs have been shown to learn by inference. A study with Rico showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel items by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those novel items immediately. He also retained this ability four weeks after the initial exposure. Dogs have advanced memory skills. A study documented the learning and memory capabilities of a border collie, "Chaser", who had learned the names and could associate by verbal command over 1,000 words. Dogs are able to read and react appropriately to human body language such as gesturing and pointing, and to understand human voice commands. After undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs that are faced with an insolvable version of the same problem look at the human, while socialized wolves do not. Dogs demonstrate a theory of mind by engaging in deception. Senses. The dog's senses include vision, hearing, sense of smell, taste, touch, proprioception, and sensitivity to the earth's magnetic field. Communication behavior. Dog communication is about how dogs "speak" to each other, how they understand messages that humans send to them, and how humans can translate the ideas that dogs are trying to transmit. These communication behaviors include eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs) and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones and taste). Humans communicate with dogs by using vocalization, hand signals, and body posture. Dogs can also learn to understand communication of emotions with humans by reading human facial expressions. Social behavior. Two studies have indicated that dog behavior varied with their size, body weight and skull size. Play. Dog-dog. Play between dogs usually involves several behaviors that are often seen in aggressive encounters, for example, nipping, biting and growling. It is therefore important for the dogs to place these behaviors in the context of play, rather than aggression. Dogs signal their intent to play with a range of behaviors including a "play-bow", "face-paw," "open-mouthed play face" and postures inviting the other dog to chase the initiator. Similar signals are given throughout the play to maintain the context of the potentially aggressive activities. From a young age, dogs engage in play with one another. Dog play is made up primarily of mock fights. It is believed that this behavior, which is most common in puppies, is training for important behaviors later in life. Play between puppies is not necessarily a 50:50 symmetry of dominant and submissive roles between the individuals; dogs who engage in greater rates of dominant behaviors (e.g. chasing, forcing partners down) at later ages also initiate play at higher rates. This could imply that winning during play becomes more important as puppies mature. Emotional contagion is linked to facial mimicry in humans and primates. Facial mimicry is an automatic response that occurs in less than 1 second in which one person involuntary mimics another person's facial expressions, forming empathy. It has also been found in dogs at play, and play sessions lasted longer when there were facial mimicry signals from one dog to another. Dog-human. The motivation for a dog to play with another dog is distinct from that of a dog playing with a human. Dogs walked together with opportunities to play with one another, play with their owners with the same frequency as dogs being walked alone. Dogs in households with two or more dogs play more often with their owners than dogs in households with a single dog, indicating the motivation to play with other dogs does not substitute for the motivation to play with humans. It is a common misconception that winning and losing games such as "tug-of-war" and "rough-and-tumble" can influence a dog's dominance relationship with humans. Rather, the way in which dogs play indicates their temperament and relationship with their owner. Dogs that play rough-and-tumble are more amenable and show lower separation anxiety than dogs which play other types of games, and dogs playing tug-of-war and "fetch" are more confident. Dogs which start the majority of games are less amenable and more likely to be aggressive. Playing with humans can affect the cortisol levels of dogs. In one study, the cortisol responses of police dogs and border guard dogs was assessed after playing with their handlers. The cortisol concentrations of the police dogs increased, whereas the border guard dogs' hormone levels decreased. The researchers noted that during the play sessions, police officers were disciplining their dogs, whereas the border guards were truly playing with them, i.e. this included bonding and affectionate behaviors. They commented that several studies have shown that behaviors associated with control, authority or aggression increase cortisol, whereas play and affiliation behavior decrease cortisol levels. Empathy. In 2012, a study found that dogs oriented toward their owner or a stranger more often when the person was pretending to cry than when they were talking or humming. When the stranger pretended to cry, rather than approaching their usual source of comfort, their owner, dogs sniffed, nuzzled and licked the stranger instead. The dogs' pattern of response was behaviorally consistent with an expression of empathic concern. A study found a third of dogs suffered from anxiety when separated from others. Personalities. The term personality has been applied to human research, whereas the term temperament has been mostly used for animal research. However, both terms have been used interchangeably in the literature, or purely to distinguish humans from animals and avoid anthropomorphism. Personality can be defined as “a set of behaviors that are consistent over context and time”. Studies of dogs' personalities have tried to identify the presence of broad personality traits that are stable and consistent over time. There are different approaches to assess dog personality: Several potential personality traits have been identified in dogs, for instance "Playfulness", "Curiosity/Fearlessness, "Chase-proneness", "Sociability and Aggressiveness" and "Shyness–Boldness". A meta-analysis of 51 published peer reviewed articles identified seven dimensions of canine personality: Dog breed plays an important role in the dog's personality dimensions, while the effects of age and sex have not been clearly determined. The personality models can be used for a range of tasks, including guide and working dog selection, finding appropriate families to re-home shelter dogs, or selecting breeding stock. Leadership, dominance and social groups. Dominance is a descriptive term for the relationship between pairs of individuals. Among ethologists, dominance has been defined as "an attribute of the pattern of repeated, antagonistic interactions between two individuals, characterized by a consistent outcome in favor of the same dyad member and a default yielding response of its opponent rather than escalation. The status of the consistent winner is dominant and that of the loser subordinate." Another definition is that a dominant animal has "priority of access to resources". Dominance is a relative attribute, not absolute; there is no reason to assume that a high-ranking individual in one group would also become high ranking if moved to another. Nor is there any good evidence that "dominance" is a lifelong character trait. Competitive behavior characterized by confident (e.g. growl, inhibited bite, stand over, stare at, chase, bark at) and submissive (e.g. crouch, avoid, displacement lick/yawn, run away) patterns exchanged. One test to ascertain in which group the dominant dog was used the following criteria: When a stranger comes to the house, which dog starts to bark first or if they start to bark together, which dog barks more or longer? Which dog licks more often the other dog's mouth? If the dogs get food at the same time and at the same spot, which dog starts to eat first or eats the other dog's food? If the dogs start to fight, which dog usually wins? Domestic dogs appear to pay little attention to relative size, despite the large weight differences between the largest and smallest individuals; for example, size was not a predictor of the outcome of encounters between dogs meeting while being exercised by their owners nor was size correlated with neutered male dogs. Therefore, many dogs do not appear to pay much attention to the actual fighting ability of their opponent, presumably allowing differences in motivation (how much the dog values the resource) and perceived motivation (what the behavior of the other dog signifies about the likelihood that it will escalate) to play a much greater role. Two dogs that are contesting possession of a highly valued resource for the first time, if one is in a state of emotional arousal, in pain; if reactivity is influenced by recent endocrine changes, or motivational states such as hunger, then the outcome of the interaction may be different than if none of these factors were present. Equally, the threshold at which aggression is shown may be influenced by a range of medical factors, or, in some cases, precipitated entirely by pathological disorders. Hence, the contextual and physiological factors present when two dogs first encounter each other may profoundly influence the long-term nature of the relationship between those dogs. The complexity of the factors involved in this type of learning means that dogs may develop different "expectations" about the likely response of another individual for each resource in a range of different situations. Puppies learn early not to challenge an older dog and this respect stays with them into adulthood. When adult animals meet for the first time, they have no expectations of the behavior of the other: they will both, therefore, be initially anxious and vigilant in this encounter (characterized by the tense body posture and sudden movements typically seen when two dogs first meet), until they start to be able to predict the responses of the other individual. The outcome of these early adult–adult interactions will be influenced by the specific factors present at the time of the initial encounters. As well as contextual and physiological factors, the previous experiences of each member of the dyad of other dogs will also influence their behavior. Scent. Dogs have an olfactory sense 40 times more sensitive than a human's and they commence their lives operating almost exclusively on smell and touch. The special scents that dogs use for communication are called pheromones. Different hormones are secreted when a dog is angry, fearful or confident, and some chemical signatures identify the sex and age of the dog, and if a female is in the estrus cycle, pregnant or recently given birth. Many of the pheromone chemicals can be found dissolved in a dog's urine, and sniffing where another dog has urinated gives the dog a great deal of information about that dog. Male dogs prefer to mark vertical surfaces and having the scent higher allows the air to carry it farther. The height of the marking tells other dogs about the size of the dog, as among canines size is an important factor in dominance. Dogs (and wolves) mark their territories with urine and their stools. The anal gland of canines give a particular signature to fecal deposits and identifies the marker as well as the place where the dung is left. Dogs are very particular about these landmarks, and engage in what is to humans a meaningless and complex ritual before defecating. Most dogs start with a careful bout of sniffing of a location, perhaps to erect an exact line or boundary between their territory and another dog's territory. This behavior may also involve a small degree of elevation, such as a rock or fallen branch, to aid scent dispersal. Scratching the ground after defecating is a visual sign pointing to the scent marking. The freshness of the scent gives visitors some idea of the current status of a piece of territory and if it is used frequently. Regions under dispute, or used by different animals at different times, may lead to marking battles with every scent marked-over by a new competitor. Feral dogs. Feral dogs are those dogs living in a wild state with no food and shelter intentionally provided by humans, and showing a continuous and strong avoidance of direct human contacts. In the developing world pet dogs are uncommon, but feral, village or community dogs are plentiful around humans. The distinction between feral, stray, and free ranging dogs is sometimes a matter of degree, and a dog may shift its status throughout its life. In some unlikely but observed cases, a feral dog that was not born wild but living with a feral group can become behavior-modified to a domestic dog with an owner. A dog can become a stray when it escapes human control, by abandonment or being born to a stray mother. A stray dog can become feral when forced out of the human environment or when co-opted or socially accepted by a nearby feral group. Feralization occurs through the development of the human avoidance response. Feral dogs are not reproductively self-sustaining, suffer from high rates of juvenile mortality, and depend indirectly on humans for their food, their space, and the supply of co-optable individuals. "See further:" behavior compared to other canids. Other behavior. Dogs have a general behavioral trait of strongly preferring novelty ("neophillia") compared to familiarity. The average sleep time of a dog in captivity in a 24-hour period is 10.1 hours. Reproduction behavior. Estrous cycle and mating. Although puppies do not have the urge to procreate, males sometimes engage in sexual play in the form of mounting. In some puppies, this behavior occurs as early as 3 or 4 weeks-of-age. Dogs reach sexual maturity and can reproduce during their first year, in contrast to wolves at two years-of-age. Female dogs have their first estrus ("heat") at 6 to 12 months-of-age; smaller dogs tend to come into heat earlier whereas larger dogs take longer to mature. Female dogs have an estrous cycle that is nonseasonal and monestrus, i.e. there is only one estrus per estrous cycle. The interval between one estrus and another is, on average, seven months, however, this may range between 4 and 12 months. This interestrous period is not influenced by the photoperiod or pregnancy. The average duration of estrus is 9 days with spontaneous ovulation usually about 3 days after the onset of estrus. For several days before estrus, a phase called proestrus, the female dog may show greater interest in male dogs and "flirt" with them (proceptive behavior). There is progressive vulval swelling and some bleeding. If males try to mount a female dog during proestrus, she may avoid mating by sitting down or turning round and growling or snapping. Estrous behavior in the female dog is usually indicated by her standing still with the tail held up, or to the side of the perineum, when the male sniffs the vulva and attempts to mount. This tail position is sometimes called “flagging”. The female dog may also turn, presenting the vulva to the male. The male dog mounts the female and is able to achieve intromission with a non-erect penis, which contains a bone called the "os penis". The dog's penis enlarges inside the vagina, thereby preventing its withdrawal; this is sometimes known as the "tie" or "copulatory lock". The male dog rapidly thrust into the female for 1–2 minutes then dismounts with the erect penis still inside the vagina, and turns to stand rear-end to rear-end with the female dog for up to 30 to 40 minutes; the penis is twisted 180 degrees in a lateral plane. During this time, prostatic fluid is ejaculated. The female dog can bear another litter within 8 months of the previous one. Dogs are polygamous in contrast to wolves that are generally monogamous. Therefore, dogs have no pair bonding and the protection of a single mate, but rather have multiple mates in a year. The consequence is that wolves put a lot of energy into producing a few pups in contrast to dogs that maximize the production of pups. This higher pup production rate enables dogs to maintain or even increase their population with a lower pup survival rate than wolves, and allows dogs a greater capacity than wolves to grow their population after a population crash or when entering a new habitat. It is proposed that these differences are an alternative breeding strategy, one adapted to a life of scavenging instead of hunting. Parenting and early life. All of the wild members of the genus "Canis" display complex coordinated parental behaviors. Wolf pups are cared for primarily by their mother for the first 3 months of their life when she remains in the den with them while they rely on her milk for sustenance and her presence for protection. The father brings her food. Once they leave the den and can chew, the parents and pups from previous years regurgitate food for them. Wolf pups become independent by 5 to 8 months, although they often stay with their parents for years. In contrast, dog pups are cared for by the mother and rely on her for milk and protection but she gets no help from the father nor other dogs. Once pups are weaned around 10 weeks they are independent and receive no further maternal care. Behavior problems. There are many different types of behavioural issues that a dog can exhibit, including growling, snapping, barking, and invading a human's personal space. A survey of 203 dog owners in Melbourne, Australia, found that the main behaviour problems reported by owners were overexcitement (63%) and jumping up on people (56%). Some problems are related to attachment while others are neurological, as seen below. Separation anxiety. When dogs are separated from humans, usually the owner, they often display behaviors which can be broken into the following four categories: exploratory behaviour, object play, destructive behaviour, and vocalization, and they are related to the canine's level of arousal. These behaviours may manifest as destructiveness, fecal or urinary elimination, hypersalivation or vocalization among other things. Dogs from single-owner homes are approximately 2.5 times more likely to have separation anxiety compared to dogs from multiple-owner homes. Furthermore, sexually intact dogs are only one third as likely to have separation anxiety as neutered dogs. The sex of dogs and whether there is another pet in the home do not have an effect on separation anxiety. It has been estimated that at least 14% of dogs examined at typical veterinary practices in the United States have shown signs of separation anxiety. Dogs that have been diagnosed with profound separation anxiety can be left alone for no more than minutes before they begin to panic and exhibit the behaviors associated with separation anxiety. Separation problems have been found to be linked to the dog's dependency on its owner, not because of disobedience. In the absence of treatment, affected dogs are often relinquished to a humane society or shelter, abandoned, or euthanized. Resource guarding. Resource guarding is exhibited by many canines, and is one of the most commonly reported behaviour issues to canine professionals. It is seen when a dog uses specific behaviour patterns so that they can control access to an item, and the patterns are flexible when people are around. If a canine places value on some resource (i.e. food, toys, etc.) they may attempt to guard it from other animals as well as people, which leads to behavioural problems if not treated. The guarding can show in many different ways from rapid ingestion of food to using the body to shield items. It manifests as aggressive behaviour including, but not limited to, growling, barking, or snapping. Some dogs will also resource guard their owners and can become aggressive if the behaviour is allowed to continue. Owners must learn to interpret their dog's body language in order to try to judge the dog's reaction, as visual signals are used (i.e. changes in body posture, facial expression, etc.) to communicate feeling and response. These behaviours are commonly seen in shelter animals, most likely due to insecurities caused by a poor environment. Resource guarding is a concern since it can lead to aggression, but research has found that aggression over guarding can be contained by teaching the dog to drop the item they are guarding. Jealousy. Canines are one of a number of non-human animals that can express jealousy towards other animals or animal-like objects. This emotion may feed into other behavioural problems, manifest as attention-seeking behaviour, withdrawing from social activity, or aggression towards their owner or another animal or person. Noise anxiety. Canines often fear, and exhibit stress responses to, loud noises. Noise-related anxieties in dogs may be triggered by fireworks, thunderstorms, gunshots, and even loud or sharp bird noises. Associated stimuli may also come to trigger the symptoms of the phobia or anxiety, such as a change in barometric pressure being associated with a thunderstorm, thus causing an anticipatory anxiety. Tail chasing. Tail chasing can be classified as a stereotypy. It falls under obsessive compulsive disorder, which is a neuropsychiatric disorder that can present in dogs as canine compulsive disorder. In one clinical study on this potential behavioral problem, 18 tail-chasing terriers were given clomipramine orally at a dosage of 1 to 2 mg/kg (0.5 to 0.9 mg/lb) of body weight, every 12 hours. Three of the dogs required treatment at a slightly higher dosage range to control tail chasing, however, after 1 to 12 weeks of treatment, 9 of 12 dogs were reported to have a 75% or greater reduction in tail chasing. Personality can also play a factor in tail chasing. Dogs who chase their tails have been found to be more shy than those who do not, and some dogs also show a lower level of response during tail chasing bouts. Behavior compared to other canids. Comparisons made within the wolf-like canids allow the identification of those behaviors that may have been inherited from common ancestry and those that may have been the result of domestication or other relatively recent environmental changes. Studies of free-ranging African Basenjis and New Guinea Singing Dogs indicate that their behavioral and ecological traits were the result of environmental selection pressures or selective breeding choices and not the result of artificial selection imposed by humans. Early aggression. Dog pups show unrestrained fighting with their siblings from 2 weeks of age, with injury avoided only due to their undeveloped jaw muscles. This fighting gives way to play-chasing with the development of running skills at 4–5 weeks. Wolf pups possess more-developed jaw muscles from 2 weeks of age, when they first show signs of play-fighting with their siblings. Serious fighting occurs during 4–6 weeks of age. Compared to wolf and dog pups, golden jackal pups develop aggression at the age of 4–6 weeks when play-fighting frequently escalates into uninhibited biting intended to harm. This aggression ceases by 10–12 weeks when a hierarchy has formed. Tameness. Unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors. In 2016, a study found that there were only 11 fixed genes that showed variation between wolves and dogs. These gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of natural evolution, and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication. These genes have been shown to affect the catecholamine synthesis pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting the fight-or-flight response (i.e. selection for tameness), and emotional processing. Dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared to wolves. Some of these genes have been associated with aggression in some dog breeds, indicating their importance in both the initial domestication and then later in breed formation. Social structure. Among canids, packs are the social units that hunt, rear young and protect a communal territory as a stable group and their members are usually related. Members of the feral dog group are usually not related. Feral dog groups are composed of a stable 2–6 members compared to the 2–15 member wolf pack whose size fluctuates with the availability of prey and reaches a maximum in winter time. The feral dog group consists of monogamous breeding pairs compared to the one breeding pair of the wolf pack. Agonistic behavior does not extend to the individual level and does not support a higher social structure compared to the ritualized agonistic behavior of the wolf pack that upholds its social structure. Feral pups have a very high mortality rate that adds little to the group size, with studies showing that adults are usually killed through accidents with humans, therefore other dogs need to be co-opted from villages to maintain stable group size. Socialization. The critical period for socialization begins with walking and exploring the environment. Dog and wolf pups both develop the ability to see, hear and smell at 4 weeks of age. Dogs begin to explore the world around them at 4 weeks of age with these senses available to them, while wolves begin to explore at 2 weeks of age when they have the sense of smell but are functionally blind and deaf. The consequences of this is that more things are novel and frightening to wolf pups. The critical period for socialization closes with the avoidance of novelty, when the animal runs away from - rather than approaching and exploring - novel objects. For dogs this develops between 4 and 8 weeks of age. Wolves reach the end of the critical period after 6 weeks, after which it is not possible to socialize a wolf. Dog puppies require as little as 90 minutes of contact with humans during their critical period of socialization to form a social attachment. This will not create a highly social pet but a dog that will solicit human attention. Wolves require 24 hours contact a day starting before 3 weeks of age. To create a socialized wolf the pups are removed from the den at 10 days of age, kept in constant human contact until they are 4 weeks old when they begin to bite their sleeping human companions, then spend only their waking hours in the presence of humans. This socialization process continues until age 4 months, when the pups can join other captive wolves but will require daily human contact to remain socialized. Despite this intensive socialization process, a well-socialized wolf will behave differently to a well-socialized dog and will display species-typical hunting and reproductive behaviors, only closer to humans than a wild wolf. These wolves do not generalize their socialization to all humans in the same manner as a socialized dog and they remain more fearful of novelty compared to socialized dogs. In 1982, a study to observe the differences between dogs and wolves raised in similar conditions took place. The dog puppies preferred larger amounts of sleep at the beginning of their lives, while the wolf puppies were much more active. The dog puppies also preferred the company of humans, rather than their canine foster mother, though the wolf puppies were the exact opposite, spending more time with their foster mother. The dogs also showed a greater interest in the food given to them and paid little attention to their surroundings, while the wolf puppies found their surroundings to be much more intriguing than their food or food bowl. The wolf puppies were observed taking part in antagonistic play at a younger age, while the dog puppies did not display dominant/submissive roles until they were much older. The wolf puppies were rarely seen as being aggressive to each other or towards the other canines. On the other hand, the dog puppies were much more aggressive to each other and other canines, often seen full-on attacking their foster mother or one another. A 2005 study comparing dog and wolf pups concluded that extensively socialised dogs as well as unsocialised dog pups showed greater attachment to a human owner than wolf pups did, even if the wolf was socialised. The study concluded that dogs may have evolved a capacity for attachment to humans functionally analogous to that human infants display. Cognition. Despite claims that dogs show more human-like social cognition than wolves, several recent studies have demonstrated that if wolves are properly socialized to humans and have the opportunity to interact with humans regularly, then they too can succeed on some human-guided cognitive tasks, in some cases out-performing dogs at an individual level. Similar to dogs, wolves can also follow more complex point types made with body parts other than the human arm and hand (e.g. elbow, knee, foot). Both dogs and wolves have the cognitive capacity for prosocial behavior toward humans; however it is not guaranteed. For canids to perform well on traditional human-guided tasks (e.g. following the human point) both relevant lifetime experiences with humans - including socialization to humans during the critical period for social development - and opportunities to associate human body parts with certain outcomes (such as food being provided by human hands, a human throwing or kicking a ball, etc.) are required. After undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs that are faced with an insoluble version of the same problem look at the human, while socialized wolves do not. Reproduction. Dogs reach sexual maturity and can reproduce during their first year in contrast to a wolf at two years. The female dog can bear another litter within 8 months of the last one. The canid genus is influenced by the photoperiod and generally reproduces in the springtime. Domestic dogs are not reliant on seasonality for reproduction in contrast to the wolf, coyote, Australian dingo and African basenji that may have only one, seasonal, estrus each year. Feral dogs are influenced by the photoperiod with around half of the breeding females mating in the springtime, which is thought to indicate an ancestral reproductive trait not overcome by domestication, as can be inferred from wolves and Cape hunting dogs. Domestic dogs are polygamous in contrast to wolves that are generally monogamous. Therefore, domestic dogs have no pair bonding and the protection of a single mate, but rather have multiple mates in a year. There is no paternal care in dogs as opposed to wolves where all pack members assist the mother with the pups. The consequence is that wolves put a lot of energy into producing a few pups in contrast to dogs that maximize the production of pups. This higher pup production rate enables dogs to maintain or even increase their population with a lower pup survival rate than wolves, and allows dogs a greater capacity than wolves to grow their population after a population crash or when entering a new habitat. It is proposed that these differences are an alternative breeding strategy adapted to a life of scavenging instead of hunting. In contrast to domestic dogs, feral dogs are monogamous. Domestic dogs tend to have a litter size of 10, wolves 3, and feral dogs 5–8. Feral pups have a very high mortality rate with only 5% surviving at the age of one year, and sometimes the pups are left unattended making them vulnerable to predators. Domestic dogs stand alone among all canids for a total lack of paternal care. Dogs differ from wolves and most other large canid species as they generally do not regurgitate food for their young, nor the young of other dogs in the same territory. However, this difference was not observed in all domestic dogs. Regurgitating of food by the females for the young, as well as care for the young by the males, has been observed in domestic dogs, dingos and in feral or semi-feral dogs. In one study of a group of free-ranging dogs, for the first 2 weeks immediately after parturition the lactating females were observed to be more aggressive to protect the pups. The male parents were in contact with the litters as ‘guard’ dogs for the first 6–8 weeks of the litters’ life. In absence of the mothers, they were observed to prevent the approach of strangers by vocalizations or even by physical attacks. Moreover, one male fed the litter by regurgitation showing the existence of paternal care in some free-roaming dogs. Space. Space used by feral dogs is not dissimilar from most other canids in that they use defined traditional areas (home ranges) that tend to be defended against intruders, and have core areas where most of their activities are undertaken. Urban domestic dogs have a home range of 2-61 hectares in contrast to a feral dogs home range of 58 square kilometers. Wolf home ranges vary from 78 square kilometers where prey is deer to 2.5 square kilometers at higher latitudes where prey is moose and caribou. Wolves will defend their territory based on prey abundance and pack density, but feral dogs will defend their home ranges all year. Where wolf ranges and feral dog ranges overlap, the feral dogs will site their core areas closer to human settlement. Predation and scavenging. Despite claims in the popular press, studies could not find evidence of a single predation on cattle by feral dogs. However, domestic dogs were responsible for the death of 3 calves over one 5-year study. Other studies in Europe and North America indicate only limited success in the consumption of wild boar, deer and other ungulates, however it could not be determined if this was predation or scavenging on carcasses. Studies have observed feral dogs conducting brief, uncoordinated chases of small game with constant barking - a technique without success. In 2004, a study reviewed 5 other studies of feral dogs published between 1975 and 1995 and concluded that their pack structure is very loose and rarely involves any cooperative behavior, either in raising young or in obtaining food. Feral dogs are primarily scavengers, with studies showing that unlike their wild cousins, they are poor ungulate hunters, having little effect on wildlife populations where they are sympatric. However, several garbage dumps located within the feral dog's home range are important for their survival. Even well-fed domestic dogs are prone to scavenge; gastro-intestinal veterinary visits increase during warmer weather as dogs are prone to eat decaying material. Some dogs consume feces, which may contain nutrition. On occasion well-fed dogs have been known to scavenge their owners' corpses. Dogs in human society. Studies using an operant framework have indicated that humans can influence the behavior of dogs through food, petting and voice. Food and 20–30 seconds of petting maintained operant responding in dogs. Some dogs will show a preference for petting once food is readily available, and dogs will remain in proximity to a person providing petting and show no satiation to that stimulus. Petting alone was sufficient to maintain the operant response of military dogs to voice commands, and responses to basic obedience commands in all dogs increased when only vocal praise was provided for correct responses. A study using dogs that were trained to remain motionless while unsedated and unrestrained in an MRI scanner exhibited caudate activation to a hand signal associated with reward. Further work found that the magnitude of the canine caudate response is similar to that of humans, while the between-subject variability in dogs may be less than humans. In a further study, 5 scents were presented (self, familiar human, strange human, familiar dog, strange dog). While the olfactory bulb/peduncle was activated to a similar degree by all the scents, the caudate was activated maximally to the familiar human. Importantly, the scent of the familiar human was not the handler, meaning that the caudate response differentiated the scent in the absence of the person being present. The caudate activation suggested that not only did the dogs discriminate that scent from the others, they had a positive association with it. Although these signals came from two different people, the humans lived in the same household as the dog and therefore represented the dog's primary social circle. And while dogs should be highly tuned to the smell of items that are not comparable, it seems that the “reward response” is reserved for their humans. Research has shown that there are individual differences in the interactions between dogs and their human that have significant effects on dog behavior. In 1997, a study showed that the type of relationship between dog and master, characterized as either "companionship" or "working relationship", significantly affected the dog's performance on a cognitive problem-solving task. They speculate that companion dogs have a more dependent relationship with their owners, and look to them to solve problems. In contrast, working dogs are more independent. Dogs in the family. In 2013, a study produced the first evidence under controlled experimental observation for a correlation between the owner's personality and their dog's behaviour. Dogs at work. Service dogs are those that are trained to help people with disabilities such as blindness, epilepsy, diabetes and autism. Detection dogs are trained to using their sense of smell to detect substances such as explosives, illegal drugs, wildlife scat, or blood. In science, dogs have helped humans understand about the conditioned reflex. Attack dogs, dogs that have been trained to attack on command, are employed in security, police, and military roles. Service dog programs have been established to help individuals suffering from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and have shown to have positive results. Attacks. The human-dog relationship is based on unconditional trust; however, if this trust is lost it will be difficult to reinstate. In the UK between 2005 and 2013, there were 17 fatal dog attacks. In 2007–08, there were 4,611 hospital admissions due to dog attacks, which increased to 5,221 in 2008–09. It was estimated in 2013 that more than 200,000 people a year are bitten by dogs in England, with the annual cost to the National Health Service of treating injuries about £3 million. A report published in 2014 stated there were 6,743 hospital admissions specifically caused by dog bites, a 5.8% increase from the 6,372 admissions in the previous 12 months. In the US between 1979 and 1996, there were more than 300 human dog bite-related fatalities. In the US in 2013, there were 31 dog-bite related deaths. Each year, more than 4.5 million people in the US are bitten by dogs and almost 1 in 5 require medical attention. A dog's thick fur protects it from the bite of another dog, but humans are furless and are not so protected. Attack training is condemned by some as promoting ferocity in dogs; a 1975 American study showed that 10% of dogs that have bitten a person received attack dog training at some point.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27573669

Grey divorce or Silver Splitter or Diamond Divorcees is a term referring to the demographic trend of an increasing divorce rate for older ("grey-haired") couples in long-lasting marriages. Former American vice-presidential couple Tipper and Al Gore's decision to separate after over 40 years of marriage is an example of this trend as is the former married research and writing duo Masters and Johnson and music duo Captain and Tennille, whose own divorce came in 2014 after 39 years of marriage.Another example of this is the divorce of the World's 4th richest man, Bill Gates and his wife of 27 years, Melinda Gates as of May 2021. In the United States. Grey divorce was documented in the United States as early as the 1980s, but wasn't labeled as such until around 2004. The phenomenon entered the public awareness with a 2004 AARP study and was further elucidated in Deirdre Bair's 2007 book "Calling It Quits" containing interviews with grey divorcees. Older couples are responsible for the overall increase in the divorce rate in the United Kingdom. While wives seek divorces at a higher rate than husbands, some have argued that an increase in older husbands' infidelity, facilitated by the development and increased availability of nitrate-based anti-impotence drugs such as Viagra, Cialis, and Levitra, has led to the divorce increase, though this account has also been disputed. Other researchers have pointed to the increase in human longevity, the cultural values of Baby Boomers, and women's increasing financial independence as potential causes. Statistics on Grey Divorce. In May 2004, the AARP conducted a study titled "The Divorce Experience: A Study of Divorce at Midlife and Beyond". Some of the findings consisted of: Who initiates divorce in later life? Participants age when divorced In Japan. In Japan it is referred to as . While devoting years to his career, a husband may rarely see his family. As a result, a husband and wife may not interact extensively. When the husband retires, both can feel they are living with a virtual stranger. This can cause particular stress for the woman who, as society dictated in her youth, is now expected to attend to her husband's every need. The stress of change in lifestyle brings a number of problems, including feelings of resentment towards husbands.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52820140

Prè (pron. ) is a neighbourhood in the old town of the Italian city of Genoa. It was one of the six "sestieri" of ancient Genoa. At present it is part of the Genoa's city I Municipio (Centro Est). Located close to the old harbour, it is likely the best-known neighbourhood of the old town of Genoa. Etymology. Prè takes its name from the Latin word "prædia" (fields), because in origin this was a rural zone. The use of this term is documented since 1131. Demographics. On 31 December 2015 there were 7,586 people living in Prè, with a population density of 16,858 people per km². Geography. Prè is located north west in the old town of Genoa, between two circles of city walls, the older Barbarossa walls (12th century) and the 14th century city walls, but includes also a small portion of old town inside the Barbarossa walls, with via del Campo. The neighbourhood occupies the semi-plain area between the port and the rear hill. The central and most characteristic area of the neighborhood is that of Via Prè and Via del Campo, with its narrow alleys (the typical Genoese "caruggi"), upstream of which is Via Balbi with its noble palaces. History. The first settlements in the area date back to the second half of 12th century, when outside of the "Saint Faith Gate" (now called "Vacca's Gate") of the "Barbarossa" walls some buildings were built to assist travelers along the road leading from the city to the west. Included were several hospitals, founded by religious orders to offer accommodation and assistance to Crusaders, pilgrims, and merchants who were traveling from the port of Genoa to the Holy Land and the East. The best known of these was the Commandery of St. John of Prè, of the Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem, or Knights Hospitaller, built in 1180. In the same period, dockyards for repairing ships were built in the near port, in the same place where two centuries later would be established the main base of the Genoese Navy. This first port terminal gave an economic boost to the development of the neighbourhood. In 1347, the whole neighborhood was enclosed into the city walls, by building a new section of walls on the north-west side. During the 17th century the noble families of Balbi and Durazzo built, upstream the neighbourhood some luxurious palaces along a new wide street, "Strada Balbi". In the 19th century another important road was opened, "Carlo Alberto road", suitable for transit of wagons coming to and from the port and in 1860 the Genoa Principe railway station was completed in the north west area of Prè. In the 20th century, when the business centre of Genoa moved from the old town to De Ferrari Square, a period of decline began for Prè, and after World War II some areas were populated by petty criminals who earned their living by cigarette smuggling, prostitution and receiving stolen goods. During the seventies the alleys of Prè became a centre of narcotics smuggling, managed before by Italian mafias and later by non-EU immigrants, causing the abandonment by most of the original inhabitants and the consequent degradation of buildings. Today, after many years of decline also these areas of the neighbourhood are showing signs of recovery. Architecture. Palazzi dei Rolli. The "Rolli di Genova" were, at the time of the Republic of Genoa, an official list of public lodging palaces of eminent Genoese families which aspired to host, by draw, foreign notable people visiting Genoa. Most of these buildings still exist, and in 2006 forty-two of them were inscribed by UNESCO in the list of World Heritage Site. In Prè are 20 of these palaces (11 of which included in the list of World Heritage Site). Royal Palace. Among Rolli Stefano Balbi palace, best known as the Royal Palace is the most remarkable. It was built in 17th century and on 1824 was purchased by the king Charles Felix of Sardinia as the residence of the royal court in Genoa. In 1919 Victor Emmanuel III handed it over to Italian state, together with its art collections. University Palace. In Via Balbi the former College of the Jesuits, designed by Bartolomeo Bianco between 1634 and 1636, hosts since 1775 the seat of the University of Genoa. Bianco was inspired by the model developed by Domenico and Giovanni Ponzello for Doria-Tursi palace, built at different levels, adapted to the slope of the land, with a spectacular marble staircase that from the entrance hall leads to a raised courtyard, surrounded by columns, from which other staircases reach the upper floors and the rear botanical garden. The palace today houses the rectorate office, some university departments and administrative offices. Next to the building is the former church of Saints Jerome and Francis Xavier, built in the mid 17th century, now university library, where ancient manuscripts and incunables are preserved. D'Albertis Castle. D'Albertis Castle was built in Neo- Gothic style between 1886 and 1892 on the ruins of a 16th-century bastion of the city walls, overlooking the city from a hill on the border between the neighbourhoods of Prè and Castelletto, for the explorer Enrico Alberto d'Albertis. When he died, in 1932, the castle was donated to the city of Genoa, along with the collections he had gathered in his travels, that make up the original nucleus of the Museum of World Cultures, housed in the castle. Vacca's Gate. St. Faith Gate, known as Vacca's Gate, was part of the "Barbarossa" city walls and was built in the 12th century. In 17th century it was incorporated in two noble palaces. The gate, west entrance to the city, like the best known and coeval "Porta Soprana", consists of two semicircular crenellated towers on either sides of a lancet arch. Galata Museo del Mare. The Galata Museo del Mare is a maritime museum designed by the Spanish architect Guillermo Vázquez Consuegra. The museum, inaugurated in 2004, is located in the ancient "Darsena", the base of the Genoese Navy's fleet between the 13th and the 18th century and incorporates the dockyard called Galata (from the name of the Genoese colony in the homonymous district of Istanbul) where at the time of the Republic of Genoa war galleys were built and maintained. The museum occupies 20 halls on an area of about 10,000 m². Since September 2009 the submarine Nazario Sauro, retired from the Italian Navy in 2002, has been moored in the small harbor basin in front of the museum, adapted for public visits and integrated in the museum visit path. Places of Worship. Commandery of St. John of Prè. The Commandery of St. John of Prè is a complex founded in 1180 that includes two Romanesque churches at different levels, a monastery that belonged to the Knights Hospitaller and a hospital to offer accommodation and assistance to Crusaders and pilgrims sailing from the port of Genoa to the Holy Land. During all Middle Ages it had been an important point of reference for all travelers transiting in the port of Genoa. Basilica della SS. Annunziata del Vastato. The Basilica della Santissima Annunziata del Vastato, simply called "Nunziata", is a major Genoese church. The interior of the church is Baroque, but the façade, with a high portico and two bell towers, was built only in the 19th century in Neoclassical style. The interior has a Latin cross plant with a nave and two aisles with some chapels decorated with frescoes, paintings, inlaid marble and stucco, works by the greatest Genoese artists of the 17th century. The church, built in 1520 in Gothic style, anachronistic at that time, was given its present Baroque appearance in the first half of the 17th century by architects Giovanni Domenico Casella and Giacomo Porta, with the funding of Lomellini family. Giovanni Battista and Giovanni Carlone made frescoes in the ceiling of the nave, aisles and transept. The Neoclassical façade, designed by Giovanni Battista Resasco in the 19th century, has a tall portico with six Ionic columns. The serious damage wrought by bombing during World War II has been restored in postwar era.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5656281

Altensteig () is a town in the district of Calw, in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. History. Altensteig was most likely given town rights by the Counts of Hohenberg around the middle of the 14th century. In 1398, the town became a possession of the Margraviate of Baden and then of the Duchy of Württemberg in 1603. Altensteig was made the seat of its own district, which was reorganized in 1808 as , which was dissolved two years later and resulted in Altensteig being assigned to . That district, too, was dissolved in 1938 and Altensteig was assigned to the newly-organized Landkreis Calw. Geography. The city ("Stadt") of Simmersfeld is located at the south-western edge of the district of Calw, in the German state of Baden-Württemberg. It lies along the border with the district of Freudenstadt to the south and west. Altensteig's municipal area is located mostly in the Black Forest, though a portion of its eastern mass lies in the . Elevation above sea level in the municipal area ranges from a high of Normalnull (NN) to a low of NN. Portions of the Federally protected , , and nature reserves are located in Altensteig's municipal area. Politics. Altensteig has nine boroughs: Altensteig, Altensteigdorf, Berneck, Garrweiler, Hornberg, Spielberg, Überberg, Walddorg, Wart. There are also 15 villages in the municipal area: Bahnhof Berneck, Baiermühle, Bruderhaus, Chausseehaus, Elektrizitätswerk, Fischhaus, Heselbronn, Internationales Forum Burg Hornberg, Kohlsägmühle, Lengenloch, Lohmühle, Monhardt, Trögelsbach, Ziegelhütte, Zumweiler. Coat of arms. The municipal coat of arms of Altensteig shows a castle in red and white, upon a field of yellow and below a black , atop a green mountain approached by a yellow road. This coat of arms first appeared on a town seal in 1604, and was modified in 1935 with the addition of the stag antler to reference Württemberg. The winding path refers to the German word "Steige", or "path", and to the name Altensteig. Transportation. Altensteig is connected to Germany's network of roadways by Bundesstraße 28. The city was also connected by rail via the from 1891 until its shutdown in 1967. Local public transportation is provided by the .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15350457

The Wyoming Air National Guard (WY ANG) is the aerial militia of the State of Wyoming, United States of America. It is, along with the Wyoming Army National Guard, an element of the Wyoming National Guard. As state militia units, the units in the Wyoming Air National Guard are not in the active-duty United States Air Force chain of command. They are under the jurisdiction of the Governor of Wyoming though the office of the Wyoming Adjutant General unless they are federalized by order of the President of the United States. The Wyoming Air National Guard is headquartered in Cheyenne, and its commander is Major General Greg Porter Overview. Under the "Total Force" concept, Wyoming Air National Guard units are considered to be Air Reserve Components (ARC) of the United States Air Force (USAF). Wyoming ANG units are trained and equipped by the Air Force and are operationally gained by a Major Command of the USAF if federalized. In addition, the Wyoming Air National Guard forces are assigned to Air Expeditionary Forces and are subject to deployment tasking orders along with their active duty and Air Force Reserve counterparts in their assigned cycle deployment window. Along with their federal reserve obligations, as state militia units the elements of the Wyoming ANG are subject to being activated by order of the Governor to provide protection of life and property, and preserve peace, order and public safety. State missions include disaster relief in times of earthquakes, hurricanes, floods and forest fires, search and rescue, protection of vital public services, and support to civil defense. Components. The Wyoming Air National Guard consists of three major units: History. Cold War. On 24 May 1946, the United States Army Air Forces, in response to dramatic postwar military budget cuts imposed by President Harry S. Truman, allocated inactive unit designations to the National Guard Bureau for the formation of an Air Force National Guard. These unit designations were allotted and transferred to various State National Guard bureaus to provide them unit designations to re-establish them as Air National Guard units. The Wyoming Air National Guard was first organized in a small hangar on the southwest side of Cheyenne Municipal Airport, Wyoming, under Maj. Robert E. Sedman. It was extended federal recognition and activated on 11 August 1946 and was equipped with F-51D Mustangs. 18 September 1947, however, is considered the Wyoming Air National Guard's official birth concurrent with the establishment of the United States Air Force as a separate branch of the United States military under the National Security Act. The 187th Fighter Squadron was activated on 1 April 1951 for service during the Korean War, with personnel assigned to Clovis Air Force Base, New Mexico, West Germany, Okinawa, and South Korea. In Korea, 18 Wyoming ANG pilots flew 1,500 combat missions. In 1956 the Wyoming ANG became the 187th Fighter Interceptor Squadron. Two years later, during 1958, it received its first F-86L Sabre, and was re-designation as the 153rd Fighter Interceptor Group. The most dramatic change came for the Wyoming unit in 1961 when it changed from a fighter unit to flying Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar and airlifting medical patients, with the newly designated 187th Aeromedical Transport Squadron. On 21 June 1963 it received the Lockheed C-121 Constellation aircraft and expanded its military airlift role to worldwide mission capabilities. Vietnam War. During the Vietnam War, the Wyoming Air Guard flew its first mission into the Vietnam combat zone in late 1964, and continued to do so through the take over of South Vietnam by its enemies. During early 1966 the unit became the 153rd Military Airlift Group, under the Military Airlift Command. Airborne fire-fighting. In 1972, the Wyoming Air Guard received its first C-130B Hercules aircraft, which the unit continues to fly over 30 years later. In 1975, the Wyoming Air Guard was selected for the unique role of aerial firefighting. Two Wyoming C-130s were equipped with MAFFS and began water/fire retardant bombing of fires throughout the United States. Those fire fighting missions still continue through the present. In the meantime, the 153rd Tactical Airlift Group expanded to regularly flying missions with the United States Southern Command out of Howard Air Force Base, Panama, as part of Operation Phoenix Oak. From supplying embassies in Central and South America, to searching for sinking ships in the middle of tropical storms, the Wyoming C-130s and aircrews carried out military and humanitarian missions. Those missions continued through Operation Just Cause, the United States invasion of Panama in 1989–90. Gulf War. During the Gulf War, the Wyoming Air Guard flew continental U.S. and Central and South America missions, beginning on 9 August 1990, the first day of Operation Desert Shield, and into Operation Desert Storm. During that time, the Wyoming 187th Aeromedical Evacuation Flight and the 153rd Clinic were both activated, with a large number of those medical personnel being sent to Saudi Arabia. After the end of hostilities, Wyoming Guard members continued with Operation Provide Comfort, which supplied humanitarian aid to Kurdish people displaced by the Iraqi military. Humanitarian missions. During 1993 and early 1994, the 153rd Airlift Group traded its older C-130B model aircraft for new Lockheed C-130H3 models, which greatly enhanced the Wyoming ANG's worldwide flying capabilities. From July 1993 through February 1994, the 187th Aeromedical Evacuation Squadron, provided volunteer medical personnel during Operation Restore Hope in Somalia. Three of those medical personnel subsequently received commendations for saving United States Army Rangers' lives while under attack in Somalia in October 1993. During 1993–94, a number of Wyoming pilots, navigators, and loadmasters volunteered to fly missions into and over Bosnia/Serbia, while temporarily assigned Operation Provide Promise. The years between the Gulf War and 2001 proved to be a period of continued activity for the Wyoming Air Guard. Major unit deployments included Operation Uphold Democracy in Haiti in 1995, Operation Southern Watch in Iraq in 1996 and 1998, Operation Joint Endeavour in Bosnia in 1996, Operation Shining Hope in Bosnia in 1999, Operation Joint Forge in Bosnia and Kosovo in 1999, Operation Coronet Oak in Panama in 2000, and the yearly MAFFS mission as directed. During this same period numerous individuals volunteered for such missions as Operation Sea Signal for Haitian refugees at Guantanamo in 1995 and Operation New Hope in El Salvador in 1999. In April 1997 the Wyoming 153rd Airlift Wing was reassigned to the Air Mobility Command, and continued its federal and state airlift, fire fighting, and humanitarian missions. From 10 November to 5 December 1997 the Wyoming Air National Guard flew 250 airborne fire-fighting missions in the jungles of Indonesia as Operation Tempest Rapid I. This was the first time U.S. airborne fire fighting had ever been done outside of the continental U.S. War on Terror. As with the rest of the U.S. military, the wing's focus changed abruptly after the September 11 attacks, 2001. Responding immediately, the 153 AW became the first unit to resume flying, by answering the call to ferry blood donations around the western United States. By the end of September virtually all of the 153rd Security Forces Squadron had been called to active duty and assigned to active Air Force bases. As a result, numerous individuals volunteered to be activated as security forces augmentees, an assignment that lasted half a year for many. Three others volunteered for temporary civilian airport security duties. In December 2001 the expected call up for more of the unit arrived. This resulted in five aircraft, their crews, and support personnel deploying to Oman as part of Operation Enduring Freedom. During the unit's eight-month deployment, it flew 5,500 hours (including 4,000 combat hours in Afghanistan), and earned the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award with Valor. In addition, the unit's air traffic controllers served in Pakistan during this period, while numerous other members answered the call in their individual Air Force Specialty Code capacity. As the War on Terror expanded to include operations in Iraq and continued operations in Afghanistan, the 153rd Airlift Wing was repeatedly called for. In addition to its ongoing commitment to MAFFS, Operation Joint Forge in Europe, and Coronet Oak in Latin America, the 153 AW maintained a two-year-long, two-aircraft commitment to Operation Iraqi Freedom during 2004–2005. In 2000 and 2007 the unit returned to Afghanistan for two and three aircraft Aerospace Expeditionary Force rotations. In the U.S., the end of 2007 found four aircraft responding to the great Southern California wildfires. In Cheyenne the period 2004-2007 witnessed the 153 AW receiving a remodeled dining facility, a new petroleum oils and lubricants facility, a new air operations building for Air Traffic Control and Aerial Port, and approval of a new squadrons operations building. Numerous temporary modular buildings also supported the unit. The time period 2006-2007 also witnessed a unique combination of active duty and National Guard forces in Cheyenne. In July 2006 the 30th Airlift Squadron, an active duty unit, stood up at Cheyenne Regional Airport, under the operational direction of the 153 AW. Known as an active associate unit, the addition of the 30 AS resulted in the 153 AW receiving an additional four C-130 aircraft during 2007, and increased the wing's aircraft strength from eight to twelve aircraft. For the years 2008-to present, the 153 AW continued to be deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan.

ongoing actions

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20369198

Richard Douglas Poll (April 23, 1918 – April 27, 1994) was an American historian, academic, author and member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). His liberal religiosity influenced his notable metaphor about "Iron Rod" vs. "Liahona" LDS Church members. Biography. Poll was born in Salt Lake City, where he lived until moving to Fort Worth, Texas at age 10. He published his first article at age 13 in "Liahona, the Elders' Journal", a missionary magazine published by the LDS Church. From 1939-1941 he served as an LDS missionary, first in Germany until World War II began, and then in Canada. From 1942-1945, Poll served as a first lieutenant in the U.S. Army Air Force without seeing the front. He married Emogene (Gene) Hill in 1943 in the Salt Lake Temple, and they remained married until their deaths in 1994 in Provo, Utah. Throughout his life, Poll was active in the LDS Church and served in various positions, such as stake high councilor. Academics. In Fort Worth, Poll studied at Texas Christian University (TCU), completing a bachelor's degree in history in 1938. He also received a master's degree from TCU in 1939, writing his thesis on the U.S. campaign against Mormon polygamy. Poll later received a Ph.D. in history from the University of California, Berkeley in 1948. From 1948-1970 Poll was a history professor at Brigham Young University (BYU). In 1955, he became chair of the department of history. He was the charter president of the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) at BYU in 1959. In 1962, Poll became associate director of the BYU Honors Program, and was named Honors Professor of the Year at BYU in 1969. From 1958-65, he had also occasionally taught at the University of Maryland, College Park, European Division. At BYU, Poll clashed with BYU administration and some church leadership over his AAUP involvement, their anti-communism, and the role of organic evolution. After uncertainty over whether his BYU contract would be renewed, Poll resigned to take a position as vice president of Western Illinois University (WIU) in 1969. He remained in that role until 1975, though he continued teaching history at WIU until 1983. In his retirement, Poll taught occasional classes at BYU from 1983 until his death in 1994. From 1978-1993, Poll and his wife taught reading and writing skills in adult education classes offered by the LDS Church. "Iron Rod" and "Liahona" metaphor. Poll wrote on various topics in Latter-day Saint history and thought. His religious approach was influenced by his studies at TCU, where he examined and rejected creationism, scriptural literalism, and prophetic infallibility. He remembered one professor saying "the purpose of religion is to comfort the afflicted and afflict the comfortable." In 1963, Poll prepared a paper called "What the Church Means to People Like Me", which he delivered in the Palo Alto Ward sacrament meeting in August 1967 and published in ". The paper drew upon Book of Mormon imagery. In Lehi and Nephi's vision, people held onto an "iron rod" that followed a single path to salvation. In another story, a mysterious instrument, called the "Liahona", pointed righteous travelers toward their destination. Poll's paper set up a dichotomy between church members who see the gospel as clear and exact, or "hold to the Iron Rod", and those who follow the guidance of the church as a compass to lead their lives. He explained: The Iron Rod Saint does not look for questions but for answers, and in the gospel he finds or is confident that he can find the answer to every important question. The Liahona Saint, on the other hand, is preoccupied with questions and skeptical of answers; he finds in the gospel answers to enough important questions so that he can function purposefully without answers to the rest. The subject caught the attention of LDS intellectuals and leaders, becoming a poignant metaphor in cultural discourse. It would become Poll's best known article, and was republished several other times. In a 1971 General Conference address, church apostle Harold B. Lee alluded to and denounced Poll's ideas, saying: If there is any one thing most needed in this time of tumult and frustration, ... it is an "iron rod" as a safe guide along the straight path on the way to eternal life, ... There are many who profess to be religious and speak of themselves as Christians, and, according to one such, "as accepting the scriptures only as sources of inspiration and moral truth," and then ask in their smugness: "Do the revelations of God give us a handrail to the kingdom of God, as the Lord's messenger told Lehi, or merely a compass?"... Wouldn't it be a great thing if all who are well schooled in secular learning could hold fast to the "iron rod," or the word of God, ... ? Lee also quoted the phrase, "A liberal in the Church is merely one who does not have a testimony." Lee then quoted John A. Widtsoe's definition of "a liberal in the church" as one who has broken with the fundamental principles, does not believe in its basic concepts, and sets out to reform it by changing its foundations. Lee's reference broke with the context of Widtsoe's talk, however, which was not a rhetorical attack on liberals, but rather the misuse of the term liberal to mean those who reject religious faith due to a perceived unwillingness within the religious community to embrace change and progress. In the Widtsoe talk, which Lee had quoted out of context, Widtsoe had said: The word liberal, correctly used, has a noble meaning. The true liberal… is tolerant, free from bigotry, and generous in all his deeds. He places truth above all else and hungers for full truth. He welcomes all new improvements and calls for more… He insists that every new invention must be used for human welfare, with full respect to civil and moral law. In short, the liberal seeks to make better the day in which he lives, and he becomes therefore a crusader for the betterment of the human race… His liberalism lies in his constant attempt to make the underlying unchanging principles of the cause he represents serve the changing conditions of the day. He may differ with the superficial conventions of the past, but not with its established truths. He may refuse to continue the church architecture of the past, but will insist that the ancient truths of the Gospel be taught... forever seeking, under changing conditions, to make the doctrine of human brotherhood more effective in behalf of the needy... the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is pre-eminently liberal… It declares that men "live and move and have their being" under the law of progress. Change steps upon the heels of change in the unfolding of a progressive universe. The simple eternal truths of existence are combined and combined again, in different ways, but progressively, to serve man on his never-ending journey… Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints do not need to look elsewhere for a liberal Church. Poll and his wife considered themselves "Liahona" Mormons.

one route

8960-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8637

A door is a hinged or otherwise movable barrier that allows ingress into and egress from an enclosure. The created opening in the wall is a "doorway" or "portal". A door's essential and primary purpose is to provide security by controlling access to the doorway (portal). Conventionally, it is a panel that fits into the portal of a building, room, or vehicle. Doors are generally made of a material suited to the door's task. Doors are commonly attached by hinges, but can move by other means, such as slides or counterbalancing. The door may be moved in various ways (at angles away from the portal, by sliding on a plane parallel to the frame, by folding in angles on a parallel plane, or by spinning along an axis at the center of the frame) to allow or prevent ingress or egress. In most cases, a door's interior matches its exterior side. But in other cases (e.g., a vehicle door) the two sides are radically different. Doors may incorporate locking mechanisms to ensure that only some people can open them. Doors may have devices such as knockers or doorbells by which people outside announce their presence. Apart from providing access into and out of a space, doors may have the secondary functions of ensuring privacy by preventing unwanted attention from outsiders, of separating areas with different functions, of allowing light to pass into and out of a space, of controlling ventilation or air drafts so that interiors may be more effectively heated or cooled, of dampening noise, and of blocking the spread of fire. Doors may have aesthetic, symbolic, ritualistic purposes. Receiving the key to a door can signify a change in status from outsider to insider. Doors and doorways frequently appear in literature and the arts with metaphorical or allegorical import as a portent of change. History. The earliest recorded doors appear in the paintings of Egyptian tombs, which show them as single or double doors, each of a single piece of wood. People may have believed these were doors to the afterlife, and some include designs of the afterlife. In Egypt, where the climate is intensely dry, doors weren't framed against warping, but in other countries required framed doors—which, according to Vitruvius (iv. 6.) was done with stiles (sea/si) and rails "(see: Frame and panel)", the enclosed panels filled with tympana set in grooves in the stiles and rails. The stiles were the vertical boards, one of which, tenoned or hinged, is known as the hanging stile, the other as the middle or meeting stile. The horizontal cross pieces are the top rail, bottom rail, and middle or intermediate rails. The most ancient doors were made of timber, such as those referred to in the Biblical depiction of King Solomon's temple being in olive wood (I Kings vi. 31-35), which were carved and overlaid with gold. The doors that Homer mentions appear to have been cased in silver or brass. Besides olive wood, elm, cedar, oak and cypress were used. A 5,000-year-old door has been found by archaeologists in Switzerland. Ancient doors were hung by pivots at the top and bottom of the hanging stile, which worked in sockets in the lintel and sill, the latter in some hard stone such as basalt or granite. Those Hilprecht found at Nippur, dating from 2000 BC, were in dolerite. The tenons of the gates at Balawat were sheathed with bronze (now in the British Museum). These doors or gates were hung in two leaves, each about wide and high; they were encased with bronze bands or strips, high, covered with repoussé decoration of figures. The wood doors would seem to have been about thick, but the hanging stile was over diameter. Other sheathings of various sizes in bronze show this was a universal method adopted to protect the wood pivots. In the Hauran in Syria where timber is scarce, the doors were made of stone, and one measuring by is in the British Museum; the band on the meeting stile shows that it was one of the leaves of a double door. At Kuffeir near Bostra in Syria, Burckhardt found stone doors, high, being the entrance doors of the town. In Etruria many stone doors are referred to by Dennis. Ancient Greek and Roman doors were either single doors, double doors, triple doors, sliding doors or folding doors, in the last case the leaves were hinged and folded back. In the tomb of Theron at Agrigentum there is a single four-panel door carved in stone. In the Blundell collection is a bas-relief of a temple with double doors, each leaf with five panels. Among existing examples, the bronze doors in the church of SS. Cosmas and Damiano, in Rome, are important examples of Roman metal work of the best period; they are in two leaves, each with two panels, and are framed in bronze. Those of the Pantheon are similar in design, with narrow horizontal panels in addition, at the top, bottom and middle. Two other bronze doors of the Roman period are in the Lateran Basilica. The Greek scholar Heron of Alexandria created the earliest known automatic door in the 1st century AD during the era of Roman Egypt. The first foot-sensor-activated automatic door was made in China during the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui (r. 604–618), who had one installed for his royal library. The first automatic gate operators were later created in 1206 by Arab inventor Al-Jazari. Copper and its alloys were integral in medieval architecture. The doors of the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (6th century) are covered with plates of bronze, cut out in patterns. Those of Hagia Sophia at Constantinople, of the 8th and 9th century, are wrought in bronze, and the west doors of the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle (9th century), of similar manufacture, were probably brought from Constantinople, as also some of those in St. Marks, Venice. The bronze doors on the Aachen Cathedral in Germany date back to about 800 AD. Bronze baptistery doors at the Cathedral of Florence were completed in 1423 by Ghiberti. "(For more information, see: Copper in architecture)." Of the 11th and 12th centuries there are numerous examples of bronze doors, the earliest being one at Hildesheim, Germany (1015). The Hildesheim design affected the concept of Gniezno door in Poland. Of others in South Italy and Sicily, the following are the finest: in Sant Andrea, Amalfi (1060); Salerno (1099); Canosa (1111); Troia, two doors (1119 and 1124); Ravello (1179), by Barisano of Trani, who also made doors for Trani cathedral; and in Monreale and Pisa cathedrals, by Bonano of Pisa. In all these cases the hanging stile had pivots at the top and bottom. The exact period when the builder moved to the hinge is unknown, but the change apparently brought about another method of strengthening and decorating doors—wrought-iron bands of various designs. As a rule, three bands with ornamental work constitute the hinges, with rings outside the hanging stiles that fit on vertical tenons set into the masonry or wooden frame. There is an early example of the 12th century in Lincoln. In France, the metalwork of the doors of Notre Dame at Paris is a beautiful example, but many others exist throughout France and England. In Italy, celebrated doors include those of the Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence), which are all in bronze—including the door frames. The modeling of the figures, birds and foliage of the south doorway, by Andrea Pisano (1330), and of the east doorway by Ghiberti (1425–1452), are of great beauty. In the north door (1402–1424), Ghiberti adopted the same scheme of design for the paneling and figure subjects as Andrea Pisano, but in the east door, the rectangular panels are all filled, with bas-reliefs that illustrate Scripture subjects and innumerable figures. These may the gates of Paradise of which Michelangelo speaks. Doors of the mosques in Cairo were of two kinds: those externally cased with sheets of bronze or iron, cut in decorative patterns, and incised or inlaid, with bosses in relief; and those of wood-framed with interlaced square and diamond designs. The latter design is Coptic in origin. The doors of the palace at Palermo, which were made by Saracenic workmen for the Normans, are fine examples in good preservation. A somewhat similar decorative class of door is found in Verona, where the edges of the stiles and rails are beveled and notched. In the Renaissance period, Italian doors are quite simple, their architects trusting more to the doorways for effect; but in France and Germany the contrary is the case, the doors being elaborately carved, especially in the Louis XIV and Louis XV periods, and sometimes with architectural features such as columns and entablatures with pediment and niches, the doorway being in plain masonry. While in Italy the tendency was to give scale by increasing the number of panels, in France the contrary seems to have been the rule; and one of the great doors at Fontainebleau, which is in two leaves, is entirely carried out as if consisting of one great panel only. The earliest Renaissance doors in France are those of the cathedral of St. Sauveur at Aix (1503). In the lower panels there are figures . high in Gothic niches, and in the upper panels a double range of niches with figures about . high with canopies over them, all carved in cedar. The south door of Beauvais Cathedral is in some respects the finest in France; the upper panels are carved in high relief with figure subjects and canopies over them. The doors of the church at Gisors (1575) are carved with figures in niches subdivided by classic pilasters superimposed. In St. Maclou at Rouen are three magnificently carved doors; those by Jean Goujon have figures in niches on each side, and others in a group of great beauty in the center. The other doors, probably about forty to fifty years later, are enriched with bas-reliefs, landscapes, figures and elaborate interlaced borders. NASA's Vehicle Assembly Building at the Kennedy Space Center contains the four largest doors. The Vehicle Assembly Building was originally built for the assembly of the Apollo missions' Saturn vehicles and was then used to support Space Shuttle operations. Each of the four doors are 139 meters (456 feet) high. The oldest door in England can be found in Westminster Abbey and dates from 1050. In England in the 17th century the door panels were raised with bolection or projecting moldings, sometimes richly carved, around them; in the 18th century the moldings worked on the stiles and rails were carved with the egg-and-dart ornament. Design and styles. There are many kinds of doors, with different purposes. The most common type is the single-leaf door, which consists of a single rigid panel that fills the doorway. There are many variations on this basic design, such as the double-leaf door or double door and French windows, which have two adjacent independent panels hinged on each side of the doorway. Different types of door mechanism. Hinged doors. Most doors are hinged along one side to allow the door to pivot away from the doorway in one direction, but not the other. The axis of rotation is usually vertical. In some cases, such as hinged garage doors, the axis may be horizontal, above the door opening. Doors can be hinged so that the axis of rotation is not in the plane of the door to reduce the space required on the side to which the door opens. This requires a mechanism so that the axis of rotation is on the side other than that in which the door opens. This is sometimes the case in trains or airplanes, such as for the door to the toilet, which opens inward. A swing door has special single-action hinges that allow it to open either outwards or inwards, and is usually sprung to keep it closed. French doors are derived from an original French design called the casement door. It is a door with lites where all or some panels would be in a casement door. A French door traditionally has a moulded panel at the bottom of the door. It is called a French window when used in a pair as double-leaved doors with large glass panels in each door leaf, and in which the doors may swing out (typically) as well as in. A Mead door, developed by S Mead of Leicester, swings both ways. It is susceptible to forced entry due to its design. A Dutch door or stable door consists of two halves. The top half operates independently from the bottom half. A variant exists in which opening the top part separately is possible, but because the lower part has a lip on the inside, closing the top part, while leaving the lower part open, is not. A garden door resembles a French window (with lites), but is more secure because only one door is operable. The hinge of the operating door is next to the adjacent fixed door and the latch is located at the wall opening jamb rather than between the two doors or with the use of an espagnolette bolt. Sliding doors. It is often useful to have doors which slide along tracks, often for space or aesthetic considerations. A bypass door is a door unit that has two or more sections. The doors can slide in either direction along one axis on parallel overhead tracks, sliding past each other. They are most commonly used in closets to provide access one side of the closet at a time. Doors in a bypass unit overlap slightly when viewed from the front so they don't have a visible gap when closed. Doors which slide inside a wall cavity are called pocket doors. This type of door is used in tight spaces where privacy is also required. The door slab is mounted to roller and a track at the top of the door and slides inside a wall. Sliding glass doors are common in many houses, particularly as an entrance to the backyard. Such doors are also popular for use for the entrances to commercial structures, although they are not counted as fire exit doors. The door that moves is called the "active leaf", while the door that remains fixed is called the "inactive leaf". Rotating doors. A revolving door has several wings or leaves, generally four, radiating from a central shaft, forming compartments that rotate about a vertical axis. A revolving door allows people to pass in both directions without colliding, and forms an airlock maintaining a seal between inside and out. A pivot door, instead of hinges, is supported on a bearing some distance away from the edge, so that there is more or less of a gap on the pivot side as well as the opening side. In some cases the pivot is central, creating two equal openings. High-speed door. A high-speed door is a very fast door some with opening speeds of up to 4 m/s, mainly used in the industrial sector where the speed of a door has an effect on production logistics, temperature and pressure control. high-speed clean room doors are used in pharmaceutical industries for the special curtain and stainless steel frames. They guarantee the tightness of all accesses. The powerful high-speed doors have a smooth surface structure and no protruding edges. Therefore, they can be easily cleaned and depositing of particles is largely excluded. High-speed doors are made to handle a high number of openings, generally more than 200,000 a year. They must be built with heavy duty parts and counterbalance systems for speed enhancement and emergency opening function. The door curtain was originally made of PVC, but was later also developed in aluminium and acrylic glass sections. High Speed refrigeration and cold room doors with excellent insulation values was also introduced with the Green and Energy saving requirements. In North America, the Door and Access Systems Manufacturing Association (DASMA) defines high-performance doors as non-residential, powered doors, characterized by rolling, folding, sliding or swinging action, that are either high-cycle (minimum 100 cycles/day) or high-speed (minimum 20 inches(508 mm)/second), and two out of three of the following: made-to-order for exact size and custom features, able to withstand equipment impact (break-away if accidentally hit by vehicle), or able to sustain heavy use with minimal maintenance. Automatic. Automatically opening doors are powered open and closed either by electricity, spring, or both. There are several methods by which an automatically opening door is activated: In addition to activation sensors, automatically opening doors are generally fitted with safety sensors. These are usually an infrared curtain or beam, but can be a pressure mat fitted on the swing side of the door. The safety sensor prevents the door from colliding with an object by stopping or slowing its motion. A mechanism in modern automatic doors ensures that the door can open in a power failure. Others. Up-and-over or overhead doors are often used in garages. Instead of hinges, it has a mechanism, often counterbalanced or sprung, so it can lift and rest horizontally above the opening. A roller shutter or sectional overhead door is one variant of this type. A tambour door or roller door is an up-and-over door made of narrow horizontal slats and "rolls" up and down by sliding along vertical tracks and is typically found in entertainment centres and cabinets. Inward opening doors are doors that can only be opened (or forced open) from outside a building. Such doors pose a substantial fire risk to occupants of occupied buildings when they are locked. As such doors can only be forced open from the outside, building occupants would be prevented from escaping. In commercial and retail situations, manufacturers include a mechanism that lets an inward opening door open outwards in an emergency (often a regulatory requirement). This is called a 'breakaway' feature. Pushing the door outward at its closed position, through a switch mechanism, disconnects power to the latch and lets the door swing outward. Returning the door to the closed position restores power. Rebated doors, a term chiefly used in Britain, are double doors having a lip or overlap (i.e. a Rabbet) on the vertical edge(s) where they meet. Fire-rating can be achieved with an applied edge-guard or astragal molding on the meeting stile, in accordance with the American Fire door. Evolution Door is a trackless door that moves in the same closure level as a sliding door. The system is an invention of the Austrian artist Klemens Torggler. It is a further development of the that normally consists of two rotatable, connected panels which move to each other when opening. Applications. Architectural doors have numerous general and specialized uses. Doors are generally used to separate interior spaces (closets, rooms, etc.) for convenience, privacy, safety, and security reasons. Doors are also used to secure passages into a building from the exterior, for reasons of climate control and safety. Doors also are applied in more specialized cases: Construction and components. Panel doors. Panel doors, also called stile and rail doors, are built with frame and panel construction. EN 12519 is describing the terms which are officially used in European Member States. The main parts are listed below: Board batten doors. Also known as ledges and braced, Board and batten doors are an older design consisting primarily of vertical slats: Ledged and braced doors. As board and Batten doors Impact-resistant doors. Impact-resistant doors have rounded stile edges to dissipate energy and minimize edge chipping, scratching and denting. The formed edges are often made of an engineered material. Impact-resistant doors excel in high traffic areas such as hospitals, schools, hotels and coastal areas. Frame and filled doors. This type consists of a solid timber frame, filled on one face, face with Tongue and Grooved boards. Quite often used externally with the boards on the weather face. Flush doors. Many modern doors, including most interior doors, are flush doors: Swing direction. Door swings For most of the world , door swings, or handing, are determined while standing on the outside or less secure side of the door while facing the door (i.e., standing on the side requiring a key to open, going from outside to inside, or from public to private). It is important to get the hand and swing correct on exterior doors, as the transom is usually sloped and sealed to resist water entry, and properly drain. In some custom millwork (or with some master carpenters), the manufacture or installer bevels the leading edge (the first edge to meet the jamb as the door closes) so that the door fits tight without binding. Specifying an incorrect hand or swing can make the door bind, not close properly, or leak. Fixing this error is expensive or time-consuming. In North America, many doors now come with factory-installed hinges, pre-hung on the jamb and sills. While facing the door from the outside or less secure side, if the hinge is on the right side of the door, the door is "right handed"; or if the hinge is on the left, it is "left handed". If the door swings toward you, it is "reverse swing"; or if the door swings away from you, it is "Normal swing". In other words, One of the oldest DIN standard applies: DIN 107 "Building construction; identification of right and left side" (first 1922–05, current 1974-04) defines that doors are categorized from the side where the door hinges can be seen. If the hinges are on the left, it is a DIN Left door (DIN links, DIN gauche), if the hinges are on the right, it is a DIN Right door (DIN rechts, DIN droite). The DIN Right and DIN Left marking are also used to categorize matching installation material such as mortise locks (referenced in DIN 107). The European Standard DIN EN 12519 "Windows and pedestrian doors. Terminology" includes these definitions of orientation. The "refrigerator rule" applies, and a refrigerator door is not opened from the inside. If the hinges are on the right then it is a right hand (or right hung) door. (Australian Standards for Installation of Timber Doorsets, AS 1909–1984 pg 6.) In public buildings, exterior doors open to the outside to comply with applicable fire codes. In a fire, a door that opens inward could cause a crush of people who can't open it. Types. New exterior doors are largely defined by the type of materials they are made from: wood, steel, fiberglass, UPVC/vinyl, aluminum, composite, glass (patio doors)... Wooden doors – including solid wood doors – are a top choice for many homeowners, largely because of the aesthetic qualities of wood. Many wood doors are custom-made, but they have several downsides: their price, their maintenance requirements (regular painting and staining) and their limited insulating value (R-5 to R-6, not including the effects of the glass elements of the doors). Wood doors often have an overhang requirement to maintain a warranty. An overhang is a roof, porch area or awning that helps to protect the door and its finish from UV rays. Steel doors are another major type of residential front doors; most of them come with a polyurethane or other type of foam insulation core – a critical factor in a building's overall comfort and efficiency. Steel doors mostly in default comes along with frame and lock system, which is a high cost efficiency factor compared to "Wooden doors". Most modern exterior walls provide thermal insulation and energy efficiency, which can be indicated by the Energy Star label or the Passive House standards. Premium composite (including steel doors with a thick core of polyurethane or other foam), fiberglass and vinyl doors benefit from the materials they are made from, from a thermal perspective. Insulation and weatherstrips. But there are very few door models with an R-value close to 10 (which is far less than the R-40 walls or the R-50 ceilings of super-insulated buildings – Passive Solar and Zero Energy Buildings). Typical doors are not thick enough to provide very high levels of energy efficiency. Many doors may have good R-values at their center, but their overall energy efficiency is reduced because of the presence of glass and reinforcing elements, or because of poor weatherstripping and the way the door is manufactured. Door weatherstripping is particularly important for energy efficiency. German-made passive house doors use multiple weatherstrips, including magnetic strips, to meet higher standards. These weatherstrips reduce energy losses due to air leakage. Dimensions. United States. Standard door sizes in the US run along 2" increments. Customary sizes have a height of 78" (1981 mm) or 80" (2032 mm) and a width of 18" (472 mm), 24" (610 mm), 26" (660 mm), 28" (711 mm), 30" (762 mm) or 36" (914 mm). Most residential passage (room to room) doors are 30" x 80" (762 mm x 2032 mm). A standard US residential (exterior) door size is 36" x 80" (91 x 203 cm). Interior doors for wheelchair access must also have a minimum width of 3'-0" (91 cm). Residential interior doors are often somewhat smaller being 6'-8" high, as are many small stores, offices, and other light commercial buildings. Larger commercial, public buildings and grand homes often use doors of greater height. Older buildings often have smaller doors. Thickness: Most pre-fabricated doors are 1 3/8" thick (for interior doors) or 1 3/4" (exterior). Closets: small spaces such as closets, dressing rooms, half-baths, storage rooms, cellars, etc. often are accessed through doors smaller than passage doors in one or both dimensions but similar in design. Garages: Garage doors are generally 7'-0" or 8'-0" wide for a single-car opening. Two car garage doors (sometimes called double car doors) are a single door 16'-0". Because of size and weight these doors are usually sectional. That is split into four or five horizontal sections so that they can be raised more easily and don't require a lot of additional space above the door when opening and closing. Single piece double garage doors are common in some older homes. Europe. Standard DIN doors are defined in DIN 18101 (published 1955–07, 1985–01, 2014-08). Door sizes are also given in the construction standard for wooden door panels (DIN 68706-1). The DIN commission created the harmonized European standard DIN EN 14351-1 for exterior doors and DIN EN 14351-2 for interior doors (published 2006–07, 2010-08), which define requirements for the CE marking and provide standard sizes by examples in the appendix. The DIN 18101 standard has a normative size (Nennmaß) slightly larger than the panel size (Türblatt) as the standard derives the panel sizes from the normative size being different single door vs double door and molded vs unmolded doors. DIN 18101/1985 defines interior single molded doors to have a common panel height of 1985 mm (normativ height 2010 mm) at panel widths of 610 mm, 735 mm, 860 mm, 985 mm, 1110 mm, plus a larger door panel size of 1110 mm x 2110 mm. The newer DIN 18101/2014 drops the definition of just five standard door sizes in favor of a basic raster running along 125 mm increments where the height and width are independent. Panel width may be in the range 485 mm to 1360 mmm, and the height may be in the range of 1610 mm to 2735 mm. The most common interior door is 860 mm x 1985 mm (33.8" x 78.1"). Doorway components. When framed in wood for snug fitting of a door, the doorway consists of two vertical "jambs" on either side, a "lintel" or "head jamb" at the top, and perhaps a "threshold" at the bottom. When a door has more than one movable section, one of the sections may be called a "leaf". See door furniture for a discussion of attachments to doors such as door handles, doorknobs, and door knockers. Related hardware. Door furniture or hardware refers to any of the items that are attached to a door or a drawer to enhance its functionality or appearance. This includes items such as hinges, handles, door stops, etc. Related accidents. Door safety relates to prevention of door-related accidents. Such accidents take place in various forms, and in a number of locations; ranging from car doors to garage doors. Accidents vary in severity and frequency. According to the National Safety Council in the United States, around 300,000 door-related injuries occur every year. The types of accidents vary from relatively minor cases where doors cause damage to other objects, such as walls, to serious cases resulting in human injury, particularly to fingers, hands, and feet. A closing door can exert up to 40 tons per square inch of pressure between the hinges. Because of the number of accidents taking place, there has been a surge in the number of lawsuits. Thus organisations may be at risk when car doors or doors within buildings are unprotected. According to the US General Services Administration, discussing child care centres: Outward and inward opening. Whenever a door is opened outwards there is a risk that it could strike another person. In many cases this can be avoided by architectural design which favors doors which open inwards into rooms (from the perspective of a common area such as a corridor, the door opens outwards). In cases where this is infeasible, it may be possible to avoid an accident by placing vision panels in the door. However, inward-hinged doors can also escalate an accident by preventing people from escaping the building: people inside the building may press against the doors, and thus prevent the doors from opening. Related accidents include: Today, the exterior doors of most large (especially public) buildings open outward, while interior doors such as doors to individual rooms, offices, suites, etc. open inward, as do many exterior doors of houses, particularly in North America. Doorstops. Doorstops are simple devices that prevent a door from contacting and possibly damaging another object (typically a wall). They may either absorb the force of a moving door, or hold the door against unintended motion. Door guards. Door guards (hinge guards, anti-finger trapping devices, or finger guards) help prevent finger trapping accidents, as doors pose a risk to children, especially when closing. Door guards protect fingers in door hinges by covering the hinge-side gap of an open door, typically with a piece of rubber or plastic that wraps from the door frame to the door. Other door safety products eject the fingers from the push side of the door as it closes. There are various levels of door protection. Anti-finger trapping devices in front may leave the rear hinge pin side of doors unprotected. Full door protection uses front and rear anti-finger trapping devices and ensures the hinge side of a door is fully isolated. A risk assessment of the door determines the appropriate level of protection. There is also handle-side door protection, which prevents the door from slamming shut on the frame, which can cause injury to fingers/hands. Safety doors. A safety door prevents finger injuries near the hinges without using door guards. Rather than cover the danger area, the shape of the door changes to prevent an accessible gap forming the first place. A circular ("bull-nose" shaped) extension to the door moves in and out of a cavity as the door opens and closes. This prevents someone from injuring any part of a hand near the hinges—inside or outside. These doors have an operating range of slightly over 90 degrees, so their use is limited to where they come into contact with a side wall when fully open (or where they can be prevented from opening too far by a doorstop). Glass doors. Glass doors pose the risk of unintentional collision if a person is unaware there is a door, or thinks it is open when it is not. This risk is greater with sliding glass doors because they often have large single panes that are hard to see. Stickers or other types of warnings on the glass surface make it more visible and help prevent injury. In the UK, Regulation 14 of the Workplace (Health and Safety Regulations) 1992 requires that builders mark windows and glass doors to make them conspicuous. Australian Standards: AS1288 and AS2208 require that glass doors be made of laminated, tempered, or toughened glass. Fire. Buildings often have special purpose doors that automatically close to prevent the spread of fire and smoke. Fire doors that are improperly installed or tampered with can increase risk during a fire. Sometimes, door closer mechanisms ensure fire doors remain closed. An additional fire risk is that doors may prevent access to emergency services personnel coming to fight the fire and rescue occupants, etc. Fire fighters must use door breaching techniques in these situations to gain access. Doors in public buildings often have panic bars, which open the door in response to anyone pressing against the bar from the inside in the event of a fire or other emergency. Vehicle doors. Vehicle doors present an increased risk of trapping hands or fingers due to the proximity of occupants. In some car accidents, injury to occupants from the movement of car doors occurs. Bicyclists cycling on public roads risk dooring: collision with an abruptly opened vehicle door. Because cyclists often ride near parked cars alongside the road, they are particularly vulnerable. Aircraft doors. In aircraft, doors from pressurized sections to un-pressurized compartments or the exterior can pose risk if they open during flight. Air may rush out of the fuselage with sufficient velocity to eject unsecured occupants, cargo, and other items, and drastic pressure differences between compartments may make aircraft floors or other interior partitions fail. These concerns are typically mitigated with plug doors, which open in towards the pressurized compartment and are forced into their door frames by the difference in air pressure. Most cabin doors are of this type, but cargo doors typically open outward to maximise interior space, and require hefty locking mechanisms to overcome internal pressure and prevent explosive decompression. A number of aircraft accidents involved outward-opening door failures, including:

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3602330

Asian cinema refers to the film industries and films produced in the continent of Asia. However, in countries like the United States, it is often used to refer only to the cinema of East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. West Asian cinema is sometimes classified as part of Middle Eastern cinema, along with the cinema of Egypt. The cinema of Central Asia is often grouped with the Middle East or, in the past, the cinema of the Soviet Union during the Soviet Central Asia era. North Asia is dominated by Siberian Russian cinema, and is thus considered part of European cinema. East Asian cinema is typified by the cinema of Japan, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan and South Korea, including the Japanese anime industry and action films of Hong Kong. South Asian cinema is typified by the cinema of India (including Bollywood, Telugu cinema, South Indian, Bengali and Punjabi cinema), the cinema of Pakistan (including Punjabi and Urdu cinema), the cinema of Bangladesh (Bengali cinema), and the cinema of Nepal. Southeast Asian cinema is typified by the cinema of the Singapore, Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, and other Southeast Asian countries. The cinema of Central Asia and the southern Caucasus is typified by Iranian cinema and the cinema of Tajikistan. West Asian cinema is typified by Arab cinema, Iranian cinema, Israeli cinema, Jewish cinema, and Turkish cinema. History. Precursors of film. A 5,200-year-old earthen bowl found in Shahr-i Sokhta, Iran, has five images of a goat painted along the sides. This is believed to be an example of early animation. Mo-Ti, a Chinese philosopher "circa" 500 BC, pondered the phenomenon of inverted light from the outside world beaming through a small hole in the opposite wall in a darkened room. Shadow plays first appeared during the Han Dynasty and later gain popularity across Asia. Around 180 AD, Ting Huan (丁緩) created an elementary zoetrope in China. In 1021, Alhazen, an Iraqi scientist, experimented with the same optical principle described by Mo-Ti, and wrote of the results in his "Book of Optics", which provided the first clear description and correct analysis of the "camera obscura". His lamp experiment, where several different light sources are arranged across a large area, was the first to successfully project an entire image from outdoors onto a screen indoors with the "camera obscura". Silent film era. The first short films from Asia were produced during the 1890s. The first short films produced in Japan were "Bake Jizo" ("Jizo the Spook") and "Shinin no Sosei" ("Resurrection of a Corpse"), both from 1898. The first Indian short film was also produced in 1898, "The Flower of Persia", directed by Hiralal Sen. In the early 1900s, Israeli silent movies were screened in sheds, cafes and other temporary structures. In 1905, Cafe Lorenz opened on Jaffa Road in the Jewish neighborhood of Neve Tzedek. From 1909, the Lorenz family began screening movies at the cafe. In 1925, the Kessem Cinema was housed there for a short time. The first East Asian feature film was Japan's "The Life Story of Tasuke Shiobara" (1912). It was followed by India's first feature-length silent film, the period piece drama "Raja Harishchandra" (1913), by Dadasaheb Phalke, considered the father of Indian cinema. By the next decade, the output of Indian cinema was an average of 27 films per year. In the 1920s, the newborn Soviet cinema was the most radically innovative. There, the craft of editing, especially, surged forward, going beyond its previous role in advancing a story. Sergei Eisenstein perfected the technique of so-called dialectical or intellectual montage, which strove to make non-linear, often violently clashing, images express ideas and provoke emotional and intellectual reactions in the viewer. Jewish cinema, particularly the Yiddish theater of Ashkenazi Jews, made its mark from the 1930s onward. Over 100 films were made in Yiddish, although many are now lost. Prominent films included "Shulamith" (1931), the first Yiddish musical on film "His Wife's Lover" (1931), "A Daughter of Her People" (1932), the anti-Nazi film "The Wandering Jew" (1933), "The Yiddish King Lear" (1934), "Shir Hashirim" (1935), the biggest Yiddish film hit of all time "Yidl Mitn Fidl" (1936), "Where Is My Child?" (1937), "Green Fields" (1937), "Dybuk" (1937), "The Singing Blacksmith" (1938), "Tevya" (1939), "Mirele Efros" (1939), "Lang ist der Weg" (1948), and "God, Man and Devil" (1950). Additionally, the films of the Marx Brothers, Mel Brooks, and Woody Allen have left a lasting mark on cinema. Early sound era. Sound films began being produced in Asia from the 1930s. Notable early talkies from the cinema of Japan included Kenji Mizoguchi's "Sisters of the Gion" ("Gion no shimai", 1936), "Osaka Elegy" (1936) and "The Story of the Last Chrysanthemums" (1939), along with Sadao Yamanaka's "Humanity and Paper Balloons" (1937) and Mikio Naruse's "Wife, Be Like A Rose!" ("Tsuma Yo Bara No Yoni", 1935), which was one of the first Japanese films to gain a theatrical release in the U.S. However, with increasing censorship, the left-leaning tendency films of directors such as Daisuke Ito also began to come under attack. A few Japanese sound shorts were made in the 1920s and 1930s, but Japan's first feature-length talkie was "Fujiwara Yoshie no furusato" (1930), which used the 'Mina Talkie System'. In 1935, Yasujirō Ozu also directed "An Inn in Tokyo", considered a precursor to the neorealism genre. Ardeshir Irani released "Alam Ara", the first Indian talking film, on March 14, 1931. Following the inception of 'talkies' in India some film stars were highly sought after and earned comfortable incomes through acting. As sound technology advanced the 1930s saw the rise of music in Indian cinema with musicals such as "Indra Sabha" and "Devi Devyani" marking the beginning of song-and-dance in India's films. Studios emerged across major cities such as Chennai, Kolkata and Mumbai as filmmaking became an established craft by 1935, exemplified by the success of "Devdas", which had managed to enthrall audiences nationwide. Golden Age. Following the end of World War II by the mid-1940s, the period from the late 1940s to the 1960s is considered the 'Golden Age' of Asian cinema. Many of the most critically acclaimed Asian films of all time were produced during this period, including Yasujirō Ozu's "Late Spring" (1949) and "Tokyo Story" (1953); Akira Kurosawa's "Rashomon" (1950), "Ikiru" (1952), "Seven Samurai" (1954) and "Throne of Blood" (1957); Kenji Mizoguchi's "The Life of Oharu" (1952), "Sansho the Bailiff" (1954) and "Ugetsu" (1954); Satyajit Ray's "The Apu Trilogy" (1955–1959), "The Music Room" (1958) and "Charulata" (1964); Guru Dutt's "Pyaasa" (1957) and "Kaagaz Ke Phool" (1959); and Fei Mu's "Spring in a Small Town" (1948), Raj Kapoor's "Awaara" (1951), Mikio Naruse's "Floating Clouds" (1955), Mehboob Khan's "Mother India" (1957), and Ritwik Ghatak's "Subarnarekha" (1962). During Japanese cinema's 'Golden Age' of the 1950s and 1960s, successful films included "Rashomon" (1950), "Seven Samurai" (1954) and "The Hidden Fortress" (1958) by Akira Kurosawa, as well as Yasujirō Ozu's "Tokyo Story" (1953) and Ishirō Honda's "Godzilla" (1954). These films have had a profound influence on world cinema. In particular, Kurosawa's "Seven Samurai" has been remade several times as Western films, such as "The Magnificent Seven" (1960) and "Battle Beyond the Stars" (1980), and has also inspired several Bollywood films, such as "Sholay" (1975) and "China Gate" (1998). "Rashomon" was also remade as "The Outrage" (1964), and inspired films with "Rashomon effect" storytelling methods, such as "Andha Naal" (1954), "The Usual Suspects" (1995) and "Hero" (2002). "The Hidden Fortress" was also the inspiration behind George Lucas' "Star Wars" (1977). The Japanese New Wave began in the late 1950s and continued into the 1960s. Other famous Japanese filmmakers from this period include Kenji Mizoguchi, Mikio Naruse, Hiroshi Inagaki and Nagisa Oshima. Japanese cinema later became one of the main inspirations behind the New Hollywood movement of the 1960s to 1980s. During Indian cinema's 'Golden Age' of the 1950s and 1960s, it was producing 200 films annually, while Indian independent films gained greater recognition through international film festivals. One of the most famous was "The Apu Trilogy" (1955–1959) from critically acclaimed Bengali film director Satyajit Ray, whose films had a profound influence on world cinema, with directors such as Akira Kurosawa, Martin Scorsese, James Ivory, Abbas Kiarostami, Elia Kazan, François Truffaut, Steven Spielberg, Carlos Saura, Jean-Luc Godard, Isao Takahata, Gregory Nava, Ira Sachs, Wes Anderson and Danny Boyle being influenced by his cinematic style. According to Michael Sragow of "The Atlantic Monthly", the "youthful coming-of-age dramas that have flooded art houses since the mid-fifties owe a tremendous debt to the Apu trilogy". Subrata Mitra's cinematographic technique of bounce lighting also originates from "The Apu Trilogy". Satyajit Ray's success led to the establishment of the 'Parallel Cinema' movement, which was at its peak during the 1950s and 1960s. Other famous Indian filmmakers from this period include Guru Dutt, Ritwik Ghatak, Mrinal Sen, Bimal Roy, K. Asif and Mehboob Khan. The cinema of China experienced a 'Golden Age' in the late 1940s. In 1946, Cai Chusheng returned to Shanghai to revive the Lianhua name as the "Lianhua Film Society." This in turn became Kunlun Studios which would go on to become one of the most important Chinese studios of the era, putting out the classics, "Myriads of Lights" (1948), "The Spring River Flows East" (1947), and "Crows and Sparrows" (1949). Wenhua's romantic drama "Spring in a Small Town" (1948), a film by director Fei Mu shortly prior to the revolution, is often regarded by Chinese film critics as one of the most important films in the history of Chinese cinema, with it being named by the Hong Kong Film Awards in 2004 as the greatest Chinese-language film ever made. The cinema of Malaysia also had its 'Golden Age' in the post-war period of the 1950s and 1960s. The period saw the introduction of the studio system of filmmaking in Malaysia and influx of influences from Hollywood, the emerging cinema of Hong Kong, and particularly the Indian and Japanese film industries which were themselves experiencing a Golden Age. The cinema of South Korea also experienced a 'Golden Age' in the late 1950s and 1960s, beginning with director Lee Kyu-hwan's tremendously successful remake of "Chunhyang-jon" (1955). That year also saw the release of "Yangsan Province" by the renowned director, Kim Ki-young, marking the beginning of his productive career. Both the quality and quantity of filmmaking had increased rapidly by the end of the 1950s. South Korean films, such as Lee Byeong-il's 1956 comedy "Sijibganeun nal (The Wedding Day)", had begun winning international awards. In contrast to the beginning of the 1950s, when only 5 movies were made per year, 111 films were produced in South Korea in 1959. The year 1960 saw the production of Kim Ki-young's "The Housemaid" and Yu Hyun-mok's "Aimless Bullet", both of which have been listed among the best Korean films ever made. The late 1950s and 1960s was also a 'Golden Age' for Philippine cinema, with the emergence of more artistic and mature films, and significant improvement in cinematic techniques among filmmakers. The studio system produced frenetic activity in the local film industry as many films were made annually and several local talents started to earn recognition abroad. The premiere Philippine directors of the era included Gerardo de Leon, Gregorio Fernandez, Eddie Romero, Lamberto Avellana, and Cirio Santiago. The 1960s is often cited as being the 'golden age' of Pakistani cinema. Many A-stars were introduced in this period in time and became legends on the silver screen. As black-and-white became obsolete, Pakistan saw the introduction of its first colour films, the first being Munshi Dil's "Azra" in early 1960s, Zahir Rehan's "Sangam" (first full-length coloured film) in 1964, and "Mala" (first coloured cinemascope film). In 1961, the political film "Bombay Wallah" was released, based on the city of Bombay in neighbouring India, in the wake of the growing tension between the nations. In 1962, "Shaheed" ("Martyr") pronounced the Palestine issue on the silver screen and became an instant hit, leading to a changing tide in the attitude of filmmakers. The 1960s was the "golden age" of Cambodian cinema. Several production companies were started and more movie theaters were built throughout the country. More than 300 movies were made in Cambodia during the era. A number of Khmer language films were well received in its neougbouring countries at the time. Among the classic films from Cambodia during this period were "Lea Haey Duong Dara" ("Goodbye Duong Dara") and "Pos Keng Kang" ("The Snake King's Wife") by Tea Lim Kun and Sabbseth, and "An Euil Srey An" ("Khmer After Angkor") by Ly Bun Yim. The range of Jewish entrepreneurs in the American film industry is considerable: Samuel Goldwyn, Louis B. Mayer, the Warner Brothers, David O. Selznick, Marcus Loew, and Adolph Zukor, Fox, and so forth. A more specifically Jewish sensibility can be seen in the films of the Marx Brothers, Mel Brooks, or Woody Allen; other examples of specifically Jewish films from the Hollywood film industry are the Barbra Streisand vehicle Yentl (1983), or John Frankenheimer's The Fixer (1968). In 1966, 2.6 million Israelis went to the cinema over 50 million times. From 1968, when television broadcasting began, theaters began to close down, first in the periphery, then in major cities. 330 standalone theaters were torn down or redesigned as multiplex theaters. Modern era. By the late '60s and early '70s, Japanese cinema had begun to become seriously affected by the collapse of the studio system. As Japanese cinema slipped into a period of relative low visibility, the cinema of Hong Kong entered a dramatic renaissance of its own, largely a side effect of the development of the "wuxia" blending of action, history, and spiritual concerns. Several major figures emerged in Hong Kong at this time - perhaps most famously, King Hu, whose 1966 "Come Drink With Me" was a key influence upon many subsequent Hong Kong cinematic developments. Shortly thereafter, the American-born Bruce Lee became a global icon in the 1970s. From 1969 onwards, the Iranian New Wave led to the growth of Iranian cinema, which would later go on to achieve international acclaim in the 1980s and 1990s. The most notable figures of the Iranian New Wave are Abbas Kiarostami, Jafar Panahi, Majid Majidi, Bahram Beizai, Darius Mehrjui, Mohsen Makhmalbaf, Masoud Kimiay, Sohrab Shahid-Saless, Parviz Kimiavi, Samira Makhmalbaf, Amir Naderi, and Abolfazl Jalili. Features of New Wave Iranian film, in particular the works of Kiarostami, have been classified by some as postmodern. The 1970s also saw the establishment of Bangladeshi cinema following the country's independence in 1971. One of the first films produced in Bangladesh after independence was "Titash Ekti Nadir Naam" ("A River Called Titas") in 1973 by acclaimed director Ritwik Ghatak, whose stature in Bengali cinema is comparable to that of Satyajit Ray and Mrinal Sen. Another great film of Bangladesh is Mita's 'Lathial' (The striker), were the best movies of the year of 1975. 'Lathial' got first National Award as the best film, and mita got first National Award as best director. In the cinema of India, the 1970s saw a decline in 'Parallel Cinema' and the rise of commercial Hindi cinema in the form of enduring "masala" films, a genre largely pioneered by screenwriter duo Salim–Javed, with films such as the Mumbai underworld crime drama "Deewaar" (1975) and the "Curry Western" movie "Sholay" (1975), which solidified Amitabh Bachchan's position as a lead actor. Commercial cinema further grew throughout the 1980s and the 1990s with the release of films such as "Mr. India" (1987), "Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak" (1988), "Tezaab" (1988), "Chandni" (1989), "Maine Pyar Kiya" (1989), "Baazigar" (1993), "Darr" (1993), "Hum Aapke Hain Koun..!" (1994) and "Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge" (1995). By this time, the term "Bollywood" was coined to refer to the Hindi-language Bombay (now Mumbai) film industry. The most successful Indian actors between the 1990s and the 2010s are Aamir Khan, Akshay Kumar, Salman Khan and Shah Rukh Khan. During the 1980s, Japanese cinema - aided by the rise of independent filmmaking and the spectacular success of anime - began to make something of an international comeback. Simultaneously, a new post-Mao Zedong generation of Chinese filmmakers began to gain global attention. Another group of filmmakers, centered around Edward Yang and Hou Hsiao-hsien, launched what has become known as the "Taiwanese New Wave". The 1980s is also considered the Golden Age of Hong Kong action cinema. Jackie Chan reinvented the martial arts film genre with a new emphasis on elaborate and dangerous stunts and slapstick humour, beginning with "Project A" (1983). John Woo began the "heroic bloodshed" genre based on triads, beginning with "A Better Tomorrow" (1986). The Hong Kong New Wave also occurred during this period, led by filmmakers such as Tsui Hark. With the post-1980 rise in popularity of East Asian cinema in the West, Western audiences are again becoming familiar with many of the industry's filmmakers and stars. A number of these key players, such as Chow Yun-fat and Zhang Ziyi, have "crossed over", working in Western films. Others have gained exposure through the international success of their films, though many more retain more of a "cult" appeal, finding a degree of Western success through DVD sales rather than cinema releases. In the modern era, the success of Israeli and diaspora Jewish cinema can be observed in industry giants ranging from Michael Ovitz, Michael Eisner, Lew Wasserman, Jeffrey Katzenberg, Steven Spielberg, and David Geffen. However, few of these ever focused on Jewish issues with the sometime exception of Spielberg. In the first decade of the 21st century, several Israeli films won awards in film festivals around the world. Prominent films of this period include "Late Marriage" (Dover Koshashvili), "Broken Wings", "Walk on Water" and "Yossi & Jagger" (Eytan Fox), "Nina's Tragedies", "Campfire" and "Beaufort" (Joseph Cedar), "Or (My Treasure)" (Keren Yedaya), "Turn Left at the End of the World" (Avi Nesher), "The Band's Visit" (Eran Kolirin) "Waltz With Bashir" (Ari Folman), and "Ajami". In 2011, Strangers No More won the Oscar for best Short Documentary. In 2020, "Parasite" become the first non-English language film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture at the 92nd edition.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147019

Seabirds (also known as marine birds) are birds that are adapted to life within the marine environment. While seabirds vary greatly in lifestyle, behaviour and physiology, they often exhibit striking convergent evolution, as the same environmental problems and feeding niches have resulted in similar adaptations. The first seabirds evolved in the Cretaceous period, and modern seabird families emerged in the Paleogene. In general, seabirds live longer, breed later and have fewer young than other birds do, but they invest a great deal of time in their young. Most species nest in colonies, which can vary in size from a few dozen birds to millions. Many species are famous for undertaking long annual migrations, crossing the equator or circumnavigating the Earth in some cases. They feed both at the ocean's surface and below it, and even feed on each other. Seabirds can be highly pelagic, coastal, or in some cases spend a part of the year away from the sea entirely. Seabirds and humans have a long history together: they have provided food to hunters, guided fishermen to fishing stocks and led sailors to land. Many species are currently threatened by human activities, such as from oil spills, getting trapped in nets, and by climate change and severe weather. Conservation efforts include the establishment of wildlife refugees and adjustments to fishing techniques. Classification. There exists no single definition of which groups, families and species are seabirds, and most definitions are in some way arbitrary. Elizabeth Shreiber and Joanne Burger, two seabird scientists, said, "The one common characteristic that all seabirds share is that they feed in saltwater; but, as seems to be true with any statement in biology, some do not." However, by convention all of the Sphenisciformes and Procellariiformes, all of the Suliformes except the darters, and some of the Charadriiformes (the skuas, gulls, terns, auks and skimmers) are classified as seabirds. The phalaropes are usually included as well, since although they are waders ("shorebirds" in North America), two of the three species (Red and Red-necked) are oceanic for nine months of the year, crossing the equator to feed pelagically. Loons and grebes, which nest on lakes but winter at sea, are usually categorized as water birds, not seabirds. Although there are a number of sea ducks in the family Anatidae that are truly marine in the winter, by convention they are usually excluded from the seabird grouping. Many waders (or shorebirds) and herons are also highly marine, living on the sea's edge (coast), but are also not treated as seabirds. Sea eagles and other fish-eating birds of prey are also typically excluded, however tied to marine environments they may be. German paleontologist Gerald Mayr defined the "core waterbird" clade Aequornithes in 2010. This lineage gives rise to the Gaviiformes, Sphenisciformes, Procellariiformes, Ciconiiformes, Suliformes and Pelecaniformes. The tropicbirds are part of a lineage—Eurypygimorphae—that is a sister group to the Aequornithes. Evolution and fossil record. Seabirds, by virtue of living in a geologically depositional environment (that is, in the sea where sediments are readily laid down), are well represented in the fossil record. They are first known to occur in the Cretaceous period, the earliest being the Hesperornithiformes, like "Hesperornis regalis", a flightless loon-like seabird that could dive in a fashion similar to grebes and loons (using its feet to move underwater) but had a beak filled with sharp teeth. Flying Cretaceous seabirds do not exceed wingspans of two meters; any sizes were taken by piscivorous pterosaurs. While "Hesperornis" is not thought to have left descendants, the earliest modern seabirds also occurred in the Cretaceous, with a species called "Tytthostonyx glauconiticus", which has features suggestive of Procellariiformes and Fregatidae. As a clade, the Aequornithes either became seabirds in a single transition in the Cretaceous or some lineages such as pelicans and frigatebirds adapted to sea living independently from freshwater-dwelling ancestors. In the Paleogene both pterosaurs and marine reptiles became extinct, allowing seabirds to expand ecologically. These post-extinction seas were dominated by early Procellariidae, giant penguins and two extinct families, the Pelagornithidae and the Plotopteridae (a group of large seabirds that looked like the penguins). Modern genera began their wide radiation in the Miocene, although the genus "Puffinus" (which includes today's Manx shearwater and sooty shearwater) might date back to the Oligocene. Within the Charadriiformes, the gulls and allies (Lari) became seabirds in the late Eocene, and then waders in the middle Miocene (Langhian). The highest diversity of seabirds apparently existed during the Late Miocene and the Pliocene. At the end of the latter, the oceanic food web had undergone a period of upheaval due to extinction of considerable numbers of marine species; subsequently, the spread of marine mammals seems to have prevented seabirds from reaching their erstwhile diversity. Characteristics. Adaptations to life at sea. Seabirds have made numerous adaptations to living on and feeding in the sea. Wing morphology has been shaped by the niche an individual species or family has evolved, so that looking at a wing's shape and loading can tell a scientist about its life feeding behaviour. Longer wings and low wing loading are typical of more pelagic species, while diving species have shorter wings. Species such as the wandering albatross, which forage over huge areas of sea, have a reduced capacity for powered flight and are dependent on a type of gliding called dynamic soaring (where the wind deflected by waves provides lift) as well as slope soaring. Seabirds also almost always have webbed feet, to aid movement on the surface as well as assisting diving in some species. The Procellariiformes are unusual among birds in having a strong sense of smell, which is used to find widely distributed food in a vast ocean, and help distinguish familiar nest odours from unfamiliar ones. Salt glands are used by seabirds to deal with the salt they ingest by drinking and feeding (particularly on crustaceans), and to help them osmoregulate. The excretions from these glands (which are positioned in the head of the birds, emerging from the nasal cavity) are almost pure sodium chloride. With the exception of the cormorants and some terns, and in common with most other birds, all seabirds have waterproof plumage. However, compared to land birds, they have far more feathers protecting their bodies. This dense plumage is better able to protect the bird from getting wet, and cold is kept out by a dense layer of down feathers. The cormorants possess a layer of unique feathers that retain a smaller layer of air (compared to other diving birds) but otherwise soak up water. This allows them to swim without fighting the buoyancy that retaining air in the feathers causes, yet retain enough air to prevent the bird losing excessive heat through contact with water. The plumage of most seabirds is less colourful than that of land birds, restricted in the main to variations of black, white or grey. A few species sport colourful plumes (such as the tropicbirds and some penguins), but most of the colour in seabirds appears in the bills and legs. The plumage of seabirds is thought in many cases to be for camouflage, both defensive (the colour of US Navy battleships is the same as that of Antarctic prions, and in both cases it reduces visibility at sea) and aggressive (the white underside possessed by many seabirds helps hide them from prey below). The usually black wing tips help prevent wear, as they contain melanins to make them black that helps the feathers resist abrasion. Diet and feeding. Seabirds evolved to exploit different food resources in the world's seas and oceans, and to a great extent, their physiology and behaviour have been shaped by their diet. These evolutionary forces have often caused species in different families and even orders to evolve similar strategies and adaptations to the same problems, leading to remarkable convergent evolution, such as that between auks and penguins. There are four basic feeding strategies, or ecological guilds, for feeding at sea: surface feeding, pursuit diving, plunge diving and predation of higher vertebrates; within these guilds there are multiple variations on the theme. Surface feeding. Many seabirds feed on the ocean's surface, as the action of marine currents often concentrates food such as krill, forage fish, squid or other prey items within reach of a dipped head. Surface feeding itself can be broken up into two different approaches, surface feeding while flying (for example as practiced by gadfly petrels, frigatebirds and storm petrels), and surface feeding while swimming (examples of which are practiced by fulmars, gulls, many of the shearwaters and gadfly petrels). Surface feeders in flight include some of the most acrobatic of seabirds, which either snatch morsels from the water (as do frigate-birds and some terns), or "walk", pattering and hovering on the water's surface, as some of the storm-petrels do. Many of these do not ever land in the water, and some, such as the frigatebirds, have difficulty getting airborne again should they do so. Another seabird family that does not land while feeding is the skimmer, which has a unique fishing method: flying along the surface with the lower mandible in the water—this shuts automatically when the bill touches something in the water. The skimmer's bill reflects its unusual lifestyle, with the lower mandible uniquely being longer than the upper one. Surface feeders that swim often have unique bills as well, adapted for their specific prey. Prions have special bills with filters called lamellae to filter out plankton from mouthfuls of water, and many albatrosses and petrels have hooked bills to snatch fast-moving prey. Many gulls are opportunistic feeders. Pursuit diving. Pursuit diving exerts greater pressures (both evolutionary and physiological) on seabirds, but the reward is a greater area in which to feed than is available to surface feeders. Underwater propulsion is provided by wings (as used by penguins, auks, diving petrels and some other species of petrel) or feet (as used by cormorants, grebes, loons and several types of fish-eating ducks). Wing-propelled divers are generally faster than foot-propelled divers. The use of wings or feet for diving has limited their utility in other situations: loons and grebes walk with extreme difficulty (if at all), penguins cannot fly, and auks have sacrificed flight efficiency in favour of diving. For example, the razorbill (an Atlantic auk) requires 64% more energy to fly than a petrel of equivalent size. Many shearwaters are intermediate between the two, having longer wings than typical wing-propelled divers but heavier wing loadings than the other surface-feeding procellariids, leaving them capable of diving to considerable depths while still being efficient long-distance travellers. The short-tailed shearwater is the deepest diver of the shearwaters, having been recorded diving below . Some albatross species are also capable of limited diving, with light-mantled sooty albatrosses holding the record at . Of all the wing-propelled pursuit divers, the most efficient in the air are the albatrosses, and they are also the poorest divers. This is the dominant guild in polar and subpolar environments, but it is energetically inefficient in warmer waters. With their poor flying ability, many wing-propelled pursuit divers are more limited in their foraging range than other guilds. Plunge diving. Gannets, boobies, tropicbirds, some terns and brown pelicans all engage in plunge diving, taking fast moving prey by diving into the water from flight. Plunge diving allows birds to use the energy from the momentum of the dive to combat natural buoyancy (caused by air trapped in plumage), and thus uses less energy than the dedicated pursuit divers, allowing them to utilise more widely distributed food resources, for example, in impoverished tropical seas. In general, this is the most specialised method of hunting employed by seabirds; other non-specialists (such as gulls and skuas) may employ it but do so with less skill and from lower heights. In brown pelicans the skills of plunge diving take several years to fully develop—once mature, they can dive from 20 m (70 ft) above the water's surface, shifting the body before impact to avoid injury. It may be that plunge divers are restricted in their hunting grounds to clear waters that afford a view of their prey from the air. While they are the dominant guild in the tropics, the link between plunge diving and water clarity is inconclusive. Some plunge divers (as well as some surface feeders) are dependent on dolphins and tuna to push shoaling fish up towards the surface. Kleptoparasitism, scavenging and predation. This catch-all category refers to other seabird strategies that involve the next trophic level up. Kleptoparasites are seabirds that make a part of their living stealing food of other seabirds. Most famously, frigatebirds and skuas engage in this behaviour, although gulls, terns and other species will steal food opportunistically. The nocturnal nesting behaviour of some seabirds has been interpreted as arising due to pressure from this aerial piracy. Kleptoparasitism is not thought to play a significant part of the diet of any species, and is instead a supplement to food obtained by hunting. A study of great frigatebirds stealing from masked boobies estimated that the frigatebirds could at most obtain 40% of the food they needed, and on average obtained only 5%. Many species of gull will feed on seabird and sea mammal carrion when the opportunity arises, as will giant petrels. Some species of albatross also engage in scavenging: an analysis of regurgitated squid beaks has shown that many of the squid eaten are too large to have been caught alive, and include mid-water species likely to be beyond the reach of albatrosses. Some species will also feed on other seabirds; for example, gulls, skuas and pelicans will often take eggs, chicks and even small adult seabirds from nesting colonies, while the giant petrels can kill prey up to the size of small penguins and seal pups. Life history. Seabirds' life histories are dramatically different from those of land birds. In general, they are K-selected, live much longer (anywhere between twenty and sixty years), delay breeding for longer (for up to ten years), and invest more effort into fewer young. Most species will only have one clutch a year, unless they lose the first (with a few exceptions, like the Cassin's auklet), and many species (like the tubenoses and sulids) will only lay one egg a year. Care of young is protracted, extending for as long as six months, among the longest for birds. For example, once common guillemot chicks fledge, they remain with the male parent for several months at sea. The frigatebirds have the longest period of parental care of any bird except a few raptors and the southern ground hornbill, with each chick fledging after four to six months and continued assistance after that for up to fourteen months. Due to the extended period of care, breeding occurs every two years rather than annually for some species. This life-history strategy has probably evolved both in response to the challenges of living at sea (collecting widely scattered prey items), the frequency of breeding failures due to unfavourable marine conditions, and the relative lack of predation compared to that of land-living birds. Because of the greater investment in raising the young and because foraging for food may occur far from the nest site, in all seabird species except the phalaropes, both parents participate in caring for the young, and pairs are typically at least seasonally monogamous. Many species, such as gulls, auks and penguins, retain the same mate for several seasons, and many petrel species mate for life. Albatrosses and procellariids, which mate for life, take many years to form a pair bond before they breed, and the albatrosses have an elaborate breeding dance that is part of pair-bond formation. Breeding and colonies. Ninety-five percent of seabirds are colonial, and seabird colonies are among the largest bird colonies in the world, providing one of Earth's great wildlife spectacles. Colonies of over a million birds have been recorded, both in the tropics (such as Kiritimati in the Pacific) and in the polar latitudes (as in Antarctica). Seabird colonies occur exclusively for the purpose of breeding; non-breeding birds will only collect together outside the breeding season in areas where prey species are densely aggregated. Seabird colonies are highly variable. Individual nesting sites can be widely spaced, as in an albatross colony, or densely packed as with a murre colony. In most seabird colonies, several different species will nest on the same colony, often exhibiting some niche separation. Seabirds can nest in trees (if any are available), on the ground (with or without nests), on cliffs, in burrows under the ground and in rocky crevices. Competition can be strong both within species and between species, with aggressive species such as sooty terns pushing less dominant species out of the most desirable nesting spaces. The tropical Bonin petrel nests during the winter to avoid competition with the more aggressive wedge-tailed shearwater. When the seasons overlap, the wedge-tailed shearwaters will kill young Bonin petrels in order to use their burrows. Many seabirds show remarkable site fidelity, returning to the same burrow, nest or site for many years, and they will defend that site from rivals with great vigour. This increases breeding success, provides a place for returning mates to reunite, and reduces the costs of prospecting for a new site. Young adults breeding for the first time usually return to their natal colony, and often nest close to where they hatched. This tendency, known as philopatry, is so strong that a study of Laysan albatrosses found that the average distance between hatching site and the site where a bird established its own territory was ; another study, this time on Cory's shearwaters nesting near Corsica, found that of nine out of 61 male chicks that returned to breed at their natal colony bred in the burrow they were raised in, and two actually bred with their own mother. Colonies are usually situated on islands, cliffs or headlands, which land mammals have difficulty accessing. This is thought to provide protection to seabirds, which are often very clumsy on land. Coloniality often arises in types of bird that do not defend feeding territories (such as swifts, which have a very variable prey source); this may be a reason why it arises more frequently in seabirds. There are other possible advantages: colonies may act as information centres, where seabirds returning to the sea to forage can find out where prey is by studying returning individuals of the same species. There are disadvantages to colonial life, particularly the spread of disease. Colonies also attract the attention of predators, principally other birds, and many species attend their colonies nocturnally to avoid predation. Birds from different colonies often forage in different areas to avoid competition. Migration. Like many birds, seabirds often migrate after the breeding season. Of these, the trip taken by the Arctic tern is the farthest of any bird, crossing the equator in order to spend the Austral summer in Antarctica. Other species also undertake trans-equatorial trips, both from the north to the south, and from south to north. The population of elegant terns, which nest off Baja California, splits after the breeding season with some birds travelling north to the Central Coast of California and some travelling as far south as Peru and Chile to feed in the Humboldt Current. The sooty shearwater undertakes an annual migration cycle that rivals that of the Arctic tern; birds that nest in New Zealand and Chile and spend the northern summer feeding in the North Pacific off Japan, Alaska and California, an annual round trip of . Other species also migrate shorter distances away from the breeding sites, their distribution at sea determined by the availability of food. If oceanic conditions are unsuitable, seabirds will emigrate to more productive areas, sometimes permanently if the bird is young. After fledging, juvenile birds often disperse further than adults, and to different areas, so are commonly sighted far from a species' normal range. Some species, such as the auks, do not have a concerted migration effort, but drift southwards as the winter approaches. Other species, such as some of the storm petrels, diving petrels and cormorants, never disperse at all, staying near their breeding colonies year round. Away from the sea. While the definition of seabirds suggests that the birds in question spend their lives on the ocean, many seabird families have many species that spend some or even most of their lives inland away from the sea. Most strikingly, many species breed tens, hundreds or even thousands of miles inland. Some of these species still return to the ocean to feed; for example, the snow petrel, the nests of which have been found inland on the Antarctic mainland, are unlikely to find anything to eat around their breeding sites. The marbled murrelet nests inland in old growth forest, seeking huge conifers with large branches to nest on. Other species, such as the California gull, nest and feed inland on lakes, and then move to the coasts in the winter. Some cormorant, pelican, gull and tern species have individuals that never visit the sea at all, spending their lives on lakes, rivers, swamps and, in the case of some of the gulls, cities and agricultural land. In these cases it is thought that these terrestrial or freshwater birds evolved from marine ancestors. Some seabirds, principally those that nest in tundra, as skuas and phalaropes do, will migrate over land as well. The more marine species, such as petrels, auks and gannets, are more restricted in their habits, but are occasionally seen inland as vagrants. This most commonly happens to young inexperienced birds, but can happen in great numbers to exhausted adults after large storms, an event known as a "wreck". Relationship with humans. Seabirds and fisheries. Seabirds have had a long association with both fisheries and sailors, and both have drawn benefits and disadvantages from the relationship. Fishermen have traditionally used seabirds as indicators of both fish shoals, underwater banks that might indicate fish stocks, and of potential landfall. In fact, the known association of seabirds with land was instrumental in allowing the Polynesians to locate tiny landmasses in the Pacific. Seabirds have provided food for fishermen away from home, as well as bait. Famously, tethered cormorants have been used to catch fish directly. Indirectly, fisheries have also benefited from guano from colonies of seabirds acting as fertilizer for the surrounding seas. Negative effects on fisheries are mostly restricted to raiding by birds on aquaculture, although long-lining fisheries also have to deal with bait stealing. There have been claims of prey depletion by seabirds of fishery stocks, and while there is some evidence of this, the effects of seabirds are considered smaller than that of marine mammals and predatory fish (like tuna). Some seabird species have benefited from fisheries, particularly from discarded fish and offal. These discards compose 30% of the food of seabirds in the North Sea, for example, and compose up to 70% of the total food of some seabird populations. This can have other impacts; for example, the spread of the northern fulmar through the United Kingdom is attributed in part to the availability of discards. Discards generally benefit surface feeders, such as gannets and petrels, to the detriment of pursuit divers like penguins and guillemots, which can get entangled in the nets. Fisheries also have negative effects on seabirds, and these effects, particularly on the long-lived and slow-breeding albatrosses, are a source of increasing concern to conservationists. The bycatch of seabirds entangled in nets or hooked on fishing lines has had a big impact on seabird numbers; for example, an estimated 100,000 albatrosses are hooked and drown each year on tuna lines set out by long-line fisheries. Overall, many hundreds of thousands of birds are trapped and killed each year, a source of concern for some of the rarest species (for example, only about 2,000 short-tailed albatrosses are known to still exist). Seabirds are also thought to suffer when overfishing occurs. Changes to the marine ecosystems caused by dredging, which alters the biodiversity of the seafloor, can also have a negative impact. Exploitation. The hunting of seabirds and the collecting of seabird eggs have contributed to the declines of many species, and the extinction of several, including the great auk and the spectacled cormorant. Seabirds have been hunted for food by coastal peoples throughout history—one of the earliest instances known is in southern Chile, where archaeological excavations in middens has shown hunting of albatrosses, cormorants and shearwaters from 5000 BP. This pressure has led to some species becoming extinct in many places; in particular, at least 20 species of an original 29 no longer breed on Easter Island. In the 19th century, the hunting of seabirds for fat deposits and feathers for the millinery trade reached industrial levels. Muttonbirding (harvesting shearwater chicks) developed as important industries in both New Zealand and Tasmania, and the name of one species, the providence petrel, is derived from its seemingly miraculous arrival on Norfolk Island where it provided a windfall for starving European settlers. In the Falkland Islands, hundreds of thousands of penguins were harvested for their oil each year. Seabird eggs have also long been an important source of food for sailors undertaking long sea voyages, as well as being taken when settlements grow in areas near a colony. Eggers from San Francisco took almost half a million eggs a year from the Farallon Islands in the mid-19th century, a period in the islands' history from which the seabird species are still recovering. Both hunting and egging continue today, although not at the levels that occurred in the past, and generally in a more controlled manner. For example, the Māori of Stewart Island/Rakiura continue to harvest the chicks of the sooty shearwater as they have done for centuries, using traditional stewardship, "kaitiakitanga", to manage the harvest, but now also work with the University of Otago in studying the populations. In Greenland, however, uncontrolled hunting is pushing many species into steep decline. Other threats. Other human factors have led to declines and even extinctions in seabird populations and species. Of these, perhaps the most serious are introduced species. Seabirds, breeding predominantly on small isolated islands, are vulnerable to predators because they have lost many behaviours associated with defence from predators. Feral cats can take seabirds as large as albatrosses, and many introduced rodents, such as the Pacific rat, take eggs hidden in burrows. Introduced goats, cattle, rabbits and other herbivores can create problems, particularly when species need vegetation to protect or shade their young. The disturbance of breeding colonies by humans is often a problem as well—visitors, even well-meaning tourists, can flush brooding adults off a colony, leaving chicks and eggs vulnerable to predators. The build-up of toxins and pollutants in seabirds is also a concern. Seabirds, being apex predators, suffered from the ravages of the insecticide DDT until it was banned; DDT was implicated, for example, in embryo development problems and the skewed sex ratio of western gulls in southern California. Oil spills are also a threat to seabirds: the oil is toxic, and bird feathers become saturated by the oil, causing them to lose their waterproofing. Oil pollution in particular threatens species with restricted ranges or already depressed populations. Climate change mainly affect seabirds via changes to their habitat: various processes in the ocean lead to decreased availability of food and colonies are more often flooded as a consequence of sea level rise and extreme rainfall events. Heat stress from extreme temperatures is an additional threat. Some seabirds have used changing wind patterns to forage further and more efficiently. Conservation. The threats faced by seabirds have not gone unnoticed by scientists or the conservation movement. As early as 1903, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt was convinced of the need to declare Pelican Island in Florida a National Wildlife Refuge to protect the bird colonies (including the nesting brown pelicans), and in 1909 he protected the Farallon Islands. Today many important seabird colonies are given some measure of protection, from Heron Island in Australia to Triangle Island in British Columbia. Island restoration techniques, pioneered by New Zealand, enable the removal of exotic invaders from increasingly large islands. Feral cats have been removed from Ascension Island, Arctic foxes from many islands in the Aleutian Islands, and rats from Campbell Island. The removal of these introduced species has led to increases in numbers of species under pressure and even the return of extirpated ones. After the removal of cats from Ascension Island, seabirds began to nest there again for the first time in over a hundred years. Seabird mortality caused by long-line fisheries can be greatly reduced by techniques such as setting long-line bait at night, dying the bait blue, setting the bait underwater, increasing the amount of weight on lines and by using bird scarers, and their deployment is increasingly required by many national fishing fleets. One of the Millennium Projects in the UK was the Scottish Seabird Centre, near the important bird sanctuaries on Bass Rock, Fidra and the surrounding islands. The area is home to huge colonies of gannets, puffins, skuas and other seabirds. The centre allows visitors to watch live video from the islands as well as learn about the threats the birds face and how we can protect them, and has helped to significantly raise the profile of seabird conservation in the UK. Seabird tourism can provide income for coastal communities as well as raise the profile of seabird conservation, although it needs to be managed to ensure it does not harm the colonies and nesting birds. For example, the northern royal albatross colony at Taiaroa Head in New Zealand attracts 40,000 visitors a year. The plight of albatross and large seabirds, as well as other marine creatures, being taken as bycatch by long-line fisheries, has been addressed by a large number of non-governmental organizations (including BirdLife International, the American Bird Conservancy and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds). This led to the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels, a legally binding treaty designed to protect these threatened species, which has been ratified by thirteen countries as of 2021 (Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, France, New Zealand, Norway, Peru, South Africa, Spain, Uruguay, United Kingdom). Role in culture. Many seabirds are little studied and poorly known because they live far out at sea and breed in isolated colonies. Some seabirds, particularly the albatrosses and gulls, are more well known to humans. The albatross has been described as "the most legendary of birds", and have a variety of myths and legends associated with them. While it is widely considered unlucky to harm them, the notion that sailors believed that is a myth that derives from Samuel Taylor Coleridge's famous poem, "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner", in which a sailor is punished for killing an albatross by having to wear its corpse around his neck. Sailors did, however, consider it unlucky to touch a storm petrel, especially one that landed on the ship. Gulls are one of the most commonly seen seabirds because they frequent human-made habitats (such as cities and dumps) and often show a fearless nature. Gulls have been used as metaphors, as in "Jonathan Livingston Seagull" by Richard Bach, or to denote a closeness to the sea; in "The Lord of the Rings", they appear in the insignia of Gondor and therefore Númenor (used in the design of the films), and they call Legolas to (and across) the sea. Pelicans have long been associated with mercy and altruism because of an early Christian myth that they split open their breast to feed their starving chicks. Seabird families. The following are the groups of birds normally classed as seabirds. Sphenisciformes (Antarctic and southern waters; 16 species) Procellariiformes (Tubenoses: pan-oceanic and pelagic; 93 species) Pelecaniformes (Worldwide; 8 species) Suliformes (Worldwide; about 56 species) Phaethontiformes (Worldwide tropical seas; 3 species) Charadriiformes (Worldwide; 305 species, but only the families listed are classed as seabirds.) For an alternative taxonomy of these groups, see also Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy.

growing preoccupation

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32706791

Genome instability (also genetic instability or genomic instability) refers to a high frequency of mutations within the genome of a cellular lineage. These mutations can include changes in nucleic acid sequences, chromosomal rearrangements or aneuploidy. Genome instability does occur in bacteria. In multicellular organisms genome instability is central to carcinogenesis, and in humans it is also a factor in some neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or the neuromuscular disease myotonic dystrophy. The sources of genome instability have only recently begun to be elucidated. A high frequency of externally caused DNA damage can be one source of genome instability since DNA damages can cause inaccurate translesion synthesis past the damages or errors in repair, leading to mutation. Another source of genome instability may be epigenetic or mutational reductions in expression of DNA repair genes. Because endogenous (metabolically-caused) DNA damage is very frequent, occurring on average more than 60,000 times a day in the genomes of human cells, any reduced DNA repair is likely an important source of genome instability. The usual genome situation. Usually, all cells in an individual in a given species (plant or animal) show a constant number of chromosomes, which constitute what is known as the karyotype defining this species (see also List of number of chromosomes of various organisms), although some species present a very high karyotypic variability. In humans, mutations that would change an amino acid within the protein coding region of the genome occur at an average of only 0.35 per generation (less than one mutated protein per generation). Sometimes, in a species with a stable karyotype, random variations that modify the normal number of chromosomes may be observed. In other cases, there are structural alterations (chromosomal translocations, deletions ...) that modify the standard chromosomal complement. In these cases, it is indicated that the affected organism presents genome instability (also "genetic instability", or even "chromosomic instability"). The process of genome instability often leads to a situation of aneuploidy, in which the cells present a chromosomic number that is either higher or lower than the normal complement for the species. Causes of genome instability. DNA Replication Defects. In the cell cycle, DNA is usually most vulnerable during replication. The replisome must be able to navigate obstacles such as tightly wound chromatin with bound proteins, single and double stranded breaks which can lead to the stalling of the replication fork. Each protein or enzyme in the replisome must perform its function well to result in a perfect copy of DNA. Mutations of proteins such as DNA polymerase, ligase, can lead to impairment of replication and lead to spontaneous chromosomal exchanges. Proteins such as Tel1, Mec1 (ATR, ATM in humans) can detect single and double-stranded breaks and recruit factors such as Rmr3 helicase to stabilize the replication fork in order to prevent its collapse. Mutations in Tel1, Mec1, and Rmr3 helicase result in a significant increase of chromosomal recombination. ATR responds specifically to stalled replication forks and single-stranded breaks resulting from UV damage while ATM responds directly to double-stranded breaks. These proteins also prevent progression into mitosis by inhibiting the firing of late replication origins until the DNA breaks are fixed by phosphorylating CHK1, CHK2 which results in a signaling cascade arresting the cell in S-phase. For single stranded breaks, replication occurs until the location of the break, then the other strand is nicked to form a double stranded break, which can then be repaired by Break Induced Replication or homologous recombination using the sister chromatid as an error-free template. In addition to S-phase checkpoints, G1 and G2 checkpoints exist to check for transient DNA damage which could be caused by mutagens such as UV damage. An example is the Saccharomyces pombe gene rad9 which arrests the cells in late S/G2 phase in the presence of DNA damage caused by radiation. The yeast cells with defective rad9 failed to arrest following radiation, continued cell division and died rapidly while the cells with wild-type rad9 successfully arrested in late S/G2 phase and remained viable. The cells that arrested were able to survive due to the increased time in S/G2 phase allowing for DNA repair enzymes to function fully. Fragile Sites. There are hotspots in the genome where DNA sequences are prone to gaps and breaks after inhibition of DNA synthesis such as in the aforementioned checkpoint arrest. These sites are called fragile sites, and can occur commonly as naturally present in most mammalian genomes or occur rarely as a result of mutations, such as DNA-repeat expansion. Rare fragile sites can lead to genetic disease such as fragile X mental retardation syndrome, myotonic dystrophy, Friedrich’s ataxia, and Huntington’s disease, most of which are caused by expansion of repeats at the DNA, RNA, or protein level. Although, seemingly harmful, these common fragile sites are conserved all the way to yeast and bacteria. These ubiquitous sites are characterized by trinucleotide repeats, most commonly CGG, CAG, GAA, and GCN. These trinucleotide repeats can form into hairpins, leading to difficulty of replication. Under replication stress, such as defective machinery or further DNA damage, DNA breaks and gaps can form at these fragile sites. Using a sister chromatid as repair is not a fool-proof backup as the surrounding DNA information of the n and n+1 repeat is virtually the same, leading to copy number variation. For example, the 16th copy of CGG might be mapped to the 13th copy of CGG in the sister chromatid since the surrounding DNA is both CGGCGGCGG…, leading to 3 extra copies of CGG in the final DNA sequence. Transcription-associated instability. In both E. coli and Saccromyces pombe, transcription sites tend to have higher recombination and mutation rates. The coding or non-transcribed strand accumulates more mutations than the template strand. This is due to the fact that the coding strand is single-stranded during transcription, which is chemically more unstable than double-stranded DNA. During elongation of transcription, supercoiling can occur behind an elongating RNA polymerase, leading to single-stranded breaks. When the coding strand is single-stranded, it can also hybridize with itself, creating DNA secondary structures that can compromise replication. In E. coli, when attempting to transcribe GAA triplets such as those found in Friedrich’s ataxia, the resulting RNA and template strand can form mismatched loops between different repeats, leading the complementary segment in the coding-strand available to form its own loops which impede replication. Furthermore, replication of DNA and transcription of DNA are not temporally independent; they can occur at the same time and lead to collisions between the replication fork and RNA polymerase complex. In S. cerevisiae, Rrm3 helicase is found at highly transcribed genes in the yeast genome, which is recruited to stabilize a stalling replication fork as described above. This suggests that transcription is an obstacle to replication, which can lead to increased stress in the chromatin spanning the short distance between the unwound replication fork and transcription start site, potentially causing single-stranded DNA breaks. In yeast, proteins act as barriers at the 3’ of the transcription unit to prevent further travel of the DNA replication fork. Increase Genetic Variability. In some portions of the genome, variability is essential to survival. One such locale is the Ig genes. In a pre-B cell, the region consists of all V, D, and J segments. During development of the B cell, a specific V, D, and J segment is chosen to be spliced together to form the final gene, which is catalyzed by RAG1 and RAG2 recombinases. Activation-Induced Cytidine Deaminase (AID) then converts cytidine into uracil. Uracil normally does not exist in DNA, and thus the base is excised and the nick is converted into a double-stranded break which is repaired by non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). This procedure is very error-prone and leads to somatic hypermutation. This genomic instability is crucial in ensuring mammalian survival against infection. V, D, J recombination can ensure millions of unique B-cell receptors; however, random repair by NHEJ introduces variation which can create a receptor that can bind with higher affinity to antigens. In neuronal and neuromuscular disease. Of about 200 neurological and neuromuscular disorders, 15 have a clear link to an inherited or acquired defect in one of the DNA repair pathways or excessive genotoxic oxidative stress. Five of them (xeroderma pigmentosum, Cockayne's syndrome, trichothiodystrophy, Down's syndrome, and triple-A syndrome) have a defect in the DNA nucleotide excision repair pathway. Six (spinocerebellar ataxia with axonal neuropathy-1, Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Down's syndrome and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) seem to result from increased oxidative stress, and the inability of the base excision repair pathway to handle the damage to DNA that this causes. Four of them (Huntington's disease, various spinocerebellar ataxias, Friedreich’s ataxia and myotonic dystrophy types 1 and 2) often have an unusual expansion of repeat sequences in DNA, likely attributable to genome instability. Four (ataxia-telangiectasia, ataxia-telangiectasia-like disorder, Nijmegen breakage syndrome and Alzheimer's disease) are defective in genes involved in repairing DNA double-strand breaks. Overall, it seems that oxidative stress is a major cause of genomic instability in the brain. A particular neurological disease arises when a pathway that normally prevents oxidative stress is deficient, or a DNA repair pathway that normally repairs damage caused by oxidative stress is deficient. In cancer. In cancer, genome instability can occur prior to or as a consequence of transformation. Genome instability can refer to the accumulation of extra copies of DNA or chromosomes, chromosomal translocations, chromosomal inversions, chromosome deletions, single-strand breaks in DNA, double-strand breaks in DNA, the intercalation of foreign substances into the DNA double helix, or any abnormal changes in DNA tertiary structure that can cause either the loss of DNA, or the misexpression of genes. Situations of genome instability (as well as aneuploidy) are common in cancer cells, and they are considered a "hallmark" for these cells. The unpredictable nature of these events are also a main contributor to the heterogeneity observed among tumour cells. It is currently accepted that sporadic tumors (non-familial ones) are originated due to the accumulation of several genetic errors. An average cancer of the breast or colon can have about 60 to 70 protein altering mutations, of which about 3 or 4 may be "driver" mutations, and the remaining ones may be "passenger" mutations Any genetic or epigenetic lesion increasing the mutation rate will have as a consequence an increase in the acquisition of new mutations, increasing then the probability to develop a tumor. During the process of tumorogenesis, it is known that diploid cells acquire mutations in genes responsible for maintaining genome integrity ("caretaker genes"), as well as in genes that are directly controlling cellular proliferation ("gatekeeper genes"). Genetic instability can originate due to deficiencies in DNA repair, or due to loss or gain of chromosomes, or due to large scale chromosomal reorganizations. Losing genetic stability will favour tumor development, because it favours the generation of mutants that can be selected by the environment. The tumor microenvironment has an inhibitory effect on DNA repair pathways contributing to genomic instability, which promotes tumor survival, proliferation, and malignant transformation. Low frequency of mutations without cancer. The protein coding regions of the human genome, collectively called the exome, constitutes only 1.5% of the total genome. As pointed out above, ordinarily there are only an average of 0.35 mutations in the exome per generation (parent to child) in humans. In the entire genome (including non-protein coding regions) there are only about 70 new mutations per generation in humans. Cause of mutations in cancer. The likely major underlying cause of mutations in cancer is DNA damage. For example, in the case of lung cancer, DNA damage is caused by agents in exogenous genotoxic tobacco smoke (e.g. acrolein, formaldehyde, acrylonitrile, 1,3-butadiene, acetaldehyde, ethylene oxide and isoprene). Endogenous (metabolically-caused) DNA damage is also very frequent, occurring on average more than 60,000 times a day in the genomes of human cells (see DNA damage (naturally occurring)). Externally and endogenously caused damages may be converted into mutations by inaccurate translesion synthesis or inaccurate DNA repair (e.g. by non-homologous end joining). In addition, DNA damages can also give rise to epigenetic alterations during DNA repair. Both mutations and epigenetic alterations (epimutations) can contribute to progression to cancer. Very frequent mutations in cancer. As noted above, about 3 or 4 driver mutations and 60 passenger mutations occur in the exome (protein coding region) of a cancer. However, a much larger number of mutations occur in the non-protein-coding regions of DNA. The average number of DNA sequence mutations in the entire genome of a breast cancer tissue sample is about 20,000. In an average melanoma tissue sample (where melanomas have a higher exome mutation frequency) the total number of DNA sequence mutations is about 80,000. Cause of high frequency of mutations in cancer. The high frequency of mutations in the total genome within cancers suggests that, often, an early carcinogenic alteration may be a deficiency in DNA repair. Mutation rates substantially increase (sometimes by 100-fold) in cells defective in DNA mismatch repair or in homologous recombinational DNA repair. Also, chromosomal rearrangements and aneuploidy increase in humans defective in DNA repair gene BLM. A deficiency in DNA repair, itself, can allow DNA damages to accumulate, and error-prone translesion synthesis past some of those damages may give rise to mutations. In addition, faulty repair of these accumulated DNA damages may give rise to epigenetic alterations or epimutations. While a mutation or epimutation in a DNA repair gene, itself, would not confer a selective advantage, such a repair defect may be carried along as a passenger in a cell when the cell acquires an additional mutation/epimutation that does provide a proliferative advantage. Such cells, with both proliferative advantages and one or more DNA repair defects (causing a very high mutation rate), likely give rise to the 20,000 to 80,000 total genome mutations frequently seen in cancers. DNA repair deficiency in cancer. In somatic cells, deficiencies in DNA repair sometimes arise by mutations in DNA repair genes, but much more often are due to epigenetic reductions in expression of DNA repair genes. Thus, in a sequence of 113 colorectal cancers, only four had somatic missense mutations in the DNA repair gene MGMT, while the majority of these cancers had reduced MGMT expression due to methylation of the MGMT promoter region. Five reports, listed in the article Epigenetics (see section "DNA repair epigenetics in cancer") presented evidence that between 40% and 90% of colorectal cancers have reduced MGMT expression due to methylation of the MGMT promoter region. Similarly, for 119 cases of colorectal cancers classified as mismatch repair deficient and lacking DNA repair gene PMS2 expression, Pms2 was deficient in 6 due to mutations in the PMS2 gene, while in 103 cases PMS2 expression was deficient because its pairing partner MLH1 was repressed due to promoter methylation (PMS2 protein is unstable in the absence of MLH1). The other 10 cases of loss of PMS2 expression were likely due to epigenetic overexpression of the microRNA, miR-155, which down-regulates MLH1. In cancer epigenetics (see section Frequencies of epimutations in DNA repair genes), there is a partial listing of epigenetic deficiencies found in DNA repair genes in sporadic cancers. These include frequencies of between 13–100% of epigenetic defects in genes BRCA1, WRN, FANCB, FANCF, MGMT, MLH1, MSH2, MSH4, ERCC1, XPF, NEIL1 and ATM located in cancers including breast, ovarian, colorectal and head and neck. Two or three epigenetic deficiencies in expression of ERCC1, XPF and/or PMS2 were found to occur simultaneously in the majority of the 49 colon cancers evaluated. Some of these DNA repair deficiencies can be caused by epimutations in microRNAs as summarized in the MicroRNA article section titled miRNA, DNA repair and cancer. Lymphomas as a consequence of genome instability. Cancers usually result from disruption of a tumor repressor or dysregulation of an oncogene. Knowing that B-cells experience DNA breaks during development can give insight to the genome of lymphomas. Many types of lymphoma are caused by chromosomal translocation, which can arise from breaks in DNA, leading to incorrect joining. In Burkitt’s lymphoma, c-myc, an oncogene encoding a transcription factor, is translocated to a position after the promoter of the immunoglobulin gene, leading to dysregulation of c-myc transcription. Since immunoglobulins are essential to a lymphocyte and highly expressed to increase detection of antigens, c-myc is then also highly expressed, leading to transcription of its targets, which are involved in cell proliferation. Mantle cell lymphoma is characterized by fusion of cyclin D1 to the immunoglobulin locus. Cyclin D1 inhibits Rb, a tumor suppressor, leading to tumorigenesis. Follicular lymphoma results from the translocation of the immunoglobulin promoter to the Bcl-2 gene, giving rise to high levels of Bcl-2 protein, which inhibits apoptosis. DNA-damaged B-cells no longer undergo apoptosis, leading to further mutations which could affect driver genes, leading to tumorigenesis. The location of translocation in the oncogene shares structural properties of the target regions of AID, suggesting that the oncogene was a potential target of AID, leading to a double-stranded break that was translocated to the immunoglobulin gene locus through NHEJ repair.

flawless duplicate

14094-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2359082

Crime in Washington, D.C., is directly related to the city's demographics, geography, and unique criminal justice system. The District's population reached a peak of 802,178 in 1950. Shortly after that, the city began losing residents, and by 1980 Washington had lost one-quarter of its population. The population loss to the suburbs also created a new demographic pattern, which divided affluent neighborhoods west of Rock Creek Park from the less well-off neighborhoods to the east. Despite being the headquarters of multiple federal law enforcement agencies, such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), the nationwide crack epidemic of the 1980s and 1990s greatly affected the city and led to large increases in crime. The number of homicides in Washington peaked in 1991 at 482, a rate of 80.6 homicides per 100,000 residents, and the city eventually became known as the "murder capital" of the United States. The crime rate started to fall in the mid-1990s as the crack cocaine epidemic gave way to economic revitalization projects. Neighborhood improvement efforts and new business investment have also started to transform neighborhoods east of the Anacostia River, leading to the first rise in the District's population in 60 years. By the mid-2000s, crime rates in Washington dropped to their lowest levels in over 20 years, to less than a fifth of record highs. As in many major cities, crime remains a notable problem in D.C. This is true even in the city's northwestern neighborhoods, which tend to be more affluent and have more entertainment options. Violent crime also remains a problem in Ward 8, which has the city's highest concentration of poverty. Statistics. According to Uniform Crime Report statistics compiled by the FBI, there were 995.9 violent crimes per 100,000 people reported in the District of Columbia in 2018. The District also reported 4,373.8 property crimes per 100,000 during the same period. The average violent crime rate in the District of Columbia from 1960 through 1999 was 1,722 violent crimes per 100,000 population, and violent crime, since peaking in the mid-1990s, decreased by 62.5% in the 1995–2018 period (property crime decreased 54.0% during the same period). However, violent crime is still more than twice the national average rate of 368.9 reported offenses per 100,000 people in 2018. In the early 1990s, Washington, D.C., was known as the nation's "murder capital", experiencing 482 homicides in 1991. The elevated crime levels were associated with the introduction of crack cocaine during the late 1980s and early 1990s. The crack was brought into Washington, D.C. by Colombian cartels and sold in drug markets such as "The Strip" (the largest in the city) located a few blocks north of the United States Capitol. A quarter of juveniles with criminal charges in 1988 tested positive for drugs. After the 1991 peak there was a downward trend through to the late 1990s. In 2000, 242 homicides occurred, and the downward trend continued in the 2000s. In 2012, Washington, D.C. had only 92 homicides in 91 separate incidents, the lowest annual tally since 1963. The Metropolitan Police Department's official tally is 88 homicides, but that number does not include four deaths that were ruled self-defense or justifiable homicide by citizen. The cause of death listed on the four case records is homicide and MPD includes those cases in tallying homicide case closures at the end of the year. As Washington neighborhoods undergo gentrification, crime has been displaced further east. Crime in neighboring Prince George's County, Maryland, initially experienced an increase, but has recently witnessed steep declines as poorer residents moved out of the city into the nearby suburbs. Crime has declined both in the District and the suburbs in recent years. There was an average of 11 robberies each day across the District of Columbia in 2006 which is far below the levels experienced in the 1990s. In 2008, 42 crimes in the District were characterized as hate crimes; over 70% of the reports classified as hate crimes were a result of a bias against the victim's perceived sexual orientation. Those findings continue the trend from previous years, although the total number of hate crimes is down from 57 in 2006, and 48 in 2005. By 2012, the number of hate crimes reported were 81, and dropped to 70 in 2013. Criminal justice. Law enforcement. Law enforcement in Washington, D.C., is complicated by a network of overlapping federal and city agencies. The primary agency responsible for law enforcement in the District of Columbia is the Metropolitan Police Department (MPD). The MPD is a city agency headed by the Chief of Police, currently Peter Newsham, who is appointed by the mayor. The Metropolitan Police has 3,800 sworn officers and operates much like other municipal police departments elsewhere in the country. However, given the unique status of Washington as the United States capital, the MPD is adept at providing crowd control and security at large events. Despite its name, the MPD only serves within the boundaries of the District of Columbia and does not have jurisdiction within the surrounding Washington Metropolitan Area. Several other local police agencies have jurisdiction within the District of Columbia, including: the District of Columbia Protective Services Police Department, which is responsible for all properties owned or leased by the city government; and the Metro Transit Police Department, which has jurisdiction within Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority stations, trains, and buses. Alongside local law enforcement agencies, nearly every federal law enforcement agency has jurisdiction within Washington, D.C. The most visible federal police agencies are the United States Park Police, which is responsible for all parkland in the city, the United States Secret Service, and the United States Capitol Police. Several special initiatives undertaken by the Metropolitan Police Department to combat violent crime have gained particular public attention. Most notable is the city's use of "crime emergencies", which when declared by the Chief of Police, allow the city to temporarily suspend officer schedules and assign additional overtime to increase police presence. Despite the fact that crime emergencies do appear to reduce crime when enacted, critics fault the city for relying on such temporary stop-gap measures. In 2003, the city launched its Gang Intervention Project to combat the then-recent upward trend in Latino gang violence, primarily in the Columbia Heights and Shaw neighborhoods. The initiative was claimed a success when gang-related violence declined almost 90% from the start of the program to November 2006. The most controversial program designed to deter crime was a system of police checkpoints in violence-prone neighborhoods. The checkpoints, in place from April 2008 through June 2008, were used in the Trinidad neighborhood of Northeast Washington. The program operated by stopping cars entering a police-designated area; officers then turned away those individuals who did not live or have business in the neighborhood. Despite protests by residents, the MPD claimed the checkpoints to be a successful tool in preventing violent crime. However, in July 2010, a federal appeals court found that the checkpoints violated residents' constitutional rights. The police had no plans to continue to use the practice—with declining crime rates—but D.C. Attorney General Peter Nickles said that officers would work to find a "more creative way to deal with very unusual circumstances that is consistent with the Fourth Amendment." In 2012, the first female Chief of Police of DC, Cathy Lanier, was hired by Mayor Vincent C. Gray. Between 2014 and 2016, there was a spike in homicides and other violent crimes, with a 54% increase in homicides between 2014 and 2015. Court system. The Superior Court of the District of Columbia hears all local civil and criminal cases in Washington, D.C. Although the court is technically a branch of the D.C. government, the Superior Court is funded and operated by the U.S. federal government. In addition, the court's judges are appointed by the President of the United States. The D.C. Superior Court should not, however, be confused with the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, which only hears cases dealing with violations of federal law. The District of Columbia has a complicated criminal prosecution system. The Attorney General of the District of Columbia only has jurisdiction in civil proceedings and prosecuting minor offenses such as low-level misdemeanors and traffic violations. All federal offenses, local felony charges (i.e. serious crimes such as robbery, murder, aggravated assault, grand theft, and arson), and most local misdemeanors are prosecuted by the United States Attorney for the District of Columbia. United States Attorneys are appointed by the President and overseen by the United States Department of Justice. This differs from elsewhere in the country where 93% of local prosecutors are directly elected and the remainder are appointed by local elected officials. The fact that the U.S. Attorneys in the District of Columbia are neither elected nor appointed by city officials leads to criticism that the prosecutors are not responsive to the needs of residents. For example, new felony prosecutions by the U.S. Attorneys in the District of Columbia have fallen 34%; from 8,016 in 2003 to 5,256 in 2007. The number of resolved felony cases has also fallen by nearly half, from 10,206 in 2003 to 5,534 in 2007. In contrast, the number of misdemeanor and civil cases prosecuted and resolved by the D.C. Attorney General's office has remained constant over the same period. The U.S. Attorney for the District of Columbia cites the drop in prosecutions to a 14% cut in its budget. The cuts have caused the office to decrease the number of federal prosecutors from a high of 110 in 2003 to 76 in 2007. Efforts to create the position of D.C. district attorney regained attention in 2008. The D.C. district attorney would be elected and have jurisdiction over all local criminal cases, thereby streamlining prosecution and making the justice system more accountable to residents. However, progress to institute such an office has stalled in Congress. Prison system. Under the National Capital Revitalization and Self-Government Improvement Act of 1997, prisoners who committed felony offenses were put under the custody of the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP); the Lorton Correctional Complex, a prison operated by the District government in Lorton, Virginia, was closed in 2000. Offenders serving short sentences for misdemeanors serve time either at the Central Detention Facility or the Correctional Treatment Facility, both run by the District of Columbia Department of Corrections. Approximately 6,500 prisoners convicted in the District of Columbia are sent to Bureau of Prisons facilities around the United States, including over 1,000 sent to West Virginia, and another 1,000 to North Carolina. The Court Services and Offender Supervision Agency was established, under the National Capital Revitalization and Self-Government Improvement Act, to oversee probationers and parolees, and provide pretrial services. The functions were previously handled by the D.C. Superior Court and the D.C. Pretrial Services Agency. As of 2007, almost 7,000 prisoners sentenced in District of Columbia courts had been imprisoned in 75 prisons in 33 states. As of 2010, 5,700 prisoners sentenced in DC courts had been imprisoned in federal-owned or leased properties in 33 states. As of 2010, felons sentenced under D.C. law altogether made up almost 8,000 prisoners or about 6% of the total BOP population, and they resided in 90 facilities. As of 2013 about 20% of the DC-sentenced prisoners were incarcerated over from Washington, D.C. Rivers Correctional Institution, a private prison in North Carolina, was purpose-built to house D.C. inmates. As of 2007, about 66% of the prisoners were DC-sentenced inmates. In 2009 the prison housed about 800-900 prisoners sentenced under DC law. As of 2013, up to about 33% of the prisoners at United States Penitentiary, Big Sandy in Kentucky had been convicted of DC crimes. Juveniles who are not charged as adults are not in DOC custody. Boys and girls charged as juveniles are detained at the D.C. Youth Services Center (a youth detention center run by the Department of Youth Rehabilitation Services) on Mount Olivet Road in Northeast Washington). The New Beginnings Youth Development Center is DC's secure facility for adjudicated youth, located in unincorporated Anne Arundel County, Maryland. Gun laws. Washington, D.C., has enacted some strict gun-restriction laws. The Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975 prohibited residents from owning handguns, excluding those registered before February 5, 1977; however, this law was subsequently overturned in March 2007 by the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit in "Parker v. District of Columbia". The ruling was upheld in June 2008 by the Supreme Court of the United States in "District of Columbia v. Heller". Both courts held that the city's handgun ban violated the right to keep and bear arms as protected under the Second Amendment. However, the ruling does not strike down all forms of gun control; laws requiring firearm registration remain in place, as does the city's assault weapon ban. Since then, D.C. has further reduced gun control in several steps in 2009, 2012, 2015, 2016, and 2017. See Gun laws in the District of Columbia. The District reduced the cost of the permitting process, reduced ammunition control laws, removed a re-registration application, and changed its concealed-carry licensing regime to "shall issue", as ordered by federal courts.

just barely under 50%

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11677187

The 2005 Daytona 500, the 47th running of the event, was held on February 20, 2005 at Daytona International Speedway in Daytona Beach, Florida as the first race of the 2005 NASCAR Nextel Cup season. Dale Jarrett won the pole and Jeff Gordon won the race, making this his third Daytona 500 win. Kurt Busch finished second and Dale Earnhardt, Jr. finished third. As the result of NASCAR's implementation of the green-white-checker finish rule the previous season, the race had three extra laps due to a caution with three laps to go, reaching a total distance of 203 laps and . Because of that, this was the first Daytona 500 to go longer than 500 miles. It was also the first Daytona 500 to end at sunset, around 6:18 pm EST. A crowd of 200,000 people were estimated to have attended this race. Qualifying and Gatorade Duels. Three-time Daytona 500 champion Dale Jarrett won his third pole for this race with a speed of . 2001 and 2003 winner Michael Waltrip won the first Gatorade Duel and 2002 Cup Series champion Tony Stewart won the second. The main story focusing on the Gatorade Duels was an accident involving Jimmie Johnson and Kevin Harvick, which turned into a minor feud. Race summary. The green flag waved with Dale Jarrett leading the field, but he lost the first lap to Jimmie Johnson and fell back through the field after a small bump from behind from defending Daytona 500 champion Dale Earnhardt, Jr.. Tony Stewart took the lead from Johnson on lap 4 and led 12 laps. The first caution came out on lap 15 halfway through the first fuel run when Bobby Labonte blew an engine. Scott Wimmer, who had only changed two tires, led when the race restarted. The second caution flew on lap 28 when Ricky Rudd spun out in the middle of the field, collecting five cars. On lap 36, Matt Kenseth, one of the pre-race favorites in trouble with a smoking exhaust, pitted under green. On lap 61, there came to the start of green-flag pit stops, with the Dodges coming in first, as they did not get as good fuel mileage as others. Earnhardt, Jr. was pushed by Jeff Burton coming into his pit stop, and had to back up to get out after his tires were changed, causing him to drop down through the field. There was a total of seven speeding violations on pit road during these pit stops, most notably Johnson. Once the green flag pit stops cycled through on lap 64, Jeff Gordon had the lead. Debris on the racetrack brought out the third caution on lap 86, with Gordon still out in front. Stewart led the race at the restart, and he was still leading at halfway and when the fourth caution came out on lap 105 for debris. On lap 137, there came another round of green-flag pit stops, with Stewart still taking the lead. The fifth caution came out on lap 144 and the sixth one came on lap 155. Waltrip brought out the seventh caution, allowing him to leave the race and led to another round of pit stops on lap 164. Jason Leffler and Kasey Kahne came together on pit road, dropping them both down the field. The wreck on pit road occurred when Kasey Kahne, who was 4th when the pit stops began, was exiting his pit stall, and Leffler was turning into his, unbeknownst to Kahne. Kahne would later rebound before becoming a victim of a couple of crashes not of his own making. With 32 laps to go, John Andretti, running three-wide and following a group of cars going four-wide, crashed and turned into Leffler, taking that driver out of the race. This would bring up the eight caution, with Stewart still out in front. Stewart became the first driver since Bobby Allison in 1981 and 1982 to lead the most laps in two consecutive Daytona 500's. The "Big One" occurred on lap 184. This began when Greg Biffle ran into Scott Riggs, collecting 11 cars in turn 3. Scott Wimmer's car took the worst of it, as his car went onto the apron, flipped over four times, spun on its nose, and crashed hard on its wheels. This crash brought out the ninth caution. Only some cars chose to pit, and Stewart and the others stayed out. Earnhardt, Jr., who had languished in midfield for the earlier part of the race, was now up to third place. Kasey Kahne was right in the middle of this crash in his #9 mango colored Dodge Charger, but managed to miss it. Kahne charged again back up through the field when the race went back green. When the race restarted on lap 187, Andretti drove straight into Mike Skinner, starting a chain reaction crash (another "Big One") involving at least eight cars, bringing out the immediate 10th caution. This crash was the result of someone (possibly Skinner) missing a gear at the restart. Kasey Kahne was also involved in this crash, because as he checked up Dale Jarrett in the 88 accidentally punted him into the infield grass. Kahne spent a lot of time on pit road, but he did not lose a lap, and apparently his car was, or should have been being checked for fender rubs, when the race restarted Kahne made his way from about the 20th position to about the 8th position, but there was clearly still a tire rub on his right front fender; because it was clearly smoking, and FOX commentator Darrel Waltrip even made mention of it, as he made his way back up through the field again. The race restarted with six laps to go. With five to go, Earnhardt, Jr. briefly took the lead, but Stewart retook it on the next lap. The two drivers raced side-by-side until Earnhardt, Jr. retook the lead. Gordon took the lead before the 11th caution came out with three laps to go. The caution came out when Kasey Kahne was on the outside moving forward from the 8th position trying keep his momentum up and move into the top 6 or so, as Kurt Busch made a pass on Tony Stewart, who was in the lead; but Jeff Gordon was also fighting on the outside with Stewart for the lead; Kahne slid up the race track hard probably due to a cut tire and as he did so, his teammate Jeremy Mayfield in the 19 car apparently got into the back of him as well and Kahne went into the wall. He could not get off the wall until about the middle of the backstretch, when NASCAR finally brought out the caution. Kahne would end up scored 22nd after being crashed while running 7th and possibly moving up into the top 5 to contend for the win. Oddly as the cars came around for the green flag Kahne's teammate Jeremy Mayfield came down to pit road from running 9th on the track, but apparently returned to the race and would end up finishing a position behind his teammate. The race length of 200 laps and was completed under yellow, so a green-white-checker finish would take place. The race restarted on lap 202 with two laps to go. Despite much activity behind him, Gordon was able to hold off Kurt Busch and Earnhardt, Jr. to win his third Daytona 500 victory. This was the third-slowest Daytona 500 to go the distance, with only both the 1960 and 2011 races were slower. Two other runnings of this race in the 2000s were also slower, but they both were rain-shortened.

significant moment

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17323092

The 2008–09 Toronto Raptors season is the 14th season of the franchise in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Before the season began, six-time NBA All-Star and center Jermaine O'Neal was acquired to complement Chris Bosh in the frontcourt. 17 games into the season, head coach Sam Mitchell was fired and replaced by Jay Triano. The Raptors went into the All-Star break 13 games under .500, and O'Neal was traded to Miami for Shawn Marion. The Raptors continued to struggle, and were eliminated from the playoff race with seven games of the regular season remaining. Summary. Preseason. Seeking to improve its rebounding and interior defence, Toronto traded T. J. Ford, Radoslav Nesterović, Maceo Baston, and the draft rights to Roy Hibbert to the Indiana Pacers in return for six-time NBA All-Star Jermaine O'Neal and the draft rights to Nathan Jawai. With Ford gone, virtually all the point guard responsibilities rested on José Calderón's shoulders, who re-signed to a multi-year contract. The Raptors then signed free agents Hassan Adams, Will Solomon and Jamal Sampson, but Sampson was waived at the end of the pre-season. The Raptors also signed Roko Ukić who was drafted in the 2005 NBA draft, and lost Carlos Delfino and Primož Brezec to free agency. O'Neal's arrival, however, was dwarfed by the Elton Brand signing pulled off by division rivals Philadelphia. In a pre-season poll, more than half of the general managers predicted the acquisition of Brand to be the most significant one in the league, whereas the 30-year-old O'Neal was perceived to be past his prime. Nevertheless, the prospect of Toronto deploying two proven big men at the post with some of the league's best three-point shooters waiting at the perimeter signalled a change in game plan from the previous campaign. Regular season. The Raptors began their campaign with a 95–84 road win against Philadelphia. The match featured the new All-Star acquisitions of both teams: O'Neal for the Raptors and Brand for the 76ers. Chris Bosh and O'Neal combined for 44 points and 19 rebounds in the win. The team notched another victory in their second game—a home fixture against the Golden State Warriors—thus opening with the same 2–0 record as the season before. Andrea Bargnani, who had spent the summer buffing up his frame and working on his interior game, chalked up 5 rebounds and 3 blocks in the game that went into overtime. The Raptors then got off to their best start in four seasons when they defeated the Milwaukee Bucks in the third game, with Calderón scoring a career-high 25 points in the 91–87 win. Meanwhile, O'Neal wasted no time in imposing his style on his new team: in the season opener at Philadelphia, he pointed to hecklers in the home crowd after making a dunk; in the team's second game, he blocked a dunk from Golden State's Brandan Wright and thereafter waved a finger, as though to say "Don't come back here again." However, the Raptors could not keep up their new game plan of solid defence and lost four of their next five games, including a blowout loss to the Atlanta Hawks and another to the Boston Celtics after relinquishing a 17-point lead. While Bosh posted impressive numbers in nearly every game, his teammates were not as consistent. Toronto's depth at the point was soon put to the test when Calderón was injured and unable to play against the rising Miami Heat. Solomon took over the reins with ease in that game and coupled with the Raptors' domination in the frontcourt led by O'Neal, Toronto secured a much needed win. Moon was also dropped to the bench, with Bargnani made the starting small forward. This performance came to naught in the next game against the Orlando Magic, where although Bosh and O'Neal combined for 54 points and 28 boards, the lack of production and defence from the wing, coupled with the inability to protect possession, brought Toronto back to .500. As though to prove a point, Bargnani and Anthony Parker combined for 44 points the next day in the win against Miami, while the tandem of Bosh and O'Neal secured 28 rebounds. This run was not sustained yet again, as Toronto lost a further two games on the trot: an overtime loss to New Jersey and another blowout loss to Boston, where the Raptors set a franchise record for highest field goal percentage (62%) conceded at home. That game also saw Bosh unleash a bout of angry frustration at his team as the Raptors plummeted to the bottom of the division standings. On 3 December 2008, with the Raptors posting an 8–9 record 17 games into the season, Raptors' head coach Sam Mitchell was fired and replaced by longtime assistant Jay Triano on an interim basis. Triano—the first Canadian head coach in NBA history—immediately pointed to Toronto's bottom-of-the-league in fast break points as a major deficiency he wanted to overcome. However, the Raptors slipped a further three games to go 8–12 before it recovered with a two-game turnaround. In those two games, Triano attempted to introduce a new style of play: maximum protection of the paint. He also brought Kapono and Moon into the starting line-up and this seemed to work for a while before Toronto lost the next five games to go seven under .500, including a loss to the 2–24 Oklahoma City Thunder. Toronto ended up 4–11 in December under Triano, but got off to a good start in January with wins over Houston and Orlando before going down in a crucial game against Milwaukee. January also saw Bargnani emerging as a legitimate starting center with him averaging over 21 points and 6.6 rebounds over a 16-game stretch and Ukić showing good signs of adaptation to the NBA, but all this was overshadowed by the injuries that O'Neal and Calderón sustained and the resulting mounting losses. Given the Raptors' perpetual inability to win close games and hold on to leads, the team went on a seven-game losing streak before the return of O'Neal and Calderón saw them move to 19–28. Toronto then went on a six-game losing streak and dropped further down the pecking order with a 21–34 record going into the All-Star break. With Toronto looking to bring in a wing player and free up the salary space, O'Neal and Moon were traded to Miami for Shawn Marion and Marcus Banks on 13 February 2009. Six days later, Solomon was moved in a three-way deal, resulting in Toronto acquiring a big man in centre Patrick O'Bryant from Boston. Pops Mensah-Bonsu and Quincy Douby were also signed on 6 March and 24 March 2009 respectively. Even with the new acquisitions, Toronto continued losing games, one of which was a blowout 97–127 loss to New York. Combined with a seven-game losing streak leading up to mid-March, this evaporated any hopes of making the playoffs. The only improvement came in the form of more fastbreak points and points scored in the paint, and the team even kickstarted a six-game winning streak in the last week of March, their longest winning streak in seven seasons. The Raptors were also eliminated from playoffs contention at the same time when the streak ended, with seven games of the regular season to go. They ended the season with a three-game winning streak, an overall record of 33–49, and were ranked 13th in the Conference.

big setback

6860-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7015930

Vyasarpadi is a neighbourhood of Chennai, India. It is located within Chennai district. The neighbourhood is served by station, one of the oldest stations in South India. The first train to Arcot started from this station. The old ruins still remain 200 metres away from the current station as a cabin room. This place acts as the junction and four rail routes branch from here. The Southern line goes to Chennai Central. The Eastern line goes to Chennai Beach. The Northern line goes to Korukupet further proceeding to Gudur. The Western line goes to Perambur further proceeding to Arakkonam. The station is named Vyasarpadi Jeeva, after veteran socialist leader Jeevanandam and in memory of his presence in Vyasarpadi. Etymology. Vysarpadi was named so by Elelasingan, a friend and disciple of Valluvar, around the 1st century BCE. He named the town thus for Sage Vyasa was said to have stayed in the town for some time while on his voyage to Mount Kailash. Landmarks. A Shiva temple 'Ravishwarar Temple — Murthy Iyengar Street, Vyasarpadi' which was built in the Chola's period is situated here. Lord Shiva is named Ravishwarar. It is said the Lord is worshipped by the Sun. The Sun also took bath in the temple tank (Bhrama Theertham) to get rid of his Bhrama Dosham. The temple also has the goddesses. The Sun God is placed inside the sanctum of Lord Shiva facing him. Those worshipping Lord Shiva must also worship the Sun God in this temple. The temple has three sacred trees namely Vanni, Vilva and Naga Linga trees. A lot of people visit this temple on Sundays to get rid of various illnesses. The Don Bosco Beautitudes School acts as a rehabilation cum Youth Association centre for the youth around this area. The Don Bosco Matriculation School and its church are famous in Chennai. The Roman Catholic church features Italian Architecture. There is a market place and a "Ambedkar College of Arts and Science". On 29 April 2009 around 4:50 a.m, a local train driven by unauthorized people crashed head on with a fuel train. Nearly 7 people died and half of the station was damaged. It was the setting of the flashback in the movie Anegan.

unsanctioned persons

9502-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=205627

Drug resistance is the reduction in effectiveness of a medication such as an antimicrobial or an antineoplastic in treating a disease or condition. The term is used in the context of resistance that pathogens or cancers have "acquired", that is, resistance has evolved. Antimicrobial resistance and antineoplastic resistance challenge clinical care and drive research. When an organism is resistant to more than one drug, it is said to be multidrug-resistant. The development of antibiotic resistance in particular stems from the drugs targeting only specific bacterial molecules (almost always proteins). Because the drug is "so" specific, any mutation in these molecules will interfere with or negate its destructive effect, resulting in antibiotic resistance. Furthermore, there is mounting concern over the abuse of antibiotics in the farming of livestock, which in the European Union alone accounts for three times the volume dispensed to humans – leading to development of super-resistant bacteria. Bacteria are capable of not only altering the enzyme targeted by antibiotics, but also by the use of enzymes to modify the antibiotic itself and thus neutralize it. Examples of target-altering pathogens are "Staphylococcus aureus", vancomycin-resistant enterococci and macrolide-resistant "Streptococcus", while examples of antibiotic-modifying microbes are "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" and aminoglycoside-resistant "Acinetobacter baumannii". In short, the lack of concerted effort by governments and the pharmaceutical industry, together with the innate capacity of microbes to develop resistance at a rate that outpaces development of new drugs, suggests that existing strategies for developing viable, long-term anti-microbial therapies are ultimately doomed to failure. Without alternative strategies, the acquisition of drug resistance by pathogenic microorganisms looms as possibly one of the most significant public health threats facing humanity in the 21st century. Types. Drug, toxin, or chemical resistance is a consequence of evolution and is a response to pressures imposed on any living organism. Individual organisms vary in their sensitivity to the drug used and some with greater fitness may be capable of surviving drug treatment. Drug-resistant traits are accordingly inherited by subsequent offspring, resulting in a population that is more drug-resistant. Unless the drug used makes sexual reproduction or cell-division or horizontal gene transfer impossible in the entire target population, resistance to the drug will inevitably follow. This can be seen in cancerous tumors where some cells may develop resistance to the drugs used in chemotherapy. Chemotherapy causes fibroblasts near tumors to produce large amounts of the protein WNT16B. This protein stimulates the growth of cancer cells which are drug-resistant. MicroRNAs have also been shown to affect acquired drug resistance in cancer cells and this can be used for therapeutic purposes. Malaria in 2012 has become a resurgent threat in South East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, and drug-resistant strains of "Plasmodium falciparum" are posing massive problems for health authorities. Leprosy has shown an increasing resistance to dapsone. A rapid process of sharing resistance exists among single-celled organisms, and is termed horizontal gene transfer in which there is a direct exchange of genes, particularly in the biofilm state. A similar asexual method is used by fungi and is called "parasexuality". Examples of drug-resistant strains are to be found in microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses, parasites both endo- and ecto-, plants, fungi, arthropods, mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, and amphibians. In the domestic environment, drug-resistant strains of organism may arise from seemingly safe activities such as the use of bleach, tooth-brushing and mouthwashing, the use of antibiotics, disinfectants and detergents, shampoos, and soaps, particularly antibacterial soaps, hand-washing, surface sprays, application of deodorants, sunblocks and any cosmetic or health-care product, insecticides, and dips. The chemicals contained in these preparations, besides harming beneficial organisms, may intentionally or inadvertently target organisms that have the potential to develop resistance. Mechanisms. The four main mechanisms by which microorganisms exhibit resistance to antimicrobials are: Metabolic cost. "Biological cost" is a measure of the increased energy metabolism required to achieve a function. Drug resistance has a high metabolic price in pathogens for which this concept is relevant (bacteria, endoparasites, and tumor cells.) In viruses, an equivalent "cost" is genomic complexity. The high metabolic cost means that, in the absence of antibiotics, a resistant pathogen will have decreased evolutionary fitness as compared to susceptible pathogens. This is one of the reasons drug resistance adaptations are rarely seen in environments where antibiotics are absent. However, in the presence of antibiotics, the survival advantage conferred off-sets the high metabolic cost and allows resistant strains to proliferate. Treatment. In humans, the gene ABCB1 encodes MDR1(p-glycoprotein) which is a key transporter of medications on the cellular level. If MDR1 is overexpressed, drug resistance increases. Therefore, ABCB1 levels can be monitored. In patients with high levels of ABCB1 expression, the use of secondary treatments, like metformin, have been used in conjunction with the primary drug treatment with some success. For antibiotic resistance, which represents a widespread problem nowadays, drugs designed to block the mechanisms of bacterial antibiotic resistance are used. For example, bacterial resistance against beta-lactam antibiotics (such as penicillin and cephalosporins) can be circumvented by using antibiotics such as nafcillin that are not susceptible to destruction by certain beta-lactamases (the group of enzymes responsible for breaking down beta-lactams). Beta-lactam bacterial resistance can also be dealt with by administering beta-lactam antibiotics with drugs that block beta-lactamases such as clavulanic acid so that the antibiotics can work without getting destroyed by the bacteria first. Recently, researchers have recognized the need for new drugs that inhibit bacterial efflux pumps, which cause resistance to multiple antibiotics such as beta-lactams, quinolones, chloramphenicol, and trimethoprim by sending molecules of those antibiotics out of the bacterial cell. Sometimes a combination of different classes of antibiotics may be used synergistically; that is, they work together to effectively fight bacteria that may be resistant to one of the antibiotics alone. Destruction of the resistant bacteria can also be achieved by phage therapy, in which a specific bacteriophage (virus that kills bacteria) is used.

damaging impact

8807-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19366470

Town Hall Education Arts Recreation Campus (THEARC ) is a , combined cultural and social services campus in Washington, DC’s Ward 8. The campus, located at 1901 Mississippi Avenue, SE, consists of three connected buildings, playgrounds, basketball courts, and public space. In May 2007 THEARC won the Urban Land Institute's Award for Excellence and was cited for its contribution to the community, response to societal needs, innovation, public/private partnership, and environmental protection and enhancement. Development. • Built by Building Bridges Across the River (BBAR) for $27 million on east of the Anacostia River in Washington, DC’s Ward 8 Anacostia. BBAR is a nonprofit organization founded by William C. Smith & Co. and formed to develop, construct and manage THEARC. • Funding for building THEARC came entirely from charitable contributions by the Federal and District government, corporations, foundations and individuals. The Federal government has leased the land to BBAR for 99 years. • THEARC is a key part of a revitalization of the area known as “East of the (Anacostia) River” in Washington, DC. • THEARC provides underserved children and families of East of the River dance classes, music instruction, fine arts, academics, recreation and other programs, including social services, mentoring, after school care and case management, as well as medical and dental care at substantially reduced cost or no cost at all. • THEARC features a 365-seat Theater, a regulation size gymnasium, a computer lab, an art gallery, a library, a community conference center, state-of-the-art music, art and dance studios and other first-rate facilities. Since its official opening, THEARC has served thousands of residents of the surrounding Southeast DC Community and has spurred community redevelopment. The state-of-the-art theater at THEARC is steadily booked for events such as community movie days & sing-alongs, art shows, graduations, professional and community dance and stage productions, concerts, master classes, fashion shows and meetings of community organizations including local public school administrators. Community Facilities Inside THEARC. THEARC Theater. The only theater of any kind located east of the Anacostia River in Washington, DC, this 365-seat venue features a generous stage and professionally designed and installed sound and lighting systems that complement a full variety of productions. THEARC Theater's mission is to be an outstanding venue and vehicle for both cultural events and town hall meetings. THEARC Community Meeting Room (CMR). THEARC CMR provides a resource for meetings, conferences, seminars and other community gatherings and presentations, offering wireless Internet service, a hardwire Internet port, a projector and screen, table and chair set up and an adjoining kitchen. The room is available for lease at very reasonable prices. Living History at THEARC Frederick Douglass Program. Frederick Douglass, the internationally acclaimed abolitionist, orator and statesman, made his home in Washington, DC's Ward 8 for nearly 20 years. To honor his legacy, a lifelike animatron, set in an exact replica of Douglass' study in his Anacostia home was created for THEARC and is available to the community. More than two hours of Douglass' famous speeches were recorded in varying lengths and complexity and programmed with coordinated body movements into the animatron. Appropriate for all ages, Douglass is also programmed to answer questions from the audience. Serving THEARC’s Community. The children living east of the Anacostia River – in DC's Wards 7 & 8 – comprise 42 percent of Washington, DC's child population, although the area represents only 25 percent of the total population of DC. In Ward 8, almost half (47%) of these children live in poverty. In fact, DC has the highest rate of childhood poverty of any jurisdiction in the U.S. Two thirds (68%) of the area's homes in Ward 8 are headed by single parents. Neighborhoods with high-poverty concentrations like Ward 8 face significant challenges: problems of poor education, discrimination, unemployment, single parenthood and crime all reinforce one another and undermine the well-being of families and children. THEARC Resident Partners. THEARC brings together comprehensive programs and services from ten innovative organizations based on the Campus. • Boys & Girls Clubs of Greater Washington – The FBR Branch of the Boys & Girls Clubs of Greater Washington at THEARC offers programs and activities to help youth from ages 6–18 develop character and acquire the skills necessary to become responsible, civic-minded adults. The Boys & Girls Club facility at THEARC is complete with a regulation-sized gym, a library, an arts and crafts studio, a game room, a computer lab and the Teen Center study lounge. • Building Bridges Across the River -- Established to build THEARC, BBAR is in a new phase of operation as the lead agency at THEARC. In this role, BBAR is responsible for leading the collaborative of agencies operating at THEARC. BBAR also oversees the upkeep and maintenance of the facility and its grounds, including the management of THEARC Theater and Community Meeting Room, as well as the Living History at THEARC Frederick Douglass educational outreach program. • Children's National Medical Center – Serving ages 0 to 23, Children's National Medical Center operates a full-service medical clinic at THEARC. Care includes preventive health care, sick visits, immunizations, chronic illness management, and psychological, legal aid, referral management and social support services. Fully staffed by a professional medical team of doctors and nurses, the clinic provides 24-hour, seven-day-a-week on-call service to patients. Comprehensive dental services are available through Children's Mobile Dental Unit. The Children's Health Project of DC @ THEARC is also the medical home for all children in the DC Foster Care system. The Health Access Project (HAP) offered via the Children's Health Center @ THEARC is a collaboration between The Children's Law Center and Children's National Medical Center designed to improve the health of children by adding legal services attorneys to the treatment team to address non-medical barriers that impact kids’ health. The Children's Health Project also collaborates with The Washington School of Psychiatry (WSP). WSP has trained mental health professionals working in hospitals, schools, clinics, and social service agencies for many years. With an interest in expanding its reach to the greater Washington Community, WSP developed Community Outreach Services (COS) in 2001 with a primary mission of supporting and collaborating with various agencies East of the River, who offer front line services to children and families. Over the past five years, COS has offered consultation services to staff and supportive groups for parents. Children's Health Project of D.C. currently serves 5,000 patients throughout the community and turns no patient away, even those without insurance. • The Corcoran Gallery of Art: Corcoran ArtReach – As one of Washington, DC's oldest art museums and the city's only college of art and design, the Corcoran resides as the visual arts partner at THEARC through the Corcoran ArtReach program. Corcoran ArtReach is a year-round museum outreach program designed to empower DC youth and families to explore and trust their own creativity within the context of art making and art history. ArtReach provides arts instruction such as family workshops, after-school and summer art classes based on the Corcoran's renowned collection. ArtReach makes a special effort to foster visual literacy, critical thinking skills and creative expression among its participants, while encouraging them to develop meaningful connections between art and their lives. In addition to ArtReach, the Corcoran oversees the Community Gallery at THEARC, which serves as an exhibition venue for program participants, local artists and community organizations and schools. Sixty-five children currently attend art classes at no charge through ArtReach. • Covenant House Washington – Covenant House's Nancy Dickerson White Community Center, targeting youth ages 16–21, helps youth in crisis reclaim their lives and their dignity. Covenant House offers youth skills assessment, educational services, youth advocacy and leadership training, and employment development. The agency also offers Residential Programs for youth age 18-21, Prevention Services Programs for ages 11–17, and the Artisans Woodworking Program. • Levine School of Music – One of the nation's largest nonprofit community music schools, Levine School of Music offers music education to students of every age, ability and background. Course offerings at THEARC include Choral Music, Guitar, Jazz & Improvisation, Piano, Percussion, Voice, Early Childhood Music and more. Levine faculty and guest artists offer performances and master classes to enrich this curriculum. • Trinity Washington – Trinity at THEARC offers two degree programs: an associate of arts degree in general studies and a master of science in administration. Students at Trinity at THEARC can attend college right out of high school or take courses while they are pursuing their careers. • Washington Ballet – The Washington Ballet @ THEARC houses the southeast campus of The Washington School of Ballet and two unique community engagement programs, DanceDC and EXCEL! The space is equipped with two dance studios with pianos for live accompaniment, locker rooms, offices and use of THEARC Theater. TWB@THEARC offers a pre-professional ballet program for children ages five through 18 as well as the adult program with classes in modern, hip hop, Pilates, and African dance. Students enrolled in the program receive additional opportunities such as performing in The Nutcracker featuring The Washington Ballet. TWB@THEARC also hosts a Summer Dance Intensive, which allows children to foster their love for ballet while participating in programs with THEARC partners. • Washington Middle School for Girls – Washington Middle School for Girls at THEARC encourages young girls growing up in East of the River, Washington, DC to stay in school and exceed beyond their imaginations. The school offers an academically challenging curriculum for grades 4-8. THEARC non-resident partners. Legal Aid Society of DC. The Legal Aid Society of the District of Columbia provides free legal services to low or no-income persons living in DC in the areas of housing, domestic violence/family law and public benefits law. Legal Aid offers a continuum of services including advice, counsel and brief assistance; representation in litigation; social work case management, and community education on legal issues. Additionally, Legal Aid's Appellate Advocacy project handles cases across the spectrum of poverty law that have the potential to positively impact the lives of thousands of the District's poor and underserved. Training Grounds, Inc.. Training Grounds' mission is to equip and prepare economically disadvantaged DC youth and young adults for living wage careers through professional skills, personal development and entrepreneurship training. Participants learn the skills necessary to success in today's business climate, as well as an entrepreneurial mindset and pathways to sustainable lifestyles. Assessments and surveys, a comprehensive training regimen and internships via program partners are all part of Training Grounds offerings. Campaigns. One in a Million Campaign for THEARC. The “One in a Million Campaign for THEARC” is THEARC's $10 million grassroots endowment campaign launched in 2006 that seeks to sustain the operations of THEARC. At the heart of the Campaign is the need to alleviate the operational budgets of THEARC's ten organizations so they can further invest in programming for children and families in the community.

Musician support in real time

6857-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=285718

The last mile or last kilometer is a phrase widely used in the telecommunications, cable television and internet industries to refer to the final leg of the telecommunications networks that deliver telecommunication services to retail end-users (customers). More specifically, the "last mile" describes the portion of the telecommunications network chain that physically reaches the end-user's premises. Examples are the copper wire subscriber lines connecting landline telephones to the local telephone exchange; coaxial cable service drops carrying cable television signals from utility poles to subscribers' homes, and cell towers linking local cell phones to the cellular network. The word "mile" is used metaphorically; the length of the last mile link may be more or less than a mile. Because the last mile of a network to the user is conversely the first mile from the user's premises to the outside world when the user is sending data, the term first mile is also alternatively used. The last mile is typically the speed bottleneck in communication networks; its bandwidth effectively limits the amount of data that can be delivered to the customer. This is because retail telecommunication networks have the topology of "trees", with relatively few high capacity "trunk" communication channels branching out to feed many final mile "twigs". The final mile links, being the most numerous and thus the most expensive part of the system, as well as having to interface with a wide variety of user equipment, are the most difficult to upgrade to new technology. For example, telephone trunklines that carry phone calls between switching centers are made of modern optical fiber, but the last mile is typically twisted pair wires, a technology which has essentially remained unchanged for over a century since the original laying of copper phone cables. To resolve, or at least mitigate, the problems involved with attempting to provide enhanced services over the last mile, some firms have been mixing networks for decades. One example is fixed wireless access, where a wireless network is used instead of wires to connect a stationary terminal to the wireline network. Various solutions are being developed which are seen as an alternative to the last mile of standard incumbent local exchange carriers. These include WiMAX and broadband over power lines. In recent years, usage of the term "last mile" has expanded outside the communications industries, to include other distribution networks that deliver goods to customers, such as the pipes that deliver water and natural gas to customer premises, and the final legs of mail and package delivery services. The term has also been used to describe education and training providers that more tightly link individuals with job opportunities. Existing delivery system problems. The increasing worldwide demand for rapid, low-latency and high-volume communication of information to homes and businesses has made economical information distribution and delivery increasingly important. As demand has escalated, particularly fueled by the widespread adoption of the Internet, the need for economical high-speed access by end-users located at millions of locations has ballooned as well. As requirements have changed, the existing systems and networks that were initially pressed into service for this purpose have proven to be inadequate. To date, although a number of approaches have been tried, no single clear solution to the 'last mile problem' has emerged. As expressed by Shannon's equation for channel information capacity, the omnipresence of noise in information systems sets a minimum signal-to-noise ratio (shortened as S/N) requirement in a channel, even when adequate spectral bandwidth is available. Since the integral of the rate of information transfer with respect to time is information quantity, this requirement leads to a corresponding minimum energy per bit. The problem of sending any given amount of information across a channel can therefore be viewed in terms of sending sufficient Information-Carrying Energy (ICE). For this reason the concept of an ICE 'pipe' or 'conduit' is relevant and useful for examining existing systems. The distribution of information to a great number of widely separated end-users can be compared to the distribution of many other resources. Some familiar analogies are: All of these have in common conduits that carry a relatively small amount of a resource a short distance to a very large number of physically separated endpoints. Also common are conduits supporting more voluminous flow, which combine and carry many individual portions over much greater distances. The shorter, lower-volume conduits, which individually serve only one or a small fraction of the endpoints, may have far greater combined length than the larger capacity ones. These common attributes are shown to the right. Costs and efficiency. The high-capacity conduits in these systems tend to also have in common the ability to efficiently transfer the resource over a long distance. Only a small fraction of the resource being transferred is wasted, lost, or misdirected. The same cannot necessarily be said of lower-capacity conduits. One reason has to do with the efficiency of scale. Conduits that are located closer to the endpoint, or end-user, do not individually have as many users supporting them. Even though they are smaller, each has the overhead of an "installation" obtaining and maintaining a suitable path over which the resource can flow. The funding and resources supporting these smaller conduits tend to come from the immediate locale. This can have the advantage of a "small-government model". That is, the management and resources for these conduits is provided by local entities and therefore can be optimized to achieve the best solutions in the immediate environment and also to make best use of local resources. However, the lower operating efficiencies and relatively greater installation expenses, compared with the transfer capacities, can cause these smaller conduits, as a whole, to be the most expensive and difficult part of the complete distribution system. These characteristics have been displayed in the birth, growth, and funding of the Internet. The earliest inter-computer communication tended to be accomplished with direct wireline connections between individual computers. These grew into clusters of small local area networks (LAN). The TCP/IP suite of protocols was born out of the need to connect several of these LANs together, particularly as related to common projects among the United States Department of Defense, industry and some academic institutions. ARPANET came into being to further these interests. In addition to providing a way for multiple computers and users to share a common inter-LAN connection, the TCP/IP protocols provided a standardized way for dissimilar computers and operating systems to exchange information over this inter-network. The funding and support for the connections among LANs could be spread over one or even several LANs. As each new LAN, or subnet, was added, the new subnet's constituents enjoyed access to the greater network. At the same time the new subnet enabled access to any network or networks with which it was already networked. Thus the growth became a mutually inclusive or "win-win" event. Economies of scale. In general, economy of scale makes an increase in capacity of a conduit less expensive as the capacity is increased. There is an overhead associated with the creation of any conduit. This overhead is not repeated as capacity is increased within the potential of the technology being utilized. As the Internet has grown in size, by some estimates doubling in the number of users every eighteen months, economy of scale has resulted in increasingly large information conduits providing the longest distance and highest capacity backbone connections. In recent years, the capacity of fiber-optic communication, aided by a supporting industry, has resulted in an expansion of raw capacity, so much so that in the United States a large amount of installed fiber infrastructure is not being used because it is currently excess capacity "dark fiber". This excess backbone capacity exists in spite of the trend of increasing per-user data rates and overall quantity of data. Initially, only the inter-LAN connections were high speed. End-users used existing telephone lines and modems, which were capable of data rates of only a few hundred bit/s. Now almost all end users enjoy access at 100 or more times those early rates. Economical information transfer. Before considering the characteristics of existing last-mile information delivery mechanisms, it is important to further examine what makes information conduits effective. As the Shannon–Hartley theorem shows, it is the combination of bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio which determines the maximum information rate of a channel. The product of the average information rate and time yields total information transfer. In the presence of noise, this corresponds to some amount of transferred information-carrying energy (ICE). Therefore, the economics of information transfer may be viewed in terms of the economics of the transfer of ICE. Effective last-mile conduits must: In addition to these factors, a good solution to the last-mile problem must provide each user: Existing last mile delivery systems. Wired systems (including optical fiber). Wired systems provide guided conduits for Information-Carrying Energy (ICE). They all have some degree of shielding, which limits their susceptibility to external noise sources. These transmission lines have losses which are proportional to length. Without the addition of periodic amplification, there is some maximum length beyond which all of these systems fail to deliver an adequate S/N ratio to support information flow. Dielectric optical fiber systems support heavier flow at higher cost. Local area networks (LAN). Traditional wired local area networking systems require copper coaxial cable or a twisted pair to be run between or among two or more of the nodes in the network. Common systems operate at 100 Mbit/s, and newer ones also support 1000 Mbit/s or more. While length may be limited by collision detection and avoidance requirements, signal loss and reflections over these lines also define a maximum distance. The decrease in information capacity made available to an individual user is roughly proportional to the number of users sharing a LAN. Telephone. In the late 20th century, improvements in the use of existing copper telephone lines increased their capabilities if maximum line length is controlled. With support for higher transmission bandwidth and improved modulation, these digital subscriber line schemes have increased capability 20-50 times as compared to the previous voiceband systems. These methods are not based on altering the fundamental physical properties and limitations of the medium, which, apart from the introduction of twisted pairs, are no different today than when the first telephone exchange was opened in 1877 by the Bell Telephone Company. The history and long life of copper-based communications infrastructure is both a testament to the ability to derive new value from simple concepts through technological innovation – and a warning that copper communications infrastructure is beginning to offer diminishing returns for continued investment. However one of the largest costs associated with maintaining an ageing copper infrastructure is that of truck roll - sending engineers to physically test, repair, replace and provide new copper connections, and this cost is particularly prevalent in providing rural broadband service over copper. New technologies such as G.Fast and VDSL2 offer viable high speed solutions to rural broadband provision over existing copper. In light of this many companies have developed automated cross connects (cabinet based automated distribution frames) to eliminate the uncertainty and cost associated with maintaining broadband services over existing copper, these systems usually incorporate some form of automated switching and some include test functionality allowing an ISP representative to complete operations previously requiring a site visit (truck roll) from the central office via a web interface. In many countries the last mile link which connects landline business telephone customers to the local telephone exchange is often an ISDN30 which can carry 30 simultaneous telephone calls. CATV. Community antenna television systems, also known as cable television, have been expanded to provide bidirectional communication over existing physical cables. However, they are by nature shared systems and the spectrum available for reverse information flow and achievable S/N are limited. As was done for initial unidirectional TV communication, cable loss is mitigated through the use of periodic amplifiers within the system. These factors set an upper limit on per-user information capacity, particularly when many users share a common section of cable or access network. Optical fiber. Fiber offers high information capacity and after the turn of the 21st century became the deployed medium of choice ("Fiber to the "x"") given its scalability in the face of the increasing bandwidth requirements of modern applications. In 2004, according to Richard Lynch, Executive Vice President and Chief Technology Officer of the telecom giant Verizon, the company saw the world moving toward vastly higher bandwidth applications as consumers loved everything broadband had to offer and eagerly devoured as much as they could get, including two-way, user-generated content. Copper and coaxial networks would not – in fact, could not – satisfy these demands, which precipitated Verizon's aggressive move into fiber-to-the-home via FiOS. Fiber is a future-proof technology that meets the needs of today's users, but unlike other copper-based and wireless last-mile mediums, also has the capacity for years to come, by upgrading the end-point optics and electronics without changing the fiber infrastructure. The fiber itself is installed on existing pole or conduit infrastructure and most of the cost is in labor, providing good regional economic stimulus in the deployment phase and providing a critical foundation for future regional commerce. Fixed copper lines have been subject to theft due to the value of copper, but optical fibers make unattractive targets. Optical fibers cannot be converted into anything else, whereas copper can be recycled without loss. Wireless delivery systems. Mobile CDN coined the term the 'mobile mile' to categorize the last mile connection when a wireless system is used to reach the customer. In contrast to wired delivery systems, wireless systems use unguided waves to transmit ICE. They all tend to be unshielded and have a greater degree of susceptibility to unwanted signal and noise sources. Because these waves are not guided but diverge, in free space these systems are attenuated following an inverse-square law, inversely proportional to distance squared. Losses thus increase more slowly with increasing length than for wired systems, whose loss increases exponentially. In a free space environment, beyond a given length, the losses in a wireless system are lower than those in a wired system. In practice, the presence of atmosphere, and especially obstructions caused by terrain, buildings and foliage can greatly increase the loss above the free space value. Reflection, refraction and diffraction of waves can also alter their transmission characteristics and require specialized systems to accommodate the accompanying distortions. Wireless systems have an advantage over wired systems in last mile applications in not requiring lines to be installed. However, they also have a disadvantage in that their unguided nature makes them more susceptible to unwanted noise and signals. Spectral reuse can therefore be limited. Lightwaves and free-space optics. Visible and infrared light waves are much shorter than radio frequency waves. Their use to transmit data is referred to as free-space optical communication. Being short, light waves can be focused or collimated with a small lens/antenna, and to a much higher degree than radio waves. Thus, a receiving device can recover a greater portion of the transmitted signal. Also, because of the high frequency, a high data transfer rate may be available. However, in practical last mile environments, obstructions and de-steering of these beams, and absorption by elements of the atmosphere including fog and rain, particularly over longer paths, can greatly restrict their use for last-mile wireless communications. Longer (redder) waves suffer less obstruction but may carry lower data rates. See RONJA. Radio waves. Radio frequencies (RF), from low frequencies through the microwave region, have wavelengths much longer than visible light. Although this means that it is not possible to focus the beams nearly as tightly as for light, it also means that the aperture or "capture area" of even the simplest, omnidirectional antenna is significantly larger than that of a lens in any feasible optical system. This characteristic results in greatly increased attenuation or "path loss" for systems that are not highly directional. Actually, the term path loss is something of a misnomer because no energy is lost on a free-space path. Rather, it is merely not received by the receiving antenna. The apparent reduction in transmission, as frequency is increased, is an artifact of the change in the aperture of a given type of antenna. Relative to the last-mile problem, these longer wavelengths have an advantage over light waves when omnidirectional or sectored transmissions are considered. The larger aperture of radio antennas results in much greater signal levels for a given path length and therefore higher information capacity. On the other hand, the lower carrier frequencies are not able to support the high information bandwidths, which are required by Shannon's equation when the practical limits of S/N have been reached. For the above reasons, wireless radio systems are optimal for lower-information-capacity broadcast communications delivered over longer paths. For high-information capacity, highly-directive point-to-point over short ranges, wireless light-wave systems are the most useful. One-way (broadcast) radio and television communications. Historically, most high-information-capacity broadcast has used lower frequencies, generally no higher than the UHF television region, with television itself being a prime example. Terrestrial television has generally been limited to the region above 50 MHz where sufficient information bandwidth is available, and below 1,000 MHz, due to problems associated with increased path loss, as mentioned above. Two-way wireless communications. Two-way communication systems have primarily been limited to lower-information-capacity applications, such as audio, facsimile, or radioteletype. For the most part, higher-capacity systems, such as two-way video communications or terrestrial microwave telephone and data trunks, have been limited and confined to UHF or microwave and to point-point paths. Higher capacity systems such as third-generation cellular telephone systems require a large infrastructure of more closely spaced cell sites in order to maintain communications within typical environments, where path losses are much greater than in free space and which also require omnidirectional access by the users. Satellite communications. For information delivery to end users, satellite systems, by nature, have relatively long path lengths, even for low earth-orbiting satellites. They are also very expensive to deploy and therefore each satellite must serve many users. Additionally, the very long paths of geostationary satellites cause information latency that makes many real-time applications unfeasible. As a solution to the last-mile problem, satellite systems have application and sharing limitations. The ICE which they transmit must be spread over a relatively large geographical area. This causes the received signal to be relatively small, unless very large or directional terrestrial antennas are used. A parallel problem exists when a satellite is receiving. In that case, the satellite system must have a very great information capacity in order to accommodate a multitude of sharing users and each user must have large antenna, with attendant directivity and pointing requirements, in order to obtain even modest information-rate transfer. These requirements render high-information-capacity, bi-directional information systems uneconomical. This is one reason why the Iridium satellite system was not more successful. Broadcast versus point-to-point. For terrestrial and satellite systems, economical, high-capacity, last-mile communications requires point-to-point transmission systems. Except for extremely small geographic areas, broadcast systems are only able to deliver high S/N ratios at low frequencies where there is not sufficient spectrum to support the large information capacity needed by a large number of users. Although complete "flooding" of a region can be accomplished, such systems have the fundamental characteristic that most of the radiated ICE never reaches a user and is wasted. As information requirements increase, broadcast wireless mesh systems (also sometimes referred to as microcells or nano-cells) which are small enough to provide adequate information distribution to and from a relatively small number of local users require a prohibitively large number of broadcast locations or points of presence along with a large amount of excess capacity to make up for the wasted energy. Intermediate system. Recently a new type of information transport midway between wired and wireless systems has been discovered. Called E-Line, it uses a single central conductor but no outer conductor or shield. The energy is transported in a plane wave which, unlike radio does not diverge, whereas like radio it has no outer guiding structure. This system exhibits a combination of the attributes of wired and wireless systems and can support high information capacity utilizing existing power lines over a broad range of frequencies from RF through microwave. Line aggregation. Aggregation is a method of bonding multiple lines to achieve a faster, more reliable connection. Some companies believe that ADSL aggregation (or "bonding") is the solution to the UK's last mile problem.

ultimate leg

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1668131

In criminology, differential association is a theory developed by Edwin Sutherland proposing that through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior. The differential association theory is the most talked about of the learning theories of deviance. This theory focuses on how individuals learn to become criminals, but does not concern itself with why they become criminals. Learning Theory is closely related to the Interactionist perspective; however, it is not considered so because Interactionism focuses on the construction of boundaries in society and persons' perceptions of them. Learning Theory is considered a positivist approach because it focuses on specific acts, opposed to the more subjective position of social impressions on one's identity, and how those may compel to act. They learn how to commit criminal acts; they learn motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes. It grows socially easier for the individuals to commit a crime. Their inspiration is the processes of cultural transmission and construction. Sutherland had developed the idea of the "self" as a social construct, as when a person's self-image is continuously being reconstructed especially when interacting with other people. Phenomenology and ethnomethodology also encouraged people to debate the certainty of knowledge and to make sense of their everyday experiences using indexicality methods. People define their lives by reference to their experiences, and then generalise those definitions to provide a framework of reference for deciding on future action. From a researcher's perspective, a subject will view the world very differently if employed as opposed to unemployed, if in a supportive family or abused by parents or those close to the individual. However, individuals might respond to the same situation differently depending on how their experience predisposes them to define their current surroundings. Differential association predicts that an individual will choose the criminal path when the balance of definitions for law-breaking exceeds those for law-abiding. This tendency will be reinforced if social association provides active people in the person's life. Earlier in life the individual comes under the influence of those of high status within that group, the more likely the individual to follow in their footsteps. This does not deny that there may be practical motives for crime. If a person feels hungry but has no money, the temptation to steal will become present. But, the use of "needs" and "values" is equivocal. To a greater or lesser extent, both non-criminal and criminal individuals are motivated by the need for money and social gain. Sutherland's theory of differential association. The principles of Sutherland's Theory of Differential Association key points: 1. Criminal behavior is learned from other individuals. 2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication. 3. The principle part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups. 4. When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes (a) techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes simple; (b) the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes. 5. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable. 6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of the law. 7. Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. 8. The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning. 9. While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those needs and values, since non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values. Explanation. An important quality of differential association theory concerns the frequency and intensity of interaction. The amount of time that a person is exposed to a particular definition and at what point the interaction began are both crucial for explaining criminal activity. The process of learning criminal behaviour is really not any different from the process involved in learning any other type of behaviour. Sutherland maintains that there is no unique learning process associated with acquiring non-normative ways of behaving. One unique aspect of this theory is that the theory purports to explain more than just juvenile delinquency and crime committed by lower class individuals. Since crime is understood to be learned behaviour, the theory is also applicable to white-collar, corporate, and organized crime. Critique. One criticism leveled against this theory has to do with the idea that people can be independent, rational actors and individually motivated. This notion of one being a criminal based on their environment is problematic. This theory does not take into account personality traits that might affect a person's susceptibility to these environmental influences.

A key part

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3351837

In agriculture, tile drainage is a type of drainage system that removes excess water from soil below its surface. Whereas irrigation is the practice of providing additional water to soil when it is naturally too dry, drainage reduces the moisture in soil and thereby increases the amount of air in its pores so as to augment conditions for optimal growth of crops. While surface water can be drained by pumping, open ditches, or both, tile drainage is often the most prudent practice for draining subsurface water. The phrase "tile drainage" derives from its original composition from tiles of fired clay, i. e., ceramic, which were similar to terracotta pipes yet not always shaped as pipes. In the 19th century a "C" shaped channel tile commonly was placed like an arch atop a flat tile, denominated the "mug" and "sole", respectively. Today, tile drainage is any variation of this original system that functions in the same mode. Commonly HDPE and PVC tubing denominated "tile line" is used, although precast concrete and ceramic tiles are still used. Excess subsurface water is counterproductive to agriculture because it fills the pores of the soil and evacuates the air they contain. Roots of plants require a quantum of air to live and grow, and therefore excess subsurface water inhibits their growth and, if it deprives them of air for a sufficient duration, causes their rot and death. Such detriments to the roots of crops inhibit or kill growth of the crops above ground. Additionally, even if detriment to roots of crops is excluded, another crucial reason for drainage is that an excess of water can limit access to the land, especially by heavy machinery: vehicles and trailers sink in and rip up wet soil and may become stuck in it. Access to a field is crucial because most modern agriculture depends on use of heavy machinery to cultivate the seedbed; plant the crop; cultivate the soil after planting; apply fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, et cetera; and harvest. Increased crop yields. Most crops require specific soil moisture conditions, and do not grow well in wet, mucky soil. Even in soil that is not mucky the roots of most plants do not grow much deeper than the water table. Early in the growing season when water is in ample supply, plants are small and do not require as much water. During this time, the plants do not need to develop their roots to reach the water. As the plants grow and use more water water becomes more scarce. During this time, the water table begins to fall. Plants then need to develop roots to reach the water. During periods of dryness the water table can fall faster than the rate at which plants grow roots to reach it, which condition can gravely stress the plants. By installing tile drainage, the water table is effectively lowered and plants can properly develop their roots. The lack of water saturation of soil permits oxygen to remain in the pores of the soil for use by roots. Drain tile prevents the roots from being under the water table during wet periods, which can stress the plants. By removing excess water crops use the water that their roots have access to more effectively. An increase in crop yield can be summarized as forcing plants to develop more roots so that they can absorb more nutrients and water. The same principle operates in the pots of house plants: their drainage holes in the bottoms evacuate excess water from the medium so that air can fill the pores of the medium and be available to the roots which, if deprived of air by the saturation of the medium with water for a sufficient duration, will rot and die. Installing tile drainage in a field in a grid pattern achieves the same effect for a field of several hundred acres. Plumbing of drain tile. In a tile drainage system, a sort of "plumbing" is installed below the surface of agricultural fields, effectively consisting of a network of below-ground pipes that allow subsurface water to move out from between soil particles and into the tile line. Water flowing through tile lines is often ultimately deposited into surface water points—lakes, streams, and rivers—located at a lower elevation than the source. Water enters the tile line either via the gaps between tile sections, in the case of older tile designs, or through small perforations in modern plastic tile. The installation of the tiles or tile line can involve a trencher (Ditch Witch), a mole plough, a backhoe, or other heavy equipment. Soil type greatly affects the efficacy of tile systems, and dictates the extent to which the area must be tiled to ensure sufficient drainage. Sandier soils will need little, if any, additional drainage, whereas soils with high clay contents will hold their water tighter, requiring tile lines to be placed closer together. Maintenance. Tree roots of hedgerow and windbreak trees are naturally attracted to the favorable watering conditions that adjacent fields' tiles or tile lines provide. Hydrotropism plays a role as root hairs at the dynamically probing tips of tree roots respond differentially to moister crevices versus drier ones, exchanging hormonal messages with the rest of the tree that encourage them to concentrate on advancing into such favorable niches. In the perforations of tile drainage lines, just as in cracked or rusting water lines and sewer lines under town streets, these roots find the ideal combination of an entrance to enter and a plentiful water supply behind it. The result is that in any of these pipe systems, blockages sometimes occur and it is necessary to clear them through snaking, rotary-cutter snaking, select digging and pulling, and similar methods. In some regions farmers must do continual maintenance of tile drainage lines to keep them open and operating correctly, with at least some clearing every year in one or another part of the system. History of tile drainage. The ancient Roman authors Cato the Elder and Pliny the Elder described tile drainage systems in 200 BC and the first century AD, respectively. According to the Johnston Farm, tile drainage was first introduced to the United States in 1838, when John Johnston used the practice in his native Scotland on his new farm in Seneca County, New York. Johnston laid of clay tile on . The effort increased his yield of wheat from 12 bushels per acre to 60. Johnston, the "father of tile drainage in America", continued to advocate for tile drainage throughout his life, attributing his agricultural success to the formula "D, C, and D", i. e., dung, credit, and drainage. The expansion of drainage systems was an important technical aspect of Westward Expansion in the United States in the 19th century. Although land in the United States was divided according to the Public Land Survey System that the Land Ordinance of 1785 instituted, development, especially of agricultural land, was often limited by the rate at which it was made capable for cultivation. For example, although Iowa was admitted as a state of the United States in 1846, maps that depicted ownership of land indicated below-average densities of population in the northwestern region of Iowa as late as the 1870s, this being a corner of the State that is still famous for its high water table and numerous lakes and wetlands. Western states had similar limitations to agricultural intensification. Many states offered governmental incentives to improve land for agriculture. For example, legislation in Indiana prompted a Federal statute in 1850 that provided for the sale of swamps at discount to farmers contingent on their drainage of the land and improvement of it for agricultural productivity. To facilitate such improvement, most states instituted governmental agencies to regulate the installation of tile drainage. Even presently, local elections in more rural states often include election of members of drainage supervisory boards; e. g., in Michigan the County Drain Commissioner remains popularly elected. In the decades after the American Civil War drainage systems were rapidly expanded. For example, historical literature from Ohio records that in 1882 the number of acres drained was approximately equal to the area of land that was drained in all previous years. In the 1930s the Civilian Conservation Corps augmented the tile drainage systems throughout the Midwest, much of which is still used. Advances in drainage technology. Until after World War II, the technology of tile installation remained similar to the methods first used in 1838. Although cement sections later replaced the original clay tiles, and machines were used to dig the trenches for the tile lines, the process remained quite labor-intensive and limited to specialized contractors. The introduction of plastic tile served to reduce both the cost of tile installation, as well as the amount of labor involved. Rather than set individual sections of cement tile end-to-end in the trench, tile installers had only to unroll a continuous section of lightweight, flexible tile line. Towards the end of the twentieth century, when large, four-wheel-drive tractors became more common on American farms, do-it-yourself tile implements appeared on the market. By making tile installation cheaper and allowing it to be done on the landowner's schedule, farmers are capable of draining localized wet spots that may not create enough of a problem to merit more costly operations. In this way, farmers may enjoy increases in crop yield while saving on the capital costs of tile installation. Perhaps the most useful implement in drainage history was James B. Hill's Buckeye Traction Ditcher, which laid drainage tiles at a record pace. Hill's ditching machine drained the Great Black Swamp in Ohio, vast stretches of Louisiana, and Florida's swampland. Social and ecological effects of tile drainage. Ecologically, the expansion of drainage systems has had tremendous negative effects. Hundreds of thousands of wetland species experienced significant population declines as their habitat was increasingly fragmented and destroyed. Although market hunting within the Central Flyway was a contributing factor in the decline of many waterfowl species' numbers in the early decades of the twentieth century, loss of breeding habitat to agricultural expansion is certainly the most significant. Early maps of midwestern states depict many lakes and marshes that are either nonexistent or significantly reduced in area today. Channelization, a related process of concentrating and facilitating the flow of water from agricultural areas, also contributed to this degradation. Tile drainage and the corresponding changes to the landscape - draining wetlands, wet soils, and channelizing streams – have contributed to more erosive rivers. This response of rivers due to drainage is the result of shortening the residence time of water on the landscape. For example, precipitation used to be held in wetlands and in/on the surface of soils, continuously evaporating or being used via transpiration of plants. Water would slowly drain through the landscape and eventually drain to rivers. The process of tile drainage, used to dry soils quickly and efficiently, results in an efficient transmission of water to the river – so efficient, in fact, that higher volumes of water are delivered to rivers. The effect of higher volumes of water is more energy in water - the dynamic equilibrium state that rivers existed in for centuries (slowly changing shape and continuously transporting limited sediment) was, and currently is, out of balance. The result of this loss of equilibrium is extreme amounts of bank erosion which results in over-burdensome sediment loads and critical impacts to natural environments and riverine habitats. Drainage tile sometimes decreases soil erosion and runoff of some nutrients, including phosphorus. Phosphorus is an important nutrient to control because it is the limiting nutrient in most aquatic ecosystems. Thus phosphorus is the main culprit in eutrophication of surface water; however, the other limiting nutrient, nitrogen, causes substantial damage to waters. For example, nitrogen has been implicated in the gulf hypoxia. Drainage tile sometimes increases water quality because the water flows into the ground then the tile, instead of running off the field into a ditch, carrying soil and nutrients with it. The soil has a chance to filter the water before it enters the streams and rivers. However, by bypassing surface improvements like conservation tillage or riparian buffers, tile drainage can also create problems with water quality and outflow from tile drainage tends to be extremely high in nitrogen. Furthermore, some tile drainage sometime contains very high levels of other chemicals. Since surface forms of conservation agriculture are less effective in tile-drained systems, other practices such as controlled drainage or constructed wetlands may be more effective. In very flat areas, where the natural topography does not provide the gradient necessary for water flow, "agricultural wells" can be dug to provide tile lines sufficient outlet. In these cases, it is the groundwater that stands to be polluted by unfiltered tile output. Intensive livestock operations (ILO)/concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) have led to challenges of livestock effluent disposal. Livestock effluent contains valuable nutrients, but the misapplication of these materials can lead to serious ecological problems, such as nutrient loading. Injecting effluent directly into the ground is one method employed by manure applicators to improve nutrient uptake. Drainage tiles may increase injected manure seepage into surface waterways from manure injection because liquid manure seeps through soils and then drains out of the field and into waterways via drainage tiles. Today, a number of state and federal initiatives serve to reverse habitat loss. Many programs encourage and even reimburse farmers for interrupting the drainage of localized wetholes on their property, often by breaking tile intakes or removing the tile completely. Landowners are often partially or fully compensated for forfeiting the ability to grow crops on this land. Such programs and the cooperation of landowners across the country have had significant positive effects on the populations of a wide variety of waterfowl.

fast speed

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4981782

Waders denotes a waterproof boot or overalls extending from the foot to the thigh, the chest or the neck. They are traditionally made from vulcanised rubber, but available in more modern PVC, neoprene and Gore-Tex variants. Waders are generally distinguished from counterpart waterproof boots by shaft height; the hip boot extending to the thigh and the Wellington boot to the knee. For the sake of emphasis, therefore, waders are sometimes defined by the extent of their coverage as thigh waders, chest waders or full-body waders. As a drysuit variant, full-body waders come with leaktight cuffs or gloves fitted to the sleeves and with a leaktight collar or hood fitted to the neck, enabling the wearer to remain dry when standing or walking in deeper water. Waders are available with boots attached or can have attached stocking feet (usually made of the wader material), to wear inside boots, or inside swimfins in the case of float tube fishing. Origin. The first manufactured waders were made as early as the 1850s by a company called Hodgman. When rubber became popular around 1912, they started making the waders out of this particularly waterproof and durable material. Then rubber was more or less perfected in 1942 for World War II, so they used the same technology to make waders that are closer to what we have today. Types. There are two main types of waders: stocking-foot and boot-foot. Stocking-foot is separate from the boot and connects to it, while boot-foot includes the boot already. Uses. Waders have a wide range of applications. For leisure purposes, they are worn while angling, water gardening, playing with model boats, waterfowl hunting, and off-road riding of all-terrain vehicles. In the world of work, heavy-duty waders are used predominantly in the chemical industry, agriculture, aquaculture and in the maintenance of water supply, sewerage and other utilities. Waders are frequently worn by pastors during full-immersion baptism and they have an important application during flooding, when walking outdoors or indoors. Trench foot is common in those who spend a lot of time in the water without proper protection. People like fly fishermen use waders because they stay in the water for hours on end, and they need the proper protection. Depending on the kind of fish that the fisherman is catching, they might not need waders. Some fish are best caught on land. But some fish are best caught when the fisherman is chest deep in the water. Waders are also essential for keeping warm during colder months, because they keep the cold water off the skin, which otherwise could cause hypothermia or other problems. Environmental impact. Many states in the US are beginning to ban certain types of waders, specifically those with porous, felt soles. These kinds of soles easily host various types of invasive species that could be carried from one water source to another. The invasive organisms and plants pose a threat to fish stocks and important fish habitats. For example, effective March 1, 2012, most counties in Missouri ban these kinds of waders while sport fishing in fresh water. And in all of Alaska, as of January 1, 2012, the same law applies. In New Zealand, the use of felt-soled waders and boots for sports fishing was banned in 2008 as part of the containment measures put in place following the discovery of the invasive alga, didymo, in South Island rivers in 2004.

sufficient safety measures

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43956257

Jeffrey A. Eisenach is an American economist. He is a visiting scholar at the American Enterprise Institute, and has a position with National Economic Research Associates, a consulting company. Eisenach has participated as an expert in government evaluations of economic and state utility issues in the U.S., Canada, Australia, and South America. In 2016, Eisenach served on then President-Elect Donald Trump's transition team as a member of the Federal Communications Commission agency landing team. Eisenach's participation on this landing team was notable for his industry ties and past advocacy for deregulation of telecommunications companies. Eisenach attended Claremont Men's College, now Claremont McKenna College, in Claremont, California. Controversies. In the 1990s, Eisenach was a close associate of Newt Gingrich. He headed GOPAC, and later the Progress and Freedom Foundation, which Gingrich used to raise tax-exempt funds for his Renewing American Civilization campaign. Speaker Gingrich was later reprimanded by the House of Representatives by a vote of 395-28 and fined $300,000 for using these tax-exempt funds for partisan purposes and providing untrue information to a House Ethics Committee investigation of the matter. In 2016, "The New York Times" found that Eisenach advocated against proposed net neutrality regulations in his capacity as an American Enterprise Institute (AEI) visiting scholar, including publishing AEI working papers, inviting FCC officials to speak out against net neutrality at both private and public AEI events, and testifying before congress regarding the potential harms of net neutrality using his AEI title, while simultaneously working as a paid consultant for Verizon and Verizon's trade association, GSMA. The report found that Eisenach rarely disclosed this conflict of interest in his policy work as a scholar at AEI.

arrival expedition

8755-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34276

The Yom Kippur War, Ramadan War, or October War also known as the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, was fought from October 6 to 25, 1973, by a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria against Israel. The war took place mostly in Sinai and the Golan—occupied by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War—with some fighting in African Egypt and northern Israel. Egypt's initial war objective was to use its military to seize a foothold on the east bank of the Suez Canal and use this to negotiate the return of the rest of Sinai. The war began when the Arab coalition launched a joint surprise attack on Israeli positions, on Yom Kippur, a widely observed day of rest, fasting, and prayer in Judaism, which also occurred that year during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan. Egyptian and Syrian forces crossed ceasefire lines to invade the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights, respectively. Both the United States and the Soviet Union initiated massive resupply efforts to their respective allies during the war, and these efforts led to a near-confrontation between the two nuclear superpowers. The war began with a massive and successful Egyptian crossing of the Suez Canal. Egyptian forces crossed the cease-fire lines, then advanced virtually unopposed into the Sinai Peninsula. After three days, Israel had mobilized most of its forces and halted the Egyptian offensive, resulting in a military stalemate. The Syrians coordinated their attack on the Golan Heights to coincide with the Egyptian offensive and initially made threatening gains into Israeli-held territory. Within three days, however, Israeli forces had pushed the Syrians back to the pre-war ceasefire lines. The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) then launched a four-day counter-offensive deep into Syria. Within a week, Israeli artillery began to shell the outskirts of Damascus, and Egyptian President Sadat began to worry about the integrity of his major ally. He believed that capturing two strategic passes located deeper in the Sinai would make his position stronger during post-war negotiations; he therefore ordered the Egyptians to go back on the offensive, but their attack was quickly repulsed. The Israelis then counter-attacked at the seam between the two Egyptian armies, crossed the Suez Canal into Egypt, and began slowly advancing southward and westward towards the city of Suez in over a week of heavy fighting that resulted in heavy casualties on both sides. On October 22, a United Nations–brokered ceasefire unraveled, with each side blaming the other for the breach. By October 24, the Israelis had improved their positions considerably and completed their encirclement of Egypt's Third Army and the city of Suez. This development led to tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, and a second ceasefire was imposed cooperatively on October 25 to end the war. The war had far-reaching implications. The Arab world had experienced humiliation in the lopsided rout of the Egyptian–Syrian–Jordanian alliance in the Six-Day War but felt psychologically vindicated by early successes in this conflict. The war led Israel to recognize that, despite impressive operational and tactical achievements on the battlefield, there was no guarantee that they would always dominate the Arab states militarily, as they had consistently through the earlier 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the Suez Crisis and the Six-Day War. These changes paved the way for the subsequent peace process. The 1978 Camp David Accords that followed led to the return of the Sinai to Egypt and normalized relations—the first peaceful recognition of Israel by an Arab country. Egypt continued its drift away from the Soviet Union and eventually left the Soviet sphere of influence entirely. Background. The war was part of the Arab–Israeli conflict, an ongoing dispute that has included many battles and wars since the founding of the State of Israel in 1948. During the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel had captured Egypt's Sinai Peninsula, roughly half of Syria's Golan Heights, and the territories of the West Bank which had been held by Jordan since 1948. On June 19, 1967, shortly after the Six-Day War, the Israeli government voted to return the Sinai to Egypt and the Golan Heights to Syria in exchange for a permanent peace settlement and a demilitarization of the returned territories. It rejected a full withdrawal to the boundaries and the situation before the war, and also insisted on direct negotiations with the Arab governments as opposed to accepting negotiation through a third party. This decision was not made public at the time, nor was it conveyed to any Arab state. Notwithstanding Abba Eban's (Israeli Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1967) insistence that this was indeed the case, there seems to be no solid evidence to corroborate his claim. No formal peace proposal was made either directly or indirectly by Israel. The Americans, who were briefed of the Cabinet's decision by Eban, were not asked to convey it to Cairo and Damascus as official peace proposals, nor were they given indications that Israel expected a reply. The Arab position, as it emerged in September 1967 at the Khartoum Arab Summit, was to reject any peaceful settlement with the state of Israel. The eight participating states—Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq, Algeria, Kuwait, and Sudan—passed a resolution that would later become known as the "three no's": there would be no peace, no recognition and no negotiation with Israel. Prior to that, King Hussein of Jordan had stated that he could not rule out a possibility of a "real, permanent peace" between Israel and the Arab states. Armed hostilities continued on a limited scale after the Six-Day War and escalated into the War of Attrition, an attempt to wear down the Israeli position through long-term pressure. A ceasefire was signed in August 1970. President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt died in September 1970. He was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. A peace initiative led by both Sadat and UN intermediary Gunnar Jarring was tabled in 1971. Sadat set forth to the Egyptian Parliament his intention of arranging an interim agreement as a step towards a settlement on February 4, 1971, which extended the terms of the ceasefire and envisaged a reopening of the Suez Canal in exchange for a partial Israeli pullback. It resembled a proposal independently made by Moshe Dayan. Sadat had signaled in an interview with "The New York Times" in December 1970 that, in return for a total withdrawal from the Sinai Peninsula, he was ready "to recognize the rights of Israel as an independent state as defined by the Security Council of the United Nations." Gunnar Jarring coincidentally proposed a similar initiative four days later, on February 8, 1971. Egypt responded by accepting much of Jarring's proposals, though differing on several issues, regarding the Gaza Strip, for example, and expressed its willingness to reach an accord if it also implemented the provisions of United Nations Security Council Resolution 242. This was the first time an Arab government had gone public declaring its readiness to sign a peace agreement with Israel. In addition, the Egyptian response included a statement that the lasting peace could not be achieved without "withdrawal of the Israeli armed forces from all the territories occupied since 5 June 1967." Golda Meir reacted to the overture by forming a committee to examine the proposal and vet possible concessions. When the committee unanimously concluded that Israel's interests would be served by full withdrawal to the internationally recognized lines dividing Israel from Egypt and Syria, returning the Gaza Strip and, in a majority view, returning most of the West Bank and East Jerusalem, Meir was angered and shelved the document. The United States was infuriated by the cool Israeli response to Egypt's proposal, and Joseph Sisco informed Yitzhak Rabin that "Israel would be regarded responsible for rejecting the best opportunity to reach peace since the establishment of the state." Israel responded to Jarring's plan also on February 26 by outlining its readiness to make some form of withdrawal, while declaring it had no intention of returning to the pre-June 5, 1967 lines. Explicating the response, Israeli Foreign Minister Abba Eban told the Knesset that the pre-June 5, 1967 lines "cannot assure Israel against aggression", i.e., were not defensible. Jarring was disappointed, and blamed Israel for refusing to accept a complete pullout from the Sinai peninsula. Sadat hoped that by inflicting even a limited defeat on the Israelis, the status quo could be altered. Hafez al-Assad, the leader of Syria, had a different view. He had little interest in negotiation and felt the retaking of the Golan Heights would be a purely military option. After the Six-Day War, Assad had launched a massive military buildup and hoped to make Syria the dominant military power of the Arab states. With the aid of Egypt, Assad felt that his new army could win convincingly against Israel and thus secure Syria's role in the region. Assad only saw negotiations beginning once the Golan Heights had been retaken by force, which would induce Israel to give up the West Bank and Gaza, and make other concessions. Sadat also had important domestic concerns in wanting war. "The three years since Sadat had taken office ... were the most demoralized in Egyptian history. ... A desiccated economy added to the nation's despondency. War was a desperate option." In his biography of Sadat, Raphael Israeli argued that Sadat felt the root of the problem was the great shame over the Six-Day War, and before any reforms could be introduced, he believed that that shame had to be overcome. Egypt's economy was in shambles, but Sadat knew that the deep reforms that he felt were needed would be deeply unpopular among parts of the population. A military victory would give him the popularity he needed to make changes. A portion of the Egyptian population, most prominently university students who launched wide protests, strongly desired a war to reclaim the Sinai and was highly upset that Sadat had not launched one in his first three years in office. The other Arab states showed much more reluctance to fully commit to a new war. Jordanian King Hussein feared another major loss of territory, as had occurred in the Six-Day War, in which Jordan lost all of the West Bank, territory it had conquered and annexed in 1948–49, which had doubled its population. Sadat also backed the claim of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) to the West Bank and Gaza and, in the event of a victory, promised Yasser Arafat that he would be given control of them. Hussein still saw the West Bank as part of Jordan and wanted it restored to his kingdom. Moreover, during the Black September crisis of 1970, a near civil war had broken out between the PLO and the Jordanian government. In that war, Syria had intervened militarily on the side of the PLO, estranging Hussein. Iraq and Syria also had strained relations, and the Iraqis refused to join the initial offensive. Lebanon, which shared a border with Israel, was not expected to join the Arab war effort because of its small army and already evident instability. During the months before the war, Sadat engaged in a diplomatic offensive to try to win support for military action. By the fall of 1973, he claimed the backing of more than a hundred states. These were most of the countries of the Arab League, Non-Aligned Movement, and Organization of African Unity. The US considered Israel an ally in the Cold War and had been supplying the Israeli military since the 1960s. Henry Kissinger believed that the regional balance of power hinged on maintaining Israel's military dominance over Arab countries, and that an Arab victory in the region would strengthen Soviet influence. Britain's position, on the other hand, was that war between the Arabs and Israelis could only be prevented by the implementation of United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 and a return to the pre-1967 boundaries. On October 12, nearly one week into the war, the Cypriot government announced that it would "oppose the use of British bases in Cyprus as a springboard against Arab countries", which further strained Anglo-American relations. Events leading up to the war. Four months before the war broke out, Henry Kissinger made an offer to Ismail, Sadat's emissary. Kissinger proposed returning the Sinai Peninsula to Egyptian control and an Israeli withdrawal from all of Sinai, except for some strategic points. Ismail said he would return with Sadat's reply, but never did. Sadat was already determined to go to war. Only an American guarantee that the United States would fulfill the entire Arab program in a brief time could have dissuaded Sadat. Sadat declared that Egypt was prepared to "sacrifice a million Egyptian soldiers" to recover its lost territory. From the end of 1972, Egypt began a concentrated effort to build up its forces, receiving MiG-21 jet fighters, SA-2, SA-3, SA-6 and SA-7 antiaircraft missiles, T-55 and T-62 tanks, RPG-7 antitank weapons, and the AT-3 Sagger anti-tank guided missile from the Soviet Union and improving its military tactics, based on Soviet battlefield doctrines. Political generals, who had in large part been responsible for the rout in 1967, were replaced with competent ones. The role of the superpowers, too, was a major factor in the outcome of the two wars. The policy of the Soviet Union was one of the causes of Egypt's military weakness. President Nasser was only able to obtain the materiel for an anti-aircraft missile defense wall after visiting Moscow and pleading with Kremlin leaders. He said that if supplies were not given, he would have to return to Egypt and tell the Egyptian people Moscow had abandoned them, and then relinquish power to one of his peers who would be able to deal with the Americans. The Americans would then have the upper hand in the region, which Moscow could not permit. Nasser's policy following the 1967 defeat conflicted with that of the Soviet Union. The Soviets sought to avoid a new conflagration between the Arabs and Israelis so as not to be drawn into a confrontation with the United States. The reality of the situation became apparent when the superpowers met in Oslo and agreed to maintain the status quo. This was unacceptable to Egyptian leaders, and when it was discovered that the Egyptian preparations for crossing the canal were being leaked, it became imperative to expel the Soviets from Egypt. In July 1972, Sadat expelled almost all of the 20,000 Soviet military advisers in the country and reoriented the country's foreign policy to be more favourable to the United States. The Syrians remained close to the Soviet Union. The Soviets thought little of Sadat's chances in any war. They warned that any attempt to cross the heavily fortified Suez Canal would incur massive losses. Both the Soviets and Americans were at that time pursuing détente and had no interest in seeing the Middle East destabilized. In a June 1973 meeting with American President Richard Nixon, Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev had proposed Israel pull back to its 1967 border. Brezhnev said that if Israel did not, "we will have difficulty keeping the military situation from flaring up"—an indication that the Soviet Union had been unable to restrain Sadat's plans. In an interview published in "Newsweek" (April 9, 1973), Sadat again threatened war with Israel. Several times during 1973, Arab forces conducted large-scale exercises that put the Israeli military on the highest level of alert, only to be recalled a few days later. The Israeli leadership already believed that if an attack took place, the Israeli Air Force (IAF) could repel it. Almost a full year before the war, in a meeting on October 24, 1972 with his Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, Sadat declared his intention to go to war with Israel even without proper Soviet support. Planning had begun in 1971 and was conducted in absolute secrecy—even the upper-echelon commanders were not told of the war plans until less than a week prior to the attack, and the soldiers were not told until a few hours beforehand. The plan to attack Israel in concert with Syria was code-named Operation Badr (Arabic for "full moon"), after the Battle of Badr, in which Muslims under Muhammad defeated the Quraish tribe of Mecca. War objectives and areas of combat. Egypt's initial war objective was to use its military to seize a limited amount of Israeli-occupied Sinai on the east bank of the Suez Canal. This would provoke a crisis which would allow it to bring American and Soviet pressure to bear on Israel to negotiate the return of the rest of Sinai, and possibly other occupied territories, from a position of relative strength. Egyptian President Anwar Sadat's publicly stated position was "to recover all Arab territory occupied by Israel following the 1967 war and to achieve a just, peaceful solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict". Similarly, Syria intended to seize back some or all of the Golan and to then negotiate its retention via great power pressure. Both Egypt and Syria expected that the use of the "oil weapon" would assist them in post-conflict negotiations, once their attacks had generated a reason for its use. Other than a flurry of Syrian missile attacks on Ramat David airbase and surrounding civilian settlements during the first days of the war, the fighting took place in Sinai and the Golan Heights, territories that had been occupied by Israel since the end of the Six-Day War of 1967, and in the later stages, on the west side of the Suez canal in Egypt and in areas of the Golan beyond those held by Israel prior to the outbreak of war. Lead-up to the surprise attack. The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) Directorate of Military Intelligence's (abbreviated as "Aman") Research Department was responsible for formulating Israel's intelligence estimate. Their assessments on the likelihood of war were based on several assumptions. First, it was assumed correctly that Syria would not go to war with Israel unless Egypt did so as well. Second, the department learned from Ashraf Marwan, former President Nasser's son-in-law and also a senior Mossad agent, that Egypt wanted to regain all of the Sinai, but would not go to war until they were supplied MiG-23 fighter-bombers to neutralize the Israeli Air Force and Scud missiles to be used against Israeli cities as a deterrent against Israeli attacks on Egyptian infrastructure. Since they had not received MiG-23s and Scud missiles had only arrived in Egypt from Bulgaria in late August and it would take four months to train the Egyptian ground crews, Aman predicted war with Egypt was not imminent. This assumption about Egypt's strategic plans, known as "the concept", strongly prejudiced the department's thinking and led it to dismiss other war warnings. By mid-1973, Aman was almost completely aware of the Arab war plans. It knew that the Egyptian Second and Third Armies would attempt to cross the Suez Canal and advance ten kilometres into the Sinai, followed by armored divisions that would advance towards the Mitla and Gidi Passes, and that naval units and paratroopers would then attempt to capture Sharm el-Sheikh. Aman was also aware of many details of the Syrian war plan. However, Israeli analysts, following "the concept", did not believe the Arabs were serious about going to war. The Egyptians did much to further this misconception. Both the Israelis and the Americans felt that the expulsion of the Soviet military observers had severely reduced the effectiveness of the Egyptian army. The Egyptians ensured that there was a continual stream of false information regarding maintenance problems and a lack of personnel to operate the most advanced equipment. The Egyptians made repeated misleading reports about lack of spare parts that made their way to the Israelis. Sadat had so long engaged in brinkmanship that his frequent war threats were being ignored by the world. In April and May 1973, Israeli intelligence began picking up clear signals of Egypt's intentions for war, recognizing that it had the necessary divisions and bridging equipment to cross the Suez Canal and a missile umbrella to protect any crossing operation from air attack. However, Aman Chief Eli Zeira was still confident that the probability of war was low. Between May and August 1973, the Egyptian Army conducted military exercises near the border, and Ashraf Marwan inaccurately warned that Egypt and Syria would launch a surprise attack in the middle of May. The Israeli Army mobilized with their Blue-White Alert, in response to both the warnings and exercises, at considerable cost. These exercises led some Israelis to dismiss the actual war preparations, and Marwan's warning right before the attack was launched, as another exercise. Egyptian and Syrian military exercises. For the week leading up to Yom Kippur, the Egyptian army staged a week-long training exercise adjacent to the Suez Canal. Israeli intelligence, detecting large troop movements towards the canal, dismissed them as mere training exercises. Movements of Syrian troops towards the border were also detected, as were the cancellation of leaves and a call-up of reserves in the Syrian army. These activities were considered puzzling, but not a threat because, Aman believed, they would not attack without Egypt and Egypt would not attack until the weaponry they wanted arrived. Despite this belief, Israel sent reinforcements to the Golan Heights. These forces were to prove critical during the early days of the war. On September 27 to 30, two batches of reservists were called up by the Egyptian army to participate in these exercises. Two days before the outbreak of the war, on October 4, the Egyptian command publicly announced the demobilization of part of the reservists called up during September 27 to lull Israeli suspicions. Around 20,000 troops were demobilized, and subsequently some of these men were given leave to perform the "Umrah" (pilgrimage) to Mecca. Reports were also given instructing cadets in military colleges to resume their courses on October 9. On October 1, an Aman researcher, Lieutenant Binyamin Siman-Tov, submitted an assessment arguing that the Egyptian deployments and exercises along the Suez Canal seemed to be a camouflage for an actual crossing of the canal. Siman-Tov sent a more comprehensive assessment on October 3. Both were ignored by his superior. According to Egyptian General El-Gamasy, "On the initiative of the operations staff, we reviewed the situation on the ground and developed a framework for the planned offensive operation. We studied the technical characteristics of the Suez Canal, the ebb and the flow of the tides, the speed of the currents and their direction, hours of darkness and of moonlight, weather conditions, and related conditions in the Mediterranean and Red sea." He explained further by saying: "Saturday 6 October 1973 (10 Ramadan 1393) was the day chosen for the September–October option. Conditions for a crossing were good, it was a fast day in Israel, and the moon on that day, 10 Ramadan, shone from sunset until midnight." The war coincided that year with the Muslim month of Ramadan, when many Arab Muslim soldiers fast. On the other hand, the fact that the attack was launched on Yom Kippur may have "helped" Israel to more easily marshal reserves from their homes and synagogues because roads and communication lines were largely open, easing the mobilization and transportation of the military. Despite refusing to participate, King Hussein of Jordan "had met with Sadat and Assad in Alexandria two weeks before. Given the mutual suspicions prevailing among the Arab leaders, it was unlikely that he had been told any specific war plans. But it was probable that Sadat and Assad had raised the prospect of war against Israel in more general terms to feel out the likelihood of Jordan joining in." On the night of September 25, Hussein secretly flew to Tel Aviv to warn Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir of an impending Syrian attack. "Are they going to war without the Egyptians, asked Mrs. Meir. The king said he didn't think so. 'I think they [Egypt] would cooperate.'" This warning was ignored, and Aman concluded that the king had not told anything that was not already known. Throughout September, Israel received eleven warnings of war from well-placed sources. However, Mossad Director-General Zvi Zamir continued to insist that war was not an Arab option, even after Hussein's warning. Zamir would later remark that "We simply didn't feel them capable [of war]." On the day before the war, General Ariel Sharon was shown aerial photographs and other intelligence by Yehoshua Saguy, his divisional intelligence officer. General Sharon noticed that the concentration of Egyptian forces along the canal was far beyond anything observed during the training exercises, and that the Egyptians had amassed all of their crossing equipment along the canal. He then called General Shmuel Gonen, who had replaced him as head of Southern Command, and expressed his certainty that war was imminent. Zamir's concern grew on October 4–5, as additional signs of an impending attack were detected. Soviet advisers and their families left Egypt and Syria, transport aircraft thought to be laden with military equipment landed in Cairo and Damascus, and aerial photographs revealed that Egyptian and Syrian concentrations of tanks, infantry, and surface-to-air (SAM) missiles were at an unprecedented high. According to declassified documents from the Agranat Commission, Brigadier General Yisrael Lior, Prime Minister Golda Meir's military secretary/attaché, claimed that Mossad knew from Ashraf Marwan that an attack was going to occur under the guise of a military drill a week before it occurred, but the process of passing along the information to the Prime Minister's office failed. The information ended up with Mossad head Zvi Zamir's aide, who passed it along to Zamir at 12:30 am on October 5. According to the claim, an unfocused and groggy Zamir thanked the aide for the information and said he would pass it along to the Prime Minister's office in the morning. On the night of October 5/6, Zamir personally went to Europe to meet with Marwan at midnight. Marwan informed him that a joint Syrian-Egyptian attack was imminent, but incorrectly said that the attack would take place at sunset. It was this warning in particular, combined with the large number of other warnings, that finally goaded the Israeli High Command into action. Just hours before the attack began, orders went out for a partial call-up of the Israeli reserves. The attack by the Egyptian and Syrian forces caught the United States by surprise. According to future CIA Director and Defense Secretary Robert Gates, he was briefing an American arms negotiator on the improbability of armed conflict in the region when he heard the news of the outbreak of war on the radio. On the other hand, the KGB learned about the attack in advance, probably from its intelligence sources in Egypt. Lack of Israeli pre-emptive attack. The Israeli strategy was, for the most part, based on the precept that if war was imminent, Israel would launch a pre-emptive strike. It was assumed that Israel's intelligence services would give, in the worst case, about 48 hours notice prior to an Arab attack. Prime Minister Golda Meir, Minister of Defense Moshe Dayan and Chief of General Staff David Elazar met at 8:05 am on the morning of Yom Kippur, six hours before the war began. Dayan opened the meeting by arguing that war was not a certainty. Elazar then presented his argument in favor of a pre-emptive attack against Syrian airfields at noon, Syrian missiles at 3:00 pm, and Syrian ground forces at 5:00 pm: "When the presentations were done, the prime minister hemmed uncertainly for a few moments but then came to a clear decision. There would be no preemptive strike. Israel might be needing American assistance soon and it was imperative that it would not be blamed for starting the war. 'If we strike first, we won't get help from anybody,' she said." Prior to the war, Kissinger and Nixon consistently warned Meir that she must not be responsible for initiating a Middle East war. On October 6, 1973, the war opening date, Kissinger told Israel not to go for a preemptive strike, and Meir confirmed to him that Israel would not. Other developed nations, being more dependent on OPEC oil, took more seriously the threat of an Arab oil embargo and trade boycott, and had stopped supplying Israel with munitions. As a result, Israel was totally dependent on the United States for military resupply, and particularly sensitive to anything that might endanger that relationship. After Meir had made her decision, at 10:15 am, she met with American ambassador Kenneth Keating in order to inform the United States that Israel did not intend to preemptively start a war, and asked that American efforts be directed at preventing war. An electronic telegram with Keating's report on the meeting was sent to the United States at 16:33 GMT (6:33 pm local time). A message arrived later from United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger saying, "Don't preempt." At the same time, Kissinger also urged the Soviets to use their influence to prevent war, contacted Egypt with Israel's message of non-preemption, and sent messages to other Arab governments to enlist their help on the side of moderation. These late efforts were futile. According to Henry Kissinger, had Israel struck first, it would not have received "so much as a nail". David Elazar proposed a mobilization of the entire air force and four armored divisions, a total of 100,000 to 120,000 troops, while Dayan favored a mobilization of the air force and two armored divisions, totaling around 70,000 troops. Meir chose Elazar's proposal. Course of the war. Sinai Front. The Sinai was once again the arena of conflict between Israel and Egypt. The Egyptians had prepared for an assault across the canal and deployed five divisions totaling 100,000 soldiers, 1,350 tanks and 2,000 guns and heavy mortars for the onslaught. Facing them were 450 soldiers of the Jerusalem Brigade, spread out in 16 forts along the length of the canal. There were 290 Israeli tanks in all of Sinai, divided into three armored brigades, only one of which was deployed near the canal when hostilities commenced. Large bridgeheads were established on the east bank on October 6. Israeli armoured forces launched counterattacks from October 6 to 8, but they were often piecemeal and inadequately supported and were beaten back principally by Egyptians using portable anti-tank missiles. Between October 9 and 12, the American response was a call for a cease-fire in place. The Egyptian units generally would not advance beyond a shallow strip for fear of losing the protection of their SAM batteries, which were situated on the west bank of the canal. In the Six-Day War, the Israeli Air Force had pummeled the defenseless Arab armies. Egypt (and Syria) had heavily fortified their side of the ceasefire lines with SAM batteries provided by the Soviet Union, against which the Israeli Air Force had no time to execute a Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses operation, due to the element of surprise. Israel, which had invested much of its defense budget building the region's strongest air force, would see the effectiveness of its air force curtailed in the initial phases of the conflict by the SAM presence. On October 9, the IDF chose to concentrate its reserves and build up its supplies while the Egyptians remained on the strategic defensive. Nixon and Kissinger held back on a full-scale resupply of arms to Israel. Short of supplies, the Israeli government reluctantly accepted a cease-fire in place on October 12, but Sadat refused to do so. The Soviets started an airlift of arms to Syria and Egypt. The American global interest was to prove that Soviet arms could not dictate the outcome of the fighting, by supplying Israel. With an airlift in full swing, Washington was prepared to wait until Israeli success on the battlefield might persuade the Arabs and the Soviets to bring the fighting to an end. The Israelis decided to counterattack once Egyptian armor attempted to expand the bridgehead beyond the protective SAM umbrella. The riposte, codenamed Operation Gazelle, was launched on October 15. IDF forces spearheaded by Ariel Sharon's division broke through the Tasa corridor and crossed the Suez Canal to the north of the Great Bitter Lake. After intense fighting, the IDF progressed towards Cairo and advanced southwards on the east bank of the Great Bitter Lake and in the southern extent of the canal right up to Port Suez. It was important for the Americans that the fighting should be ended, when all parties could still emerge from the conflict with their vital interests and self-esteem intact. Hence they indicated an acceptance of Israeli advance while violating the ceasefire, but the United States would not accept the destruction of the Egyptian 3rd Army Corps. Israeli progress towards Cairo was brought to a halt when the ceasefire was declared on October 24. Egyptian attack. Anticipating a swift Israeli armored counterattack by three armored divisions, the Egyptians had armed their assault force with large numbers of man-portable anti-tank weapons—rocket-propelled grenades and the less numerous but more advanced Sagger guided missiles, which proved devastating to the first Israeli armored counterattacks. Each of the five infantry divisions that were to cross the canal had been equipped with RPG-7 rockets and RPG-43 grenades and reinforced with an anti-tank guided missile battalion, as they would not have any armor support for nearly 12 hours. In addition, the Egyptians had built separate ramps at the crossing points, reaching as high as to counter the Israeli sand wall, provide covering fire for the assaulting infantry and to counter the first Israeli armored counterattacks. The scale and effectiveness of the Egyptian strategy of deploying these anti-tank weapons coupled with the Israelis' inability to disrupt their use with close air support (due to the SAM shield) greatly contributed to Israeli setbacks early in the war. The Egyptian Army put great effort into finding a quick and effective way of breaching the Israeli defenses. The Israelis had built large 18-metre (59 foot) high sand walls with a 60-degree slope and reinforced with concrete at the water line. Egyptian engineers initially experimented with explosive charges and bulldozers to clear the obstacles, before a junior officer proposed using high pressure water cannons. The idea was tested and found to be a sound one, and several high pressure water cannons were imported from Britain and East Germany. The water cannons effectively breached the sand walls using water from the canal. At 2:00 pm on October 6, Operation Badr began with a large airstrike. More than 200 Egyptian aircraft conducted simultaneous strikes against three airbases, Hawk missile batteries, three command centers, artillery positions, and several radar installations. Airfields at Refidim and Bir Tamada were temporarily put out of service, and damage was inflicted on a Hawk battery at Ophir. The aerial assault was coupled with a barrage from more than 2,000 artillery pieces for a period of 53 minutes against the Bar Lev Line and rear area command posts and concentration bases. Author Andrew McGregor claimed that the success of the first strike negated the need for a second planned strike. Egypt acknowledged the loss of five aircraft during the attack. Kenneth Pollack wrote that 18 Egyptian aircraft were shot down, and that these losses prompted the cancellation of the second planned wave. In one notable engagement during this period, a pair of Israeli F-4E Phantoms challenged 28 Egyptian MiGs over Sharm el-Sheikh and within half an hour, shot down seven or eight MiGs with no losses. One of the Egyptian pilots killed was Captain Atif Sadat, President Sadat's half-brother. Simultaneously, 14 Egyptian Tupolev Tu-16 bombers attacked Israeli targets in the Sinai with Kelt missiles, while another two Egyptian Tupolevs fired two Kelt missiles at a radar station in central Israel. One missile was shot down by a patrolling Israeli Mirage fighter, and the second fell into the sea. The attack was an attempt to warn Israel that Egypt could retaliate if it bombed targets deep within Egyptian territory. Under cover of the initial artillery barrage, the Egyptian assault force of 32,000 infantry began crossing the canal in twelve waves at five separate crossing areas, from 14:05 to 17:30, in what became known as The Crossing. The Egyptians prevented Israeli forces from reinforcing the Bar Lev Line and proceeded to attack the Israeli fortifications. Meanwhile, engineers crossed over to breach the sand wall. The Israeli Air Force conducted air interdiction operations to try to prevent the bridges from being erected, but took losses from Egyptian SAM batteries. The air attacks were ineffective overall, as the sectional design of the bridges enabled quick repairs when hit. Despite fierce resistance, the Israeli reserve brigade garrisoning the Bar-Lev forts was overwhelmed. According to Shazly, within six hours, fifteen strongpoints had been captured as Egyptian forces advanced several kilometres into the Sinai. Shazly's account was disputed by Kenneth Pollack, who noted that for the most part, the forts only fell to repeated assaults by superior forces or prolonged sieges over many days. The northernmost fortification of the Bar Lev Line, code-named 'Fort Budapest', withstood repeated assaults and remained in Israeli hands throughout the war. Once the bridges were laid, additional infantry with the remaining portable and recoilless anti-tank weapons began to cross the canal, while the first Egyptian tanks started to cross at 20:30. The Egyptians also attempted to land several heli-borne commando units in various areas in the Sinai to hamper the arrival of Israeli reserves. This attempt met with disaster as the Israelis shot down up to 20 helicopters, inflicting heavy casualties. Israeli Major General (res.) Chaim Herzog placed Egyptian helicopter losses at 14. Other sources claim that "several" helicopters were downed with "total loss of life" and that the few commandos that did filter through were ineffectual and presented nothing more than a "nuisance". Kenneth Pollack asserted that despite their heavy losses, the Egyptian commandos fought exceptionally hard and created considerable panic, prompting the Israelis to take precautions that hindered their ability to concentrate on stopping the assault across the canal. Egyptian forces advanced approximately into the Sinai Desert with two armies (both corps-sized by western standards, included the 2nd Infantry Division in the northern Second Army). By the following morning, some 850 tanks had crossed the canal. In his account of the war, Saad El Shazly noted that by the morning of October 7, the Egyptians had lost 280 soldiers and 20 tanks, though this account is disputed. Most Israeli soldiers defending the Bar Lev Line became casualties, and some 200 were taken prisoner. In the subsequent days, some defenders of the Bar Lev Line managed to break through the Egyptian encirclement and return to their lines or were extracted during later Israeli counterattacks. For the next several days, the IAF played a minimal role in the fighting, largely because it was needed to deal with the simultaneous, and ultimately more threatening, Syrian invasion of the Golan Heights. Egyptian forces then consolidated their initial positions. On October 7, the bridgeheads were enlarged an additional , at the same time repulsing Israeli counterattacks. In the north, the Egyptian 18th Division attacked the town of El-Qantarah el-Sharqiyya, engaging Israeli forces in and around the town. The fighting there was conducted at close quarters, and was sometimes hand-to-hand. The Egyptians were forced to clear the town building by building. By evening, most of the town was in Egyptian hands. El-Qantarah was completely cleared by the next morning. Meanwhile, the Egyptian commandos airdropped on October 6 began encountering Israeli reserves the following morning. Both sides suffered heavy losses, but the commandos were at times successful in delaying the movement of Israeli reserves to the front. These special operations often led to confusion and anxiety among Israeli commanders, who commended the Egyptian commandos. This view was contradicted by another source that stated that few commandos made it to their objectives, and were usually nothing more than a nuisance. According to Abraham Rabinovich, only the commandos near Baluza and those blocking the road to Fort Budapest had measurable success. Of the 1,700 Egyptian commandos inserted behind Israeli lines during the war, 740 were killed—many in downed helicopters—and 330 taken prisoner. Failed Israeli counter-attack. On October 7, David Elazar visited Shmuel Gonen, commander of the Israeli Southern Command—who had only taken the position three months before at the retirement of Ariel Sharon—and met with Israeli commanders. The Israelis planned a cautious counterattack for the following day by Avraham Adan's 162nd Armored Division. The same day, the IAF carried out Operation Tagar, aiming to neutralize Egyptian Air Force bases and its missile defense shield. Seven Egyptian airbases were damaged, with the loss of two A-4 Skyhawks and their pilots. Two more planned attacks were called off because of the increasing need for air power on the Syrian front. The IAF carried out additional air attacks against Egyptian forces on the east bank of the canal, reportedly inflicting heavy losses. Israeli jets had carried out hundreds of sorties against Egyptian targets by the following day, but the Egyptian SAM shield inflicted heavy losses. IAF aircraft losses mounted to three aircraft for every 200 sorties, an unsustainable rate. The Israelis responded by rapidly devising new tactics to thwart the Egyptian air defenses. On October 8, after Elazar had left, Gonen changed the plans on the basis of unduly optimistic field reports. Adan's division was composed of three brigades totaling 183 tanks. One of the brigades was still en route to the area, and would participate in the attack by noon, along with a supporting mechanized infantry brigade with an additional 44 tanks. The Israeli counterattack was in the direction of the Bar Lev strongpoints opposite the city of Ismailia, against entrenched Egyptian infantry. In a series of ill-coordinated attacks which were met by stiff resistance from Egyptian tanks, artillery, and infantry armed with anti-tank rockets, the Israelis were repulsed with heavy losses. An initial Israeli attack by some 25 tanks broke through the first Egyptian troops and managed to come within of the canal before coming under withering fire. The Israelis lost 18 tanks within minutes and most of the commanders were killed or wounded. This was followed by a second attack by elements of two Israeli brigades, which had communication and coordination problems. The Egyptians allowed the Israelis to advance and then encircled them in a prepared kill zone before opening fire, wiping out most of the Israeli force within 13 minutes. The Egyptians destroyed over 50 Israeli tanks and captured eight intact. That afternoon, Egyptian forces advanced once more to deepen their bridgeheads, and as a result the Israelis lost several strategic positions. Further Israeli attacks to regain the lost ground proved futile. Towards nightfall, an Egyptian counterattack was repulsed with the loss of 50 Egyptian tanks by the Israeli 143rd Armored Division, which was led by Ariel Sharon, who had been reinstated as a division commander at the outset of the war. Garwych, citing Egyptian sources, documented Egyptian tank losses up to October 13 at 240. Temporary stabilization. According to Herzog, by October 9 the front lines had stabilized. The Egyptians were unable to advance further, and Egyptian armored attacks on October 9 and 10 were repulsed with heavy losses. However, this claim was disputed by Shazly, who claimed that the Egyptians continued to advance and improve their positions well into October 10. He pointed to one engagement, which involved elements of the 1st Infantry Brigade, attached to the 19th Division, which captured Ayoun Mousa, south of Suez. The Egyptian 1st Mechanized Brigade launched a failed attack southward along the Gulf of Suez in the direction of Ras Sudar. Leaving the safety of the SAM umbrella, the force was attacked by Israeli aircraft and suffered heavy losses. Shazly cited this experience as a basis to resist pressure by the Minister of War, General Ahmad Ismail Ali, to attack eastward toward the Mitla and Gidi Passes. Between October 10 and 13, both sides refrained from any large-scale actions, and the situation was relatively stable. Both sides launched small-scale attacks, and the Egyptians used helicopters to land commandos behind Israeli lines. Some Egyptian helicopters were shot down, and those commando forces that managed to land were quickly destroyed by Israeli troops. In one key engagement on October 13, a particularly large Egyptian incursion was stopped and close to a hundred Egyptian commandos were killed. The Egyptian failed attack. General Shazly strongly opposed any eastward advance that would leave his armor without adequate air cover. He was overruled by General Ismail and Sadat, whose aims were to seize the strategic Mitla and Gidi Passes and the Israeli nerve centre at Refidim, which they hoped would relieve pressure on the Syrians (who were by now on the defensive) by forcing Israel to shift divisions from the Golan to the Sinai. The 2nd and 3rd Armies were ordered to attack eastward in six simultaneous thrusts over a broad front, leaving behind five infantry divisions to hold the bridgeheads. The attacking forces, consisting of 800–1,000 tanks would not have SAM cover, so the Egyptian Air Force (EAF) was tasked with their defense against Israeli aerial attacks. Armored and mechanized units initiated the attack on October 14 with artillery support. They were up against 700–750 Israeli tanks. Preparatory to the tank attack, Egyptian helicopters set down 100 commandos near the Lateral Road to disrupt the Israeli rear. An Israeli reconnaissance unit quickly subdued them, killing 60 and taking numerous prisoners. Still bruised by the extensive losses their commandos had suffered on the opening day of the war, the Egyptians were unable or unwilling to implement further commando operations that had been planned in conjunction with the armored attack. The Egyptian armored thrust suffered heavy losses. Instead of concentrating forces of maneuvering, except for the wadi thrust, Egyptian units launched head-on-attacks against the waiting Israeli defenses. The Egyptian attack was decisively repelled. At least 250 Egyptian tanks and some 200 armored vehicles were destroyed. Egyptian casualties exceeded 1,000. Fewer than 40 Israeli tanks were hit, and all but six of them were repaired by Israeli maintenance crews and returned to service, while Israeli casualties numbered 665. Kenneth Pollack credited a successful Israeli commando raid early on October 14 against an Egyptian signals-intercept site at Jebel Ataqah with seriously disrupting Egyptian command and control and contributing to its breakdown during the engagement. Israel planned attack considerations. With the situation on the Syrian front stabilizing, the Israeli High Command agreed that the time was ripe for an Israeli counterattack and strike across the canal. General Sharon advocated an immediate crossing at Deversoir at the northern edge of Great Bitter Lake. On October 9, a reconnaissance force attached to Colonel Amnon Reshef's Brigade detected a gap between the Egyptian Second and Third Armies in this sector. According to General Gamasy, the gap had been spotted by an American SR-71 spy plane. Chief of Staff Elazar and General Chaim Bar-Lev, who had by now replaced Gonen as Chief of Southern Command, agreed that this was the ideal spot for a crossing. However, given the size of the Egyptian armored reserves, the Israelis chose to wait for an opportunity that would allow them to weaken Egyptian armored strength before initiating any crossing. The opportunity arrived on October 12, when Israeli intelligence detected signs that the Egyptians were gearing up for a major armored thrust. This was precisely the moment the Israelis had been waiting for. They could finally utilize their advantages in speed, maneuver and tank gunnery, areas in which they excelled. Once Egyptian armored strength was sufficiently degraded, the Israelis would commence their own canal crossing. Israeli breakthrough – Crossing the canal. The Israelis immediately followed the Egyptian failed attack of October 14 with a multidivisional counterattack through the gap between the Egyptian Second and Third Armies. Sharon's 143rd Division, now reinforced with a paratroop brigade commanded by Colonel Danny Matt, was tasked with establishing bridgeheads on the east and west banks of the canal. The 162nd and 252nd Armored Divisions, commanded by Generals Avraham Adan and Kalman Magen, respectively, would then cross through the breach to the west bank of the canal and swing southward, encircling the 3rd Army. The offensive was code-named Operation Stouthearted Men or alternatively, Operation Valiant. On the night of October 15, 750 of Colonel Matt's paratroopers crossed the canal in rubber dinghies. They were soon joined by tanks, ferried on motorized rafts, and additional infantry. The force encountered no resistance initially and fanned out in raiding parties, attacking supply convoys, SAM sites, logistic centers and anything else of military value, with priority given to the SAMs. Attacks on SAM sites punched a hole in the Egyptian anti-aircraft screen and enabled the IAF to strike Egyptian ground targets more aggressively. On the night of October 15, 20 Israeli tanks and seven APCs under the command of Colonel Haim Erez crossed the canal and penetrated into Egypt, taking the Egyptians by surprise. For the first 24 hours, Erez's force attacked SAM sites and military columns with impunity, including a major raid on Egyptian missile bases on October 16, in which three Egyptian missile bases were destroyed, along with several tanks, for no Israeli losses. On the morning of October 17, the force was attacked by the 23rd Egyptian Armored Brigade, but managed to repulse the attack. By this time, the Syrians no longer posed a credible threat and the Israelis were able to shift their air power to the south in support of the offensive. The combination of a weakened Egyptian SAM umbrella and a greater concentration of Israeli fighter-bombers meant that the IAF was capable of greatly increasing sorties against Egyptian military targets, including convoys, armor and airfields. The Egyptian bridges across the canal were damaged in Israeli air and artillery attacks. Israeli jets began attacking Egyptian SAM sites and radars, prompting General Ismail to withdraw much of the Egyptians' air defense equipment. This in turn gave the IAF still greater freedom to operate in Egyptian airspace. Israeli jets also attacked and destroyed underground communication cables at Banha in the Nile Delta, forcing the Egyptians to transmit selective messages by radio, which could be intercepted. Aside from the cables at Banha, Israel refrained from attacking economic and strategic infrastructure following an Egyptian threat to retaliate against Israeli cities with Scud missiles. Israeli aircraft bombed Egyptian Scud batteries at Port Said several times. The Egyptian Air Force attempted to interdict IAF sorties and attack Israeli ground forces, but suffered heavy losses in dogfights and from Israeli air defenses, while inflicting light aircraft losses. The heaviest air battles took place over the northern Nile Delta, where the Israelis repeatedly attempted to destroy Egyptian airbases. Although the Israelis tended to come out on top in aerial battles, one notable exception was the air battle of Mansoura, when an Israeli raid against the Egyptian airbases of Tanta and Mansoura was repulsed by Egyptian fighter aircraft. Securing the bridgehead. Despite the success the Israelis were having on the west bank, Generals Bar-Lev and Elazar ordered Sharon to concentrate on securing the bridgehead on the east bank. He was ordered to clear the roads leading to the canal as well as a position known as the Chinese Farm, just north of Deversoir, the Israeli crossing point. Sharon objected and requested permission to expand and break out of the bridgehead on the west bank, arguing that such a maneuver would cause the collapse of Egyptian forces on the east bank. But the Israeli high command was insistent, believing that until the east bank was secure, forces on the west bank could be cut off. Sharon was overruled by his superiors and relented. On October 16, he dispatched Amnon Reshef's Brigade to attack the Chinese Farm. Other IDF forces attacked entrenched Egyptian forces overlooking the roads to the canal. After three days of bitter and close-quarters fighting, the Israelis succeeded in dislodging the numerically superior Egyptian forces. The Israelis lost about 300 dead, 1,000 wounded, and 56 tanks. The Egyptians suffered heavier casualties, including 118 tanks destroyed and 15 captured. Egyptian response to the Israeli crossing. The Egyptians, meanwhile, failed to grasp the extent and magnitude of the Israeli crossing, nor did they appreciate its intent and purpose. This was partly due to attempts by Egyptian field commanders to obfuscate reports concerning the Israeli crossing and partly due to a false assumption that the canal crossing was merely a diversion for a major IDF offensive targeting the right flank of the Second Army. Consequently, on October 16 General Shazly ordered the 21st Armored Division to attack southward and the T-62-equipped 25th Independent Armored Brigade to attack northward in a pincer action to eliminate the perceived threat to the Second Army. The Egyptians failed to scout the area and were unaware that by now, Adan's 162nd Armored Division was in the vicinity. Moreover, the 21st and 25th failed to coordinate their attacks, allowing General Adan's Division to meet each force separately. Adan first concentrated his attack on the 21st Armored Division, destroying 50–60 Egyptian tanks and forcing the remainder to retreat. He then turned southward and ambushed the 25th Independent Armored Brigade, destroying 86 of its 96 tanks and all of its APCs, while losing three tanks. Egyptian artillery shelled the Israeli bridge over the canal on the morning of October 17, scoring several hits. The Egyptian Air Force launched repeated raids, some with up to 20 aircraft, to take out the bridge and rafts, damaging the bridge. The Egyptians had to shut down their SAM sites during these raids, allowing Israeli fighters to intercept the Egyptians. The Egyptians lost 16 planes and seven helicopters, while the Israelis lost six planes. The bridge was damaged, and the Israeli Paratroop Headquarters, which was near the bridge, was also hit; its commander and his deputy were wounded. During the night, the bridge was repaired, but only a trickle of Israeli forces was able to cross. According to Chaim Herzog, the Egyptians continued attacking the bridgehead until the ceasefire, using artillery and mortars to fire tens of thousands of shells into the area of the crossing. Egyptian aircraft attempted to bomb the bridge every day, and helicopters launched suicide missions, making attempts to drop barrels of napalm on the bridge and bridgehead. The bridges were damaged multiple times, and had to be repaired at night. The attacks caused heavy casualties, and many tanks were sunk when their rafts were hit. Egyptian commandos and frogmen with armored support launched a ground attack against the bridgehead, which was repulsed with the loss of 10 tanks. Two subsequent Egyptian counterattacks were also beaten back. After the failure of the October 17 counterattacks, the Egyptian General Staff slowly began to realize the magnitude of the Israeli offensive. Early on October 18, the Soviets showed Sadat satellite imagery of Israeli forces operating on the west bank. Alarmed, Sadat dispatched Shazly to the front to assess the situation first-hand. He no longer trusted his field commanders to provide accurate reports. Shazly confirmed that the Israelis had at least one division on the west bank and were widening their bridgehead. He advocated withdrawing most of Egypt's armor from the east bank to confront the growing Israeli threat on the west bank. Sadat rejected this recommendation outright and even threatened Shazly with a court martial. Ahmad Ismail Ali recommended that Sadat push for a ceasefire so as to prevent the Israelis from exploiting their successes. Israeli forces across the Suez. Israeli forces were by now pouring across the canal on two bridges, including one of Israeli design, and motorized rafts. Israeli engineers under Brigadier-General Dan Even had worked under heavy Egyptian fire to set up the bridges, and over 100 were killed and hundreds more wounded. The crossing was difficult because of Egyptian artillery fire, though by 4:00 am, two of Adan's brigades were on the west bank of the canal. On the morning of October 18, Sharon's forces on the west bank launched an offensive toward Ismailia, slowly pushing back the Egyptian paratroop brigade occupying the sand rampart northward to enlarge the bridgehead. Some of his units attempted to move west, but were stopped at the crossroads in Nefalia. Adan's division rolled south toward Suez City while Magen's division pushed west toward Cairo and south toward Adabiya. On October 19, one of Sharon's brigades continued to push the Egyptian paratroopers north towards Ismailia until the Israelis were within of the city. Sharon hoped to seize the city and thereby sever the logistical and supply lines for most of the Egyptian Second Army. Sharon's second brigade began to cross the canal. The brigade's forward elements moved to the Abu Sultan Camp, from where they moved north to take Orcha, an Egyptian logistics base defended by a commando battalion. Israeli infantrymen cleared the trenches and bunkers, often engaging in hand-to-hand combat, as tanks moved alongside them and fired into the trench sections to their front. The position was secured before nightfall. More than 300 Egyptians were killed and 50 taken prisoner, while the Israelis lost 16 dead. The fall of Orcha caused the collapse of the Egyptian defensive line, allowing more Israeli troops to get onto the sand rampart. There, they were able to fire in support of Israeli troops facing Missouri Ridge, an Egyptian-occupied position on the Bar-Lev Line that could pose a threat to the Israeli crossing. On the same day, Israeli paratroopers participating in Sharon's drive pushed the Egyptians back far enough for the Israeli bridges to be out of sight of Egyptian artillery observers, though the Egyptians continued shelling the area. As the Israelis pushed towards Ismailia, the Egyptians fought a delaying battle, retreating into defensive positions further north as they came under increasing pressure from the Israeli ground offensive, coupled with airstrikes. On October 21, one of Sharon's brigades was occupying the city's outskirts, but facing fierce resistance from Egyptian paratroopers and commandos. The same day, Sharon's last remaining unit on the east bank attacked Missouri Ridge. Shmuel Gonen had demanded Sharon capture the position, and Sharon had reluctantly ordered the attack. The assault was preceded by an air attack that caused hundreds of Egyptian soldiers to flee and thousands of others to dig in. One battalion then attacked from the south, destroying 20 tanks and overrunning infantry positions before being halted by Sagger rockets and minefields. Another battalion attacked from the southwest and inflicted heavy losses on the Egyptians, but its advance was halted after eight tanks were knocked out. The surviving Israeli soldiers managed to hold off an Egyptian infantry assault while losing two soldiers before surrendering. Two of the Israeli soldiers managed to hide and escape back to Israeli lines. The Israelis managed to occupy one-third of Missouri Ridge. Defense Minister Moshe Dayan countermanded orders from Sharon's superiors to continue the attack. However, the Israelis continued to expand their holdings on the east bank. According to the Israelis, the IDF bridgehead was wide and deep by the end of October 21. On October 22, Ismailia's Egyptian defenders were occupying their last line of defense, but managed to repel an Israeli attempt to get behind Ismailia and encircle the city, then push some of Sharon's forward troops back to the Sweetwater Canal. The Israeli advance on Ismailia was stopped south of the city. Both sides had suffered heavy losses. On the northern front, the Israelis also attacked Port Said, facing Egyptian troops and a 900-strong Tunisian unit, who fought a defensive battle. The Egyptian government claimed that the city was repeatedly bombed by Israeli jets, and that hundreds of civilians were killed or wounded. Adan and Magen moved south, decisively defeating the Egyptians in a series of engagements, though they often encountered determined Egyptian resistance, and both sides suffered heavy casualties. Adan advanced towards the Sweetwater Canal area, planning to break out into the surrounding desert and hit the Geneifa Hills, where many SAM sites were located. Adan's three armored brigades fanned out, with one advancing through the Geneifa Hills, another along a parallel road south of them, and the third advancing towards Mina. Adan's brigades met resistance from dug-in Egyptian forces in the Sweetwater Canal area's greenbelt. Adan's other brigades were also held by a line of Egyptian military camps and installations. Adan was also harassed by the Egyptian Air Force. The Israelis slowly advanced, bypassing Egyptian positions whenever possible. After being denied air support due to the presence of two SAM batteries that had been brought forward, Adan sent two brigades to attack them. The brigades slipped past the dug-in Egyptian infantry, moving out from the greenbelt for more than , and fought off multiple Egyptian counterattacks. From a distance of , they shelled and destroyed the SAMs, allowing the IAF to provide Adan with close air support. Adan's troops advanced through the greenbelt and fought their way to the Geneifa Hills, clashing with scattered Egyptian, Kuwaiti and Palestinian troops. The Israelis clashed with an Egyptian armored unit at Mitzeneft and destroyed multiple SAM sites. Adan also captured Fayid Airport, which was subsequently prepared by Israeli crews to serve as a supply base and to fly out wounded soldiers. west of the Bitter Lake, Colonel Natke Nir's brigade overran an Egyptian artillery brigade that had been participating in the shelling of the Israeli bridgehead. Scores of Egyptian artillerymen were killed and many more taken prisoner. Two Israeli soldiers were also killed, including the son of General Moshe Gidron. Meanwhile, Magen's division moved west and then south, covering Adan's flank and eventually moving south of Suez City to the Gulf of Suez. The Israeli advance southward reached Port Suez, on the southern boundary of the Suez Canal. The ceasefire and further battles. The United Nations Security Council passed (14–0) Resolution 338 calling for a ceasefire, largely negotiated between the U.S. and Soviet Union, on October 22. It called upon the belligerents to immediately cease all military activity. The cease-fire was to come into effect 12 hours later at 6:52 pm Israeli time. Because this was after dark, it was impossible for satellite surveillance to determine where the front lines were when the fighting was supposed to stop. U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger intimated to Prime Minister Meir that he would not object to offensive action during the night before the ceasefire was to come into effect. Several minutes before the ceasefire came into effect, three Scud missiles were fired at Israeli targets by either Egyptian forces or Soviet personnel in Egypt. This was the first combat use of Scud missiles. One Scud targeted the port of Arish and two targeted the Israeli bridgehead on the Suez Canal. One hit an Israeli supply convoy and killed seven soldiers. When the time for the ceasefire arrived, Sharon's division had failed to capture Ismailia and cut off the Second Army's supply lines, but Israeli forces were just a few hundred metres short of their southern goal—the last road linking Cairo and Suez. Adan's drive south had left Israeli and Egyptian units scattered throughout the battlefield, with no clear lines between them. As Egyptian and Israeli units tried to regroup, regular firefights broke out. During the night, Elazar reported that the Egyptians were attacking in an attempt to regain land at various locations, and that nine Israeli tanks had been destroyed. He asked permission from Dayan to respond to the attacks and Dayan agreed. Israel then resumed its drive south. It is unclear which side fired first but Israeli field commanders used the skirmishes as justification to resume the attacks. When Sadat protested alleged Israeli truce violations, Israel said that Egyptian troops had fired first. William B. Quandt noted that regardless of who fired the first post-ceasefire shot, it was the Israeli Army that was advancing beyond the October 22 ceasefire lines. Adan resumed his attack on October 23. Israeli troops finished the drive south, captured the last ancillary road south of the port of Suez, and encircled the Egyptian Third Army east of the Suez Canal. The Israelis then transported enormous amounts of military equipment across the canal, which Egypt claimed was in violation of the ceasefire. Egyptian aircraft launched repeated attacks in support of the Third Army, sometimes in groups of up to 30 planes, but took severe losses. Israeli armor and paratroopers also entered Suez in an attempt to capture the city, but they were confronted by Egyptian soldiers and hastily raised local militia forces. They were surrounded, but towards night the Israeli forces managed to extricate themselves. The Israelis had lost 80 dead and 120 wounded, with an unknown number of Egyptian casualties, for no tactical gain (see Battle of Suez). The next morning, October 23, a flurry of diplomatic activity occurred. Soviet reconnaissance flights had confirmed that Israeli forces were moving south, and the Soviets accused the Israelis of treachery. Kissinger called Meir in an effort to persuade her to withdraw a few hundred metres and she indicated that Israel's tactical position on the ground had improved. Egypt's trapped Third Army. Kissinger found out about the Third Army's encirclement shortly thereafter. Kissinger considered that the situation presented the United States with a tremendous opportunity and that Egypt was dependent on the United States to prevent Israel from destroying its trapped army. The position could be parlayed later into allowing the United States to mediate in the dispute and wean Egypt from Soviet influence. As a result, the United States exerted tremendous pressure on the Israelis to refrain from destroying the trapped army, even threatening to support a UN resolution demanding that the Israelis withdraw to their October 22 positions if they did not allow non-military supplies to reach the army. In a phone call with Israeli ambassador Simcha Dinitz, Kissinger told the ambassador that the destruction of the Egyptian Third Army "is an option that does not exist." Despite being surrounded, the Third Army managed to maintain its combat integrity east of the canal and keep up its defensive positions, to the surprise of many. According to Trevor N. Dupuy, the Israelis, Soviets and Americans overestimated the vulnerability of the Third Army at the time. It was not on the verge of collapse, and he wrote that while a renewed Israeli offensive would probably overcome it, this was not a certainty. According to David Elazar, Chief of Israeli headquarters staff, on December 3, 1973: "As for the third army, in spite of our encircling them they resisted and advanced to occupy in fact a wider area of land at the east. Thus, we can not say that we defeated or conquered them." David T. Buckwalter agrees that despite the isolation of the Third Army, it was unclear if the Israelis could have protected their forces on the west bank of the canal from a determined Egyptian assault and still maintain sufficient strength along the rest of the front. This assessment was challenged by Patrick Seale, who stated that the Third Army was "on the brink of collapse". Seale's position was supported by P.R. Kumaraswamy, who wrote that intense American pressure prevented the Israelis from annihilating the stranded Third Army. Herzog noted that given the Third Army's desperate situation, in terms of being cut off from re-supply and reassertion of Israeli air superiority, the destruction of the Third Army was inevitable and could have been achieved within a very brief period. Shazly himself described the Third Army's plight as "desperate" and classified its encirclement as a "catastrophe that was too big to hide". He further noted that, "the fate of the Egyptian Third Army was in the hands of Israel. Once the Third Army was encircled by Israeli troops every bit of bread to be sent to our men was paid for by meeting Israeli demands." Shortly before the ceasefire came into effect, an Israeli tank battalion advanced into Adabiya, and took it with support from the Israeli Navy. Some 1,500 Egyptian prisoners were taken, and about a hundred Egyptian soldiers assembled just south of Adabiya, where they held out against the Israelis. The Israelis also conducted their third and final incursion into Suez. They made some gains, but failed to break into the city center. As a result, the city was partitioned down the main street, with the Egyptians holding the city center and the Israelis controlling the outskirts, port installations and oil refinery, effectively surrounding the Egyptian defenders. Post-war battles. On the morning of October 26, the Egyptian Third Army violated the ceasefire by attempting to break through the surrounding Israeli forces. The attack was repulsed by Israeli air and ground forces. The Egyptians also made minor gains in attacks against Sharon's forces in the Ismailia area. The Israelis reacted by bombing and shelling priority targets in Egypt, including command posts and water reserves. The front was quieter in the Second Army's sector in the northern canal area, where both sides generally respected the ceasefire. Though most heavy fighting ended on October 28, the fighting never stopped until January 18, 1974. Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Dayan stated that "The cease-fire existed on paper, but the continued firing along the front was not the only characteristic of the situation between October 24, 1973 and January 18, 1974. This intermediate period also held the ever-present possibility of a renewal of full-scale war. There were three variations on how it might break out, two Egyptian and one Israeli. One Egyptian plan was to attack Israeli units west of the canal from the direction of Cairo. The other was to cut off the Israeli canal bridgehead by a link-up of the Second and Third Armies on the east bank. Both plans were based on massive artillery pounding of Israeli forces, who were not well fortified and who would suffer heavy casualties. It was therefore thought that Israel would withdraw from the west bank, since she was most sensitive on the subject of soldier's lives. Egypt, at the time had a total of 1,700 first-line tanks on both sides of the canal front, 700 on the east bank and 1,000 on the west bank. Also on the west bank, in the second line, were an additional 600 tanks for the defense of Cairo. She had some 2,000 artillery pieces, about 500 operational aircraft, and at least 130 SAM missile batteries positioned around our forces so as to deny us air support." The IDF acknowledged the loss of 14 soldiers during this postwar period. Egyptian losses were higher, especially in the sector controlled by Ariel Sharon, who ordered his troops to respond with massive firepower to any Egyptian provocation. Some aerial battles took place, and the Israelis also shot down several helicopters attempting to resupply the Third Army. Final situation on the Egyptian front. By the end of the war, the Israelis had advanced to positions some 101 kilometres from Egypt's capital, Cairo, and occupied 1,600 square kilometres west of the Suez Canal. They had also cut the Cairo-Suez road and encircled the bulk of Egypt's Third Army. The Israelis had also taken many prisoners after Egyptian soldiers, including many officers, began surrendering in masses towards the end of the war. The Egyptians held a narrow strip on the east bank of the canal, occupying some 1,200 square kilometres of the Sinai. One source estimated that the Egyptians had 70,000 men, 720 tanks and 994 artillery pieces on the east bank of the canal. However, 30,000 to 45,000 of them were now encircled by the Israelis. Despite Israel's tactical successes west of the canal, the Egyptian military was reformed and organized. Consequently, according to Gamasy, the Israeli military position became "weak" for different reasons, "One, Israel now had a large force (about six or seven brigades) in a very limited area of land, surrounded from all sides either by natural or man-made barriers, or by the Egyptian forces. This put it in a weak position. Moreover, there were the difficulties in supplying this force, in evacuating it, in the lengthy communication lines, and in the daily attrition in men and equipment. Two, to protect these troops, the Israeli command had to allocate other forces (four or five brigades) to defend the entrances to the breach at the Deversoir. Three, to immobilize the Egyptian bridgeheads in Sinai the Israeli command had to allocate ten brigades to face the Second and Third army bridgeheads. In addition, it became necessary to keep the strategic reserves at their maximum state of alert. Thus, Israel was obliged to keep its armed force - and consequently the country - mobilized for a long period, at least until the war came to an end, because the ceasefire did not signal the end of the war. There is no doubt that this in total conflict with its military theories." For those reasons and according to Dayan, "It was therefore thought that Israel would withdraw from the west bank, since she was most sensitive on the subject of soldier's lives." The Egyptian forces didn't pull to the west and held onto their positions east of the canal controlling both shores of the Suez Canal. None of the Canal's main cities were occupied by Israel; however, the city of Suez was surrounded. Egypt wished to end the war when it realized that the IDF canal crossing offensive could result in a catastrophe. The Egyptians' besieged Third Army could not hold on without supply. The Israeli Army advanced to 100 km from Cairo, which worried Egypt. The Israeli army had open terrain and no opposition to advance further to Cairo; had they done so, Sadat's rule might have ended. War in the Golan Heights. Initial Syrian attacks. In the Golan Heights, the Syrians attacked two Israeli armored brigades, an infantry brigade, two paratrooper battalions and eleven artillery batteries with five divisions (the 7th, 9th and 5th, with the 1st and 3rd in reserve) and 188 batteries. At the onset of the battle, the Israeli brigades of some 3,000 troops, 180 tanks and 60 artillery pieces faced off against three infantry divisions with large armor components comprising 28,000 Syrian troops, 800 tanks and 600 artillery pieces. In addition, the Syrians deployed two armored divisions from the second day onwards. To fight the opening phase of a possible battle, before reserves arrived, Israeli high command had, conforming to the original plan, allocated a single armored brigade, the 188th, accepting a disparity in tank numbers of eighteen to one. When the warning by King Hussein of an imminent Syrian attack was conveyed, Elazar at first only assigned two additional tank companies from 7th Armored Brigade: "We'll have one hundred tanks against their eight hundred. That ought to be enough". Eventually, his deputy, Israel Tal, ordered the entire 7th Armored Brigade to be brought up. Efforts had been made to improve the Israeli defensive position. The "Purple Line" ran along a series of low dormant volcanic cones, "tels", in the north and deep ravines in the south. It was covered by a continuous tank ditch, bunker complexes and dense minefields. Directly west of this line a series of tank ramps were constructed: earthen platforms on which a Centurion tank could position itself with only its upper turret and gun visible, offering a substantial advantage when duelling the fully exposed enemy tanks. The Syrians began their attack at 14:00 with an airstrike by about a hundred aircraft and a fifty-minute artillery barrage. The two forward infantry brigades, with an organic tank battalion, of each of the three infantry divisions then crossed the cease-fire lines, bypassing United Nations observer posts. They were covered by mobile anti-aircraft batteries, and equipped with bulldozers to fill-in anti-tank ditches, bridge-layer tanks to overcome obstacles and mine-clearance vehicles. These engineering vehicles were priority targets for Israeli tank gunners and took heavy losses, but Syrian infantry at points demolished the tank ditch, allowing their armor to cross. At 14:45, two hundred men from the Syrian 82nd Paratrooper Battalion descended on foot from Mount Hermon and around 17:00 took the Israeli observation base on the southern slope, with its advanced surveillance equipment. A small force dropped by four helicopters simultaneously placed itself on the access road south of the base. Specialised intelligence personnel were captured. Made to believe that Israel had fallen, they disclosed much sensitive information. A first Israeli attempt on October 8 to retake the base from the south was ambushed and beaten off with heavy losses. During the afternoon 7th Armored Brigade was still kept in reserve and the 188th Armored Brigade held the frontline with only two tank battalions, the 74th in the north and the 53rd in the south. The northern battalion waged an exemplary defensive battle against the forward brigades of the Syrian 7th Infantry Division, destroying fifty-nine Syrian tanks for minimal losses. The southern battalion destroyed a similar number, but facing four Syrian tank battalions from two divisions had a dozen of its own tanks knocked out. At bunker complex 111, opposite Kudne in Syria, the defending company beat off "determined" and "bravely" pressed attacks by the Syrian 9th Infantry Division; by nightfall it was reduced to three tanks, with only sixty-nine anti-tank rounds between them. Further successful resistance by the southern battalion was contingent on reinforcements. Direct operational command of the Golan had at first been given to the 188 AB commander, Yitzhak Ben-Shoham, who ordered the 7th AB to concentrate at Wasset. The 7th AB commander, Avigdor Ben-Gal, resented obeying an officer of equal rank and went to the Northern Command headquarters at Nafah, announcing he would place his force in the northern sector at the "Quneitra Gap", a pass south of the Hermonit peak and the main access to the Golan Heights from the east. Northern Command was in the process of moving their headquarters to Safed in Galilee and the senior staff officers were absent at this moment, having expected the Syrian attack to start at 18:00. Operations officer Lieutenant-Colonel Uri Simhoni therefore improvised an allocation of the tactical reserves, thereby largely deciding the course of the battle. The Armored School Centurion Tank Battalion (71st TB) was kept in general reserve. The 77th Tank Battalion of 7th AB was sent to Quneitra. Two companies of the 75th Mechanised Infantry Battalion, arrived in the morning, of the same brigade were sent to the southern sector. Also 82nd TB had to reinforce the south. However, Ben-Gal had split off a company of this battalion to serve as a reserve for his own brigade. Another company, soon after arriving in the south, was ambushed by an infiltrated Syrian commando force armed with Sagger missiles and almost entirely wiped out. As a result, effective reinforcement of the southern Golan sector was limited to just a single tank company. At 16:00, Yitzhak Hofi, head Northern Command, shortly visited Nafah and split command of the Golan front: the north would be the responsibility of 7th AB, to which 53rd TB would be transferred. Command of 188th AB would be limited to the south, taking over 82nd TB. The first wave of the Syrian offensive had failed to penetrate, but at nightfall a second, larger, wave was launched. For this purpose each of the three infantry divisions, also committing their organic mechanised brigade with forty tanks, had been reinforced by an armored brigade of about ninety tanks. Two of these brigades were to attack the northern sector, four the southern sector. Successful defense of the Quneitra Gap by the 7th Armored Brigade. Over four days of fighting, the 7th Armored Brigade in the north under Avigdor Ben-Gal managed to hold the rocky hill line defending the northern flank of their headquarters in Nafah, inflicting heavy losses on the Syrians. During the night of October 6/7 it beat off an attack of the Syrian 78th Armoured Brigade, attached to the 7th Infantry Division. On October 7, 7th AB had to send part of its reserves to the collapsing southern sector. Replenishment from the Nafah matériel stock became impossible. Syrian High Command, understanding that forcing the Quneitra Gap would ensure a total victory on the Golan, decided to commit its strategic armored reserves. During the night of October 7/8, the independent 81st Armored Brigade, equipped with modern T-62's and part of the presidential guard, attacked but was beaten off. After this fight, the Israeli brigade would refer to the gap as the "Valley of Tears". Syrian Brigadier-General Omar Abrash, commander of the 7th Infantry Division, was killed on October 8 when his command tank was hit as he was preparing an attempt by 121st Mechanised Brigade to bypass the gap through a more southern route. Having practiced on the Golan Heights numerous times, Israeli gunners made effective use of mobile artillery. During night attacks, however, the Syrian tanks had the advantage of active-illumination infrared night-vision equipment, which was not a standard Israeli equipment (instead, some Israeli tanks were fitted with large xenon searchlights which were useful in illuminating and locating enemy positions, troops and vehicles). The close distances during night engagements, negated the usual Israeli superiority in long-range duels. 77th Tank Battalion commander Avigdor Kahalani in the Quneitra Gap generally managed to hold a second tank ramp line. In the afternoon of October 9, Syrian command committed the Republican Guard independent 70th Armored Brigade, equipped with T-62's and BMP-1s. To hold the gap, 7th AB could by now muster only some two dozen tanks, elements from the 77th, 74th, 82nd and 71st Tank Battalion. Israeli command had directed all reserves to the threatened southern sector, trusting that the northern sector was secure. Fighting in daylight proved to be advantageous to the Syrians: the better armored T-62's were hard to destroy at long range and their high-velocity 115 mm smoothbore guns were quite accurate at medium ranges, despite the lack of a rangefinder. Taking losses and hit by an intense artillery barrage, the Israeli Centurions withdrew from their tank ramps. The situation was restored by an ad hoc force of thirteen tanks formed by Lt. Col. Yossi Ben-Hanan from repaired vehicles and stray crews. The Syrians abandoned their last breakthrough attempt, having lost since October 6 some 260 tanks in the Quneitra Gap. Syrian breakthrough in the Southern Golan. In the southern sector, the Israeli Barak Armored Brigade had to defend a much flatter terrain. It also faced two-thirds of the Syrian second wave, while fielding at this time less than a third of the operational Israeli tanks. Beside these objective draw-backs, it suffered from ineffective command. Ben-Shoham initially still had his headquarters in Nafah, far from his sector. He did not realise a full war was in progress and tended to spread the 53rd TB platoons along the entire line, to stop any Syrian incursion. Also, he failed to coordinate the deployment of 82nd TB and 53rd TB. The commander of 53rd TB, Lieutenant-Colonel Oded Eres, sent the two arriving companies of 82nd TB to his right flank and centre. No further reinforcement materialising, he urgently ordered the southern company to the north again; it was ambushed on the way. His left flank at Kudne remained unreinforced, although the defending company had increased the number of operational tanks to eight. This was the main axis of the Syrian 9th Infantry Division and its commander, Colonel Hassan Tourkmani, ordered the remnants of an organic tank battalion to be sacrificed forcing the minefield belt. Subsequently, the Syrian 51st Armored Brigade bypassed bunker complex 111 after dark. It then overran the Israeli supply compound at the Hushniya cross-roads. Parts of the 75th Mechanised Infantry Battalion had been concentrated at Hushniya, but they did not consist of its two organic tank companies; they were M-113 units. Lacking modern antitank weapons, Israeli infantry was ineffective at stopping Syrian armor. The 51st AB passing through the Kudne/Rafid Gap turned northwest to move along the Petroleum Road or "Tapline Road", which provided a diagonal route across the heights, running straight from Hushniya to Nafah, the Israeli Golan headquarters, in the rear of the Quneitra Gap. Israeli command was initially slow to realise that a breakthrough had taken place. Their main concern was that the Syrians would occupy some forward bunker complex or settlement. The fact that the defending tank platoons were still intact was seen as proof that the line had not been broken. Ben-Shoham around 18:30 moved his headquarters to the south. Reports of Syrian radio traffic at Hushniya, of Israeli reserve tanks passing columns of Syrian tanks in the dark and of enemy tanks moving at the rear of the observation post on Tel Saki, were dismissed by him as misidentifications. Only when two tanks parked in the dark near his staff vehicles and were recognised for T-55s when hastily driving away upon being hailed, he understood that a large Syrian tank unit had infiltrated his lines. As a result, no regular units were directed to block a Syrian advance to Nafah. Ben-Shoham had ordered Lieutenant Zvika Greengold, who, about to be trained as a tank company commander, had arrived at Nafah unattached to any combat unit, to gather some crews and follow him to the south with a few tanks to take command of the bunker complex 111 and 112 tank forces which had lost all officers. south of Nafah base, Greengold was warned by a truck convoy that there were Syrian tanks ahead. These belonged to the 452st Tank Battalion, hurrying north to surprise Nafah. Confronted at short range with a first group of three T-55's, Greengold's Centurion destroyed them in quick succession. He then moved parallel to the road to the south, hitting advancing Syrian tanks in the flank and destroying another ten until he approached Hushniya. From this the commander of 452st TB, Major Farouk Ismail, concluded that he had been ambushed by a strong Israeli tank unit and concentrated his remaining vehicles in a defensive position at Hushniya. Greengold decided not to reveal how precarious the Israeli situation was, in radio contact with Ben-Shoham hiding the fact that his "Force Zvika" consisted of only a single tank. The next 9th Infantry Division unit to participate in the second wave, the 43rd Mechanised Infantry Brigade, entered the Golan at Kudne, but then sharply turned to the right advancing over the lateral "Reshet" road behind the Purple Line in the direction of Quneitra. Israeli 1st Infantry Brigade elements warned 7th Armored Brigade of the danger. Ben Gal then released the 82nd TB company he had held back, commanded by Captain Meir "Tiger" Zamir, and sent it to the south to cover his flank. Zamir ambushed the Syrian brigade; directing their fire with the xenon light projector on one of his tanks his company destroyed a dozen vehicles. At dawn he surprised the enemy column from the rear and dispersed the remnants of 43 MIB, having knocked-out all of its forty tanks. Israeli strategic response. Around midnight, Hofi, at Safed, began to understand the magnitude of the Syrian breakthrough. He warned chief-of-staff Elazar that the entire Golan might be lost. Overhearing this message, an alarmed Dayan decided to personally visit the Northern Command headquarters. In the late night, Hofi informed Dayan that an estimated three hundred Syrian tanks had entered the southern Golan. No reserves were available to stop a Syrian incursion into Galilee. Visibly shaken by this news, the Israeli minister of defence ordered the Jordan bridges to be prepared for detonation. Next, he contacted Benjamin Peled, commander of the Israeli Air Force. He shocked Peled by announcing that the Third Temple was about to fall. The IAF had just made a successful start with Operation Tagar, a very complex plan to neutralise the Egyptian AA-missile belt. Overruling objections by Peled, Dayan ordered to immediately carry out Operation Doogman 5 instead, the destruction of the Syrian SAM-belt, to allow the IAF to halt the Syrian advance. As there was no time to obtain recent information on the location of the batteries, the attempt was a costly failure. The Israelis destroyed only one Syrian missile battery but lost six Phantom II aircraft. As a result, the IAF was unable to make a significant contribution to the defensive battle on the Golan. Over both fronts together, on October 7 only 129 bombardment sorties were flown. It also proved impossible to restart Tagar, curtailing IAF operations on the Sinai front for the duration of the war. Less pessimistic than Dayan, Elazar was not ready yet to abandon the Golan Heights. Israeli High Command had a strategic reserve, consisting of the 146th Ugda that was earmarked for Central Command, controlling the eastern border with Jordan. In the evening of October 6, Elazar had considered sending this division to the collapsing Sinai front in view of the initial defensive success at the Golan. The unexpected crisis led to an about-face. Priority was given to the north because of its proximity to Israeli population centers at Tiberias, Safed, Haifa and Netanya. Elazar ordered that, after mobilisation, the 146th Ugda was to reconquer the southern Golan. This division would take some time to deploy. Some smaller units could be quickly mobilised to bolster the defenses. The Syrians had expected it to take at least twenty-four hours for Israeli reserves to reach the front lines; in fact, they began to join the fight only nine hours after the war began, twelve hours after the start of the mobilisation. The Golan position had been at only 80% of its planned strength for the defensive phase of a full war with Syria. Northern Command had a headquarters reserve consisting of a unnumbered rapid deployment Centurion tank battalion. Also, the 71st Mechanised Infantry Battalion, with two organic tank companies, of the 188th AB had not yet been activated. During the night of October 6/7 these two battalions were gradually brought up. Around 01:00 on October 7, the 36th Ugda was activated as a divisional headquarters under Brigadier Rafael Eitan, to take direct command of the northern front. The 7th AB did not have this division as its original destination. It was an elite active General Headquarters reserve, moved from the Sinai to the Golan in reaction to the Syrian build-up. Under the original mobilisation Plan "Gir" ("Chalk"), the 36th Ugda was to be expanded by the 179th Armored Brigade. In the evening of October 6, it was considered to send this brigade to the Sinai instead but this option was abandoned after the Syrian breakthrough. To speed up the relocation of 7th AB to the north, this brigade had left its tanks at Tasa, the main mobilisation complex of the Sinai, and used the stocked vehicles of the 179th AB to rebuild itself at Nafah. In turn, the 179th AB began to mobilise in eastern Galilee, from the mobilisation complex at the foot of the Golan Heights, using the stocked vehicles of the 164th Armoured Brigade. This latter brigade was earmarked for the 240th Ugda, a division to be held in reserve. Assuming that a sustained Syrian offensive would have led to crippling Arab tank losses, 36th Ugda and 240th Ugda were in the prewar planning intended to execute an advance in the direction of Damascus, Operation Ze'ev Aravot ("Desert Wolf"). All remaining stocked Centurions in the north were eventually used to rebuild 7th and 188th AB in the night of October 9/10. The 164th AB was ultimately sent to the Sinai, to activate itself using the old 7th AB matériel. Also the 679th Armored Brigade was intended to join the 240th Ugda and ordered to mobilise at noon October 6. Reservists of both brigades arriving at the Galilee army depots were quickly assigned to tanks and sent to the front, without waiting for the crews they trained with to arrive, machine guns to be installed, or the tank guns to be calibrated, a time-consuming process known as bore-sighting. Elements of such larger units were during October 7 fed into the battle piece-meal. The collapse of the 188th Armored Brigade. The Syrian first and second wave had in total numbered about six hundred tanks, half of which had been lost by the morning of October 7. By this time, the Israelis had committed about 250 tanks to battle. Of the initially arriving reserves, the 71 MIB was used to block an advance by the westernmost elements of the Syrian 9th Infantry Division towards the Bnot Yaacov Bridge, the crucial connection between Galilee and Nafah. During the late evening of October 6, the NCTB advanced from Nafah towards Hushniya, attempting to seal the breakthrough point. The attack, running into prepared positions occupied by a superior force of T-55s, was a dismal failure, leaving all of its officers dead or wounded. Greengold incorporated the remnants of the unit into his "Force Zvika". By the early morning of October 7, all attempts to patch the breach in the main defensive line of the southern sector became futile because also the center and right flank of the 188th AB had started to collapse. During the night, it had largely managed to hold its ground against continuous attacks, inflicting severe losses on the Syrians with accurate cannon fire, hoping to buy time for reserve forces to reach the front lines. Some tank crews sacrificed themselves rather than voluntarily give ground. Gradually, the fighting subsided. Dawn revealed that the Syrian 5th Infantry Division under the cover of darkness had at numerous points bridged the tank ditch and cleared corridors through the minefield belt. The situation of 188th AB was rendered even more hazardous by the presence in its rear of the Syrian 9th Infantry Division. It was decided to abandon the southern Golan. In the night, many artillery and logistic units had already withdrawn, some slipping through the columns of 9th ID, others being destroyed by them. Civilian Jewish settlements had been evacuated. The same now happened with most fortifications, except bunker complex 116. Ben-Shoham with his staff outflanked the Syrian penetration via a western route and reached the north. The 82nd TB company that had reinforced the center, commanded by Eli Geva, had the previous evening destroyed about thirty Syrian tanks. It now successfully crossed the axis of 9th ID to the north. Of the originally thirty-six tanks of 53rd TB, twelve remained. Eres hid them in the crater of Tel Faris, where a surveillance base was located. During the late evening of October 7, he would successfully break out to the west. The Syrian 5th ID subsequently occupied the plateau of the southern Golan. Ben-Shoham tried to maintain a foothold on the access roads by small groups of APCs manned by the 50th Paratrooper Battalion, but these were easily brushed aside. The Syrian 47th Armored Brigade advanced along the escarpment to the north, in the direction of the Bnot Yaacov Bridge. The 132nd Mechanised Infantry Brigade positioned itself east of El Al, on the road along the Jordan border, running to the south of Lake Tiberias. Israeli General Dan Lener in the late night activated the divisional headquarters of the 210th Ugda to take control over the sector between the lake and the Bnot Yaacov Bridge but he had no regular units to hold this line. For the moment, he could do little more than personally halt retreating troops and vehicles on the more southern Arik Bridge and send them over the River Jordan again. Israeli command feared that the Syrians would quickly exploit this situation by advancing into Galilee. Dayan in the morning of October 7 called Shalhevet Freier, the director-general of the Israel Atomic Energy Commission, to a meeting with Golda Meir to discuss the possible arming of nuclear weapons. Meir rejected this option. The Syrian mechanised brigades in this area did not continue the offensive but began to entrench themselves in strong defensive positions. They had been forbidden by Al-Assad to approach the River Jordan, for fear of triggering an Israeli nuclear response. The original Syrian offensive plan "Al-Aouda" ("The Return"), devised by Major-General Adul Habeisi, had emphasized the element of tactical surprise. It was known to the Syrians that the 188th AB normally rotated its two tank battalions on the Purple Line, so that on any given moment just thirty-three tanks were guarding the tank ditch. Infiltrations by commando teams armed with Saggers were planned to quickly isolate these ten tank platoons from reinforcement by tactical reserves. Simultaneously, helicopter-borne commando attacks at the Jordan bridges, landing during conditions of dusk to avoid the IAF, would isolate the Golan Heights from strategic reinforcements. Night attacks by the three Syrian infantry divisions would then fragment the weakly-held forward Israeli defensive positions. To conclude the operation and deter any Israeli attempt to reconquer the Golan, the Syrian 1st and 3rd Armored Division would advance onto the plateau. This way, it was hoped to take the Golan within thirty hours. Coordination with Egypt forced a change of plans. The Egyptians wanted hostilities to start at noon; in the end they agreed to a compromise time of 14:00. The Syrian helicopter attacks were cancelled. Now uncertain of a successful outcome, the Syrians became less committed to the attack. They decided to keep one armored division as a strategic reserve, together with the two presidential guard independent armored brigades, which fielded the most modern tank matériel. Greengold fought running battles in this area with Syrian armor for twenty hours, sometimes with his single tank and at other times as part of a larger unit, changing tanks half a dozen times as they were knocked out. Greengold suffered burn injuries, but stayed in action and repeatedly showed up at critical moments from an unexpected direction to change the course of a skirmish. For his actions, he received Israel's highest decoration, the Medal of Valor. Brigade Commander Colonel Shoham was killed on the second day, along with his second-in-command and operations officer, as the Syrians desperately tried to advance towards the Sea of Galilee and Nafah. At this point, the Barak Brigade was no longer a cohesive force, although surviving tanks and crewmen continued fighting independently. The Syrians were close to reaching the Israeli defenders at Nafah, yet stopped the advance on Nafah's fences at 1700; the pause lasted all night, allowing Israeli forces to form a defensive line. It is surmised that the Syrians had calculated estimated advances, and the commanders in the field did not want to diverge from the plan. Israel retakes the southern Golan. The tide in the Golan began to turn as arriving Israeli reserve forces were able to contain the Syrian advance. Beginning on October 8, the Israelis began pushing the Syrians back towards the pre-war ceasefire lines, inflicting heavy tank losses. Another Syrian attack north of Quneitra was repulsed. The tiny Golan Heights were too small to act as an effective territorial buffer, unlike the Sinai Peninsula in the south, but it proved to be a strategic geographical stronghold and was a crucial key in preventing the Syrians from bombarding the cities below. The Israelis, who had suffered heavy casualties during the first three days of fighting, also began relying more heavily on artillery to dislodge the Syrians at long-range. On October 9, Syrian FROG-7 surface-to-surface missiles struck the Israeli Air Force base of Ramat David, killing a pilot and injuring several soldiers. Additional missiles struck civilian settlements. In retaliation, seven Israeli F-4 Phantoms flew into Syria and struck the Syrian General Staff Headquarters in Damascus. The jets struck from Lebanese airspace to avoid the heavily defended regions around the Golan Heights, attacking a Lebanese radar station along the way. The upper floors of the Syrian GHQ and the Air Force Command were badly damaged. A Soviet cultural center, a television station, and other nearby structures were also mistakenly hit. One Israeli Phantom was shot down. The strike prompted the Syrians to transfer air defense units from the Golan Heights to the home front, allowing the IAF greater freedom of action. On October 9, as the last Syrian units were being driven from the Golan Heights, the Syrians launched a counterattack north of Quneitra. As part of the operation, they attempted to land heli-borne troops in the vicinity of El Rom. The counterattack was repulsed, and four Syrian helicopters were shot down with total loss of life. By October 10, the last Syrian unit in the central sector was pushed back across the Purple Line, the pre-war ceasefire line. After four days of intense and incessant combat, the Israelis had succeeded in ejecting the Syrians from the entire Golan. Israeli advance towards Damascus. A decision now had to be made—whether to stop at the post-1967 border or to continue advancing into Syrian territory. The Israeli High Command spent all of October 10 debating well into the night. Some favored disengagement, which would allow soldiers to be redeployed to the Sinai (Shmuel Gonen's defeat at Hizayon in the Sinai had taken place two days earlier). Others favored continuing the attack into Syria, towards Damascus, which would knock Syria out of the war; it would also restore Israel's image as the supreme military power in the Middle East and would give Israel a valuable bargaining chip once the war ended. Others countered that Syria had strong defenses—antitank ditches, minefields, and strongpoints—and that it would be better to fight from defensive positions in the Golan Heights (rather than the flat terrain deeper in Syria) in the event of another war with Syria. However, Prime Minister Golda Meir realized the most crucial point of the whole debate: It would take four days to shift a division to the Sinai. If the war ended during this period, the war would end with a territorial loss for Israel in the Sinai and no gain in the north—an unmitigated defeat. This was a political matter and her decision was unmitigating—to cross the purple line. ... The attack would be launched tomorrow, Thursday, October 11. On October 11, Israeli forces pushed into Syria and advanced towards Damascus along the Quneitra-Damascus road until October 14, encountering stiff resistance by Syrian reservists in prepared defenses. Three Israeli divisions broke the first and second defensive lines near Sasa, and conquered a further 50 square kilometres of territory in the Bashan salient. From there, they were able to shell the outskirts of Damascus, only 40 km away, using M107 heavy artillery. On October 12, Israeli paratroopers from the elite Sayeret Tzanhanim reconnaissance unit launched Operation Gown, infiltrating deep into Syria and destroying a bridge in the tri-border area of Syria, Iraq, and Jordan. The operation disrupted the flow of weapons and troops to Syria. During the operation, the paratroopers destroyed a number of tank transports and killed several Syrian soldiers. There were no Israeli casualties. Arab Military Intervention. As the Syrian position deteriorated, Jordan sent an expeditionary force into Syria. King Hussein, who had come under intense pressure to enter the war, told Israel of his intentions through U.S. intermediaries, in the hope that Israel would accept that this was not a casus belli justifying an attack on Jordan. Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Dayan declined to offer any such assurance, but said that Israel had no intention of opening another front. Iraq also sent an expeditionary force to Syria, consisting of the 3rd and 6th Armoured Divisions, some 30,000 men, 250–500 tanks, and 700 APCs. Israeli jets attacked Iraqi forces as they arrived in Syria. The Iraqi divisions were a strategic surprise for the IDF, which had expected 24-hour-plus advance intelligence of such moves. This turned into an operational surprise, as the Iraqis attacked the exposed southern flank of the advancing Israeli armor, forcing its advance units to retreat a few kilometres in order to prevent encirclement. Combined Syrian, Iraqi and Jordanian counterattacks prevented any further Israeli gains. However, they were unable to push the Israelis back from the Bashan salient, and suffered heavy losses in their engagements with the Israelis. The most effective attack took place on October 20, though Arab forces lost 120 tanks in that engagement. The Syrian Air Force attacked Israeli columns, but its operations were highly limited because of Israeli air superiority, and it suffered heavy losses in dogfights with Israeli jets. On October 23, a large air battle took place near Damascus during which the Israelis shot down 10 Syrian aircraft. The Syrians claimed a similar toll against Israel. The IDF also destroyed the Syrian missile defense system. The Israeli Air Force utilized its air superiority to attack strategic targets throughout Syria, including important power plants, petrol supplies, bridges and main roads. The strikes weakened the Syrian war effort, disrupted Soviet efforts to airlift military equipment into Syria, and disrupted normal life inside the country. On October 22, the Golani Brigade and Sayeret Matkal commandos recaptured the outpost on Mount Hermon, after a hard-fought battle that involved hand-to-hand combat and Syrian sniper attacks. An unsuccessful attack two weeks prior had cost the Israelis 23 dead and 55 wounded and the Syrians 29 dead and 11 wounded, while this second attack cost Israel an additional 55 dead and 79 wounded. An unknown number of Syrians were also killed and some were taken prisoner. An IDF D9 bulldozer supported by infantry forced its way to the peak. An Israeli paratroop force landing by helicopter took the corresponding Syrian Hermon outposts on the mountain, killing more than a dozen Syrians while losing one dead and four wounded. Seven Syrian MiGs and two Syrian helicopters carrying reinforcements were shot down as they attempted to intercede. Northern front de-escalation. The Syrians prepared for a massive counteroffensive to drive Israeli forces out of Syria, scheduled for October 23. A total of five Syrian divisions were to take part, alongside the Iraqi and Jordanian expeditionary forces. The Soviets had replaced most of the losses Syria's tank forces had suffered during the first weeks of the war. However, the day before the offensive was to begin, the United Nations imposed its ceasefire (following the acquiescence of both Israel and Egypt). Abraham Rabinovich claimed that "The acceptance by Egypt of the cease-fire on Monday [October 22] created a major dilemma for Assad. The cease-fire did not bind him, but its implications could not be ignored. Some on the Syrian General Staff favored going ahead with the attack, arguing that if it did so Egypt would feel obliged to continue fighting as well ... Others, however, argued that continuation of the war would legitimize Israel's efforts to destroy the Egyptian Third Army. In that case, Egypt would not come to Syria's assistance when Israel turned its full might northward, destroying Syria's infrastructure and perhaps attacking Damascus". Ultimately, Syrian President Hafez al-Assad decided to cancel the offensive. On October 23, the day the offensive was to begin, Syria announced that it had accepted the ceasefire, and ordered its troops to cease fire, while the Iraqi government ordered its forces home. Following the UN ceasefire, there were constant artillery exchanges and skirmishes, and Israeli forces continued to occupy positions deep within Syria. According to Syrian Foreign Minister Abdel Halim Khaddam, Syria's constant artillery attacks were "part of a deliberate war of attrition designed to paralyse the Israeli economy", and were intended to pressure Israel into yielding the occupied territory. Some aerial engagements took place, and both sides lost several aircraft. In the spring of 1974, the Syrians attempted to retake the summit of Mount Hermon. The fighting lasted for more than a month and saw heavy losses on both sides, but the Israelis held their positions. The situation continued until a May 1974 disengagement agreement. Jordanian participation. The U.S. pressed King Hussein to keep Jordan out of the war. Though King Hussein initially refrained from entering the conflict, on the night of October 12–13 Jordanian troops deployed to the Jordanian-Syrian frontier to buttress Syrian troops, and Jordanian forces joined Syrian and Iraqi assaults on Israeli positions on October 16 and 19. Hussein sent a second brigade to the Golan front on October 21. According to historian Assaf David, declassified U.S. documents show that the Jordanian participation was only a token to preserve King Hussein's status in the Arab world. The documents reveal that Israel and Jordan had a tacit understanding that the Jordanian units would try to stay out of the fighting and Israel would try to not attack them. Final situation on the Syrian front. The Israeli Army advanced to a 40 km distance from Damascus. Naval War. On the first day of the war, Egyptian missile boats bombarded the Sinai Mediterranean coast, targeting Rumana and Ras Beyron, Ras Masala and Ras Sudar on the Gulf of Suez and Sharm el-Sheikh. Egyptian naval frogmen also raided the oil installations at Bala'eem, disabling the massive driller. The Battle of Latakia, between the Israeli and Syrian navies, took place on October 7, the second day of the war. Five Israeli missile boats heading towards the Syrian port of Latakia, sank a Syrian torpedo boat and minesweeper before encountering five Syrian missile boats. The Israelis used electronic countermeasures and chaff to evade Syrian missiles, then sank all five Syrian missile boats. This revolutionary engagement, the first between missile boats using surface-to-surface missiles, proved the potency of small, fast missile boats equipped with advanced ECM packages. The battle also established the Israeli Navy, long derided as the "black sheep" of the Israeli military, as a formidable and effective force in its own right. The port of Latakia was the site of another engagement between October 10–11, when Israeli missile boats fired into the port, targeting two Syrian missile boats spotted maneuvering among merchant ships. Both Syrian vessels were sunk, and two merchant ships were mistakenly hit and sunk. October 7 also witnessed the Battle of Marsa Talamat. Two Israeli Dabur class patrol boats patrolling in the Gulf of Suez encountered two Egyptian Zodiac boats loaded with Egyptian naval commandos as well as a patrol boat that was backed up by coastal guns. The Israeli patrol boats sank both Zodiacs and the patrol boat, although both suffered damage during the battle. The Battle of Baltim, which took place on October 8–9 off the coast of Baltim and Damietta, ended in a decisive Israeli victory. Six Israeli missile boats heading towards Port Said encountered four Egyptian missile boats coming from Alexandria. In an engagement lasting about forty minutes, the Israelis evaded Egyptian Styx missiles using electronic countermeasures and sank three of the Egyptian missile boats with Gabriel missiles and gunfire. The Battles of Latakia and Baltim "drastically changed the operational situation at sea to Israeli advantage". Five nights after the Battle of Baltim, five Israeli patrol boats entered the Egyptian anchorage at Ras Ghareb, where over fifty Egyptian small patrol craft (including armed fishing boats mobilized for the war effort and loaded with troops, ammunition, and supplies bound for the Israeli side of the Gulf) were based. In the battle that followed, 19 Egyptian boats were sunk, while others remained bottled up in port. The Israeli Navy had control of the Gulf of Suez during the war, which made possible the continued deployment of an Israeli SAM battery near an Israeli naval base close to the southern end of the Suez Canal, depriving the Egyptian Third Army of air support and preventing it from moving southward and attempting to capture the southern Sinai. Israeli commandos from Shayetet 13, the Israeli Navy's elite special unit, infiltrated the Egyptian port of Hurghada on the night of October 9–10 and sank a Komar-class missile boat after four previous attempts had failed. After another infiltration attempt failed, the commandos successfully infiltrated Hurghada again on the night of October 21–22 and heavily damaged a missile boat with M72 LAW rockets. During one of the raids, the commandos also blew up the port's main docking pier. On October 16, Shayetet 13 commandos infiltrated Port Said in two Hazir mini-submarines to strike Egyptian naval targets. During the raid, the commandos sank a torpedo boat, a coast guard boat, a tank landing craft, and a missile boat. Two frogmen went missing during the operation. On October 18, Israeli frogmen set off an explosion that severed two underwater communications cables off Beirut, one of which led to Alexandria and the other to Marseilles. As a result, telex and telecommunications between the West and Syria were severed, and were not restored until the cables were repaired on October 27. The cables had also been used by the Syrians and Egyptians to communicate with each other in preference to using radio, which was monitored by Israeli, U.S. and Soviet intelligence. Egypt and Syria resorted to communicating via a Jordanian radio station in Ajloun, bouncing the signals off a U.S. satellite. On October 11, Israeli missile boats sank two Syrian missile boats in an engagement off Tartus. During the battle, a Soviet merchant ship was hit by Israeli missiles and sank. Having decisively beaten the Egyptian and Syrian navies, the Israeli Navy had the run of the coastlines. Israeli missile boats utilized their 76 mm cannons and other armaments to strike targets along the Egyptian and Syrian coastlines, including wharves, oil tank farms, coastal batteries, radar stations, airstrips, and other targets of military value. The Israeli Navy even attacked some of Egypt's northernmost SAM batteries. The Israeli Navy's attacks were carried out with minimal support from the IAF (only one Arab naval target was destroyed from the air during the entire war). The Egyptian Navy managed to enforce a blockade at Bab-el-Mandeb. Eighteen million tons of oil had been transported yearly from Iran to Israel through the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. The blockade was enforced by two Egyptian destroyers and two submarines, supported by ancillary craft. Shipping destined for Israel through the Gulf of Eilat was halted by the Egyptians. The Israeli Navy had no means of lifting the blockade due to the long range involved, and the Israeli Air Force, apparently also incapable of lifting the blockade, did not challenge it. The blockade was lifted on November 1, after Israel used the surrounded Egyptian Third Army as a bargaining chip. The Egyptians unsuccessfully attempted to blockade the Israeli Mediterranean coastline, and mined the Gulf of Suez to prevent the transportation of oil from the Bala'eem and Abu Rudeis oil fields in southwestern Sinai to Eilat in southern Israel. Two oil tankers, of 48,000 ton and 2,000 ton capacity, sank after hitting mines in the Gulf. According to Admiral Ze'ev Almog, the Israeli Navy escorted tankers from the Gulf to Eilat throughout the war, and Israeli tankers sailing from Iran were directed to bypass the Red Sea. As a result of these actions and the failure of Egypt's Mediterranean blockade, the transport of oil, grain and weapons to Israeli ports was made possible throughout nearly the entire war. A post-war survey found that during the entire war period, Israel suffered no oil shortages, and even sold oil to third parties affected by the Arab oil embargo. This claim was disputed by Edgar O'Ballance, who claimed that no oil went to Israel during the blockade, and the Eilat-Ashdod pipeline was empty by the end of the war. Israel responded with a counter-blockade of Egypt in the Gulf of Suez. The Israeli blockade was enforced by naval vessels based at Sharm el-Sheikh and the Sinai coast facing the Gulf of Suez. The Israeli blockade substantially damaged the Egyptian economy. According to historian Gammal Hammad, Egypt's principal ports, Alexandria and Port Safaga, remained open to shipping throughout the war. Throughout the war, the Israeli Navy enjoyed complete command of the seas both in the Mediterranean approaches and in the Gulf of Suez. During the last week of the war, Egyptian frogmen carried out three or four raids on Eilat. The attacks caused minor damage, but created some alarm. According to Israeli and Western sources, the Israelis lost no vessels in the war. Israeli vessels were "targeted by as many as 52 Soviet-made anti-ship missiles", but none hit their targets. According to historian Benny Morris, the Egyptians lost seven missile boats and four torpedo boats and coastal defense craft, while the Syrians lost five missile boats, one minesweeper, and one coastal defense vessel. All together, the Israeli Navy suffered three dead or missing and seven wounded. Atrocities against Israeli prisoners. Syrian atrocities. Syria ignored the Geneva Conventions and many Israeli prisoners of war were tortured or killed. Advancing Israeli forces, re-capturing land taken by the Syrians early in the war, came across the bodies of 28 Israeli soldiers who had been blindfolded with their hands bound and summarily executed. In a December 1973 address to the National Assembly, Syrian Defense Minister Mustafa Tlass stated that he had awarded one soldier the Medal of the Republic for killing 28 Israeli prisoners with an axe, decapitating three of them and eating the flesh of one of his victims. The Syrians employed brutal interrogation techniques utilizing electric shocks to the genitals. A number of Israeli soldiers taken prisoner on Mount Hermon were executed. Near the village of Hushniye, the Syrians captured 11 administrative personnel from the Golan Heights Force, all of whom were later found dead, blindfolded, and with their hands tied behind their backs. Within Hushniye, seven Israeli prisoners were found dead, and another three were executed at Tel Zohar. Syrian prisoners who fell into Israeli captivity confirmed that their comrades killed IDF prisoners. A soldier from the Moroccan contingent fighting with Syrian forces was found to be carrying a sack filled with the body parts of Israeli soldiers which he intended to take home as souvenirs. The bodies of Israeli prisoners who were killed were stripped of their uniforms and found clad only in their underpants, and Syrian soldiers removed their dog tags to make identification of the bodies more difficult. Some Israeli POWs reported having their fingernails ripped out while others were described as being turned into human ashtrays as their Syrian guards burned them with lit cigarettes. A report submitted by the chief medical officer of the Israeli army notes that, "the vast majority of (Israeli) prisoners were exposed during their imprisonment to severe physical and mental torture. The usual methods of torture were beatings aimed at various parts of the body, electric shocks, wounds deliberately inflicted on the ears, burns on the legs, suspension in painful positions and other methods." Following the conclusion of hostilities, Syria would not release the names of prisoners it was holding to the International Committee of the Red Cross and in fact, did not even acknowledge holding any prisoners despite the fact they were publicly exhibited by the Syrians for television crews. The Syrians, having been thoroughly defeated by Israel, were attempting to use their captives as their sole bargaining chip in the post-war negotiations. One of the most famous Israeli POWs was Avraham Lanir, an Israeli pilot who bailed out over Syria and was taken prisoner. Lanir died under Syrian interrogation. When his body was returned in 1974, it exhibited signs of torture. Egyptian atrocities. Israeli historian Aryeh Yitzhaki estimated that the Egyptians killed about 200 Israeli soldiers who had surrendered. Yitzhaki based his claim on army documents. In addition, dozens of Israeli prisoners were beaten and otherwise mistreated in Egyptian captivity. Individual Israeli soldiers gave testimony of witnessing comrades killed after surrendering to the Egyptians, or seeing the bodies of Israeli soldiers found blindfolded with their hands tied behind their backs. Avi Yaffe, a radioman serving on the Bar-Lev Line, reported hearing calls from other soldiers that the Egyptians were killing anyone who tried to surrender, and also obtained recordings of soldiers who were saved from Egyptian firing squads. Issachar Ben-Gavriel, an Israeli soldier who was captured at the Suez Canal, claimed that out of his group of 19 soldiers who surrendered, 11 were shot dead. Another soldier claimed that a soldier in his unit was captured alive but beaten to death during interrogation. Photographic evidence of such executions exists, though some of it has never been made public. Photos were also found of Israeli prisoners who were photographed alive in Egyptian captivity, but were returned to Israel dead. The order to kill Israeli prisoners came from General Shazly, who, in a pamphlet distributed to Egyptian soldiers immediately before the war, advised his troops to kill Israeli soldiers even if they surrendered. Participation by other states. Failure of the U.S. intelligence community. The U.S. intelligence community—which includes the CIA—failed to predict in advance the Egyptian-Syrian attack on Israel. A U.S. intelligence report as late as October 4 still stated that "We continue to believe that an outbreak of major Arab–Israeli hostilities remains unlikely for the immediate future". However, one U.S. government source that was able to predict the approaching war was Roger Merrick, an analyst working for the INR (Bureau of Intelligence and Research in the State Department), but his conclusions were ignored at the time, and the report he had written to that effect was only rediscovered by U.S. government archive officials in 2013. U.S. aid to Israel. Based on intelligence estimates at the commencement of hostilities, American leaders expected the tide of the war to quickly shift in Israel's favor, and that Arab armies would be completely defeated within 72 to 96 hours. On October 6, Secretary of State Kissinger convened the National Security Council's official crisis management group, the Washington Special Actions Group, which debated whether the U.S. should supply additional arms to Israel. High-ranking representatives of the Defense and State Departments opposed such a move. Kissinger was the sole dissenter; he said that if the U.S. refused aid, Israel would have little incentive to conform to American views in postwar diplomacy. Kissinger argued the sending of U.S. aid might cause Israel to moderate its territorial claims, but this thesis raised a protracted debate whether U.S. aid was likely to make it more accommodating or more intransigent toward the Arab world. By October 8, Israel had encountered military difficulties on both fronts. In the Sinai, Israeli efforts to break through Egyptian lines with armor had been thwarted, and while Israel had contained and begun to turn back the Syrian advance, Syrian forces were still overlooking the Jordan River and their air defense systems were inflicting a high toll on Israeli planes. It became clear by October 9 that no quick reversal in Israel's favor would occur and that IDF losses were unexpectedly high. During the night of October 8–9, an alarmed Dayan told Meir that "this is the end of the third temple." He was warning of Israel's impending total defeat, but "Temple" was also the code word for Israel's nuclear weapons. Dayan raised the nuclear topic in a cabinet meeting, warning that the country was approaching a point of "last resort". That night, Meir authorized the assembly of thirteen tactical nuclear weapons for Jericho missiles at Sdot Micha Airbase and F-4 Phantom II aircraft at Tel Nof Airbase. They would be used if absolutely necessary to prevent total defeat, but the preparation was done in an easily detectable way, likely as a signal to the United States. Kissinger learned of the nuclear alert on the morning of October 9. That day, President Nixon ordered the commencement of Operation Nickel Grass, an American airlift to replace all of Israel's material losses. Anecdotal evidence suggests that Kissinger told Sadat that the reason for the U.S. airlift was that the Israelis were close to "going nuclear". However, subsequent interviews with Kissinger, Schlesinger, and William Quandt suggested that the nuclear aspect was not a major factor in the decision to re-supply. These officials cited the ongoing Soviet re-supply effort and Sadat's early rejection of a ceasefire as the primary motivators. European countries refused to allow U.S. airplanes carrying supplies for Israel to refuel at their bases, fearing an Arab oil embargo, with the exception of Portugal and the Netherlands. Portugal permitted the United States to use a leased base in the Azores, and the defence minister of the Netherlands, apparently acting without consulting his cabinet colleagues, secretly authorised the use of Dutch airfields. Israel began receiving supplies via U.S. Air Force cargo airplanes on October 14, although some equipment had arrived on planes from Israel's national airline El Al before this date. By that time, the IDF had advanced deep into Syria and was mounting a largely successful invasion of the Egyptian mainland from the Sinai, but had taken severe material losses. According to Abraham Rabinovich, "while the American airlift of supplies did not immediately replace Israel's losses in equipment, it did allow Israel to expend what it did have more freely". By the end of Nickel Grass, the United States had shipped 22,395 tons of matériel to Israel. 8,755 tons of it arrived before the end of the war. American C-141 Starlifter and C-5 Galaxy aircraft flew 567 missions throughout the airlift. El Al planes flew in an additional 5,500 tons of matériel in 170 flights. The airlift continued after the war until November 14. The United States delivered approximately 90,000 tons of materiel to Israel by sealift by the beginning of December, using 16 ships. 33,210 tons of it arrived by November. By the beginning of December, Israel had received between 34 and 40 F-4 fighter-bombers, 46 A-4 attack airplanes, 12 C-130 cargo airplanes, 8 CH-53 helicopters, 40 unmanned aerial vehicles, 200 M-60/M-48A3 tanks, 250 APCs, 226 utility vehicles, 12 MIM-72 Chaparral surface-to-air missile systems, three MIM-23 Hawk SAM systems, 36 155 mm artillery pieces, seven 175 mm artillery pieces, and large quantities of 105 mm, 155 mm and 175 mm ammunition. State of the art equipment, such as the AGM-65 Maverick missile and the BGM-71 TOW, weapons that had only entered production one or more years prior, as well as highly advanced electronic jamming equipment, was also sent. Most of the combat airplanes arrived during the war, and many were taken directly from USAF units. Most of the large equipment arrived after the ceasefire. The total cost of the equipment was approximately US$800 million (US$ today). On October 13 and 15, Egyptian air defense radars detected an aircraft at an altitude of and a speed of , making it impossible to intercept either by fighter or SAM missiles. The aircraft proceeded to cross the whole of the canal zone, the naval ports of the Red Sea (Hurghada and Safaga), flew over the airbases and air defenses in the Nile delta, and finally disappeared from radar screens over the Mediterranean Sea. The speed and altitude were those of the U.S. SR-71 Blackbird. According to Egyptian commanders, the intelligence provided by the reconnaissance flights helped the Israelis prepare for the Egyptian attack on October 14 and assisted it in conducting Operation Stouthearted Men. Aid to Egypt and Syria. Soviet supplies. Starting on October 9, the Soviet Union began supplying Egypt and Syria by air and by sea. The Soviets airlifted 12,500–15,000 tons of supplies, of which 6,000 tons went to Egypt, 3,750 tons went to Syria and 575 tons went to Iraq. General Shazly, the former Egyptian chief of staff, claimed that more than half of the airlifted Soviet hardware actually went to Syria. According to Ze'ev Schiff, Arab losses were so high and the attrition rate so great that equipment was taken directly from Soviet and Warsaw Pact stores to supply the airlift. Antonov An-12 and AN-22 aircraft flew over 900 missions during the airlift. The Soviets supplied another 63,000 tons, mainly to Syria, by means of a sealift by October 30. Historian Gamal Hammad asserts that 400 T-55 and T-62 tanks supplied by the sealift were directed towards replacing Syrian losses, transported from Odessa on the Black Sea to the Syrian port of Latakia. Hammad claimed that Egypt did not receive any tanks from the Soviets, a claim disputed by Schiff, who stated that Soviet freighters loaded with tanks and other weapons reached Egyptian, Algerian and Syrian ports throughout the war. The sealift may have included Soviet nuclear weapons, which were not unloaded but kept in Alexandria harbor until November to counter the Israeli nuclear preparations, which Soviet satellites had detected (Soviet intelligence informed Egypt that Israel had armed three nuclear weapons). American concern over possible evidence of nuclear warheads for the Soviet Scud missiles in Egypt contributed to Washington's decision to go to DEFCON 3. According to documents declassified in 2016, the move to DEFCON 3 was motivated by CIA reports indicating that the Soviet Union had sent a ship to Egypt carrying nuclear weapons along with two other amphibious vessels. Soviet troops never landed, though the ship supposedly transporting nuclear weapons did arrive in Egypt. Further details are unavailable and may remain classified. Soviet active aid. On the Golan front, Syrian forces received direct support from Soviet technicians and military personnel. At the start of the war, there were an estimated 2,000 Soviet personnel in Syria, of whom 1,000 were serving in Syrian air defense units. Soviet technicians repaired damaged tanks, SAMs and radar equipment, assembled fighter jets that arrived via the sealift, and drove tanks supplied by the sealift from ports to Damascus. On both the Golan and Sinai fronts, Soviet military personnel retrieved abandoned Israeli military equipment for shipment to Moscow. Soviet advisors were reportedly present in Syrian command posts "at every echelon, from battalion up, including supreme headquarters". Some Soviet military personnel went into battle with the Syrians, and it was estimated that 20 were killed in action and more were wounded. In July 1974, Israeli Defense Minister Shimon Peres informed the Knesset that high-ranking Soviet officers had been killed on the Syrian front during the war. There were strong rumors that a handful were taken prisoner, but this was denied. However, it was noted that certain Soviet Jews were allowed to emigrate just after the war, leading to suspicions of a covert exchange. "The Observer" wrote that seven Soviets in uniform were taken prisoner after surrendering when the Israelis overran their bunker. The Israelis reportedly took the prisoners to Ramat David Airbase for interrogation, and treated the incident with great secrecy. Israeli military intelligence reported that Soviet-piloted MiG-25 Foxbat interceptor/reconnaissance aircraft overflew the Canal Zone. Soviet threat of intervention. On October 9, the Soviet cultural center in Damascus was damaged during an IAF airstrike, and two days later, the Soviet merchant ship "Ilya Mechnikov" was sunk by the Israeli Navy during a battle off Syria. The Soviets condemned Israeli actions, and there were calls within the government for military retaliation. The Soviets ultimately reacted by deploying two destroyers off the Syrian coast. Soviet warships in the Mediterranean were authorized to open fire on Israeli combatants approaching Soviet convoys and transports. There were several recorded instances of Soviet ships exchanging fire with Israeli forces. In particular, the Soviet minesweeper "Rulevoi" and the medium landing ship "SDK-137", guarding Soviet transport ships at the Syrian port of Latakia, fired on approaching Israeli jets. During the cease-fire, Henry Kissinger mediated a series of exchanges with the Egyptians, Israelis and the Soviets. On October 24, Sadat publicly appealed for American and Soviet contingents to oversee the ceasefire; it was quickly rejected in a White House statement. Kissinger also met with Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin to discuss convening a peace conference with Geneva as the venue. Later in the evening (9:35 pm) of October 24–25, Brezhnev sent Nixon a "very urgent" letter. In that letter, Brezhnev began by noting that Israel was continuing to violate the ceasefire and it posed a challenge to both the U.S. and USSR. He stressed the need to "implement" the ceasefire resolution and "invited" the U.S. to join the Soviets "to compel observance of the cease-fire without delay". He then threatened "I will say it straight that if you find it impossible to act jointly with us in this matter, we should be faced with the necessity urgently to consider taking appropriate steps unilaterally. We cannot allow arbitrariness on the part of Israel." The Soviets were threatening to militarily intervene in the war on Egypt's side if they could not work together to enforce the ceasefire. Kissinger immediately passed the message to White House Chief of Staff Alexander Haig, who met with Nixon for 20 minutes around 10:30 pm, and reportedly empowered Kissinger to take any necessary action. Kissinger immediately called a meeting of senior officials, including Haig, Defense Secretary James Schlesinger and CIA Director William Colby. The Watergate scandal had reached its apex, and Nixon was so agitated and discomposed that they decided to handle the matter without him: When Kissinger asked Haig whether [Nixon] should be wakened, the White House chief of staff replied firmly 'No.' Haig clearly shared Kissinger's feelings that Nixon was in no shape to make weighty decisions. The meeting produced a conciliatory response, which was sent (in Nixon's name) to Brezhnev. At the same time, it was decided to increase the DEFCON from four to three. Lastly, they approved a message to Sadat (again, in Nixon's name) asking him to drop his request for Soviet assistance, and threatening that if the Soviets were to intervene, so would the United States. The Soviets placed seven airborne divisions on alert and airlift was marshaled to transport them to the Middle East. An airborne command post was set up in the southern Soviet Union, and several air force units were also alerted. "Reports also indicated that at least one of the divisions and a squadron of transport planes had been moved from the Soviet Union to an airbase in Yugoslavia". The Soviets also deployed seven amphibious warfare craft with some 40,000 naval infantry in the Mediterranean. The Soviets quickly detected the increased American defense condition, and were astonished and bewildered at the response. "Who could have imagined the Americans would be so easily frightened," said Nikolai Podgorny. "It is not reasonable to become engaged in a war with the United States because of Egypt and Syria," said Premier Alexei Kosygin, while KGB chief Yuri Andropov added that "We shall not unleash the Third World War." The letter from the U.S. cabinet arrived during the meeting. Brezhnev decided that the Americans were too nervous, and that the best course of action would be to wait to reply. The next morning, the Egyptians agreed to the American suggestion, and dropped their request for assistance from the Soviets, bringing the crisis to an end. Other countries. In total, Arab countries added up to 100,000 troops to Egypt and Syria's frontline ranks. Besides Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and Iraq, several other Arab states were also involved in this war, providing additional weapons and financing. In addition to its forces in Syria, Iraq sent a single Hawker Hunter squadron to Egypt. The squadron quickly gained a reputation amongst Egyptian field commanders for its skill in air support, particularly in anti-armor strikes. However, nearly all Arab reinforcements came with no logistical plan or support, expecting their hosts to supply them, and in several cases causing logistical problems. On the Syrian front, a lack of coordination between Arab forces led to several instances of friendly fire. "Non-state participants": US-Soviet naval standoff. The war saw the largest naval confrontation between the United States Navy and Soviet Navy of the entire Cold War. As the United States and Soviet Union supported their respective allies, their fleets in the Mediterranean became increasingly hostile toward each other. The Soviet 5th Operational Squadron had 52 ships in the Mediterranean when the war began, including 11 submarines, some of which carried cruise missiles with nuclear warheads, while the United States Sixth Fleet had 48, including two aircraft carriers, a helicopter carrier, and amphibious vessels carrying 2,000 marines. As the war continued, both sides reinforced their fleets. The Soviet squadron grew to 97 vessels including 23 submarines, while the US Sixth Fleet grew to 60 vessels including 9 submarines, 2 helicopter carriers, and 3 aircraft carriers. Both fleets made preparations for war, and US aircraft conducted reconnaissance over the Soviet fleet. The two fleets began to disengage following the ceasefire. Palestinian attacks from the Lebanese border. During the course of the war, Palestinian militias from southern Lebanon launched several attacks on Israeli border communities. All of the attempts to infiltrate Israel failed, and 23 militants were killed and four were captured during the clashes. Most of the activity was focused on Katyusha rocket and anti-tank missile fire on Israeli border communities. In the attacks some civilians were injured, mostly lightly and damage was made to property. On October 10, after Palestinian militants fired some 40 rockets on Israeli communities, Chief of Staff David Elazar and chief of the Northern Command Yitzhak Hofi requested to deploy a force which would expel Palestinian militants from Lebanese villages, but the request was declined by Defense Minister Moshe Dayan. Weapons. The Arab armies (with the exception of the Jordanians), were equipped with predominantly Soviet-made weapons while Israel's armaments were mostly Western-made. The Arabs' T-54/55s and T-62s were equipped with night vision equipment, which the Israeli tanks lacked, giving them an advantage in fighting at night, while Israel tanks had better armor and/or better armament. Israeli tanks also had a distinct advantage while on the ramps, in the "hull-down" position where steeper angles of depression resulted in less exposure. The main guns of Soviet tanks could only depress 4 degrees. By contrast, the 105 mm guns on Centurion and Patton tanks could depress 10 degrees. Home front during the war. The war created a state of emergency in the countries involved in fighting. Upon the outbreak of war, air raid sirens sounded throughout Israel. During the war, blackouts were enforced in major cities. The Egyptian government began to evacuate foreign tourists, and on October 11, 1973, the Egyptian ship "Syria" left Alexandria to Piraeus with a load of tourists wishing to exit Egypt. The U.S. Interest Section in Cairo also requested U.S. government assistance in removing U.S. tourists to Greece. On October 12, Kissinger ordered the U.S. Interest Section in Cairo to speed up preparations for the departure of U.S. tourists staying in Egypt, while notifying such actions to the IDF in order to avoid accidental military operations against them. Casualties. Israel suffered between 2,521 and 2,800 killed in action. An additional 7,250 to 8,800 soldiers were wounded. Some 293 Israelis were captured. Approximately 400 Israeli tanks were destroyed. Another 600 were disabled but returned to service after repairs. A major Israeli advantage, noted by many observers, was their ability to quickly return damaged tanks to combat. The Israeli Air Force lost 102 airplanes: 32 F-4s, 53 A-4s, 11 Mirages and 6 Super Mysteres. Two helicopters, a Bell 205 and a CH-53, were also lost. According to Defense Minister Moshe Dayan, nearly half of these were shot down during the first three days of the war. IAF losses per combat sortie were less than in the Six-Day War of 1967. Arab casualties were known to be much higher than Israel's, though precise figures are difficult to ascertain as Egypt and Syria never disclosed official figures. The lowest casualty estimate is 8,000 (5,000 Egyptian and 3,000 Syrian) killed and 18,000 wounded. The highest estimate is 18,500 (15,000 Egyptian and 3,500 Syrian) killed. Most estimates lie somewhere in between the two, with the Insight Team of the London "The Sunday Times" combined Egyptian and Syrian losses of 16,000 killed. and yet another source citing a figure of some 15,000 dead and 35,000 wounded. U.S. estimates placed Egyptian casualties at 13,000. Iraq lost 278 killed and 898 wounded, while Jordan suffered 23 killed and 77 wounded. Some 8,372 Egyptians, 392 Syrians, 13 Iraqis and 6 Moroccans were taken prisoner. Arab tank losses amounted to 2,250 though Garwych cites a figure of 2,300. 400 of these fell into Israeli hands in good working order and were incorporated into Israeli service. Between 341 and 514 Arab aircraft were shot down. According to Herzog, 334 of these aircraft were shot down by the IAF in air-to-air combat for the loss of only five Israeli planes. The "Sunday Times" Insight Team notes Arab aircraft losses of 450. 19 Arab naval vessels, including 10 missile boats, were sunk for no Israeli losses. Post-ceasefire. Kissinger pushes for peace. On October 24, the UNSC passed Resolution 339, serving as a renewed call for all parties to adhere to the ceasefire terms established in Resolution 338. Most heavy fighting on the Egyptian front ended by October 26, but clashes along the ceasefire lines and a few airstrikes on the Third Army took place. With some Israeli advances taking place, Kissinger threatened to support a UN withdrawal resolution, but before Israel could respond, Egyptian national security advisor Hafez Ismail sent Kissinger a stunning message—Egypt was willing to enter into direct talks with Israel, provided that it agree to allow non-military supplies to reach the Third Army and to a complete ceasefire. About noon on October 25, Kissinger appeared before the press at the State Department. He described the various stages of the crisis and the evolution of U.S. policy. He reviewed the first two weeks of the crisis and the nuclear alert, reiterated opposition to U.S. and Soviet troops in the area and more strongly opposed unilateral Soviet moves. He then reviewed the prospects for a peace agreement, which he termed "quite promising", and had conciliatory words for Israel, Egypt and even the USSR. Kissinger concluded his remarks by spelling out the principles of a new U.S. policy toward the Arab–Israeli conflict saying: Our position is that ... the conditions that produced this war were clearly intolerable to the Arab nations and that in the process of negotiations it will be necessary to make substantial concessions. The problem will be to relate the Arab concern for the sovereignty over the territories to the Israeli concern for secure boundaries. We believe that the process of negotiations between the parties is an essential component of this. Quandt considers, "It was a brilliant performance, one of his most impressive." One hour later the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 340. This time the ceasefire held, and the fourth Arab–Israeli war was over. Disengagement agreement. Disengagement talks took place on October 28, 1973, at "Kilometre 101" between Israeli Major General Aharon Yariv and Egyptian Major General Abdel Ghani el-Gamasy. Ultimately, Kissinger took the proposal to Sadat, who agreed. United Nations checkpoints were brought in to replace Israeli ones, nonmilitary supplies were allowed to pass, and prisoners-of-war were to be exchanged. A summit conference in Geneva followed in December 1973. All parties to the war—Israel, Syria, Jordan and Egypt—were invited to a joint effort by the Soviet Union and the United States to finally usher peace between the Arabs and Israelis. This conference was recognized by UN Security Council Resolution 344 and was based on the Resolution 338, calling for a "just and durable peace". Nevertheless, the conference was forced to adjourn on January 9, 1974, as Syria refused attendance. After the failed conference Henry Kissinger started conducting shuttle diplomacy, meeting with Israel and the Arab states directly. The first concrete result of this was the initial military disengagement agreement, signed by Israel and Egypt on January 18, 1974. The agreement commonly known as Sinai I had the official name of "Sinai Separation of Forces Agreement". Under its terms, Israel agreed to pull back its forces from the areas West of Suez Canal, which it had occupied since the end of hostilities. Moreover, Israeli forces were also pulled back on the length of the whole front to create security zones for Egypt, UN and Israel, each roughly ten kilometres wide. Thus Israel gave up its advances reaching beyond the Suez canal, but it still held nearly all of Sinai. It became the first of many such "Land for Peace" agreements where Israel gave up territory in exchange for treaties. On the Syrian front, skirmishes and artillery exchanges continued taking place. Shuttle diplomacy by Henry Kissinger eventually produced a disengagement agreement on May 31, 1974, based on exchange of prisoners-of-war, Israeli withdrawal to the Purple Line and the establishment of a UN buffer zone. The agreement ended the skirmishes and exchanges of artillery fire that had occurred frequently along the Israeli-Syrian ceasefire line. The UN Disengagement and Observer Force (UNDOF) was established as a peacekeeping force in the Golan. The peace discussion at the end of the war was the first time that Arab and Israeli officials met for direct public discussions since the aftermath of the 1948 war. Response in Israel. Though the war reinforced Israel's military deterrence, it had a stunning effect on the population in Israel. Following their victory in the Six-Day War, the Israeli military had become complacent. The shock and sudden reversals that occurred at the beginning of the war inflicted a terrible psychological blow to the Israelis, who had hitherto experienced no serious military challenges. A protest against the Israeli government started four months after the war ended. It was led by Motti Ashkenazi, commander of Budapest, the northernmost of the Bar-Lev forts and the only one during the war not to be captured by the Egyptians. Anger against the Israeli government (and Dayan in particular) was high. Shimon Agranat, President of the Israeli Supreme Court, was asked to lead an inquiry, the Agranat Commission, into the events leading up to the war and the setbacks of the first few days. The Agranat Commission published its preliminary findings on April 2, 1974. Six people were held particularly responsible for Israel's failings: Rather than quieting public discontent, the report—which "had stressed that it was judging the ministers' responsibility for security failings, not their parliamentary responsibility, which fell outside its mandate"—inflamed it. Although it had absolved Meir and Dayan of all responsibility, public calls for their resignations (especially Dayan's) intensified. In the December 1973 legislative election, Meir's Alignment party lost five Knesset seats. On April 11, 1974, Golda Meir resigned. Her cabinet followed suit, including Dayan, who had previously offered to resign twice and was turned down both times by Meir. A new government was seated in June and Yitzhak Rabin, who had spent most of the war as an advisor to Elazar in an unofficial capacity, became Prime Minister. In 1999, the issue was revisited by the Israeli political leadership to prevent similar shortcomings from being repeated. The Israeli National Security Council was created to improve coordination between the different security and intelligence bodies, and the political branch of government. Response in Egypt. For the Arab states (and Egypt in particular), Arab successes during the war healed the psychological trauma of their defeat in the Six-Day War, allowing them to negotiate with the Israelis as equals. Because of the later setbacks in the war (which saw Israel gain a large salient on African soil and even more territory on the Syrian front), some believe that the war helped convince many in the Arab world that Israel could not be defeated militarily, thereby strengthening peace movements and delaying the Arab ambition of destroying Israel by force. General Shazly had angered Sadat for advocating the withdrawal of Egyptian forces from Sinai to meet the Israeli incursion on the West Bank of the Canal. Six weeks after the war, he was relieved of command and forced out of the army, ultimately going into political exile for years. Upon his return to Egypt, he was placed under house arrest. Following his release, he advocated the formation of a "Supreme High Committee" modeled after Israel's Agranat Commission in order to "probe, examine and analyze" the performance of Egyptian forces and the command decisions made during the war, but his requests were completely ignored. He published a book, banned in Egypt, that described Egypt's military failings and the sharp disagreements he had with Ismail and Sadat in connection with the prosecution of the war. The commanders of the Second and Third Armies, Generals Khalil and Wasel, were also dismissed from the army. The commander of the Egyptian Second Army at the start of the war, General Mamoun, suffered a heart attack, or, alternatively, a breakdown, after the Egyptian defeat during the October 14 Sinai tank battle, and was replaced by General Khalil. Response in Syria. In Syria, Colonel Rafik Halawi, the Druze commander of an infantry brigade that had collapsed during the Israeli breakthrough, was executed before the war even ended. He was given a quick hearing and sentenced to death; his execution was immediate. Military historian Zeev Schiff referred to him as Syria's "sacrificial lamb". The Syrians however offered vehement denials that Halawi was executed and expended great efforts trying to debunk the allegation. They claimed he was killed in battle with Israel and threatened severe punishment to anyone repeating the allegation of execution. Their concern stemmed from a desire to maintain Syrian Druze loyalty to Assad's regime and prevent Syrian Druze from siding with their co-religionists in Israel. On July 7, 1974, Halawi's remains were removed from a Syrian military hospital and he was interred in Damascus at the "Cemetery of the Martyrs of the October War" in the presence of many Syrian dignitaries. One analyst noted that the presence of so many high-level officials was unusual and attributed it to Syrian efforts to quell any suggestion of execution. Response in the Soviet Union. According to Chernyaev, on November 4, 1973, Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev said: Oil embargo. In response to U.S. support of Israel, the Arab members of OPEC, led by Saudi Arabia, decided to reduce oil production by 5% per month on October 17. On October 19, President Nixon authorized a major allocation of arms supplies and $2.2 billion in appropriations for Israel. In response, Saudi Arabia declared an embargo against the United States, later joined by other oil exporters and extended against the Netherlands and other states, causing the 1973 energy crisis. Long-term effects. Egyptian–Israeli disengagement agreement. Another Egyptian–Israeli disengagement agreement, the "Sinai Interim Agreement", was signed in Geneva on September 4, 1975, and was commonly known as Sinai II. This agreement led Israel to withdraw from another 20–40 km with UN forces buffering the vacated area. After the agreement, Israel still held more than two-thirds of Sinai, which would prove to be a valuable bargaining chip in the coming negotiations. Egyptian–Israeli Camp David Accords. The Yom Kippur War upset the status quo in the Middle East, and the war served as a direct antecedent of the 1978 Camp David Accords. The Accords resulted in the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty, the first ever between Israel and an Arab state. According to George Friedman, the war gave the Israelis increased respect for the Egyptian military and decreased their confidence in their own, and caused the Israelis to be uncertain whether they could defeat Egypt in the event of another war. At the same time, the Egyptians recognized that despite their improvements, they were defeated in the end, and became doubtful that they could ever defeat Israel militarily. Therefore, a negotiated settlement made sense to both sides. Rabin's government was hamstrung by a pair of scandals, and he was forced to step down in 1977. In the elections that followed, the right-wing Likud party won a majority in the Knesset and Menachem Begin, the party's founder and leader, was appointed Prime Minister. This marked a historic change in the Israeli political landscape: for the first time since Israel's founding, a coalition not led by the Labor Party was in control of the government. Sadat, who had entered the war in order to recover the Sinai from Israel, grew frustrated at the slow pace of the peace process. In a 1977 interview with "CBS News" anchorman Walter Cronkite, Sadat admitted under pointed questioning that he was open to a more constructive dialog for peace, including a state visit. This seemed to open the floodgates, as in a later interview with the same reporter, the normally hard-line Begin—perhaps not wishing to be compared unfavorably to Sadat—said he too would be amenable to better relations. On November 9, 1977, Sadat stunned the world when he told parliament that he would be willing to visit Israel and address the Knesset. Shortly afterward, the Israeli government cordially invited him to address the Knesset. Thus, in November of that year, Sadat took the unprecedented step of visiting Israel, becoming the first Arab leader to do so, and so implicitly recognized Israel. The act jump-started the peace process. United States President Jimmy Carter invited both Sadat and Begin to a summit at Camp David to negotiate a final peace. The talks took place from September 5–17, 1978. Ultimately, the talks succeeded, and Israel and Egypt signed the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty in 1979. Israel subsequently withdrew its troops and settlers from the Sinai, in exchange for normal relations with Egypt and a lasting peace, with last Israeli troops exiting on April 26, 1982. There is still no formal peace agreement between Israel and Syria to this day. Many in the Arab world were outraged at Egypt's peace with Israel. Sadat, in particular, became deeply unpopular both in the Arab world and in his own country. Egypt was suspended from the Arab League until 1989. Until then, Egypt had been "at the helm of the Arab world". Egypt's tensions with its Arab neighbors culminated in 1977 in the short-lived Libyan–Egyptian War. Sadat was assassinated two years later on October 6, 1981, while attending a military parade marking the eighth anniversary of the start of the war, by Islamist army members who were outraged at his negotiations with Israel. Commemorations. October 6 is a national holiday in Egypt called Armed Forces Day. It is a national holiday in Syria as well, where it is called "Tishreen Liberation Day". Marking the 35th anniversary in 2008, Hosni Mubarak said that the conflict "breathed new life" into Egypt. He said Egypt and Syria's initial victories in the conflict eased Arab bitterness over Israel's victory in the 1967 Six-Day War and ultimately put the two nations on a path of peaceful coexistence. In Egypt, many places were named after the date of October 6 and Ramadan 10th, which is the equivalent day in the Islamic calendar. Examples of these commemorations are 6th October Bridge in Cairo and the cities of 6th of October and 10th of Ramadan. In addition, the Museum of the October 6 War was built in 1989 in the Heliopolis district of Cairo. The center of the museum is occupied by a rotunda housing a panoramic painting of the struggle between Egyptian and Israeli armed forces. The panorama, the creation of which was outsourced to a group of North Korean artists and architects, is equipped with engines to rotate it 360° during a 30-minutes presentation accompanied by commentary in various languages. A similar museum, which was also built with North Korean assistance—the October War Panorama—operates in Damascus. Another Yom Kippur War exhibit can be found at The Armored Corps Museum at Latrun.

Serviceable condition

8137-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=256278

Penetration pricing is a pricing strategy where the price of a product is initially set low to rapidly reach a wide fraction of the market and initiate word of mouth. The strategy works on the expectation that customers will switch to the new brand because of the lower price. Penetration pricing is most commonly associated with marketing objectives of enlarging market share and exploiting economies of scale or experience. Motivation. These are advantages of penetration pricing to the firm: The main disadvantage with penetration pricing is that it establishes long-term price expectations for the product, and image preconceptions for the brand and company. That makes it difficult to eventually raise prices. Some commentators claim that penetration pricing attracts only the switchers (bargain hunters) and that they will switch away as soon as the price rises. There is much controversy over whether it is better to raise prices gradually over a period of years (so that consumers do not notice), or employ a single large price increase. A common solution to this problem is to set the initial price at the long-term market price, but include an initial discount coupon (see sales promotion). That way, the perceived price points remain high even though the actual selling price is low. Another potential disadvantage is that the low profit margins may not be sustainable long enough for the strategy to be effective. Price penetration is most appropriate in these circumstances: A variant of the price penetration strategy is the bait and hook model (also called the razor and blades business model). A starter product is sold at a very low price but requires more expensive replacements (such as refills) which are sold at a higher price. It is an almost universal tactic in the desktop printer business, with printers selling in the US for as little as $100 including two ink cartridges (often half-full), which themselves cost around $30 each to replace. Thus, the company makes more money from the cartridges than it does for the printer itself. Taken to the extreme, penetration pricing is known as predatory pricing, when a firm initially sells a product or service at unsustainably low prices to eliminate competition and establish a monopoly. In most countries, predatory pricing is illegal, but it can be difficult to differentiate illegal predatory pricing from legal penetration pricing. Let's take an example of penetration pricing strategies being put to work. A Friday night trip to a video or DVD rental shop was a family tradition across the nation for at least a generation. When Netflix entered the market, it had to convince consumers to wait a day or two to receive their movies. To accomplish this goal, it offered introductory subscription prices as low as a dollar. The pricing strategy was so effective that traditional providers such as Blockbuster soon were edged out of the market. Research. In an empirical study, Martin Spann, Marc Fischer and Gerard Tellis analyze the prevalence and choice of dynamic pricing strategies in a highly complex branded market, consisting of 663 products under 79 brand names of digital cameras. They find that, despite numerous recommendations in the literature for skimming or penetration pricing, market pricing dominates in practice. In particular, the authors find five patterns: skimming (40% frequency), penetration (20% frequency), and three variants of market-pricing patterns (60% frequency), where new products are launched at market prices. Skimming pricing launches the new product 16% above the market price and subsequently increases the price relative to the market price. Penetration pricing launches the new product 18% below the market price and subsequently lowers the price relative to the market price. Firms exhibit a mix of these pricing paths across their portfolios. The specific pricing paths correlate with market, firm, and brand characteristics such as competitive intensity, market pioneering, brand reputation, and experience effects.

more than twenty years

12892-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5497456

In organic chemistry, kinetic resolution is a means of differentiating two enantiomers in a racemic mixture. In kinetic resolution, two enantiomers react with different reaction rates in a chemical reaction with a chiral catalyst or reagent, resulting in an enantioenriched sample of the less reactive enantiomer. As opposed to chiral resolution, kinetic resolution does not rely on different physical properties of diastereomeric products, but rather on the different chemical properties of the racemic starting materials. This enantiomeric excess (ee) of the unreacted starting material continually rises as more product is formed, reaching 100% just before full completion of the reaction. Kinetic resolution relies upon differences in reactivity between enantiomers or enantiomeric complexes. Kinetic resolution is a concept in organic chemistry and can be used for the preparation of chiral molecules in organic synthesis. Kinetic resolution reactions utilizing purely synthetic reagents and catalysts are much less common than the use of enzymatic kinetic resolution in application towards organic synthesis, although a number of useful synthetic techniques have been developed in the past 30 years. History. The first reported kinetic resolution was achieved by Louis Pasteur. After reacting aqueous racemic ammonium tartrate with a mold from Penicillium glaucum, he reisolated the remaining tartrate and found it was levorotatory. The chiral microorganisms present in the mold catalyzed the metabolization of ("R","R")-tartrate selectively, leaving an excess of ("S","S")-tartrate. Kinetic resolution by synthetic means was first reported by Marckwald and McKenzie in 1899 in the esterification of racemic mandelic acid with optically active (−)-menthol. With an excess of the racemic acid present, they observed the formation of the ester derived from (+)-mandelic acid to be quicker than the formation of the ester from (−)-mandelic acid. The unreacted acid was observed to have a slight excess of (−)-mandelic acid, and the ester was later shown to yield (+)-mandelic acid upon saponification. The importance of this observation was that, in theory, if a half equivalent of (−)-menthol had been used, a highly enantioenriched sample of (−)-mandelic acid could have been prepared. This observation led to the successful kinetic resolution of other chiral acids, the beginning of the use of kinetic resolution in organic chemistry. Theory. Kinetic resolution is a possible method for irreversibly differentiating a pair of enantiomers due to (potentially) different activation energies. While both enantiomers are at the same Gibbs free energy level by definition, and the products of the reaction with both enantiomers are also at equal levels, the formula_1, or transition state energy, can differ. In the image below, the R enantiomer has a lower formula_1 and would thus react faster than the S enantiomer. The ideal kinetic resolution is that in which only one enantiomer reacts, i.e. kR»kS. The selectivity (s) of a kinetic resolution is related to the rate constants of the reaction of the R and S enantiomers, kR and kS respectively, by s=kR/kS, for kR>kS. This selectivity can also be referred to as the relative rates of reaction. This can be written in terms of the free energy difference between the high- and low-energy transitions states, formula_3. The selectivity can also be expressed in terms of ee of the recovered starting material and conversion (c), if first-order kinetics (in substrate) are assumed. If it is assumed that the S enantiomer of the starting material racemate will be recovered in excess, it is possible to express the concentrations (mole fractions) of the S and R enantiomers as where ee is the ee of the starting material. Note that for c=0, which signifies the beginning of the reaction, formula_7, where these signify the initial concentrations of the enantiomers. Then, for stoichiometric chiral resolving agent B*, Note that, if the resolving agent is stoichiometric and achiral, with a chiral catalyst, the [B*] term does not appear. Regardless, with a similar expression for R, we can express s as If we wish to express this in terms of the enantiomeric excess of the product, ee", we must make use of the fact that, for products R' and S' from R and S, respectively From here, we see that which gives us which, when we plug into our expression for s derived above, yield Additionally, the expressions for c and ee can be parametrized to give explicit expressions for C and ee in terms of t. First, solving explicitly for [S] and [R] as functions of t yields which, plugged into expressions for ee and c, gives Without loss of generality, we can allow kS=1, which gives kR=s, simplifying the above expressions. Similarly, an expression for ee″ as a function of t can be derived Thus, plots of ee and ee″ vs. c can be generated with t as the parameter and different values of s generating different curves, as shown below. As can be seen, high enantiomeric excesses are much more readily attainable for the unreacted starting material. There is however a tradeoff between ee and conversion, with higher ee (of the recovered substrate) obtained at higher conversion, and therefore lower isolated yield. For example, with a selectivity factor of just 10, 99% ee is possible with approximately 70% conversion, resulting in a yield of about 30%. In contrast, in order to get good ee's and yield of the product, very high selectivity factors are necessary. For example, with a selectivity factor of 10, ee″ above approximately 80% is unattainable, and significantly lower ee″ values are obtained for more realistic conversions. A selectivity in excess of 50 is required for highly enantioenriched product, in reasonable yield. It must be noted that this is a simplified version of the true kinetics of kinetic resolution. The assumption that the reaction is first order in substrate is limiting, and it is possible that the dependence on substrate may depend on conversion, resulting in a much more complicated picture. As a result, a common approach is to measure and report only yields and ee's, as the formula for krel only applies to an idealized kinetic resolution. It is simple to consider an initial substrate-catalyst complex forming, which could negate the first-order kinetics. However, the general conclusions drawn are still helpful to understand the effect of selectivity and conversion on ee. Practicality. With the advent of asymmetric catalysis, it is necessary to consider the practicality of utilizing kinetic resolution for the preparation of enantiopure products. Even for a product which can be attained through an asymmetric catalytic or auxiliary-based route, the racemate may be significantly less expensive than the enantiopure material, resulting in heightened cost-effectiveness even with the inherent "loss" of 50% of the material. The following have been proposed as necessary conditions for a practical kinetic resolution: To date, a number of catalysts for kinetic resolution have been developed that satisfy most, if not all of the above criteria, making them highly practical for use in organic synthesis. The following sections will discuss a number of key examples. Reactions utilizing synthetic reagents. Acylation reactions. Gregory Fu and colleagues have developed a methodology utilizing a chiral DMAP analogue to achieve excellent kinetic resolution of secondary alcohols. Initial studies utilizing ether as a solvent, low catalyst loadings (2 mol %), acetic anhydride as the acylating agent, and triethylamine at room temperature gave selectivities ranging from 14-52, corresponding to ee's of the recovered alcohol product as high as 99.2%. However, solvent screening proved that the use of tert-amyl alcohol increased both the reactivity and selectivity. With the benchmark substrate 1-phenylethanol, this corresponded to 99% ee of the unreacted alcohol at 55% conversion when run at 0 °C. This system proved to be adept at resolution of a number of arylalkylcarbinols, with selectivities as high as 95 and low catalyst loadings of 1%, as shown below utilizing the (-)-enantiomer of the catalyst. This resulted in highly enantioenriched alcohols at very low conversions, giving excellent yields as well. In addition, the high selectivities result in highly enantioenriched acylated products, with a 90% ee sample of acylated alcohol for o-tolylmethylcarbinol, with s=71. In addition, Fu reported the first highly selective acylation of racemic diols (as well as desymmetrization of meso diols). With low catalyst loading of 1%, enantioenriched diol was recovered in 98% ee and 43% yield, with the diacetate in 39% yield and 99% ee. The remainder of the material was recovered as a mixture of monoacetate. The planar-chiral DMAP catalyst was also shown to be effective at kinetically resolving propargylic alcohols. In this case, though, selectivities were found to be highest without any base present. When run with 1 mol% of the catalyst at 0 °C, selectivities as high as 20 could be attained. The limitations of this method include the requirement of an unsaturated functionality, such as carbonyl or alkenes, at the remote alkynyl position. Alcohols resolved using the (+)-enantiomer of the DMAP catalyst are shown below. Fu also showed his chiral DMAP catalyst's ability to resolve allylic alcohols. Effective selectivity was dependent upon the presence of either a geminal or cis substituent to the alcohol-bearing group, with a notable exception of a trans-phenyl alcohol which exhibited the highest selectivity. Using 1-2.5 mol% of the (+)-enantiomer of the DMAP catalyst, the alcohols shown below were resolved in the presence of triethylamine. While Fu's DMAP analogue catalyst worked exceptionally well to kinetically resolve racemic alcohols, it was not successful in use for the kinetic resolution of amines. A similar catalyst, PPY*, was developed that, in use with a novel acylating agent, allowed for the successful kinetic resolution acylation of amines. With 10 mol% (-)-PPY* in chloroform at –50 °C, good to very good selectivities were observed in the acylation of amines, shown below. A similar protocol was developed for the kinetic resolution of indolines. Epoxidations and dihydroxylations. The Sharpless epoxidation, developed by K. Barry Sharpless in 1980, has been utilized for the kinetic resolution of a racemic mixture of allylic alcohols. While extremely effective at resolving a number of allylic alcohols, this method has a number of drawbacks. Reaction times can run as long as 6 days, and the catalyst is not recyclable. However, the Sharpless asymmetric epoxidation kinetic resolution remains one of the most effective synthetic kinetic resolutions to date. A number of different tartrates can be used for the catalyst; a representative scheme is shown below utilizing diisopropyl tartrate. This method has seen general use on a number of secondary allylic alcohols. Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation has also seen use as a method for kinetic resolution. This method is not widely used, however, since the same resolution can be accomplished in different manners that are more economical. Additionally, the Shi epoxidation has been shown to affect kinetic resolution of a limited selection of olefins. This method is also not widely used, but is of mechanistic interest. Epoxide openings. While enantioselective epoxidations have been successfully achieved utilizing Sharpless epoxidation, Shi epoxidation, and Jacobsen epoxidation, none of these methods allows for the efficient asymmetric synthesis of terminal epoxides, which are key chiral building blocks. Due to the inexpensiveness of most racemic terminal epoxides and their inability to generally be subjected to classical resolution, an effective kinetic resolution of terminal epoxides would serve as a highly important synthetic methodology. In 1996, Jacobsen and coworkers developed a methodology for the kinetic resolution of epoxides via nucleophilic ring-opening with attack by an azide anion. The (R,R) catalyst is shown. The catalyst could effectively, with loadings as low as 0.5 mol%, open the epoxide at the terminal position enantioselectively, yielding enantioenriched epoxide starting material and 1,2-azido alcohols. Yields are nearly quantitative and ee's were excellent (≥95% in nearly all cases). The 1,2-azido alcohols can be hydrogenated to give 1,2-amino alcohols, as shown below. In 1997, Jacobsen's group published a methodology which improved upon their earlier work, allowing for the use of water as the nucleophile in the epoxide opening. Utilizing a nearly identical catalyst, ee's in excess of 98% for both the recovered starting material epoxide and 1,2-diol product were observed. In the example below, hydrolytic kinetic resolution (HKR) was carried out on a 58 gram scale, resulting in 26 g (44%) of the enantioriched epoxide in >99% ee and 38 g (50%) of the diol in 98% ee. A multitude of other substrates were examined, with yields of the recovered epoxide ranging from 36-48% for >99% ee. Jacobsen hydrolytic kinetic resolution can be used in tandem with Jacobsen epoxidation to yield enantiopure epoxides from certain olefins, as shown below. The first epoxidation yields a slightly enantioenriched epoxide, and subsequent kinetic resolution yields essentially a single enantiomer. The advantage of this approach is the ability to reduce the amount of hydrolytic cleavage necessary to achieve high enantioselectivity, allowing for overall yields up to approximately 90%, based on the olefin. Ultimately, the Jacobsen epoxide opening kinetic resolutions produce high enantiomeric purity in the epoxide and product, in solvent-free or low-solvent conditions, and have been applicable on a large scale. The Jacobsen methodology for HKR in particular is extremely attractive since it can be carried out on a multiton scale and utilizes water as the nucleophile, resulting in extremely cost-effective industrial processes. Despite impressive achievements, HKR has generally been applied to the resolution of simple terminal epoxides with one stereocentre. Quite recently, D. A. Devalankar et al. reported an elegant protocol involving a two-stereocentered Co-catalyzed HKR of racemic terminal epoxides bearing adjacent C–C binding substituents. Oxidations. Ryōji Noyori and colleagues have developed a methodology for the kinetic resolution of benzylic and allylic secondary alcohols via transfer hydrogenation. The ruthenium complex catalyzes oxidation of the more reactive enantiomer from acetone, yielding an unreacted enantiopure alcohol, an oxidized ketone, and isopropanol. In the example illustrated below, exposure of 1-phenylethanol to the (S,S) enantiomer of the catalyst in the presence of acetone results in a 51% yield of 94% ee (R)-1-phenylethanol, along with 49% acetophenone and isopropanol as a byproduct. This methodology is essentially the reverse of Noyori's asymmetric transfer hydrogenation of ketones, which yield enantioenriched alcohols via reduction. This limits the attractiveness of the kinetic resolution method, since there is a similar method to achieve the same products without the loss of half the material. Thus, the kinetic resolution would only be carried out in an instance for which the racemic alcohol was at least one half the price of the ketone or significantly easier to access. In addition, Uemura and Hidai have developed a ruthenium catalyst for the kinetic resolution oxidation of benzylic alcohols, yielding highly enantioenriched alcohols in good yields. The complex can, like Noyori's catalyst, affect transfer hydrogenation between a ketone and isopropanol to give an enantioenriched alcohol as well as affect kinetic resolution of a racemic alcohol, giving enantiopure alcohol (>99% ee) and oxidized ketone, with acetone as the byproduct. It is highly effective at reducing ketones enantioselectively, giving most benzylic alcohols in >99% ee and can resolve a number of racemic benzylic alcohols to give high yields (up to 49%) of single enantiomers, as shown below. This method has the same disadvantages as the Noyori kinetic resolution, namely that the alcohols can also be accessed via reduction of the ketones enantioselectively. Additionally, only one enantiomer of the catalyst has been reported. Hydrogenation. Noyori has also demonstrated the kinetic resolution of allylic alcohols by asymmetric hydrogenation of the olefin. Utilizing the Ru[BINAP] complex, selective hydrogenation can give high ee's of the unsaturated alcohol in addition to the hydrogenated alcohol, as shown below. Thus, a second hydrogenation of the enantioenriched allylic alcohol remaining will give enantiomerically pure samples of both enantiomers of the saturated alcohol. Noyori has resolved a number of allylic alcohols with good to excellent yields and good to excellent ee's (up to >99%). Ring closing metathesis. Hoveyda and Schrock have developed a catalyst for ring-closing metathesis kinetic resolution of dienyl allylic alcohols. The molybdenum alkylidene catalyst selectively catalyzes one enantiomer to perform ring closing metathesis, resulting in an enantiopure alcohol, and an enantiopure closed ring, as shown below. The catalyst is most effective at resolving 1,6-dienes. However, slight structural changes in the substrate, such as increasing the inter-alkene distance to 1,7, can sometimes necessitate the use of a different catalyst, reducing the efficacy of this method. Enzymatic reactions. Acylations. As with synthetic kinetic resolution procedures, enzymatic acylation kinetic resolutions have seen the broadest application in a synthetic context. Especially important has been the use of enzymatic kinetic resolution to efficiently and cheaply prepare amino acids. On a commercial scale, Degussa's methodology employing acylases is capable of resolving numerous natural and unnatural amino acids. The racemic mixtures can be prepared via Strecker synthesis, and the use of either porcine kidney acylase (for straight chain substrates) or an enzyme from the mold Aspergillus oryzae (for branched side chain substrates) can effectively yield enantioenriched amino acids in high (85-90%) yields. The unreacted starting material can be racemized in situ, thus making this a dynamic kinetic resolution. In addition, lipases are used extensively for kinetic resolution in both academic and industrial settings. Lipases have been used to resolve primary alcohols, secondary alcohols, a limited number of tertiary alcohols, carboxylic acids, diols, and even chiral allenes. Lipase from "Pseudomonas cepacia" (PSL) is the most widely used in the resolution of primary alcohols and has been used with vinyl acetate as an acylating agent to kinetically resolve the primary alcohols shown below. For the resolution of secondary alcohols, pseudomonas cepecia lipase (PSL-C) has been employed effectively to generate excellent ee's of the ("R")-enantiomer of the alcohol. The use of isopropenyl acetate as the acylating agent results in acetone as the byproduct, which is effectively removed from the reaction using molecular sieves. Oxidations and reductions. Baker's yeast (BY) has been utilized for the kinetic resolution of α-stereogenic carbonyl compounds. The enzyme selectively reduces one enantiomer, yielding a highly enantioenriched alcohol and ketone, as shown below. Baker's yeast has also been used in the kinetic resolution of secondary benzylic alcohols by oxidation. While excellent ee's of the recovered alcohol have been reported, they typically require >60% conversion, resulting in diminished yields. Baker's yeast has also been used in the kinetic resolution via reduction of β-ketoesters. However, given the success of Noyori's resolution of the same substrates, detailed later in this article, this has not seen much use. Dynamic kinetic resolution. Dynamic kinetic resolution (DKR) occurs when the starting material racemate is able to epimerize easily, resulting in an essentially racemic starting material mix at all points during the reaction. Then, the enantiomer with the lower barrier to activation can form in, theoretically, up to 100% yield. This is in contrast to standard kinetic resolution, which necessarily has a maximum yield of 50%. For this reason, dynamic kinetic resolution has extremely practical applications to organic synthesis. The observed dynamics are based on the Curtin-Hammett principle. The barrier to reaction of either enantiomer is necessarily higher than the barrier to epimerization, resulting in a kinetic well containing the racemate. This is equivalent to writing, for kR>kS, A number of excellent reviews have been published, most recently in 2008, detailing the theory and practical applications of DKR. Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation. The Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation of ketones is an excellent example of dynamic kinetic resolution at work. The enantiomeric β-ketoesters can undergo epimerization, and the choice of chiral catalyst, typically of the form Ru[(R)-BINAP]X2, where X is a halogen, leads to one of the enantiomers reacting preferentially faster. The relative free energy for a representative reaction is shown below. As can be seen, the epimerization intermediate is lower in free energy than the transition states for hydrogenation, resulting in rapid racemization and high yields of a single enantiomer of the product. The enantiomers interconvert through their common enol, which is the energetic minimum located between the enantiomers. The shown reaction yields a 93% ee sample of the "anti" product shown above. Solvent choice appears to have a major influence on the diastereoselectivity, as dichloromethane and methanol both show effectiveness for certain substrates. Noyori and others have also developed newer catalysts which have improved on both ee and diastereomeric ratio (dr). Genêt and coworkers developed SYNPHOS, a BINAP analogue which forms ruthenium complexes, which perform highly selective asymmetric hydrogenations. Enantiopure Ru[SYNPHOS]Br2 was shown to selectively hydrogenate racemic α-amino-β-ketoesters to enantiopure aminoalcohols, as shown below utilizing (R)-SYNPHOS. 1,2-"syn" amino alcohols were prepared from benzoyl protected amino compounds, whereas "anti" products were prepared from hydrochloride salts of the amine. Fu acylation modification. Recently, Gregory Fu and colleagues reported a modification of their earlier kinetic resolution work to produce an effective dynamic kinetic resolution. Using the ruthenium racemization catalyst shown to the right, and his planar chiral DMAP catalyst, Fu has demonstrated the dynamic kinetic resolution of secondary alcohols yielding up to 99% and 93% ee, as shown below. Work is ongoing to further develop the applications of the widely used DMAP catalyst to dynamic kinetic resolution. Enzymatic dynamic kinetic resolutions. A number of enzymatic dynamic kinetic resolutions have been reported. A prime example using PSL effectively resolves racemic acyloins in the presence of triethylamine and vinyl acetate as the acylating agent. As shown below, the product was isolated in 75% yield and 97% ee. Without the presence of the base, regular kinetic resolution occurred, resulting in 45% yield of >99% ee acylated product and 53% of the starting material in 92% ee. Another excellent, though not high-yielding, example is the kinetic resolution of (±)-8-amino-5,6,7,8-tetrahydroquinoline. When exposed to "Candida antarctica" lipase B (CALB) in toluene and ethyl acetate for 3–24 hours, normal kinetic resolution occurs, resulting in 45% yield of 97% ee of starting material and 45% yield of >97% ee acylated amine product. However, when the reaction is allowed to stir for 40–48 hours, racemic starting material and >60% of >95% ee acylated product are recovered. Here, the unreacted starting material racemizes "in situ" via a dimeric enamine, resulting in a recovery of greater than 50% yield of the enantiopure acylated amine product. Chemoenzymatic dynamic kinetic resolutions. There have been a number of reported procedures which take advantage of a chemical reagent/catalyst to perform racemization of the starting material and an enzyme to selectively react with one enantiomer, called chemoenzymatic dynamic kinetic resolutions. PSL-C was utilized along with a ruthenium catalyst (for racemization) to produce enantiopure (>95% ee) δ-hydroxylactones. More recently, secondary alcohols have been resolved by Bäckvall with yields up to 99% and ee's up to >99% utilizing CALB and a ruthenium racemization complex. A second type of chemoenzymatic dynamic kinetic resolution involves a π-allyl complex from an allylic acetate with palladium. Here, racemization occurs with loss of the acetate, forming a cationic complex with the transition metal center, as shown below. Palladium has been shown to facilitate this reaction, while ruthenium has been shown to affect a similar reaction, also shown below. Parallel kinetic resolution. In parallel kinetic resolution (PKR), a racemic mixture reacts to form two non-enantiomeric products, often through completely different reaction pathways. With PKR, there is no tradeoff between conversion and ee, as the formed products are not enantiomers. One strategy for PKR is to remove the less reactive enantiomer (towards the desired chiral catalyst) from the reaction mixture by subjecting it to a second set of reaction conditions that preferentially react with it, ideally with an approximately equal reaction rate. Thus, both enantiomers are consumed in different pathways at equal rates. PKR experiments can be stereodivergent, regiodivergent, or structurally divergent. One of the most highly efficient PKR's reported to date was accomplished by Yoshito Kishi in 1998; CBS reduction of a racemic steroidal ketone resulted in stereoselective reduction, producing two diastereomers of >99% ee, as shown below. PKR have also been accomplished with the use of enzyme catalysts. Using the fungus "Mortierella isabellina" NRRL 1757, reduction of racemic β-ketonitriles affords two diastereomers, which can be separated and re-oxidized to give highly enantiopure β-ketonitriles. Highly synthetically useful parallel kinetic resolutions have truly yet to be discovered, however. A number of procedures have been discovered that give acceptable ee's and yields, but there are very few examples which give highly selective parallel kinetic resolution and not simply somewhat selective reactions. For example, Fu's parallel kinetic resolution of 4-alkynals yields very enantioenriched cyclobutanone in low yield and slightly enantioenriched cyclopentenone, as shown below. In theory, parallel kinetic resolution can give the highest ee's of products, since only one enantiomer gives each desired product. For example, for two complementary reactions both with s=49, 100% conversion would give products in 50% yield and 96% ee. These same values would require s=200 for a simple kinetic resolution. As such, the promise of PKR continues to attract much attention. The Kishi CBS reduction remains one of the few examples to fulfill this promise.

related procedure

14931-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40314492

St. Stan's Brewery is a microbrewery in Modesto, California. The company was established in 1984. In 2017, St. Stan's reopened in downtown Modesto, with a taproom as well as offsite brewing of craft beers by their original brewmaster of 25 years, Bill Coffey, brewing originals such as Red Sky Ale, Whistlestop Pale Ale, Amber and Barley Wine, in addition to plans for some new styles. History. The brewery originally produced traditional German beer styles. St. Stan's was the first brewery in the United States to brew an Altbier style beer. The brewery was a leader in the microbrewery movement in the 1980s. It was lead plaintiff in a 1997 class-action suit against Anheuser-Busch, which it accused of engaging in anti-competitive practices by coercing or bullying distributors to get them to stop distributing product for smaller breweries. A Justice Department investigation was ended but the class-action lawsuit was unaffected. In 2008, Susan Little-Nell, a former owner of St. Stan's, was one of a number of craft breweries lobbying against an attempt by Anheuser-Busch to get California state law changed to allow it to give out free souvenirs up to $5 value rather than just $.25. She described the tough situation of small brewers in the face of "free-for-all promotional spending of international corporations." The Nell's operations of St. Stans, both the brewery and the brewpub, closed on an unknown date, sometime in early 2015.

difficult enigma

11573-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2300625

A pelham bit is a type of bit used when riding a horse. It has elements of both a curb bit and a snaffle bit. In this respect a pelham bit functions similar to a double bridle, and like a double bridle it normally has "double" reins: a set of curb reins and a set of snaffle reins. Because it has a bit shank and can exert curb-style pressure on the horse, it is considered a curb bit. Like all curb bits, a pelham bit has a mouthpiece, shanks with both purchase and lever arms, a ring for rein attachment at the bottom of the shank, and a curb chain. But like a snaffle bit, a pelham bit also has a bit ring on either side of the mouthpiece. Like some curb bits, a pelham bit usually has "loose" shanks - hinged at the mouthpiece in the same way that the rings of a snaffle bit are hinged. When two sets of reins are used, the snaffle rein generally is wider, to help distinguish it from the curb. A "cowboy pelham" is a western style of loose-jawed curb bit with additional rings at the mouthpiece allowing a second set of reins to be added. Action. A pelham works on several parts of a horse's head, depending on which rein is applied. The mouthpiece acts when either the snaffle or curb rein is applied and puts pressure on the bars, tongue, and lips of the horse. The curb chain and design of the mouthpiece can alter the degree of pressure placed on the horse's mouth. The roof of the mouth is affected if the bit mouthpiece of the pelham has a high port or if it is jointed. Pressure on the poll occurs when the curb rein is engaged, and pressure is directly related to the length of the upper shank (purchase arm) in relation to the lower shank (lever arm). All pelhams apply some pressure on the poll. Pressure is applied to the chin groove by the curb chain when the curb rein is used. Direct rein pressure from the snaffle rein may put some pressure on the sides of the horse's mouth, depending on the specific bit design. Shank. A pelham is a "leverage bit", meaning that it increases the force but reduces the extent of movement applied by the rider. Unlike a snaffle bit, the curb rein can amplify the rein pressure several times over, depending on the geometry and length of the shank. Shank lengths are ("Tom Thumb") and longer, although most are less than . The relation of the purchase arm—the length from the mouthpiece to the cheekpiece rings—and the "shank" or lever arm—the length from the mouthpiece to the lowest rein ring, is important in the severity of the bit. A long lower shank in relation to the upper shank increases the leverage, and thus the pressure, on the curb groove and the bars of the mouth. A long upper shank in relation to the lower shank increases the pressure on the poll, but does not apply as much pressure on the bars of the mouth. However, longer-shanked bits must rotate back further before applying pressure on the horse's mouth than shorter-shanked bits. Therefore, the horse has more warning in a long-shanked bit, allowing it to respond before any significant pressure is applied to its mouth, than it would in a shorter-shanked bit. In this way, a longer shank can allow better communication between horse and rider, without increasing severity. This is also directly dependent on the tightness of the curb chain. If the bit has a 1.5" cheek and a 4.5" lower shank, thus producing a 1:3 ratio of cheek to lower shank, while the ratio of the cheek to (upper + lower) shank is 1:4, and producing 4 pounds-force of pressure on the horse's mouth for every 1 pound-force (4 newtons per newton) placed on the reins. If the bit had 2" cheeks and 8" shank (ratio of 1:4), the bit will produce of tension for every one applied by the reins (5 N/N). Regardless of the ratio, the longer the shank, the less force is needed on the reins to provide a given amount of pressure on the mouth. So, if one were to apply of pressure on the horse's mouth, a 2" shank would need much more rein pressure than an 8" shank to provide the same effect. Mouthpiece. As with many other bits, a pelham may have a solid or a jointed mouthpiece. If solid, it may range from a nearly straight "Mullen" mouthpiece up to a medium port. The pelham's mouthpiece controls the pressure on the tongue, roof of the mouth, and bars. A mullen mouth places even pressure on the bars and tongue. A port places more pressure on the bars, and provide room for the tongue. A high port may act on the roof of the mouth as it touches, and will act as a fulcrum, amplifying the pressure on the bars of the mouth. Jointed mouthpieces increase the pressure on the bars as the mouthpiece breaks over in a "nutcracker" effect. Unlike a jointed mouthpiece on a snaffle bit, a jointed mouthpiece on a bit with shanks, such as the pelham, can be quite severe in its effect, particularly if the pressure from the shanks causes the joint of the bit to roll forward and press the tip of the joint into the tongue. The mouthpiece is placed lower down in a horse's mouth than snaffle bits, usually just touching the corners of the mouth without creating a wrinkle. The lower the bit is placed, the more severe it is as the bars of the mouth get thinner and so pressure is more concentrated. Curb chain. The curb chain applies pressure to the groove under a horse's chin. It amplifies the pressure on the bars of the horse's mouth, because when it tightens it acts as a fulcrum. Adjusted correctly, the chain links lie flat and hang loose below the chin groove, coming into action against the jaw only when the shanks have rotated due to rein pressure. The point at which the curb chain engages varies with the individual needs of the horse, but contact at 45 degrees of shank rotation is a common default adjustment. Uses. The pelham bit has several uses. In the English riding disciplines, it is used in place of a double bridle, when it is desirable to have double reins but not two bits. The pelham bit is also used for polo, when the action of a double bridle is desired, but the rider's ability to make rein adjustments is limited. In training, a pelham bit sometimes is used in both English and western disciplines to transition a horse from a snaffle bit to a curb bit or double bridle. Sometimes, a bit converter, also known as a pelham rounding, is used so a pelham can be used with one pair of reins. This is most often seen with beginners and for riders in the cross-country phase of eventing. However, use of a converter is illegal in most other horse show classes. Horse shows. In horse shows, a pelham bit may be used in some disciplines but is prohibited in others. In the United States, use of a pelham bit is prevalent in hunt seat equitation, and occasionally in show jumping and eventing. Use of this bit is legal, but not common, in show hunter, and English pleasure. In the United Kingdom, this bit is often used in place of a double bridle in show hunter, show hack, riding horse, show cob and mountain and moorland classes, but it is forbidden in equitation and novice classes. The pelham is not permitted in dressage at any level. The pelham is never legal for use in any western riding discipline, where either a snaffle bit or a curb bit is used. Driving. Variations of the pelham bit are often seen in driving in situations where a bit more control is required that can be obtained with a snaffle alone or with a combination of snaffle and overcheck. Shank designs and size are governed by the rules for various forms of competition and very considerably across disciplines from combined driving to draft horse showing. Polo. In polo, a pelham bit is one of the two bits most commonly used (the other being a gag bit). Double reins are held in one hand. Neck reining is used almost exclusively, and riders have little or no need to adjust the reins while riding. Draw reins are commonly used, on the snaffle ring. The rein lengths are adjusted so that the rein used normally is the snaffle rein, with the curb rein only coming into effect when needed. Such techniques are not legal in show disciplines and are exclusive to polo. History. The angle cheek pelham was formerly used in the Australian Light Horse and other cavalry units as it was designed to suit as many horses' mouths as possible. The Australian design had one side of the mouthpiece smooth and the other serrated. Various rein attachments were also possible with this bit.

don't require

12912-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=490258

Split-brain or callosal syndrome is a type of disconnection syndrome when the corpus callosum connecting the two hemispheres of the brain is severed to some degree. It is an association of symptoms produced by disruption of, or interference with, the connection between the hemispheres of the brain. The surgical operation to produce this condition (corpus callosotomy) involves transection of the corpus callosum, and is usually a last resort to treat refractory epilepsy. Initially, partial callosotomies are performed; if this operation does not succeed, a complete callosotomy is performed to mitigate the risk of accidental physical injury by reducing the severity and violence of epileptic seizures. Before using callosotomies, epilepsy is instead treated through pharmaceutical means. After surgery, neuropsychological assessments are often performed. After the right and left brain are separated, each hemisphere will have its own separate perception, concepts, and impulses to act. Having two "brains" in one body can create some interesting dilemmas. When one split-brain patient dressed himself, he sometimes pulled his pants up with one hand (that side of his brain wanted to get dressed) and down with the other (this side did not). He also reported to have grabbed his wife with his left hand and shaken her violently, at which point his right hand came to her aid and grabbed the aggressive left hand. However, such conflicts are very rare. If a conflict arises, one hemisphere usually overrides the other. When split-brain patients are shown an image only in the left half of each eye's visual field, they cannot vocally name what they have seen. This is because the image seen in the left visual field is sent only to the right side of the brain (see optic tract), and most people's speech-control center is on the left side of the brain. Communication between the two sides is inhibited, so the patient cannot say out loud the name of that which the right side of the brain is seeing. A similar effect occurs if a split-brain patient touches an object with only the left hand while receiving no visual cues in the right visual field; the patient will be unable to name the object, as each cerebral hemisphere of the primary somatosensory cortex only contains a tactile representation of the opposite side of the body. If the speech-control center is on the right side of the brain, the same effect can be achieved by presenting the image or object to only the right visual field or hand. The same effect occurs for visual pairs and reasoning. For example, a patient with split brain is shown a picture of a chicken foot and a snowy field in separate visual fields and asked to choose from a list of words the best association with the pictures. The patient would choose a chicken to associate with the chicken foot and a shovel to associate with the snow; however, when asked to reason why the patient chose the shovel, the response would relate to the chicken (e.g. "the shovel is for cleaning out the chicken coop"). History. In the 1950s, research on people with certain brain injuries made it possible to suspect that the "language center" in the brain was commonly located in the left hemisphere. One had observed that people with lesions in two specific areas on the left hemisphere lost their ability to talk, for example. Roger Sperry and his colleague pioneered research. In his early work on animal subjects, Sperry made many noteworthy discoveries. The results of these studies over the next thirty years later led to Roger Sperry being awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1981. Sperry received the prize for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres. With the help of so-called "split brain" patients, he carried out experiments, and for the first time in history, knowledge about the left and right hemispheres was revealed. In the 1960s, Sperry was joined by Michael Gazzaniga, a psychobiology Ph.D. student at Caltech. Even though Sperry is considered the founder of split-brain research, Gazzaniga's clear summaries of their collaborative work are consistently cited in psychology texts. In Sperry and Gazzaniga's "The Split Brain in Man" experiment published in "Scientific American" in 1967 they attempted to explore the extent to which two halves of the human brain were able to function independently and whether or not they had separate and unique abilities. They wanted to examine how perceptual and intellectual skills were affected in someone with a split-brain. At Caltech, Gazzaniga worked with Sperry on the effects of split-brain surgery on perception, vision and other brain functions. The surgery, which was a treatment for severe epilepsy, involved severing the corpus callosum, which carries signals between the left-brain hemisphere, the seat of speech and analytical capacity, and the right-brain hemisphere, which helps recognize visual patterns. At the time this article was written, only ten patients had undergone the surgery to sever their corpus callosum (corpus callosotomy). Four of these patients had consented to participate in Sperry and Gazzaniga's research. After the corpus callosum severing, all four participants' personality, intelligence, and emotions appeared to be unaffected. However, the testing done by Sperry and Gazzaniga showed the subjects demonstrated unusual mental abilities. The researchers created three types of tests to analyze the range of cognitive capabilities of the split-brain subjects. The first was to test their visual stimulation abilities, the second test was a tactile stimulation situation and the third tested auditory abilities. Visual test. The first test started with a board that had a horizontal row of lights. The subject was told to sit in front of the board and stare at a point in the middle of the lights, then the bulbs would flash across both the right and left visual fields. When the patients were asked to describe afterward what they saw, they said that only the lights on the right side of the board had lit up. Next, when Sperry and Gazzaniga flashed the lights on the right side of the board on the subjects left side of their visual field, they claimed not to have seen any lights at all. When the experimenters conducted the test again, they asked the subjects to point to the lights that lit up. Although subjects had only reported seeing the lights flash on the right, they actually pointed to all the lights in both visual fields. This showed that both brain hemispheres had seen the lights and were equally competent in visual perception. The subjects did not say they saw the lights when they flashed in the left visual field even though they did see them because the center for speech is located in the brain's left hemisphere. This test supports the idea that in order to say one has seen something, the region of the brain associated with speech must be able to communicate with areas of the brain that process the visual information. Tactile test. In a second experiment, Sperry and Gazzaniga placed a small object in the subject's right or left hand, without being able to see (or hear) it. Placed in the right hand, the isolated left hemisphere perceived the object and could easily describe and name it. However, placed in the left hand, the isolated right hemisphere could not name or describe the object. Questioning this result, the researchers found that the subjects "could" later match it from several similar objects; tactile sensations limited to the right hemisphere were accurately perceived but could not be verbalized. This further demonstrated the apparent location (or lateralization) of language functions in the left hemisphere. Combination of both tests. In the last test the experimenters combined both the tactile and visual test. They presented subjects with a picture of an object to only their right hemisphere, and subjects were unable to name it or describe it. There were no verbal responses to the picture at all. If the subject however was able to reach under the screen with their left hand to touch various objects, they were able to pick the one that had been shown in the picture. The subjects were also reported to be able to pick out objects that were related to the picture presented, if that object was not under the screen. Sperry and Gazzaniga went on to conduct other tests to shed light on the language processing abilities of the right hemisphere as well as auditory and emotional reactions as well. The significance of the findings of these tests by Sperry and Gazzaniga were extremely telling and important to the psychology world. Their findings showed that the two halves of the brain have numerous functions and specialized skills. They concluded that each hemisphere really has its own functions. One's left hemisphere of the brain is thought to be better at writing, speaking, mathematical calculation, reading, and is the primary area for language. The right hemisphere is seen to possess capabilities for problem solving, recognizing faces, symbolic reasoning, art, and spatial relationships. Roger Sperry continued this line of research up until his death in 1994. Michael Gazzaniga continues to research the split-brain. Their findings have been rarely critiqued and disputed, however, a popular belief that some people are more "right-brained" or "left-brained" has developed. In the mid-1980s Jarre Levy, a psychobiologist at the University of Chicago, had set out and been in the forefront of scientists who wanted to dispel the notion we have two functioning brains. She believes that because each hemisphere has separate functions that they must integrate their abilities instead of separating them. Levy also claims that no human activity uses only one side of the brain. In 1998 a French study by Hommet and Billiard was published that questioned Sperry and Gazzaniga's study that severing the corpus callosum actually divides the hemispheres of the brain. They found that children born without a corpus callosum demonstrated that information was being transmitted between hemispheres, and concluded that subcortical connections must be present in these children with this rare brain malformation. They are unclear about whether these connections are present in split-brain patients though. Another study by Parsons, Gabrieli, Phelps, and Gazzaniga in 1998 demonstrated that split-brain patients may commonly perceive the world differently from the rest of us. Their study suggested that communication between brain hemispheres is necessary for imaging or simulating in your mind the movements of others. Morin's research on inner speech in 2001 suggested that an alternative for interpretation of commissurotomy according to which split-brain patients exhibit two uneven streams of self-awareness: a "complete" one in the left hemisphere and a "primitive" one in the right hemisphere. Hemispheric specialization. The two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are linked by the corpus callosum, through which they communicate and coordinate actions and decisions. Communication and coordination between the two hemispheres is essential because each hemisphere has some separate functions. The right hemisphere of the cortex excels at nonverbal and spatial tasks, whereas the left hemisphere is more dominant in verbal tasks, such as speaking and writing. The right hemisphere controls the primary sensory functions of the left side of the body. In a cognitive sense the right hemisphere is responsible for recognizing objects and timing, and in an emotional sense it is responsible for empathy, humour and depression. On the other hand, the left hemisphere controls the primary sensory functions of the right side of the body and is responsible for scientific and maths skills, and logic. The extent of specialised brain function by an area remains under investigation. It is claimed that the difference between the two hemispheres is that the left hemisphere is "analytic" or "logical" while the right hemisphere is "holistic" or "intuitive." Many simple tasks, especially comprehension of inputs, require functions that are specific to both the right and left hemispheres and together form a one direction systematised way of creating an output through the communication and coordination that occurs between hemispheres. Role of the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is a structure in the brain along the longitudinal fissure that facilitates much of the communication between the two hemispheres. This structure is composed of white matter: millions of axons that have their dendrites and terminal boutons projecting in both the right and left hemisphere. However, there is evidence that the corpus callosum may also have some inhibitory functions. Post-mortem research on human and monkey brains shows that the corpus callosum is functionally organised. It proves that the right hemisphere is superior for detecting faces. This organisation results in modality-specific regions of the corpus callosum that are responsible for the transfer of different types of information. Research has revealed that the anterior midbody transfers motor information, the posterior midbody transfers somatosensory information, the isthmus transfers auditory information and the splenium transfers visual information. Although much of the interhemispheric transfer occurs at the corpus callosum, there are trace amounts of transfer via subcortical pathways. Studies of the effects on the visual pathway on split-brained patients has revealed that there is a redundancy gain (the ability of target detection to benefit from multiple copies of the target) in simple reaction time. In a simple response to visual stimuli, split-brained patients experience a faster reaction time to bilateral stimuli than predicted by model. A model proposed by Iacoboni et al. suggests split-brained patients experience asynchronous activity that causes a stronger signal, and thus a decreased reaction time. Iacoboni also suggests there exists dual attention in split-brained patients, which is implying that each cerebral hemisphere has its own attentional system. An alternative approach taken by Reuter-Lorenz et al. suggests that enhanced redundancy gain in the split brain is primarily due to a slowing of responses to unilateral stimuli, rather than a speeding of responses to bilateral ones. It is important to note that the simple reaction time in split-brained patients, even with enhanced redundancy gain, is slower than the reaction time of normal adults. Functional plasticity. Following a stroke or other injury to the brain, functional deficiencies are common. The deficits are expected to be in areas related to the part of the brain that has been damaged; if a stroke has occurred in the motor cortex, deficits may include paralysis, abnormal posture, or abnormal movement synergies. Significant recovery occurs during the first several weeks after the injury. However, recovery is generally thought not to continue past 6 months. If a specific region of the brain is injured or destroyed, its functions can sometimes be transferred and taken over by a neighbouring region. There is little functional plasticity observed in partial and complete callosotomies; however, much more plasticity can be seen in infant patients receiving a hemispherectomy, which suggests that the opposite hemisphere can adapt some functions typically performed by its opposite pair. In a study done by Anderson, it proved a correlation between the severity of the injury, the age of the individual and their cognitive performance. It was evident that there was more neuroplasticity in older children, even if their injury was extremely severe, than infants who suffered moderate brain injury. In some incidents of any moderate to severe brain injury, it mostly causes developmental impairments and in some of the most severe injuries it can cause a profound impact on their development that can lead to long-term cognitive effects. In the aging brain, it is extremely uncommon for neuroplasticity to occur; "olfactory bulb and hippocampus are two regions of the mammalian brain in which mutations preventing adult neurogenesis were never beneficial, or simply never occurred" (Anderson, 2005). Corpus callosotomy. Corpus callosotomy is a surgical procedure that sections the corpus callosum, resulting in either the partial or complete disconnection between the two hemispheres. It is typically used as a last resort measure in treatment of intractable epilepsy. The modern procedure typically involves only the anterior third of the corpus callosum; however, if the epileptic seizures continue, the following third is lesioned prior to the remaining third if the seizures persist. This results in a complete callosotomy in which most of the information transfer between hemispheres is lost. Due to the functional mapping of the corpus callosum, a partial callosotomy has less detrimental effects because it leaves parts of the corpus callosum intact. There is little functional plasticity observed in partial and complete callosotomies on adults, the most neuroplasticity is seen in young children but not in infants. It is known that when the corpus callosum is severed during an experimental procedure, the experimenter can ask each side of the brain the same question and receive two different answers. When the experimenter asks the right visual field/left hemisphere what they see the participant will respond verbally, whereas if the experimenter asks the left visual field/right hemisphere what they see the participant will not be able to respond verbally but will pick up the appropriate object with their left hand. Memory. It is known that the right and the left hemisphere have different functions when it comes to memory. The right hemisphere is better at recognizing objects and faces, recalling knowledge that the individual has already learned, or recalling images already seen. The left hemisphere is better at mental manipulation, language production, and semantic priming but was more susceptible to memory confusion than the right hemisphere. The main issue for individuals that have undergone a callosotomy is that because the function of memory is split into two major systems, the individual is more likely to become confused between knowledge they already know and information that they have only inferred. In tests, memory in either hemisphere of split-brained patients is generally lower than normal, though better than in patients with amnesia, suggesting that the forebrain commissures are important for the formation of some kinds of memory. This suggests that posterior callosal sections that include the hippocampal commissures cause a mild memory deficit (in standardised free-field testing) involving recognition. Control. In general, split-brained patients behave in a coordinated, purposeful and consistent manner, despite the independent, parallel, usually different and occasionally conflicting processing of the same information from the environment by the two disconnected hemispheres. When two hemispheres receive competing stimuli at the same time, the response mode tends to determine which hemisphere controls behaviour. Often, split-brained patients are indistinguishable from normal adults. This is due to the compensatory phenomena; split-brained patients progressively acquire a variety of strategies to get around their interhemispheric transfer deficits. One issue that can happen with their body control is that one side of the body is doing the opposite of the other side called the intermanual effect. Attention. Experiments on covert orienting of spatial attention using the Posner paradigm confirm the existence of two different attentional systems in the two hemispheres. The right hemisphere was found superior to the left hemisphere on modified versions of spatial relations tests and in locations testing, whereas the left hemisphere was more object based. The components of mental imagery are differentially specialised: the right hemisphere was found superior for mental rotation, the left hemisphere superior for image generation. It was also found that the right hemisphere paid more attention to landmarks and scenes whereas the left hemisphere paid more attention to exemplars of categories. Case studies of split-brain patients. Patient W.J.. Patient W.J. was the first patient to undergo a full corpus callosotomy in 1962, after experiencing fifteen years of convulsions resulting from grand mal seizures. He was a World War II paratrooper who was injured at 30 years old during a bombing raid jump over the Netherlands, and again in a prison camp following his first injury. After returning home, he began to suffer from blackouts in which he would not remember what he was doing or where, and how or when he got there. At age 37, he suffered his first generalised convulsion. One of his worst episodes occurred in 1953, when he suffered a series of convulsions lasting for many days. During these convulsions, his left side would go numb and he would recover quickly, but after the series of convulsions, he never regained complete feeling on his left side. Before his surgery, both hemispheres functioned and interacted normally, his sensory and motor functions were normal aside from slight hypoesthesia, and he could correctly identify and understand visual stimuli presented to both sides of his visual field. During his surgery in 1962, his surgeons determined that no massa intermedia had developed, and he had undergone atrophy in the part of the right frontal lobe exposed during the procedure. His operation was a success, in that it led to decreases in the frequency and intensity of his seizures. Patient JW. Funnell et al. (2007) tested patient JW some time before June 2006. They described JW as Funnell et al. 's (2007) experiments were to determine each of JW's hemisphere's ability to perform simple addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. For example, in one experiment, on each trial, they presented an arithmetic problem in the center of the screen for 1 second, followed by a central cross hair JW was to look at. After 1 more second, Funnell et al. presented a number to one or the other hemisphere/visual field for 150 ms—too fast for JW to move his eyes. Randomly in half the trials, the number was the correct answer; in the other half of the trials it was the incorrect answer. With the hand on the same side as the number, JW pressed one key if the number was correct and another key if the number was incorrect. Funnell et al. 's results were that performance of the left hemisphere was highly accurate (around 95%)—much better than performance of the right hemisphere, which was at chance for subtraction, multiplication, and division. Nevertheless the right hemisphere showed better than chance performance for addition (around 58%). Turk et al. (2002) tested hemispheric differences in JW's recognition of himself and of familiar faces. They used faces that were composites of JW's face and Dr. Michael Gazzaniga's face. Composites ranges from 100% JW, through 50% JW and 50% Gazzaniga, to 100% Gazzaniga. JW pressed keys to say whether a presented face looked like him or Gazzaniga. Turk et al.concluded there are cortical networks in the left hemisphere that play an important role in self-recognition. Patient VP. Patient VP is a woman who underwent a two-stage callosotomy in 1979 at the age of 27. Although the callosotomy was reported to be complete, follow-up MRI in 1984 revealed spared fibers in the rostrum and splenium. The spared rostral fibers constituted approximately 1.8% of the total cross-sectional area of the corpus callosum and the spared splenial fibers constituted approximately 1% of the area. VP's postsurgery intelligence and memory quotients were within normal limits. One of the experiments involving VP attempted to investigate systematically the types of visual information that could be transferred via VP's spared splenial fibers. The first experiment was designed to assess VP's ability to make between-field perceptual judgements about simultaneously presented pairs of stimuli. The stimuli were presented in varying positions with respect to the horizontal and vertical midline with VP's vision fixated on a central crosshair. The judgements were based on differences in colour, shape or size. The testing procedure was the same for all three types of stimuli; after presentation of each pair, VP verbally responded "yes" if the two items in the pair were identical and "no" if they were not. The results show that there was no perceptual transfer for colour, size or shape with binomial tests showing that VP's accuracy was not greater than chance. A second experiment involving VP attempted to investigate what aspects of words transferred between the two hemispheres. The set up was similar to the previous experiment, with VP's vision fixated on a central cross hair. A word pair was presented with one word on each side of the cross-hair for 150 ms. The words presented were in one of four categories: words that looked and sounded like rhymes (e.g. tire and fire), words that looked as if they should rhyme but did not (e.g. cough and dough), words that did not look as if they should rhyme but did (e.g. bake and ache), and words that neither looked nor sounded like rhymes (e.g. keys and fort). After presentation of each word pair, VP responded "yes" if the two words rhymed and "no" if they did not. VP's performance was above chance and she was able to distinguish among the different conditions. When the word pairs did not sound like rhymes, VP was able to say accurately that the words did not rhyme, regardless of whether or not they looked as if they should rhyme. When the words did rhyme, VP was more likely to say they rhymed, particularly if the words also looked as if they should rhyme. Although VP showed no evidence for transfer of colour, shape or size, there was evidence for transfer of word information. This is consistent with the speculation that the transfer of word information involves fibres in the ventroposterior region of the splenium—the same region in which V.P. had callosal sparing. V.P. is able to integrate words presented to both visual fields, creating a concept that is not suggested by either word. For example, she combines "head" and "stone" to form the integrated concept of a tombstone. Kim Peek. Kim Peek was arguably the most well-known savant. He was born on November 11, 1951 with an enlarged head, sac-like protrusions of the brain and the membranes that cover it through openings in the skull, a malformed cerebellum, and without a corpus callosum, an anterior commissure, or a posterior commissure. He was able to memorize over 9,000 books, and information from approximately 15 subject areas. These include: world/American history, sports, movies, geography, actors and actresses, the Bible, church history, literature, classical music, area codes/zip codes of the United States, television stations serving these areas, and step by step directions within any major U.S. city. Despite these abilities, he had an IQ of 87, was diagnosed as autistic, was unable to button his shirt, and had difficulties performing everyday tasks. The missing structures of his brain have yet to be linked to his increased abilities, but they can be linked to his ability to read pages of a book in 8–10 seconds. He was able to view the left page of a book with his left visual field and the right page of a book with his right visual fields so he could read both pages simultaneously. He also had developed language areas in both hemispheres, something very uncommon in split-brain patients. Language is processed in areas of the left temporal lobe, and involves a contralateral transfer of information before the brain can process what is being read. In Peek's case, there was no transfer ability—this is what led to his development of language centers in each hemisphere. Many believe this is the reason behind his extremely fast reading capabilities. Although Peek did not undergo corpus callosotomy, he is considered a natural split-brain patient and is critical to understanding the importance of the corpus callosum. Kim Peek died in 2009.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6018075

" The Chuska Mountains are an elongate range on the southeast Colorado Plateau and within the Navajo Nation whose highest elevations approach 10,000 feet. The range is about 80 by 15 km (50 by 10 miles). It trends north-northwest and is crossed by the state line between Arizona and New Mexico. The highlands are a dissected plateau, with an average elevation of about , and subdued topography. The highest point is Roof Butte (36.4601° N, 109.0929° W) at , near the northern end of the range in Arizona. Other high points include the satellite Beautiful Mountain at and Lukachukai Mountains at , both also near the northern end, and Matthews Peak at . The San Juan Basin borders the Chuskas on the east, and typical elevations in nearby parts of that basin are near . The eastern escarpment of the mountains is marked by slumps and landslides that extend out onto the western margin of the San Juan Basin. To the north, the Chuskas are separated from the Carrizo Mountains by Red Rock Valley, which is today commonly referred to as Red Valley. Peaks. Major peaks of the Chuskas include: Reservation. Much of the range is Navajo Nation Forest; ponderosa pine, spruce, and fir are among the important tree varieties. Trees there were cut and transported more than 75 km (about 50 miles) to the east to construct pueblos in Chaco Culture National Historical Park in the San Juan Basin as early as 974 A.D. Following a period of contentious debate, logging in the Chuskas was suspended in 1994. There has been discussion among the tribal government about resuming logging at some future time. The forests of the Chuska Mountains and of the Defiance Uplift receive higher rainfall than the surrounding lowlands, and these highlands typically receive regular winter snowfall. Runoff from snowmelt and seasonal thunderstorms along the crest of the Chuskas generates more than half the surface water of the Navajo Nation. Canyons of Canyon de Chelly National Monument were cut by streams with headwaters in the Chuskas. The Chuska Mountains are sparsely populated. Nearby settlements are small, including Crystal, New Mexico, Lukachukai, Arizona, and Toadlena, New Mexico. Trading posts at Crystal and at Two Grey Hills (about 10 km east of Toadlena), are associated with distinctive patterns used in Navajo rugs. A paved road, New Mexico Highway 134, crosses the range through Narbona Pass. Narbona Pass was originally called Beesh Lichii'l Bigiizh, or Copper Pass, and was the location where Navajo warriors led by Narbona decisively defeated a Mexican slaving expedition under Captain Blas de Hinojos. Later it was renamed Washington Pass, after Colonel John M. Washington, who commanded a military expedition against the Navajo. Narbona was a Navajo headman killed in an encounter with Washington's troops in 1849. Geology. The Chuska Mountains and the Defiance Uplift immediately to the southwest form one of the prominent uplifted highlands of the Colorado Plateau. The uplifted region is separated from the San Juan Basin to the east by the Defiance and associated monoclines. Relative uplift, basin subsidence, and monocline formation began in the early stages of the Laramide orogeny about 75 to 80 million years ago. Although the Chuska Mountains can be considered part of the Defiance Uplift, they stand higher. They are capped by an erosional remnant of Chuska Sandstone, a unit locally more than 500 meters thick. The flat-lying Chuska Sandstone rests unconformably on Mesozoic rocks deformed in the Defiance monocline. Biotite in layers of altered volcanic ash within the Chuska Sandstone has yielded radiometric ages of 35 and 33 million years by argon-argon dating. The Chuska Sandstone is formed of sand dune deposits, and it appears to be a remnant of a huge Oligocene sand sea, the Chuska erg. The erg hypothesis is consistent with major exhumation of the central Colorado Plateau in the late Oligocene and early Miocene (e.g., from about 26 to 16 million years ago). If so, then major uplift of the central Colorado Plateau may postdate the Laramide orogeny. Minette of the Navajo Volcanic Field intruded and was extruded through the Chuska Sandstone. Minette makes up the two highest points, Roof Butte and Matthews Peak. A maar complex, containing pyroclastic and extrusive minette, is exposed along New Mexico Highway 134 in Narbona Pass (Brand et al., 2008). Argon-argon dating of four minette samples at Narbona Pass yielded consistent ages of 25 million years. Very little oil has been produced in Arizona, and much of that production has come from a minette sill, the reservoir rock of the Dineh-bi-Keyah field in the northwestern Chuska Mountains near Roof Butte. The sill is intruded into lower Pennsylvanian sedimentary rocks. The producing rock is both porous and fractured, and it is characterized by large poikilitic sanidine grains with inclusions of diopsidic augite and biotite: potassium-argon dating of the biotite yielded 25.7 million years. This pulse of magmatism at about 25 million years may have been accompanied by uplift of the Defiance-Chuska high in addition to the uplift during the Laramide orogeny. Helium-rich gas has been extracted from Devonian strata in the Dineh-bi-Keyah field. Additional economic resources have included uranium, mined from some of the Mesozoic strata, particularly from the Morrison Formation in the Lukachukai Mountains at the northwest end of the Chuska Mountains.

heavy improvement

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57890684

On July 5, 1982, Alfred Podgis and his wife Rosemary Podgis were fatally shot in their home in Loch Arbour, New Jersey, United States. Scott Robert Franz, Rosemary's son by a previous marriage, was convicted of the murder of Alfred, his stepfather. Franz's high school friend Bruce Anthony Curtis, a Canadian citizen who was visiting the Podgis home, was convicted of the aggravated manslaughter of Rosemary. Both were sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. The crime attracted significant public attention in Canada, where supporters of Curtis – whose defense was that the killing of Rosemary Podgis was accidental – believed he had not received a fair trial or sentence in the United States, and successfully lobbied for his repatriation to Canada to serve out his sentence in the Canadian prison system. The case became the subject of a book and a television film. Background. On June 29, 1982, Bruce Curtis flew from his home in Canada to the U.S., having been invited by his American friend, Scott Franz, to spend time at Franz's home in Loch Arbour, New Jersey. The two teenagers (both born 1964) had met at King's-Edgehill, a private Canadian boarding school in Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they had recently graduated. Franz was living with his mother Rosemary (aged 56) and stepfather Alfred ("Al") Podgis (aged 58), Rosemary's second husband. Al Podgis was a mail carrier who owned a number of guns. Curtis was the adopted son of Alice and Jim Curtis, a Canadian Air Force officer, who had paid for Bruce's trip to New Jersey as a graduation gift. Fatal shootings. During Curtis's stay, Franz had a number of heated arguments with Al Podgis. According to later trial testimony, Podgis possessed a violent temper, which led Franz and Curtis to seek protection by arming themselves with rifles from Podgis's gun collection. On the morning of July5, 1982, Franz shot and killed Al Podgis in an upstairs bedroom. Moments later downstairs, Rosemary Podgis was shot dead by a rifle carried by Curtis, who maintained he had accidentally discharged the firearm while attempting to flee the house after hearing the gunshot upstairs. After the shootings, Franz and Curtis made a decision to conceal the homicides and flee the scene rather than notify authorities. They attempted to clean the house of bloodstains, and loaded the Podgises' bodies into Al's van. The two youths drove interstate to Clinton County, Pennsylvania, where they disposed of the two bodies in a ravine. They then drove to Texas, intending to seek out one of Franz's sisters there. In the meantime, police had begun a search for the Podgises, Franz, and Curtis after another sister of Franz reported them missing. Following the discovery of the Podgises' bodies in Clinton County, Franz and Curtis were arrested on July 10 at a motel in Richardson, Texas. Both were charged with murder. Trial. The nine-day trial took place in New Jersey in March 1983. Franz pleaded guilty to the murder of Al Podgis as part of a plea bargain whereby he testified against Curtis, who pleaded not guilty to the charge of murdering Rosemary Podgis. The jury found Curtis guilty of the lesser crime of aggravated manslaughter. He was acquitted of a separate charge of stealing Al Podgis's van. Franz and Curtis both received the same sentence: 20 years imprisonment with a minimum non-parole period of 10 years. Aftermath. Curtis's family in Canada, believing he should have received a significantly lighter sentence than Franz, began a high-profile campaign to have Curtis's sentence reduced or overturned. After an appeal in 1984 to the Superior Court of New Jersey was dismissed, Curtis's supporters successfully lobbied to have him repatriated to Canada to serve out his sentence there. In May 1988, Curtis was transferred from New Jersey to a Canadian prison in Kingston, Ontario. Canadian authorities granted him day parole in July 1989, and full parole in 1990. In March 1992, Scott Franz escaped from custody for two weeks after he and a fellow inmate absconded from a New Jersey halfway house and fled to the West Coast. They were apprehended in San Marino, California, and were returned to prison in New Jersey. Franz later obtained parole in 1996. Social Security records indicate he died in Trenton, New Jersey on August 4, 1997. Book and TV film. In 1986, Canadian author David Hayes published a book about the case, "No Easy Answers: The Trial and Conviction of Bruce Curtis" (reprinted in the U.S. as "Blood Knot"). A Canadian television film directed by Graeme Campbell, "Journey into Darkness: The Bruce Curtis Story" (screened in the U.S. as "Deadly Betrayal"), was released in 1991.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1205006

Vector control is any method to limit or eradicate the mammals, birds, insects or other arthropods (here collectively called "vectors") which transmit disease pathogens. The most frequent type of vector control is mosquito control using a variety of strategies. Several of the "neglected tropical diseases" are spread by such vectors. Importance. For diseases where there is no effective cure, such as Zika virus, West Nile fever and Dengue fever, vector control remains the only way to protect human populations. However, even for vector-borne diseases with effective treatments the high cost of treatment remains a huge barrier to large amounts of developing world populations. Despite being treatable, malaria has by far the greatest impact on human health from vectors. In Africa, a child dies every minute of malaria; this is a reduction of more than 50% since 2000 due to vector control. In countries where malaria is well established the World Health Organization estimates countries lose 1.3% annual economic income due to the disease. Both prevention through vector control and treatment are needed to protect populations. As the impacts of disease and virus are devastating, the need to control the vectors in which they carried is prioritized. Vector control in many developing countries can have tremendous impacts as it increases mortality rates, especially among infants. Because of the high movement of the population, disease spread is also a greater issue in these areas. As many vector control methods are effective against multiple diseases, they can be integrated together to combat multiple diseases at once. The World Health Organization therefore recommends "Integrated Vector Management" as the process for developing and implementing strategies for vector control. Methods. Vector control focuses on utilizing preventive methods to control or eliminate vector populations. Common preventive measures are: Habitat and environmental control. Removing or reducing areas where vectors can easily breed can help limit their growth. For example, stagnant water removal, destruction of old tires and cans which serve as mosquito breeding environments, and good management of used water can reduce areas of excessive vector incidence. Further examples of environmental control is by reducing the prevalence of open defecation or improving the designs and maintenance of pit latrines. This can reduce the incidence of flies acting as vectors to spread diseases via their contact with feces of infected people. Reducing contact. Limiting exposure to insects or animals that are known disease vectors can reduce infection risks significantly. For example, bed nets, window screens on homes, or protective clothing can help reduce the likelihood of contact with vectors. To be effective this requires education and promotion of methods among the population to raise the awareness of vector threats. Chemical control. Insecticides, larvicides, rodenticides, Lethal ovitraps and repellents can be used to control vectors. For example, larvicides can be used in mosquito breeding zones; insecticides can be applied to house walls or bed nets, and use of personal repellents can reduce incidence of insect bites and thus infection. The use of pesticides for vector control is promoted by the World Health Organization (WHO) and has proven to be highly effective. Biological control. The use of natural vector predators, such as bacterial toxins or botanical compounds, can help control vector populations. Using fish that eat mosquito larvae, the use cat fish to eat up mosquito larve in pond can eradicate the mosquito population, or reducing breeding rates by introducing sterilized male tsetse flies have been shown to control vector populations and reduce infection risks. Legislation. United States. In the United States, cities or special districts are responsible for vector control. For example, in California, the Greater Los Angeles County Vector Control District is a special district set up by the state to oversee vector control in multiple cities.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=384777

The music of North Macedonia refers to all forms of music associated with North Macedonia. It share similarities with the music of neighbouring Balkan countries, yet it remains overall distinctive in its rhythm and sound. Folk music. The ethnic Macedonian folk music (Macedonian: Народна музика, "Narodna muzika") includes: Traditional music. The Macedonian traditional music, which can be rural or urban (starogradska muzika), includes: lyric songs, epic songs, labour songs, ritual songs, humorous songs, circle dance ("oro"), the old urban style called Čalgija (not to be confused with chalga) etc. Popular traditional songs are: "Kaleš bre Angjo", "Slušam kaj šumat šumite", "Biljana platno beleše", "Dafino vino crveno", "Narode Makedonski", "Zemjo Makedonska" and many others. Often referenced oro dances are "Teškoto" from the village of Galičnik, "Kalajdžiskoto", "Komitskoto" ("The Dance of the freedom fighters") and others. An internationally acclaimed professional folklore association is the award-winning Tanec. The music of the Balkans is known for complex rhythms. Macedonian music exemplifies this trait. Folk songs like "Pomnish li, libe Todoro" (Помниш ли, либе Тодоро) can have rhythms as complex as 22/16, divided by stanza to 2+2+3+2+2+3+2+2+2+2, a combination of the two common meters 11=2+2+3+2+2 and 11=3+2+2+2+2 (sheet music). In order to add tension to notes, musicians (primarily from older schools) will add the distinctive characteristic of stretching out beats. The gajda (гајда), a type of bagpipe, was the most common folk instrument in traditional Macedonian culture. It has now become an instrument for concert recitation, drawing on recent legends like Pece Atanasovski (video), leader of the Radio Skopje ensemble Ansambl na Narodni Instrumenti, as the source of modern tradition. Other instruments include: Macedonian folk orchestras consist of a clarinet or saxophone, drum kit, bass guitar, accordion and guitar, sometimes with modern synthesizers and drum machines. These orchestras are very popular in Macedonia. Popular members are virtuoso musicians Skender Ameti and Goran Alachki on accordion and Miroslav Businovski on clarinet. Čalgija is an urban style, played by bands ("Čalgii") with a dajre (tambourine) and tarabuka (hourglass drum) providing percussion for ut (lute), kanun (zither), clarinet and violin. Though modern musicians have updated the Čalgija into a spectrum of hard and soft, classical and pop sounds, some traditional musicians remain. Perhaps the most influential of recent years was Tale Ognenovski, who plays a wide variety of traditional and modern sounds. After World War II People's Republic of Macedonia sponsored the creation of professional ensembles such a "Chalgii orchestra", "Folk music orchestra" and "Authentic folk instruments orchestra" which were departments of "Radio Television Skopje" and performed arranged version of folk melodies. Folk music orchestras performed arranged versions of folk melodies. At the International Folklore Conference organized by the International Folklore Committee in Istanbul, Turkey, 1977, on the subject of "Folklore on the Radio" representative from Yugoslavian Radio Television (Former Yugoslavia) was Dushko Dimitrovski, Editor of the Folk Music Department for "Radio Television Skopje" (now Macedonian Radio Television) from the Socialist Republic of Macedonia presented folklore material in his presentation entitled "Chalgija music in Macedonia", including the recordings of Macedonian folk dances: "Kasapsko oro", arranged by Tale Ognenovski, and "Kumovo oro chochek", composed by Tale Ognenovski and performed by him as clarinet soloist accompanied by the "Chalgii" orchestra of Radio Television Skopje (now Macedonian Radio Television), which created great interest not only amongst the delegates of the Conference but also around the world. In the book entitled "Rough Guide to World Music Volume One: Africa, Europe & The Middle East" written by Simon Broughton and Mark Ellingham on page 202 subtitle: Macedonia tricky rhythm, Kim Burton noted: "In western music, a bar of triple time – such as a waltz has three equal beats: but in Macedonia it may a bar of 7/8 divided up as 3-2-2 or 2-2-3 or 2-3-2 and so on…" In this book on page 203 was written: "One of the few clarinettists to have performed successfully both with a calgia and in the more modern style is Tale Ognenovski, born in 1922 and one of the most influential musicians of the post-war era. He was a member of the Tanec group during the 1950s and lead clarinet of the Radio Skopje calgia. The composer of many tunes that have become standards, and which is the basis for Macedonia's own new composed folk music." The magazine "Ilustrovana politika" observes,"Radio Television Belgrade" (PGP-RTB, now PGP-RTS Radio Television of Serbia, Serbia) released a LP of Macedonian folk music (LP 1439 RTB, produced in 1979), on which is performances by the extraordinary clarinetist Tale Ognenovski. His music repertoire is folk dances, jazz (besides others he includes works by Benny Goodman and Artie Shaw), concerts from Carl Maria von Weber, Mozart and Ernesto Cavallini...This is Tale Ognenovski who began to play the clarinet in the village of Brusnik near Bitola, who with this wooden instrument toured the world and received well-deserved applause wherever he performed." In his book, "For Our Music" Dushko Dimitrovski writes: "The impossible becomes possible: two usually non-complementary parallel-existing worlds of sounds, Europe and The Orient, are in Tale Ognenovski's music naturally brought closer together, understand each other and merge." In September, 2001 Tale Ognenovski released CD album: "Jazz, Macedonian Folk Dances and Classical Music" Reviewer Neil Horner of the MusicWeb International comments, "He is undoubtedly an exceptional artist and the predominant image created in my mind is of Benny Goodman playing the superb Contrasts he commissioned Bartók to write for him …This disc is likely to appeal to world music aficionados who enjoy the Balkan/Levantine soundworld and perhaps also those who care to hear the source musics of their classical favourites, the aforementioned Bartók but also, here, perhaps people like Skalkottas." Contemporary folk music. Contemporary folk music is a popular style based on the traditional folk music. However, unlike it, contemporary folk music is credited to a particular author and it falls under the copyright laws, it is performed by professional musicians and it is usually (but not necessarily) played with modern instrumentation. Usually, the older performers and composers (such as the highly acclaimed Aleksandar Sarievski, Jonče Hristovski and Dobri Stavrevski) stay closer to the traditional roots, and thus contemporary folk music is often mistaken for traditional. On the other hand, the younger usually espouse a more modernized sound and image, thus often being disproved by the traditional purists as kitsch. Nevertheless, the style is popular among the common people and notable performers include: Elena Georgieva, Suzana Spasovska, Mitre Mitrevski, Efto Pupinovski, Vojo Stojanovski, Orce Stefkovski, Blagica Pavlovska, Dragan Vučić, Zoran Vanev, Vaska Ilieva Wik Kakarotski and others. Some of them also perform traditional songs. The newest generation of performers of this genre such as Aneta Micevska, Blagojce Stojanovski-TUSE, Sonja Tarculovska, Elena Velevska, Jasmina Mukaetova, Aneta Nakovska, Pane Panev altogether with the bands such as Molika, Bioritam, Bolero bend, Art Plaza have introduced a newer outlook to this kind of music inspired by the Serbian turbofolk, Bulgarian chalga, and Greek laika, so their style is more considered as pop-folk, rather than folk music. Several popular folk music festivals exist, including: "Folk fest Valandovo" in Valandovo, "Serenada na Širok sokak" in Bitola, "Cvetnici" in Skopje, Ohridski trubaduri – Ohrid Fest in Ohrid and others. Outside North Macedonia. Traditional as well as modern music is created and performed in other countries where Macedonian communities exist, which include primarily the Balkan countries surrounding North Macedonia, as well as enclaves resulting from the diaspora in the US, Australia, Canada and other countries. A notable example is the folk musician Kostas Novakis from Greece (born in Koufalia, Thessaloniki regional unit, Greek Macedonia), who claims Macedonian ethnicity and performs traditional ethnic Macedonian music. Despite the political tensions between North Macedonia, with ethnic Macedonians on one side and Greece on the other, Novakis released several CD titles with traditional ethnic Macedonian music in Greece . Receiving the audience through the World of Unusual Rhythm of Macedonian Folk Music. "Macedonian folk music is governed by rhythmic laws and set metres. Foreign influences, in so far as they existed, where subjected to the rules of accentuation of the Macedonian popular language. The melody is usually asymmetrical... ""Teškoto" from Nižopole (Bitola) means "heavy," and indicates the heavy rhythm which is typical of very ancient dances," appeared in an article entitled, "Extracts from PROGRAMME NOTES ON THE DANCES AND SONGS performed at the Yugoslav Folk Music Festival", with the subtitle 'MACEDONIA – represented by 23 villages", published by The International Folk Music Council (IFMC) Stevan Ognenovski in his book entitled "Tale Ognenovski Virtuoso of the Clarinet and Composer" / "Тале Огненовски виртуоз на кларинет и композитор" (2000), noted: "At the "Yugoslav Folk Music Festival in Opatija, Croatia (8 to 14 September 1951) the Folk Dance group from the Bitola village of Nižopole from the Bitola in which Tale Ognenovski was playing as a clarinet soloist in the folk dance "Teškoto", received First Award as the best Folk Dance group at the festival. This was a great success because in this Festival participated 85 different folk dance groups from Macedonia, Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The musical part of the group had only two members: Tale Ognenovski played solo clarinet with the accompaniment of drummer Lambe Petrovski." Croatian ethnomusicologist Dr Vinko Zganec wrote "The clarinet was as effective an accompaniment to the large drum in the folk dance from Kozjak as it was to the small drum in the folk dance "Teškoto" from Nižopole (Bitola). They provided a very effective combination." This appeared in an article entitled "Yugoslav Musical folklore at the Festival in Opatija". Yugoslav Folk Music Festival had been especially arranged by "Unions of Societies for Culture and Education of Yugoslavia" for the members of the Conference of The International Folk Music Council (IFMC) to studying folk music tradition and beauty and variety of Yugoslav folk art of 85 folk dance groups from Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Slovenia, Macedonia and Croatia which participated at this festival. "Every evening, for three hours or more, we witnessed an astonishing pageant of costume and custom, ritual and social dance, song and instrumental playing by 700 performers brought together from every part of the country. This was a world whose riches most of us had barely guessed at and, in this highly concentrated presentation, it was an overwhelming and unforgettable experience," written by Marie Slocombe and appeared in an article entitled, "Some Impression of the Yugoslav Conference and Festival " published by The International Folk Music Council". (IFMC) The Tanec Ensemble of folklore dances and songs of Macedonia was founded by the Government of the People's Republic of Macedonia in 1949 with an aim to collect, preserve and present the Macedonian folklore. Ensemble Tanec performed arranged version of folk melodies. " On 20 January 1956, the Tanec ensemble arrived in the US, and their televised performance on CBS TV Programme Omnibus (U.S. TV series) on 22 January 1956 was viewed by millions people. It established the Tanec ensemble international stature and confirmation of this were reviews in the newspapers in North America for his 66 concerts: On 27 January 1956, the Tanec Ensemble performed at Carnegie Hall in New York City. For this Carnegie Hall concert The New York Times music critic John Martin, wrote, "This particular group, part of a national movement toward the revival of the folk arts, comes from Macedonia … brilliantly spectacular and wonderfully unfamiliar dances … unforgettable pipe." The New York Herald Tribune music critic Walter Terry, wrote, "Tanec, a Macedonian group of some forty dancers and musicians, gave generously of their rich folk heritage ... In "Sopska Poskocica", to make the point five young men took over the stage and indulged in show-off tactics to attract the girl ... An audience which jammed Carnegie to capacity cheered and applauded the folk dancing with as much enthusiasm as if it had been witnessing classical, theatrical ballet at its most glittering". Stjepan Pucak, former "Tanjug" correspondent and Croatian journalist note: "To choose which were the most successful of the program's seventeen folk dances, when all were greeted with stormy applause, is really very difficult and risky ... "Sopska Poskocica" was even repeated, and to repeat a performance on the American stage is a really rare and exclusive event." Naum Nachevski, journalist of the newspaper Nova Makedonija, Skopje, People’s Republic of Macedonia note: "The audience interrupted some of the folk dance performances with applause; these dances in particular left great impressions of the folklore … the unusual rhythm of Macedonian folk music. The "Tanec" ensemble not only received a warm welcome from the New York public, but also from the New York press." The New York Times music critic John Martin, on 5 February 1956, wrote, "There is an amazing variety to the dances that comprised this particular program … the broken circles of the kolo of the Macedonian mountains … a dateless reed pipe" Tanec's North American tour began with their debut on CBS TV Programme Omnibus (U.S. TV series) on 22 January 1956. Their first live US television performance was taped on videocassette and archived at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. and in Catalog Record is written description content: "The Yugoslav national folk ballet / directed by Elliot Silverstein; with the Tanec dance troupe from Macedonia (20 min.)" For the concerts at The Civic Opera House in Chicago, Illinois on 4–5 February 1956, The "Chicago Daily Tribune" reviewer, Claudia Cassidy, noted: "… called Tanec, which is the Macedonian word for dance, this group of 37 dancers, singers and musicians is a kaleidoscope of the Balkans ... When five of them dance the "Sopska Poskocica", which apparently just means they are showing off to the girls. I would keep them any day as an unfair trade for the four little swans in Swan Lake." For the concert at The Academy of Music in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on 7 February 1956, "The Philadelphia Inquirer" music critic Samuel Singer commented, "'Tanec' means 'dance', but 'dance' in a larger form than customary. Besides dance alone, it conveys drama, ritual, tradition, songs, even military maneuvers ... there was a remarkable precision in both dancing and playing ... Clarinet, bass fiddle, violin, drums, guitar and flute provided most of the accompaniments in various combinations." For the concert at The Constitution Hall in Washington, D.C. on 9 February 1956, Paul Hume, the Washington Post and Times music critic observed, "A "Sopska Poskocica" is devised to show the girls how handsome and wonderful and brilliant and exciting and sensational their man friends are. The rate at which it is danced, and the tremendous energy and precision of six men who dance it, is unique and demanded a repetition." For the concert at Massey Hall in Toronto, Ontario, Canada on 13 February 1956, John Kraglund, a music critic for The Globe and Mail wrote: "The first impression, however, must be one of rhythmic precision ... Nor was the performance without spectacle ... in the case of one dance, Sopska Poskocica, it was no more than a show-off dance. As such it was highly effective." For the concert at The War Memorial Opera House in San Francisco, California on 7 March 1956, San Francisco Chronicle music critic R. H. Hagan says, "… in a number titled simply "Macedonian Tune", which in its intricate rhythms and plaintive melody should at least make Dave Brubeck send out an emergency call for Darius Milhaud". For the concert at The Philharmonic Auditorium in Los Angeles, California on 12 March 1956, Los Angeles Times music critic Albert Goldberg commented: "For authentic folk dancing, wild and free and yet subject to its own intricate disciplines, this group would be hard to beat ...They are accompanied by a group of musicians consisting of a violinist, guitar and accordion players, a flutist, a clarinetist and double bass, though drums of different types are frequently involved, as well as a shepherd's reed pipe" "Dance Observer" commented: "The capacity audience at Carnegie Hall on January 27 for the single New York performance of Tanec, the Yugoslav National Folk Ballet, enjoyed a fascinating cross-section of over 2000 years of human history and culture. Tanec is a Macedonian group" After the end of the tour the Life commented: "A hundred years ago on the rugged roads of Macedonia, bands of brigands used to plunder the caravans of rich merchants and, like Robin Hood, pass on some of their spoils to the poor ... this spring, the Yugoslav National Folk Ballet is making a first, and highly successful tour of the U.S ... Together they make as vigorous a display of dancing as the U.S. has ever seen." Craig Harris at Allmusic noted for The Tanec Ensemble and clarinetist Tale Ognenovski, "The ensemble reached their peak during the late '50s, when influential clarinet and pipes player Tale Ognenovski was a member." Notable members of the Tanec Ensemble include clarinetist and composer Tale Ognenovski – Tale Ognenovski performed as clarinet and reed pipe (recorder) soloist with Ensemble Tanec during their tour of : United States of America and Canada (66 concerts, between 22 January 1956 and 12 April 1956 including on the Ford Foundation TV Programme Omnibus (U.S. TV series) on 22 January 1956 on CBS and concert on 27 January 1956 at Carnegie Hall in New York City) ; Germany (72 concerts from 15 August until 27 October 1956) ; France (83 concerts from 20 September until 25 November 1959) ; Switzerland (4 concerts from 7–10 July 1959) For the contribution of Tale Ognenovski to the Tanec's North American tour, his biographer Stevan Ognenovski in the book entitled "Tale Ognenovski Virtuoso of the Clarinet and Composer" / "Тале Огненовски виртуоз на кларинет и композитор" (2000), noted: " Tale Ognenovski was clarinet soloist in "Sopska Poskocica" but he also helped arrange the music for he added his own improvisations to some parts of the dance ... Ensemble Tanec performed 66 concerts ... They were described as a Great Cultural Event by the American press." Tale Ognenovski as a clarinet soloist performed the Macedonian folk dances "Zhensko Chamche" and "Beranche" with Ensemble Tanec in Vardar Film's 1955 production of "Ritam i zvuk (Rhythm and Sound). Ensemble Tanec during their tour of France from 20 September until 25 November 1959. They performed 83 concerts in 58 towns and cities in France. The Ensemble twice had performances broadcast on television, on 21 and 22 September 1959: 20 million people would have seen them on the most popular programme on French Television. Radio Paris recorded a 45-minute programme of Macedonian folk dances and songs. In a 1964 interview, for the newspaper "Večer", Skopje, People's Republic of Macedonia Raymond Guillier, The Manager of Ensemble Tanec's tour of France (from Paris, France) commented: "Everyone who went to the concerts by Ensemble Tanec in France was fascinated … Tanec is playing in the spirit of Macedonia, no other Ensemble in the world can perform ... Your girls and boys put their whole heart into the dance and example of this is clarinetist Tale Ognenovski." For the concert of The Tanec ensemble at "Grand Palais" in Bourges, France on 23 September 1959, newspaper "La nouvelle republique du Centre" commented: "The first performance of the National Ballet of Macedonia was a tremendous success. Everyone in the hall applauded with enthusiasm, here in the 'Grand Palais' in Bourges at the first performance in France ... The members of the National Ballet of Macedonia arrived four days ago in Paris and have been shown on television," and newspaper "Le Berry Republicain" commented: "The quality and talent of this group is admirable ... This is the first time that they have performed in France ... At the end of their concert, the members of Ensemble Tanec remained on stage and were applauded by the Bourges audiences for more than a quarter of an hour." The concerts of the Tanec ensemble were performed in Berne on 7 and 8 July 1959 and in Geneva on 9 and 10 July 1959. Tale Ognenovski made his debut on a special programme broadcast on Swiss Television. Playing as clarinet soloist, he performed his personally composed Macedonian folk dances "Bitolsko oro" and "Brusnichko oro". For the concert of The Tanec ensemble at Port Gitana Bellevue, Geneva on 10 July 1959, newspaper "Tribune de Geneve" commented: "We were presented with remarkable spectacles performed by the Yugoslavian National Folk Ballet 'Tanec' from Macedonia ... Nothing here that resembled classical dances of our Western World ... They have the rhythm of the dances of their country in their blood..." Tale Ognenovski was included in the book "The Greatest Clarinet Players of All Time: Top 100" by Alex Trost and Vadim Kravetsky. Mi2n Music Industry News Network published an article entitled, "Clarinetist Tale Ognenovski Is Included in the Book Entitled "The Greatest Clarinet Players of All Time: Top 100" By Alex Trost And Vadim Kravetsky, Publisher: CreateSpace."" Classical music. Mokranjac School of Music. The Mokranjac School of Music was established in Skopje in 1934. In addition to its well-respected choir, it was famous for the people that were involved in its establishment, composers like Trajko Prokopiev and Todor Skalovski. Post-WWII. After the liberation of the country from fascist occupation in the Second World War and the formation of the modern Macedonian state, the Macedonian Philharmonic Orchestra was established in 1944, while 1947 saw the formation of the Association of Musicians of Macedonia. Shortly after that, the first Macedonian radio concert was made, conducted by Todor Skalovski. During the 1950s, the first Macedonian ballet by Gligor Smokvarski and opera "Goce" by Kiril Makedonski were produced. The period after these brought a relative renaissance of Macedonian music, focussed on innovation. The most prominent composers in this period are Zivko Firfov, Trajko Prokopiev, Stefan Gajdov, Todor Skalovski, Petre Bogdanov Kocko, Vlastimir Nikolovski, Blagoja Ivanovski, Tomislav Zografski, Toma Prosev and Mihajlo Nikolovski. Among the most prominent music artists in this period are the opera singers Danka Firfova, Pavlina Apostolova, Georgi Bozikov and Zina Krelja, and the pianist Ladislav Palfi. Firfova was one of the first trained sopranos in Macedonia and debuted in 1947 as Santuzza in a Macedonian-language version of the "Cavalleria Rusticana", the first opera ever sung in Macedonian. The "Macedonian National Police Wind Orchestra" comprising about 30 musicians and conducted by Micho Kostovski was established in 1949. In December 1952, Tale Ognenovski as clarinet soloist, together with pianist Nino Cipushev as accompaniment, performed the classical concert "Concert Polka for Clarinet" by Miler Bela in the "Police House" in Skopje with outstanding success and he became the first clarinet soloist in the history of country to perform a classical concert for the clarinet. On 24 May 1953 he played clarinet soloist in the classical concert "Concert Polka for Clarinet" by Miler Bela with Gligor Smokvarski's arrangement for the "Public Police Wind Orchestra", comprising about 30 musicians and conducted by Micho Kostovski. The concert was performed in the Radio Skopje building, and broadcast directly to the nation via Radio Skopje (now Macedonian Radio Television). Tale Ognenovski and his son Stevan Ognenovski arranged for two clarinets Clarinet Concerto in A Major, K.622, composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and recorded the albums: "Mozart and Ognenovski Clarinet Concertos" and "Mozart Clarinet Concerto in A, K. 622 Arranged for Two Clarinets by Tale Ognenovski" . Perhaps these two albums are unique recordings of this concert with two clarinets where first clarinet with first arrangement and second clarinet with second arrangement that's played simultaneously – by one performer (Tale Ognenovski). Top40-Charts News published the articles entitled, "Tale Ognenovski, Internationally Renowned Jazz And Classical Clarinetist Released CD Album Entitled: Mozart And Ognenovski Clarinet Concertos To Celebrate The 250th Anniversary of Mozart's Birthday" on 13 November 2006, and "Mozart and Ognenovski Is the Best Clarinet Concertos in the World" on 21 November 2014 Mi2n Music Industry News Network published an article entitled, "New Digital Album of Clarinetist And Composer Tale Ognenovski: "Mozart Clarinet Concerto in A, K. 622 Arranged For Two Clarinets By Tale Ognenovski""on 27 April 2017. Today. Today, one of the most prominent classical music artists is the pianists Simon Trpčeski, also notable opera singers include Neven Siljanovski, Blagoj Nacoski, Ana Durlovski, Igor Durlovski and Boris Trajanov. From the diaspora, a notable performer is the Australian born, but Macedonian pianist Hristijan Spirovski. The most prominent conductors include Borjan Canev, Sasho Tatarchevski, Bisera Chadlovska and Oliver Balaburski, and the most notable instrumentalist are the violinists Ljubisha Kirovski, Oleg Kondratenko and Russian born Anna Kondratenko, the saxophonist Ninoslav Dimov, the clarinetist Stojan Dimov, the bassists Velko Todevski and Petrus Petrusevski, the oboists Tome Atanasov, Vasil Atanasov and Gordana Josifova-Nedelkovska. Among the composers are Darija Andovska, Jana Andreevska, Goce Kolarovski, Tome Mancev, Stojan Stojkov, Damjan Temkov, Valentina Velkovska, Soni Petrovski, Goran Nachevski, Boris Svetiev, Ljubomir Brangjolica, Michael Bakrnčev and the composer, but also a performer, musicologist and researcher, Dimitrije Bužarovski. Popular music. Pop music. Popular pop music performers in North Macedonia include: Toše Proeski (the most prominent Macedonian singer), Karolina Gočeva, Maja Odžaklievska, Ljupka Dimitrovska, Rebeka, Gjoko Gjorchev, Elena Risteska, Vlatko Ilievski, Vlatko Lozanoski, DNK, Dani Dimitrovska, Kaliopi, Tamara Todevska, Vrcak, Robert Bilbilov, Lambe Alabakoski, Jovan Jovanov, Andrijana Janevska, Kristina Arnaudova, Aco Andonov and others. Notable composers, producers and arrangers involved in the pop music scene are Darko Dimitrov, Damir Imeri, Aleksandar Masevski, and Grigor Koprov. Many artists are famous as both singer and songwriter such as Jovan Jovanov and Miyatta. The first examples of Macedonian pop music appeared in the mid-20th century and was called "zabavna muzika". The most famous old-generation performers are Zafir Hadzimanov, Verica Risteska, Dragan Mijalkovski and many others. According to style, Macedonian pop music is a Western type of pop music, with influences of folk and oriental music. Several fusion genres such as pop-rock, pop-rap, ethnopop, and pop-folk also have developed. Music festivals. Major music festivals in North Macedonia include Skopje Fest in Skopje, Ohrid Fest in Ohrid, MakFest in Štip, "Interfest" in Bitola. North Macedonia debuted as an independent state at the Eurovision Song Contest 1998. So far, its highest placing was seventh in Eurovision Song Contest 2019 final which altogether was overall best result in televoting years. Rock music. The most successful and influential rock band in North Macedonia and one of the most popular in Western Balkans was Leb i Sol. They combined rock music with fusion jazz and traditional music elements creating a distinct sound of their own, becoming one of the top acts of the Western Balkans. After they broke up, the guitarist Vlatko Stefanovski, the bassist Bodan Arsovski, the keyboard player Kokan Dimuševski and the drummer Garabet Tavitijan all started successful solo careers, each in his own right. In 2006 they gathered again for a reunion tour to mark 30th anniversary since their beginning as a band. In 2008, a different line-up recorded a new album, "I taka nataka" without Stefanovski's and Tavitjan's participation. Other notable group was Bisbez, which was influenced by The Beatles and other 1960s artists. It was formed in 1964 by merging two previously existing bands Biseri (meaning "Pearls") and Bezimeni ("Nameless"). During the 1970s notable groups were Pu, Madrigali, Ilinden 903, Den za Den, Leva patika, Triangl, Torr and others. Most of them were into hard rock, progressive rock, folk rock, symphonic rock, jazz rock and funk rock. The late 1970s saw the emergence of punk rock. The first punk rock band was Fol Jazik, formed in Skopje in 1979. During the 1980s other notable punk groups were Saraceni and Badmingtons, both led by Vladimir Petrovski Karter. Later he switched to a more mainstream sound and formed the group Aleksandar Makedonski (Alexander of Macedon). The new wave scene featured artists such as the ska group Cilindar, Usta na usta and Tokmu taka. Tokmu taka's vocalist Ljupčo "Bubo" Karov from Kavadarci later became popular as an actor of the comedy TV show K-15, while Usta na usta's member Aleksandar Prokopiev became a prominent writer. Another influential band was Bon Ton Bend with Dario Pankovski, who released many hits of new wave music. Notable heavy metal artists were the groups Karamela and Concorde, the latter being remembered for their more radio-friendly hit "Visoki štikli i crni čorapi" ("High Heels and Black Stockings"). Its guitarist Venko Serafimov later started a successful solo career. The synthpop trio Bastion which featured Kiril Džajkovski was one of the most important 1980s acts. Another notable 1980's act was Haos in Laos. The pop-rock group Memorija formed in 1984 was one of the most prosperous from this period. The most productive in the country was the post-punk, darkwave and gothic rock scene which included the cult bands Mizar, Arhangel and Padot na Vizantija, the latter led by Goran Trajkoski and Klime Kovaceski. Later they formed the neo-folk group Anastasia which became internationally acclaimed with its soundtrack for the Milčo Mančevski's Academy Award-nominated film "Before the Rain". Notable artists during the first half of the 1990s music included the thrash metal group Sanatorium, the alternative rock bands Suns, Last Expedition, The Hip, Balkan Express, Decadence, Vodolija, Nikeja, the punk rockers Rok Agresori and Parketi, and D' Daltons, which was initially a rockabilly act. The second half of the decade saw the emergence of the hardcore punk bands Sidewalk, Fluks, Tank Warning Net, Smut, Bumbiks and No Name Nation, while notable extreme metal band was Siniac. In the 2000s, prominent acts included Superhiks (ska punk), Denny Te Chuva (melodic hardcore, emo), Smut (metalcore), Verka (folk metal), Two Sides (hardcore punk), Parketi (pop punk), Kulturno Umetnički Rabotnici (garage punk), Noviot početok (hardcore punk), Bernays Propaganda (indie-rock, post-punk revival) and others. Notable artists during the 2010s are Vizija (alternative/experimental rock), XaХаXa (punk rock), Molokai (Surf rock), Smoke shakers (indie rock), Chromatic point (progressive metal), Culture Development (post hardcore), Tempera (Alternative rock) and others. Notable all-female bands in the Macedonian scene were Royal Albert Hall and Vivid. There are several rock music festivals, some of the most notable include: "Taksirat" annually organized by Lithium Records and the "Skopje gori" organized by Avalon Productions. Both of the festivals hosted numerous internationally acclaimed rock, electronica and hip hop acts. There are also smaller demo band festivals such as "Winner Fest" (formerly known as "Loser Fest") and "Rok-fest", the latter has existed for several decades. The most notable international open-air festival was "Alarm" held in Ljubaništa by the Ohrid Lake in 2002. In 1994 a peace festival called "Urban fest" was organized in Skopje gathering underground music artists from all the Balkan countries. Hip hop. A well-developed hip hop music scene also exists. Electronic scene. The most prominent electronic musicians are Kiril Džajkovski (a former member of Bastion), Galoski, the PMG Collective, Robotek, Novogradska and Gotra. North Macedonia has a developed clubbing scene especially in Skopje. Several festivals featuring foreign DJs take place in the country, many of them on the Ohrid Lake during the summer season. Psychedelic trance is one of the most popular electronic genres in North Macedonia, and there is large number of internationally popular and successful psytrance acts from Macedonia, for example Fobi, Kala, Yudhisthira, AntHill (joined project of Kala and Yudhisthira), Blisargon Demogorgon, Atriohm, Zopmanika, Demoniac Insomniac, Egorythmia, Galactic Explorers, Djantrix, Spirit Architect, Tengri, etc. Jazz. The Macedonian jazz scene is highly appreciated as well. Famous and celebrated jazz musicians and bands include: guitarist Toni Kitanovski, vibraphonist Zoran Madžirov, pianists Dragan Soldatovic – Labish and Simon Kiselicki, bands like Tavitjan Brothers, Sethstat, Letecki Pekinezeri, La Colonie Volvox among others. The Skopje Jazz Festival is held annually. In September 2008, Tale Ognenovski Quartet released CD album: "Macedonian Clarinet Jazz Composed by Tale Ognenovski." "All About Jazz" published article entitled: "New CD 'Macedonian Clarinet Jazz Composed By Tale Ognenovski of Internationally Renowned Jazz, Folk Dance And Classical Clarinetist" on 27 September 2008 at his website. "…lively discussion about clarinetist Tale Ognenovski, which segued to the proliferation of New York bands interpreting Balkan music," wrote "JazzTimes" music critic Bill Shoemaker in an article entitled "Dave Douglas: Parallel Worlds", appearing in the website of "JazzTimes" on 3 January 1998. Jazzclub Unterfahrt from Munich, Bavaria, Germany commented: "Playing the music of clarinetist Tale Ognenovski is different from imitating Michael Breckers style." "All About Jazz" celebrated 27 April 2009, the birthday of Tale Ognenovski with All About Jazz recognition: Jazz Musician of the Day: Tale Ognenovski, with announcement published at his website. Children's music. One of the most notable children's music festivals is "Zlatno slavejče" ("Golden Nightingale") annually held in Skopje, which has a long tradition in North Macedonia. Other festivals include Si-Do in Bitola "Kalinka" in Gevgelija and Super Zvezda, also in Skopje. Notable composers of children's songs, producers and arrangers include Mile Sherdenkov, Dragan Karanfilovski Bojs, Miodrag and Marjan Nečak, Kire Kostov, Petar Sidovski, Slave Dimitrov, Milko Lozanovski, Aleksandar Džambazov, Ljupčo Mirkovski, Darko Mijalkovski and others. Several TV shows featuring children music exist. The country also takes part in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest and recently achieved the best result- 5th place for their 2007 entry at the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2007.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55783578

The Ishikawa Prefectural Museum of Traditional Arts and Crafts () is a museum about traditional arts and crafts located in Kenroku-en, Kanazawa, Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan. History. The museum was closed on 20 December 2014 until 22 February 2015 due to renovation work and was reopened again on 23 February 2015. Architecture. The museum is housed in a 2-story building located at the outer perimeter of Kenroku-en Garden. The ground floor houses the special exhibition areas, gift shop, photo space and café. The upper floor houses the permanent exhibition areas, special exhibition areas, display of product processes and seminar room. Exhibitions. The museum exhibits 36 different types of crafts of Ishikawa Prefecture, which are Kaga Yuzen Silk Dyeing, Ushikubi Pongee, Kaga Embroidery, Noto Linen, Kanazawa Japanese Umbrella, Kaga Paper Stencils, Kutani Porcelain, Wajima Urushi Lacquer Ware, Yamanaka Urushi Lacquer Ware, Kanazawa Urushi Lacquer Ware, Suzu Pottery, Kanazawa Ohi Ware, Kanazawa Tea Ceremony Kettle, Kanazawa Gold Leaf, Ishikawa's Washi Paper, Kanazawa Paulownia Ware, Kaga Cypress Wickerwork, Kaga Inlay, Kanazawa Scroll Mounts, Bamboo Wickerwork, Kaga Tsurugi Edged Steel, Kanazawa Buddhist Altar, Nanao Buddhist Altar, Mikawa Buddhist Altar, Nanao Japanese Candles, Kaga Decorative Fishing Flies Bait, Kaga Fishing Rod, Kanazawa Traditional Local Toys, Kanazawa Koto, Kanazawa Sangen, Kaga Taiko, Kanazawa Bronze Gong, Kaga Lion Dance Mask, Kaga Lantern, Kaga Mizuhiki and Noto Fireworks. The crafts are displayed in a dim-lighted ambient with description available in English. It is divided into permanent exhibition areas and special exhibition areas. The permanent exhibition areas is divided into clothes, festivals, foods, houses and prayers sections. Facilities. The museum features a shop selling various kinds of traditional crafts made by local artists from Ishikawa Prefecture and a café. Transportation. The museum is accessible by bus departing from Kanazawa Station of West Japan Railway Company.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=236315

Schräge Musik, which may also be spelled Schraege Musik, was a common name for the fitting of an upward-firing autocannon or machine gun, to an interceptor aircraft, such as a night fighter. The term was introduced by the German "Luftwaffe" during World War II. "Schräge Musik" was previously a German colloquialism, meaning music that featured an unusual tuning and/or time signature. By itself, the word "Schräge" has often been translated as "slanting" or "oblique", although it may instead be rendered into English as "weird" or "strange". The first such systems were developed in World War I. They were also developed and used by the Japanese military during World War II. Like the "Luftwaffe", the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service (IJNAS) and Imperial Japanese Army Air Service (IJAAS) fitted such weapons to twin-engined night fighters. Both the Luftwaffe and IJNAS had their first victories with upward-firing autocannons in May 1943. Night fighters used them to approach and attack Allied bombers from below, outside the bomber crew's field of view and/or defensive fire. Many of the commonly-used Allied night bomber aircraft of that era (such as the Avro Lancaster) lacked ventral turrets (such as ball turrets), making them vulnerable to approaches and attacks from below. In the initial stages of its use operational use by German air crews, from mid-1943 to early 1944, many attacks using "Schräge Musik" achieved complete surprise while destroying bombers. The Allied bomber crews that survived such attacks, during this period, often believed that damage and casualties had been caused by ground-based anti-aircraft artillery (AA or AAA), rather than fighters. The complete technical details and tactical usage of German "Schräge Musik" systems were not fully understood by Allied air forces until after the end of the war in Europe. Background. World War I. During World War I, pusher-configured fighter aircraft with flexibly-mounted forward-firing machine guns (especially the Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2 fighters), enabled gunners to discover the principle of zero-deflection shooting. For instance, when firing upward at 45° elevation, assuming the attacking aircraft and its target are travelling at about the same velocity and the range is fairly short, the trajectory will appear straight. The bullets' true path is of course a parabola, but due to the relative movement of the aircraft they appear to follow a straight line: so that accurate sighting of the weapon requires no deflection or 'aiming off'. This greatly simplifies the business of hitting a moving target from a moving weapon platform. The pilots of Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2 night fighters, after trying various schemes for attacking the Zeppelin raiders of 1915–16, hit on the idea of firing a mixture of explosive and incendiary bullets into the body of the airship "from below". For this purpose a single air-cooled Lewis gun was mounted in front of the pilot's cockpit, firing upward. Exploitation of the same zero-deflection concept described above led to the destruction of six German airships between September and December 1916. Later British night fighters were similarly armed with upward firing guns. Several tractor-configured single-seat biplanes of the time featured machine guns mounted on the centre section of the top wing to fire over the disk of the propeller (thus bypassing the need for deflector plates or synchronization gears). Arrangements had to be made to reload these weapons to enable an exhausted magazine to be replaced with a full one. The Foster mounting was designed to allow a Lewis gun to be drawn down and tipped back to reload, using a quadrant shaped rail. Whether by accident or design, it was found that the mounting also allowed the gun to be held manually at an intermediate angle (typically and ideally about 45°) and fired upward, steadying the gun by holding its pistol grip and firing it with the "normal" trigger rather than the remote Bowden cable used for forward firing. Again, once the "zero-deflection" principle was "re-discovered", it became common for the pilots of the Nieuport 11 and Nieuport 17 fighters, especially in British service, and Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5s to exploit their Foster-mounted Lewis guns in this way, attacking enemy aircraft from the blind spot below the tail. British ace Albert Ball in particular was a great exponent of this technique The Sopwith Dolphin, which entered service near the end of World War I, was armed with two forward-firing Vickers on the cowl, just forward of the cockpit; it could also carry a pair of Lewis guns on the forward cross-tube of the cabane strut structure, aimed forwards and upwards, and were so equipped on delivery from the makers. The Germans tried similar arrangements in 1917, when Gerhard Fieseler of "Jasta" 38 attached two machine guns to an Albatros D.V, pointing upwards and forwards. Interwar years. The Boulton Paul Bittern was a twin-engined night fighter (designed to Specification 27/24) with an armament of barbette mounted guns, that could be angled upwards for attack against bombers, without having to enter a climb. The first of two Bittern prototypes flew in 1927, though performance was poor and the development stopped. The Westland C.O.W. Gun Fighter (1930) and Vickers Type 161 (1931) were designed in response to Air Ministry specification F.29/27. This called for an interceptor fighter operating as a stable gun platform for the Coventry Ordnance Works 37 mm autocannon produced by the Coventry Ordnance Works (COW). The COW gun had been developed in 1918 for use in aircraft and had been tested on the Airco DH.4. The cannon fired shells and was to be mounted at 45 deg or more above the horizontal. The tactic was to fly below the target bomber or airship and fire upwards into it. Gun firing trials with both types went well, with no detriment to airframe or performance, although the Westland prototype displayed "alarming" handling characteristics. Neither the Type 161 nor its competitor, the Westland C.O.W. Gun Fighter were ordered, and no more was heard of this use of the aerial COW gun. Similar logic lay behind the later Vickers Type 414 twin-engined fighter. This aircraft, which can be seen a natural successor to the Vickers COW gun fighter, combined a streamlined monoplane two-seater fighter airframe with a remotely controlled nose-mounted 40mm cannon that could be elevated for no-allowance shooting. While turret fighters like the Boulton Paul Defiant and the naval Blackburn Roc addressed the same threat – enemy bombers attacking the UK – the approach was very different: upward-firing guns and no-allowance shooting are separate and distinct, and the equipment that can do the one can, generally speaking, be arranged so as to do the other (unless the fixed armament is automatically triggered, as in the photo-cell firing arrangements detailed below). On paper at least, the advantages of flexible aim and weight of fire from a two-seater were clear: the pilot is not overburdened, several fighters could be brought to bear on a target together, and there are two pairs of eyes per aircraft. However, the weight of a powered turret and air gunner imposed their own severe and often fatal penalties. The RAF put the Defiant into service in 1939, intending to use it against bombers, despite the bombers' numerous gun positions; however, it quickly became apparent that bombers escorted by nimble single-engined fighters bought within range by the speed and unprecedented territorial gains of blitzkrieg could not be engaged effectively. Despite being utterly outclassed as a day fighter, when moved to the night-fighter role it had some success, typically attacking from below and slightly ahead of the bomber, well outside its field of defensive fire. Meanwhile, in the United States, the twin-engine Bell YFM-1 Airacuda was designed as a "bomber-destroyer", touted as "... a mobile anti-aircraft platform." Its armament included mainly forward-firing M4 37mm cannon, with an accompanying gunner mounted in a forward compartment of each of the two engine nacelles. Theoretically, the cannon could be slewed, aimed and fired at an oblique angle but flight tests and operational evaluation, disproved the theory: the type proved troublesome and except for initial flight testing in 1937, where full armament was carried, the nacelle cannon armament and the accompanying gunner–loaders were eliminated in the final development aircraft. World War II. British designs Air Ministry Specification F.9/37 led to the second, Rolls-Royce Peregrine powered, prototype of the Gloster G39 having its armament installed at an angle of +12° for 'no-allowance' firing – three dorsal 20mm cannon in the fuselage and two in the nose. While it was a promising aircraft in its own right, by the time that the second prototype was completed the conventionally-armed Bristol Beaufighter was already in production, so neither the G39 nor the subsequent Gloster Reaper were pursued. Similar logic lay behind Air Ministry specification F11/37, which specified a turret-mounted cannon armament: of three companies who tendered (Armstrong Whitworth and Bristol) had turrets that could only traverse through the forward hemisphere, as did Air Ministry specification F22/39, written around the Vickers Type 414 twin-engined fighter, which combined a streamlined monoplane two-seater fighter airframe with a remotely controlled 40mm cannon in the nose that could be elevated for no-allowance shooting. German developments. "Oberleutnant" Rudolf Schoenert of 4./NJG 2 decided to experiment with upward-firing guns in 1941 and began trying out upward-firing installations, amid scepticism from his superiors and fellow pilots. The first installation was made late in 1942, in a Dornier Do 17Z-10 that was also equipped with the early UHF-band version of the FuG 202 "Lichtenstein B/C" radar. In July 1942, Schoenert discussed the results of his experiment with General Kammhuber, who authorized the conversion of three Dornier Do 217J-1s, to add a vertical armament of four or six MG 151s. Further experiments were carried out by the Luftwaffe flight testing centre ) at Tarnewitz on the Baltic Sea coast through 1942. An angle between 60° and 75° was found to give best results, allowing a target turning at 8°/sec to be kept in the gunsight. Schönert was made CO of II./NJG 5, and an armourer serving with the "Gruppe", "Oberfeldwebel" Mahle, developed a working arrangement with the unit's Messerschmitt Bf 110s, mounting a pair of MG FF/M cannon in the rear compartment of the upper fuselage, firing through twin holes in the canopy's glazing. Schönert used such a modified Bf 110 to shoot down a bomber in May 1943. From June 1943, an official conversion kit was produced for the Junkers Ju 88 and Dornier Do 217N fighters. Between August 1943 and the end of the year, Schönert achieved 18 kills with the new gun installation. Before the introduction of "Schräge Musik" in 1943, the "Nachtjagdgeschwadern" (NJG, night fighter wings) were simply equipped with heavy fighters fitted with radar in the nose and a combination of front-firing and defensive weapons. In the standard interception, the fighter approached the target from the rear to get into a firing position, presenting the night fighter crew with a much smaller target, a problem compounded by the Royal Air Force bombers (such as the Whitley and Wellington medium bombers) first being fitted with twin-gun hydraulic tail turrets, later upgraded to four guns to fend off just such attacks. While the small calibre made these guns less effective than hoped, rear-gunners also maintained a watch for fighters and, if warned, the pilot would make evasive manoeuvres such as corkscrews. Night-fighter pilots therefore developed a new tactic to avoid the turret guns: instead of approaching directly from the rear they would approach about below the bomber, pull up sharply and start firing when the nose of the bomber appeared in the gunsight. As the fighter slowed and the bomber passed over them, its wings were sprayed with cannon or machine gun rounds. While effective, this manoeuvre was difficult to perform, there was a risk of collision and, if the bomb load exploded, it could also destroy the attack aircraft. Systems similar to the original "Schräge Musik", such as the "Sondergerät 500" or "Jägerfaust", were tested on day fighters and other airframes, with the largest-calibre upward-firing aerial ordnance in German service, based on the quintuple-launcher of the 21 cm Nebelwerfer infantry barrage rocket, the experimental heavy-bomber based "Grosszerstörer" (heavy destroyer) also under test. The "Jägerfaust" system, firing projectiles vertically into the lower sides of bombers, was triggered by an optical device, so the pilot's only task was to pass beneath the target. This was tested on the Fw 190, and was destined for installation in the Me 163B and the Me 262B. The definitive night fighter version of the Messerschmitt Me 262, the Me 262B-2, was also designed to carry such an installation but the system was a failure and it was not used operationally. Trials with the Komet were promising, with six operational aircraft modified. On 10 April 1945, a Halifax bomber was shot down by Fritz Kelb flying a "Jägerfaust"-equipped Me 163B, most probably from I. "Gruppe"/JG 400 operating from Brandis, Germany. As experimental aircraft were developed as night fighters, such as the Horten Ho 229, a "Schräge Musik" system was incorporated from the outset. The experimental Horten Ho 229 flying wing series was proposed for consideration, with a form of unusual upward-firing armament for testing on the V4 night fighter prototype, photoelectric fired vertically mounted rockets or recoilless guns, instead of cannon armament inspired by the "Jagdfaust". Method of sighting guns. In the Ju 88 G-6 night fighter, which was both fast and manoeuvrable, the Revi 16N gunsight was modified to allow the pilot to aim at the target by placing a mirror above his head, parallel to a similar mirror placed behind the gunsight (where the eye would normally be), which was further to the rear, functioning together in the manner of a periscope. The Ju 88 G-6 was guided into position from sighting and final approach by commands from the radar operator, with the pilot only taking over when visual contact was made just prior to firing. Operational use. "Schräge Musik" (or "Schrägwaffen", as it was also called) was first used operationally during Operation Hydra (the first instance of the Allied bombing of Peenemünde) on the night of 17/18 August 1943. Three waves of aircraft bombed the area and a diversion on Berlin by RAF Mosquitoes, attracted the main "Luftwaffe" fighter effort and meant that only the last of the three waves was met by many night fighters. Number 5 Group and RCAF 6 Group in the third wave, lost 29 of their 166 bombers, well over the 10 percent losses considered "unsustainable". In this raid 40 aircraft were lost: 23 Lancasters, 15 Halifaxes and two Short Stirlings. Adoption of "Schräge Musik" began in late 1943 and by 1944, a third of all German night fighters carried upward-firing guns. "Schräge Musik" proved most successful in the Jumo 213 powered Ju 88 G-6. An increasing number of these installations used the more powerful calibre, short-barrelled MK 108 cannon, such as those fitted to the Heinkel He 219, fully contained within the fuselage. By mid-1944, He 219 aircrew were critical of the MK 108 installation, because its low muzzle velocity and limited range, meant that the night fighter had to be close to the bomber to attack and be vulnerable to damage from debris. They demanded that either the MK 108s be removed and replaced by MG FF/Ms or the angle of the mounting be changed. Although He 219s continued to be delivered with the twin 30 mm mounted, these were removed by front line units. Using the "Schräge Musik" required precise timing and swift evasion; a fatally damaged bomber could fall on the night fighter if the fighter could not quickly turn away. The He 219 was particularly prone to this; its high wing loading left it at the edge of stalling speed when matching the Lancaster's cruising speed, and therefore quite unmaneuverable. The same was true to a lesser extent of other Luftwaffe types such as the Ju 88, which was considered quite a "hot ship" by its crews. This was also a problem during normal stern attacks at low closure rate, but it was even more exaggerated during "schräge musik" attacks, since the pilot could not even make use of the limited climb performance available at the edge of the flight envelope to avoid debris from the stricken target. "Schräge Musik" allowed German night fighters to attack undetected, using special ammunition with a faint glowing trail replacing the standard tracer, combined with a "lethal mixture of armour-piercing, explosive and incendiary ammunition." Approaching from below provided the night fighter crew with the advantage that the bomber crew could not see them against the dark ground or sky, yet allowed the German crew to see the silhouette of the aircraft before they attacked. The optimum target for the night fighter was the wing fuel tanks, not the fuselage or bomb bay, because of the risk that exploding bombs would damage the attacker. "To overcome some of the problems, many NJG pilots closed the range at a lower level, below the Monica zone of coverage, until they could see the bomber above; then they pulled up into a climb with all front guns blazing. This demanded fine judgement, gave only a second or two of firing time and almost immediately brought the fighter up behind the bomber's tail turret. "Schräge Musik" produced devastating results, with its most successful deployment in the winter of 1943–1944. This was a time when Bomber Command losses became unsupportable: the RAF lost 78 of 823 bombers that attacked Leipzig on 19 February, and 96 of the 795 bombers that attacked Nuremberg on 30/31 March 1944. RAF Bomber Command was slow to react to the threat from "Schräge Musik", with no reports from shot-down crews reporting the new tactic; the sudden increase in bomber losses had often been attributed to flak. Reports from air gunners of German night fighters stalking their prey from below had appeared as early as 1943 but had been discounted. A myth developed among RAF Bomber Command crews that "scarecrow shells" were encountered over Germany. The phenomenon was thought to be "AA shells simulating an exploding four-engined bomber and designed to damage morale. In many cases these were actual 'kills' by Luftwaffe night fighters... It was not for many months that evidence of these deadly attacks was accepted." A detailed analysis of the damage done to returning bombers clearly showed that the night fighters were firing from below. Defence against the attacks included mixing de Havilland Mosquito night fighters into the bomber stream, to pick up radar emissions from the German night fighters. Wing Commander J. D. Pattinson of 429 "Bison" Squadron, recognized an unseen danger but to him, it "was all presumption, not fact." He ordered that the mid-upper turrets be removed and the "displaced gunner would lie on a mattress on the floor as an observer, looking through a perspex blister for night fighters coming up from below." Many Lancaster B. IIs had retained the FN64 ventral turret, and a small number of Halifax and Lancaster bombers were unofficially fitted with a machine-gun, normally of .303 calibre but Canadian units tended to use the 0.50-inch (12.7mm) heavy machine gun. (If not installed in a ventral turret these weapons were mounted in a makeshift port directly under the mid-upper gunner station.) Even in the last year of the war, 18 months after the Peenemunde Raid, "Schräge Musik" night fighters were still taking a heavy toll, for example on the Mitteland–Ems Canal Raid, 21 February 1945: Japan. In 1943, Commander Yasuna Kozono of the 251st Kōkūtai, Imperial Japanese Navy in Rabaul came up with the idea of converting the Nakajima J1N (J1N1-C) "Irving" into a night fighter. On 21 May 1943, at about the same time as the Luftwaffe's "Oberleutnant" Schoenert had his first victory with "Schräge Musik" in Europe, the field-modified J1N1-C KAI shot down two B-17s of the 43rd Bomb Group who were attacking air bases around Rabaul. The Navy took immediate notice and placed orders with Nakajima, for the newly designated J1N1-S night fighter design. This model was christened the Model 11 Gekkō (月光, Moonlight). It required only two crew and like the KAI, had a -calibre twinned pair of Type 99 Model 1 cannon firing upward and a second pair firing downward at a forward 30° angle, also placed in the fuselage behind the cabin. The Type 99 20mm calibre autocannon ordnance used by Japanese aircraft was based on the drum-magazine fed Swiss Oerlikon FF ordnance which was itself the basis for the Germans' own MG FF weapon, used to pioneer "Schräge Musik" for the Luftwaffe. The Japanese Army Air Force Mitsubishi Ki-46 "Dinah" twin engined fighter was used to test the "Schräge Musik" armament format in its Ki-46 III KAI version in June 1943, using a 37 mm Ho-203 cannon with 200 rounds of ammunition, the largest calibre autocannon used for Schräge Musik-type operations. It was mounted in a similar position in the fuselage as the Luftwaffe's night fighters. Operational deployment began in October 1944. One of the main Japanese fighters using this device was the Kawasaki Ki-45 "Nick". With the "Schräge Musik" installation on the IJNAS's Nakajima J1N1-S "Gekkō" (two or three 20mm cannons firing upwards, some had two firing downwards), the Nakajima C6N1-S "Myrt" single-engined, high-speed reconnaissance aircraft was used with a pair of 20 mm Type 99 cannons. One variant of the common A6M5 Zero single-seat fighter—the A6M5d-S—had a 20mm Type 99 cannon mounted just behind the pilot, firing upwards for night fighter combat. United Kingdom. The Boulton Paul Defiant "turret fighter" was originally conceived under the F.9/35 specification for a "two-seat day and night fighter" to defend Great Britain against massed formations of unescorted enemy bombers. Regardless of the requirement, the use of its dorsal turret was based on the "broadside" fighter interception and combined fighter attack tactic of bomber interception. Attempts to take on single-seat fighters with Defiants led to catastrophic results in 1940 over France and during the Battle of Britain. With such high losses in day operations, the Defiant was transferred to night fighting and there the type achieved some success. Defiant night fighters typically attacked enemy bombers from below, in a similar manoeuvre to the later German "Schräge Musik" attacks, more often from slightly ahead or to one side, rather than from directly under the tail. During the "Blitz" on London of 1940–1941, the Defiant equipped four squadrons, shooting down more enemy aircraft than any other type. The Defiant Mk II was fitted with AI.IV radar and a Merlin XX engine. A total of 207 Defiant Mk IIs were built but the Defiant was retired as radar-equipped Beaufighter and Mosquito night fighters entered service in 1941 and 1942. Turret fighters with four 20mm cannon were specified under F.11/37 but got no further than a scaled prototype. A Douglas Havoc, "BD126", was fitted with six upward firing machine guns in the fuselage behind the cockpit. The guns could be controlled in elevation from 30–50 degrees and 15 degrees in the azimuth by the gunner in the nose. The aircraft was tested at the A&AEE in 1941 and then by the GRU and Fighter Interception Unit. United States. The American Northrop P-61 Black Widow night fighter could deliver a "Schräge Musik"-like surprise of its own, because of the design of its remote dorsal turret carrying a quartet of .50 Caliber Browning M2 machine guns, that could elevate to a full 90° position. Postwar. The Northrop F-89 Scorpion was originally designed to meet the 1945 United States Army Air Forces Army Air Technical Service Command specification ("Military Characteristics for All-Weather Fighting Aircraft") for a jet-powered night fighter to replace the P-61 Black Widow. The N-24 company proposal was armed with four 20 mm (.79 in) cannon in a unique trainable nose turret that could rotate 360˚ with the guns able to elevate to 105˚. Ultimately, the F-89 design abandoned the swiveling nose turret in favor of a more standard front-firing cannon arrangement. In 1947, the United States Air Force tested a "Schräge Musik" gun installation on a Lockheed F-80A Shooting Star standard "day fighter" aircraft (s/n 44-85044) to study the ability to attack Soviet bombers from below. Twin 0.5 in (12.7 mm) machine guns were fixed in an oblique mount. A final attempt to exploit a fully traversing turret was found in the original 1948 design of the Curtiss-Wright XF-87 Blackhawk all-weather jet fighter interceptor. Armament was to be a nose-mounted, powered turret containing four 20 mm (.79 in) cannon, but this installation was only fitted to the mock-up and never incorporated in the two prototypes. Analysis. Freeman Dyson, who was an analyst for Operations research of RAF Bomber Command in World War II, commented on the effectiveness of "Schräge Musik":

loaded weapon

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=530921

Buddhist texts are those religious texts which are part of the Buddhist tradition. The first Buddhist texts were initially passed on orally by Buddhist monastics, but were later written down and composed as manuscripts in various Indo-Aryan languages (such as Pali, Gāndhārī and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit) and collected into various Buddhist canons. These were then translated into other languages such as Buddhist Chinese ("fójiào hànyǔ" 佛教漢語) and Classical Tibetan as Buddhism spread outside of India. Buddhist texts can be categorized in a number of ways. The Western terms "scripture" and "canonical" are applied to Buddhism in inconsistent ways by Western scholars: for example, one authority refers to "scriptures and other canonical texts", while another says that scriptures can be categorized into canonical, commentarial, and pseudo-canonical. Buddhist traditions have generally divided these texts with their own categories and divisions, such as that between "buddhavacana" "word of the Buddha," many of which are known as "sutras," and other texts, such as shastras (treatises) or Abhidharma. These religious texts were written in different languages, methods and writing systems. Memorizing, reciting and copying the texts was seen as spiritually valuable. Even after the development and adoption of printing by Buddhist institutions, Buddhists continued to copy them by hand as a spiritual practice. In an effort to preserve these scriptures, Asian Buddhist institutions were at the forefront of the adoption of Chinese technologies related to bookmaking, including paper, and block printing which were often deployed on a large scale. Because of this, the first surviving example of a printed text is a Buddhist charm, the first full printed book is the Buddhist Diamond Sutra (c. 868) and the first hand colored print is an illustration of Guanyin dated to 947. Buddhavacana. The concept of "buddhavacana" (word of the Buddha) is important in understanding how Buddhists classify and see their texts. Buddhavacana texts have special status as sacred scripture and are generally seen as in accord with the teachings of the Buddha, which is termed "the Dharma". According to Donald Lopez, the criteria for determining what should be considered buddhavacana were developed at an early stage, and that the early formulations do not suggest that Dharma is limited to what was spoken by the historical Buddha. The Mahāsāṃghika and the Mūlasarvāstivāda considered both the Buddha's discourses, and of his disciples, to be buddhavacana. A number of different beings such as buddhas, disciples of the buddha, ṛṣis, and devas were considered capable to transmitting buddhavacana. The content of such a discourse was then to be collated with the sūtras, compared with the Vinaya, and evaluated against the nature of the Dharma. These texts may then be certified as true buddhavacana by a buddha, a saṃgha, a small group of elders, or one knowledgeable elder. In Theravāda Buddhism, the standard collection of buddhavacana is the Pāli Canon, also known as the "Tipiṭaka" ("three baskets"). Generally speaking, the Theravāda school rejects the Mahayana sutras as "buddhavacana" (word of the Buddha), and do not study or see these texts as reliable sources. In East Asian Buddhism, what is considered buddhavacana is collected in the Chinese Buddhist canon. The most common edition of this is the Taishō Tripiṭaka, itself based on the Tripitaka Koreana. This collection, unlike the Pāli "Tipiṭaka", contains Mahayana sutras, Śāstras (scholastic treatises) and Esoteric literature. According to Venerable Hsuan Hua from the tradition of Chinese Buddhism, there are five types of beings who may speak the sutras of Buddhism: a buddha, a disciple of a buddha, a deva, a ṛṣi, or an emanation of one of these beings; however, they must first receive certification from a buddha that its contents are true Dharma. Then these sutras may be properly regarded as buddhavacana. Sometimes texts that are considered commentaries by some are regarded by others as buddhavacana. In Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, what is considered "buddhavacana" is collected in the Kangyur ('The Translation of the Word'). The East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist canons always combined buddhavacana with other literature in their standard collected editions. However, the general view of what is and is not buddhavacana is broadly similar between East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism. The Tibetan Kangyur, which belongs to the various schools of Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism, in addition to containing sutras and Vinaya, also contains buddhist tantras and other related tantric literature. The texts of the early Buddhist schools. Early Buddhist texts. The earliest Buddhist texts were passed down orally in Middle Indo-Aryan languages called Prakrits, including Gāndhārī language, the early Magadhan language and Pali through the use of repetition, communal recitation and mnemonic devices. These texts were later compiled into canons and written down in manuscripts. For example, the Pali canon was preserved in Sri Lanka where it was first written down in the first century BCE. There are early texts from various Buddhist schools, the largest collections are from the Theravada and Sarvāstivāda schools, but there are also full texts and fragments from the Dharmaguptaka, Mahāsāṅghika, Mahīśāsaka, Mūlasarvāstivāda, and others. The most widely studied early Buddhist material are the first four Pali Nikayas, as well as the corresponding Chinese Āgamas. The modern study of early pre-sectarian Buddhism often relies on comparative scholarship using these various early Buddhist sources. Various scholars of Buddhist studies such as Richard Gombrich, Akira Hirakawa, Alexander Wynne and A. K. Warder hold that early Buddhist texts contain material that could possibly be traced to the historical Buddha himself or at least to the early years of pre-sectarian Buddhism. In Mahayana Buddhism, these texts are sometimes referred to as "Hinayana" or "Śrāvakayāna". Although many versions of the texts of the early Buddhist schools exist, the only complete collection of texts to survive in a Middle Indo-Aryan language is the "Tipiṭaka" (triple basket) of the Theravada school. The other (parts of) extant versions of the Tripitakas of early schools include the Chinese Āgamas, which includes collections by the Sarvastivada and the Dharmaguptaka. The Chinese Buddhist canon contains a complete collection of early sutras in Chinese translation, their content is very similar to the Pali, differing in detail but not in the core doctrinal content. The Tibetan canon contains some of these early texts as well, but not as complete collections. The earliest known Buddhist manuscripts containing early Buddhist texts are the Gandharan Buddhist Texts, dated to the 1st century BCE and constitute the Buddhist textual tradition of Gandharan Buddhism which was an important link between Indian and East Asian Buddhism. Parts of what is likely to be the canon of the Dharmaguptaka can be found among these Gandharan Buddhist Texts. There are different genres of Early Buddhist texts, including prose "suttas" (Skt: "sūtra", discourses), disciplinary works ("Vinaya"), various forms of verse compositions (such as "gāthā" and "udāna"), mixed prose and verse works ("geya"), and also lists ("matika") of monastic rules or doctrinal topics. A large portion of Early Buddhist literature is part of the "sutta" or "sutra" genre. The "Sūtras" (Sanskrit; Pali "Sutta") are mostly discourses attributed to the Buddha or one of his close disciples. They are considered to be "buddhavacana" by all schools. The Buddha's discourses were perhaps originally organised according to the style in which they were delivered. They were later organized into collections called "Nikāyas" ('volumes') or "Āgamas" ('scriptures'), which were further collected into the "Sūtra Piṭaka" ("Basket of Discourses") of the canons of the early schools. Most of the early sutras that have survived are from Sthavira nikaya schools, no complete collection has survived from the other early branch of Buddhism, the Mahāsāṃghika. However, some individual texts have survived, such as the "Śālistamba Sūtra (rice stalk sūtra)." This "sūtra" contains many parallel passages to the Pali suttas. As noted by N. Ross Reat, this text is in general agreement with the basic doctrines of the early sutras of the Sthavira schools such as dependent origination, the "middle way" between eternalism and annihilationism, the "five aggregates", the "three unwholesome roots", the four noble truths and the noble eightfold path. Another important source for Mahāsāṃghika sutras is the "Mahāvastu" ("Great Event"), which is a collection of various texts compiled into a biography of the Buddha. Within it can be found quotations and whole sutras, such as the Mahāsāṃghika version of the "Dharmacakrapravartana". The other major type of text aside from the sutras are the Vinayas. Vinaya literature is primarily concerned with aspects of the monastic discipline and the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist monastic community (sangha). However, Vinaya as a term is also contrasted with Dharma, where the pair (Dhamma-Vinaya) mean something like 'doctrine and discipline'. The Vinaya literature in fact contains a considerable range of texts. There are, of course, those that discuss the monastic rules, how they came about, how they developed, and how they were applied. But the vinaya also contains some doctrinal expositions, ritual and liturgical texts, biographical stories, and some elements of the "Jatakas", or birth stories. Various Vinaya collections survive in full, including those of the following schools: Theravāda (in Pali), Mula-Sarvāstivāda (in Tibetan translation) and the Mahāsānghika, Sarvāstivāda, Mahīshāsika, and Dharmaguptaka (in Chinese translations). In addition, portions survive of a number of Vinayas in various languages. Aside from the Sutras and the Vinayas, some schools also had collections of "minor" or miscellaneous texts. The Theravāda "Khuddaka Nikāya" (‘Minor Collection’) is one example of such a collection, while there is evidence that the Dharmaguptaka school had a similar collection, known as the "Kṣudraka Āgam"a. Fragments of the Dharmaguptaka minor collection have been found in Gandhari. The Sarvāstivāda school also seems to have had a "Kṣudraka" collection of texts, but they did not see it as an "Āgama". These "minor" collections seem to have been a category for miscellaneous texts, and was perhaps never definitively established among many early schools. Early Buddhist texts which appear in such "minor" collections include: Abhidharma texts. Abhidharma (in Pali, "Abhidhamma") texts which contain "an abstract and highly technical systematization" of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist sutras. It is an attempt to best express the Buddhist view of "ultimate reality" ("paramartha-satya") without using the conventional language and narrative stories found in the sutras. The prominent modern scholar of Abhidharma, Erich Frauwallner has said that these Buddhist systems are "among the major achievements of the classical period of Indian philosophy." Modern scholars generally believe that the canonical Abhidharma texts emerged after the time of the Buddha, in around the 3rd century BCE. Therefore, the canonical Abhidharma works are generally claimed by scholars not to represent the words of the Buddha himself, but those of later Buddhists. There are different types and historical layers of Abhidharma literature. The early canonical Abhidharma works (like the "Abhidhamma Pitaka") are not philosophical treatises, but mainly summaries and expositions of early doctrinal lists with their accompanying explanations. These texts developed out of early Buddhist lists or matrices ("mātṛkās") of key teachings, such as the 37 factors leading to Awakening. Scholars like Erich Frauwallner have argued that there is an "ancient core" of early pre-sectarian material in the earliest Abhidharma works, such as in the Theravada "Vibhanga", the "Dharmaskandha" of the Sarvastivada, and the "Śāriputrābhidharma" of the Dharmaguptaka school. Only two full canonical Abhidharma collections have survived both containing seven texts, the Theravāda Abhidhamma and the Sarvastivada Abhidharma, which survives in Chinese translation. However, texts of other tradition have survived, such as the "Śāriputrābhidharma" of the Dharmaguptaka school, the "Tattvasiddhi Śāstra" ("Chéngshílun") and various Abhidharma type works from the Pudgalavada school. Later post-canonical Abhidharma works were written as either large treatises ("śāstra"), as commentaries ("aṭṭhakathā") or as smaller introductory manuals. They are more developed philosophical works which include many innovations and doctrines not found in the canonical Abhidharma. Other texts. The early Buddhist schools also preserved other types of texts which developed in later periods, which were variously seen as canonical or not, depending on the tradition. One of the largest category of texts that were neither Sutra, Vinaya nor Abhidharma includes various collections of stories such as the Jātaka tales and the Avadānas (Pali: Apadāna). These are moral fables and legends dealing with the previous births of Gautama Buddha in both human and animal form. The different Buddhist schools had their own collections of these tales and often disagreed on which stories were canonical. Another genre that developed over time in the various early schools were biographies of the Buddha. Buddha biographies include the "Mahāvastu" of the Lokottaravadin school, the northern tradition's "Lalitavistara Sūtra," the Theravada "Nidānakathā" and the Dharmaguptaka "Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra." One of the most famous of biographies is the "Buddhacarita", an epic poem in Classical Sanskrit by Aśvaghoṣa. Aśvaghoṣa also wrote other poems, as well as Sanskrit dramas. Another Sanskrit Buddhist poet was Mātṛceṭa, who composed various pious hymns in slokas. Other later hagiographical texts include the "Buddhavaṃsa," the "Cariyāpiṭaka" and the "Vimanavatthu" (as well as its Chinese parallel, the "Vimānāvadāna"). There are also some unique individual texts like the "Milinda pañha" (literally "The Questions of Milinda") and its parallel in Chinese, the "Nāgasena Bhikśu Sūtra" (那先比丘經). These texts depict a dialogue between the monk Nagasena, and the Indo-Greek King Menander (Pali: Milinda). It is a compendium of doctrine, and covers a range of subjects. Theravāda texts. The Theravāda tradition has an extensive commentarial literature, much of which is still untranslated. These are attributed to scholars working in Sri Lanka such as Buddhaghosa (5th century CE) and Dhammapala. There are also sub-commentaries ("ṭīkā") or commentaries on the commentaries. Buddhaghosa was also the author of the "Visuddhimagga", or "Path of Purification", which is a manual of doctrine and practice according to the Mahavihara tradition of Sri Lanka. According to Nanamoli Bhikkhu, this text is regarded as "the principal non-canonical authority of the Theravada." A similar albeit shorter work is the "Vimuttimagga". Another highly influential Pali Theravada work is the "Abhidhammattha-sangaha" (11th or 12th century), a short 50 page introductory summary to the Abhidhamma, which is widely used to teach Abhidhamma. Buddhaghosa is known to have worked from Buddhist commentaries in the Sri Lankan Sinhala language, which are now lost. Sri Lankan literature in the vernacular contains many Buddhist works, including as classical Sinhala poems such as the "Muvadevāvata" (The Story of the Bodhisattva's Birth as King Mukhadeva, 12th century) and the "Sasadāvata" (The Story of the Bodhisattva's Birth as a Hare, 12th century) as well as prose works like the "Dhampiyātuvā gätapadaya" (Commentary on the Blessed Doctrine), a commentary on words and phrases in the Pāli Dhammapada. The Theravāda textual tradition spread into Burma and Thailand where Pali scholarship continued to flourish with such works as the "Aggavamsa" of Saddaniti and the "Jinakalamali" of Ratanapañña. Pali literature continued to be composed into the modern era, especially in Burma, and writers such as Mahasi Sayadaw translated some of their texts into Pali. There are also numerous Esoteric Theravada texts, mostly from Southeast Asia. This tradition flourished in Cambodia and Thailand before the 19th century reformist movement of Rama IV. One of these texts has been published in English by the Pali Text Society as "Manual of a Mystic". Burmese Buddhist literature developed unique poetic forms form the 1450s onwards, a major type of poetry is the which are long and embellished translations of Pali Buddhist works, mainly jatakas. A famous example of poetry is the (the in nine sections, 1523). There is also a genre of Burmese commentaries or which were used to teach Pali. The nineteenth century saw a flowering of Burmese Buddhist literature in various genres including religious biography, Abhidharma, legal literature and meditation literature. An influential text of Thai literature is the "Three Worlds According to King Ruang" (1345) by Phya Lithai, which is an extensive Cosmological and visionary survey of the Thai Buddhist universe. Mahāyāna texts. Mahāyāna sūtras. "See Mahāyāna sūtras for historical background and a list of some sutras categorised by source." Around the beginning of the common era, a new genre of sutra literature began to be written with a focus on the Bodhisattva ideal, commonly known as "Mahāyāna" ("Great Vehicle") or "Bodhisattvayāna" ("Bodhisattva Vehicle"). The earliest of these sutras do not call themselves ‘Mahāyāna,’ but use the terms "Vaipulya" (extensive, expansive) sutras, or "Gambhira" (deep, profound) sutras. There are various theories of how Mahāyāna emerged. According to David Drewes, it seems to have been "primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination of Mahāyāna sutras, that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures." Early "dharmabhanakas" (preachers, reciters of these sutras) were influential figures, and promoted these new texts throughout the Buddhist communities. Many of these Mahāyāna sūtras were written in Sanskrit (in hybrid forms and in classical Sanskrit) and then later translated into the Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist canons (the Kangyur and the Taishō Tripiṭaka respectively) which then developed their own textual histories. Sanskrit had been adopted by Buddhists in north India during the Kushan era and Sanskrit Buddhist literature became the dominant tradition in Buddhist India until the decline of Buddhism there. Mahāyāna sūtras are also generally regarded by the Mahāyāna tradition as being more profound than the śrāvaka texts as well as generating more spiritual merit and benefit. Thus, they are seen as superior and more virtuous to non-Mahāyāna sutras. The Mahāyāna sūtras are traditionally considered by Mahāyāna Buddhists to be the word of the Buddha. Mahāyāna Buddhists explained the emergence of these new texts by arguing that they had been transmitted in secret, via lineages of supernatural beings (such as the nagas) until people were ready to hear them, or by stating that they had been revealed directly through visions and meditative experiences to a select few. According to David McMahan, the literary style of the Mahāyāna sūtras reveals how these texts were mainly composed as written works and how they also needed to legitimate themselves to other Buddhists. They used different literary and narrative ways to defend the legitimacy of these texts as Buddha word. Mahāyāna sūtras such as the "Gaṇḍavyūha" also often criticize early Buddhist figures, such as Sariputra for lacking knowledge and goodness, and thus, these elders or śrāvaka are seen as not intelligent enough to receive the Mahāyāna teachings, while more the advanced elite, the bodhisattvas, are depicted as those who can see the highest teachings. These sūtras were not recognized as being Buddha word by various early Buddhist schools and there was lively debate over their authenticity throughout the Buddhist world. Various Mahāyāna sūtras warn against the charge that they are not word of the Buddha, showing that they are aware of this claim. Buddhist communities such as the Mahāsāṃghika school were divided along these doctrinal lines into sub-schools which accepted or did not accept these texts. The Theravāda school of Sri Lanka also was split on the issue during the medieval period. The Mahavihara sub-sect rejected these texts and the (now extinct) Abhayagiri sect accepted them. Theravāda commentaries mention these texts (which they call "Vedalla/Vetulla") as not being the Buddha word and being counterfeit scriptures. Modern Theravāda generally does not accept these texts as "buddhavacana" (word of the Buddha). The Mahāyāna movement remained quite small until the fifth century, with very few manuscripts having been found before then (the exceptions are from Bamiyan). However, according to Walser, the fifth and sixth centuries saw a great increase in the production of these texts. By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such as Faxian, Yijing, and Xuanzang were traveling to India, and their writings do describe monasteries which they label 'Mahāyāna' as well as monasteries where both Mahāyāna monks and non-Mahāyāna monks lived together. Mahāyāna sūtras contain several elements besides the promotion of the bodhisattva ideal, including "expanded cosmologies and mythical histories, ideas of purelands and great, ‘celestial’ Buddhas and bodhisattvas, descriptions of powerful new religious practices, new ideas on the nature of the Buddha, and a range of new philosophical perspectives." These texts present stories of revelation in which the Buddha teaches Mahāyāna sutras to certain bodhisattvas who vow to teach and spread these sutras. These texts also promoted new religious practices that were supposed to make Buddhahood easy to achieve, such as "hearing the names of certain Buddhas or bodhisattvas, maintaining Buddhist precepts, and listening to, memorizing, and copying sutras." Some Mahāyāna sūtras claim that these practices lead to rebirth in Pure lands such as Abhirati and Sukhavati, where becoming a Buddha is much easier to achieve. Several Mahāyāna sūtras also depict important Buddhas or Bodhisattvas not found in earlier texts, such as the Buddhas Amitabha, Akshobhya and Vairocana, and the bodhisattvas Maitreya, Mañjusri, Ksitigarbha, and Avalokiteshvara. An important feature of Mahāyāna is the way that it understands the nature of Buddhahood. Mahāyāna texts see Buddhas (and to a lesser extent, certain bodhisattvas as well) as transcendental or supramundane ("lokuttara") beings, who live for eons constantly helping others through their activity. According to Paul Williams, in Mahāyāna, a Buddha is often seen as "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world", rather than simply a teacher who after his death "has completely ‘gone beyond’ the world and its cares". Buddha Sakyamuni's life and death on earth is then usually understood as a "mere appearance", his death is an unreal show, in reality he continues to live in a transcendent reality. Thus the Buddha in the Lotus sutra says that he is "the father of the world", "the self existent ("svayambhu")...protector of all creatures", who has "never ceased to exist" and only "pretends to have passed away." Hundreds of Mahāyāna sūtras have survived in Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan translation. There many different genres or classes of Mahāyāna sutras, such as the "Prajñāpāramitā sūtra"s, the "Tathāgatagarbha sūtras" and the Pure Land "sūtra"s. The different Mahāyāna schools have many varied classification schemas for organizing them and they see different texts as having higher authority than others. Some Mahāyāna sūtras are also thought to display a distinctly tantric character, like some of the shorter Perfection of Wisdom sutras and the "Mahavairocana Sutra". At least some editions of the Kangyur include the "Heart Sutra" in the tantra division. Such overlap is not confined to "neighbouring" yanas: at least nine "Sravakayana" texts can be found in the tantra divisions of some editions of the Kangyur. One of them, the "Atanatiya Sutra", is also included in the Mikkyo (esoteric) division of the standard modern collected edition of Sino-Japanese Buddhist literature. Some Mahāyāna texts also contain "dhāraṇī," which are chants that are believed to have magical and spiritual power. The following is a list of some well known Mahāyāna sutras which have been studied by modern scholarship: Indian treatises. The Mahāyāna commentarial and exegetical literature is vast. Many of these exegetical and scholastic works are called "Śāstras", which can refer to a scholastic treatise, exposition or commentary. Central to much of Mahāyāna philosophy are the works of the Indian scholar Nagarjuna. Especially important is his magnum opus, the "Mūlamadhyamika-karikā", or Root Verses on the Middle Way, a seminal text on the Madhyamika philosophy. Various other authors of the Madhyamaka school followed him and wrote commentaries to his texts or their own treatises. Another very influential work which traditionally attributed to Nagarjuna In East Asia is the "Dà zhìdù lùn" (*"Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa, The Great Discourse on Prajñāpāramitā"). This is a massive Mahayana Buddhist treatise and commentary on the "Prajñāpāramitā sutra" in Twenty-five Thousand Lines, and it has been extremely important in the development of the major Chinese Buddhist traditions. Its authorship to Nagarjuna however has been questioned by modern scholars and it only survives in the Chinese translation by Kumārajīva (344–413 CE) . The "Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra" (fourth century CE) is another very large treatise which focuses on yogic praxis and the doctrines of the Indian Yogacara school. Unlike the "Dà zhìdù lùn", it was studied and transmitted in both the East Asian Buddhist and the Tibetan Buddhist traditions. The works of Asanga, a great scholar and systematizer of the Yogacara, are also very influential in both traditions, including his magnum opus, the "Mahāyāna-samgraha", and the "Abhidharma-samuccaya" (a compendium of Abhidharma thought that became the standard text for many Mahayana schools especially in Tibet). Various texts are also said to have received by Asanga from the Bodhisattva Maitreya in the Tushita god realm, including works such as "Madhyāntavibhāga", the "Mahāyāna-sūtrālamkāra", and the "Abhisamayālamkara". Their authorship remains disputed by modern scholars however. Asanga's brother Vasubandhu wrote a large number of texts associated with the Yogacara including: "Trisvabhāva-nirdesa", "Vimsatika", "Trimsika", and the "Abhidharmakośa-bhāsya". Numerous commentaries were written by later Yogacara exegetes on the works of these two brothers. The 9th Century Indian Buddhist Shantideva produced two texts: the "Bodhicaryāvatāra" has been a strong influence in many schools of the Mahayana. It is notably a favorite text of the 14th Dalai Lama. Dignāga is associated with a school of Buddhist logic that tried to establish which texts were valid sources of knowledge (see also Epistemology). He produced the "Pramāna-samuccaya", and later Dharmakirti wrote the "Pramāna-vārttikā", which was a commentary and reworking of the Dignaga text. East Asian works. "The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana" ("Dàshéng Qǐxìn Lùn") is an influential text in East Asian Buddhism, especially in the Hua-yen school of China, and its Japanese equivalent, Kegon. While it is traditionally attributed to Ashvaghosha, most scholars now hold it is a Chinese composition. The "Dhyāna sutras" (Chan-jing) are a group of early Buddhist meditation texts which contain meditation teachings from the Sarvastivada school along with some early proto-Mahayana meditations. They were mostly the work of Buddhist Yoga teachers from Kashmir and were translated into Chinese early on. The early period of the development of Chinese Buddhism was concerned with the collection and translation of texts into Chinese and the creation of the Chinese Buddhist canon. This was often done by traveling overland to India, as recorded in the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, by the monk Xuanzang (c. 602–664), who also wrote a commentary on Yogacara which remained influential, the "Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only." East Asian Buddhism began to develop its own unique doctrinal literature with the rise of the Tiantai School and its major representative, Zhiyi (538–597 CE) who wrote important commentaries on the Lotus sutra as well as the first major comprehensive work on meditation composed in China, the "Mohe Zhiguan" (摩訶止観). Another important school of Chinese Buddhism is Huayan, which focused on developing their philosophical texts from the "Avatamsaka". An important patriarch of this school is Fazang who wrote many commentaries and treatises. The Tripitaka Koreana, which was crafted in two versions (the first one was destroyed by fire during the Mongol invasions of Korea), is a Korean collection of the Tripitaka carved onto 81,258 wooden printing blocks during the 13th century. Still intact in good condition after some 750 years, it has been described by the UNESCO committee as "one of the most important and most complete corpus of Buddhist doctrinal texts in the world". Zen Buddhism developed a large literary tradition based on the teachings and sayings of Chinese Zen masters. One of the key texts in this genre is the "Platform Sutra" attributed to Zen patriarch Huineng, it gives an autobiographical account of his succession as Ch'an Patriarch, as well as teachings about Ch'an theory and practice. Other texts are Koan collections, which are compilations of the sayings of Chinese masters such as the "Blue Cliff Record" and "The Gateless Gate". Another key genre is that of compilations of Zen master biographies, such as the "Transmission of the Lamp". Buddhist poetry was also an important contribution to the literature of the tradition. After the arrival of Chinese Buddhism in Japan, Korea and Vietnam; they developed their own traditions and literature in the local language. Vajrayana texts. Buddhist tantras. The late Seventh century saw the rise of another new class of Buddhist texts, the Tantras, which focused on ritual practices and yogic techniques such as the use of Mantras, Dharanis, Mandalas, Mudras and Fire offerings. Many early Buddhist Tantric texts, later termed “action Tantras” ("kriyā tantra"), are mostly collections of magical mantras or phrases for mostly worldly ends called "mantrakalpas" (mantra manuals) and they do not call themselves Tantras. Later Tantric texts from the eighth century onward (termed variously Yogatantra, Mahayoga, and Yogini Tantras) advocated union with a deity (deity yoga), sacred sounds (mantras), techniques for manipulation of the subtle body and other secret methods with which to achieve swift Buddhahood. Some Tantras contain antinomian and transgressive practices such as ingesting alcohol and other forbidden substances as well as sexual rituals. Some scholars such as Alexis Sanderson have argued that these later tantras, mainly the Yogini tantras, can be shown to have been influenced by non-Buddhist religious texts, mainly Tantric Śaivism and the Śaiva tantras. In East Asian Esoteric Buddhism and its Japanese offshoot, the Shingon school, the most influential tantras are those which focus on Vairocana Buddha, mainly, the "Mahavairocana Tantra" and the "Vajrasekhara Sutra." Buddhist Tantras are key texts in Vajrayana Buddhism, which is the dominant form of Buddhism in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia. They can be found in the Chinese canon, but even more so in the Tibetan Kangyur which contains translations of almost 500 tantras. In the Tibetan tradition, there are various categories of tantra. The Sarma or New Translation schools of Tibetan Buddhism divide the Tantras into four main categories: "Anuttarayogatantra" (Higher Yoga Tantra) is known in the Nyingma school as "Mahayoga". Some of the most influential Higher Tantras in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism are the "Guhyasamāja Tantra", the "Hevajra Tantra", the "Cakrasamvara Tantra", and the "Kalacakra Tantra." The Nyingma school also has unique tantras of its own, not found in the other Tibetan schools, the most important of these are the Dzogchen tantras. Other products of the Vajrayana literature. Tibetan Buddhism has a unique and special class of texts called "terma" (Tibetan: "gTer-ma"). These are texts (or ritual objects, etc.) believed either composed or hidden by tantric masters and/or elementally secreted or encoded in the elements and retrieved, accessed or rediscovered by other tantric masters when appropriate. Termas are discovered by tertöns (Tibetan: "gTer-stons"), whose special function is to reveal these texts. Some termas are hidden in caves or similar places, but a few are said to be 'mind termas,' which are 'discovered' in the mind of the tertön. The Nyingma school (and Bön tradition) has a large terma literature. Many of the terma texts are said to have been written by Padmasambhava, who is particularly important to the Nyingmas. Probably the best known terma text is the so-called "Tibetan book of the dead", the "Bardo Thodol". A sadhana is a tantric spiritual practice text used by practitioners, primarily to practice the mandala or a particular yidam, or meditation deity. The "Sādhanamālā" is a collection of sadhanas. Vajrayana adepts, known as mahasiddha, often expounded their teachings in the form of songs of realization. Collections of these songs such as the "Caryāgīti", or the Charyapada are still in existence. The "Dohakosha" is a collection of "doha" songs by the yogi Saraha from the 9th century. A collection known in English as "The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa" was composed by Tibetan Buddhist yogi Milarepa and is especially popular amongst members of the Kagyu school. The "Blue Annals" () completed in 1476, authored by Gölo Zhönnupel (Tibetan: "gos lo gzhon nu dpal", 1392–1481), is a historical survey of Tibetan Buddhism with a marked ecumenical view, focusing upon the dissemination of various sectarian traditions throughout Tibet. Namtar, or spiritual biographies, are another popular form of Tibetan Buddhist texts, whereby the teachings and spiritual path of a practitioner are explained through a review of their life story. Kūkai wrote a number of treatises on Vajrayana Buddhism, and these are influential in Japanese Shingon Buddhism.

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The University of Richmond (UR or U of R) is a private liberal arts university in Richmond, Virginia. The university is a primarily undergraduate, residential university with approximately 4,350 undergraduate and graduate students in five schools: the School of Arts and Sciences, the E. Claiborne Robins School of Business, the Jepson School of Leadership Studies, the University of Richmond School of Law and the School of Professional & Continuing Studies. History. The University of Richmond traces its history to a meeting of the Baptist General Association of Virginia held on June 8, 1830. The BGAV resolved "that the Baptists of this State form an education society for the improvement of the ministry." Thus, the Virginia Baptist Education Society was instituted. However, the society did not have enough funds for a proper school yet. In the meantime, they asked their vice-president, Rev. Edward Baptist, "to accept into his home young men wishing to prepare for the ministry." Baptist was an 1813 graduate of Hampden–Sydney College. In August 1830, William Allgood, the first student of this ministry school, came to Baptist's Dunlora Plantation to attend classes in "a building of three or four rooms." The school, eventually known as Dunlora Academy, enrolled nine students overall in its first year. After two years, the society purchased for $4,000 "Spring Farm," located about five miles north of Richmond. This farm was the home of the Virginia Baptist Seminary which opened July 1, 1834 and began classes July 4 under the leadership of Robert Ryland. The Virginia Baptist Seminary offered courses in Latin, Greek, and mathematics. One interesting feature of the school was its manual labor component. Each day, students worked for three hours at farm labor. President Ryland thought highly of this system as it was "improving the health, diminishing the expenses, and perhaps guarding the humility of the young preachers." In reality, the farming experiment proved to be unprofitable and was dropped from the school after a couple years. Over time, enrollment and faculty increased to a point where the education society began looking for a more suitable property than small "Spring Farm," where dorms consisted of log cabins while the schoolrooms and the chapel were in a barn. In 1834, the Virginia Baptist Education Society bought the former Haxall family plantation. This property was much larger and more efficient than "Spring Farm." It was situated of the main house, Columbia, and other brick buildings. As the seminary grew, it became in need of funds. The education society was unable to receive bequests or hold property as it was an unincorporated organization. The seminary could not receive a charter from the legislature as it was a theological school. Therefore, around 1840 the seminary applied for a charter as a liberal arts college, which was granted on March 4 of that year. At this time, the society turned over the land and buildings of the school to the trustees of newly minted Richmond College. Richmond College officially opened on January 2, 1843. It had "68 students, 3 teachers, land and buildings valued at $20,000, a small endowment, and a library of 700 volumes." For an eleven-month session, tuition and room and board cost $120. The salaries of the teachers were $900 for President Ryland, and $600 and $500 for the other two. During the American Civil War, the entire student body formed a regiment and joined the Confederate army. Richmond College's buildings were used as a hospital for Confederate troops and later as a barracks for Union soldiers. The college invested all of its funds in Confederate war bonds, and the outcome of the war left it bankrupt. In 1866, James Thomas donated $5,000 to reopen the college. The T.C. Williams School of Law opened in 1870. In 1894, the college elected Dr. Frederic W. Boatwright president. President Boatwright would serve for 51 years. He is most remembered for raising the funds needed to move the college in 1914 from its original downtown location to a new 350-acre campus in what is now Westhampton area of Richmond, and in doing so created Westhampton College for women. The university's main library, Boatwright Memorial Library, is named in Boatwright's honor. Symbolically, the library and its soaring academic gothic tower occupy the highest spot on the grounds. Its grounds were landscaped in 1913, by Warren H. Manning under the supervision of Charles Gillette. The institution was renamed "University of Richmond" in 1920 with the men's college renamed "Richmond College". The distinction of colleges was phased out in the late 20th century, but the respective parts of the campus continue to be referred to as the Westhampton and the Richmond "sides". In 1949, the E. Claiborne Robins School of Business opened, followed by the School of Continuing Studies in 1962. In 1969, when financial issues threatened closing the university or turning it over to the Commonwealth of Virginia, E. Claiborne Robins Sr., a trustee and alumnus, donated $50 million to the university, the largest gift made to an institution of higher education at the time. In constant dollars, it remains among the largest. Robins' goal was to make Richmond one of the best private universities in the country. In partnership with the university's president E. Bruce Heilman and development director H. Gerald Quigg the $10 million matching grant component of the gift raised over an additional $60 million, making the university's total endowment at the time one of the highest in the country. During World War II, Richmond was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission. In 1987, a donation of $20 million by Robert S. Jepson, Jr. facilitated the opening of the Jepson School of Leadership Studies. The school, which opened in 1992, was the first of its kind in the U.S. In 1990, the academic missions of Richmond and Westhampton Colleges were combined to form the School of Arts and Sciences. The Weinstein-Jecklin Speech Center was formed in 1996. Its purpose of The Weinstein-Jecklin Speech Center is to offer assistance to those who wish to pursue effective speaking and articulate behavior across academic disciplines. On October 15, 1992, presidential candidates George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and Ross Perot came to campus for the first-ever "town hall" televised presidential debate, viewed by 200 million people worldwide. Addressing a crowd of nearly 9,000, President Obama visited the University of Richmond to present the American Jobs Act on September 11, 2011. On, February 23, 2015, the University of Richmond announced to the student body via email that the board of trustees elected Ronald Crutcher as the 10th president of the university. He took office 1 July 2015, and his inauguration ceremony was held at the Robins Center on 30 October 2015. The Henry Mansfield Cannon Memorial Chapel, North Court, and Ryland Hall were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2013. Schools. School of Arts & Sciences. All Richmond undergraduate students begin their course work in the School of Arts & Sciences (A&S), which offers 38 majors and 10 concentrations in the arts, sciences, social sciences, and humanities. The School of Arts & Sciences is composed of 22 departments and 10 interdisciplinary programs. After one full year of study, students may decide to pursue majors in the other undergraduate schools, though 70 percent of students choose to remain in A&S. Patrice Rankin is the current dean of A&S, having served in that position since June 2016. Students have the chance to study abroad and pursue internships or research while gaining an education. Robins School of Business. The Robins School of Business was established in 1949 and offers undergraduate, graduate and executive education programs. It is named after alumnus E. Claiborne Robins. Dr. Miguel "Mickey" Quiñones is the current dean of the Robins School of Business, having served in that position since July 2019. Ranked 12th nationally overall and tied for first in academic quality by "BusinessWeek", the Robins School is the only fully accredited, top-ranked undergraduate business school that also is part of a top-ranked liberal arts university. In the 2009 "BusinessWeek" review of part-time MBA programs, the Robins school ranked 3rd in the mid-Atlantic region and 17th nationwide. Admission into the Robins School of Business is granted to students who have completed basic Accounting, Economics and Math courses at the end of three semester while maintaining a Grade Point Average of 2.7 or higher. Jepson School of Leadership Studies. The Jepson School of Leadership Studies was founded to address a perceived need in the modern world for the academic study of leadership. The school blends a curriculum of economics, history, literature, philosophy, politics, psychology and religion so that students can learn conceptual tools that support the exercise of leadership in varied settings. As of 2016, the Jepson School remains as the only school of its kind in the United States that is completely devoted to the study of leadership. School of Law. Chartered in 1840, Richmond College was only 30 years old when it added a Law Department. The initial years were very successful for the new Law Department but during the difficult financial times that followed the Civil War, legal education was intermittent at Richmond College until 1890. In that year, the family of the late T.C. Williams, Sr., endowed a Professorship of Law, thus assuring the continuous teaching of law at Richmond College. The law school was granted membership in the Association of American Law Schools in 1930 and now enrolls approximately 500 full-time students and has 4,300 active alumni. School of Professional and Continuing Studies. The School of Professional & Continuing Studies was established in 1962. It offers degree and certificate programs, enrichment opportunities, professional training, and college course work for part-time and non-traditional students of all ages. A variety of evening programs with credit and non-credit courses make it possible for those with busy schedules to further their education or explore new interests. The school was originally named University College and included both a two-year junior college and an evening division. It was located on the original location of Richmond College on the corner of Grace and Lombardy Streets in Richmond's Fan district. In 1974, the school moved from the Columbia Building at Grace & Lombardy to the main campus in Richmond's West End. In 1994, the school was renamed the School of Continuing Studies in alignment with names of the other schools of the university. In 2012, it was renamed the School of Professional & Continuing Studies to better reflect the character of its students and the nature of its programs. Undergraduate academics. All students must complete general education requirements as part of the liberal arts curriculum. These requirements include a freshman seminar that all first-year students must complete. Other general education requirements include expository writing, wellness, foreign language, and one class each in six fields of study. Richmond offers more than 100 majors, minors, and concentrations in three undergraduate schools—the School of Arts and Sciences, the Robins School of Business, and the Jepson School of Leadership Studies. The School of Continuing Studies, primarily an evening school focused on part-time adult students, offers additional degree programs in selected areas. Admissions. The University of Richmond admitted 28.3 percent of applicants for the class of 2023. The 837-member class of 2023 has a middle 50 percent range for SAT scores of 1370–1500 and a middle 50 percent range for ACT scores of 31–34. Rankings. In its "America's Best Colleges 2021" issue, "U.S. News & World Report" ranked Richmond tied for 22nd overall among national liberal arts colleges, tied for 18th "Most Innovative", and the 25th "Best Value". "The Princeton Review" named Richmond No. 3 for Best-Run College, No. 4 Best Career Services, No. 4 Best Schools for Internships, No. 5 Best Classroom Experience, and No. 8 Most Beautiful Campus in its 2019 edition of The Best 384 Colleges. "Kiplinger" ranked Richmond 18th among the "Best Private Colleges" in the U.S. for 2018. Richmond was ranked 8th by "SmartMoney" in the category "Best Private Colleges of 2011", leaving two Ivy League Universities behind in the top 10. "BusinessWeek" ranked the E. Claiborne Robins School of Business as the 12th best undergraduate program in the nation in 2009. In 2015, Time magazine's Money section named Richmond among "the top 10 colleges with the most generous financial aid." In 2019, Richmond was ranked as the 20th best liberal arts college in America by Niche. In 2016 and 2017, the University of Richmond was ranked second for the total number of students sent to study abroad among top baccalaureate colleges according to the Institute of International Education's “Open Door Report.” The University of Richmond's name leads some to believe that it is a public institution drawing students primarily from within Virginia. However, only about 15 percent of UR's undergraduate students are from Virginia. The University of Richmond draws many students from the New England and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States, but also from across the country and abroad. Financial aid. Richmond administers a generous financial aid program, with more than 60 percent of all students receiving some form of financial assistance. Richmond offers a need-blind admissions policy that does not consider an applicant's ability to pay in the admission decision, and it pledges to meet 100 percent of an admitted domestic student's demonstrated need. UR also offers 25 merit-based, full tuition and room and board scholarships to students in each entering class (approximately 1 out of every 30 students). These scholarships are housed under the Richmond Scholars program that also includes benefits like priority class registration, a one-time academic activity stipend, and free admission to Modlin Center events. Recently, to encourage enrollment from Virginia residents, admitted students from Virginia with family incomes of $60,000 or less receive full-tuition/room and board financial aid packages without loans. Richmond's financial aid program is due, in no small part, to its endowment of over $2 billion, placing it within the top 40 nationally among college and university endowments. Student research. The University of Richmond offers numerous research opportunities for students. In addition to research-based courses, independent studies, and practicums in most disciplines, many special opportunities exist for students to participate in close research collaborations with faculty. Student research occurs in all academic areas, including the arts, sciences, social sciences, and other fields. Notably, the university recently received a $1.5 million grant from the National Science Foundation for its mathematics program to sponsor student research commencing May 2007. In 2019 Richmond produced the 4th most Fulbright Scholars out of American undergraduate institutions. Student life. Richmond has over 165 student organizations. Student groups include those devoted to: Richmond also has an active Greek life with 15 national fraternities and sororities. The fraternities include Theta Chi (1915-1996, 2013-Present), Alpha Phi Alpha, Kappa Alpha Order, Delta Kappa Epsilon (2002-Present), Phi Gamma Delta (1890-Present), Lambda Chi Alpha (1918-1999, 2010-Present), Kappa Sigma (1898-Present), and the founding chapter of Sigma Phi Epsilon (1901-Present). The Upsilon Gamma chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha was the first historically black fraternity to be chartered on Richmond's campus. Unrecognized and inactive fraternities include Sigma Alpha Epsilon (1884-2015), Sigma Chi (1958-2019), and Phi Delta Theta (1875-At least 2005/Inactive). The sororities are Alpha Kappa Alpha, Delta Sigma Theta, Delta Delta Delta, Delta Gamma, Kappa Alpha Theta, Kappa Delta, Kappa Kappa Gamma, and Pi Beta Phi. About 50 percent of the women and over 30 percent of the men participate in the Greek system. The University of Richmond is home to one known secret society RS (University of Richmond). Made up of Richmond College students, the Society is known for its markings on campus and its dedication to University school spirit and camaraderie. From 1990–2003, the Shanghai Quartet served as quartet-in-residence at UR, and their relationship with the university continues with their roles as Distinguished Visiting Artists. In 2004, contemporary music sextet eighth blackbird (spelled in all lowercase) was named ensemble-in-residence. Camp Concert Hall, located on campus, is a favorite recording venue for National Public Radio. Traditions. Noted University of Richmond traditions include: an honor code administered by student honor councils; Investiture and Proclamation Night, ceremonies for first year men and women to reflect on their next four years; Ring Dance, a dance held at the Jefferson Hotel by the junior class women; and Pig Roast, a large annual event held during the spring semester which draws significant gatherings of current students and alumni to the fraternity lodges and have featured musical acts such as Flo Rida and Afroman. Another long-standing Richmond tradition is the crowning of the largest goose on Westhampton Lake with the title "Triceragoose." This establishes that goose as the king of the lake, ruling over all ducks, geese, and freshmen. International education. In the past decade, the university has sought to develop a stronger international focus. International students from about 70 countries represent about 7 percent of the student body. Approximately half of undergraduate students participate in one of 78 study abroad programs offered by the university. Other international programs include Global House, a residential program housed in Keller Hall, and an international film series. In 2014, the Office of International Education at the university created the International Student Advisory Board, a group of students dedicated to working with administration to improve the overall experience of international students on campus. Alumna Carole Weinstein recently donated $9 million toward the construction of a new building on campus, opened in the fall of 2010, dedicated to international education. Campus. Main campus. The University of Richmond's campus consists of in a suburban setting on the western edge of the city. Most of the campus lies within the city limits; a small section of the south campus, including the Special Programs Building (home to the student health center and the campus police), intramural sports fields, and most of the campus apartments, lies within Henrico County. The university has, with few exceptions, remained true to the original architectural plans for the campus—red brick buildings in a collegiate gothic style set around shared open lawns. Many of the original buildings, including Jeter Hall and North Court, both residence halls, and Ryland Hall, the original administration building and library for Richmond College, were designed by Ralph Adams Cram in 1910. Cram, a noted institutional architect, also designed buildings for Princeton, Cornell, Rice, and Williams, among other universities. Warren H. Manning, a former apprentice to Frederick Law Olmsted, designed the original landscape plan. The overall effect of the gothic architecture set amid a landscape of pines, rolling hills, and Westhampton Lake, is intimate and tranquil. In 2000, the campus was recognized by The Princeton Review as the most beautiful in the United States. The University of Richmond campus was used to film portions of the pilot of the ABC TV series "Commander in Chief", and lead character Mackenzie Allen (played by Geena Davis) served as chancellor of a fictionalized University of Richmond prior to her election as Vice President of the United States. Much of the movie "Cry Wolf" was filmed on the Westhampton side of campus, with several dormitories, including South Court, North Court, and Keller Hall, serving as locations. An episode of the television show "Dawson's Creek" was filmed on campus, which served as an unnamed "beautiful Ivy League campus." The filming itself took place in locations throughout the campus, even including rowing on Westhampton Lake. The University of Richmond owns the former Reynolds Metals Executive Office Building, a gift-purchase from Alcoa in 2001. Located a few miles from campus, the building was designed by architect Gordon Bunshaft and opened in 1958. The building, which incorporates nearly 1.4 million pounds of aluminum, is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. It currently serves as the headquarters of Altria Group and its subsidiary, Philip Morris USA, which lease it from the university. In early 2001, the university finalized the purchase of of land in eastern Goochland County, a few miles from the main campus. The land is currently used for biology research, but future uses could include intramural athletic fields. The University of Richmond campus used to be home to the Virginia Governor's School for Visual and Performing Arts and Humanities during the summer. UR Downtown. The university also operates UR Downtown, a downtown campus of sorts occupying leased space within a larger building at 626 East Broad street. Despite its small size, UR Downtown hosts the Richmond on Broad café (owned and operated by the university), a mixed-purpose lower-level, art gallery spaces, offices, two classrooms, and a conference room. Located in the city's Arts District, UR Downtown also participates in the monthly art festival, First Fridays. Moreover, the space hosts multiple exhibits each year, often in collaboration with local organizations. The UR Downtown conference room is also home to an original 1956 sgraffito style mural by Hans E. Gassman, created for the bank that occupied the building in the past. Other than art, UR Downtown serves as a VITA site, providing free tax assistance to low-income families. The spaces inside UR Downtown are made available to advocacy and non-profit organizations in need of meeting space. The Caricco Center for Pro Bono law service, the Richmond Families Initiative, and Partners in the Arts also operate out of UR Downtown. Athletics. The university won its first national championship in 1982 when women's tennis won the AIAW national championship. The university won its first NCAA national championship in any sport on December 19, 2008, when the Spiders football team defeated the Montana Grizzlies 24–7 in the NCAA Division I Football Championship (which is exclusively for teams in the Football Championship Subdivision, the second tier of NCAA Division I football). Richmond was ranked 23rd in men's basketball at one point during the 2009–10 season. During its 2010 season the Richmond Men's Cross Country team placed 24th at the NCAA Division I Cross Country Championships. The 2010-11 Richmond Spiders men's basketball team won the 2011 Atlantic 10 Men's Basketball Tournament, earning the team a spot in the 2011 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament. The Spiders fell to Kansas in the Sweet Sixteen.

most elevated position

5528-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45691207

A barbecue restaurant is a restaurant that specializes in barbecue-style cuisine and dishes. Barbecue restaurants may open relatively early compared to other restaurants, in part to optimize sales while barbecued foods being slow-cooked by the process of smoking are being tended to by restaurant personnel on premises. In some instances, this can enable the sales of barbecued meats that began being smoked the night before the next business day. Per these logistics, a significant portion of their sales may occur during lunchtime. Additionally, high lunch turnover at barbecue restaurants may occur per the foods being cooked and sold in large batches. Popular food items may sell out earlier compared to others, which may encourage customers to arrive earlier. In January 2015, the U.S. National Restaurant Association forecast "barbecue, Italian food and fried chicken" to be "top perennial menu favorites in 2015". Etymology. United States. In northern and midwestern areas of the United States, a barbecue restaurant may be referred to as a "barbecue joint". In southern areas of the U.S., a barbecue restaurant may be referred to as a "barbecue" or "barbecue place", rather than as a barbecue restaurant. Some barbecue restaurants may be referred to as "shrines" or as a "barbecue shrine", which can refer to those that have earned a strong reputation for purveying high-quality food over the course of several years, and even over the course of generations. Portugal and Brazil. A "churrascaria" is a place where meat is cooked in "churrasco" style, which translates roughly from the Portuguese for 'barbecue'. A "churrasqueiro" is somebody who cooks "churrasco" style food in a "churrascaria" restaurant. Some churrascarias offer all-you-can-eat dining in a style that is referred to as "rodízio". They may offer many types of barbecued meats. In Brazil, a "churrascart" is a food cart that serves "churrasco", and they are common in the country. Operations. England. Some barbecue restaurants in London, England include London's Pitt Cue Co. and Barbecoa, the latter of which is owned by Jamie Oliver. Mexico. In Central Mexico, barbecue outlets are common and numerous in midsize to large size cities, and often exist at roadside stalls in outlying areas of the metropolitan area. These outlets may not qualify as being restaurants per se, although they often offer the same types of foods. These outlets may offer barbacoa-style foods. In this region, when quantities of meats are depleted, the restaurant or outlet typically closes. Philippines. Mongolian barbecue restaurants are popular in the Philippines. In 1991 it was suggested that this may be due in part to the economic recession that was occurring in the early 1990s, because many Mongolian barbecue restaurants operate as affordable buffets that enable diners to eat as much as they desire. South Korea. Barbecue restaurants in South Korea are referred to as "gogi-jip" (English: "meat house"). They are very common and popular in Seoul. Daedo Sikdang and Nongoljip are Korean barbecue restaurant franchises that both originated in Seoul. United States. Barbecue restaurants may have one or more pitmasters that oversee the preparation and cooking of foods, along with maintaining fire and food temperatures. The word "pitmaster" is derived from "the ability to control the fires of the pit". The sizes of barbecue restaurants can vary, ranging from very large to smaller-sized buildings, and some exist as mobile food trucks and food booths. In the U.S., some restaurant chains exist, such as Sonny's Real Pit BBQ, which is a franchise that in 2010 was the largest barbecue restaurant chain in the U.S. with over 130 stores, Smokey Bones, with over 70 stores in 2010, and Rib Crib, with 41 stores in 2008. Dickey's Barbecue Pit is the largest barbecue franchise in the United States. Cuisine. In the United States, barbecue restaurants may offer dishes that are slow-smoked or barbecued over a grill. Fare includes barbecue sandwiches, brisket, barbecue chicken, pulled pork, pork shoulder, pork ribs, beef ribs, beefsteak and other foods. Various side dishes are typically available, such as baked beans, macaroni and cheese, coleslaw and corn on the cob, among others. A variety of barbecue sauces may be available, and some barbecue restaurants bottle their own sauces for customer purchase. Some barbecue restaurants prepare their foods without any sauces, and may not offer any as condiments. This may occur per a preference for the flavor of the meats to stand on their own, rather than being accentuated with flavors from sauces. Some barbecue restaurants use a dry spice rub to flavor meats.

buyer transaction

9500-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31819709

The 2011–12 season was Stoke City's fourth season in the Premier League and the 56th in the top tier of English football. Because FA Cup winners Manchester City qualified for the UEFA Champions League via their third-place finish in the Premier League, as FA Cup runners-up, Stoke qualified for the UEFA Europa League. Stoke's first excursion into European football for the first time since 1975 was a main talking point leading up to the 2011–12 season. Stoke were drawn against Croatian side Hajduk Split and after two legs ran out 2–0 winners. After beating FC Thun, Stoke were handed a tough group containing Beşiktaş, Dynamo Kyiv and Maccabi Tel Aviv which Stoke managed to progress through finishing in second position. City's reward was a tie against Spanish giants Valencia and despite putting up a spirited second leg performance Stoke went out 2–0 on aggregate. With 12 fixtures in Europe, Stoke's Premier League form took a hit with some indifferent performances. The season started well with Stoke going four matches unbeaten and breaking the club's transfer record with the £10 million signing of Peter Crouch from Tottenham Hotspur. European football soon began to take its toll and with some poor defeats against the likes of Bolton Wanderers, Sunderland, Queens Park Rangers, Stoke failed to really cement their position in the top half of the table, and after picking up just four wins in the final half of the season, Stoke finished in 14th position with 45 points. Pre-season. The Stoke City squad returned to the club on 7 July before flying out to Austria for their annual training camp. Upon their return they played two of Tony Pulis's old clubs Newport County and Newport YMCA. Games against Football League sides Brentford, Aldershot Town and Sheffield Wednesday had also been arranged as well as the traditional match against Newcastle Town. Whilst in Austria Stoke played a match against local part-time side SV Thal. Stoke won with three goals in the second half through Michael Tonge, Jonathan Walters and a very rare goal from Andy Wilkinson Thal scored a consolation via Erik Bischtand. Upon their return to England, Stoke travelled to Tony Pulis's home town of Newport for two matches against his former clubs. The first match saw City draw 1–1 with Newport County, County scored through their captain Gary Warren before Kenwyne Jones equalised after 75 minutes, he had the ball in the back of the net later on but it was ruled out for offside. The following day Stoke fielded a different team for the match against Newport YMCA. Goals from Ben Marshall, Diego Arismendi, Matthew Lund and Rory Delap gave Stoke an easy 6–1 victory. After the trip to South Wales Pulis said he 'enjoyed his return home'. Stoke then scored another six against Newcastle Town in what was the 30th meeting between the two clubs. Stoke's goals came from Australian trialist Robert Stambolziev, Jermaine Pennant, Glenn Whelan Jonathan Walters, and a brace from Kenwyne Jones. City then suffered two poor results losing 1–0 to both Brentford and Aldershot. City ended their pre-season schedule with a 0–0 draw against Sheffield Wednesday. Premier League. August. For the season opener against Chelsea manager Tony Pulis gave a league debut to Jonathan Woodgate with Robert Huth moving to right-back. For Chelsea they had new manager André Villas-Boas in charge for his first Premier League match. After an even first half, Chelsea were the better side after the break with Asmir Begović making a number of important saves. After injuries to Matthew Etherington and Rory Delap, City went defensive and were able to claim a goalless draw. After the Europa League match against Thun in Switzerland, Stoke travelled to Norfolk to take on newly promoted Norwich City. Stoke started the match the better side but suffered a huge blow when Jermaine Pennant was forced off due to injury after half an hour. Norwich took the lead through former Stoke reserve team player Ritchie De Laet as "The Canaries" went into the break in the lead. After half-time, Stoke were awarded a penalty when Leon Barnett fouled Jonathan Walters, however Norwich goalkeeper John Ruddy saved Walters' effort. Stoke were able to get a result though as Kenwyne Jones headed in Whelan's cross in the 94th minute to deny Norwich the win. Stoke's final match of August was against Midlands rivals West Bromwich Albion at The Hawthorns. It turned to be a poor match with both teams struggleling to create clear goal scoring chances. With the match seemingly destined for a goalless draw "Baggies" keeper Ben Foster hesitated when under pressure from Ryan Shotton, who was able to claim the ball and roll it into an empty net. September. Stoke's new record signing Peter Crouch made his debut against his old club Liverpool following the international break. City scored the only goal of the match after 20 minutes when Jamie Carragher brought down Walters in the penalty area, who fired the ball past Pepe Reina. Liverpool produced a dominant second half performance with Luis Suárez being a large threat to the Stoke defence. Stoke had to defend well to keep their 1–0 lead intact and due to some last ditch defending were able to come away with the three points. After a 1–1 in Kyiv, "The Potters"' nine-match unbeaten run was then ended in emphatic style by Sunderland on Wearside as Steve Bruce's side scored four goals without reply. Sunderland scored through Titus Bramble following a mistake from Begović, an own goal from Woodgate, a deflected shot from Craig Gardner and a free-kick from Sebastian Larsson. Manchester United arrived at the Britannia with a 100% winning start but had Wayne Rooney missing out due to injury. They suffered another injury early into the match when Javier Hernández was substituted after colliding with Begovic and Woodgate. They went into the lead through a low shot from Nani after 26 minutes. Stoke almost equalised soon after through Wilkinson, but David de Gea palmed his shot on to the post. Stoke's equaliser came after just half time with Peter Crouch scoring his first goal for "The Potters" since his move from Tottenham. Stoke had chances to win the match but De Gea made a number of fine saves. The final chance of the game fell to Ryan Giggs, but he could only volley wide of the goal. It was the first time Stoke had gained a result against Manchester United in the Premier League. October. Stoke made their first journey to Swansea City's Liberty Stadium following the Europa League win over Beşiktaş. It proved to be a very poor afternoon for "The Potters", however, as two defensive errors allowed "The Jacks" score to twice through Scott Sinclair and Danny Graham. Following the international break Stoke returned to Premier League football with the visit of Martin Jol's Fulham side. In what was a quite first half, Stoke had two good chances to take the lead with Crouch and Pennant both guilty of poor finishing. In the second half, Stoke were the dominant side but were finding it difficult to break down a stubborn "Cottagers" defence. The breakthrough came after 80 minutes when Jon Walters tapped in Matthew Etherington's wayward shot, moments earlier John Arne Riise's hit a powerful free-kick that hit the Stoke crossbar. Three minutes from full-time Rory Delap scored a rare goal to seal a 2–0 win. City's next game came at Arsenal on 23 October at the Emirates Stadium. After a quite opening half hour Gervinho broke the offside trap and put the ball past Begović. Stoke, however, were not behind for long as a well worked free kick was finished off by Crouch from all of two yards. Any hopes Stoke had of claiming their first points at the Emirates were ended in the second half by substitute Robin van Persie, who scored twice. On Halloween, Stoke faced inform Newcastle United at the Britannia. It turned out to be a defensive "horror show" for City as former transfer target Demba Ba scored a hat-trick as both Shawcross and Wilson departed due to injury. Manager Pulis blamed his defence for conceding 'sloppy goals'. November. Stoke ended a busy period with a woeful defeat against Bolton Wanderers who reversed the scoreline from last season's FA Cup semi-final. Pulis branded his players performance as the worst since he returned to the club in 2006. Following the two-week international break, Stoke had the opportunity to make amends for the Bolton defeat against newly promoted Queens Park Rangers. More poor defending, however, cost Stoke as goals from Luke Young and a brace from Heiðar Helguson earned Neil Warnock's team the points. Goals from Walters and Shawcross proved to be in vain for City as they fell to a fourth-straight league defeat. Stoke ended their losing run with victory over struggling Blackburn Rovers at the Britannia. After a cagey opening to the match, Delap headed in a Pennant free-kick to put City in front. Rovers almost levelled soon after the break when Rubén Rochina weaved his way through the penalty area, though only to see his cross totally missed by Mauro Formica. Two goals from Whelan and Crouch put Stoke in a comfortable position with Rochina replying for Rovers. December. After securing European qualification against Dynamo Kyiv, Stoke travelled to an emotional Goodison Park where the Everton fans were mourning the recent death of Gary Speed. Stoke produced a more familiar defensive performance than what was on show in November and came away with a rare away win thanks to Robert Huth's first goal of the season. There was one concern for Stoke, however, as goalkeeper Thomas Sørensen had to be stretchered off with concussion. In-form Tottenham travelled to the Britannia having gone 11 matches unbeaten. Stoke started with great pressure on the Spurs defence with Ryan Shotton's long throw-ins causing problems, and they led to both Stoke goals scored by Matthew Etherington to put City 2–0 in front at half time. Tottenham improved in the second half and pulled a goal back from the penalty spot, but Younès Kaboul was sent off and Stoke were able to claim the three points. Stoke began the festive period with a short trip to Wolverhampton and received some early good fortune from referee Anthony Taylor. With Woodgate playing at right back, he came up against Matt Jarvis and was booked for a late challenge early into the match. Woodgate continued to have problems with Jarvis and he gave away a penalty after 17 minutes, however Taylor decided not to send him off, much to the fury of Mick McCarthy. Hunt scored from the spot and Pulis substituted Woodgate and brought on Pennant and Stoke began to take control of the play. In the second half, a Huth free-kick was deflected into the goal by Kevin Doyle, while Peter Crouch scored the winning goal for Stoke in a 2–1 win, marking the first time that Stoke had won four Premier League matches in a row. Stoke's winning run came to an end in their next match away at league leaders Manchester City in what was difficult evening for the "Potters". Under constant pressure from the start of the match, Man City controlled the match and easily won 3–0 with a brace from Sergio Agüero and a trademark long-range effort from Adam Johnson. Stoke had a tough time and failed to trouble an underworked Joe Hart. The Boxing Day match against Aston Villa was played at an untraditional time of 7:45pm to accommodate live TV coverage. The match though was a bland and uneventful affair and finished unsurprisingly in a goalless draw. Marc Wilson had the best chance of the match as his header struck the crossbar late in the second half. Stoke finished a successful 2011 with a 2–2 against Wigan Athletic. The "Latics" took the lead through Victor Moses just before half time following a well worked move. Stoke tried in vain to pull level until the 77th minute when Gary Caldwell handled on the line and was sent off. Walters calmly beat Ali Al-Habsi from the spot and soon after Cameron Jerome scored his first league goal for Stoke. Stoke, however, were denied a comeback with just moments after the Wigan restart they were awarded a penalty after Shotton had pulled Hugo Rodallega's shirt. Ben Watson came off the bench to take the penalty and sent Sørensen the wrong way. January. The first match of 2012 saw Stoke travel to struggling Blackburn, who surprisingly beat Manchester United in their previous match and Rovers started the match well with Christopher Samba hitting the crossbar and having a goal ruled out for a foul on Sørensen. Stoke then began to take control of the contest and took the lead through Peter Crouch after 17 minutes, Crouch's 100th league goal. He scored again just before half-time after good wing play by Matthew Etherington. Rovers pulled a goal back through David Goodwillie with 20 minutes left, but Stoke were able to see out the rest of the match with relative ease to claim a 2–1 victory. Stoke continued their improved away form by drawing 0–0 at Liverpool. Stoke put in a fine defensive performance and whilst they never threatened to win the match they were equally looked unlikely to lose as Liverpool struggled to break down a hard working Stoke defence. Stoke's first home match of 2012 was against West Brom at a windy Britannia Stadium, and the "Baggies" took full advantage of the conditions with James Morrison taking long-range shots. He hit the crossbar with one before scoring after a huge swerve deceived Sørensen, where the ball bounced under his body to give West Brom the lead. Stoke struggled to get back into the match but were given a penalty when Gabriel Tamaș fouled Walters; his penalty, however, was easily saved by Ben Foster. Cameron Jerome came off the bench and scored with a glancing header, but West Brom secured a deserved win in the final minute via a Graham Dorrans free-kick. On 31 January, Stoke took on Manchester United at Old Trafford and were undone by two penalties either side of half time, Pennant tripping Park Ji-sung for the first and Walters pulling Antonio Valencia's arm. After the match, Pulis expressed his disappointment at the referee's decisions. February. Stoke began a potentially season defining February with a second consecutive home defeat, this time to an in-form Sunderland. The match was played in falling snow which progressively got worse, meaning that there was few goalscoring chances for both sides. The match took a huge change just before half-time when Huth was sent-off for tackling David Meyler, although replays showed that Huth pulled out of the challenge. Sunderland took full advantage of the extra man and scored the only goal through James McClean. Stoke did attempt to get Huth's red card overturned, but failed in their efforts. Stoke then recorded their fourth-straight Premier League defeat – for the second time this season – with a 2–1 defeat at Fulham. Stoke conceded twice in the opening half hour with Fulham's new Russian striker Pavel Pogrebnyak and an own goal from Sørensen putting Martin Jol's team in a good position. City pulled one back in the second half through Ryan Shawcross, but were unable to claim a draw. With one win in eight matches and now eliminated from the Europa League, a win against Swansea was vital for Stoke. After not really doing much in the match, Matthew Upson broke the deadlock with a header from Matthew Etherington's corner in the 24th minute and then Crouch flicked home his tenth goal of the season when he rose to meet a long throw-in from Ryan Shotton six minutes before the break. Swansea kept the ball well but failed to trouble an under worked Asmir Begović, and Stoke were able to see out a fairly comfortably 2–0 victory. March. Stoke faced another newly promoted team in the form of Norwich at the Britannia Stadium. The match coincided with the 40th anniversary of Stoke's 1972 League Cup win and ironically, it was in the 72nd minute that Stoke scored the only goal of the match through Matthew Etherington, who beat goalkeeper John Ruddy from a tight angle in what was rare moment of quality in a match with few chances. After two home wins, Stoke were narrowly beaten 1–0 at Chelsea, with Didier Drogba scoring the only goal of the match after 68 minutes. This was after Stoke had played most of the match with ten men as Ricardo Fuller – making his first start of the season – was sent off early on after he stamped on Branislav Ivanović. Pulis described Fuller's actions as "ridiculous". On 21 March, Stoke travelled to a muted White Hart Lane which saw the Bolton midfielder Fabrice Muamba collapse on the pitch three days before. Stoke were knocked out of the FA Cup by Liverpool and were now able to concentrate on the Premier League for the rest of the season. After containing Tottenham for most of the match, Stoke took the lead through Cameron Jerome on 75 minutes following a goalmouth scramble. Stoke, however, were denied an impressive win in the final moments as Rafael van der Vaart headed in a Gareth Bale cross. Stoke's next home match saw title challengers Manchester City arrived at the Britannia Stadium and saw a contender for goal of the season scored by Peter Crouch. After a goalless first half, Stoke opened the scoring in memorable style: a long goal-kick from Begović was headed by Crouch on to Pennant, who passed back to the forward, who then took a touch and fired a volley shot past goalkeeper Joe Hart. Stoke could not hold on, however, as a long-range Yaya Touré strike earned the visitors a share of the points. City, now in good spirits following Peter Crouch's wonder goal the previous week, travelled to Wigan for the final match of March. The first half was a very competitive one which produced some hard tackles and few goalscoring chances. In second half, however, Wigan were by far the better side and easily won the match 2–0 thanks to goals from Antolín Alcaraz and Victor Moses. April. Wolves were Stoke's first opponents over the Easter period, who arrived in Stoke needing a win to give them any hope of avoiding the drop. Wolves took the lead in the 27th minute in rather bizarre fashion against the run of play, Michael Kightly embarked upon a run from wide on the right and when he chipped the ball into the onrushing Dave Edwards, but the Welsh international midfielder's attempt to get a touch deceived Asmir Begović as it bounced past him into the net. The lead lasted just seven minutes, however, as Huth hit a powerful shot past Wayne Hennessey. Stoke all but ended Wolves' stay in the Premier League as Crouch scored the final goal of the match to secure Stoke a league double over their Midlands rivals. Forty-eight hours later, Stoke again faced struggling Midlands opponents in the form of Aston Villa in what was another poor quality match between the two sides. After very little excitement, Andreas Weimann curled in a fine goal to give the hosts the lead. Stoke were trying in vain to draw level, so Pulis introduced the rested pair of Crouch and Pennant; the move paid off as a Pennant set piece was headed into the net by Huth to earn City a share of the points. After a two-week break due to Everton being involved in the FA Cup semi-final, Stoke made the long trip north to Newcastle United where they came away with a heavy 3–0 loss. Yohan Cabaye proved to be Stoke's chief tormentor as he scored twice and assisted Papiss Cissé. Arsenal were Stoke's next opponents at the Britannia Stadium and Peter Crouch scored the opening goal after just ten minutes, but Robin van Persie quickly equalised for the "Gunners". Both sides had opportunities of grabbing all three points during a frantic second 45 minutes, with Crouch and Jonathan Walters both going closest in stoppage time but the match ended on level terms. May. The re-arranged match with Everton produced a dour encounter with few moments of excitement. Everton had the better of an awful first half and they scored on the stroke of half-time as Peter Crouch scored an unlucky own goal. The introduction of Ricardo Fuller and Cameron Jerome gave Stoke some life and within seconds of his arrival Jerome used his pace to accelerate through the "Toffees" defence and rescue a point for Stoke. The final two matches of the 2011–12 season saw Stoke involved in the fight to avoid relegation with both their opponents Queens Park Rangers and Bolton in danger of joining Blackburn and Wolves in The Football League. The match against QPR saw Stoke squander an early effort as Cameron Jerome missed an easy chance. With the match seemingly heading for a goalless draw, Djibril Cissé scored in the final few moments to spark a pitch invasion by jubilant "Rs" fans. For the final match of a long and difficult season for Stoke, their opponents Bolton arrived in Stoke-on-Trent knowing that they had to win to remain a Premier League club, while Stoke fans dedicated the match to Ricardo Fuller, who would be out of contract at season's end. Jonathan Walters scored a controversial opening goal for Stoke as he barged into goalkeeper Ádám Bogdán, who had both hands on the ball and dropped the ball behind the line. Bolton, however, went close with Kevin Davies hitting the crossbar before Bolton had a stroke of luck they needed. First, an attempted clearance from Robert Huth cannoned off Mark Davies and then an attempted cross from Kevin Davies deceived Thomas Sørensen to give Bolton a shock 2–1 lead. Unfortunately for "Trotters" fans, a second-half penalty from Walters condemned them to the Championship. Stoke ended the season in 14th place with 45 points, but a lack of goals and attacking play made it a disappointing and often boring Premier League season for the Stoke supporters. FA Cup. As last season's runners-up, Stoke were drawn away against one of manager Tony Pulis' old teams: League Two side Gillingham. Stoke survived after an early scare from the "Gills" who started brightly and took the lead through Danny Kedwell. Stoke made sure that there was no upset and thanks to goals from Jonathan Walters, Cameron Jerome and Robert Huth. Over 5,500 Stoke made the short journey across the A50 to see Stoke take on Derby County. Stoke made a perfect start scoring after five minutes through Jerome. Huth hit the post with a header before Derby began to cause City problems with Jamie Ward being a difficult opponent. Stoke controlled the second half and ended the contest with ten minutes left as a Pennant corner fell for Huth to fire a close range shot under the body of Frank Fielding. In the fifth round Stoke were handed a tricky tie at League Two high-fliers Crawley Town in what was the first meeting between the clubs. Danny Collins made a surprise start after failing to move away from the club in January and it was Crawley who made the bright start putting City's defence under pressure which led to Peter Crouch heading against his own bar. The match took a turn in the 17th minute when Rory Delap was sent-off for a tackle on David Hunt. This seemed to spring Stoke into life and they were awarded a soft looking penalty just before half-time which Walters put past Rene Gilmartin. Stoke scored a second goal just after the half time break through a Crouch header. The "Red Devils" tried in vain to get back into the tie and Stoke booked their place in the quarter final for the third season in a row. Stoke met Liverpool for the fourth time this season and just like in the League Cup it was the Anfield club who narrowly came away with a 2–1 victory. Luis Suárez scored the first goal against the run of play but Peter Crouch quickly equalised. Stewart Downing scored the decisive second goal to send Liverpool through. League Cup. Stoke entered the League Cup at the third round stage as they received a bye from the second round due to their involvement in the Europa League. Stoke were drawn at home to Tottenham Hotspur in what was the first meeting between the two clubs in the League Cup. The match was a dull uneventful affair and after 90 minutes plus extra time the tie went to a penalty shootout. After Shotton had made it 7–6 to Stoke, Tottenham's young Australian debutant Massimo Luongo kick was saved by Sørensen to end the contest. In the fourth round, Stoke faced Liverpool at home and took the lead through Kenwyne Jones just before half time. Two second half goals from Luis Suárez, however, sent the Merseyside club through to the quarter-final. UEFA Europa League. By reaching the FA Cup Final last season, Stoke qualified for the UEFA Europa League, after Manchester City confirmed a place in the UEFA Champions League. Stoke entered at the third qualifying round as cup runners-up where they were drawn against Croatian side Hajduk Split. There was great anticipation ahead of Stoke's first European match since 1974 and Stoke made a perfect start, scoring the first goal after just three minutes via Jonathan Walters. Stoke, however, were left frustrated in their attempts to extend their lead, meaning that City took a narrow lead to Split for the second leg. In Croatia, over 28,000 Hajduk fans created a unique atmosphere for the second leg, as Jonathan Woodgate made his debut in place of Andy Wilkinson who missed out due to injury. Stoke were content to allow Hajduk have possession and were able to keep the hosts from troubling Asmir Begović. Stoke sealed their place in the play-off round in the second half injury time when Ryan Shotton bundled the ball past goalkeeper Danijel Subašić. The result also meant that Stoke had won their first ever European round after two previous failed attempts back in the 1970s. Stoke were drawn against Swiss side FC Thun in the final qualifying round. Thun caused a shock result in the previous round as they defeated the much fancied Italian side Palermo. The first leg in Thun was played on an artificial pitch much to the annoyance of Tony Pulis. Matthew Upson made his debut for Stoke as Danny Pugh scored the only goal of the match after nineteen minutes. It got worse for Thun as their goalkeeper, David Da Costa, was sent-off in the final few moments of the match. The second leg proved to a very one sided affair with Stoke scoring three times in the opening first 40 minutes through Matthew Upson, Kenwyne Jones and Glenn Whelan. Jones scored a fourth for City in the second half as Stoke claimed an historic group stage place. The Swiss scored a consolation through Andreas Wittwer. In the group stage, Stoke were drawn against Beşiktaş, Dynamo Kyiv and Maccabi Tel Aviv meaning that Stoke will have to travel a total of 11,000 miles for their away matches. Stoke's first ever group stage match saw them travel to Ukrainian giants Dynamo Kyiv. Pulis made eight changes from the side that beat Liverpool with Cameron Jerome handed his debut. The hosts had famous striker Andriy Shevchenko in their team and it was he who caused City's defence most problems with his movement and skill. After a goalless first half, Stoke took the lead with their first shot on target through Jerome. City then had to withstand heavy pressure from Dynamo with Oleksandr Aliyev and Brown Ideye going close to equalising. Stoke, however, were denied a famous victory right at the end when Ognjen Vukojević tapped in from close range. Stoke's first home match in the group stage was against Turkish cup winners Beşiktaş in what was a historic night at the Britannia Stadium. "The Black Eagles" took the lead through Roberto Hilbert after he was played in by the dangerous Ricardo Quaresma. Stoke, however, hit back instantly with Peter Crouch scoring his second goal in as many matches. City dominated the second half with Beşiktaş sitting back and trying to mount counterattacks via Quaresma. In the 78th minute, Stoke were awarded a penalty when Crouch was fouled by Tomáš Sivok, and Jonathan Walters smashed his spot kick past goalkeeper Rüştü Reçber to move Stoke to the top of the group. Israeli side Maccabi Tel Aviv arrived in Stoke-on-Trent bottom of the group and after 12 minutes Jones powered his header past Guy Haimov. Jerome added a second ten minutes later before setting up Shotton to make it 3–0 to Stoke. Jerome had an eventful first half and after being show a yellow card for dissent he received a second for an apparent elbow on left back Yoav Ziv. In the second half, Ziv himself was sent off in bizarre circumstances: after being unhappy with not being awarded a free-kick, he kicked his displaced boot at the linesman and, after a short consultation between the officials, was sent off. Stoke next match saw them travel to Tel Aviv for the return fixture against Maccabi. Danny Higginbotham made his first appearance since March after returning from injury. The "Potters" won the match 2–1 with goals from Dean Whitehead and Peter Crouch while Roberto Colautti scored for the home side. The result left Stoke requiring a point to qualify. Pulis admitted that his side was rarely troubled by a lesser opponent. Stoke got the point they needed in the next match against Dynamo on 1 December, however it looked very unlikely as the Ukrainian giants produced a commanding first-half display, frustrating Stoke with their slow style and they took the lead when Oleksandr Aliyev's shot deflected in off Matthew Upson. Dynamo almost doubled their lead through Shevchenko, but his shot hit the post. Stoke improved in the second half and pulled level ten minutes from full-time via a powerful header from Jones to claim an historic place in the knock-out stage. Pulis described the achievement as a "milestone" in the club's history. The final match of the group stage saw Stoke take a second string side to the noisy BJK İnönü Stadium. Stoke took the lead via Ricardo Fuller after 30 minutes, however the game changed when Matthew Upson fouled Hugo Almeida to concede a penalty kick was sent off. Manuel Fernandes scored the penalty and Beşiktaş went on to win 3–1 to claim top spot in the group and end Stoke's unbeaten European run. There were a few incidents in the match were Stoke's players were pelted with objects from the crowd; Pulis later said that the club will not complain to UEFA. Stoke were handed a glamour tie against Spanish giants Valencia in the round of 32; following the draw, Pulis stated that he is relishing the prospect of taking on one of Europe's top clubs. Valencia arrived in Stoke-on-Trent third in La Liga and went into the tie as clear favourites. Stoke almost opened the scoring very early on but Walters dragged his shot wide of Vicente Guaita goal. "Los Che" slowly started to control the match and took the lead through a fine long-range effort from Mehmet Topal. The Spaniards quick movement and skill continued to cause Stoke problems, with Brazilian international Jonas proving a difficult opponent. Stoke tried hard to pull level in the second half, but it was Valencia who almost scored again as Sofiane Feghouli hit the post. For the second leg in Valencia, Stoke took a largely reserve side and named just four substitutes which included academy captain Lucas Dawson. This attracted much criticism of Pulis by supporters but he defended his choice. Around 5,000 City fans were in the Mestalla Stadium to see Stoke take on one of Europe's top clubs. Kenwyne Jones had two brilliant chances early on and Stoke would rue those missed chances as Valencia scored the only goal of the match through Jonas. Stoke lost 2–0 on aggregate and exited the Europa League. Third qualifying round. "Stoke City won 2–0 on aggregate." Play-off round. "Stoke City won 5–1 on aggregate." Round of 32. "Stoke City lost 2–0 on aggregate."

good spot to be in

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8214574

<ns>0</ns> <revision> <parentid>933419643</parentid> <timestamp>2021-01-24T19:58:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Waacstats</username> </contributor> <comment>stub sort</comment> <model>wikitext</model> <format>text/x-wiki</format> Carlos Enrique Castillo Peraza (Mérida, Yucatán, April 17, 1947 - Bonn, Germany, September 8, 2000) was an intellectual, journalist and Mexican politician, member of the National Action Party (PAN) of which he was the 15th President from 1993 to 1996. Carlos Castillo Peraza was a lawyer in the University of Fribourg, Switzerland, was a collaborator and contributor of many newspapers of the country and began as journalist in "El Diario de Yucatán". From 1967 he became a member of the PAN and occupied an ample variety of positions in his local and national structure. During their management as National President of the PAN, their nearer collaborators were Jesus Galván Muñoz, ex-president Felipe Calderón, Enrique Caballero and Luis Correa Mena. In 1980 and 1988, he was candidate to Governor of Yucatán and in 1984 to Municipal President of Mérida, he was elect Federal Deputy to the LIV Legislature and National President of the PAN and in 1997 he became a candidate of the Head of Government of the Federal District and being third in the elections, when finishing this process moved away officially of the policy and resigned to its active militancy in the PAN dedicating itself to academic activities until his death. In 2007 he was awarded (post mortem) the Belisario Domínguez Medal of Honor. External links.

abundant deal

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21331

Though the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) is the government agency responsible for the conduct of foreign relations of Nepal, historically, it is the Office of Prime Minister (PMO) that has exercised the authority to formulate and conduct policies related to Nepal's foreign affairs. As a landlocked country wedged between two larger and far stronger powers, Nepal has tried to maintain good relations with both of its neighbors, People's Republic of China and Republic of India. However, its relationship with India, the country with greater hegemonic power over Nepal, has seen major ups and downs in recent years. The relationship between the two countries was significantly hampered during the 2015 Nepal blockade. Where the Nepal Government accused India of the blockade, India strictly denied the allegation and said the blockade were imposed by Madheshi protesters. For the most part though, Nepal has traditionally maintained a non-aligned policy and enjoys friendly relations with its neighboring countries and almost all the major countries of the world. Constitutionally, foreign policy is to be guided by “the principles of the United Nations Charter, nonalignment, Panchsheel (five principles of peaceful coexistence), international law and the value of world peace.” In practice, foreign policy has not been directed toward projecting influence internationally but toward preserving autonomy and addressing domestic economic and security issues. Nepal's most substantive international relations are perhaps with international economic institutions, such as the Asian Development Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, a multilateral economic development association. Nepal also has strong bilateral relations with major providers of economic and military aid, such as France, Germany, Japan, Malaysia, South Korea, Switzerland, the United States, and particularly the United Kingdom, with whom military ties date to the nineteenth century. The country's external relations, barring relations with India and China, are primarily managed by its Ministry of Foreign Affairs while relationship with India and China, Nepal's most important partners, is still managed by the Prime Minister's Office. Nepal's relation with China has seen a major upswing in the recent years with China now becoming Nepal's 3rd largest aid donor (after the UK and Japan), and since 2015 the largest source of FDI to Nepal. Multilateral relations of Nepal. Nepal has played an active role in the formation of the economic development-oriented South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and is the site of its secretariat. On international issues, Nepal follows a nonaligned policy and often votes with the Non-Aligned Movement in the United Nations. Nepal participates in a number of UN specialized agencies and is a member of the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Colombo Plan, and the Asian Development Bank. Human rights issues. In 2000, the government established the National Human Rights Commission, a government-appointed commission with a mandate to investigate human rights violations. To date, the Commission has investigated 51 complaints.. Although freedom of expression is widely used as constitutional right, some minor problems regarding it have been reported in the country. Trafficking in women and child labour remain serious problems. International disputes. A joint border commission continues to work on small disputed sections of the border with India. , Nepal has border disputes with India at Lipulekh and Kalapani between Darchula district and uttarakhand and Susta in Bihar and nawalpur district. In 2018, EPG (Eminent Persons Group), a joint committee between Nepal and India finished a report on the disputed territories between these two countries. The report is yet to be submitted to the head of governments of both countries. International trade. Nepal has been a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) since 11 September 2003 and on 24 January 2017 became the 108th WTO member to ratify the WTO's Trade Facilitation Agreement. Illicit drugs. Illicit production of cannabis for domestic and international drug markets continues to be considered as an international problem, as do rumours that the country operates as a transit point for opiates from Southeast Asia and Pakistan to the West. Bilateral relations. Albania. Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 May 1972. Argentina. Nepal and Argentina established diplomatic relations on January 1, 1962. The relations between Nepal and Argentina are based on goodwill, friendship and mutual understanding. The Argentinean Government has shown interest to extend technical cooperation on leather processing industries in Nepal under the South-South Cooperation. However, the Argentinean proposal has not materialized yet. Nepal's trade balance with Argentina is in favour of Argentina. There is no significant figure of export from Nepal. Major commodities imported by Nepal from Argentina are Crude soybean oil, soybean oil, vegetable waxes, sunflower oil and maize. Armenia. Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 March 1993. Bangladesh. Nepal has good bilateral relations with Bangladesh. Though Nepal views Bangladesh as an access to the sea, and seaports in Bangladesh as alternatives to the Indian seaport in Calcutta, successive governments in Nepal have failed in increasing the connectivity between Nepal and Bangladesh, and consequently, the volume of trade between Bangladesh and Nepal remains inconsequential. Till a decade ago, Bangladesh was the only country in the neighborhood with which Nepal enjoyed a positive trade balance. Recent initiatives like BBIN (Bhutan-Bangladesh-India-Nepal connectivity project), are being discussed as a potential tool for Nepal to address its connectivity issues, which still remains one of the poorest and the least connected country in the world. On May 28, 2009, a four-member delegation from Nepal visited Bangladesh and had talks on increasing trade and other relations. The meeting considered the movement of goods between the two countries in trucks transiting through India's Siliguri corridor territory. It also discussed the use of Mongla port in Bangladesh for transporting goods to and from Nepal at a concession rate. To promote tourism, travel agents and tour operators of both countries would jointly coordinate necessary steps. Bangladesh transport experts note that following the visit of Bangladesh prime minister to India in January 2010, India agreed to provide transit facilities to Nepal by road and rail. Meanwhile, the Bangladesh Railway is working to find the most convenient route for rail transit to Nepal after India's positive response, according to Bangladesh Railway officials. Nepal welcomed Bangladesh's independence on 16 January 1972. The turning point for the two nations occurred in April 1976, when the two nations signed, a four-point agreement on technical cooperation, trade, transit and civil aviation. They both seek cooperation in the fields of power generation and development of water resources. In 1986, relations further improved when Bangladesh insisted Nepal should be included on a deal regarding the distribution of water from the Ganges River. Also recently Nepal and Bangladesh had signed MOU's that Nepal would sell 10,000 MW of electricity to Bangladesh once its larger projects are completed. Many foreign policy experts in Nepal, nowadays, advocate that Bangladesh should be provided a full-fledged ally status, and, that Nepal should seek political, economic, security and all possible assistance from Bangladesh while dealing with Nepal's hegemonic neighbor India to address Nepal's interest, as Nepal on its own lacks the economic and diplomatic weight to deal with India. However, people familiar with the political culture of politics in Nepal remain highly skeptical of such a possibility and instead point to the fact that Nepal is on the verge of losing even more of its strategic autonomy because of the insertion of Indian fifth column – the madheshis, in Nepal's power structure. Bhutan. Relations with Bhutan have been strained since 1992 over the nationality and possible repatriation of refugees from Bhutan. Canada. Many Nepalese politicians and government officials criticized Canadian diplomats in the aftermath of the Kabul attack on Canadian Embassy guards in which the majority of victims were Nepalese citizens. Members of Parliament were among those who were critical of the way that Canada treated its security contractors at the embassy, leading to meetings in Ottawa between Nepalese and Canadian diplomats, including ambassador Nadir Patel. China. Nepal formally established relations with the People's Republic of China on August 1, 1955. The two countries share a range of 1414 kilometers border in the Himalayan range of the northern side of Nepal. Nepal has established its embassy in Beijing, opened consulates general in Lhasa, Hong Kong and Guangzhou and appointed an honorary consul in Shanghai. Economic: The Nepal-China economic cooperation dates back to the formalization of bilateral relations in 1950's. The first “Agreement between China and Nepal on “Economic Aid” was signed in October 1956. From the mid-80s the Chinese Government has been pledging grant assistance to the government of Nepal under the Economic and Technical Cooperation Program in order to implement mutually acceptable developmental projects. The Chinese assistance to Nepal falls into three categories: Grants (aid gratis), interest free loans and concessional loans. These assistance of various kinds would be provided to Nepal via: different sources. The Chinese financial and technical assistance to Nepal has been greatly contributed to Nepal's development efforts in the areas of infrastructure building, industrialization process, human resource development, health, education, water resources, sports and the like. Some of the major on-going projects under Chinese assistance include: 1. Upper Trishuli Hydropower Project- Power station and Transmission Line Projects (Concessional loan) 2. Food/ Material Assistance (Grant) in 15 bordering districts of northern Nepal. 3. Kathmandu Ring Road Improvement Project with Flyover Bridges -(Grant) 4. Tatopani Frontier Inspection Station Project (Construction of ICDs at Zhangmu-Kodari)- (Grant) 5. Pokhara International Regional Airport (Loan) With the signing of the Memorandum of Understanding on Cooperation under the Belt and Road Initiative on 12 May 2017 in Kathmandu between Nepal and China, new avenues for bilateral cooperation in the mutually agreed areas are expected to open. Nepal expects to upgrade its vital infrastructures, enhance cross-border connectivity with China and enhance people-to-people relations under this initiative. The major thrust of the MoU is to promote mutually beneficial cooperation between Nepal and China in various fields such as economy, environment, technology and culture. The MoU aims at promoting cooperation on policy exchanges, trade connectivity, financial integration and connectivity of people. The Government of the People's Republic of China provided substantial and spontaneous support in search, relief and rescue efforts of Nepal following the devastating earthquakes of 2015. China has provided 3 billion Yuan on Nepal's Reconstruction to be used in the jointly selected 25 major projects for 2016–2018 period. On 23 December 2016, Nepal and the People's Republic of China signed Agreement on Economic and Technical Cooperation in Beijing to provide grant assistance of RMB 1 billion to the Government of Nepal for implementing the Syaphrubesi-Rasuwagadhi Highway Repair and Improvement Project, Upgrading and Renovation Project of Civil Service Hospital, and Mutually agreed Post-Disaster Reconstruction Projects. The Letters of Exchange to initiate Syaphrubesi-Rasuwagadhi Highway Repair and Improvement Project was signed on May 9, 2017. Trade and Investment: China is the second largest trading partner of Nepal. In 2015/16, total exports to China stood at US$181 million with marginal increase from US$179 million in the previous fiscal year. In contrast, import from China has been growing at the rate of 39 per cent per year. It rose from US$421 million in fiscal year 2009/10 to US$1,247 million in fiscal year 2015/16. As a result, the trade deficit with China has risen from US$401 million in 2009/10 to US$1228 million in 2015/16. Although, China has given zero tariff entry facility to over 8000 Nepali products starting from 2009, Nepal has not been able to bring the trade deficit down. Nepal exports 370 products including noodles and agro products to China. Nepal regularly participates various trade fairs and exhibitions organized in China. Nepal-China's Tibet Economic and Trade Fair is the regular biannual event hosted by either side alternatively to enhance business interaction and promote economic cooperation between Nepal and TAR. The 15th Nepal China's Tibet Economic and Trade Fair was held on 17–22 November 2015 in Bhrikutimandap, Kathmandu Nepal. Nepal-China Non-Governmental Cooperation Forum established in 1996, which is led by the President of the Federation of the Nepali Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FNCCI) on the Nepali side and the Vice Head of the All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce (ACFIC) from the Chinese side. It is an initiative to mobilize the apex business organization of both sides to enhance cooperation between the private sectors of two sides. The 14th meeting of the Forum concluded in Kathmandu on 25–26 May 2017. China is the largest source of Foreign Direct Investment in Nepal. Chinese investors have shown intent to spend over $8.3 billion in Nepal during the Nepal Investment Summit concluded in Kathmandu in March 2017. Tourism: China is the 2nd largest source of foreign tourist to Nepal. Over 100 thousands Chinese tourists visit Nepal annually. China has designated Nepal as the first tourist destination in South Asia for its people. The Government of Nepal has waived visa fees for the Chinese tourist effective from 1 January 2016. The Chinese Government has announced the year 2017 as Nepal Tourism Promotion Year in China. Both sides have been carrying out joint efforts to promote Nepal in China and encourage Chinese enterprises to invest in Nepal's tourism sectors. Nepal has road connectivity via Rasuwagadhi and Zhangmu for trade and international travelers. There are 4 other border points designated for bilateral trade. Nepal has direct air link with Lhasa, Chengdu, Kunming, Guangzhou and Hong Kong SAR of China. Education and Cultural Cooperation: China provides scholarships every year not exceeding a total of 100 Nepali students studying in China. The Chinese side has been providing Chinese language training for 200 tourism entrepreneurs of Nepal for the next five years as per the understanding reached between two sides in March 2016. Both sides have been carrying out activities in culture and youth sectors as per the provisions of the MoU on Cultural Cooperation-1999 and MoU on Youth Exchange-2009. Both sides have been promoting people-to-people relations through regular hosting of cultural festival, friendly visits of the peoples of different walks of public life, exhibition, cultural and film show, food festivals etc. Sister city relations between the cities of two countries are growing and both sides have agreed to push cooperation though such relations. These relations are basically meant for carrying out exchanges and cooperation in the fields of economy, trade, transportation, science and technology, culture, tourism, education, sports and health, personnel, etc. Regional and International Affairs: Nepal is the founding member of the AIIB. Nepal holds the observer status in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. Both countries are also the member of the Asia Cooperation Dialogue. China is the observer of the SAARC. Both countries have been cooperating each other in various regional and UN forums on the matters of common concerns. Though Nepal initially let Tibetans Khampa rebels to make use of Nepalese territory in early 1960s, bilateral relations have generally been very good from 1975 onwards, after annexation of Kingdom of Sikkim by India in 1975. As many as twenty thousand Tibetan refugees live in Nepal and this has been a major issue of concern between China and Nepal. Kathmandu has in several instances been cracking down on the activities of the Tibetans receiving international condemnation. In 2005, Nepalese Foreign Minister Ramesh Nath Pandey called China "an all weather friend" and King Gyanendra's regime was also instrumental in inducting China into the SAARC. Nepalese in general, hold a positive view about the influence of China. In recent years, China has been one of the largest aid donors to Nepal just behind the UK. China is also Nepal's largest source of FDI. Denmark. See Denmark–Nepal relations. European Union. Nepal formally tied diplomatic relations with the EU in 1975. EU established its Technical Office at Kathmandu in 1992. Nepal established residential embassy in Brussels in 1992. EU Delegation office in Kathmandu has been upgraded to the Ambassadorial level since 2009 December. Development Cooperation: EU is the largest development partner and the second largest trade partner (if taken as a single trade bloc) of Nepal. Until 2013, EU assistance to Nepal was provided in two main ways: on a bilateral basis through the formulation of successive Country Strategy Papers (CSPs) in close partnership with the Government of Nepal and on a multilateral basis including all actions outside the CSP mainly funded through thematic budget lines. Looking at the history of CSP's for Nepal, the first CSP 2001–2006 allocated €70 million, and, the second CSP 2007–2013 allocated €114 million for Nepal. Cumulative contribution from EU to Nepal's development has reached 360 million Euro spread over more than 70 projects till 2013. Starting from 2014, the EU has begun channeling its development cooperation under its Multi-Annual Indicative Program (MIP). The EU has increased its development cooperation to Nepal by threefold for the current period of 2014–2020 compared to the proceeding period of the same duration. The MIP had identified three focal sectors for Nepal: €146 million for sustainable rural development, with focus on agricultural productivity and value addition, job creation, market access infrastructure, and nutrition (40.5%); €136.4 million for education, with the aim to improving basic education, quality, livelihood skills and equity for vulnerable and disadvantaged (38%); €74 million for strengthening democracy and decentralization, including its engagement in the area of public finance management reform efforts of the government at local and national level (20.5%); and remaining €3.6 million for other support measures (1%). The EU is also a major donor partner of the Nepal Peace Trust Fund. Cooperation with European Investment Bank (EIB): Nepal and EIB signed an umbrella agreement for financial cooperation on the 7th of May 2012 paving the way for major investments from EIB in Nepal's infrastructure and energy sectors. Following the agreement EIB has already committed a loan assistance of Euro 55 million for Tanahu Hydropower Project (140 MW) which has a total cost of US$500 million. EIB has also expressed its commitments on immediate additional concessional loan assistance of Rs. 1.5 billion for the same project. Talks are underway for EIB investment of $120 million for Kaligandaki-Marsyangdi Corridor Transmission Project, and $30 million for upgrading the Trishuli Corridor Transmission Line. Ms. Magdalena Alvarez Arza, Vice President of the European Investment Bank visited Nepal in June 2014 to work out on those commitments. Trade: The EU is one of the principal trading partners of Nepal, second largest export market with 13% share. The EU imports mainly handmade carpets, textile, gems and jewellery, wood and paper products, leather products, etc. from Nepal. Nepal imports engineering goods, telecommunication equipment, chemical and minerals, metal and steel, agricultural products, etc. from the EU countries. The EU started providing duty-free and quota-free facilities to the Nepalese exports under its Everything But Arms (EBA) policy for the LDCs from 2001. EU introduced the new Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) in 2006 which will remain valid till 2015. Under this scheme, for nearly 2,100 products out of 11,000, except arms and ammunitions, the EU duty rate will be zero. Humanitarian Aid: The European Commission is one of the biggest sources of humanitarian aid to Nepal. It has long been associated with the efforts of disaster management and mitigation projects in Nepal. EU Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection Department (ECHO) has provided over Euro 74 million worth of humanitarian aid to Nepal since 2001 A.D. As a gesture of European solidarity to help those who are worst affected by the recent monsoon floods, the EU Delegation office in Kathmandu has provided Euro 250,000 assistance to flood affected people of mid-western region of Nepal in September 2014. France. Nepal and the French Republic entered into diplomatic relations on 20 April 1949. Bilateral economic cooperation programme commenced in February 1981 when the two countries signed the First Protocol amounting to French Franc 50 million loan which was converted into debt in 1989. Food aid and the counterpart funds that it generated have been the main form of aid since 1991. Main areas of cooperation are national seismologic network, petroleum exploration, restructuring of Water Supply Corporation, the Kavre Integrated Project and Gulmi and Arghakhanchi Rural Development Project, rehabilitation of airports, ‘food for work’, and others. Nepal and France have signed an agreement concerning Reciprocal Promotion and Protection of Investment in 1983. The major areas of French investment are hotels, restaurants, medicine, aluminium windows and doors, vehicle body building sectors. Alcatelhad became the leading supplier of the Nepal Telecommunication Corporation, with 200,000 lines installed, and fibre optic cables. Cegelec secured a 24 million dollars contract in respect of the construction of Kali Gandaki hydroelectric project. The Government of Nepal awarded a contract to Oberthur Technologies of France in 2010, for printing, supply, and delivery of Machine Readable Passports. A significant number of French tourists (24,097 in 2014, 16, 405 in 2015, and, 20,863 in 2016) arrive in Nepal from France each year. Germany. Diplomatic relations between Nepal and the Federal Republic of Germany were established in 1958. Nepal established its embassy in Berlin on 5 July 1965. The Federal Republic of Germany has been maintaining an embassy in Kathmandu since 1963. Development cooperation: The Federal Republic of Germany is one of the major donors for Nepal's development efforts. Germany began its development cooperation to Nepal in 1961 with the technical assistance for the establishment of a Technical Training Institute at Thapathali. In 1964, it provided soft loans to Nepal Industrial Development Cooperation (NIDC). The most notable financial assistance from Germany for a single project has been that of DM 250 million for Middle Marsyangdi Hydroelectric Project. Trade: Germany is Nepal's third largest trading partner after India and the US, and the biggest export market for Nepali products in Europe. Germany is an important market for Nepal, particularly for carpets and textile products. Nepal's main imports from Germany are machinery and industrial products. In recent years, the bilateral balance of trade has regularly shown a surplus in Nepal's favour. The annual volume of bilateral trade has remained fairly constant over the last few years, at around EUR 50 million. Besides carpet, export to Germany from Nepal include handicraft, silver jewellery, garments, leather, wooden and bamboo goods, lentils, tea, essential oils from herb and aromatic plants. Nepal imports mainly industrial raw materials, chemicals, machinery equipment and parts, electric and electronic goods, vehicles etc. from Germany. Scientific and Academic Cooperation: Nepal is also a priority country for the German Research Foundation (DFG) with more than 40 research projects operated in Nepal so far, including a major project by the University of Hamburg to catalogue some 160,000 Nepalese (Tibetan and Newari) manuscripts, which were able to be microfilmed with German support between 1970 and 2002. Holy See. Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1985. The Holy See has a nunciature in the country. Nepal Embassy, Berlin is accredited as non-residential embassy for Holy See. *Nepal (nunciature) Iceland. Both countries established diplomatic relations on May 25, 1981. India. As close neighbours, India and Nepal share a unique relationship of friendship and cooperation characterized by open borders and deep-rooted people-to-people contacts of kinship and culture. There has been a long tradition of free movement of people across the borders. The India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1950 forms the bedrock of the special relations that exist between India and Nepal. Political: Beginning with the 12-Point understanding reached between the Seven Party Alliance and the Maoists at Delhi in November 2005, Government of India has welcomed the road-map laid down by the historic Comprehensive Peace Agreement of November 2006 towards political stabilization in Nepal, through peaceful reconciliation and inclusive democratic processes. India has consistently responded with a sense of urgency to the needs of the people and Government of Nepal in ensuring the success of the peace process and institutionalization of multi–party democracy through the framing of a new Constitution by a duly elected Constituent Assembly. India has always believed that only an inclusive Constitution with the widest possible consensus by taking on board all stakeholders would result in durable peace and stability in Nepal. India's core interest in Nepal is a united Nepal's peace and stability which has a bearing on India as well because of the long and open border shared between India and Nepal. Nepal's second Constituent Assembly promulgated a Constitution on 20 September 2015 amid protests by Madhes-based parties and other groups. The Government of India has expressed grave concern regarding the ongoing protests and has urged the Government of Nepal to make efforts to resolve all issues including the new citizenship laws through a credible political dialogue. Economic: Indian firms are the biggest investors in Nepal, accounting for about 38.3% of Nepal's total approved foreign direct investments. Till 15 July 2013, the Government of Nepal had approved a total of 3004 foreign investment projects with proposed FDI of Rs. 7269.4 crore. There are about 150 operating Indian ventures in Nepal engaged in manufacturing, services (banking, insurance, dry port, education and telecom), power sector and tourism industries. Some large Indian investors include ITC, Dabur India, Hindustan Unilever, VSNL, TCIL, MTNL, State Bank of India, Punjab National Bank, Life Insurance Corporation of India, Asian Paints, CONCOR, GMR India, IL&FS, Manipal Group, MIT Group Holdings, Nupur International, Transworld Group, Patel Engineering, Bhilwara Energy, Bhushan Group, Feedback Ventures, RJ Corp, KSK Energy, Berger Paints, Essel Infra Project Ltd. and Tata Power etc. Development Assistance: Government of India provides substantial financial and technical development assistance to Nepal, which is a broad-based programme focusing on creation of infrastructure at the grass-root level, under which various projects have been implemented in the areas of infrastructure, health, water resources, education and rural & community development. In recent years, India has been assisting Nepal in development of border infrastructure through upgradation of roads in the Terai areas; development of cross-border rail links at Jogbani–Biratnagar, Jaynagar-Bardibas, Nepalgunj Road-Nepalgunj, Nautanwa-Bhairhawa, and New Jalpaigudi-Kakarbhitta; and establishment of Integrated Check Posts at Raxaul-Birgunj, Sunauli-Bhairhawa, Jogbani-Biratnagar, and Nepalgunj Road-Nepalgunj. The total economic assistance extended under ‘Aid to Nepal’ budget in FY 2014–15 was Rs. 300 crore. Currently, 36 intermediate and large projects such as construction of a National Police Academy at Panauti, Nepal Bharat Maitri Pashupati Dharmashala at Tilganga, a Polytechnic at Hetauda, and the National Trauma Centre at Kathmandu are at various stages of implementation. In addition, Government of India's Small Development Projects (SDPs) programme in Nepal extends assistance for the implementation of projects costing less than NRs 5 crore (approx. INR 3.125 crore) in critical sectors such as health, education & community infrastructure development. So far, 243 SDPs have been completed and 233 are under various stages of implementation in 75 districts of Nepal, with a total outlay of over Rs 550 crore. Till date, India has gifted 502 ambulances and 98 school buses to various institutions and health posts across Nepal's 75 districts. Education: GOI provides around 3000 scholarships/seats annually to Nepali nationals for various courses at the Ph.D/Masters, Bachelors and plus–two levels in India and in Nepal. Indian Community in Nepal: Around 1,500,000 Indians are living/domiciled in Nepal. Israel. Nepal was the first and until recently the only nation in South and Central Asia to establish diplomatic ties with Israel. The bilateral relation between the two countries has been good. Traditionally, Nepal votes in favor of Israel at the UN and abstains from resolution opposed by the Israeli government barring few exceptions. Israel-Nepal relations are based on mutual security concerns. Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala, Prime Minister of Nepal from 1959 to 1960, had a strongly pro-Israel foreign policy. King Mahendra visited Israel in 1963 and maintained Koirala's special relationship. Nepal has continued to maintain strong diplomatic ties with Israel despite numerous change in government. Japan. Nepal-Japan relations date back to the late eighteenth century. The relationship became formal with the establishment of diplomatic relations on 1 September 1956. The Embassy of Nepal was established in Tokyo in 1965 and Japan established its embassy in Kathmandu in 1967. Nepal has honorary consulates in Osaka and Fukuoka. Japan is one of the largest aid donors to Nepal. Economic Cooperation: Japan has been contributing to the socio-economic development of Nepal since 1954. Japan has been assisting Nepal in the form of bilateral grant, bilateral loan, multilateral aid and technical assistance. Japan has been assisting Nepal for the promotion of peace and democracy by contributing to the socio-economic development of the country. The major areas of Japan's economic cooperation have been human resource development, social sectors including health, agriculture development, infrastructure development, environment protection, water supply, culture, etc. Japan also provides concessional loan for the infrastructure development in Nepal. Tanahun Hydro and Nagdhunga tunnel projects are ongoing projects under this scheme. On human resource development, Japan has been providing annual scholarships to Government officials of Nepal in various fields under the JDS scheme starting from 2016. The Government of Japan started providing technical training to Nepali since Japan joined the Colombo Plan in 1954. Japan has also been providing Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers (JOCV) and Senior Volunteers to Nepal under JICA Volunteer Program. JOCV Nepal program was launched in 1970. The Government and people of Japan extended spontaneous support in the aftermath of 2015 earthquakes in Nepal. The Japanese Government made over NRS 26 billion grant for reconstruction works in Nepal. Trade and Investment: Japan is one of the important trading partners of Nepal. Nepal exports pashmina products, ready-made garments, woolen goods, carpets, handicrafts, Nepali paper and paper products, leather goods, and silverware and ornaments. Nepal's imports from Japan include vehicles and spare parts, electronic goods, machinery and equipment, iron and steel products, photographic goods, medical equipment and fabric. There is an ample scope of collaborating in trade sector by introducing Japanese production process or integrating product development by exporting niche raw materials in Japan. Japan is one of major sources of Foreign Direct Investment in Nepal. The total FDI amount for the 2015/16 was NRS 223.4 billion. Nepali Diaspora in Japan: The number of Nepali nationals living in Japan is now more than 60,000, which was only 31,531 at the end of 2013. Nepali community is 5th largest foreign communities in Japan. Every year over 10,000 Nepali students go to Japan to pursue higher studies and Japanese languages. Japan is the 2nd most preferred destination for abroad study to the Nepali students. Lesotho. Both countries established diplomatic relations on May 18, 2010. Mauritania. Both countries established diplomatic relations on December 4, 2012. Malaysia. Malaysia has an embassy in Kathmandu, and Nepal has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur. Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 January 1960, with bilateral relations between Malaysia and Nepal have developed from historic grounds. Mexico. Both nations established diplomatic relations in 1975. North Macedonia. Both countries established diplomatic relations on January 6, 1998. Norway. Diplomatic relations were established on 26 January 1973. Norway established an embassy in Kathmandu in 2000. Norway's aid to Nepal was around 32 million USD in 2017. Norwegian aid prioritizes education, good governance and energy. In 2008, Norwegian Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg and Minister of the Environment and International Development Erik Solheim visited Nepal. In 2009, Prime Minister Prachanda visited Norway. In May 2008, a small bomb exploded outside the Norwegian embassy in Kathmandu. No one was injured. Pakistan. The bilateral relations between Nepal and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan were fully established between 1962 and 1963. Both nations have since sought to expand trade, strategic cooperation. Papua New Guinea. Both countries established diplomatic relations on April 12, 2013. Russia. Nepal and the Soviet Union had established diplomatic relations in 1956. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Nepal extended full diplomatic recognition to the Russian Federation as its legal successor. Since then numerous bilateral meetings have taken place between both sides. Since 1992 numerous Nepalese students have gone to Russia for higher studies on a financial basis. In October 2005 the Foreign ministers of both countries met to discuss cooperation on a variety of issues including political, economic, military, educational, and cultural. Both countries maintain embassies in each other's capitals. Russia has an embassy in Kathmandu while Nepal has an embassy in Moscow. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. Both countries established diplomatic relations on September 27, 2007. Solomon Islands. Both countries established diplomatic relations on December 15, 2011. South Korea. In addition to the in-kind and monetary donations and emergency relief workers sent by the government of the Republic of Korea immediately after the latest earthquake in Nepal the Korean government provided grant aid worth 10 million US dollars to assist with Nepal’s recovery and reconstruction efforts. Suriname. Both countries established diplomatic relations in October 2018. Switzerland. Diplomatic relations between Nepal and Switzerland were established in November 1959. Nepal has its embassy in Geneva. Switzerland opened its first residential embassy in Nepal on August 17, 2009. Development Cooperation: Switzerland's cooperation to Nepal dates back to 1950s. Economic cooperation programme was initiated in 1956 with technical assistance scheme for cheese production in the eastern high hills. The Swiss Government, through the Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation (SDC), has been initiating various development projects ranging from Technical Instructor Training Project to Maternity Child Health Care Project. Nepal is among 16 priority countries to receive Swiss assistance worldwide. Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET): The history of Swiss cooperation in TVET in Nepal began in 1962 with the establishment of Balaju School of Engineering and Technology-BTTC (previously known as Mechanical Training Centre – MTC). The BTTC has trained estimated 10,000 youths. Similarly, SDC established Jiri Technical School (JTS) as another milestone of TVET in 1982. The JTS is estimated to have trained another 6,000 youths. Training Institute for Technical Instruction (TITI), previously known as Technical Instructors Training Institute was established in 1991 with the assistance from the Swiss Government, SDC, and Swisscontact, the Swiss Foundation for Technical Cooperation. TITI, already a centre of excellence in Nepal, has trained 19,000 instructional, managerial and curriculum developers from Nepal and other countries. Under Technical Support to Universities and CTEVT SDC supported to strengthening engineering education in Nepal through financial and technical support to Pulchowk Engineering Institute of TU, and its support to KU. Trade: Nepal-Switzerland trade relation has witnessed growth over the years. The balance of trade is mostly unfavorable to Nepal. Major Nepalese exports to Switzerland consist of tea, spices, plants and parts of plants, homeopathic medicaments, hand knotted woolen carpets, ready-made garments, handicrafts, woolen goods, Nepalese paper and paper products, hides and silverware &jewellery. Similarly Nepal imports time pieces, pharmaceutical products, chemicals, construction material, transport equipment (bus, truck and parts), machinery and parts, medical equipment, photographic paper, footwear, aluminium foil, air conditioner, etc. from Switzerland. Tajikistan. Both countries established diplomatic relations on September 13, 2005. United Kingdom. Nepal established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom in 1816. Nepal established its legation in London in 1934, which was the first Nepalese diplomatic mission established at the foreign country. It was elevated to the ambassador level in 1947 A.D. The UK remains one of the top development partners of Nepal with the annual British aid on an increasing trend. Tourism, trade, education, and the British Gurkha connection remained the key dimensions of the bilateral relations. Since then, relations between the two countries have continued to grow, with a new Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Friendship signed in 1950 which expanded areas of cooperation and an exchange of State Visits. Amicable relations continue today; Nepal continues to be the source of recruitment of Gurkha soldiers into the British army – a tradition dating back to the nineteenth century but still an essential part of Britain's modern army – and the United Kingdom remains one of the most significant providers of development assistance to Nepal. United States. Nepal and the United States of America (USA) established the diplomatic relations between them on 25 April 1947. Nepal established its embassy in Washington D.C. on 3 February 1958. On 6 August 1959, American Embassy in Kathmandu was opened. According to the 2012 U.S. Global Leadership Report, 41% of Nepalese people approve of U.S. leadership. Since 1951, the United States has provided more than $7 billion in bilateral economic assistance to Nepal. In recent years, annual bilateral U.S. economic assistance through the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) has averaged $40 million per year. Development Cooperation: The USA extended development assistance to Nepal with its Point Four Program in 1951. USAID/Nepal is the development assistance arm of the US Mission to Nepal. Various sectors such as transport, communication, public health, family planning, malaria eradication, agriculture, forestry, energy etc. have come to benefit from the development assistance spanning more than 5 decades. Of late, US cooperation is also geared towards the institutionalization of peace and democracy and protection and promotion of human rights in accordance with its country strategy document. The US cooperation has equally been instrumental in the fields of human resource development and institution building. There have been regular exchanges of visits and sharing of expertise and experiences between the armies of the two countries in the area of training, disaster management, logistics management, counter terrorism, interoperability and so on. Trade/Investment: The US is one of the important trading partners of Nepal. It is also the biggest source of hard currency for Nepal primarily from the export of garments and carpets as well as from tourist incomes. After the end of the quota system under Multi-fibre Agreement (MFA) in 2004 the export of Nepali readymade garments to the United States of America has declined significantly. Nepal has been consistently advocating for duty-free facilities for its exports to the US, especially the ready-made garments. Trade Preferences for Nepal: Trade Facilitation and Trade Enforcement Act 2015 (H.R.1907): The duty-free program, specially designed for Nepal, came into effect on December 15, 2016 following introduction of the US Trade Facilitation and Trade Enforcement Act by former US President Barack Obama. The Act was introduced to support Nepal's economic recovery in the aftermath of devastating 2015 earthquakes. Under this program, 66 Nepali products are granted duty-free entry into the US till December 31, 2025. This means goods like carpets and rugs, shawls, scarves, luggage articles, handbags, pocket goods, such as wallets, travel bags and other containers, headbands, blankets, hats and gloves, which previously used to be subject to tariffs ranging from 5 percent to over 20 percent can now enter the US market at zero tariff. However, such goods must be grown, produced, or manufactured in Nepal, with the cost of the Nepali materials plus the cost of processing standing at at least 35 percent of the product's sales price. Millennium Challenge Corporation: Nepal joined MCC in 2010 when it was considered eligible for its “Threshold Program”, after passing through a scorecard consisting of 20 indicators related to political, economic and social situation of the country. Threshold Program aimed to assist a country in becoming compact eligible by supporting targeted policy and institutional reforms. MCC works with Threshold Program – eligible countries on these reforms through country-specific threshold program. In December 2014, MCC decided to include Nepal for its Compact Development Program, The Readout of the MCC's Board of Directors mentioned: ‘Nepal has consistently passed the scorecard criteria for the past four years and continues to demonstrate clear progress in institutionalizing democratic processes’. At present an MCC Compact for Nepal (worth US$630 million) is under consideration and is likely to be signed by Nepali and the US authorities soon. US Peace Corps Volunteers: The Peace Corps Nepal, which temporarily suspended its operations and activities from September 2004, has resumed its operations from January 17, 2012. The volunteers have been working in rural areas in various sectors including teaching in schools.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=233103

Charles Lamb (10 February 1775 – 27 December 1834) was an English essayist, poet, and antiquarian, best known for his "Essays of Elia" and for the children's book "Tales from Shakespeare", co-authored with his sister, Mary Lamb (1764–1847). Friends with such literary luminaries as Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Robert Southey, William Wordsworth, and William Hazlitt, Lamb was at the centre of a major literary circle in England. He has been referred to by E. V. Lucas, his principal biographer, as "the most lovable figure in English literature". Youth and schooling. Lamb was born in London, the son of Elizabeth Field and John Lamb. Lamb was the youngest child, with a sister 11 years older named Mary and an even older brother named John; there were four others who did not survive infancy. His father John Lamb was a lawyer's clerk and spent most of his professional life as the assistant to a barrister named Samuel Salt, who lived in the Inner Temple in the legal district of London. It was there in Crown Office Row that Charles Lamb was born and spent his youth. Lamb created a portrait of his father in his "Elia on the Old Benchers" under the name Lovel. Lamb's older brother was too much his senior to be a youthful companion to the boy but his sister Mary, being born eleven years before him, was probably his closest playmate. Lamb was also cared for by his paternal aunt Hetty, who seems to have had a particular fondness for him. A number of writings by both Charles and Mary suggest that the conflict between Aunt Hetty and her sister-in-law created a certain degree of tension in the Lamb household. However, Charles speaks fondly of her and her presence in the house seems to have brought a great deal of comfort to him. Some of Lamb's fondest childhood memories were of time spent with Mrs Field, his maternal grandmother, who was for many years a servant to the Plumer family, who owned a large country house called Blakesware, near Widford, Hertfordshire. After the death of Mrs Plumer, Lamb's grandmother was in sole charge of the large home and, as William Plumer was often absent, Charles had free rein of the place during his visits. A picture of these visits can be glimpsed in the Elia essay "Blakesmoor in H—shire". Why, every plank and panel of that house for me had magic in it. The tapestried bed-rooms – tapestry so much better than painting – not adorning merely, but peopling the wainscots – at which childhood ever and anon would steal a look, shifting its coverlid (replaced as quickly) to exercise its tender courage in a momentary eye-encounter with those stern bright visages, staring reciprocally – all Ovid on the walls, in colours vivider than his descriptions. Little is known about Charles's life before he was seven other than that Mary taught him to read at a very early age and he read voraciously. It is believed that he suffered from smallpox during his early years, which forced him into a long period of convalescence. After this period of recovery Lamb began to take lessons from Mrs Reynolds, a woman who lived in the Temple and is believed to have been the former wife of a lawyer. Mrs Reynolds must have been a sympathetic schoolmistress because Lamb maintained a relationship with her throughout his life and she is known to have attended dinner parties held by Mary and Charles in the 1820s. E. V. Lucas suggests that sometime in 1781 Charles left Mrs Reynolds and began to study at the Academy of William Bird. His time with William Bird did not last long, however, because by October 1782 Lamb was enrolled in Christ's Hospital, a charity boarding school chartered by King Edward VI in 1553. A thorough record of Christ's Hospital is to be found in several essays by Lamb as well as "The Autobiography of Leigh Hunt" and the "Biographia Literaria" of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, with whom Charles developed a friendship that would last for their entire lives. Despite the school's brutality, Lamb got along well there, due in part, perhaps, to the fact that his home was not far distant, thus enabling him, unlike many other boys, to return often to its safety. Years later, in his essay "Christ's Hospital Five and Thirty Years Ago", Lamb described these events, speaking of himself in the third person as "L". "I remember L. at school; and can well recollect that he had some peculiar advantages, which I and other of his schoolfellows had not. His friends lived in town, and were near at hand; and he had the privilege of going to see them, almost as often as he wished, through some invidious distinction, which was denied to us." Christ's Hospital was a typical English boarding school and many students later wrote of the terrible violence they suffered there. The upper master (i.e. principal or headteacher) of the school from 1778 to 1799 was Reverend James Boyer, a man renowned for his unpredictable and capricious temper. In one famous story Boyer was said to have knocked one of Leigh Hunt's teeth out by throwing a copy of Homer at him from across the room. Lamb seemed to have escaped much of this brutality, in part because of his amiable personality and in part because Samuel Salt, his father's employer and Lamb's sponsor at the school, was one of the institute's governors. Charles Lamb had a stutter and this "inconquerable impediment" in his speech deprived him of Grecian status at Christ's Hospital, thus disqualifying him for a clerical career. While Coleridge and other scholarly boys were able to go on to Cambridge, Lamb left school at fourteen and was forced to find a more prosaic career. For a short time he worked in the office of Joseph Paice, a London merchant, and then, for 23 weeks, until 8 February 1792, held a small post in the Examiner's Office of the South Sea House. Its subsequent downfall in a pyramid scheme after Lamb left (the South Sea Bubble) would be contrasted to the company's prosperity in the first Elia essay. On 5 April 1792 he went to work in the Accountant's Office for the British East India Company, the death of his father's employer having ruined the family's fortunes. Charles would continue to work there for 25 years, until his retirement with pension (the "superannuation" he refers to in the title of one essay). In 1792 while tending to his grandmother, Mary Field, in Hertfordshire, Charles Lamb fell in love with a young woman named Ann Simmons. Although no epistolary record exists of the relationship between the two, Lamb seems to have spent years wooing her. The record of the love exists in several accounts of Lamb's writing. "Rosamund Gray" is a story of a young man named Allen Clare who loves Rosamund Gray but their relationship comes to nothing because of her sudden death. Miss Simmons also appears in several Elia essays under the name "Alice M". The essays "Dream Children", "New Year's Eve", and several others, speak of the many years that Lamb spent pursuing his love that ultimately failed. Miss Simmons eventually went on to marry a silversmith and Lamb called the failure of the affair his "great disappointment". Family tragedy. Both Charles and his sister Mary suffered a period of mental illness. As he himself confessed in a letter, Charles spent six weeks in a mental facility during 1795: However, Mary Lamb's illness was particularly strong, and it led her to become aggressive on a fatal occasion. On 22 September 1796, while preparing dinner, Mary became angry with her apprentice, roughly shoving the little girl out of her way and pushing her into another room. Her mother, Elizabeth, began yelling at her for this, and Mary suffered a mental breakdown as her mother continued yelling at her. Mary took the kitchen knife she had been holding, unsheathed it, and approached her mother, who was sitting down. Mary, "worn down to a state of extreme nervous misery by attention to needlework by day and to her mother at night", was seized with acute mania and stabbed her mother in the heart with a table knife. Charles ran into the house soon after the murder and took the knife out of Mary's hand. Later in the evening, Charles found a local place for Mary in a private mental facility called Fisher House, which had been found with the help of a doctor friend of his. While reports were published by the media, Charles wrote a letter to Samuel Taylor Coleridge in connection to the matricide: Charles took over responsibility for Mary after refusing his brother John's suggestion that they have her committed to a public lunatic asylum. Lamb used a large part of his relatively meagre income to keep his beloved sister in the private "madhouse" in Islington. With the help of friends, Lamb succeeded in obtaining his sister's release from what would otherwise have been lifelong imprisonment. Although there was no legal status of "insanity" at the time, the jury returned the verdict of "lunacy" which was how she was freed from guilt of willful murder, on the condition that Charles take personal responsibility for her safekeeping. The 1799 death of John Lamb was something of a relief to Charles because his father had been mentally incapacitated for a number of years since suffering a stroke. The death of his father also meant that Mary could come to live again with him in Pentonville, and in 1800 they set up a shared home at Mitre Court Buildings in the Temple, where they would live until 1809. In 1800, Mary's illness came back and Charles had to take her back again to the asylum. In those days, Charles sent a letter to Coleridge, in which he admitted he felt melancholic and lonely, adding "I almost wish that Mary were dead." Later she would come back, and both he and his sister would enjoy an active and rich social life. Their London quarters became a kind of weekly salon for many of the most outstanding theatrical and literary figures of the day. In 1869, a club, The Lambs, was formed in London to carry on their salon tradition. The actor Henry James Montague founded the club's New York counterpart in 1874. Charles Lamb, having been to school with Samuel Coleridge, counted Coleridge as perhaps his closest, and certainly his oldest, friend. On his deathbed, Coleridge had a mourning ring sent to Lamb and his sister. Fortuitously, Lamb's first publication was in 1796, when four sonnets by "Mr Charles Lamb of the India House" appeared in Coleridge's "Poems on Various Subjects". In 1797 he contributed additional blank verse to the second edition, and met the Wordsworths, William and Dorothy, on his short summer holiday with Coleridge at Nether Stowey, thereby also striking up a lifelong friendship with William. In London, Lamb became familiar with a group of young writers who favoured political reform, including Percy Bysshe Shelley, William Hazlitt, Leigh Hunt and William Hone. Lamb continued to clerk for the East India Company and doubled as a writer in various genres, his tragedy, "John Woodvil", being published in 1802. His farce, "Mr H", was performed at Drury Lane in 1807, where it was roundly booed. In the same year, "Tales from Shakespeare" (Charles handled the tragedies; his sister Mary, the comedies) was published, and became a best seller for William Godwin's "Children's Library". On 20 July 1819, at age 44, Lamb, who, because of family commitments, had never married, fell in love with an actress, Fanny Kelly, of Covent Garden, and besides writing her a sonnet he also proposed marriage. She refused him, and he died a bachelor. His collected essays, under the title "Essays of Elia", were published in 1823 ("Elia" being the pen name Lamb used as a contributor to "The London Magazine"). The "Essays of Elia" would be criticised in the "Quarterly Review" (January 1823) by Robert Southey, who thought its author to be irreligious. When Charles read the review, entitled "The Progress of Infidelity", he was filled with indignation, and wrote a letter to his friend Bernard Barton, where Lamb declared he hated the review, and emphasised that his words "meant no harm to religion". First, Lamb did not want to retort, since he actually admired Southey; but later he felt the need to write a letter "Elia to Southey", in which he complained and expressed that the fact that he was a dissenter of the Church, did not make him an irreligious man. The letter would be published in "The London Magazine", in October 1823: A further collection called "The Last Essays of Elia" was published in 1833, shortly before Lamb's death. Also, in 1834, Samuel Coleridge died. The funeral was confined only to the family of the writer, so Lamb was prevented from attending and only wrote a letter to Rev. James Gilman, a very close [word missing], expressing his condolences. On 27 December 1834, Lamb died of a streptococcal infection, erysipelas, contracted from a minor graze on his face sustained after slipping in the street; he was 59. From 1833 till their deaths, Charles and Mary lived at Bay Cottage, Church Street, Edmonton, north of London (now part of the London Borough of Enfield). Lamb is buried in All Saints' Churchyard, Edmonton. His sister, who was ten years his senior, survived him for more than a dozen years. She is buried beside him. Work. Lamb's first publication was the inclusion of four sonnets in Coleridge's "Poems on Various Subjects", published in 1796 by Joseph Cottle. The sonnets were significantly influenced by the poems of Burns and the sonnets of William Bowles, a largely forgotten poet of the late 18th century. Lamb's poems garnered little attention and are seldom read today. As he himself came to realise, he was a much more talented prose stylist than poet. Indeed, one of the most celebrated poets of the day—William Wordsworth—wrote to John Scott as early as 1815 that Lamb "writes prose exquisitely"—and this was five years before Lamb began "The" "Essays of Elia" for which he is now most famous. Notwithstanding, Lamb's contributions to Coleridge's second edition of the "Poems on Various Subjects" showed significant growth as a poet. These poems included "The Tomb of Douglas" and "A Vision of Repentance". Because of a temporary falling out with Coleridge, Lamb's poems were to be excluded in the third edition of the "Poems "though as it turned out a third edition never emerged. Instead, Coleridge's next publication was the monumentally influential "Lyrical Ballads" co-published with Wordsworth. Lamb, on the other hand, published a book entitled Blank Verse with Charles Lloyd, the mentally unstable son of the founder of Lloyds Bank. Lamb's most famous poem was written at this time and entitled "The Old Familiar Faces". Like most of Lamb's poems, it is unabashedly sentimental, and perhaps for this reason it is still remembered and widely read today, being often included in anthologies of British and Romantic period poetry. Of particular interest to Lambarians is the opening verse of the original version of "The Old Familiar Faces", which is concerned with Lamb's mother, whom Mary Lamb killed. It was a verse that Lamb chose to remove from the edition of his Collected Work published in 1818: <poem>I had a mother, but she died, and left me, Died prematurely in a day of horrors – All, all are gone, the old familiar faces.</poem> In the final years of the 18th century, Lamb began to work on prose, first in a novella entitled "Rosamund Gray", which tells the story of a young girl whose character is thought to be based on Ann Simmons, an early love interest. Although the story is not particularly successful as a narrative because of Lamb's poor sense of plot, it was well thought of by Lamb's contemporaries and led Shelley to observe, "what a lovely thing is "Rosamund Gray"! How much knowledge of the sweetest part of our nature in it!" (Quoted in Barnett, page 50) In the first years of the 19th century, Lamb began a fruitful literary cooperation with his sister Mary. Together they wrote at least three books for William Godwin's Juvenile Library. The most successful of these was "Tales From Shakespeare", which ran through two editions for Godwin and has been published dozens of times in countless editions ever since. The book contains artful prose summaries of some of Shakespeare's most well-loved works. According to Lamb, he worked primarily on Shakespeare's tragedies, while Mary focused mainly on the comedies. Lamb's essay "On the Tragedies of Shakespeare Considered with Reference to their Fitness for Stage Representation", which was originally published in the "Reflector" in 1811 with the title "On Garrick, and Acting; and the Plays of Shakspeare, considered with reference to their fitness for Stage Representation", has often been taken as the ultimate Romantic dismissal of the theatre. In the essay, Lamb argues that Shakespeare should be read, rather than performed, in order to protect Shakespeare from butchering by mass commercial performances. While the essay certainly criticises contemporary stage practice, it also develops a more complex reflection on the possibility of representing Shakespearean dramas: Shakespeare’s dramas are for Lamb the object of a complex cognitive process that does not require sensible data, but only imaginative elements that are suggestively elicited by words. In the altered state of consciousness that the dreamlike experience of reading stands for, Lamb can see Shakespeare’s own conceptions mentally materialized. Besides contributing to Shakespeare's reception with his and his sister's book "Tales From Shakespeare", Lamb also contributed to the recovery of acquaintance with Shakespeare's contemporaries. Accelerating the increasing interest of the time in the older writers, and building for himself a reputation as an antiquarian, in 1808 Lamb compiled a collection of extracts from the old dramatists, "Specimens of the English Dramatic Poets Who Lived About the Time of Shakespeare". This also contained critical "characters" of the old writers, which added to the flow of significant literary criticism, primarily of Shakespeare and his contemporaries, from Lamb's pen. Immersion in seventeenth-century authors, such as Robert Burton and Sir Thomas Browne, also changed the way Lamb wrote, adding a distinct flavour to his writing style. Lamb's friend, the essayist William Hazlitt, thus characterised him: "Mr. Lamb ... does not march boldly along with the crowd ... He prefers "bye-ways" to "highways". When the full tide of human life pours along to some festive show, to some pageant of a day, Elia would stand on one side to look over an old book-stall, or stroll down some deserted pathway in search of a pensive description over a tottering doorway, or some quaint device in architecture, illustrative of embryo art and ancient manners. Mr. Lamb has the very soul of an antiquarian ..." Although he did not write his first Elia essay until 1820, Lamb's gradual perfection of the essay form for which he eventually became famous began as early as 1811 in a series of open letters to Leigh Hunt's "Reflector". The most famous of these early essays is "The Londoner", in which Lamb famously derides the contemporary fascination with nature and the countryside. He would continue to fine-tune his craft, experimenting with different essayistic voices and personae, for the better part of the next quarter century. Religious views. Christianity played an important role in Lamb's personal life: although he was not a churchman he "sought consolation in religion," as shown in letters he wrote to Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Bernard Barton in which he describes the New Testament as his "best guide" for life and recalls how he used to read the Psalms for one or two hours without getting tired. Other writings also deal with his Christian beliefs. Like his friend Coleridge, Lamb was sympathetic to Priestleyan Unitarianism and was a Dissenter, and he was described by Coleridge himself as one whose "faith in Jesus ha[d] been preserved" even after the family tragedy. Wordsworth also described him as a firm Christian in the poem "Written After the Death of Charles Lamb", Alfred Ainger, in his work "Charles Lamb", writes that Lamb's religion had become "an habit". Lamb's own poems "On The Lord's Prayer", "A Vision of Repentance", "The Young Catechist", "Composed at Midnight", "Suffer Little Children, and Forbid Them Not to Come Unto Me", "Written a Twelvemonth After the Events", "Charity", "Sonnet to a Friend" and "David" express his religious faith, while his poem "Living Without God in the World" has been called a "poetic attack" on unbelief, in which Lamb expresses his disgust at atheism, attributing it to pride. Legacy. There has always been a small but enduring following for Lamb's works, as the long-running and still-active "Charles Lamb Bulletin" demonstrates. Because of his quirky, even bizarre, style, he has been more of a "cult favourite" than an author with mass popular or scholarly appeal. Anne Fadiman notes regretfully that Lamb is not widely read in modern times: "I do not understand why so few other readers are clamoring for his company... [He] is kept alive largely through the tenuous resuscitations of university English departments.". Two of the houses at Christ's Hospital (Lamb A and Lamb B) are named in his honour. and he is also honoured by The Latymer School, a grammar school in Edmonton, a suburb of London where he lived for a time: it has six houses, one of which, Lamb, is named after him. A major academic prize awarded each year at Christ's Hospital School's speech day is "The Lamb Prize for Independent Study". Sir Edward Elgar wrote an orchestral work, "Dream Children", inspired by Lamb's essay of that title. A quotation from Lamb, "Lawyers, I suppose, were children once",' serves as the epigraph to Harper Lee's novel "To Kill a Mockingbird". The Charles Lamb pub in Islington is named after him. Charles Lamb plays an important role in the plot of Mary Ann Shaffer and Annie Barrows's novel, "The Guernsey Literary and Potato Peel Pie Society."

12 cycles around the sun

14079-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46542579

Rockwell Tools is a line of power tools that is currently owned and distributed by Positec Tool Corporation, a China-based company with North American headquarters in Charlotte, North Carolina. The brand offers power tools and hand tools that are most often used in professional and private construction, automotive repair, and woodworking. Its products are sold at a variety of retailers including Lowe's, Costco, and The Home Depot. History. The Positec Tool Corporation was founded in Suzhou, China, in 1994 by Don Gao. It primarily sold OEM tools to established brands like Black & Decker. In the early 2000s, Gao decided to branch out by manufacturing tools and lawn care accessories under his own brand name. Meanwhile, Tom Duncan, the current CEO of the Positec Tool Corporation in North America, was the vice president of a Robert Bosch GmbH-owned company called Vermont American. He quit that job in 2003 to pursue the manufacture of a line of power tools. He purchased the rights to the brand name "Rockwell" which hadn't been in use for power tools since 1981. Gao and Duncan met in 2004, with Gao looking to launch the "WORX" brand of lawn care accessories and Duncan looking to manufacture the Rockwell Tools brand. They decided to partner up, and Duncan became the head of the North American division of Positec in 2005. Both the Rockwell Tools and the WORX brands were originally sold directly to consumers via infomercials. Products branded with Rockwell Tools first appeared in the retailer Lowe's, in October 2009. By 2012, the main North American distribution center had moved to Huntersville, North Carolina, from Long Beach, California, to facilitate the increased sales. Rockwell Tools could also be found in Costco and The Home Depot (among other retailers) in 2012. In 2012, the Rockwell brand was designated the "Official Power Tool" of Rockingham Speedway in Rockingham, North Carolina. They also served as the sponsor for Kasey Kahne's vehicle in the NASCAR Camping World Truck Series race in Rockingham that year. In 2013, Rockwell Tools was a part of an integrated ad campaign that was featured on both the History Channel and its reality TV series "Counting Cars". The campaign's slogan was "Rock Your Garage", which was also the title of a sweepstakes associated with the campaign. Products. The Rockwell Tools brand features power tools (both corded and cordless) and hand tools. Some of these tools include drills, VersaCut circular saws, power planers, miter saws, G-Force angle grinders, sanders, and bench grinders. Many of the products offered by Rockwell Tools come with free batteries for life. Rockwell Tools also offers a variety of specialty tools including the Sonicrafter, an oscillating multi-tool that is used for remodeling and general home improvement. The Jawhorse is a clamping device that is similar in style to a bench vise, but offers hands-free operation. Rockwell also offers the ShopSeries, which is a line of tools aimed at budget-conscious DIYers. Recognition and awards. In 2011, Positec was honored with the Product of the Year award by "DIY Week" in the power tools category for Rockwell's Sonicrafter oscillating tool and the Rockwell G-Force angle grinder.

motorized devises

1366-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9853123

The S&T Daewoo K11 DAW (Dual-barrel Air-burst Weapon) is a multi-weapon resembling the earlier US Objective Individual Combat Weapon in concept, design and operation. It consists of two separate weapons combined into a single unit: a lower assault rifle chambered to fire 5.56×45mm NATO rounds and an upper 20×30mm (caliber of shell x length of propellent case) grenade launcher firing both conventional and air-bursting "smart" grenades, along with its integrated digital sighting unit. History. The K11 was officially unveiled to the public at the DSEI military expo, though information pertaining to its development has been available since 2006. The weapon was adopted by the Republic of Korea Armed Forces in 2008 and was distributed within the Republic of Korea Army during 2010, making it the world's first army to use an airburst rifle as standard issue in the military. Each squad is reported to be issued two K11s, though it will not replace grenadiers who currently use K2 rifles with the underslung K201 grenade launcher. In May 2010, the United Arab Emirates purchased a quantity of 40 K11s for evaluation purposes for a total cost of US$560,000, giving an indicative unit cost of US$14,000. In March 2011 it was announced that 15 out of 39 K11s issued since June 2010 (including 7 out of 20 rifles used by Korean forces in Afghanistan) had shown serious defects and the decision had been made to halt production and modify the design. The defects included: barrel movements during firing, defects in the striking mechanism, condensation forming inside the laser reception lens, and defects in switching from single to automatic fire. South Korea's state procurement agency, The Defense Acquisition Program Administration (DAPA) said it has fixed the defects by modifying the designs and improving the shooting control system and will resume its production. A total of 4,000 K11s were to be produced with all to be fielded by 2014. In September 2014, a major defect was found in the fire control system of the K11, which suspended production as well as use of the 900 rifles distributed to the Army. The Agency for Defense Development says a solution will be implemented on a large scale before the end of 2016. In 2017, the 2nd gen K11 was revealed with huge improvements for its weight and 20mm grenade firepower. In 2019, however, the Board of Audit and Inspection of Korea notified the Defense Acquisition Program Administration to completely suspend the K11 project, citing a lack of accuracy and various defects. Design. Equipped with a laser range-finder as well as a ballistics computer, the K11 allows the operator to quickly find the distance to a target and launch an airburst shell. The shell will then detonate a few meters away from the target. An electronic scope is integrated on the K11; it can be linked to a goggle system with a digital display. The display can be used during nighttime with thermal imaging, and shows the range information from the laser range-finder. The weapon is compatible with standard 20- or 30-round 5.56×45mm NATO magazines, and can hold 6-round magazines of 20 mm shells at one time. The fire selector position and layout is similar to the M16/M4 rifles' selector, though some controls are different. It has four positions, three of which are: 9 o'clock for safe; 6 o'clock for three-round burst for the rifle; and 3 o'clock for semiautomatic fire for the rifle. The fourth selector position is at 12 o'clock and controls the grenade launcher, allowing bullets and grenades to be fired using the same trigger. Because of this they both cannot be available at the same time. There are two types of 20 mm grenade rounds for the K11; the K168 training round is for practice and has no explosives, while K167 explosive ammunition weighs and has an internal fuse with three selectable settings for point detonation, point detonation-delay, and airburst. The integrated weapon sight programs the airburst warheads after the laser rangefinder sights a target when the launcher is selected (the sight automatically provides aiming points for either bullets or grenades when their firing modes are selected). Point detonation explodes the shell on impact with a target and point detonation-delay lets the warhead penetrate a target before exploding; penetration ability is unknown. The airburst setting detonates the grenade round in front of, over, or behind a target to hit troops in cover yielding an airburst effect capable of killing targets within a 6 m area and seriously wounding those within an 8 m area. Users enter a range at which the shell is to detonate into the sighting unit, which automatically calculates the time of flight and sets the chambered round's fuse to detonate when it reaches that point. If a round is not fired within two minutes of targeting information being programmed, it will disarm itself. If a grenade does not explode, a backup self-destruct safety mechanism automatically detonates it after being at rest two seconds after impact to leave no unexploded ordnance. One of the problems with the previous American Objective Individual Combat Weapon, which influenced the combination rifle/airburst launcher concept, was that its 20 mm grenade rounds were not very lethal. The fragments were often too small and light to be effective, there was not enough explosive material to create a large kill radius, and many fragments were dispersed vertically and away from the target. This was one of the reasons the OICW effort was cancelled, and it is not known if these deficiencies were addressed with the K11's airburst grenades of the same size. However, Daewoo solved this problem by increasing the height of the grenade, and a recent report indicated that the 20mm airburst grenade has more lethal fragments than a 40mm grenade. Furthermore, after the 2nd improvements, they developed a new technology which enabled the 20mm airburst grenade to explode in a single fixed direction to increase firepower, instead of exploding in all directions (which would reduce firepower). The K11 is being upgraded to reduce the shock generated in firing the 5.56 mm rounds by as much as 40 percent, and similar technology is under review to decrease the shock of launching 20 mm shells. This will likely strengthen the ammunition power of the rifle make it easier to use, while also reducing the weight of the weapon by 10 percent. In 2017, Daewoo revealed the 2nd gen K11 which improved the weight and the 20mm airburst grenade firepower.

spectrum reports

2349-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38345915

On a manual milling machine, the micrometer adjustment nut limits the depth to which the cutting tool may plunge into the workpiece. The nut is located on a threaded rod on the mill head. The machine operator moves it up or down by rotating it clockwise (to move it down) or counter-clockwise (to move it up). Moving the nut down increases the depth to which the cutting tool may plunge into the workpiece. Moving the nut up reduces the depth to which the cutting tool may plunge into the workpiece.

appliance operant

8298-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12717811

Magnetic implantation is an experimental procedure in which small, powerful magnets (neodymium) are inserted beneath the skin, often in the tips of fingers. They exist in tubes and discs. This procedure is popular among biohackers and grinders, but remains experimental. Magnetic implants are often performed by amateurs at home, using readily available surgical tools and magnets found online. However, some professional body modification shops do perform implant surgeries. Magnetic implants can also be used as an interface for portable devices to create other new "senses", for example converting other sensory inputs such as ultrasonic or infra-red into a touch sensation. In this way the individual could 'feel' e.g. the distance to objects. Purpose. Though magnetic implants can be used to pick up small metal objects, the main purpose of getting an implant is in order to gain sensory perception of magnetic fields. After a magnet is implanted underneath the epidermal layer of the skin, nerves grow around the magnet as the skin heals. The magnet pushes against magnetic fields produced by electronic devices in the surrounding area, pushing against the nerves and giving a "sixth sense" of magnetic vision. Some people prefer to have multiple implants in several fingers in order to get a more "3D" view of the magnetic fields around them, but one magnetic implant is enough to be able to feel magnetic fields. This means that people with magnetic implants have sensations of running electric motors, electronic circuits, appliances, and even wires. Magnets and coatings. The magnets used for implantation must be carefully selected and coated in order to successfully implant them. Size is important in this consideration, as too large of a magnet obstructs blood vessels and is likely to reject, or push out of the skin. For this reason, the most common magnet size is a 3×1mm neodymium disk magnet. Usually the magnets used are of the highest strength available, as a stronger magnet leads to higher magnetic field sensitivity. Perhaps the most important consideration is a coating for the magnet, as typical neodymium disk magnets are not suitable for implantation. Magnets must be coated in an inert and biosafe material, so the body does not attack the magnet. Popular magnet coatings include implant grade silicone, titanium nitride, gold and rhodium. Disc-magnets are implanted with a scalpel, tubes are inserted by syringe. Procedures are often done either without anaesthesia, or, in some cases, ice water, due to legal issues regarding purchase of anaesthesia versus usage of numbing substances such as alcohol or cold. History. Magnet implantation was first theorized in the mid 1990s by Steve Haworth and Jesse Jarrel, both body modification experts. Initially, the implants were designed to connect to rings or horns outside of the body, and were purely cosmetic. However, after talking to a friend who had a piece of steel lodged into his finger which allowed him to sense the presence of magnetic fields, Haworth realised that small magnets could be implanted in order to achieve this effect more efficiently. Since then, several companies have sold bio-safe, implantable magnets. Lifespan. Typical 3×1mm neodymium magnets have been reported to last on average five years implanted into finger extremities before the effectiveness of the implant becomes reduced. There have been no studies on magnetising implants after they have lost magnetisation other than removing and re-implanting a new magnet into a new site due to scar tissue formation preventing nerve sensation and reentry. There are three primary causes for magnets to lose sensitivity – the ability for you to sense magnetic fields. Field strength decline The magnetic field strength of a magnet can naturally decline very slowly over many many years, however total losses are negligible and certainly not detectable without extremely sensitive field strength meters. However there are direct causes which can affect magnetic field strength, such as forcing like poles together or severe mechanical impact. Forcing like poles together so the magnets repel each other can result in what’s called hysteresis loss, though it requires a considerably stronger opposing magnetic force to regularly act on the implanted magnet to cause any significant loss, which is unlikely. Severe impacts can physically jostle the atomic structure of the magnet, causing some magnetic domains to change direction or realign differently, causing some loss. Tactile nerve displacement Depending on the location of the magnetic implant, how the body heals, and how it develops scar tissue over time, the person may begin to experience less tactile nerve activation over time as scar tissue slowly grows around the implant site, forcing tactile nerves further and further away from the implant. This does occur with some regularity, however it typically takes several years to be noticeable, and sensitivity loss is usually minor. More often than not, loss of sensitivity occurs due to corrosion of the magnet, either inside the encapsulation through or due to encapsulation failure. Corrosion Neodymium magnets contain a large amount of iron by volume, and iron is easily corroded by common elements such as oxygen and water. Magnet corrosion occurs when these elements become trapped inside during the encapsulation process, which can cause slow corrosive effect, or the encapsulation fails and allows corrosive elements to come into contact with the magnet. Catastrophic encapsulation failures are usually obvious, resulting in tenderness, discoloration of the skin, and a slight inflammatory response. Small failures however can take much longer to become obvious, resulting in a slow degradation of field strength without many external signs that something is slowly going wrong with the magnet. Safety. Infection Infection has also been cited as a source of failure within RFID and related microchip implanted individuals. Either due to improper implantation techniques, implant rejections of corrosion of implant elements. MRI scanners Concern has been raised and investigated independently by various journalists and bodies on the nature of safety of being implanted and their proximity to MRI machines. So far no common conclusive investigation has been done in the matter of each individual type of implant and it's risks involved near MRIs other than anecdotal reports ranging from no problems occurring with MRI machines, to requiring hand shielding before proximity, to outright denial of proximity due to danger. In popular culture. Transhumanism is a movement related by the implants and their relation to trans human qualities of which microchipped/sub-dermal implanted individuals are commonly grouped together with.

top-level power

8087-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=183952

A backpack—also called knapsack, rucksack, rucksac, pack, sackpack, booksack, bookbag or backsack—is, in its simplest frameless form, a cloth sack carried on one's back and secured with two straps that go over the shoulders, but it can have an external frame, internal frame, and there are bodypacks. Backpacks are commonly used by hikers and students, and are often preferred to handbags for carrying heavy loads or carrying any sort of equipment, because of the limited capacity to carry heavy weights for long periods of time in the hands. Large backpacks, used to carry loads over , as well as smaller sports backpacks (e.g. running, cycling, hiking and hydration), usually offload the largest part (up to about 90%) of their weight onto padded hip belts, leaving the shoulder straps mainly for stabilising the load. This improves the potential to carry heavy loads, as the hips are stronger than the shoulders, and also increases agility and balance, since the load rides nearer the wearer's own center of mass. Terminology. The word backpack was coined in the United States in the 1910s. "Moneybag" and "packsack" were used prior, and now occur mainly as regionalisms. The word rucksack is a German loanword mainly used in the UK, US and in other Western military forces. In Middle High German "ruck(e)" means "back" (dorsum), which led to the Upper German and Swiss word "ruggsack". In modern German the word "der Rucksack" is commonly used. The name rucksack is cognate with the Danish "rygsæk", Norwegian "ryggsekk", Dutch "rugzak", Afrikaans "rugsak", Swedish "ryggsäck", and Russian "рюкзак" ("rjukzak"). The word knapsack was the usual name for a rucksack or backpack up until the middle of the 20th century. This is commonly used in Canada. Alternative names include haversack from the German "Hafersack" meaning "oat sack" (which more properly describes a small cloth bag on a strap worn over one shoulder and originally referred to the bag of oats carried as horse fodder), "Kraxe" (a German rucksack with a rigid framework), and "bergen" (a large load-carrying rucksack, from a design issued by the British Army during the Second World War). In fact, Britons used to call Alpine-style backpacks "Bergen rucksacks", maybe from the name of their creator, Norwegian Ole F. Bergan, combined with the name of the Norwegian city of Bergen. Backpacks can often simply be referred to as "packs", especially in outdoors contexts; though sometimes ambiguous compared to other bags such as saddlebags and duffel bags, context is generally sufficient for identification. They are also used in recreational activities, and have long since been used to carry sports equipment and other materials. Long before its various terminologies began appearing in print, evidence of early backpacks was scarce. A contender for the earliest was found within the mummified remains of Ötzi in 3300BC. Backpack designs. Backpacks in general fall into one of four categories: frameless, external frame, internal frame, and bodypack. A pack frame, when present, serves to support the pack and distribute the weight of its contents across the body more appropriately, by transferring much of the weight to the hips and legs. Most of the weight is therefore taken off the shoulders, reducing the chance of injury from shoulder strap pressure (many backpacks equipped solely with shoulder straps can affect the posture of a person carrying more than 14 kg (30 lbs)), as well as being less restrictive of the upper body range of motion. Most backpacks are capable of being closed with either a buckle mechanism, a zipper, or a dry-bag type closure, though a few models use a drawstring fitted with a cord lock for the main compartment. A bodypack is a backpack fitted with one or more pockets that are suspended on the wearer's chest and loaded in such a way that the load in the front and the load in the back are close to equal. The majority of the load in a bodypack is carried by the hips. The ideal load carrying system should not disturb the wearer's natural posture, balance and maneuverability. The load must be dispersed onto the skeletal structure in an even manner, and should not produce unbalanced forces on the body. Frameless. The simplest backpack design is a bag attached to a set of shoulder straps. Such packs are used for general transportation of goods, and have variable capacity. The simplest designs consist of one main pocket. This may be combined with webbing or cordage straps, while more sophisticated models add extra pockets, waist straps, chest straps, padded shoulder straps, padded backs, and sometimes reflective materials for added safety at night. These packs are generally produced inexpensively. Some outdoor packs, particularly those sold for day hikes, ultralight backpacking and mountaineering are sometimes frameless as well. Sports. Sports and hydration backpacks are smaller with a profile closer to the body, wider straps and can come with water bladders and hip belts for running, cycling or hiking. Running hydration packs are the smallest and lightest, many under 2 litres and most under six litres. Compression straps across the top of one's body are common as are hip belts. Cycling hydration packs are six to ten litres sitting high on the back. Although daypacks are small averaging ten to thirty litres, all Trekking and Hiking hydration packs are generally the largest and heaviest. Thirty five up to sixty five litres and above are common. External frame packs. External frame packs were designed to carry heavy loads (>20 kg or 40 lb), giving the wearer more support and protection and better weight distribution than a simple, frameless strapped bag. Wooden pack frames were used for centuries around the world. Ötzi the Iceman may have used one in Copper Age Alpine Italy, though some archaeologists believe the frame found with the body was part of a snowshoe. Such packs are common in military and mountaineering applications; metal versions first appeared in the mid-20th century. The external frame is typically made from aluminum, other lightweight metal alloy, and recently reinforced synthetic polymers or plastic and is equipped with a system of straps and tautly-stretched netting which prevents contact between the metal frame and user's back. In addition to comfort, this "stand-off" provides the additional benefit of creating air circulation between the frame and the wearer's back. For this reason, external frame packs are generally considered to be a "cooler load" than internal frame designs. External frame packs have a fabric "sack" portion which is usually smaller than that of internal frame packs, but have exposed frame portions above and below the sack to accommodate attachment of larger items. In addition, the sack can often be removed entirely, permitting the user to customize the configuration of their load, or to transport a non-conventional load such as a quartered game animal. Military packs are often external frame designs due to their ability to carry loads of different shapes, sizes and weights. The other type of external frame which recently was proposed, is made from composite plastic which is not flexible like current backpack straps and also it is a kind of material that can be shaped like human spine curvature. In this type of backpack, load directly transfers to the shoulders through the non-flexible straps. This non-flexible structure diminishes the momentum at lumbar region of the back. Strap curvature is shaped close to spine curvature and there are two flexible drawstrings to prevent backpack movement in transverse plane. The straps of this backpack are wide enough to distribute the pressure on shoulders and also a white glass wool layer is added to the internal part of them to absorb dynamic forces, which could be produced through walking. This backpack type is an experimental sample that need further options to be prepared for usage. One of the benefits of backpack with external frame is preventing the spine to incline forward during walking that would be helpful in preventing damage of long term backpack carrying. Internal frame packs. The internal frame backpack is a recent innovation, invented in 1967 by Greg Lowe, who went on to found Lowe Alpine and Lowepro, companies specializing in backpacks and other forms of carrying bags for various equipment. An internal-frame pack has a large fabric section around an internal frame composed of strips of either aluminum, titanium or plastic, sometimes with additional metal stays to reinforce the frame. A complex series of straps works with the frame to distribute the weight and hold it in place. The internal frame permits the pack to fit closely to the wearer's back and minimizes shifting of the load, which is desirable when participating in activities that involve upper-body movement such as scrambling over rocky surfaces and skiing. However, the tight fit reduces ventilation, so these type of packs tend to be more sweaty than external frame packs. The internal construction also allows for a large storage compartment; a few lash points (including webbing loops and straps for sleeping bags and other large items) may be present, but as the frame is completely integrated, it is difficult to securely lash larger and heavier items which do not fit inside the compartment to the outside of the pack. Internal frame packs originally suffered from smaller load capacity and less comfortable fit during steady walking, but newer models have improved greatly in these respects. In addition, because of their snug fit, the improved internal frame models have largely replaced external frame backpacks for many activities. Daily use. A daypack is a smaller, frameless backpack that can hold enough contents for a day hike, or a day's worth of other activities. They are not large enough for average wilderness backpacking that use full-sized sleeping bags and backpacking tents, but may be large enough for ultralight backpacking. Padded or unpadded waist straps may be provided to distribute weight across the body. In many countries, backpacks are heavily identified with students, and are a primary means of transporting educational materials to and from school. In this context they are sometimes known as bookbags or schoolbags. The purchase of a suitably fashionable, attractive, and useful backpack is a crucial back-to-school ritual for many students. Typical school backpacks generally lack the rigid frame of an outdoor-style backpack and include only a few pockets in the front in addition to the main storage compartment. While traditionally very simple in design, school backpacks are often made with padded shoulder straps and backs as well as additional reinforcement to hold large numbers of heavy textbooks, as well as safety features such as reflective panels to make the wearer of the pack more visible at night. Backpacks are sometimes worn as fashion accessories, in which they perform the same function as a purse. Some such backpacks designed specifically for women are no larger than a typical purse, and are generally associated with younger women. Special-purpose backpacks. Some backpacks are specifically designed to carry certain items. Common examples include backpacks for small valuable items such as laptops and cameras; backpacks designed to hold laptop computers in particular generally have a padded compartment to hold the computer and medium-sized pockets and flaps to accommodate accessories such as charger cables and mice. These are especially common in college and university settings. In order to supply these devices with electricity, a few high-end backpacks are equipped with solar panels. Rolling backpacks are backpacks with wheels on the bottom and an extending handle. Because of their design, rolling backpacks reduce the strain on the user, though the shoulder straps may be used to carry the pack for short distances when the terrain is not suitable for wheels. Rolling backpacks are most commonly used while traveling by airplane or train. Hydration backpacks are also available. These light daypacks are especially designed to hold water in a special water bladder (also known as reservoir), and their purpose is to allow the carrier constant fluid hydration handsfree, so that the carrier can focus on the mission ahead without having to stop for water breaks. Professional use. Backpacks are a standard part of the load-bearing equipment of soldiers, especially infantry, in most countries, and military-style packs are regularly available to civilians in military surplus stores. Well-known examples include the United States ALICE field pack and the British Army PLCE rucksack attachment, both of which are widely available to civilian markets both as actual military surplus (new or used) and as replicas. Such packs are often, though not always (e.g. the USMC's ILBE pack), external-frame packs, with the pack itself lashed or pinned to a metal or plastic carrying frame. For units that are entering combat situations, packs may be loaded heavily and can weigh in excess of . Each soldier may carry extra weapons, ammunition, rations, medical supplies, tents or other shelter material, and extra clothing. Many police tactical units, as well as players of military-style combat games such as paintball and airsoft, use these military-style tactical backpacks and webbing for storing gear and ammunition. There is also a small but thriving industry devoted to creating historical reproductions of military gear; such companies generally produce period-appropriate uniforms and other gear in addition to backpacks. Some more recent military/tactical designs, especially the MOLLE and ILBE packs used by the United States armed forces, are covered with webbing loop attachment points for increased carrying capacity. Recently, at least one brand of backpack has been specially designed for professional cooks and culinary students. This sort of backpack is meant to safely carry knives, cooking tools, and other miscellaneous equipment such as notebooks, towels, and uniforms. Specialist backpacks are used by fire services for wildfire fighting, as well as by rescue services for Search and Rescue. These backpacks are generally very modular, allowing the pack to be reconfigured to the users wishes and are designed to load around the wearers hips. They may include features such as sections for water bladders and specially designed pouches, such as those used to carry personal fire shelters. Backpacks for travel. Backpacks are sometimes used as luggage, particularly as carry-on bags for airplane travel. In addition to their use in outdoors pursuits, backpacks are sometimes used in other sports as well. Hydration packs, sometimes used by athletes and military personnel, carry water (in either a bladder or a rigid bottle) and have a tube connected to them from which the wearer can drink without removing the pack; this feature is also included in some more general-purpose hiking backpacks. Backpacks that carry skateboards have also become more popular in the youth culture.

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Academic dishonesty, academic misconduct, academic fraud and academic integrity are related concepts that refer to various actions on the part of students that go against the expected norms of a school, university or other learning institution. Definitions of academic misconduct are usually outlined in institutional policies. Academic dishonesty has been documented in every type of educational setting from elementary school to graduate school. Throughout history this type of dishonesty has been met with varying degrees of penalties. History. Academic dishonesty dates back to the first tests. Scholars note that cheating was prevalent on the Chinese civil service exams thousands of years ago, even when cheating carried the penalty of death for both examinee and examiner. Bribery of examiners was also common, as represented in works such as the Ming-dynasty story collection "The Book of Swindles" and Qing-dynasty novel "Rulin waishi" [The Unofficial History of the Scholars]. Standards for citation and referencing began at the end of the 19th century with the emergence of guidance provided by scholarly societies that developed discipline-specific expectations for referencing such as the MLA and the APA. About the same time, scholars began researching issues related to cheating, with some early research dating back to the late 19th century and early 20th centuries, when cheating was identified as a widespread problem at college campuses in the United States. It has been estimated that as many as two-thirds of students cheated at some point of their college careers at the turn of the 20th century. Fraternities often operated so-called essay banks, where term papers were kept on file and could be resubmitted over and over again by different students, often with the only change being the name on the paper. The issue of academic dishonesty became more prominent in the latter half of the twentieth century, as universities shifted towards more democratic approaches to admission. Today. Academic dishonesty does not have a universal definition. Educational institutions in different regions understand and act on academic dishonesty in different ways. Much like many other areas of student affairs, academic integrity also boasts organizations that help students, faculty and staff of postsecondary institutions discuss and understand the values of academic integrity such as the International Centre for Academic Integrity (ICAI). Multiple institutions, such as the University of Waterloo, Queen's University and York University base their culture of academic integrity on ICAI's 6 fundamental values (honesty, trust, respect, fairness, responsibility and courage). The following is not an exhaustive listing of regions. United States. In the United States, one study has shown that 20% of students started cheating in the first grade. Similarly, other studies reveal that currently in the U.S., 56% of middle school students and 70% of high school students have cheated. A large-scale study in Germany found that 75% of the university students admitted that they conducted at least one of seven types of academic misconduct (such as plagiarism or falsifying data) within the previous six months. Students are not the only ones to cheat in an academic setting. A study among North Carolina school teachers found that some 35% of respondents said they had witnessed their colleagues cheating in one form or another. The rise of high-stakes testing and the consequences of the results on the teacher is cited as a reason why a teacher might want to inflate the results of their students. The first scholarly studies in the 1960s of academic dishonesty in higher education found that nationally in the U.S., somewhere between 50 and 70% of college students had cheated at least once. While nationally, these rates of cheating in the U.S. remain stable today, there are large disparities between different schools, depending on the size, selectivity, and anti-cheating policies of the school. Generally, the smaller and more selective the college, the less cheating occurs there. For instance, the number of students who have engaged in academic dishonesty at small elite liberal arts colleges can be as low as 15–20%, while cheating at large public universities can be as high as 75%. Moreover, researchers have found that students who attend a school with an honor code are less likely to cheat than students at schools with other ways of enforcing academic integrity. As for graduate education, a recent study found that 56% of MBA students admitted cheating, along with 54% of graduate students in engineering, 48% in education, and 45% in law. There is also a great difference in students' perceptions and the reality of their own ethical behavior. In a 2008 survey of 30,000 students in high school carried out by the Josephson Institute for Youth Ethics, 62 percent of students polled said they "copied another's homework two or more times in the past year." Yet, on the same survey, 92 percent said they were "satisfied with their personal ethics and character." Hence, there is generally a discrepancy between actual behavior and self-image of high school students' character. As more students take courses and assessments online, there is a persistent perception that it is easier to cheat in an online class than a face-to-face course. Moreover, there are online services that offer to prepare any kind of homework of high school and college level and take online tests for students. While administrators are often aware of such websites, they have been unsuccessful in curbing cheating in homework and non-proctored online tests, resorting to a recommendation by the Ohio Mathematics Association to derive at least 80% of the grade of online classes from proctored tests. In addition, colleges and universities are increasingly turning to online proctoring services to oversee tens of thousands of exams per year. While research on academic dishonesty in other countries is less extensive, anecdotal evidence suggests cheating could be even more common in countries like Japan and the Philippines. A typology of academic misconduct has been devised by Perry (2010). Perry's typology presents a two dimensional model of academic misconduct with one dimension measuring the degree to which rules are understood and the other dimension measuring how closely these rules are followed. According to the typology only those students who understand the rules but fail to adhere to the rules are classified as 'cheats'. Australia. In Australia, academic dishonesty is addressed by the Tertiary Education Quality Standards Agency, which is a government agency. UK. In the UK, the Quality Assurance Agency is responsible for quality assurance in higher education. It has produced several policy and guidance documents for policy makers, educators and the general public. Canada. In Canada, academic misconduct is handled by individual post-secondary institutions with the help of policies and guidelines published by the university itself, though research into the topic has lagged behind that of other countries. Research has shown that the incidence of academic dishonesty in Canada is similar to that of the United States. While many institutions are guided by ICAI, there also exists provincial organizations, such as the Academic Integrity Council of Ontario (AICO). Handling cases of academic dishonesty was mainly done using the rule compliance approach, which was more punitive in nature. However, more and more institutions are now adopting the integrity approach, which is based on a more educational and restorative model. Types. Bribery. Bribery is an act of giving money or gift giving that alters the behavior of the recipient. Bribery constitutes a crime and is defined by "Black's Law Dictionary" as the offering, giving, receiving, or soliciting of any item of value to influence the actions of an official or other person in charge of a public or legal duty. The bribe is the gift bestowed to influence the recipient's conduct. It may be any money, good, right in action, property, preferment, privilege, emolument, object of value, advantage, or merely a promise or undertaking to induce or influence the action, vote, or influence of a person in an official or public capacity. Cheating. Cheating can take the form of crib notes, looking over someone's shoulder during an exam, or any forbidden sharing of information between students regarding an exam or exercise. Many elaborate methods of cheating have been developed over the years. For instance, students have been documented hiding notes in the bathroom toilet tank, in the brims of their baseball caps, up their sleeves, along their thighs or in their cleavage. Also, the storing of information in graphing calculators, pagers, cell phones, and other electronic devices has cropped up since the information revolution began. While students have long surreptitiously scanned the tests of those seated near them, some students actively try to aid those who are trying to cheat. Methods of secretly signalling the right answer to friends are quite varied, ranging from coded sneezes or pencil tapping to high-pitched noises beyond the hearing range of most teachers. Some students have been known to use more elaborate means, such as using a system of repetitive body signals like hand movements or foot jerking to distribute answers (i.e. where a tap of the foot could correspond to answer "A", two taps for answer "B", and so on). Cheating differs from most other forms of academic dishonesty, in that people can engage in it without benefiting themselves academically at all. For example, a student who illicitly telegraphed answers to a friend during a test would be cheating, even though the student's own work is in no way affected. Another example of academic dishonesty is a dialogue between students in the same class but in two different time periods, both of which a test is scheduled for that day. If the student in the earlier time period informs the other student in the later period about the test, that is considered academic dishonesty, even though the first student has not benefited him or herself. One other method is taking advantage of time zones, particularly in exams administered worldwide. Those who take the exam first (likely in Oceania) can then post answers for those about to take the exam (in a time zone behind like Europe). Deception. Deception is providing false information to a teacher/instructor concerning a formal academic exercise. Examples of this include taking more time on a take-home test than is allowed, giving a dishonest excuse when asking for a deadline extension, or falsely claiming to have submitted work. This type of academic misconduct is often considered softer than the more obvious forms of cheating, and otherwise-honest students sometimes engage in this type of dishonesty without considering themselves cheaters. It is also sometimes done by students who have failed to complete an assignment, to avoid responsibility for doing so. Fabrication. Fabrication is the falsification of data, information, or citations in any formal academic exercise. This includes making up citations to back up arguments or inventing quotations. Fabrication predominates in the natural sciences, where students sometimes falsify data to make experiments "work". It includes data falsification, in which false claims are made about research performed, including selective submitting of results to exclude inconvenient data to generating bogus data. Bibliographical references are often fabricated, especially when a certain minimum number of references is required or considered sufficient for the particular kind of paper. This type of fabrication can range from referring to works whose titles look relevant but which the student did not read, to making up bogus titles and authors. There is also the practice of "dry-labbing"—which can occur in chemistry or other lab courses, in which the teacher clearly expects the experiment to yield certain results (which confirm established laws), so the student starts from the results and works backward, calculating what the experimental data should be, often adding variation to the data. In some cases, the lab report is written before the experiment is conducted—in some cases, the experiment is never carried out. In either case, the results are what the instructor expects. Impersonation. Impersonation is a form of cheating whereby a different person than the student assigned an assignment or exam completes it. Attending a class or completing an interview on another student's behalf is also considered impersonation. The academic work is totally 'outsourced' to another person or organization, usually for pay. Contract cheating. Contract cheating, also known as ghostwriting is similar to impersonation in that a student hires a third party to complete work on their behalf. Essay mills fall under this category. While it is believed that contract cheating has significantly increased since 2014, there are currently no figures to demonstrate this surge. This is a relatively new form of cheating, seemingly gaining traction in the 1940s when an increasing amount of advertisements for ghostwriters could be seen on university campuses and in newspapers. This trend continued to grow into the 1960s and 1970s. According to a study conducted in 2019, it is estimated that the ghostwriting industry produces a revenue of approximately $100 million. Plagiarism. Plagiarism, as defined in the 1995 "Random House Compact Unabridged Dictionary", is the "use or close imitation of the language and thoughts of another author and the representation of them as one's own original work". In academia, this can range from borrowing without attribution a particularly apt phrase, to paraphrasing someone else's original idea without citation, to wholesale contract cheating. The modern concept of plagiarism as immoral and originality as an ideal emerged in Europe only in the 18th century, while in the previous centuries authors and artists were encouraged to "copy the masters as closely as possible" and avoid "unnecessary invention". The 18th century new morals have been institutionalized and enforced prominently in the sectors of academia (including academic science, education, engineering etc.) and journalism, where plagiarism is now considered academic dishonesty and a breach of journalistic ethics, subject to sanctions like expulsion and other severe career damages. Not so in the arts, which have resisted in their long-established tradition of copying as a fundamental practice of the creative process, with plagiarism being still hugely tolerated by 21st-century artists. Lawmaking is a professional field which is not structured around the concept of originality and for which plagiarism is less relevant. Plagiarism is not a crime but is disapproved more on the grounds of moral offence. It may be a case for civil law if it is so substantial to constitute copyright infringement. Since 2000, discussions on the subjects of student plagiarism have increased with a major strand of this discussion centering on the issue of how best students can be helped to understand and avoid plagiarism. Given the serious consequences that plagiarism has for students there has been a call for a greater emphasis on learning in order to help students avoid committing plagiarism. Also under the scope of plagiarism is self-plagiarism. Self-plagiarism occurs when a student submits an assignment, essay or piece of work that was originally submitted for the purpose of another course without the instructor's permission to do so. Professorial misconduct. Professorial misconduct includes improper grading of students' papers and oral exams, grade fraud, deliberate negligence towards cheating or assistance in cheating. This can be done for reasons of personal bias towards students (favoritism) or a particular viewpoint (intellectual dishonesty), for a bribe, or to improve the teacher's own perceived performance by increasing the passing rate. It is still occasionally done for matters of ego or to procure sexual favors (sexual harassment). Sabotage. Sabotage is when a student or professor prevents others from completing their work. This includes cutting pages out of library books, deleting data off of classmate's computer or otherwise willfully disrupting the experiments of others. Sabotage is usually only found in highly competitive, cutthroat environments, such as at extremely elite schools where class rankings are highly prized. Poor behavior and the low level disruption of other students' learning, however, is extremely common in all educational settings. Some medical-school librarians have noted that important articles—required reading for key courses—are frequently missing from bound journals—sliced out with razor blades, scalpels, or other sharp blades. Other journals will be marked up in crayon. Abuse of confidentiality. This takes place when data or results from research or a piece of academic work is disseminated or shared while the author(s) expectation was for them to remain confidential. Aiding & abetting. Aiding and abetting is the act of helping, enabling or encouraging someone to engage or attempt to engage in any act of academic dishonesty. Improper research practices. Improper research practices involve fabricating, misrepresenting or selectively reporting research data as well as not giving proper credit to authors or researchers when reporting results of their work. Causes. There are a variety of causes of academic misconduct. Researchers have studied the correlation of cheating to personal characteristics, demographics, contextual factors, methods of deterring misconduct, even stages of moral development. Incentives to cheat. Some scholars contend that there are students who have a pathological urge to cheat. The writer Thomas Mallon noted that many scholars had found plagiarism in literature (Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Charles Reade being two notable examples) to often be perpetrated in a way similar to kleptomania (a psychological disease associated with uncontrollable stealing, even when it is against the interests of the thief). On the other hand, Mallon concludes it is probable that most "cheaters" make a rational choice to commit academic misconduct. A common reason for unethical behavior is the desire to "gain a competitive advantage in the race for position or power". Richard Fass puts forward the possibility that business scandals in the real world make students believe dishonesty is an acceptable method for achieving success in contemporary society. Academic dishonesty, in this case, would be practice for the real world. For some students, there would be a dichotomy between success and honesty, and their decision is that: "It is not that we love honesty less, but that we love success more." Conversely, other scholars consider that with the recent rise in corporate ethics related dismissals in the business world, this approach to cheating may be losing its appeal, if it ever really had any. However, it has been shown that the expected benefits of cheating as well as student's morality plays an important role for the engagement in dishonest behavior. Recent studies have indicated that there is no clear link between academic dishonesty and academic success. One study showed that students given an unexpected opportunity to cheat did not improve their grades significantly from the control group. Another study showed that students who were allowed to bring cheat sheets to a test did not improve their grades. While this may conflict with the common perception of cheating (one survey found only 13% of males and 46% of females think that cheating does not help grades,) it is often apparent to professors and members of academic conduct committees when a paper has been plagiarized by its inferior quality. In the US, William Bowers reported that, on average, one third of grade A students cheated in 1964. And asserts that academic dishonesty acts as a shortcut, so even grade A students might be tempted to cheat. He contends that even if a plagiarized paper receives a relatively low grade, that grade is actually high, given how much time and effort went into the paper. In the study mentioned above (in which students were allowed to bring crib sheets to a test but did not improve their scores), the researcher concluded that the students used the crib notes as alternatives to studying, rather than as complements to studying, and thus spent less time preparing for the exam. Teachers. The federal government of the United States has mandated high-stakes testing as part of the No Child Left Behind Act, signed into law in 2002. Schools and teachers are held accountable for the results. According to Steven Levitt and Stephen Dubner, co-authors of "Freakonomics", teachers are known to "teach to the test": while not teaching the actual answers, they teach the questions and similar ones, and they neglect any topic that will not be tested on. Levitt also states that teachers may inflate the results of tests given in their classroom. Teachers and librarians can have a significant proactive impact on doing honest work. Demographic and personal causes. Research has identified a number of demographic characteristics that appear to be important influences on cheating, including age, gender and grade point average. Older students, females, and students with higher academic achievement are less likely to cheat, whereas students involved with many extra-curricular activities are more likely to do so. Students involved in extra-curricular activities may be less committed to their studies, or may have more demands on their time, which interfere with their studies, creating a greater incentive to cheat. It has been found that younger students are somewhat more likely to cheat: one study finding the highest incidence of cheating occurs during sophomore year at college. Although cheating might be expected to decline with greater moral development, one experiment found that there was no relationship between how a student performed on a morality test and his likelihood of cheating (that is, students at a pre-conventional stage of morality are as likely to cheat as those at a post-conventional stage). Higher academic procrastination was also found to increase the frequency of seven different forms of academic misconduct (using fraudulent excuses, plagiarism, copying from someone else in exams, using forbidden means in exams, carrying forbidden means into exams, copying parts of homework from others, and fabrication or falsification of data) as well as the variety of academic misconduct. This German panel study among thousands of university students argues that academic misconduct might be a coping-strategy to overcome the negative consequences of academic procrastination such as lower performance. Race, nationality, and class all show little correlation with academic misconduct. There is also no correlation between how religious someone is and the likelihood that that person will cheat. A comparison between students of different religions yielded similar results, although the study did show that Jews tend to cheat less than members of other religions. One of the strongest demographic correlations with academic misconduct in the United States is with language. Students who speak English as a second language have been shown to commit academic dishonesty more and are more likely to be caught than native speakers, since they will often not want to rewrite sources in their own words, fearing that the meaning of the sentence will be lost through poor paraphrasing skills. In the University of California system, international students make up 10% of the student body but comprise 47% of academic dishonesty cases. In British universities, students from outside of the European Union make up 12% of the student body but comprise 35% of academic dishonesty cases. Impostor syndrome and academically dishonest behaviours have been found to be correlated. Students who do not believe they deserve to be where they are in terms of academics actively engage in self-sabotaging behaviour (plagiarism and cheating) in order to prove that they do not belong where they are while students who do not suffer from impostor syndrome are less likely to engage in academic dishonesty. Contextual causes. Academic misconduct is more easily traced to the academic and social environment of students than to their background. These contextual factors can be as broad as the social milieu at school to as narrow as what instructions a teacher gives before an exam. Contextual factors that individual teachers can affect often make the least difference on cheating behavior. A study found that increasing the distance between students taking an exam has little effect on academic misconduct, and that threatening students before an exam with expulsion if they cheat actually promotes cheating behavior. Indeed, increased exam proctoring and other methods of detecting cheating in the classroom are largely ineffective. According to one survey of American college students, while 50% had cheated at least once in the previous six months, and 7% had cheated more than five times in that period, only 2.5% of the cheaters had been caught. As teachers invent more elaborate methods of deterring cheating, students invent even more elaborate methods of cheating (sometimes even treating it as a game), leading to what some teachers call a costly and unwinnable arms race. Increased punishment for academic misconduct also has little correlation with cheating behavior. It has been found that students with markedly different perceptions of what the severity of the punishment for cheating were all equally likely to cheat, probably indicating that they thought that increased penalties were immaterial since their cheating would never be discovered. However, if a professor makes clear that he disapproves of cheating, either in the syllabus, in the first class, or at the beginning of a test, academic dishonesty can drop by 12%. Some professors may have little incentive to reduce cheating in their classes below a point that would otherwise be obvious to outside observers, as they are rated by how many research papers they publish and research grants they win for the college, and not by how well they teach. Teachers can, however, accidentally promote cheating behavior. A study found a correlation between how harsh or unfair a professor is perceived as and academic misconduct, since students see cheating as a way of getting back at the teacher. Also, students who see themselves in a competition, such as when the teacher is using a grade curve, are more likely to cheat. Research has also shown a correlation between goal orientation and the occurrence of academic cheating. Students who perceive their classroom to have high mastery goals are less likely to engage in cheating than those who perceive their classroom to emphasize performance goals. In other words, students who are encouraged to learn for the sake of learning and who exhibit an intrinsic value of education are less likely to cheat than those who are encouraged primarily by grades and other extrinsic rewards. The most important contextual causes of academic misconduct are often out of individual teachers' hands. One very important factor is time management. One survey reported two-thirds of teachers believed that poor time management was the principal cause of cheating. Often social engagements are to blame. It has been found that there is a strong correlation between extracurricular activities and cheating, especially among athletes, even those on intramural teams. It has also been found that student cheating rates rise significantly the more time students spend playing cards, watching television, or having a few drinks with friends. Relatedly, fraternity or sorority membership is also strongly correlated with academic misconduct. One of the most important causes of academic misconduct is the contextual factor of an environment of peer disapproval of cheating, that is, peer pressure. Psychologists note that all people tend to follow the norms of their peer group, which would include norms about academic dishonesty. Thus, students who believe that their peers disapprove of cheating are less likely to cheat. Indeed, multiple studies show that the most decisive factor in a student's decision to cheat is his perception of his peers' relationship with academic dishonesty. For instance, on average 69% of students cheat at colleges with low community disapproval of academic misconduct, whereas only about 23% of students cheat at colleges with strong community disapproval of academic misconduct. Peer pressure works both ways, as a study found that there is a 41% increase in the probability of a student cheating if he or she has seen someone else cheat. However, even if most students strongly disapprove of cheating, there has to be a community in order for those norms to be enforced via peer pressure. For instance, larger schools, which usually have much higher cheating rates than small schools, tend to have a weaker community, being more split up into different peer groups that exert little social pressure on each other. Another measure of a college community, how many students live on campus, further shows a significant relation with a school's cheating rate. Relatedly, many professors argue that smaller classes reduce cheating behavior. Ethical causes. No matter what the demographic or contextual influences are on a student who decides to engage in cheating behavior, before they can cheat they must overcome their own conscience. This depends both on how strongly someone disapproves of academic dishonesty and what types of justifications the student uses to escape a sense of guilt. For instance, students who personally do not have a moral problem with academic misconduct can cheat guilt-free. However, while many students have been taught and have internalized that academic dishonesty is wrong, it has been shown that on average a third of students who strongly disapprove of cheating have in fact cheated. People who cheat despite personal disapproval of cheating engage in something called "neutralization", in which a student rationalizes the cheating as being acceptable due to certain mitigating circumstances. According to psychologists of deviant behavior, people who engage in neutralization support the societal norm in question, but "conjure up" reasons why they are allowed to violate that norm in a particular case. Neutralization is not a simple case of "ex post facto" rationalization, but is rather a more comprehensive affair, occurring before, during, and after the act of cheating. Researchers have found four major types of neutralization of academic dishonesty, which they categorize by type of justification. "Denial of responsibility" – that is, the accusation that others are to blame or that something forced the student to cheat – is the most common form of neutralization among college students who cheated, with 61% of cheaters using this form of justification. "Condemnation of condemner" – that is, that the professors are hypocrites or brought it on themselves – is the second most common form of college student neutralization at 28%. The third most popular form of neutralization among college students is the "appeal to higher loyalties," where the student thinks their responsibility to some other entity, usually their peers, is more important than doing what they know to be morally right. About 6.8% of cheaters in higher education use this form of neutralization. "Denial of injury" – thinking that nobody is worse off for the cheating – is the fourth most popular kind of neutralization at 4.2% of cheaters. Cultural considerations. Many studies have revealed that academic honesty is not a universal concept. Some cultures accept the memorization and regurgitation of information, without citing sources, while others would consider this plagiarism. Additionally, some cultures believe that knowledge belongs to everyone and that this knowledge needs to be shared. Studies have shown that in certain Asian cultures, it is more important to share information widely than to properly cite the owner of this knowledge. COVID-19 and academic dishonesty. Cases of academic dishonesty have increased during the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result of the sudden transition from in-person to online course delivery, instructors (who may have been engaging in the same evaluation practices for years) did not have the opportunity to consider how to deliver online evaluations, how they differ from in-person evaluations and what the online process entails. The sharing of academic files, contract cheating and the unauthorized receipt of assistance from classmates and other sources have increased due to the transition to online course delivery. Effects. Cheating in academics has a host of effects on students, on teachers, on individual schools, and on the educational system itself. For instance, students who engage in neutralization to justify cheating, even once, are more likely to engage in it in the future, potentially putting them on a road to a life of dishonesty. Indeed, one study found that students who are dishonest in class are more likely to engage in fraud and theft on the job when they enter the workplace. Students are also negatively affected by academic dishonesty after graduation. A university diploma is an important document in the labor market. Potential employers use a degree as a representation of a graduate's knowledge and ability. However, due to academic dishonesty, not all graduates with the same grades actually did the same work or have the same skills. Thus, when faced with the fact that they do not know which graduates are skilled and which are the "lemons" (see "The Market for Lemons"), employers must pay all graduates based on the quality of the average graduate. Therefore, the more students who cheat, getting by without achieving the required skills or learning, the lower the quality of the average graduate of a school, and thus the less employers are willing to pay a new hire from that school. Because of this reason, all students, even those that do not cheat themselves, are negatively affected by academic misconduct. Academic dishonesty also creates problems for teachers. In economic terms, cheating causes an underproduction of knowledge, where the professor's job is to produce knowledge. Moreover, a case of cheating often will cause emotional distress to faculty members, many considering it to be a personal slight against them or a violation of their trust. Dealing with academic misconduct is often one of the worst parts of a career in education, one survey claiming that 77% of academics agreed with the statement "dealing with a cheating student is one of the most onerous aspects of the job". Academic misconduct can also have an effect on a college's reputation, one of the most important assets of any school. An institution plagued by cheating scandals may become less attractive to potential donors and students and especially prospective employers. Alternatively, schools with low levels of academic dishonesty can use their reputation to attract students and employers. Ultimately, academic dishonesty undermines the academic world. It interferes with the basic mission of education, the transfer of knowledge, by allowing students to get by without having to master the knowledge. Furthermore, academic dishonesty creates an atmosphere that is not conducive to the learning process, which affects honest students as well. When honest students see cheaters escape detection, it can discourage student morale, as they see the rewards for their work cheapened. Cheating also undermines academia when students steal ideas. Ideas are a professional author's "capital and identity", and if a person's ideas are stolen it retards the pursuit of knowledge. If never formally retracted, fraudulent publications can remain an issue for many years as articles and books remain on shelves and continue to be cited. The case of S. Walter Poulshock, a 1960s early-career historian whose work was found to contain wholly fabricated material, was exposed in 1966 with the "American Historical Review" providing a warning on the topic. Nonetheless, his book was never removed from the shelves of many university libraries and (together with his related thesis) was still being cited in 2013, 47 years after it was intended to have been withdrawn by its publisher. Deterrence. All parties involved in the dishonesty—not just the individual whose grade is increased by it—can be punished. Historically the job of preventing cheating has been given to the teacher. It used to be that in college the professor acted "in loco parentis" and was able to regulate student behavior as a parent. Thus, professors who discovered cheating could assign essentially any punishment they deemed appropriate. Students often had no mechanism for appeal. Generally, proctors were hired to patrol exams. If a case was particularly serious, a dean or other top-level administrator might have been involved. Against this inconsistent and paternalistic system, students at some schools rebelled and demanded to be treated as adults. Honor codes. First at the College of William and Mary in 1779, and then followed by schools like the University of Virginia in the 1850s and Wesleyan University in 1893, the students, with the agreement of faculty who declared themselves dedicated to ideals of democracy and human character, created honor codes. B. Melendez of Harvard University defined an honor code as a code of academic conduct that includes a written pledge of honesty that students sign, a student controlled judiciary that hears alleged violations, unproctored examinations, and an obligation for all students help enforce the code. This system relied on student self-enforcement, which was considered more becoming of young gentlemen than the policing by proctors and professors that existed previously. Of interest, the military academies of the US took the honor code one step further than civilian colleges, disallowing "tolerance", which means that if a cadet or midshipman is found to have failed to report or outright protected someone engaged in academic dishonesty (as well as other dishonesties or stealing), that individual is to be expelled along with the perpetrator. Mixed judicial boards. However, many people doubted the advisability of relying on an abstract notion of honor to prevent academic dishonesty. This doubt has perhaps led to the reality that no more than a quarter of American universities have adopted honor codes. Moreover, many professors could not envisage a student run trial process that treated faculty accusers fairly. In response to these concerns, in the middle of the twentieth century, many schools devised mixed judicial panels composed of both students and faculty. This type of academic integrity system was similar to the traditional faculty control system in that it relied on professors to detect cheating, except in this system cheaters were brought before centralized boards of students and faculty for punishment. By the 1960s over a quarter of American universities had adopted this system of mixed judicial boards. Still, though, over half of American universities continued to use faculty-centered control systems. Student due process rights. Starting in the 1960s, the U.S. Supreme Court began chipping away at the "in loco parentis" doctrine, giving college students more civil liberties such as the right of due process in disciplinary proceedings ("Dixon v. Alabama Board of Education," 1961). In "Cooper v. Blair" (1973), specifically academic misconduct was ruled to require due process, being a disciplinary matter and not an educational matter. The due process rights of students in academic misconduct cases is not to the same degree as in a court of law. For instance, the student has no right to representation and the burden of proof is not necessarily stringent. In the "General Order on Judicial Standards of Procedure and Substance in Review of Student Discipline in Tax Supported Institutions of Higher Education", (1968) student due process rights were laid out as follows: These new rules put an end to the old faculty-based system of policing academic dishonesty, now students were entitled to an impartial hearing. While schools using the old honor code method or the mixed judicial system were not affected by these decisions, schools using the faculty based system generally instituted systems that relied on a committee of faculty and administrators or a dean to run the academic misconduct hearings. Modified honor codes. Recently, Donald L. McCabe and Linda Klebe Trevino, two experts in the field of academic dishonesty, have proposed a new way of deterring cheating that has been implemented in schools such as the University of Maryland. Modified honor codes put students in charge of the judicial hearing process, making it clear that it is the students' responsibility to stop cheating amongst themselves, but at the same time students still have proctored exams and are not allowed to take pledges of good conduct in place of professor oversight. The researchers who advocate this type of code seem to think that the normal honor code is something of a special case that is not applicable to many schools. According to supporters of this system, schools with a large student body, a weak college community, or no history of student self-governance will not be able to support a full honor code. However, while modified honor codes seem to be more effective than faculty or administration run integrity codes of conduct, research shows that schools with modified codes still have higher rates of cheating than schools with full honor codes. Comparison of different systems of enforcement. Research has shown that there is a strong correlation between forms of academic integrity system and levels of cheating at a school. Several studies have found students who attend schools with honor codes are less likely to cheat than students at schools with traditional integrity codes. Another study found that only 28% of schools with honor codes have high levels of cheating, whereas 81% of schools with mixed judicial boards have high rates of cheating. Whereas faculty or administration run codes of conduct tend to rely on policing and punishment to deter students from cheating, honor codes tend to rely on and cultivate student senses of honor and group peer pressure to deter academic misconduct. As mentioned above in the section on causes of cheating, increased enforcement or punishment is rarely effective at discouraging cheating, whereas there is a high correlation between peer pressure and academic honesty. The modified honor code attempts to cultivate peer disapproval of cheating while maintaining the traditional proctor system, although critics argue that the proctor system undermines the creation of an atmosphere of student self-policing, reducing the effectiveness of the honor code, possibly explaining why modified honor codes have not been as effective as the original version. Faculty issues in deterring academic dishonesty. There are limitations to relying on the faculty to police academic dishonesty. One study found that up to 21% of professors have ignored at least one clear cut case of cheating. Another study revealed that 40% of professors "never" report cheating, 54% "seldom" report cheating, and that a mere 6% act on all cases of academic misconduct that confront them. A third survey of professors found that while 79% had observed cheating, only 9% had penalized the student. According to a manual for professors on cheating, the reasons for this lack of action include unwillingness to devote time and energy to the issue, reluctance to undergo an emotional confrontation, and fear of retaliation by the student, of losing students, of being accused of harassment or discrimination, and even of being sued for these offenses and/or defamation of character. There are other reasons as well. Some professors are reluctant to report violations to the appropriate authorities because they believe the punishment to be too harsh. Some professors may have little incentive to reduce cheating in their classes below a point that would otherwise be obvious to outside observers, as they are rated by how many research papers they publish and research grants they win for the college, and not by how well they teach. Others do not report academic misconduct because of postmodernist views on cheating. Postmodernism calls into question the very concepts of "authorship" and "originality." From the perspective of cultural studies and historicism, authors themselves are simply constructs of their social surroundings, and thus they simply rewrite already written cultural stories. Moreover, in the field of composition studies, students are being encouraged more and more to do group work and participate in ongoing collective revision. The postmodernist view is that "the concept of intellectual malpractice is of limited epistemological value. Under the ironic gaze of postmodernism, the distinctions between guilt and innocence, integrity and deceit permeating the scandal debates appear irrelevant." However, there is an argument that postmodernism is just moral relativism, therefore cheating is condoned as a valid academic method, even if it is morally and legally wrong. One professor wrote in an article in "The English Journal" that when he peeked in on an unproctored class taking a test and saw several students up and consulting with one another, he decided that they were not cheating, but were using non-traditional techniques and collaborative learning to surmount the obstacles teachers had put in their way. Issues of cultural relativism also affect professors' views on cheating; the standard objection being that "students from certain Middle Eastern, Asian, and African cultures are baffled by the notion that one can 'own' ideas, since their cultures regard words and ideas as the property of all rather than as individual property". Another issue teachers may have with deterring cheating is that they may decide that it is not their job. The argument that "they're professors, not policemen" is often heard in academia. In economic terms, some professors believe they are being paid to provide learning, and if the student loses that learning through cheating, he is only cheating himself out of the money he paid. Detection. There are multiple online tools now available to faculty and students to detect the incidence of plagiarism and similarity. Turnitin is often used by professors to analyze the similarity index of a student's assignment against previously published writing. Turnitin is also being used by students prior to submitting assignments to eliminate the chances of a faculty member detecting plagiarism. With the advancement of the internet, there are now several tools available to aid in the detection of plagiarism and multiple publication within biomedical literature. One tool developed in 2006 by researchers in Harold Garner's laboratory at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas is Déjà Vu, an open-access database containing several thousand instances of duplicate publication. Due to the nature of contract cheating, it is hard to detect it, as it is often an original piece of work that is being produced. While Turnitin has recently released its Authorship Investigate tool, it has not yet been vetted by research and is not being widely used in postsecondary institutions. Clue sleuthing is another way of detecting contract cheating, which entails examining an assignment based on the depth and quality of answers as well as the instructions being followed in terms of an assignment. This is due to the fact that ghostwriters often do not follow the instructions for an assignment and provide vague and superficial content in their writing.The use of stylometry software (such as JStylo and JGAAP) is also being evaluated to analyze its efficacy in detecting contract cheating.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=685002

A diesel–electric transmission, or diesel–electric powertrain is a transmission system for vehicles powered by diesel engines in road, rail, and marine transport. Diesel–electric transmission is based on petrol–electric transmission, a very similar transmission system used for petrol engines. Diesel–electric transmission is used on railways by diesel–electric locomotives and diesel–electric multiple units, as electric motors are able to supply full torque at 0 RPM. Diesel–electric systems are also used in marine transport, including submarines, and on some land vehicles. Description. The defining characteristic of diesel–electric transmission is that it avoids the need for a gearbox, by converting the mechanical force of the diesel engine into electrical energy (through a dynamo), and using the electrical energy to drive traction motors, which propel the vehicle mechanically. The traction motors may be powered directly or via rechargeable batteries, making the vehicle a type of hybrid electric vehicle. This method of transmission is sometimes termed electric transmission, as it is identical to petrol-electric transmission, which is used on vehicles powered by petrol engines, and to turbine-electric transmission, which is used for gas turbines. Advantages and disadvantages. The absence of a gearbox offers several advantages, as it removes the need for gear changes, thus eliminating the unevenness of acceleration caused by the disengagement of a clutch. Ships. The first diesel motorship was also the first diesel–electric ship, the Russian tanker "Vandal" from Branobel, which was launched in 1903. Steam turbine–electric propulsion has been in use since the 1920s (s), using diesel–electric powerplants in surface ships has increased lately. The Finnish coastal defence ships "Ilmarinen" and "Väinämöinen" laid down in 1928–1929, were among the first surface ships to use diesel–electric transmission. Later, the technology was used in diesel powered icebreakers. In World War II, the United States Navy built diesel–electric surface warships. Due to machinery shortages destroyer escorts of the and es were diesel–electric, with half their designed horsepower (The and es were full-power steam turbine–electric). The s, on the other hand, were designed for diesel–electric propulsion because of its flexibility and resistance to damage. Some modern diesel–electric ships, including cruise ships and icebreakers, use electric motors in pods called azimuth thrusters underneath to allow for 360° rotation, making the ships far more maneuverable. An example of this is "Symphony of the Seas", the largest passenger ship as of 2019. Gas turbines are also used for electrical power generation and some ships use a combination: "Queen Mary 2" has a set of diesel engines in the bottom of the ship plus two gas turbines mounted near the main funnel; all are used for generating electrical power, including those used to drive the propellers. This provides a relatively simple way to use the high-speed, low-torque output of a turbine to drive a low-speed propeller, without the need for excessive reduction gearing. Submarines. Most early submarines used a direct mechanical connection between the combustion engine and propeller, switching between diesel engines for surface running and electric motors for submerged propulsion. This was effectively a "parallel" type of hybrid, since the motor and engine were coupled to the same shaft. On the surface, the motor (driven by the engine) was used as a generator to recharge the batteries and supply other electric loads. The engine would be disconnected for submerged operation, with batteries powering the electric motor and supplying all other power as well. In a true diesel–electric transmission arrangement, by contrast, the propeller or propellers are always driven directly or through reduction gears by one or more electric motors, while one or more diesel generators provide electric energy for charging the batteries and driving the motors. While this solution comes with disadvantages as well as advantages in comparison with the direct mechanical connection between the diesel engine and the propeller that was initially the most common arrangement, the advantages were eventually found to be more important. One of several significant advantages is that it mechanically isolates the noisy engine compartment from the outer pressure hull and reduces the acoustic signature of the submarine when surfaced. Some nuclear submarines also use a similar turbo-electric propulsion system, with propulsion turbo generators driven by reactor plant steam. Among the pioneering users of true diesel–electric transmission was the Swedish Navy with its first submarine, (later renamed "Ub no 1"), launched in 1904 and originally equipped with a semi-diesel engine (a hot-bulb engine primarily meant to be fueled by kerosene), later replaced by a true diesel. From 1909 to 1916, the Swedish Navy launched another seven submarines in three different classes (, , and ), all using diesel–electric transmission. While Sweden temporarily abandoned diesel–electric transmission as it started to buy submarine designs from abroad in the mid 1910s, the technology was immediately reintroduced when Sweden began to design its own submarines again in the mid 1930s. From that point onwards, diesel–electric transmission has been consistently used for all new classes of Swedish submarines, albeit supplemented by air-independent propulsion (AIP) as provided by Stirling engines beginning with HMS "Näcken" in 1988. Another early adopter of diesel–electric transmission was the United States Navy, whose Bureau of Steam Engineering proposed its use in 1928. It was subsequently tried in the S-class submarines , , and before being put into production with the "Porpoise" class of the 1930s. From that point onwards, it continued to be used on most US conventional submarines. Apart from the British U-class and some submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy that used separate diesel generators for low speed running, few navies other than those of Sweden and the US made much use of diesel–electric transmission before 1945. After World War II, by contrast, it gradually became the dominant mode of propulsion for conventional submarines. However, its adoption was not always swift. Notably, the Soviet Navy did not introduce diesel–electric transmission on its conventional submarines until 1980 with its "Paltus" class. Railway locomotives. During World War I, there was a strategic need for rail engines without plumes of smoke above them. Diesel technology was not yet sufficiently developed but a few precursor attempts were made, especially for petrol–electric transmissions by the French (Crochat-Collardeau, patent dated 1912 also used for tanks and trucks) and British (Dick, Kerr & Co and British Westinghouse). About 300 of these locomotives, only 96 being standard gauge, were in use at various points in the conflict. Even before the war, the GE 57-ton gas-electric boxcab had been produced in the USA. In the 1920s, diesel–electric technology first saw limited use in switchers (or "shunters"), locomotives used for moving trains around in railroad yards and assembling and disassembling them. An early company offering "Oil-Electric" locomotives was the American Locomotive Company (ALCO). The ALCO HH series of diesel–electric switcher entered series production in 1931. In the 1930s, the system was adapted for streamliners, the fastest trains of their day. Diesel–electric powerplants became popular because they greatly simplified the way motive power was transmitted to the wheels and because they were both more efficient and had greatly reduced maintenance requirements. Direct-drive transmissions can become very complex, considering that a typical locomotive has four or more axles. Additionally, a direct-drive diesel locomotive would require an impractical number of gears to keep the engine within its powerband; coupling the diesel to a generator eliminates this problem. An alternative is to use a torque converter or fluid coupling in a direct drive system to replace the gearbox. Hydraulic transmissions are claimed to be somewhat more efficient than diesel–electric technology. Road and other land vehicles. Buses. Diesel electric based buses have also been produced, including hybrid systems able to run on and store electrical power in batteries. The two main providers of hybrid systems for diesel–electric transit buses include Allison Transmission and BAE Systems. New Flyer Industries, Gillig Corporation, and North American Bus Industries are major customers for the Allison EP hybrid systems, while Orion Bus Industries is a major customer for the BAE HybriDrive system. Mercedes-Benz makes their own diesel–electric drive system, which is used in their Citaro. The only bus that runs on single diesel-electric transmission is the Mercedes Benz Cito low floor concept bus which was introduced in 1998. Trucks. Examples include: Concepts. In the automobile industry, diesel engines in combination with electric transmissions and battery power are being developed for future vehicle drive systems. Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles was a cooperative research program between the U.S. government and "The Big Three" automobile manufacturers (DaimlerChrysler, Ford and General Motors) that developed diesel hybrid cars. Military vehicles. Diesel–electric propulsion has been tried on some military vehicles, such as tanks. The prototype TOG1 and TOG2 super heavy tanks of the Second World War used twin generators driven by V12 diesel engines. More recent prototypes include the SEP modular armoured vehicle and T95e. Future tanks may use diesel–electric drives to improve fuel efficiency while reducing the size, weight and noise of the power plant. Attempts with diesel–electric drives on wheeled military vehicles include the unsuccessful ACEC Cobra, MGV, and XM1219 Armed Robotic Vehicle.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21440085

The Blue Diamond Society (BDS; Nepali: नील हीरा समाज) is an LGBT rights organization in Nepal. It was established in 2001 to advocate for change in the existing laws against homosexuality and to advocate for the rights of Nepal's marginalized gay, transgender and other sexual minority communities. The Blue Diamond Society also aims to educate Nepalese society on proper sexual health, to advocate with local governments for queer minorities, to encourage the artful expression of LGBTQ+ youth, and to document violence against Nepalese queers. Another of its contributions to Nepal's LGBTQ+ communities is to provide care, counseling, and services to victims of HIV/AIDS.The BDS has also recorded various abuses against the community ranging from physical and verbal abuse and discrimination inflicted in workplaces and healthcare facilities. The Blue Diamond Society is currently led by Executive Director Manisha Dhakal, and was founded and led until 2013 by Sunil Babu Pant, the first gay legislator in Nepal's history and one of 29 experts at the meeting for The Yogyakarta Principles. One of the Blue Diamond Society's greatest achievement occurred in 2007 when Sunil Babu Pant and fellow human rights activists filed a case with Nepal's Supreme Court that led to a verdict by the Court ordering the government to repeal all laws that explicitly discriminate against members of the LGBT community. The Court also ordered the government to draft laws to legally recognize gay marriage. In 2015, Nepal approved a new constitution that guaranteed equal rights to all the genders, however despite the laws the community still faces discrimination and abuse and is least represented in the country. In 2018, the Blue Diamond Society currently has over 700 staff and forty offices throughout Nepal. The head office is located in Dhumbarahi Height, Kathmandu. The Struggle for LGBT Rights. In April 2007, the Blue Diamond Society, MITINI Nepal, Cruse AIDS Nepal, and Parichaya Nepal, all organizations representing lesbians, gays, and "people of the third gender", filed a writ petition under Article 107(2) of the "Interim Constitution of Nepal" demanding representation and laws that provide protection to the LGBT community, thus prohibiting any discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity. Nepal's citizenship card system provided benefits to all the citizens such as ration cards, passports, residency cards, etc. however, those who identified themselves within the third gender were denied these rights by the officials. The Government of Nepal dismissed the petition claiming it to be based on hypothesis and assumptions and devoid of any proper examples of those who were treated in a discriminatory manner. The Court also claimed that the Interim Constitution provides enough protection therefore making a separate law based on sexual orientation is not required. But the petitioners which included Sunil Babu Pant, argued that people of the third gender weren't treated equally. It was the responsibility of the state to provide identity documents, including birth certificates, citizenship certificates, passports, and voter identity cards because without identity cards, people of the third gender were deprived of education and other public benefits and were vulnerable and disadvantaged. After quite a struggle, Court came to the conclusion that sexual orientation was a natural process rather than the result of "mental perversion" or "emotional and psychological disorder". It rejected the notion that people of the third sex were "sexual perverts". The government also addressed the issue of same-sex marriage which the Nepalese law observed as "unnatural coitus". The Court therefore decided that it is appropriate that same-sex marriage is decriminalized and de-stigmatized. Also, laws were introduced to ensure that all the genders are provided equal rights therefore, this resulted in new citizenship cards which have column for the third gender. Blue Diamond society played an important role in this movement and has been a major LGBT organization ever since. As an organization, Blue Diamond Society various hurdles as it wasn't given the status of an NGO for sexual minorities which were not recognized under the Constitution. Therefore, it was introduced as sexual health program and later established itself as a full-fledged LGBT organization. Despite the legal and liberal system supporting the community, there is still very conservative especially when it comes to sexuality. Visions. The society's visions are to create a society that respects and values each sexual and gender minorities, where every person of a sexual and gender minority can have equal rights and the same dignity of heterosexual, cisgender persons and also a society where all sexual and gender minorities have hope and equal opportunities. Achievements of Blue Diamond Society. BDS worked with local governments and the Supreme Court to have the Election Commission of Nepal and local census forms offer a "third gender" option in addition to "male" and "female". A third gender person, Bishnu Adhikari, received full citizenship and identification papers as ruled by the Supreme Court Nepal in 2007. This has encouraged other third gender citizens to demand correct legal identification with their correct gender. Continuous lobbying, delegations, and sit-in programs from the local to national level have been carried out by the Blue Diamond Society. The Manisha Dhaka l was awarded the "Nai Rani Laxmi" award in 2010 for her contributions to LGBT rights and actively participated in the pleadings in the petition filed for equal rights in 2007. Controversies. In 2012, Blue Diamond Society was accused of corruption and nepotism, which led to serious financial trouble for the organization. BDS responded by saying that "called conspiracies to defame the society and weaken the campaign launched for the rights of third gender people and sexual minorities," whilst never really addressing the merits of the accusation. During the investigation, Sunil Babu Pant immigrated to London. Blue Diamond Society has also been recorded by National News Channels for physically attacking people who reported their corruption. Blue Diamond Society had threatened those transgender individuals who do not identify as 'third gender' to remain silent and not speak about the issue. Criticisms. The Blue Diamond Society has been criticized for creating a rigid "third gender narrative" in Nepal. A gender fluid person was reportedly mocked by the Blue Diamond Society. It has been criticized for rejecting the belief that there are multiple genders, and having pejorative attitudes against genderqueer or gender fluid people. In 2019, a series of confessions posted online called out the organization's alleged transphobia. It was alleged that famous Nepalese actor Santosh Panta's transgender daughter was advised by a representative of the organisation to call herself as 'third gender' contrary to her self-identification. Awards. In 2007, Blue Diamond Society won the International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission's (IGLHRC) Felipa de Souza Award. Pride Festival. Nepal's Pride festival is organised by Blue Diamond Society annually on the day of Gai Jatra. The first annual pride festival by BDS in Nepal was held in 2010 in Kathmandu, the 6th International LGBTI Pride festival took place in 2016 with the support of UNDP under Global Fund MSA program.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1633135

Horace Greeley High School is a public, four-year secondary school serving students in grades 9–12 in Chappaqua, New York, United States. It is part of the Chappaqua Central School District. It is consistently ranked among the top high schools in America. In 2015 it was listed as the No. 1 best public high school in the US by Best Colleges, and the No. 17 Smartest Public High School in the US by "Business Insider". Distinctions. Greeley was ranked No. 46 nationally in the 2008 "U.S. News & World Report" rankings of "America's Best High Schools," and No. 7 among those with open enrollment. It currently offers 17 advanced placement courses. Recent years have seen approximately one-tenth of graduating seniors recognized by the National Merit Scholarship committee. The class of 2004 included 25 National Merit semi-finalists, the class of 2005 had 16, and the class of 2007 had 22. The mean SAT score among graduating seniors in the Class of 2012 was 1927; 623 in Critical Reading, 652 in Mathematics, 652 in Writing. The school offers several extracurricular programs. Its academic challenge team won the National Academic Championship in 2003 and 2013, finished third in 2009 and 2010, and placed among the top six teams at the national tournament in five of the six years between 2000 and 2005. Chip Beall, the organizer of the tournament, noted in 2007 that Greeley's team had "the most airline miles logged at the National Academic Association's expense", a nod to their placement in the final rounds of the tournament more times than any other team in the tournament's history. The Horace Greeley Debate Team has sent debaters to the state competition every year since its inception in 2002. The Madrigal Choir, a select group of students auditioned from the full chorus, has attended the Disney Honors festival in Orlando, Florida and has performed with other choirs at such venues as Carnegie Hall and Lincoln Center. In 2011, the Madrigal Choir received a gold award and came in second place at the Boston Heritage Festival. Programs at Horace Greeley include the LIFE (Learning Independently From Experience) school, an alternative school for grades 11–12 located on campus, and independent study and senior project options. Classes are offered in five foreign languages: Spanish, French, Latin, Chinese, and, at the LIFE school, Italian. The school has been pushed in recent years to eschew classic languages like French and Latin in favor of more practical ones like Chinese. In the 2014–2015 school year, Spanish, French, Latin and Chinese were offered. In the 2005–2006 school year, Ancient Greek was taught for the first time, as an independent study. Students have the opportunity to take Syracuse University Project Advance courses in Earth Systems and Forensic Science. Students may take Marketing and Business & Personal Law for college credit from Mercy College. As of 2013, Greeley has two sister schools in China: Beijing National Day School and Shanghai Yanjing High School, and offers an exchange program for students interested in traveling to China. Student clubs. The school is named for Horace Greeley, the editor of "The New York Tribune" who made his home in Chappaqua late in life. One of the school's three main publications, "The Greeley Tribune", is an additional tribute to the newsman. The school's other two main publications are "The Quake", a full color, student-run sports magazine with a staff of over fifty, making it the school's largest publication, and "ADVO", a full color, student-run lifestyle and entertainment magazine. Other student organizations at Greeley include the Model United Nations, One World Study Circle, and community service groups. The largest service groups include S.A.V.E. (Supporting American Veterans Everywhere), S.H.A.R.E., S.A.D.D. (Students Against Destructive Decisions), AAPA (African Anti Poverty Association), Future Business Leaders of America (FBLA), Alliance for Equality (the first gay-straight alliance in Westchester), Students for Social Justice, AIDS Awareness, improvisational comedy troupe The Puritans, Engineering Club, Silent Earth: Greening Greeley, and Amnesty International. Peer leadership is also a popular student/faculty-run organization on campus that gives older students a chance to help acclimate younger students to the high school environment. Another main club is the Federal Reserve Challenge Club. The Fed Challenge Club is an economic club that sends students every year to the New York Federal Reserve to compete in the fed's annual High School Fed Challenge. Within the 2018–2019 school year, the Fed Challenge Club will branch out to compete in other economic challenges. The school has three a cappella groups, The Enchords, a co-ed group, the Quaker Notes, an all female group, and the Acafellas, a male group. Athletics. Among the diverse offerings are varsity programs in baseball, basketball, bowling, field hockey, football, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, skiing, soccer, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, track and cross country, volleyball, and wrestling. The school's only state championship came in 2002 and was won by the cross country team. In 2001 the school's football team finished with a record of 11–2, losing 22–15 to Rochester's Aquinas Institute in the New York State Class A State Championship game. The 2002 boys' cross country team won the Class-B title, and remains the only Greeley sports team to win a state championship. Campus. The school campus is made up of 11 buildings, all are named by letter. Buildings such as the Gym (A Building), Cafeteria (H Building), and Auditorium (B Building) are referred to as such and not by their letter name. Although the building letters span A through L, there is no I Building, for unknown reasons. Multiple athletic fields and a tennis court are also on campus. Controversy. In 2015, drama teacher Christopher Schraufnagel resigned and was charged with the sexual abuse of three 15-year-old students. The crimes were alleged to have occurred between 2011 and 2015 on campus. The parents of three students subsequently filed a lawsuit against the school district. On November 7, 2016, Schraufnagel pled guilty. On December 21, 2017, Schraufnagel was classified as a level 3 Sex Offender.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39189719

Diwan Bahadur Road also known as D.B. Road is a road in Coimbatore, India. It runs from Cowley Brown Road at one end to Gandhipark at the other. Diwan Bahadur Road is one of the biggest commercial centres and busiest shopping areas of Coimbatore, India. It is located in R.S Puram and runs through the central heart of the city. D.B Road is exactly located between MTP Road and Thadagam Road. DB road is known for its traditional trade in garments and textiles, jewellery, Marvadies, and pawn brokering. It has many shopping centres and retail outlets of international brands. It has many shops,restaurants, bars, and other happening places. History. According to old timers, people of Coimbatore started trickling to D.B. Road, which was then the Rathina Sabapathy Puram Street during 1930–40. The road abutted a burial ground, parts of which are today's Shastri Maidan. Mr. C.R.V. Dass constructed a house on D.B. Road in 1942, and had his bakery on Raja Street - another busy commercial street in Coimbatore city, with an on premises store named "Ayyar and Co" at 221 Raja Street, which is still functional and now owned by his elder son Mr. V. Ramakrishnan. The street was lined with trees on both sides with street lights planted firmly on the middle of the road, in the median. A few years later – when the powers to grant approval for shops was available with the Coimbatore Municipality – the 'Ayyar and Co'". ""founder managed to open a branch at D.B. Road. Then there were very few shops – among those were Ramoo and Company, which rationed mill cloth, which rationed mill cloth, and "Latha Stores and , which rationed mill cloth, and "Latha Stores" , which sold general household goods and served as a one stop prominent store for various general goods.I A. Rangaswamy Chettiar Sons and Company. Very few buses passed through D.B. Road. Two of those were No.6 and 7, which run from Gandhipark to Gandhipark, with a stop at Ramoo and Co. The shop lent its name to a bus stop because people who wanted uniforms and mill cloth thronged the shop, says N.P. Kumar, the shop owner. His father N.A. Parasuraman established the shop before Independence. In his assessment, the growth of D.B. Road is intrinsically linked to the growth of residential localities west of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. As the number of houses grew, the first stop for the people of those areas was D.B. Road.The other reason was the width of D.B. Road. And also that of T.V. Samy Road. The two broad roads presented ideal destinations for shopping as there was ample spacing for parking and walking, says Jegan S. Damodarasamy, Executive Director, Sree Annapoorna Sree Gowrishankar Group of Hotels.His family first started the Annapoorna hotels as a standalone unit on D.B. Road in 1968. The southern side of the D.B. Road then housed shops that sold charcoal. Today, untouched by the presence of international brands, that portion of the Road continues to have shops that sell earthenware – perhaps, presenting a balance between local and international economy. One another important landmark on the road is the Rathina Vinayakar Temple, started by Rathina Sabapathy Mudaliar, his family and many important persons of R.S. Puram. The temple continues to serve as a hub for R.S. Puram residents. The D.B. Road also saw several city institutions take their toddler steps from here. One such is Nirmala College. The college functioned here for a while before moving to its present location. The Road is also home to a few cultural institutions like Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan and Purandaradasar Hall, which satiate the cultural and artistic needs of the city's residents. Today, it is a happening place in Coimbatore as every commercial establishments wants a foothold there, be it local or international. For such is the Road's reputation. The road today is synonymous with brand-conscious shopping and has become a commercial hub, just as Dr.Nanjappa Road in Gandhipuram is for engineering goods, Mettupalayam Road for hardware and T.V. Swamy Road for kitchen accessories, says Sreesh Adka, Managing Partner, Ideal Stores. His is one of the oldest inhabitants of R.S Puram and D.B. Road. And it will continue to grow that way because it is not yet congested as Oppanakara Street is. In talking about the growth of R.S. Puram and D.B. Road in particular the 1998 Coimbatore bombings cannot be overlooked. Economic activity came to a standstill but only for a brief while.

bustling location

8649-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9512394

Mosaic is a multi-site megachurch based in Los Angeles, California and is currently led by Erwin McManus. History. Thirty-five charter members of Bethel Baptist Church began meeting on January 3, 1943 in a rented store front in Los Angeles, California. Members brought their own chairs to the first service. By 1958, two more "missions" or services were established in Baldwin Park and Monterey Park. In 1969, at age 24, Thomas A. Wolf "Brother Tom" became senior pastor of the then-named First Southern Baptist Church of East Los Angeles. Demographic shifted in the '60s in East Los Angeles, and the small number of people still attending were predominantly Caucasian/Anglo and elderly in an area that was becoming more diverse with Hispanic, Armenian and Asian families moving in as Caucasian/Anglo families moved to the suburbs. The churches' new make-up was approximately 50 percent Hispanic, 40 percent Caucasian or Anglo and 10 percent Asian. Wolf created a leadership team that reflected this new cultural make-up with Hispanics filling over 50 percent of elder and leadership roles and Asian serving approximately 20 percent of these roles. Located on Brady Ave, church members began to refer to the congregation as The Church on Brady. Although never officially changed this was how it became recognized. Brother Tom, as he was called, developed and led the church in a common mission to "become a spiritual reference point east of downtown Los Angeles and a sending base to the ends of the earth." Wolf pioneered "Oikos Evangelism": reaching out to one's circle of influence; home church groups or "Share Groups". He fostered a new church, an American apostolic church, rather a church based solely on tradition. In the early 1990s The Church on Brady was responsible for more missionaries than any other church in the International Mission Board, regardless of size. Lyle E. Schaller states, "The Church on Brady tenaciously and persistently pursued the perennial apostolic paradigm of church ... multiplication rather than church maintenance." The Church on Brady started many new churches both locally in or near Los Angeles and internationally. By 1983 the original building on Brady was far outgrown and in need of repair. Wolf led the church through a building phase that was completed in 1987. Even though many were sent out, Brady faced a constant issue of overcrowding due to perennial growth. In October 1991, Erwin McManus was first introduced to The Church on Brady as the keynote speaker at Brady's Spare Not Conference on World Evangelism. He was then invited to move to The Church on Brady and Los Angeles to transition into the role of Senior Pastor. Early in 1994, McManus officially became Senior Pastor. Wolf then moved into the role of "Teaching Pastor" and simultaneously accepted a teaching position at Golden Gate Seminary in San Francisco. Born in El Salvador, McManus had moved at an early age to the United States with his family. He brought 15 years experience as an evangelist and speaker. McManus built on the foundation set at Brady. Multi-media was the new tool in churches at the time. McManus encouraged use of these new tools making greater use of art and dance as weekly components of worship. Regular night-time services began being offered. A new name was sought with "MOSAIC" being the accepted choice. It was at this time that the Sunday night service was moved to the Club Soho, a nightclub in downtown Los Angeles (relocating several years later to the Mayan Theater, also in downtown Los Angeles). MOSAIC has since become a single church with multiple sites. In 2006, Mosaic had approximately 60 nationalities with 2,000 in weekly attendance. Since then, Mosaic has expanded to 7 campuses along the Pacific Coast and has a weekly attendance of over 5,000. Beliefs. Mosaic's mission is to live by faith, to be known by love, and to be a voice of hope. The church exists to declare the name of Jesus to the world and to create a place called home for those who don't have one. Mosaic has established five core values: Campuses. In 2017, Mosaic began expanding and launching new campuses along the Pacific Coast. There are currently 7 campuses that meet weekly: Hollywood, South Pasadena, Venice, Orange County, Seattle, Mexico City, and Ecuador. Mosaic Hollywood launched in 2011 at the former Fifth Church of Christ, Scientist building at 7107 Hollywood Boulevard. The 1959 structure located at the intersection of Hollywood Boulevard and La Brea Avenue has been designated a Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument. Mosaic South Pasadena launched in 2017. It currently meets at 1023 Fair Oaks Ave in the historic Rialto Theatre. On December 20, 2019, building owner Izek Shomof told the South Pasadena News that Mosaic will get a new 20-year lease for its weekend religious services to continue operating in the Rialto. Since moving into the abandoned theatre, Mosaic has hosted several movie nights, showing classic and modern films alike inside the theatre, such as "‘It's A Wonderful Life"", "Ghostbusters", and "La La Land." Mosaic Venice was launched in 2017. Mosaic Orange County was launched in 2018. Mosaic Seattle was launched in 2019. Mosaic Mexico City was launched in 2018. Mosaic Mexico is led by Emerson and Christina Nowotny. Mosaic Ecuador was launched in 2020. Cultural topics. Mosaic has a podcast called "Battle Ready," hosted by Erwin and Aaron McManus. The podcast covers a variety of topics, ranging from leadership, to personal struggles that humans experience. In one of the most viewed episodes on Youtube of the Podcast, Erwin and Aaron discuss mental health and the struggles of being human. They talk about their personal experience with battling stress and anxiety, and how they overcome those struggles every day. Since the episode's release on April 9, 2018, Mosaic and Erwin have continued to help others overcome their battles with mental health. In an interview with Fox News, released on February 26, 2019 about his book, "The Way of The Warrior: An Ancient Path to Inner Peace", Erwin commented:"’This is just a part of being human. This doesn’t mean you’re broken. This doesn’t mean that you can’t find wholeness, but what it actually means is that you’re a human being and you’re dealing with real issues in life. But the pain inside of us has to be addressed.’" Mosaic has advocated for refugees, both domestically in the United States and globally around the world. World Vision International, a Christian organization that works to overcome poverty and injustice, listed Mosaic's Lead Pastor, Erwin McManus, as one of the top 25 mission minded church leaders. The list includes pastors and leaders who are, ""missions focused, Kingdom-minded and passionate about caring for the poor and oppressed"." On April 29, 2019, "CCM Magazine" released an article, mentioning Mosaic's involvement abroad. On May 28, 2019, the online magazine Hypebeast published an article, "Church and Streetwear: A Match Made in Heaven", in which Emily Jensen wrote and quoted McManus as having a large gay attendance and being "for everybody." On June 25, 2019, the article was updated after several former members disputed McManus's comment. McManus responded with a statement describing the church's community as diverse. On July 13, 2019, "Refinery29" published an article on Mega Churches which described Mega-Churches as image-obsession and claiming to have "open doors" while also being unwelcoming and unsupporting to LGBTQ+ members and the LGBTQ+ community. One former attendee said that openly gay people were denied leadership positions at Mosaic because they were gay. Pastor Erwin McManus and Aaron McManus have a TV Show called "McManus" on Trinity Broadcasting Network's Hillsong Channel. The McManus TV show covers the hottest, hardest topics and current events, bringing unique insight, scriptural wisdom, and clarity. Music. Mosaic has a worship band named Mosaic MSC, led by Worship Pastor Mariah McManus. The band has released three live albums and three extended plays.

ongoing rises

14259-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4946900

A voltameter or coulometer is a scientific instrument used for measuring electric charge (quantity of electricity) through electrolytic action. The SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb. The voltameter should not be confused with a voltmeter, which measures electric potential. The SI unit for electric potential is the volt. Types of voltameter. The voltameter is an electrolytic cell and the measurement is made by weighing the element deposited or released at the cathode in a specified time. Silver voltameter. This is the most accurate type. It consists of two silver plates in a solution of silver nitrate. When current is flowing, silver dissolves at the anode and is deposited at the cathode. The cathode is initially massed, current is passed for a measured time and the cathode is massed again. Copper coulometer. This is similar to the silver voltameter but the anode and cathode are copper and the solution is copper sulfate, acidified with sulfuric acid. It is cheaper than the silver voltameter, but slightly less accurate. Mercury voltameter. In this device, mercury is used to determine the amount of charges transformed during the following reaction: These oxidation/reduction processes have 100% efficiency with the wide range of the current densities. Measuring of the quantity of electricity (coulombs) is based on the changes of the mass of the mercury electrode. Mass of the electrode can be increased during cathodic deposition of the mercury ions or decreased during the anodic dissolution of the metal. Sulfuric acid voltameter. The anode and cathode are platinum and the solution is dilute sulfuric acid. Hydrogen is released at the cathode and collected in a graduated tube so that its volume can be measured. The volume is adjusted to standard temperature and pressure and the mass of hydrogen is calculated from the volume. This kind of voltameter is sometimes called Hofmann voltameter. Historical derivation of the name. Faraday used an apparatus that he termed a "volta-electrometer"; subsequently Daniell called this a "voltameter". Coulometer. A coulometer is a device to determine electric charges. The term comes from the unit of charge, the coulomb. There can be two goals in measuring charge: Coulometers can be devices that are used to determine an amount of substance by measuring the charges. The devices do a quantitative analysis. This method is called coulometry, and related coulometers are either devices used for a coulometry or instruments that perform a coulometry in an automatic way. Coulometers can be used to determine electric quantities in the direct current circuit, namely the total charge or a constant current. These devices invented by Michael Faraday were used frequently in the 19th century and in the first half of the 20th century. In the past, the coulometers of that type were named voltameters.

automated method

8621-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18002602

In the liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church, a votive Mass (Latin "missa votiva") is a Mass offered for a "votum", a special intention. The Mass does not correspond to the Divine Office for the day on which it is celebrated. Every day in the year has appointed to it a series of canonical hours and (except Good Friday) a Mass corresponding, containing, for instance, the same collect and the same gospel. Normally the Mass corresponds to the Office, but on occasion, may not. History. The principle of the votive Mass is older than its name. Almost at the very origin of the Western liturgies (with their principle of change according to the Calendar) Mass was occasionally offered, apparently with special prayers and lessons, for some particular intention, irrespective of the normal Office of the day. Among the miracles quoted by Augustine of Hippo in "De civ. Dei", XXII, 8, is the story of one Hesperius cured of an evil spirit by a private Mass said in his house with special prayers for him—a votive Mass for his cure. The first sacramentaries contain many examples of what we should call votive Masses. So the Leonine book has Masses "in natale episcoporum" (ed. Feltoe, pp. 123–26), "de siccitate temporis" (ed. Feltoe, 142), "contra impetitores" (ed. Feltoe, 27), and so on throughout. Indeed, the Masses for ordination and for the dead, which occur in this book and throughout the Roman Rite and Gallican Rite, are examples of votive Masses for all kinds of occasions, for ordinations (ed. Wilson, pp. 22–30, etc. ), for those about to be baptized (ed. Wilson 34), anniversaries of ordinations (153-54), nuns (156), for the sick (282), for marriages (265), kings (276), travellers (283), the dead (301 sq. ), and a large collection of Masses of general character to be said on any Sunday (224-44). In this book the name first occurs, "Missa votiva in sanctorum commemoratione" (p. 367; Rheinau and S. Gallen MSS.). The Gregorian Sacramentary, too, has a large collection of such Masses and the name "Missa votiva" (e.g., "Patrologia Latina", LXXVIII, 256). Throughout the Middle Ages the votive Mass was a regular institution. The principle came to be that, whereas one official (capitular) high Mass was said corresponding to the Office, a priest who said a private Mass for a special intention said a votive Mass corresponding to his intention. The great number of forms provided in medieval Missals furnished one for any possible intention. Indeed, it seems that at one time a priest normally said a votive Mass whenever he celebrated. John Beleth in the thirteenth century describes a series of votive Masses once said ("fuit quoddam tempus") each day in the week: on Sunday, of the Holy Trinity; Monday, for charity; Tuesday, for wisdom; Wednesday, of the Holy Ghost; Thursday, of the Angels; Friday, of the Cross; Saturday, of the Blessed Virgin (Explic. div. offic., 51). This completely ignores the ecclesiastical year. But there was a general sentiment that, at least on the chief feasts, even private Masses should conform to the Office of the day. The Feast of the Holy Trinity began as a votive Mass to be said on any Sunday after Pentecost, when there was no feast. Bible and doctrine. The Solemnity of Pentecost celebrates Jesus' gift of the Holy Spirit God to the Apostolic Church, followed by its power of remitting sins and exorcizing demons, like Jesus did in His miracles. The Lord hastened to St Peter the same authority, appointing him as the first pope ("rock") of the Church. The same charisms of the Holy Spirit God were used and revealed by Jesus Christ God in the Harrowing of Hell, and also are attributed to the St Michael the Archangel, whose exorcistic prayer (called "Exorcism against Satan and the apostatic angels") is able to win Satan and all the angels pertaning to his mystical body. The Bible also mentions Raphael the archangel and the Book of Tobit against the strong demon Asmodeus. Suffrage Mass. The Suffrage Mass is a particular type of Votive Mass in which one or more Roman Catholic baptized believers ask to the celebrating priest to offer a Mass to God in favour of the salvation of one or more souls temporary living in the Purgatory. While the Holy Mass is always offered to God, it can also be dedicated to one or more Roman Catholic saints in order to ask their intercessory prayer to God. The Council of Trent stated the belief in the intercession of saints as a canon any Roman Catholic is obliged to believe. For the Roman Catholic doctrine, any saint may pray God to intercede his divine grace in favour of any human living being, but within a hierarchical order of intercessory power: first Jesus Christ God by way of Mass (worship), secondly the Blessed Virgin Mary (hyperdulia), thirdly Saint Joseph (protodulia), and lastly the hierarchy of angels. The pious practice of the Suffrage Mass is also founded on the belief in the existence of the Purgatory. For the Roman Catholic faith, at the time of the death there is a separation of the soul form the earthly body. The soul undergoes to the particular judgment of God who is Omniscient and therefore can't fail in his judgement. The judgement is based on the personal sins and merits of salvation acquired during the earthly life. The sol can't do anything to improve its afterlife condition after the death. There are three possible judgements of God corresponding to as many possible destinations of the soul: Paradise, Purgatory and Hell. Solely the soul who died in sanctity, to say without any stain of personal sin and also without the original sin, can be admitted in Paradise. Otherwise, if they have committed some mortal sins which weren't absolved by a priest before their death, the destination is the Purgatory. The soul is believed to stay in Purgatory for a finite time in order to repair its sins and have them forgiven by God. Thi is a concern for all the sins that weren't confessed and absolved before the death. The expiation is necessary before the expiating souls can be admitted in Paradise. The number of months or of years of its duration is believed to be proportional to the gravity of the guilts committed during the earthly life. The Suffrage Mass is believed to have the power to shorten the expiating period if God decides to grant the grace of a lower penalty for the souls to which the Mass is directed. The prayer of saints to God can contribute to reach the same purpose. When the expiation time had finished, St Michael the Archangel is believed to go in the Purgatory to liberate the expiating souls and bring them in Paradise. Paradise is dedicated to the vision of the truth and contemplation of the Face of God, which is the highest and last purpose of the human life. There, hierarchy of angels and souls pray and worship God, and live forever in communion while waiting the expiating souls of the Purgatory be definitely saved and any souls can get its resurrected flesh at the end of times. Rulings. This idea of allowing votive Masses to be said only when no special feast occurs finally produced the rules contained in later missals (1570). According to these, there is a distinction between votive Masses strictly so called and votive Masses in a wider sense. The first are those commanded to be said on certain days; the second kind, those a priest may say or not, at his discretion. Strict votive Masses are, first, those ordered by the rubrics of the Missal, namely a Mass of the Blessed Virgin on every Saturday in the year not occupied by a double, semi-double, octave, vigil, feria of Lent, or ember-day, or the transferred Sunday Office (Rubr. Gen., IV, 1). This is the "Missa de S. Maria" in five forms for various seasons, among the votive Masses at the end of the Missal. To this we must add votive Masses ordered by the pope or the ordinary for certain grave occasions (pro re gravi). Such are for the election of a pope or bishop, in time of war, plague, persecution, and so on. Such votive Masses may be ordered by the ordinary on all days except doubles of the first or second class, Ash Wednesday, and the ferias of Holy Week, the eves of Christmas and Pentecost; except also days on which the office is said for the same intention or event as would be prescribed by the votive Mass. In this case the Mass should conform to the office as usual. A third kind of strictly votive Mass is that said during the devotion of the so-called "Forty Hours". On this occasion the Mass on the first and third days is of the Blessed Sacrament; on the second day it is for peace. But on doubles of the first and second class, Sundays of the first and second class, on Ash Wednesday, in Holy Week, during the octaves of Epiphany, Easter, Pentecost, on the eves of Christmas and Pentecost, the Mass of the day must be said, with the collect of the Blessed Sacrament added to that of the day under one conclusion. The other kind of votive Mass ("late sumpta") may be said by any priest on a semidouble, simple or feria, at his discretion, except on Sunday, Ash Wednesday, the eves of Christmas, Epiphany, Pentecost, during the octaves of Epiphany, Easter, Pentecost, Corpus Christi, Holy Week, and on All Souls' Day. Nor may a votive Mass be said on a day whose Office is already that of the same occasion; but in this case the corresponding Mass of the day must be said, according to the usual rubrics. A votive Mass may be taken from any of those at the end of the missal, or of the common of Saints, or of their propers, if the text does not imply that it is their feast. A Sunday or ferial Mass may not be used as a votive Mass. Nor may it be said of a Beatus, unless this is allowed by special indult. The Gloria is to be said in votive Masses "pro re gravi" unless the colour be violet; also in votive Masses of the Blessed Virgin on Saturday, of angels, whenever said, in those of saints, when said on a day on which they are named in the Martyrology or during their octaves. The Creed is said in solemn votive Masses pro re gravi. The first and third Masses of the Forty Hours have the Gloria and the Creed, not the Mass for Peace (but if said on a Sunday it has the Creed). Solemn votive Masses have only one collect; others are treated as semidoubles, with commemorations of the day, etc., according to the usual rule. The colour used for a votive Mass corresponds to the event celebrated, except that red is used for Holy Innocents. It is red for the election of a pope, white for the anniversary of a bishop's election or consecration, violet in the general case of asking for some special grace and for the Passion. The particular case of votive Masses for each day of the week, corresponding to votive Offices ordered by Pope Leo XIII, was abolished by the Decree "Divino afflatu" of 1 November 1911. Requiems and Masses for marriages are really particular cases of a votive Mass.

common use

4840-2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3136256

Income taxes in the United States are imposed by the federal, most states, and many local governments. The income taxes are determined by applying a tax rate, which may increase as income increases, to taxable income, which is the total income less allowable deductions. Income is broadly defined. Individuals and corporations are directly taxable, and estates and trusts may be taxable on undistributed income. Partnerships are not taxed, but their partners are taxed on their shares of partnership income. Residents and citizens are taxed on worldwide income, while nonresidents are taxed only on income within the jurisdiction. Several types of credits reduce tax, and some types of credits may exceed tax before credits. An alternative tax applies at the federal and some state levels. In the United States, the term "payroll tax" usually refers to FICA taxes that are paid to fund Social Security and Medicare, while "income tax" refers to taxes that are paid into state and federal general funds. Most business expenses are deductible. Individuals may also deduct a personal allowance (exemption) and certain personal expenses, including home mortgage interest, state taxes, contributions to charity, and some other items. Some deductions are subject to limits. Capital gains are taxable, and capital losses reduce taxable income to the extent of gains (plus, in certain cases, $3,000 or $1,500 of ordinary income). Individuals currently pay a lower rate of tax on capital gains and certain corporate dividends. Taxpayers generally must self assess income tax by filing tax returns. Advance payments of tax are required in the form of withholding tax or estimated tax payments. Taxes are determined separately by each jurisdiction imposing tax. Due dates and other administrative procedures vary by jurisdiction. April 15 following the tax year is the last day for individuals to file tax returns for federal and many state and local returns. Tax as determined by the taxpayer may be adjusted by the taxing jurisdiction. Basics. Sources of U.S. income tax laws. United States income tax law comes from a number of sources. These sources have been divided by one author into three tiers as follows: Where conflicts exist between various sources of tax authority, an authority in Tier 1 outweighs an authority in Tier 2 or 3. Similarly, an authority in Tier 2 outweighs an authority in Tier 3. Where conflicts exist between two authorities in the same tier, the "last-in-time rule" is applied. As the name implies, the "last-in-time rule" states that the authority that was issued later in time is controlling. Regulations and case law serve to interpret the statutes. Additionally, various sources of law attempt to do the same thing. Revenue Rulings, for example, serves as an interpretation of how the statutes apply to a very specific set of facts. Treaties serve in an international realm. Basic concepts. A tax is imposed on net taxable income in the United States by the federal, most state, and some local governments. Income tax is imposed on individuals, corporations, estates, and trusts. The definition of net taxable income for most sub-federal jurisdictions mostly follows the federal definition. The rate of tax at the federal level is graduated; that is, the tax rates on higher amounts of income are higher than on lower amounts. Federal tax rates in 2018 varied from 10% to 37%. Some states and localities impose an income tax at a graduated rate, and some at a flat rate on all taxable income. Individuals are eligible for a reduced rate of federal income tax on capital gains and qualifying dividends. The tax rate and some deductions are different for individuals depending on filing status. Married individuals may compute tax as a couple or separately. Single individuals may be eligible for reduced tax rates if they are head of a household in which they live with a dependent. Taxable income is defined in a comprehensive manner in the Internal Revenue Code and tax regulations issued by the Department of Treasury and the Internal Revenue Service. Taxable income is gross income as adjusted minus deductions. Most states and localities follow these definitions at least in part, though some make adjustments to determine income taxed in that jurisdiction. Taxable income for a company or business may not be the same as its book income. Gross income includes all income earned or received from whatever source. This includes salaries and wages, tips, pensions, fees earned for services, price of goods sold, other business income, gains on sale of other property, rents received, interest and dividends received, proceeds from selling crops, and many other types of income. Some income, such as municipal bond interest, is exempt from income tax. Adjustments (usually reductions) to gross income of individuals are made for contributions to many types of retirement or health savings plans, certain student loan interest, half of self-employment tax, and a few other items. The cost of goods sold in a business is a direct reduction of gross income. Business deductions: Taxable income of all taxpayers is reduced by deductions for expenses related to their business. These include salaries, rent, and other business expenses paid or accrued, as well as allowances for depreciation. The deduction of expenses may result in a loss. Generally, such loss can reduce other taxable income, subject to some limits. Personal deductions: The former deduction for personal exemptions was repealed for 2018 through 2025. Standard deduction: In addition, individuals get a deduction from taxable income for certain personal expenses. Alternatively, the individual may claim a standard deduction. For 2018, the basic standard deduction was $12,000 for single individuals or married persons filing separately, $24,000 for a joint return or surviving spouse, and $18,000 for a head of household. For tax year 2019, the basic standard deduction amounts are $12,200 for a single individual or married person filing separately, $24,400 for a joint return or surviving spouse return, and $18,350 for a head of household. Itemized deductions: Those who choose to claim actual itemized deductions may deduct the following, subject to many conditions and limitations: Capital gains: and qualified dividends may be taxed as part of taxable income. However, the tax is limited to a lower tax rate. Capital gains include gains on selling stocks and bonds, real estate, and other capital assets. The gain is the excess of the proceeds over the adjusted tax basis (cost less depreciation deductions allowed) of the property. This lower rate of tax also applies to dividends from U.S. corporations and many foreign corporations. There are limits on how much net capital loss may reduce other taxable income. Tax credits: All taxpayers are allowed a credit for foreign taxes and for a percentage of certain types of business expenses. Individuals are also allowed credits related to education expenses, retirement savings, and child care expenses. Each of the credits is subject to specific rules and limitations. Some credits are treated as refundable payments. Alternative minimum tax: All taxpayers are also subject to the Alternative Minimum Tax if their income exceeds certain exclusion amounts. This tax applies only if it exceeds regular income tax, and is reduced by some credits. Additional Medicare tax: High-income earners may also have to pay an additional 0.9% tax on wages, compensation, and self-employment income. Net investment income is subject to an additional 3.8% tax for individuals with income in excess of certain thresholds. Tax returns: U.S. corporations and most resident individuals must file income tax returns to self assess income tax if any tax is due or to claim a tax refund. Some taxpayers must file an income tax return because they satisfy one of the several other conditions. Tax returns may be filed electronically. Generally, an individual's tax return covers the calendar year. Corporations may elect a different tax year. Most states and localities follow the federal tax year, and require separate returns. Tax payment: Taxpayers must pay income tax due without waiting for an assessment. Many taxpayers are subject to withholding taxes when they receive income. To the extent withholding taxes do not cover all taxes due, all taxpayers must make estimated tax payments or face penalties. Tax penalties: Failing to make payments on time, or failing to file returns, can result in substantial penalties. Certain intentional failures may result in jail time. Tax returns may be examined and adjusted by tax authorities. Taxpayers have rights to appeal any change to tax, and these rights vary by jurisdiction. Taxpayers may also go to court to contest tax changes. Tax authorities may not make changes after a certain period of time (generally three or four years from the tax return due date). Federal income tax rates for individuals. Federal income brackets and tax rates for individuals are adjusted annually for inflation. The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) accounts for changes to the CPI and publishes the new rates as "Tax Rate Schedules". Marginal tax rates. Marginal tax rates before 2018. Beginning in 2013, an additional tax of 3.8% applies to net investment income in excess of certain thresholds. Marginal tax rates for 2019. An individual pays tax at a given bracket only for each dollar within that tax bracket's range. The top marginal rate does not apply in certain years to certain types of income. Significantly lower rates apply after 2003 to capital gains and qualifying dividends (see below). Example of a tax computation. Income tax for year 2017: Single taxpayer making $40,000 gross income, no children, under 65 and not blind, taking standard deduction; Note, however, that taxpayers with taxable income of less than $100,000 must use IRS provided tax tables. Under that table for 2016, the income tax in the above example would be $3,980.00. In addition to income tax, a wage earner would also have to pay Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax (FICA) (and an equal amount of FICA tax must be paid by the employer): Total federal tax including employer's contribution: Effective income tax rates. Effective tax rates are typically lower than marginal rates due to various deductions, with some people actually having a negative liability. The individual income tax rates in the following chart include capital gains taxes, which have different marginal rates than regular income. Only the first $118,500 of someone's income is subject to social insurance (Social Security) taxes in 2016. The table below also does not reflect changes, effective with 2013 law, which increased the average tax paid by the top 1% to the highest levels since 1979, at an effective rate of 33%, while most other taxpayers have remained near the lowest levels since 1979. Taxable income. Income tax is imposed as a tax rate times taxable income. Taxable income is defined as gross income less allowable deductions. Taxable income as determined for federal tax purposes may be modified for state tax purposes. Gross income. The Internal Revenue Code states that "gross income means all income from whatever source derived," and gives specific examples. Gross income is not limited to cash received, but "includes income realized in any form, whether money, property, or services." Gross income includes wages and tips, fees for performing services, gain from sale of inventory or other property, interest, dividends, rents, royalties, pensions, alimony, and many other types of income. Items must be included in income when received or accrued. The amount included is the amount the taxpayer is entitled to receive. Gains on property are the gross proceeds less amounts returned, cost of goods sold, or tax basis of property sold. Certain types of income are exempt from income tax. Among the more common types of exempt income are interest on municipal bonds, a portion of Social Security benefits, life insurance proceeds, gifts or inheritances, and the value of many employee benefits. Gross income is reduced by adjustments and deductions. Among the more common adjustments are reductions for alimony paid and IRA and certain other retirement plan contributions. Adjusted gross income is used in calculations relating to various deductions, credits, phase outs, and penalties. Business deductions. Most business deductions are allowed regardless of the form in which the business is conducted. Therefore, an individual small business owner is allowed most of the same business deductions as a publicly traded corporation. A business is an activity conducted regularly to make a profit. Only a few business-related deductions are unique to a particular form of business-doing. The deduction of investment expenses by individuals, however, has several limitations, along with other itemized (personal) deductions. The amount and timing of deductions for income tax purposes is determined under tax rules, not accounting ones. Tax rules are based on principles similar in many ways to accounting rules, but there are significant differences. Deductions for most meals and entertainment costs are limited to 50% of the costs. Costs of starting a business (sometimes called pre-operating costs) are deductible ratably over 60 months. Deductions for lobbying and political expenses are limited. Some other limitations apply. Expenses likely to produce future benefits must be capitalized. The capitalized costs are then deductible as depreciation (see MACRS) or amortization over the period future benefits are expected. Examples include costs of machinery and equipment and costs of making or building property. IRS tables specify lives of assets by class of asset or industry in which used. When an asset the cost of which was capitalized is sold, exchanged, or abandoned, the proceeds (if any) are reduced by the remaining unrecovered cost to determine gain or loss. That gain or loss may be ordinary (as in the case of inventory) or capital (as in the case of stocks and bonds), or a combination (for some buildings and equipment). Most personal, living, and family expenses are not deductible. Business deductions allowed for federal income tax are almost always allowed in determining state income tax. Only some states, however, allow itemized deductions for individuals. Some states also limit deductions by corporations for investment related expenses. Many states allow different amounts for depreciation deductions. State limitations on deductions may differ significantly from federal limitations. Business deductions in excess of business income result in losses that may offset other income. However, losses from passive activities may be deferred to the extent they exceed income from other passive activities. Passive activities include most rental activities (except for real estate professionals) and business activities in which the taxpayer does not materially participate. In addition, losses may not, in most cases, be deducted in excess of the taxpayer's amount at risk (generally tax basis in the entity plus share of debt). Personal deductions. Prior to 2018, individuals were allowed a special deduction called a personal exemption for dependents. This was not allowed after 2017. This was a fixed amount allowed each taxpayer, plus an additional fixed amount for each child or other dependents the taxpayer supports. The amount of this deduction was $4,000 for 2015. The amount is indexed annually for inflation. The amount of exemption was phased out at higher incomes through 2009 and after 2012 (no phase out in 2010–2012). Citizens and individuals with U.S. tax residence may deduct a flat amount as a standard deduction. This was $12,000 for single individuals and $24,000 for married individuals filing a joint return for 2018. Alternatively, they may claim itemized deductions for actual amounts incurred for specific categories of nonbusiness expenses. Expenses incurred to produce tax exempt income and several other items are not deductible. Home owners may deduct the amount of interest and property taxes paid on their principal and second homes. Local and state income taxes are deductible, or the individual may elect to deduct state and local sales tax. Contributions to charitable organizations are deductible by individuals and corporations, but the deduction is limited to 50% and 10% of gross income, respectively. Medical expenses in excess of 10% of adjusted gross income are deductible, as are uninsured casualty losses. Other income producing expenses in excess of 2% of adjusted gross income are also deductible. Before 2010, the allowance of itemized deductions was phased out at higher incomes. The phase out expired for 2010. Retirement savings and fringe benefit plans. Employers get a deduction for amounts contributed to a qualified employee retirement plan or benefit plan. The employee does not recognize income with respect to the plan until he or she receives a distribution from the plan. The plan itself is organized as a trust and is considered a separate entity. For the plan to qualify for tax exemption, and for the employer to get a deduction, the plan must meet minimum participation, vesting, funding, and operational standards. Examples of qualified plans include: Employees or former employees are generally taxed on distributions from retirement or stock plans. Employees are not taxed on distributions from health insurance plans to pay for medical expenses. Cafeteria plans allow employees to choose among benefits (like choosing food in a cafeteria), and distributions to pay those expenses are not taxable. In addition, individuals may make contributions to Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs). Those not currently covered by other retirement plans may claim a deduction for contributions to certain types of IRAs. Income earned within an IRA is not taxed until the individual withdraws it Capital gains. Taxable income includes capital gains. However, individuals are taxed at a lower rate on long term capital gains and qualifying dividends (see below). A capital gain is the excess of the sales price over the tax basis (usually, the cost) of capital assets, generally those assets not held for sale to customers in the ordinary course of business. Capital losses (where basis is more than sales price) are deductible, but deduction for long term capital losses is limited to the total capital gains for the year, plus for individuals up to $3,000 of ordinary income ($1,500 if married filing separately). An individual may exclude $250,000 ($500,000 for a married couple filing jointly) of capital gains on the sale of the individual's primary residence, subject to certain conditions and limitations. Gains on depreciable property used in a business are treated as ordinary income to the extent of depreciation previously claimed. In determining gain, it is necessary to determine which property is sold and the amount of basis of that property. This may require identification conventions, such as first-in-first-out, for identical properties like shares of stock. Further, tax basis must be allocated among properties purchased together unless they are sold together. Original basis, usually cost paid for the asset, is reduced by deductions for depreciation or loss. Certain capital gains are deferred; that is, they are taxed at a time later than the year of disposition. Gains on property sold for installment payments may be recognized as those payments are received. Gains on property exchanged for like kind property are not recognized, and the tax basis of the new property is based on the tax basis of the old property. Before 1986 and from 2004 onward, individuals were subject to a reduced rate of federal tax on capital gains (called long-term capital gains) on certain property held more than 12 months. The reduced rate of 15% applied for regular tax and the Alternative Minimum Tax through 2011. The reduced rate also applies to dividends from corporations organized in the United States or a country with which the United States has an income tax treaty. This 15% rate was increased to 20% in 2012. Beginning in 2013, capital gains above certain thresholds is included in net investment income subject to an additional 3.8% tax. Accounting periods and methods. The US tax system allows individuals and entities to choose their tax year. Most individuals choose the calendar year. There are restrictions on choice of tax year for some closely held entities. Taxpayers may change their tax year in certain circumstances, and such change may require IRS approval. Taxpayers must determine their taxable income based on their method of accounting for the particular activity. Most individuals use the cash method for all activities. Under this method, income is recognized when received and deductions taken when paid. Taxpayers may choose or be required to use the accrual method for some activities. Under this method, income is recognized when the right to receive it arises, and deductions are taken when the liability to pay arises and the amount can be reasonably determined. Taxpayers recognizing cost of goods sold on inventory must use the accrual method with respect to sales and costs of the inventory. Methods of accounting may differ for financial reporting and tax purposes. Specific methods are specified for certain types of income or expenses. Gain on sale of property other than inventory may be recognized at the time of sale or over the period in which installment sale payments are received. Income from long-term contracts must be recognized ratably over the term of the contract, not just at completion. Other special rules also apply. Other taxable and tax exempt entities. Partnerships and LLCs. Business entities treated as partnerships are not subject to income tax at the entity level. Instead, their members include their shares of income, deductions, and credits in computing their own tax. The character of the partner's share of income (such as capital gains) is determined at the partnership level. Many types of business entities, including limited liability companies (LLCs), may elect to be treated as a corporation or as a partnership. Distributions from partnerships are not taxed as dividends. Corporations. Corporate tax is imposed in the U.S. at the federal, most state, and some local levels on the income of entities treated for tax purposes as corporations. Shareholders of a corporation wholly owned by U.S. citizens and resident individuals may elect for the corporation to be taxed similarly to partnerships, as an S Corporation. Corporate income tax is based on taxable income, which is defined similarly to individual taxable income. Shareholders (including other corporations) of corporations (other than S Corporations) are taxed on dividend distributions from the corporation. They are also subject to tax on capital gains upon sale or exchange of their shares for money or property. However, certain exchanges, such as in reorganizations, are not taxable. Multiple corporations may file a consolidated return at the federal and some state levels with their common parent. Corporate tax rates. Federal corporate income tax is imposed at 21% from 2018. Dividend exclusions and certain corporation-only deductions may significantly lower the effective rate. Deductions for corporations. Most expenses of corporations are deductible, subject to limitations also applicable to other taxpayers. See relevant deductions for details. In addition, regular U.S. corporations are allowed a deduction of 100% of dividends received from 10% or more foreign subsidiaries, 50% of amounts included in income under section 951A and 37.5% of foreign branch income. Some deductions of corporations are limited at federal or state levels. Limitations apply to items due to related parties, including interest and royalty expenses. Estates and trusts. Estates and trusts may be subject to income tax at the estate or trust level, or the beneficiaries may be subject to income tax on their share of income. Where income must be distributed, the beneficiaries are taxed similarly to partners in a partnership. Where income may be retained, the estate or trust is taxed. It may get a deduction for later distributions of income. Estates and trusts are allowed only those deductions related to producing income, plus $1,000. They are taxed at graduated rates that increase rapidly to the maximum rate for individuals. The tax rate for trust and estate income in excess of $11,500 was 35% for 2009. Estates and trusts are eligible for the reduced rate of tax on dividends and capital gains through 2011. Tax-exempt entities. U.S. tax law exempts certain types of entities from income and some other taxes. These provisions arose during the late 19th century. Charitable organizations and cooperatives may apply to the IRS for tax exemption. Exempt organizations are still taxed on any business income. An organization which participates in lobbying, political campaigning, or certain other activities may lose its exempt status. Special taxes apply to prohibited transactions and activities of tax-exempt entities. Other tax items. Credits. The federal and state systems offer numerous tax credits for individuals and businesses. Among the key federal credits for individuals are: Businesses are also eligible for several credits. These credits are available to individuals and corporations, and can be taken by partners in business partnerships. Among the federal credits included in a "general business credit" are: In addition, a federal foreign tax credit is allowed for foreign income taxes paid. This credit is limited to the portion of federal income tax arising due to foreign source income. The credit is available to all taxpayers. Business credits and the foreign tax credit may be offset taxes in other years. States and some localities offer a variety of credits that vary by jurisdiction. States typically grant a credit to resident individuals for income taxes paid to other states, generally limited in proportion to income taxed in the other state(s). Alternative minimum tax. Taxpayers must pay the higher of the regular income tax or the alternative minimum tax (AMT). Taxpayers who have paid AMT in prior years may claim a credit against regular tax for the prior AMT. The credit is limited so that regular tax is not reduced below current year AMT. AMT is imposed at a nearly flat rate (20% for corporations, 26% or 28% for individuals, estates, and trusts) on taxable income as modified for AMT. Key differences between regular taxable income and AMT taxable income include: Special taxes. There are many federal tax rules designed to prevent people from abusing the tax system. Provisions related to these taxes are often complex. Such rules include: Special industries. Tax rules recognize that some types of businesses do not earn income in the traditional manner and thus require special provisions. For example, insurance companies must ultimately pay claims to some policy holders from the amounts received as premiums. These claims may happen years after the premium payment. Computing the future amount of claims requires actuarial estimates until claims are actually paid. Thus, recognizing premium income as received and claims expenses as paid would seriously distort an insurance company's income. Special rules apply to some or all items in the following industries: In addition, mutual funds (regulated investment companies) are subject to special rules allowing them to be taxed only at the owner level. The company must report to each owner his/her share of ordinary income, capital gains, and creditable foreign taxes. The owners then include these items in their own tax calculation. The fund itself is not taxed, and distributions are treated as a return of capital to the owners. Similar rules apply to real estate investment trusts and real estate mortgage investment conduits. International aspects. The United States imposes tax on all citizens of the United States, including those who are residents of other countries, and U.S. corporations. Federal income tax is imposed on citizens, residents, and U.S. corporations based on their worldwide income. To mitigate double taxation, a credit is allowed for foreign income taxes. This foreign tax credit is limited to that part of current year tax caused by foreign source income. Determining such part involves determining the source of income and allocating and apportioning deductions to that income. States tax resident individuals and corporations on their worldwide income, but few allow a credit for foreign taxes. In addition, federal income tax may be imposed on non-resident non-citizens, including corporations, on U.S. source income. Federal tax applies to interest, dividends, royalties, and certain other income of nonresident aliens and foreign corporations at a flat rate of 30%. This rate is often reduced under tax treaties. Foreign persons are taxed on income from a U.S. business and gains on U.S. realty similarly to U.S. persons. Nonresident aliens who are present in the United States for a period of 183 days in a given year are subject to U.S. capital gains tax on certain net capital gains realized during that year from sources within the United States. The states tax non-resident individuals only on income earned within the state (wages, etc. ), and tax individuals and corporations on business income apportioned to the state. The United States has income tax treaties with over 65 countries. These treaties reduce the chance of double taxation by allowing each country to fully tax its citizens and residents and reducing the amount the other country can tax them. Generally the treaties provide for reduced rates of tax on investment income and limits as to which business income can be taxed. The treaties each define which taxpayers can benefit from the treaty. Tax collection and examinations. Tax returns. Individuals (with income above a minimum level), corporations, partnerships, estates, and trusts must file annual reports, called tax returns, with federal and appropriate state tax authorities. These returns vary greatly in complexity level depending on the type of filer and complexity of their affairs. On the return, the taxpayer reports income and deductions, calculates the amount of tax owed, reports payments and credits, and calculates the balance due. Federal individual, estate, and trust income tax returns are due by April 15 (in 2017, April 18) for most taxpayers. Corporate and partnership federal returns are due two and one half months following the corporation's year end. Tax exempt entity returns are due four and one half months following the entity's year end. All federal returns may be extended, with most extensions available upon merely filing a single page form. Due dates and extension provisions for state and local income tax returns vary. Income tax returns generally consist of the basic form with attached forms and schedules. Several forms are available for individuals and corporations, depending on complexity and nature of the taxpayer's affairs. Many individuals are able to use the one page Form 1040-EZ, which requires no attachments except wage statements from employers (Forms W-2). Individuals claiming itemized deductions must complete Schedule A. Similar schedules apply for interest (B), dividends (B), business income (C), capital gains (D), farm income (F), and self-employment tax (SE). All taxpayers must file those forms for credits, depreciation, AMT, and other items that apply to them. Electronic filing of tax returns may be done for taxpayers by registered tax preparers. If a taxpayer discovers an error on a return, or determines that tax for a year should be different, the taxpayer should file an amended return. These returns constitute claims for refund if taxes are determined to have been overpaid. The IRS, state, and local tax authorities may examine a tax return and propose changes. Changes to tax returns may be made with minimal advance involvement by taxpayers, such as changes to wage or dividend income to correct errors. Other examination of returns may require extensive taxpayer involvement, such as an audit by the IRS. These audits often require that taxpayers provide the IRS or other tax authority access to records of income and deductions. Audits of businesses are usually conducted by IRS personnel at the business location. Changes to returns are subject to appeal by the taxpayer, including going to court. IRS changes are often first issued as proposed adjustments. The taxpayer may agree to the proposal, or may advise the IRS why it disagrees. Proposed adjustments are often resolved by the IRS and taxpayer agreeing to what the adjustment should be. For those adjustments to which agreement is not reached, the IRS issues a 30-day letter advising of the adjustment. The taxpayer may appeal this preliminary assessment within 30 days within the IRS. The Appeals Division reviews the IRS field team determination and taxpayer arguments, and often proposes a solution that the IRS team and the taxpayer find acceptable. Where agreement is still not reached, the IRS issues an assessment as a notice of deficiency or 90-day letter. The taxpayer then has three choices: file suit in United States Tax Court without paying the tax, pay the tax and sue for refund in regular court, or pay the tax and be done. Recourse to court can be costly and time-consuming, but is often successful. IRS computers routinely make adjustments to correct mechanical errors in returns. In addition, the IRS conducts an extensive document matching computer program that compares taxpayer amounts of wages, interest, dividends, and other items to amounts reported by taxpayers. These programs automatically issue 30-day letters advising of proposed changes. Only a very small percentage of tax returns are actually examined. These are selected by a combination of computer analysis of return information and random sampling. The IRS has long maintained a program to identify patterns on returns most likely to require adjustment. Procedures for examination by state and local authorities vary by jurisdiction. Tax collection. Taxpayers are required to pay all taxes owed based on the self-assessed tax returns, as adjusted. The IRS collection process allows taxpayers to in certain circumstances, and provides time payment plans that include interest and a "penalty" that is merely added interest. Where taxpayers do not pay tax owed, the IRS has strong means to enforce collection. These include the ability to levy bank accounts and seize property. Generally, significant advance notice is given before levy or seizure. However, in certain rarely used jeopardy assessments the IRS may immediately seize money and property. The IRS Collection Divisions are responsible for most collection activities. Withholding of tax. Persons paying wages or making certain payments to foreign persons are required to withhold income tax from such payments. Income tax withholding on wages is based on declarations by employees and tables provided by the IRS. Persons paying interest, dividends, royalties, and certain other amounts to foreign persons must also withhold income tax at a flat rate of 30%. This rate may be reduced by a tax treaty. These withholding requirements also apply to non-U.S. financial institutions. Additional backup withholding provisions apply to some payments of interest or dividends to U.S. persons. The amount of income tax withheld is treated as a payment of tax by the person receiving the payment on which tax was withheld. Employers and employees must also pay Social Security tax, the employee portion of which is also to be withheld from wages. Withholding of income and Social Security taxes are often referred to as payroll tax. Statute of limitations. The IRS is precluded from assessing additional tax after a certain period of time. In the case of federal income tax, this period is generally three years from the later of the due date of the original tax return or the date the original return was filed. The IRS has an additional three more years to make changes if the taxpayer has substantially understated gross income. The period under which the IRS may make changes is unlimited in the case of fraud, or in the case of failure to file a return. Penalties. Taxpayers who fail to file returns, file late, or file returns that are wrong, may be subject to penalties. These penalties vary based on the type of failure. Some penalties are computed like interest, some are fixed amounts, and some are based on other measures. Penalties for filing or paying late are generally based on the amount of tax that should have been paid and the degree of lateness. Penalties for failures related to certain forms are fixed amounts, and vary by form from very small to huge. Intentional failures, including tax fraud, may result in criminal penalties. These penalties may include jail time or forfeiture of property. Criminal penalties are assessed in coordination with the United States Department of Justice. History. Constitutional. Article I, Section 8, Clause 1 of the United States Constitution (the "Taxing and Spending Clause"), specifies Congress's power to impose "Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises", but Article I, Section 8 requires that, "Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States." The Constitution specifically stated Congress' method of imposing direct taxes, by requiring Congress to distribute direct taxes in proportion to each state's population "determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons". It has been argued that head taxes and property taxes (slaves could be taxed as either or both) were likely to be abused, and that they bore no relation to the activities in which the federal government had a legitimate interest. The fourth clause of section 9 therefore specifies that, "No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken." Taxation was also the subject of Federalist No. 33 penned secretly by the Federalist Alexander Hamilton under the pseudonym Publius. In it, he asserts that the wording of the "Necessary and Proper" clause should serve as guidelines for the legislation of laws regarding taxation. The legislative branch is to be the judge, but any abuse of those powers of judging can be overturned by the people, whether as states or as a larger group. The courts have generally held that direct taxes are limited to taxes on people (variously called "capitation", "poll tax" or "head tax") and property. All other taxes are commonly referred to as "indirect taxes," because they tax an event, rather than a person or property "per se." What seemed to be a straightforward limitation on the power of the legislature based on the subject of the tax proved inexact and unclear when applied to an income tax, which can be arguably viewed either as a direct or an indirect tax. Early federal income taxes. The first income tax suggested in the United States was during the War of 1812. The idea for the tax was based on the British Tax Act of 1798. The British tax law applied progressive rates to income. The British tax rates ranged from 0.833% on income starting at £60 to 10% on income above £200. The tax proposal was developed in 1814. Because the treaty of Ghent was signed in 1815, ending hostilities and the need for additional revenue, the tax was never imposed in the United States. In order to help pay for its war effort in the American Civil War, Congress imposed the first federal income tax in U.S. history through passage of the Revenue Act of 1861. The act created a flat tax of three percent on incomes above $800 ($ in current dollar terms). This taxation of income reflected the increasing amount of wealth held in stocks and bonds rather than property, which the federal government had taxed in the past. The Revenue Act of 1862 established the first national inheritance tax and added a progressive taxation structure to the federal income tax, implementing a tax of five percent on incomes above $10,000. Congress later further raised taxes, and by the end of the war, the income tax constituted about one-fifth of the revenue of the federal government. To collect these taxes, Congress created the Office of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue within the Treasury Department. The federal income tax would remain in effect until its repeal in 1872. In 1894, Democrats in Congress passed the Wilson-Gorman tariff, which imposed the first peacetime income tax. The rate was 2% on income over $4,000, which meant fewer than 10% of households would pay any. The purpose of the income tax was to make up for revenue that would be lost by tariff reductions. In 1895 the United States Supreme Court, in its ruling in "Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.," held a tax based on receipts from the use of property to be unconstitutional. The Court held that taxes on rents from real estate, on interest income from personal property and other income from personal property (which includes dividend income) were treated as direct taxes on property, and therefore had to be apportioned (divided among the states based on their populations). Since apportionment of income taxes is impractical, this had the effect of prohibiting a federal tax on income from property. However, the Court affirmed that the Constitution did not deny Congress the power to impose a tax on real and personal property, and it affirmed that such would be a direct tax. Due to the political difficulties of taxing individual wages without taxing income from property, a federal income tax was impractical from the time of the "Pollock" decision until the time of ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment (below). Progressive Era. For several years, the issue of an income tax lay unaddressed. In 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt revived the idea in his Sixth Annual Message to Congress. He said: There is every reason why, when next our system of taxation is revised, the National Government should impose a graduated inheritance tax, and, if possible, a graduated income tax. During the speech he cited the "Pollock" case without naming it specifically. The income tax became an issue again in Roosevelt's later speeches, including the 1907 State of the Union, and during the 1912 election campaign. Roosevelt's successor, William Howard Taft, also took up the issue of the income tax. Like Roosevelt, Taft cited the "Pollock" decision and gave a major speech in June 1909 regarding the Income Tax. One month later, Congress passed the resolution that would become the 16th Amendment. Ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment. In response, Congress proposed the Sixteenth Amendment (ratified by the requisite number of states in 1913), which states: The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. The Supreme Court in "Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad," , indicated that the amendment did not expand the federal government's existing power to tax income (meaning profit or gain from any source) but rather removed the possibility of classifying an income tax as a direct tax on the basis of the source of the income. The Amendment removed the need for the income tax to be apportioned among the states on the basis of population. Income taxes are required, however, to abide by the law of geographical uniformity. Some tax protesters and others opposed to income taxes cite what they contend is evidence that the Sixteenth Amendment was never properly ratified, based in large part on materials sold by William J. Benson. In December 2007, Benson's "Defense Reliance Package" containing his non-ratification argument which he offered for sale on the Internet, was ruled by a federal court to be a "fraud perpetrated by Benson" that had "caused needless confusion and a waste of the customers' and the IRS' time and resources". The court stated: "Benson has failed to point to evidence that would create a genuinely disputed fact regarding whether the Sixteenth Amendment was properly ratified or whether United States Citizens are legally obligated to pay federal taxes." "See also Tax protester Sixteenth Amendment arguments." Modern interpretation of the power to tax incomes. The modern interpretation of the Sixteenth Amendment taxation power can be found in "Commissioner v. Glenshaw Glass Co." . In that case, a taxpayer had received an award of punitive damages from a competitor for antitrust violations and sought to avoid paying taxes on that award. The Court observed that Congress, in imposing the income tax, had defined gross income, under the Internal Revenue Code of 1939, to include: gains, profits, and income derived from salaries, wages or compensation for personal service ... of whatever kind and in whatever form paid, or from professions, vocations, trades, businesses, commerce, or sales, or dealings in property, whether real or personal, growing out of the ownership or use of or interest in such property; also from interest, rent, dividends, securities, or the transaction of any business carried on for gain or profit, or gains or profits and income derived from any source whatever. The Court held that "this language was used by Congress to exert in this field the full measure of its taxing power", id., and that "the Court has given a liberal construction to this broad phraseology in recognition of the intention of Congress to tax all gains except those specifically exempted." The Court then enunciated what is now understood by Congress and the Courts to be the definition of taxable income, "instances of undeniable accessions to wealth, clearly realized, and over which the taxpayers have complete dominion." Id. at 431. The defendant in that case suggested that a 1954 rewording of the tax code had limited the income that could be taxed, a position which the Court rejected, stating: The definition of gross income has been simplified, but no effect upon its present broad scope was intended. Certainly punitive damages cannot reasonably be classified as gifts, nor do they come under any other exemption provision in the Code. We would do violence to the plain meaning of the statute and restrict a clear legislative attempt to bring the taxing power to bear upon all receipts constitutionally taxable were we to say that the payments in question here are not gross income. Tax statutes passed after the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 are sometimes referred to as the "modern" tax statutes. Hundreds of Congressional acts have been passed since 1913, as well as several codifications (i.e., topical reorganizations) of the statutes (see Codification). In "Central Illinois Public Service Co. v. United States", , the U.S. Supreme Court confirmed that wages and income are not identical as far as taxes on income are concerned, because income not only "includes" wages, but any "other" gains as well. The Court in that case noted that in enacting taxation legislation, Congress "chose not to return to the inclusive language of the Tariff Act of 1913, but, specifically, 'in the interest of simplicity and ease of administration,' confined the "obligation to withhold" [income taxes] to 'salaries, wages, and other forms of compensation for personal services'" and that "committee reports ... stated consistently that 'wages' meant remuneration 'if paid for services performed by an employee for his employer'". Other courts have noted this distinction in upholding the taxation not only of wages, but also of personal gain derived from "other" sources, recognizing some limitation to the reach of income taxation. For example, in "Conner v. United States", 303 F. Supp. 1187 (S.D. Tex. 1969), "aff'd in part and rev'd in part", 439 F.2d 974 (5th Cir. 1971), a couple had lost their home to a fire, and had received compensation for their loss from the insurance company, partly in the form of hotel costs reimbursed. The court acknowledged the authority of the IRS to assess taxes on all forms of payment, but did not permit taxation on the compensation provided by the insurance company, because unlike a wage or a sale of goods at a profit, this was not a gain. As the Court noted, "Congress has taxed income, not compensation". By contrast, other courts have interpreted the Constitution as providing even broader taxation powers for Congress. In "Murphy v. IRS", the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit upheld the federal income tax imposed on a monetary settlement recovery that the same court had previously indicated was not income, stating: "[a]lthough the 'Congress cannot make a thing income which is not so in fact,'... it can "label" a thing income and tax it, so long as it acts within its constitutional authority, which includes not only the Sixteenth Amendment but also Article I, Sections 8 and 9." Similarly, in "Penn Mutual Indemnity Co. v. Commissioner", the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit indicated that Congress could properly impose the federal income tax on a receipt of money, regardless of what that receipt of money is called: It could well be argued that the tax involved here [an income tax] is an "excise tax" based upon the receipt of money by the taxpayer. It certainly is not a tax on property and it certainly is not a capitation tax; therefore, it need not be apportioned. ... Congress has the power to impose taxes generally, and if the particular imposition does not run afoul of any constitutional restrictions then the tax is lawful, call it what you will. Income tax rates in history. Federal income tax rates. Federal and state income tax rates have varied widely since 1913. For example, in 1954, the federal income tax was based on layers of 24 income brackets at tax rates ranging from 20% to 91% (for a chart, see Internal Revenue Code of 1954). Below is a table of historical marginal income tax rates for married filing jointly tax payers at stated income levels. These income numbers are not the amounts used in the tax laws at the time. State, local and territorial income taxes. Income tax is also levied by most U.S. states and many localities on individuals, corporations, estates, and trusts. These taxes are in addition to federal income tax and are deductible for federal tax purposes. State and local income tax rates vary from 1% to 16% of taxable income. Some state and local income tax rates are flat (single rate) and some are graduated. State and local definitions of what income is taxable vary highly. Some states incorporate the federal definitions by reference. Taxable income is defined separately and differently for individuals and corporations in some jurisdictions. Some states impose alternative or additional taxes based on a second measure of income or capital. States and localities tend to tax all income of residents. States and localities only tax nonresidents on income allocated or apportioned to the jurisdiction. Generally, nonresident individuals are taxed on wages earned in the state based on the portion of days worked in the state. Many states require partnerships to pay tax for nonresident partners. Tax returns are filed separately for states and localities imposing income tax, and may be due on dates that differ from federal due dates. Some states permit related corporations to file combined or consolidated returns. Most states and localities imposing income tax require estimated payments where tax exceeds certain thresholds, and require withholding tax on payment of wages. Puerto Rico also imposes its own taxation laws; however, unlike in the states, only some residents there pay federal income taxes (though everyone must pay all other federal taxes). The other unincorporated territories of Guam, American Samoa, the Northern Mariana Islands and the Virgin Islands also impose their own income taxation laws, under a "mirror" tax law based on federal income tax law. Controversies. The complexity of the U.S. income tax laws. United States tax law attempts to define a comprehensive system of measuring income in a complex economy. Many provisions defining income or granting or removing benefits require significant definition of terms. Further, many state income tax laws do not conform with federal tax law in material respects. These factors and others have resulted in substantial complexity. Even venerable legal scholars like Judge Learned Hand have expressed amazement and frustration with the complexity of the U.S. income tax laws. In the article, "Thomas Walter Swan", 57 Yale Law Journal No. 2, 167, 169 (December 1947), Judge Hand wrote: In my own case the words of such an act as the Income Tax ... merely dance before my eyes in a meaningless procession: cross-reference to cross-reference, exception upon exception—couched in abstract terms that offer [me] no handle to seize hold of [and that] leave in my mind only a confused sense of some vitally important, but successfully concealed, purport, which it is my duty to extract, but which is within my power, if at all, only after the most inordinate expenditure of time. I know that these monsters are the result of fabulous industry and ingenuity, plugging up this hole and casting out that net, against all possible evasion; yet at times I cannot help recalling a saying of William James about certain passages of Hegel: that they were no doubt written with a passion of rationality; but that one cannot help wondering whether to the reader they have any significance save that the words are strung together with syntactical correctness. Complexity is a separate issue from flatness of rate structures. Also, in the United States, income tax laws are often used by legislatures as policy instruments for encouraging numerous undertakings deemed socially useful — including the buying of life insurance, the funding of employee health care and pensions, the raising of children, home ownership, and the development of alternative energy sources and increased investment in conventional energy. Special tax provisions granted for any purpose increase complexity, irrespective of the system's flatness or lack thereof. Proposals for changes of income taxation. Proposals have been made frequently to change tax laws, often with the backing of specific interest groups. Organizations making such proposals include Citizens for Tax Justice, Americans for Tax Reform, Americans for Tax Fairness, Citizens for an Alternative Tax System, Americans For Fair Taxation, and FreedomWorks. Various proposals have been put forth for tax simplification in Congress including the "Fair Tax Act" and various Flat tax plans. Alternatives. Proponents of a consumption tax argue that the income tax system creates perverse incentives by encouraging taxpayers to spend rather than save: a taxpayer is only taxed once on income spent immediately, while any interest earned on saved income is itself taxed. To the extent that this is considered unjust, it may be remedied in a variety of ways, e.g. excluding investment income from taxable income, making investments deductible and therefore only taxing them when gains are realized, or replacing the income tax by other forms of tax, such as a sales tax. Taxation vs. the states. Some economists believe income taxation offers the federal government a technique to diminish the power of the states, because the federal government is then able to distribute funding to states with conditions attached, often giving the states no choice but to submit to federal demands. Tax protestors. Numerous tax protester arguments have been raised asserting that the federal income tax is unconstitutional, including discredited claims that the Sixteenth Amendment was not properly ratified. All such claims have been repeatedly rejected by the federal courts as frivolous. Distribution. In the United States, a progressive tax system is employed which equates to higher income earners paying a larger percentage of their income in taxes. According to the IRS, the top 1% of income earners for 2008 paid 38% of income tax revenue, while earning 20% of the income reported. The top 5% of income earners paid 59% of the total income tax revenue, while earning 35% of the income reported. The top 10% paid 70%, earning 46% and the top 25% paid 86%, earning 67%. The top 50% paid 97%, earning 87% and leaving the bottom 50% paying 3% of the taxes collected and earning 13% of the income reported. From 1979 to 2007 the average federal income tax rate fell 110% for the second lowest quintile, 56% for the middle quintile, 39% for the fourth quintile, 8% for the highest quintile, and 15% for the top 1%, with the bottom quintile moving from a tax rate of zero to negative liability. Despite this, individual income tax revenue only dropped from 8.7 to 8.5% of GDP over that time, and total federal revenue was 18.5% of GDP in both 1979 and 2007, above the postwar average of 18%. Tax code changes have dropped millions of lower earning people from the federal income tax rolls in recent decades. Those with zero or negative liability who were not claimed as dependents by a payer increased from 14.8% of the population in 1984 to 49.5% in 2009. While there is consensus that overall federal taxation is progressive, there is dispute over whether progressivity has increased or decreased in recent decades, and by how much. The total effective federal tax rate for the top 0.01% of income earners declined from around 75% to around 35% between 1960 and 2005. Total effective federal tax rates fell from 19.1% to 12.5% for the three middle quintiles between 1979 and 2010, from 27.1% to 24% for the top quintile, from 7.5% to 1.5% for the bottom quintile, and from 35.1% to 29.4% for the top 1%. A 2008 OECD study ranked 24 OECD nations by progressiveness of taxes and separately by progressiveness of cash transfers, which include pensions, unemployment and other benefits. The United States had the highest "concentration coefficient" in income tax, a measure of progressiveness, before adjusting for income inequality. The United States was not at the top of either measure for cash transfers. Adjusting for income inequality, Ireland had the highest concentration coefficient for income taxes. In 2008, overall income tax rates for the US were below the OECD average. Effects on income inequality. According to the CBO, U.S. federal tax policies substantially reduce income inequality measured after taxes. Taxes became less progressive (i.e., they reduced income inequality relatively less) measured from 1979 to 2011. The tax policies of the mid-1980s were the least progressive period since 1979. Government transfer payments contributed more to reducing inequality than taxes. Social Insurance taxes (Social Security tax and Medicare tax, or FICA). The United States social insurance system is funded by a tax similar to an income tax. Social Security tax of 6.2% is imposed on wages paid to employees. The tax is imposed on both the employer and the employee. The maximum amount of wages subject to the tax for 2020 was/is $137,700. This amount is indexed for inflation. A companion Medicare Tax of 1.45% of wages is imposed on employers and employees, with no limitation. A self-employment tax in like amounts (totaling 15.3%) is imposed on self-employed persons. See also. Other federal taxation: US State taxes: Politics: General: Further reading. Government sources: Law & regulations: Texts: Monographs: Reference works (annual): Consumer publications (annual):

particular monetary state

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58422626

Northeast Syrtis is a region of Mars once considered by NASA as a landing site for the Mars 2020 rover mission. This landing site failed in the competition with Jezero crater, another landing site dozens of kilometers away from Northeast Syrtis. It is located in the northern hemisphere of Mars at coordinates 18°N,77°E in the northeastern part of the Syrtis Major volcanic province, within the ring structure of Isidis impact basin as well. This region contains diverse morphological features and minerals, indicating that water once flowed here. It may be an ancient habitable environment; microbes could have developed and thrived here. The layered terrain of Northeast Syrtis is unique on the surface of Mars, containing diverse aqueous minerals such as like clay, carbonate, serpentine and sulfate, as well as igneous minerals such as olivine and high-calcium and low-calcium pyroxene. Clay minerals form in the interaction between water and rock and sulfate minerals usually form through intense evaporation on Earth. Similar processes may happen on Mars forming these minerals, which strongly suggests a history of water and rock interaction. In addition, megabreccia, possibly the oldest material throughout this region (some blocks are over 100 m in diameter), could give an insight into the primary crust when Mars first formed. The location is an ideal site for studying the timing and evolution of the surface processes of Mars, such as huge impact basin formation, fluvial activity (valley networks, small outflow channels), groundwater activity, history of glaciation, and volcanic activity. Regional stratigraphy. The regional stratigraphy of Northeast Syrtis has been studied in detail. This area is sandwiched between a huge shield volcano—Syrtis Major—and one of largest impact basins in the solar system, and therefore could provide a key constraint of the timing of key events in the history of Mars. The stratigraphy can be divided into four major units, from young to old: The basement unit is one of newest units on Mars, recording early-stage evolution history of terrestrial planets. The change from carbonate to sulfate indicates a transition from alkaline-neutral to acid aqueous environments. Mars 2020 mission. The Mars 2020 rover launched in July 2020 with Atlas V rocket to reach Mars in February 2021. This rover inherits from the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity, with similar entry, descent, and landing systems, and the sky crane. Besides exploring a likely habitable site and searching for signs of past life, collecting scientifically compelling samples (rock and regolith) which could address fundamental scientific questions if returned to Earth, is the main goal of the Mars 2020 mission. The landing site's selection is the key part of this mission's success. Although Northeast Syrtis survived the cut in third Mars 2020 Landing Site Workshops, it failed final completion. The landing ellipse of Northeast Syrtis is 16 x 14 km and the smaller ellipse is 13.3 × 7.8 km with the help of advanced technologyTerrain-Relative Navigation (TRN). Region of interest. Mesa unit. The mesa is one of the interesting locations. It consists of five subunits: crater-retaining cap, boulder-shedding slopes exposing lightened blocks, olivine-carbonate unit, Fe/Mg-phyllosilicate, allowing easy to access diverse rocks. On the top of the mesa is a dark toned cap unit, composed of meter-scale boulders. It was interpreted as Hesperian Syrtis Major lava flows or lithified ash. These igneous rocks are suitable samples for acquiring the age of Martian geologic events, which could calibrate the planet dating method. Unlike Earth, planet dating mainly relies on crater counting, a method based on the assumption that the number of impact craters on a planet surface increases with the length of time that the surface has been exposed to space cratering, calibrated using the ages obtained by radiometric dating of samples of Luna and Apollo missions. The samples of this mission returned to Earth will be analyzed by state of the art equipment in laboratories. Igneous samples from Northeast Syrtis could provide four key time for Martian geology history, including (1) the timing of Isidis impact event, (2) the timing of emplacement of olivine-rich unit, (3) the timing of dark-toned mafic cap rock, (4) the timing of Syrtis lava flows, which would fundamentally improve human knowledge of early Mars and the early history of solar system, such as the late-heavy bombardment. This region exposes the largest high-olivine abundance rocks on Mars. The origin of high-olivine rock is still in debate. Impact cumulates or olivine-rich lava are two leading hypotheses. A portion of olivine rock was altered to carbonate. Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain the origin of carbonate, including a serpentine springs system. Carbonate is important sink of carbon, and is a crucial part of understanding the carbon cycle of Mars. Future sample return could shed light on the environmental conditions of carbonate. As well, the isotopic composition of carbonate through time, records the atmosphere loss, and it also reveals whether life once emerged on Mars. The lower part of mesa unit is the basement unit of the Northeast Syrtis region, consisting of Fe/Mg smectites and low calcium pyroxene. The basement unit was partially altered to form kaolinite. The kaolinite (Al-clay) usually overlying the Fe/Mg smectites across the Martian surface. Weathering in a warm climate or acid leaching are two domain interpretations of kaolinite formation. Megabreccia. Megabreccia occurs throughout the basement unit of Northeast Syrtis. The composition of these megabreccias is complex, including altered or mafic material. These megabreccias may be uplifted and exposed by the Isidis Basin forming event. The megabreccia could reveal the nature of the remnant of Mars's primary crust or the Noachian-aged low-calcium pyroxene lavas. It also could constrain the timing of Martian dynamo activity. Layer sulfate unit. Further to the south of the landing ellipse, there is a thick sequence of sulfate deposits capped by lava flows from the later Syrtis Major volcanic formation. The layer of sulfates include poly-hydrated sulphates and jarosite. Jarosite usually indicate oxidizing and acid (pH<4) environments. The occurrence of jarosite indicates that the environment changed from neutral/alkaline (as suggested by extensive Fe/Mg smectites and carbonate) to acid. The detection of sulfate adds more complexity to Martian geologic history.

best machinery

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=734369

A scientific enterprise is a science-based project developed by, or in cooperation with, a private entrepreneur. For example, in the Age of Exploration, leaders like Henry the Navigator founded schools of navigation, from which stemmed voyages of exploration. Examples of enterprising scientific organizations. Each organization listed below has the ability to conduct scientific research on an extended basis, involving multiple researchers over an extended time. Generally, the research is funded not only for the science itself, but for some application which shows promise for the enterprise. But the researchers, if left to their own choices, will tend to follow their research interest, which is essential for the long-term health of their chosen field. Note that a successful scientific enterprise is not equivalent to a successful high-tech enterprise or to a successful business enterprise, but that they form an ecology, a "food chain".

extensive stretch

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11221692

The Couple to Couple League is an international non-profit organization based in Cincinnati, Ohio, dedicated to teaching and promoting Natural Family Planning. Specifically, CCL promotes the sympto-thermal method of fertility awareness and also promotes exclusive and continued breastfeeding. CCL views natural family planning as "a way of life, not just a method of birth regulation," and includes moral and religious values from a Roman Catholic point of view in its publications and classes. History. The Couple to Couple League was founded in 1971 by John and Sheila Kippley, lay Catholics, with the help of Dr. Konald Prem. The League was the first organization to teach a symptoms-based method of fertility awareness that relied on all three primary fertility signs: temperature, mucus, and also cervical position. CCL has grown to be the largest natural family planning provider in the United States, teaching the symptothermal method to almost 8,000 couples in 2004. In addition to chapters throughout the United States, CCL has a presence in 23 other countries. CCL focuses on countries where English or Spanish is an official language. Structure. CCL has 16 paid employees, all working at their headquarters building in Cincinnati, Ohio. In 2006, financial rating organization Charity Navigator gave CCL a 4-star (highest) rating for "organizational efficiency", but due to several years of declining programming expenditures, only 1 star for "organizational capacity". CCL recruits married couples who are current members of the organization as "teaching couples." Teaching couples undergo training and a certification process at no cost to themselves. Teaching couples are required to agree with and live by the moral and religious beliefs advocated by CCL. While teaching couples are volunteers who receive no compensation, their students are charged a fee to cover materials used in the class, and a one-year membership with the Couple to Couple League. Membership includes a subscription to CCL's bimonthly magazine and counseling or assistance in interpreting sympto-thermal charts. Classes normally contain moral and religious content, but teachers will sometimes honor requests for private classes with no religious information. Publicity. CCL has volunteers called "Promoters" or "Public Relations Representatives" who work to increase the visibility of the organization. Like teachers, promoters are required to agree with and live by certain moral and religious requirements. "Family Foundations," a bimonthly magazine, is used as both a communication tool with CCL's current supporters, and as an evangelizing tool. CCL also uses the internet as a tool for spreading its message: in addition to "ccli.org", the url "birthcontrol.org" redirects to the organization's website. Systems taught. While CCL strongly encourages use of their symptothermal method, they also teach mucus-only and temperature-only systems. In addition, their materials contain information on a calendar-based method and a proposal for a cervical-position-only system. CCL believes that by teaching all these methods, couples have more freedom in choosing the natural method with which they feel the most comfortable. CCL also teaches and promotes "ecological breastfeeding", a stricter variant of LAM. Like LAM, ecological breastfeeding provides guidelines for identifying and extending the natural period of infertility caused by breastfeeding. The Seven Standards of ecological breastfeeding were developed by Sheila Kippley. The first edition of her book "Breastfeeding and Natural Child Spacing" was published in 1969. CCL was recognized as an authoritative source of information on breastfeeding amenorrhea in a magazine published by La Leche League, an international breastfeeding support organization. The popular fertility awareness writer Katie Singer has written about the important role Sheila Kippley and CCL have played in conducting and promoting research on lactational amenorrhea.

mode of relaying information

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65316949

Duncombe Place is a street in the city centre of York, in England. The street runs north-east from the junction of Blake Street, Museum Street and St Leonard's Place, to the front of York Minster, where Petergate, Minster Yard and Precentor's Court meet. It is the main approach to York Minster for visitors arriving from York railway station. History. The street was first mentioned in 1346 as Lop Lane, and it later became known as Little Blake Street. Initially a very narrow street, the eastern entrance to St Leonard's Hospital lay on its north-western side. It was widened in 1785 to 15 feet, and then in 1864 to more than 100 feet. This led to the demolition of most of the existing buildings on the street, but some survive on the north-west side. Elsewhere, landmark late-Victorian buildings now line the road. In 1880, it was renamed "Duncombe Place", after Augustus Duncombe, the Dean of York. The street has a long history of Catholic worship, with a house, probably 7 Little Blake Street, occupied by a priest as early as 1688, and by 1764, 170 Catholics were meeting in a chapel there, dedicated to St Wilfrid. In 1806, it was sold to the freemasons, but the York Oratory was built on the street in 1864, the city's main Catholic church. Architecture. Almost all the buildings on the street are listed. The north-west side is dominated by the York Oratory, the city's main Catholic church, the other buildings being the Red House, built in 1714; the 18th-century Theatre House, with some 13th-century masonry in its basement; and the Dean Court Hotel. On the south side lie the former York Dispensary; the Crown Buildings, originally the city's probate offices; and the York Masonic Hall. There is also a garden containing the city's Boer War Memorial. On the north-west side of the street is a listed K6 telephone kiosk.

primary way

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35713040

Mimesis criticism is a method of interpreting texts in relation to their literary or cultural models. Mimesis, or imitation ("imitatio"), was a widely used rhetorical tool in antiquity up until the 18th century's romantic emphasis on originality. Mimesis criticism looks to identify intertextual relationships between two texts that go beyond simple echoes, allusions, citations, or redactions. The effects of imitation are usually manifested in the later text by means of distinct characterization, motifs, and/or plot structure. As a critical method, mimesis criticism has been pioneered by Dennis MacDonald, especially in relation to New Testament and other early Christian narratives imitating the "canonical" works of Classical Greek literature. History. Aristotle. Greek rhetorician Aristotle (4th century ) discusses the rhetorical technique of mimesis or imitation; what Aristotle describes, however, is the author's imitation of nature, not earlier literary or cultural models. Philodemus. Philodemus of Gadara (1st century ), an Epicurean philosopher and poet and one of Virgil's teachers, affirms that writers of prose histories and fictions used literary models. He writes (rhetorically) in book five of "On Poetry", "Who would claim that the writing of prose is not reliant on the Homeric poems?" (5.30.36-31.) Dionysius of Halicarnassus. A Greek historian and rhetorician from the late first century /early first century , Dionysius of Halicarnassus represents a change from the Aristotelian rhetorical notion of mimesis, from imitation of nature's to imitation of literature. His most important work in this respect, "On Mimesis" (, "Perì mimēseōs"), survives only in fragments. Apparently, most of this work concerned the proper selection of literary models. Quintilian. Roman rhetorician M. Fabius Quintilianus published his twelve-volume "Institutio oratoria" around 95 . In book 10, Quintilian - who was well-read with respect to both Greek and Latin rhetoricians, including Dionysius - gives advice to teachers who are instructing students in oration. He tells them that, by the time students begin composition, they should be so well-versed in exemplary models that are able to imitate them without physically consulting them (10.1.5). Quintilian writes, For in everything which we teach examples are more effective even than the rules which are taught in the schools, so long as the student has reached a stage when he can appreciate such examples without the assistance of a teacher, and can rely on his own powers to imitate them. (10.1.15; Butler, LCL) He also advises that students constantly reread the exemplary models (10.1.19), not only in sections but all the way through (10.1.20), so that they might be empowered to imitate these models with more craft and subtlety. Of course, the selection of one's literary model is of the utmost importance. In Quintilian's opinion, one could find no better model than Homer, "for he has given us a model and an inspiration for very department of eloquence" (10.1.46; Butler, LCL). When it comes to the act of imitation itself, he writes, There can be no doubt that in art no small portion of our task lies in imitation, since, although invention came first and is all-important, it is expedient to imitate whatever has been invented with success. And it is a universal rule of life that we should wish to copy what we approve in others. It is for this reason that boys copy the shapes of letters that they may learn to write, and that musicians take the voices of their teachers, painters the works of their predecessors, and peasants the principles of agriculture which have been proved in practice, as models for their imitation. In fact, we may note that the elementary study of every branch of learning is directed by reference to some definite standard that is placed before the learner. (10.2.1-2; Butler, LCL) Furthermore, students are encouraged to "improve" upon their chosen models (10.2.12). One way for students to accomplish this task, Quintilian says, is to imitate several models in eclectic fashion: "We shall do well to keep a number of different excellences before our eyes, so that different qualities from different authors may impose themselves on our minds, to be adopted for use in the place that becomes them best" (10.2.26; Butler, LCL). On this point, Quintilian was at odds with Cicero, who felt it best for authors to imitate a single author. Criteria. In order to circumvent the capriciousness of subjectivity, MacDonald suggests six criteria for determining whether a claim for a mimetic connection between texts is reasonable: accessibility, analogy, density, order, distinctive traits, and interpretability. The first two criteria concern the status of the text used as a model ("ante-text"); the final four concern the later text that may have used the antetext. Mimesis in Early Christianity. New Testament. Two examples of imitation within the New Testament will be outlined. The first pertains to Luke's use of 1 Kings 17 as a literary model. The second outlines Luke's imitation of Homer's "Odyssey" 10-12 in Acts 20. One can justifiably argue that Luke used 1 Kings 17:9-24 as a model for Luke 7:11-16 because it meets the criteria of mimesis criticism. Criterion 1 (Accessibility): Luke cites this very story in Luke 4:25-26. Criterion 2 (Analogy): Mark provides an analogous imitation of 1 Kings 17 with his story about the raising of Jairus' daughter (Mark 5:35-43). Criteria 3 (Density), 4 (Order), and 5 (Distinctive Traits) can be identified in the above table. The most important aspect for criterion 5 is the identical Greek wording for "And he gave him to his mother." Criterion 6 (Interpretability): Luke improves upon his model in the following ways. In 1 Kings, the widow initiates the miracle by castigating Elijah for causing her son's death; in Luke, Jesus is the one to initiate the miracle. In 1 Kings, Elijah then reproaches God, asking if God has "brought calamity even upon the widow with whom I am staying, by killing her son" (17:20); in Luke, Jesus does not blame God for the boy's death but instead has compassion for her. In 1 Kings, it is the who raises the boy, not Elijah; in Luke, it is Jesus himself. In 1 Kings, only the widow responds to the miracle; in Luke, a "large crowd" responds positively. In the same way, one can justifiably argue that Luke has used the story of Elpenor from "Odyssey" 10-12 as a model for his account of Eutychus in Acts 20:5-12 using the criteria. Criterion 1 (Accessibility): Books 10-12 of "Odyssey" were among the most popular in antiquity. Criterion 2 (Analogy): Among the many imitations of these books in antiquity, Virgil's "Aeneid" contains two, the stories about Palinurus and Misenus. Criteria 3 (Density), 4 (Order), and 5 (Distinctive Traits) can be seen to be met by referring to the above table. Of particular significance is Luke's name choice: Homer often called Elpenor "unlucky" ("Odyssey" 11.61, 76, 80); Luke's Eutychus literally means "good fortune." Furthermore, the raising of Luke's Eutychus occurs in the Troad, the cite of the Trojan War. Criterion 6 (Interpretability): Luke emulates Homer in the following ways. Elpenor fell to his death because he was in a drunken stupor; Eutychus appeared to die after falling asleep (out a window) while listening to Paul preach deep into the night. Odysseus was unaware of Elpenor's misfortune; Paul knew immediately about Eutychus' fall and also that "his soul [was] still in him." Later in Homer's story, Elpenor's body was buried at dawn; at dawn, the other believers lifted up Eutychus alive. In addition to imitating the Septuagint and Homer's "Odyssey", MacDonald proposes that Mark's Gospel and Luke-Acts used the following literary models: Homer's "Iliad", several "Homeric Hymns", Euripides' "Bacchae" and "Madness of Heracles", and dialogues by Plato and Xenophon about Socrates. Christian Apocrypha. In his seminal work "Christianizing Homer:" The Odyssey", Plato, and" The Acts of Andrew, MacDonald argues that the second-century apocryphal work, the Acts of Andrew, was a Christian version of Homer's Iliad. Elsewhere, MacDonald has also argued for the presence of Homeric imitations in the Acts of Peter, another second-century apocryphal work. Controversy. Scholarly Opposition. Karl Olav Sandnes, the most vocal of MacDonald's critics, objects that MacDonald's "reading of both Mark's Gospel and Acts assumes a readership with an in-depth as well as extensive familiarity with the Homeric epics. This implies that the curriculum of encyclical studies had penetrated into the Christian movement to an extent which the present study has not confirmed. Ancient education was designed for the upper strata of the population." Thus, Sandnes argues deductively: Since such familiarity with Homer was limited to the upper stratum of society, and since the authors of Mark and Luke-Acts (nor their audiences) are not believed to belong to this stratum, then the authors of Mark and Luke-Acts simply "could not" have imitated Homer in the way MacDonald suggests. MacDonald's response has been threefold. First, a more sure decision about the education of the authors of Mark and Luke-Acts would result from an "inductive" approach to the question, rather than Sandnes' "deductive" approach. Second, access to Homer was "not" restricted to the cultural elite. According to a first-century CE writer, "From the earliest age, children beginning their studies are nursed on Homer's teaching. One might say that while we were still in swathing bands we sucked from his epics as from fresh milk. He assists the beginner and later the adult in his prime. In no stage of life, from boyhood to old age, do we ever cease to drink from him." Finally, MacDonald notes that Sandnes does not offer any other explanation for the parallels between the New Testament writings and Homer. Margaret M. Mitchell has also published a critical response to MacDonald's work on Homeric imitation within the New Testament. MacDonald addresses Mitchell's critiques, as well as earlier criticism from Sandnes, in an article titled, "My Turn: A Critique of Critics of 'Mimesis Criticism.'" Implications for Historicity of Jesus. MacDonald's arguments for the mimetic nature of the Gospel narratives have influenced how some view the question of the historicity of Jesus. Some have taken the extremist position that all of the Gospel narratives are exclusively the byproduct of the Evangelists' literary imagination, influenced by Homer and the Septuagintal narratives, and not historical memory. Perhaps this is due to a misunderstanding of MacDonald's claim that the Gospel of Mark was an "intentional fiction." MacDonald believes that such a stance is taking matters too far, although he himself holds to a minimalist view of the Historical Jesus. This debate is usually generated in non-academic circles, such as YouTube video blogs.

widely understood

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10698967

Tree wētā are wētā in the genus Hemideina of the family Anostostomatidae. The genus is endemic to New Zealand. There are seven species within the genus "Hemideina", found throughout the country except lowland Otago and Southland. Because many tree wētā species are common and widespread they have been used extensively in studies of ecology and evolution. Habitat. Tree wētā are commonly encountered in forests and suburban gardens throughout most of New Zealand. They are up to 40 mm long and most commonly live in holes in trees formed by beetle and moth larvae or where rot has set in after a twig has broken off. The hole, called a gallery, is maintained by the wētā and any growth of the bark surrounding the opening is chewed away. They readily occupy a preformed gallery in a piece of wood (a "wētā motel") and can be kept in a suburban garden as pets. A gallery might house a harem of up to 10 adult females and one male. Behaviour. Tree wētā are nocturnal and arboreal, hiding in hollow tree branches during the day and feeding at night. Their diet consists of leaves, flowers, fruit and small insects. Males have larger heads and stronger jaws than females, though both sexes will stridulate and bite when threatened. Species. The seven species of tree wētā are: The three North Island tree wētā species are closely related but each has a distinctive set of chromosomes (karyotype). When the territories of species overlap, as with the related species "H. femorata" and "H. ricta" on Banks Peninsula, they may interbreed, although offspring are sterile.

standard backyard

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5454085

This is a list of "Pokémon Trading Card Game" sets which is a collectible card game first released in Japan in 1996. As of September 2017, there were 74 card sets released in America and 68 in Japan. Collectively, there are 6,959 cards in the Japanese sets and 9,110 cards in the English sets. The large difference stems from non-holofoil duplicates of rare cards included in English sets that are not printed in Japanese sets. As of March 2017, 23.6 billion cards had been shipped worldwide. The sets are generally broken into two lists: one for the first line of Wizards of the Coast cards and the second after Nintendo's acquisition of the card game after Wizards. Wizards of the Coast. When the series first launched in English in late 1998, Wizards of the Coast handled publishing. First Generation Sets. 1998 Pokémon Demo Game Plastic Pack. The 1998 Pokémon Demo Game Pack was the earliest Pokémon card pack to be produced and released in the English Pokémon TCG and served as the first introduction to Pokémon cards in the United States. This Pokémon pack consists of 24 Base Set shadowless cards and an instruction guide manual in order to explain the rules and play the TCG. The 24 shadowless cards contained in order are; 1 Doduo, 2 Pikachu, 1 Machoke, 2 Machop, 1 Potion Trainer, 2 Lightning Energy, 3 Fighting Energy, 2 Nidoran, 1 Ponyta, 1 Charmeleon, 2 Charmander, 1 Switch Trainer, 2 Grass Energy and 3 Fire Energy cards. This card pack was printed and distributed in December 1998 to select retailers and at Magic: The Gathering (MTG) trading card shows as a limited production run. The remaining Pokémon Demo Game packs were given to guests and vendors at the annual E3 (Electronic Entertainment Expo) event which was held from May 13–15 in 1999. Since the Pokémon Demo Game Pack contains the first and oldest English cards it is considered the "Holy Grail" within the Pokémon TCG. This Pokémon pack is limited in quantity and predates all other Pokémon Set cards including the rare 1st Edition Base Set cards and shadowless holographic cards making these Demo Packs extremely valuable and collectable. This is known because the 1st Edition stamps were applied onto shadowless cards after the first print run batch of Shadowless cards and helps explain why shadowless holographic error cards existed after the first printing of Shadowless Card Demo Packs. As of 2021 there are only 61 in Total PSA Population and only 37 are graded PSA 10. It is estimated that between 100-200 of these Pokémon Demo Game Packs remain unopened based on scarce eBay auctions and internet sales. Pokémon Base Set. The Base Set, ( & 1st Starter & Expansion Pack) is the name given to the original core release of cards and Theme Decks for the Pokémon Trading Card Game. It was released in Japan on October 20, 1996, (one month after Bandai Pokemon Carddass 100 Pocket Monster Part 1 Green & Part 2 Red, September 1996), and in the United States on January 9, 1999. It is the only set and expansion so far not to have a set logo or symbol (with the exception of the error "no symbol" Jungle set cards). It is one of few sets to include Fighting, Fire, Grass, Lightning, Psychic and Water Energy cards, now commonly known as basic Energy cards. The set also contained Double Colorless Energy, the first special Energy card. The set is one of the more well-rounded sets available, with a mixed amount of Pokémon of all types, and includes only Pokémon from the original 150. Some of the more popular examples are Charizard, Blastoise, Venusaur and Pikachu. The set's four main theme decks were based on four different strategies (offensive, defensive, tactic and speed). This set also had a 2-player starter set, containing two half-sized decks with no intended strategy and a play mat. The "1st issue" print and a few of the following ("2nd issue") prints have a slightly different design than the standard "unlimited" ("3rd issue") prints. These early prints are generally brighter in color, use a thinner font, have the year 1999 appear twice in the copyright notice and lack the shadow around the pictures. Because of this, these cards are known as "shadowless" cards among collectors. Since not many prints were printed as "shadowless", these cards are rarer than the "unlimited" print. Cards printed right before the release of Base Set 2 have the year 2000 included in their copyright notices. These cards are known as "4th issue" cards, and are also rarer than the "unlimited" print. Certain "4th issue" cards have slightly brighter color than the other prints. Jungle. Jungle was the second expansion set in the United States, adding new Pokémon and one Trainer to the bunch, and was released on June 16, 1999. After being a very small set in Japan, the English set started the trend of having alternate holographic and non-holographic editions of rare cards, effectively doubling the number of rares in the set. Some cards featured were Pikachu, Gloom, and Victreebel. Unlike base, it had 2 preconstructed decks. The expansion symbol resembles a Vileplume and it has 64 cards. During the production some of the jungle holos were printed without the jungle symbol. These holos sell for higher than the amount normal jungle holos sell for. All 16 holos from the set have the no symbol error. The rarest card in the first edition jungle set is a 1st edition promo "Ivy Pikachu", which was mistakenly printed with the set. There are rumored to be only one in 10 booster boxes. Fossil. Fossil, released on October 8, 1999, is the third expansion set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game. Fossil contains the fewest cards of any standard set in the card game (62). Future sets would often use a gimmick to differentiate its cards from other sets. This set was known for its unfinished holofoil printing error of Zapdos and first TCG appearance of Ditto. Base Set 2. Base Set 2 is a compilation of selected cards from the previous Base Set And Jungle sets. Wizards of the Coast had a trend of releasing these compilation sets for most of the trading card game series they sold. This set, containing 130 cards, replaced the previous Base set, and all energy cards printed between base set 2's release and the gym heroes set were printed as base set 2 cards. It is identified by the symbol of a Pokéball with the number 2 running through it. Team Rocket. Team Rocket, released in April 2000, is the 5th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game. The title refers to a criminal organization from the video games "Pokémon Red", "Blue", and "Yellow", and also features the trio of Rockets known as Jessie, James, and Meowth, who relentlessly follow the protagonists in the anime. Its symbol is the R, which is the Team Rocket organization's symbol and can be seen on practically everything that comes from them. This set introduced the Dark Pokémon, Pokémon corrupted and controlled by the Team Rocket organization. After the release of this set, Dark Pokémon would not show a strong presence until the set's sequel released four years later, Team Rocket Returns. This is also the first set to include a card exclusive to the English-language version, though it was eventually released for the Japanese counterpart, as well. As part of a promotion, an American-only Dark Raichu can be found in this set, though it is the rarest card, as a "secret" card that numbered above the regular set number: "83/82". The card was also available in Australian sets. Gym Heroes. Gym Heroes, released on August 14, 2000, is the 6th set of 132 cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game. Its symbol is an amphitheatre with a black stage and white tiers. Its name comes from the "Gym" Leaders it focuses around and how these first four Gym Leaders have relatively optimistic and carefree personalities compared to those featured in Gym Challenge. This set also introduced a card layout change, eliminating the flavor text and stacking the weakness/resistance/level to fit the Gym Leader's headshot/badge. This is the first set to have Owner's Pokémon, the owners being the Gym Leaders of the various Pokémon Gyms around Kanto. While Sabrina and Blaine are also represented in this set, the most attention is paid to the first four met in the video games: Brock, Misty, Lt. Surge, and Erika. Each of their Pokémon reflect their favorite Pokémon types, as well as Pokémon they have been seen carrying in the TV show. For example, Brock specializes in the Rock-type, so a lot of his cards in the card game are Rock Pokémon. However, in the anime, he also carried a Vulpix, a Fire-type, which is also included in this set. Owner's Pokémon must be evolved from a Pokémon of the same owner, which also proved to be unpopular, as the element of mixing and matching cards from different sets is lost. Additionally, some of the "Rare" cards had little or no value in play, such as Misty's Tentacool, which is incapable of doing damage and is overshadowed by a better version of "Uncommon" rarity. However, Owner's Pokémon have been sporadically released in Japan, though except for those within EX Team Magma vs Team Aqua, none have been translated into English. This set was originally released with theme decks that contained cards not found in the main set in Japan, releasing in the odd rarities for Basic Pokémon. This set is also the first set to introduce Stadium cards, trainers that stay in play until another Stadium card comes into play. Gym Challenge. Gym Challenge, released on October 16, 2000, is the 7th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game. Its expansion symbol is an amphitheatre and black tiers, the inverse of the Gym Heroes symbol. It also has a set of 132 cards. Its name comes from the four Gym Leaders it focuses on (Sabrina, Koga, Blaine, and Giovanni). Second Generation Sets. Neo Genesis. Neo Genesis, released in October 2000, is the 8th set of 111 cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game. Its symbol is a pair of stars, one in front of the other. "Neo" is Greek for "new", and "Genesis" is Greek for "birth" or "beginning". Neo Genesis features second-generation Pokémon that come from the region of Johto and is the first set to do so. With it comes two new Pokémon types: Darkness and Metal, each with their own Energy cards. The design on the cards have also changed, now looking closer to the Japanese version. The hit points displayed on the upper-right is now smaller, and its color has changed from red to black. The statistics on the bottom of the card now have dune-shaped indentations in the background immediately behind each stat. The text reading "Basic Pokémon" is now directly under the HP (Hit Points) instead of the upper-left corner. The information about the Pokémon directly below the illustration is now in a parallelogram instead of a rectangle. Two cards from this set were banned from tournament play: Sneasel and Slowking. Controversial Japanese illustrations of the cards "Moo-Moo Milk", "Arcade Game", and "Card-Flip Game" were significantly changed in the English release. It was at this point the 2 different play formats were realized: Unlimited (allowing all cards to be played), and Limited where only the Neo Genesis cards could be played (this limited format would go through a few changes where as more sets were released where the rules were changed to "Neo Genesis and newer cards are allowed to be played in official tournaments" this would later be changed to be "only the 8 most recent sets are legal for tournament play"). At this point the idea of "proxy" cards became frequent at tournaments where an older card could be used as a placeholder for a card a player only had a single print of. Neo Discovery. Neo Discovery, released in June 2001, is the ninth set of 75 cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game. Its symbol is a Mayan temple. While the architectural structure of the ruins is ambiguous in the video games "Pokémon Gold", "Silver", and "Crystal", in "", they seem to be of Central or South American origin. Neo Discovery premieres many second-generation Pokémon into the card game, such as Smeargle, Politoed, and Wobbuffet. In a way, this makes it a counterpart to the Jungle set (which introduced another third of the original 150 Pokémon). The Unown are a Pokémon themed on the English alphabet. At the time of Neo Discovery's release, there were 26 types, one for each letter. (Later, Unown ? and Unown ! would be introduced, bringing the total to 28.) Neo Discovery introduced nine of these Pokémon into the card game. Each could affect the game in different ways related to a word starting with the letter the Unown represents. Unown "O" is associated with the word "observe", and this application in the card game is done through "observing" the opponent's deck. Southern Islands. Southern Islands is a set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game. In Japan, it was released at the same time as Gym 2, while in America it came after Neo Discovery and before Neo Revelation. This set's symbol is a palm tree. Though it is often considered the 10th set, it was actually a promotional set, sold as a complete collection in the form of a specially-packaged box (rather than as booster packs). The mini-set only contains a total of 18 cards. When arranged in the correct way, every illustration used in this set forms a single larger image. Neo Revelation. Shining [[Gyarados]] Neo Revelation, released in October 2001, is the 11th set of 64 cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game. Its symbol is a representation of the departure of Suicune, Entei and Raikou from the Burned Tower. As of the release of this set, there were at least one card of each of the 251 Pokémon, including the elusive Celebi. This set finishes the second generation with Pokémon like Porygon2, Misdreavus, and Raikou. In a way, this makes it a counterpart to the Fossil set (which rounded out the original set of 151 Pokémon). It also includes three more of the Unown introduced in Neo Discovery. Most importantly, this set was the debut of the Shiny Pokémon. Shining Pokémon are extremely powerful, but no more than one of each kind is allowed in a deck. This tradition was short-lived, however, as the Shining Pokémon were present only until the following set, Neo Destiny. However, Pokémon Star cards, which function almost identically to Shining Pokémon, were introduced in a later set known as EX Team Rocket Returns. Neo Destiny. Neo Destiny, released in February 2002, is the 12th set of 105 cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game. Its symbol is a blue sparkle above a white sparkle, possibly referring to the Dark and Light Pokémon within this set. This set almost completes the Unown alphabet started in Neo Discovery (R was left out, but was eventually given a card in another set years later. J was also left out, being a Promo). This set is the second set with an emphasis on Dark Pokémon, though unlike its predecessor, Team Rocket, these Dark Pokémon don't seem to have any influences. In this set and only this set, they are counterbalanced by Light Pokémon. Whereas Dark Pokémon have low hit points (health) and do a lot of damage, Light Pokémon have high Hit Points and have attacks and other abilities that revolve around support, such as healing damage. Legendary Collection. The Legendary Collection, released in May 2002, is the 13th set of 110 cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game. The set's symbol is a medal. The Legendary Collection is the sequel to Base Set 2, made up entirely of reprints from the first four sets: Base Set, Jungle, Fossil, and Team Rocket. Its purpose is to make these cards legal in tournament play; otherwise, these cards would be considered "too old." Thus, some people could claim this set to be a third "Base Set". The Legendary Collection is the first set to have a parallel set whose only difference is that shiny foil is printed on the entire front of the card except for its illustration (this isn't done in the regular set). Strangely, even though this set is an amalgamation of four sets, this set contains fewer cards than any of the following three. Expedition Base Set. Expedition Base Set, released in September 2002, is the 14th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game. Its symbol is a Poké Ball drawn to look like a lower-case "e". At 165 cards (330 if its parallel set is included). It is the first to use the e-Reader: By scanning a dot code found on the bottom of all of the cards and the sides of some, the e-Reader can display patterns, produce sounds, or other various novelties. However, none of these features are required for play. Subsequent sets, up until EX Hidden Legends, would also be compatible with the e-Reader. Because of its completely new format, this was thought to be a good time to balance the card game with less powerful versions of previously printed cards. For example, Energy Removal 2 serves an identical purpose to Energy Removal from the Base Set, except a coin must be flipped to determine if the effects are successful. However, this set also introduces the Supporter card, a type of Trainer card that now dominates competitive play. Aquapolis. Aquapolis, released in January 2003, is the 15th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and consists of 186 cards. Its symbol is a skyline within a water droplet. This set is the second of three to extensively use the e-Reader. Aquapolis introduces minigames playable by scanning in dot codes from multiple cards (in any order). These mini-games are usually very simple, and more often than not, each Pokémon whose card has been scanned in will play some role in the mini-game. While Technical Machines were dabbled upon in Expedition, Aquapolis is the set to make use of them. Technical Machines would be released sparingly from this point onward. The Aquapolis set was also the first Pokémon TCG set to utilize the "Crystal Type" Poké-power. This power was written on the Aquapolis cards Kingdra, Lugia, and Nidoking, all of which are holofoil. It essentially allows the player to attach a basic energy card to the Pokémon and have it become that type for the turn. Note that this power does not allow the player to attach an additional energy card per turn. Of the 186 cards, the first 32 were designated with an "H" before the number. The 33rd card started at number "1." Thus, the number sequence only goes up to 147 (the 3 "Crystal Types" take the number to 150/147). In addition, there were 4 cards that received 2 versions: Golduck (50a, 50b), Drowzee (74a, 74b), Mr. Mime (95a, 95b), and Porygon (103a, 103b). These cards are identical except for the data they show when swiped through the e-Reader. Skyridge. Skyridge, released in May 2003, is the 16th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game. Its symbol is a pair of mountains with a halo around the taller one. This is the last set published by Wizards of the Coast and has 182 cards. This set is the last of three to extensively use the e-Reader. Skyridge continues Aquapolis' tradition of minigames playable by scanning in dot codes from multiple cards. The Skyridge set was also the second and last set to contain Pokémon with the "Crystal Type" Poké-power. Characters in this set to use it were Celebi, Charizard, Crobat, Golem, Ho-oh, and Kabutops. These cards normally carry a much higher trade value on eBay and other online retailers than normal cards from this set. However, even normal cards from Skyridge are more valuable than normal cards from other sets, due to the fact that Skyridge booster packs were very hard to find compared to other sets. The numbering system for Skyridge is similar to that of Aquapolis. The first 32 cards begin with an "H" and the 33rd card starts the numbering at "1", and thus the number only goes up to 144. The 6 "Crystal Types" take it to 150/144. There are no "a" and "b" versions in Skyridge as there were in Aquapolis. The Pokémon Company. In July 2003, The Pokémon Company took the place of Wizards of the Coast as publisher for the cards. The first set published by Pokémon USA, Inc. was EX Ruby and Sapphire. Third Generation Sets. All of the Third Generation sets have "EX" in their name; this comes from the Pokémon EX present in these sets. EX Ruby and Sapphire. EX Ruby and Sapphire, released in July 2003, is the 17th set of 109 cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game. This set was the first set to be adapted into English by Pokémon USA, Inc. after the card game's rights transferred back from Wizards of the Coast. Its symbol is a jewel with a brilliant cut, viewed from above. It is named after the video games "Pokémon Ruby" and "Sapphire". This set introduces third-generation Pokémon and continues to be scannable by the e-Reader. However, the dot codes on the left side of the card are gone, replaced with a single dot code on the bottom. Unlike the cards in Expedition, Aquapolis, and Skyridge, however, this dot code produces only where to find the Pokémon in the video games instead of completely original Pokédex information. This set yet again changes the layout of the cards; except for the dot code at the bottom (which is now absent), it is exactly the same as the Japanese layout and is the format used up to this day. This set is also the first to have Pokémon-ex, Pokémon who are stronger than usual, but the rewards are doubled if a player can take one down. During its release, these Pokémon were exceedingly useful, but as more cards were released, the card game became increasingly stacked against Pokémon-ex. EX Sandstorm. EX Sandstorm, released on September 18, 2003, is the 18th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 2nd set released by Pokémon USA Inc. Its symbol is a pair of fossils: the Claw Fossil and the Root Fossil from the video games "Pokémon Ruby" and "Sapphire". It has a set of 100 cards. The "Sandstorm" name comes from the fact that the player must retrieve these fossils in the video game from within a sandstorm. == EX Sandstorm also continues to introduce third-generation Pokémon into the card game, with many desert-themed Pokémon, such as Cacnea and Vibrava, and thereof unrelated Pokémon, such as Zangoose and Sableye. This set brings back the Mysterious Fossil from the Fossil set and expands on it with the Claw Fossil, which can be made into Anorith, and the Root Fossil, which can be made into Lileep. The Mysterious Fossil plays the same role as before, which is to evolve it into Omanyte, Kabuto, or Aerodactyl. Other Pokémon from older generations return, such as Xatu from the second generation and Psyduck from the first. EX Dragon. EX Dragon, released in November 2003, is the 19th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 3rd set released by Pokémon USA. The set's symbol is a crosshair. This set numbers up to 97 cards, but there are 100 with the 3 secret cards, and its main emphasis is Dragon Pokémon. These usually appear as Colorless-type Pokémon, but they tend to use two or more different types of Energy (an example is Salamence, which uses Fire and Water Energy). Many of the Pokémon in EX Dragon made their debut in the set. Salamence, Flygon and Altaria are three of the Dragon Pokémon in the set – others, such as Latios, Latias, Dragonite and Rayquaza appear as Pokémon-EX. EX Dragon is the first set in the third generation of the Pokémon Trading Card Game to be based on Dragon Pokémon; the other set, EX Dragon Frontiers, is the penultimate set of the same generation. EX Team Magma vs Team Aqua. EX Team Magma vs Team Aqua, released in March 2004, is the 20th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 4th set released by Pokémon USA. The set's symbol is a maroon "X" that's slightly slanted, somewhat like a cut or a scar. This set contains 95 cards and was the last set to feature e-Reader compatibility. EX Hidden Legends. EX Hidden Legends, released in June 2004, is the 21st set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 5th set released by Pokémon USA. Its symbol is a trapezoid with six equally-spaced smaller dots surrounding it. This entire setup is within a solid white irregular hexagon. The "Hidden Legends" part refers to Regirock, Regice, and Registeel, Legendary Pokémon hidden away in stone structures. This set contains 101 different cards This set revolves around three concepts: Regirock, Regice, and Registeel, as mentioned above; Jirachi, a Legendary Pokémon with the power of wishes; and Pokémon 4Ever with the presence of Dark Celebi. This set also continues to introduce Pokémon into the card game. In addition to the Pokémon above, Beldum and its evolution line makes its debut. EX Fire Red and Leaf Green. EX Fire Red and Leaf Green, released in September 2004, is the 22nd set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 6th set released by Pokémon USA. Its symbol is an emblem of a black Pokéball. It came out around the time the Nintendo video games, Pokémon Fire Red and Leaf Green were released. The set had some extra cards: 113/112 Charmander, Box Topper; 114/112 Articuno ex, Secret ex; 115/112 Moltres ex, Secret ex; and 116/112 Zapdos ex, Secret ex. EX Team Rocket Returns. EX Team Rocket Returns, released in November 2004, is the 23rd set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 7th set released by Pokémon USA. Its symbol is an emblem of Team Rocket, a shield-like shape with a black bold R in the center. It has a set of 109. This emblem for Team Rocket is unusual as it appears nowhere else; the purpose of this emblem is probably to distinguish this set from the former Team Rocket set. This set also introduced Dark Pokémon Team Rocket as a criminal organization – its members, the Pokémon it controls, and the techniques it uses for world domination are all part of this set's theme. The Returns part is an indication that it's a sequel set to the Team Rocket set released four years earlier. This set introduced star Pokémon, which are shiny just like those of the Neo Revelations set. Only one of these Pokémon with the star symbol on the card next to the name may be present in a deck. EX Deoxys. EX Deoxys, released in February 2005, is the 24th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 8th set released by Pokémon USA. The set's symbol is a shooting star and has 107 cards. The set is named after the Pokémon Deoxys and also features Rayquaza, both of which were the featured legendary Pokémon in the seventh Pokémon movie, "". While the Pokémon in this set have little, if anything, to do with either of these two Pokémon, the set's Trainer cards feature people and places involved with astronomy in the "Pokémon Ruby", "Sapphire", and "Emerald" video games. EX Emerald. EX Emerald, released in May 2005, is the 25th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 9th set released by Pokémon USA. Its symbol is a gemstone, presumably an emerald. It has a set of 106 cards. Nintendo released six 15-card packs, known as Quick Construction Packs – one pack for each type of Basic Energy. The set is also composed of Japanese promos that were never brought outside Japan. Because of this, and the fact that most promos are viewed as "unplayable" in the competitive scene, this set was largely ignored, with exceptions to Medicham ex. EX Unseen Forces. EX Unseen Forces, released in August 2005, is the 26th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 10th set released by Pokémon USA. The set's symbol is a black silhouette of Ho-Oh's wing, superimposed on a white silhouette of Lugia's wing. it is a set of 115 cards, plus 2 secret cards (including the box topper), plus 28 Unowns. The set, which in Japan was named "GoldenSky and SilverSea", is set in Johto, and is the first set by Pokémon USA to mainly consist of Pokémon from the "Pokémon Gold" and "Silver" games, released in 2001. EX Unseen Forces is known for having more Pokémon-ex than any other set to date, with a total of fourteen (including one box topper and one secret rare card). EX Delta Species. EX Delta Species, released in October 2005, is the 27th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 11th set released by Pokémon USA. It contains 113 different cards. While this set was released after EX Legends hit in Japan, it was released before Legend Maker in English-language territories. The set, which in Japan was named "Researching Tower of Holon", is set in the research centre, Holon. Its logo/symbol is Holon Tower, a tower with a broad top floor. This set introduces rare "Delta Species" Pokémon, which are unusually unique types. For example, Tyranitar would typically be a Dark- or Fighting-type Pokémon, but in this set Tyranitar is a Metal/Fire dual-typed Pokémon. Dragonite would typically be a Colorless- Pokémon, but in this set Dragonite is a Metal/Lightning dual-typed Pokémon. It also introduces the staff of Holon Tower and their Pokémon. The Holon staff appears in the form of Supporter cards, all of which require a card to be discarded in order for them to be used, and Holon's Pokémon, which can be used as either Pokémon or as Energy cards. EX Legend Maker. EX Legend Maker, released in February 2006, is the 28th set of 92 cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 12th set released by Pokémon USA. The set, which in Japan was named "Eidolon Forest", is set in a forest in the middle of nowhere. Its symbol is a stylized forest, a white egg-shaped area with three black acute isosceles triangles. It received the name Legend Maker due to the inclusion of Mew. Due to a mix-up with translations, this was supposed to be released before EX Delta Species, but was delayed until February 2006 in English-language territories. This is considered by many to be a very good set, for several reasons – possibly for its similarity with Jungle and Fossil original expansions, or possibly for its exclusion of the complicated Delta Species Pokémon. EX Holon Phantoms. EX Holon Phantoms, released in May 2006, is the 29th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 13th set released by Pokémon USA. Its symbol is the Holon symbol, with three triangles around the sides. The set, which in Japan was named "Holon Phantom", is set in an undeveloped area of Holon. It marks the return of Delta Species Pokémon, after they debuted in EX Delta Species. This set contains 110 Cards in total. This set included cards such as Sharpedo, Nosepass, Torchic, and others that are selectively stamped with the EX Holon Phantoms logo. The back of the cards from this set also have a lighter back than other sets. EX Crystal Guardians. EX Crystal Guardians, released in July 2006, is the 30th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 14th set released by Pokémon USA. Its symbol is a sliver of a crystal. 100 cards are included in this set release. EX Dragon Frontiers. EX Dragon Frontiers, released in November 2006, is the 31st set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 15th set released by Pokémon USA. Its symbol is a pair of black mountains on a circular white background. It is a set of 101 cards. The set is based on an unknown set of islands far away, inhabited primarily by Dragon Pokémon. This set marks the final appearance of Delta Species Pokémon, and, strangely, almost every single Pokémon card is Delta Species. There are even "Delta Star" Pokémon, Mew and Charizard, whose type depends on their alternate color (Shiny form), which is, in this case, Water and Dark, respectively. This set introduces a new mechanic: Shockwave and Imprison markers. These markers are similar to special conditions, save that they can be applied to benched Pokémon and that they don't go away when the Pokémon retreats. Only three cards in the set use these markers, however: two Pokémon place the markers, and one Pokémon can remove them. EX Power Keepers. EX Power Keepers, released in February 2007, is the 32nd set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game. The symbol for this set is a road leading to a vanishing horizon on which the sun is either rising or setting. It is a set of 108 cards. It is the first set since EX Emerald to be released only outside Japan, and the first since EX Unseen Forces not to include Delta Species Pokémon. The set is loosely based on the Hoenn Elite Four, as all four members (Drake, Glacia, Phoebe and Sidney) have their own Stadium cards, and the Pokémon EX are all Pokémon owned by members of the Elite Four. The set also consists of several reprints of cards from older sets, and is the last third-generation set. Fourth Generation Sets. All of the Fourth Generation sets have the words "Diamond and Pearl", "Platinum", "HeartGold SoulSilver", or "Legends" in their names; this comes from the "Pokémon Diamond", "Pokémon Pearl", "Pokémon Platinum", "Pokémon HeartGold" and "Pokémon SoulSilver" video games present in these sets. Diamond and Pearl Base Set. Diamond and Pearl Base Set, released in May 2007, is the 33rd set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 17th set released by Pokémon USA. Its symbol is a circle in an upside-down pentagon. it is a set of 130 cards. The set is the first in English-language territories to include fourth-generation Pokémon; namely, those that first featured in the "Pokémon Diamond" and "Pearl" video games on the Nintendo DS. Several new rules were introduced to the Pokémon Trading Card Game with the release of "Diamond & Pearl Base Set" in Japan, and several changes have been made to the format of the cards; some of these changes were included on previous card formats, and others are brand new. One such change is the introduction of Pokémon LV.X, replacing the retired Pokémon-ex and Pokémon-"star" cards. This is also the first set in which Pokémon classified as Poison type in the video game series would be identified as Psychic rather than Grass type and the first set to include Pokémon cards with "energy-less attacks" denoted by a transparent effect where energy requirements would normally be. Basic Dark and Steel Energy cards are introduced in this set. Three holographic Pokémon cards from this set were released in tin sets a few weeks prior to the set's launch. These tins included a Tyranitar tin featuring a Turtwig, a Camerupt tin featuring a Chimchar and a Milotic tin featuring a Piplup. Diamond and Pearl – Mysterious Treasures. Diamond and Pearl – Mysterious Treasures, released in August 2007, is the 34th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 18th set released by Pokémon USA. Its symbol is a shiny jewel. The set introduces the Sinnoh Legendary trio, Uxie, Mesprit, and Azelf, as well as the fourth-generation Fossil Pokémon Rampardos and Bastiodon, both featured in their respective theme decks. The set also introduces "Pokémon with Item" cards, Pokémon cards with held items that work similarly to the Poké-Body mechanic. For this particular set, all held items are the berries found in the "Pokémon Diamond" and "Pearl" games. The set includes three new Pokémon LV.X and has a total of 124 cards. It is also the first set to include a secret card since EX Holon Phantoms. Diamond and Pearl – Secret Wonders. Diamond and Pearl – Secret Wonders released in November 2007, is the 35th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 19th set released by Pokémon USA. Its symbol is a whirlpool. The set includes several more "Pokémon with Item" cards: Pokémon cards with integrated Pokémon Tools, which include specific items from the "Pokémon Diamond" and "Pearl" games, such as the Moon Stone and Reaper Cloth evolution items. The set also includes two new Pokémon LV.X. and has 132 cards. Hidden treasures Set of 123 was created in 2007 Diamond and Pearl – Great Encounters. Diamond and Pearl – Great Encounters is the 36th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 20th set released by Pokémon USA, released in February 2008 and is the second-smallest Diamond and Pearl set to date, with 106 cards. Its symbol is a triskelion inside a hexagon. The set introduces Darkrai, an event Pokémon and legendary Pokémon featured alongside Dialga and Palkia in "". The set also features four more Pokémon LV.X. Diamond and Pearl – Majestic Dawn. Diamond and Pearl – Majestic Dawn, released in May 2008 is the 37th set of cards in the Pokémon Trading Card Game and the 21st set released by Pokémon USA. Its symbol is a rising sun coming over a hill, hence the name Majestic Dawn. It is the smallest Diamond and Pearl set to date with 100 cards. This set introduces Leafeon and Glaceon as two new evolutions of Eevee and includes four more Pokémon LV.X. Diamond and Pearl – Legends Awakened. Diamond and Pearl – Legends Awakened is the 38th set of cards of the Trading Card Game and the 22nd released by Pokémon USA, and was released in August 2008. The set reintroduces Technical Machines to the Trading Card Game and includes the last of the Pokémon card variants of Pokémon first seen in "Pokémon Diamond" and "Pearl" Video Games (excluding unreleased Shaymin and Arceus). The set includes seven Pokémon LV.X, more than any set thus far. Many great decks came out of LA LV.X cards, a prominent one being AMU. It is the fourth-largest set in the history of the TCG with 146 cards. Diamond and Pearl – Stormfront. Diamond and Pearl – Stormfront is the 39th set of cards of the Trading Card Game and the 23rd released by Pokémon USA, and was released in November 2008. Its symbol is a circle with a lightning bolt running through it. It is a set of 100 cards. The set reintroduced Pokémon of alternate coloration (better known as shiny Pokémon) and was the first set of the Diamond and Pearl series to reprint three "classic" cards from the first Trading Card Game expansions. The set includes eight Pokémon LV.X, two of which were also released as promotional cards. It also introduced trainer cards that can be used with another one at the same time. Platinum Base Set. Platinum Base Set is the 40th set of cards of the Trading Card Game and the 24th released by Pokémon USA. It was released on October 13, 2008 in Japan and in the United States on February 11, 2009. It introduces the never-before-seen Pokémon Shaymin and includes a new Trainer-specific variant of Pokémon known as Pokémon SP. The set also includes a new mechanic called the Lost Zone, which acts as a second discard pile but one from which players cannot retrieve cards. It features two theme decks, one built around Shaymin, "Flourish", and the other around Renegade Pokémon Giratina, "Rebellion". Platinum includes six Pokémon LV.X, two of which are Shaymin (one of Land Forme and one of Sky Forme), and 127 cards in total. The set includes 6 secret cards. Two of the Pokémon LV.X were released as promotional reprints with new artwork on March 2, 2009. The new Pokémon SP includes Team Galactic Pokémon like Dialga G. Platinum – Rising Rivals. Platinum – Rising Rivals is the 41st set of cards of the Trading Card Game and the 25th released by Pokémon USA. It is a set of 114 cards not including the 6 secret holofoil cards of the Pokémon Rotom. It expands on the recent creation of Pokémon SP (trainer-owned Pokémon) with Gym Leader's Pokémon and Elite Four's Pokémon. It was released on December 26, 2008, in Japan. It was released in the US on May 16, 2009. the cards from this set include Luxray GL LV.X, Lucian's Assignment, Gallade 4 LV.X, and a new version of Infernape LV.X. It was not reprinted, this Infernape is now in SP form, with different attacks and a Poke-Power. Some other LV.X include Alakazam LV.X and Snorlax LV.X. It also includes some hidden rares which are remakes of original cards from the first sets. They have as much value as a LV.X. They include the original Pikachu, Surfing Pikachu, and Flying Pikachu. The main Pokémon from this set is Rotom, which has many unique forms: Wash, Mow, Fan, Heat, and Frost Rotom. Platinum – Supreme Victors. Platinum – Supreme Victors is the 42nd set of cards of the Trading Card Game and the 26th released by Pokémon USA. It was released on March 6, 2009 in Japan and was released in the United States on August 19, 2009. It is a set of 147 cards. Its symbol is of 2 connected upside-down triangles. This set contains Frontier Brain Pokémon as well as the Champion's Pokémon. New LV.X Pokémon, like, Rayquaza C LV. X and Charizard G LV. X are also included. Platinum – Arceus. Platinum – Arceus is the 43rd set of cards of the Trading Card Game and the 27th released by Pokémon USA. Contains 99 different cards. It was released on July 5, 2008 in Japan and was released in North America on November 4, 2009. This set marks the TCG debut of the final Generation IV Pokémon, Arceus. All the Arceus Pokémon cards have a special rule printed on them which allows you to have any number of Pokémon with the name "Arceus" in your deck, as opposed to the normal 4-per deck rule. Six additional new Lv.Xs were included in this expansion, three of which being different forms of Arceus Lv. X, the other three being Gengar Lv. X, Salamence Lv. X and Tangrowth Lv. X. This expansion also marked the continuation of the "Shining" Pokémon which were featured through the Platinum booster series. Each of these cards had a different collector number sequence than the other cards in the expansion, which were Bagon (SH10) Ponyta (SH11) and Shinx (SH12). HeartGold SoulSilver Base Set. HeartGold SoulSilver Base Set is based on the Pokémon video games of the same title. This set has over 123 cards in it. It includes the new Pokémon Prime cards, which replace Lv.Xs. This set also features 2 Legend Pokémon which are one Pokémon made up of 2 cards. They are Ho-oh and Lugia. It has an Alph Lithograph in it. This set has 3 theme decks. HeartGold and SoulSilver – Unleashed. HeartGold and SoulSilver – Unleashed is the second Pokémon trading card game set based on the Pokémon games, "Pokémon HeartGold" and "SoulSilver". The set has a total of 95 cards, including Tyranitar (Prime), Steelix (Prime), Crobat (Prime), Kingdra (Prime), Lanturn (Prime), Ursaring (Prime), Entei and Raikou LEGEND, Raikou and Suicine LEGEND, and Suicine and Entei LEGEND. The set also features a Secret Rare card" Alph Lithograph. This one, unlike the one in the previous set, HGSS, allows the player to shuffle his deck. There are 4 versions of Alph Lithograph. HeartGold and SoulSilver – Unleashed is the first set to feature dual-Legend cards, which consist of two Pokémon on the same two-card Legend. However, these Pokémon, when Knocked Out, allow the opponent to draw 2 Prize Cards rather than 1. The set features Chaos Control (Tyranitar) and Steel Sentinel (Steelix) decks. HeartGold and SoulSilver – Undaunted. HeartGold and SoulSilver – Undaunted is the third Pokémon trading card game set based on the Pokémon games, "Pokémon HeartGold" and "SoulSilver". The set has a total of 90 cards, including Raichu (Prime), Houndoom (Prime), Espeon (Prime), Umbreon (Prime), Scizor (Prime), Slowking (Prime), Rayquaza and Deoxys LEGEND and Kyogre and Groudon LEGEND. The set also features a Secret Rare card: Alph Lithograph. This one allows the player to return any stadium in play to its owner's hand. Heartgold and Soulsilver Undaunted continues the trend of dual-Legend cards, Legend cards depicting 2 Pokémon that allow the opponent to draw 2 prize cards when Knocked Out. The starter decks for HGSS Undaunted are Nightfall, a dark/metal type deck featuring Umbreon, and Daybreak, a grass/psychic type deck featuring Espeon. With HGSS Undaunted came out there were two changes to the Starter Deck packaging: they now contain an additional booster pack from the set as well as a cardboard deckbox which can hold a 60-card unsleeved deck. HeartGold and SoulSilver – Triumphant. HeartGold and SoulSilver – Triumphant is the Fourth Pokémon trading card game set based on the Pokémon games, "Pokémon HeartGold" and "SoulSilver". The set has a total of 102 cards, including Absol (Prime), Celebi (Prime), Gengar (Prime), Electrode (Prime), Mew (Prime), Magnezone (Prime), Yanmega (Prime), Machamp (Prime), Darkrai/Cresselia LEGEND and Dialga/Palkia LEGEND. The set also features a Secret Rare card: Alph Lithograph. This one, unlike the ones in the previous sets, allows the player to look at all of their face down prize cards. Heartgold and Soulsilver Triumphant continues the trend of dual-Legend cards, Legends depicting 2 Pokémon that allow the opponent to draw 2 prize cards when Knocked Out. The starter decks for HGSS Triumphant are Royal Guard, a Psychic/Fighting type deck featuring Nidoking, and Verdant Frost, a grass/water type deck featuring Mamoswine. It is speculated to be the last Heartgold and Soulsilver set in America. The set contains cards from the Japanese set "Clash at the Summit" and the mini-set Lost Link. One card missing from the set is the Stadium "Lost World" which introduced a new win condition to the game in Japan. The card, along with the other cards missing from the Lost Link set were released in the next expansion, Call of Legends. Call of Legends. Call of Legends is a stand-alone English set of reprints and previously unreleased cards. Contains 95 different cards. Due to the extended time period between HeartGold and SoulSilver – Triumphant and the release of the 5th generation of Pokémon video games this set was released as a filler set. It contains reprints from the HeartGold and SoulSilver sets, as well as the remaining cards from the Japanese Lost Link set. In addition, it contains cards of legendary Pokémon in shiny and non-shiny forms. The shiny Pokémon are also known as Shiny Legendaries, and for example Shiny Suicune is number SL11. There are a total of 11 shiny Legendaries. Japanese Pokémon Heartgold and Soulsilver sets. When the Heartgold and Soulsilver Pokémon trading card lineup was released in Japan, it was done differently from in America. It also had an abnormally long waiting period in between the first and second sets. Heartgold and Soulsilver Collection. Heartgold and Soulsilver Collection is the first Japanese set based on the Heartgold and Soulsilver games. It has 140 cards in total, including the following special cards: Alph Lithograph, Ursaring Prime, Crobat Prime, Typhlosion Prime, Meganium Prime, Blissey Prime, Donphan Prime, Ampharos Prime, Feraligatr Prime, Lugia LEGEND, and Ho-Oh LEGEND. Starting from this set, the Trainer cards in Japan have been renamed Goods cards. It has been renamed in America as HeartGold SoulSilver, or HS. Heartgold and Soulsilver special decks. The Heartgold and Soulsilver special decks were released in between the releases of the first and second Heartgold and Soulsilver sets. Expert Deck: Leafeon vs. Metagross is a set of two 60-card decks (120 different cards) with a CD for online play. In addition to being more powerful than most theme decks, the Leafeon and Metagross decks have special cards that weren't released in any other Japanese sets. There are also Battle Starter decks, which were released with special cards only available to their specific deck. The decks are named Offense (fire types), Defense (grass types), Speed (electric types), and Skill (water types). Heartgold and Soulsilver Revived Legends. Heartgold and Soulsilver Revived Legends is the second Japanese set based on the Heartgold and Soulsilver games. It has 80 cards, including the following special cards: Tyranitar Prime, Steelix Prime, Lanturn Prime, Kingdra Prime, Entei & Raikou LEGEND, Suicune & Entei LEGEND, Raikou & Suicune LEGEND, and Alph Lithograph. It has been renamed HS Unleashed in the United States. Lost Link Mini-Series. Lost Link is a mini-set that features Mew Prime, Absol Prime, Gengar Prime, Darkrai and Cresselia LEGEND, and Magnezone Prime. The set has a total of 40 cards. In Japan, it was released on April 16. Though the boosters have 8 cards rather than 11 in Japan, they cost less than regular boosters. The special feature of the series is that it includes a Stadium called Lost World, which has a revolutionary effect. However, the mini-set will not be released in the United States, but instead will be combined with the cards from the Japanese set Clash at the Summit, to make HS Triumphant, which was released in the United States in early November. Fifth Generation Sets. All of the Fifth Generation sets have the words "Black and White" in their names; this comes from the "Pokémon Black" and "Pokémon White" video games present in these sets. The first set was released on April 6, 2011 and included codes that allowed purchasers to play online with an identical deck. Sixth Generation Sets. The sixth generation sets have "XY" in their names. This comes from the sixth generation video games "Pokémon X" and "Pokémon Y". Generations. Generations is an extra set in the X and Y series of Pokémon cards. This set features many reprints from recent and older sets, including the First and Second Generations. Slowpoke is a reprint from Fossil and the Tauros card uses the artwork from Jungle. Pokémon-EX and Pokémon BREAK are also printed with similar style to the First Generation Sets. Seventh Generation Sets. The seventh generation sets have "Sun & Moon" in their name. This comes from the seventh generation video games "Pokémon Sun" and "Moon". Sun & Moon – Shining Legends is an extra set in the "Sun & Moon" series of Pokémon cards. It was released on October 6, 2017, however, Pokémon Center Online had already released them if players pre-ordered from the website. This set brings back the Shining mechanics from the Second Generation sets (Neo series), with the Legendary Pokémon. Sun & Moon – Dragon Majesty is an expansion set released on September 7, 2018. The booster packs were sold as part of special collection boxes. The set features over 70 cards, including 6 Pokémon-GX cards, 2 Prism Star cards, and 6 full-art cards. Sun & Moon – Detective Pikachu is a mini set released on March 29, 2019. The booster packs were sold as part of special collection boxes. The set features 18 cards with artwork and attacks based on the "" film. Sun & Moon – Hidden Fates is a wild set released on August 23, 2019. For the first time, a Tag Team Pokémon GX trio card was released featuring the legendary birds of Articuno, Moltres, and Zapdos. Also, over 75 Pokémon are featured in their shiny forms including Charizard-GX and Mewtwo-GX. The set features over 150 cards, including 1 brand new Tag Team Pokémon-GX trio, 8 new Pokémon-GX cards, 15 trainer cards, and over 75 shiny Pokémon. Eighth generation sets. In conjunction with the launch of "Pokémon Sword" and "Shield", a new generation of cards has been announced. The Japanese sets were released on December 6, 2019 within the "Premium Trainer Box Sword & Shield", and the English version was released on February 7, 2020. Sword & Shield – Champion's Path is the first extra set in the Sword & Shield series of Pokémon cards. The first boxes for this set were released on September 25, 2020. Champion's Path contains over 70 cards with 15 Pokémon V cards, three Pokémon VMAX cards, and 19 trainer cards. Pokemon announced a special energy card earlier on, but this seems to not be the case. Prerelease cards. Prerelease cards are reprints of one selected card from an expansion with a foil "PRERELEASE" stamped on the bottom right corner of the card illustration. There are currently 79 cards of this kind in the Pokémon Trading Card Game dating from the release of the Jungle expansion in 1999 to the release of the Burning Shadows expansion in 2017. Wizards of the Coast first produced Prerelease cards when the Trading Card Game was first localized and were given to players of early test leagues. Prerelease cards were only awarded through select sites of the Pokémon League for the next three expansions before Wizards ended their production. After Pokémon USA acquired the rights to license and produce the Trading Card Game, Prerelease events were set up to coincide with the release of the upcoming expansions. In the United States, Prerelease events are held over two weekends prior to the commercial release of expansions. Officially, there were only four Prerelease cards produced by Wizards of the Coast. These cards were Clefable (1/64) from the Jungle Expansion, Aerodactyl (1/62) from the Fossil Expansion, Dark Gyarados (8/82) from the Team Rocket Expansion, and Misty's Seadra (9/132) from the Gym Heroes Expansion. However, during the printing of the Clefable Prerelease cards, several Base Set Raichu cards were added to the printing sheet and were stamped with a foil "PRERELEASE". The error was eventually corrected and the Raichu cards were either destroyed or given to Wizards of the Coast employees. Wizards of the Coast had denied existence of the Prerelease Raichu for years until an employee released an image of the card in 2006. Promotional cards. Throughout the course of the Trading Card Game, there have been many promotional cards released. There have been many error cards as well. Promotional cards have a star that indicates that they are promotional, and the "expansion" symbol is a five-pointed black star has the word "PROMO" written across as white or cloudy crystal. The first promotional set consisted of 53 cards in all with a 54th being a holographic Ancient Mew (which is not recognized as a promo card due to its nonconforming layout). 53 of the cards vary between holographic and normal, and encompass Pokémon and Trainer cards alike. The most famous of these is likely the card "Birthday Pikachu", for its uniqueness and scarcity. The second promotional set, called Best of Game, was also released by Wizards of the Coast. It included reverse holographic reprints of Hitmonchan and Electabuzz from the Base Set, Rocket's Hitmonchan and Rocket's Mewtwo from Gym Challenge, and Professor Elm from Neo Genesis. In addition, there were four new cards: Rocket's Sneasel and Rocket's Scizor from the Pokémon*VS Japanese expansion; and Dark Ivysaur and Dark Venusaur from the Pokémon Web Japanese expansion. Many were taken directly from Japanese cards, though there were a few that simply had alternate art of regular expansion cards. Most were obtainable through league or tournament play, while others were mail-in offers, or exclusive to certain retailers. There have also been "box toppers", special or secret cards that are included at the top of the booster packs in a booster box, as well as various "jumbo" cards, Skyridge for example, approximately four times the size of a regular card, and obviously not legal in play. Under Nintendo's publishing house, the third promotional set consisted of 40 cards. The release of these cards coincided with the Pokémon Organized Play (POP) packs, and as a result, are less well documented. They were obtainable in two-card booster packs, given for winning tournaments. The fourth promotional set is based on the Diamond & Pearl era card sets with 56 total cards. The fifth promotional set is based on the Heart Gold & Soul Silver era card sets with 25 total cards. The sixth promotional set is based on the Black & White era card sets with 101 total cards. The seventh promotional set is based on the X & Y era card sets with 211 total cards. The eighth promotional set is based on the Sun & Moon era card sets with 244 total cards. The ninth promotional set is based on the Sword & Shield era card sets and has over 65 total cards.

accessory collection

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12886823

"Now You Know" is the fourth season premiere episode of the American comedy-drama series, "Desperate Housewives", and the 71st episode overall. The episode premiered on American Broadcasting Company (ABC) on September 30, 2007. It was written by series creator Marc Cherry and directed by Larry Shaw. In the episode, Susan (Teri Hatcher) learns that she is expecting a child while Bree (Marcia Cross) continues to fake her own pregnancy. Gabrielle (Eva Longoria) begins an affair with her ex-husband, Carlos (Ricardo Antonio Chavira) and Lynette (Felicity Huffman) tries to conceal her cancer from her friends and children. The episode also introduces Katherine Mayfair (Dana Delany), Susan's old friend who returns to the neighborhood after being away for 12 years. "Now You Know" drew over 19 million viewers, becoming the fourth most watched program of the week across all networks. Nevertheless, it was the least watched "Desperate Housewives" season premiere at the time. The episode received positive reviews from critics, who agreed that the episode showed significant improvement over the show's third season. Critics also praised the addition of Delany to the cast. ABC and the show's producers received viewer backlash due to an alleged slur against Filipino doctors included in the episode. Plot. Background. "Desperate Housewives" focuses on the residents living in the suburban neighborhood of Wisteria Lane. In previous episodes, Bree Hodge (Marcia Cross) sends her pregnant teenage daughter, Danielle (Joy Lauren), to a convent and fakes her own pregnancy. Bree plans to raise Danielle's child as her own. Lynette Scavo (Felicity Huffman) is diagnosed with Hodgkin's lymphoma. Susan Mayer (Teri Hatcher) and Mike Delfino (James Denton) marry while Carlos Solis (Ricardo Antonio Chavira) breaks up with Edie Britt (Nicollette Sheridan), leading her to seemingly hang herself. Gabrielle Solis (Eva Longoria) marries Mayor Victor Lang (John Slattery); however, after overhearing him confess that he only married her to secure the Latino vote for his potential candidacy in the election for governor, she seeks comfort with Carlos, her ex-husband. Episode. Edie's suicide attempt is revealed to be a ploy to manipulate Carlos into staying in their relationship; however, when Carlos does not show up in time to rescue her, she almost dies. He brings her to the hospital and is forced to call off plans to run away with Gabrielle. One month later, former Wisteria Lane resident Katherine Mayfair (Dana Delany) moves back to the neighborhood after twelve years of absence with her husband, Adam (Nathan Fillion), and teenage daughter, Dylan (Lyndsy Fonseca). Katherine had known Susan before moving away under mysterious circumstances. Susan's daughter, Julie (Andrea Bowen), is puzzled to learn that Dylan has no recollection of their childhood friendship or of her life on Wisteria Lane. Later, in a cryptic conversation, Adam asks Katherine if they made a mistake in moving back, and Katherine reminds him that they did not have a choice. Lynette and her husband, Tom (Doug Savant), have been keeping her cancer a secret from their children and friends. She wears a wig to hide her baldness from the chemotherapy. Muriel (Julia Campbell), an uptight PTA mother, nags Lynette to organize a school event, forcing Lynette to reveal her illness to everyone. After recovering from her suicide attempt, Edie discovers that Carlos has $10 million in an offshore bank account. She promises he can trust her with the secret, just as she can trust him not to break her heart. Meanwhile, Victor confronts Gabrielle about her unwillingness to sell her house and commit to their marriage. Dissatisfied with their relationships, Carlos and Gabrielle reignite an affair. Bree and her husband, Orson (Kyle MacLachlan), find it increasingly difficult to stage her fake pregnancy. Their hoax is almost revealed at a neighborhood barbecue when a fork stabs her pregnancy stomach pads. Orson suggests coming clean to avoid the humiliation if their lies were to be discovered, but Bree tells him that this child is her second chance at successfully raising a child. Meanwhile, Susan worries that Mike is dissatisfied with their marriage, especially after Adam, her new gynecologist, reveals that she may be entering menopause. However, Adam later informs Susan that his earlier assessment was a mistake and that she is pregnant. Production. "Now You Know" was written by series creator Marc Cherry and directed by Larry Shaw. The episode featured the debut of Dana Delany as Katherine Mayfair, a former Wisteria Lane resident who moves back to the neighborhood. Cherry describes the character as "a woman who was clearly different in the past ... an alpha female who goes up against all-out women, especially Bree." Cherry developed Katherine with the intention of making her "a character everyone loves to hate," citing J. R. Ewing (Larry Hagman) from "Dallas" and Amanda Woodward (Heather Locklear) from "Melrose Place" as inspirations. Cherry ensured that character would have "a comedic point of view," unlike the Betty Applewhite (Alfre Woodard) character from the series' second season, stating: "In the second season we went to the mystery that was just kind of dark and stopped the action. [This time] we're using humor, drama, pathos, everything [the Mayfairs] have to offer." Delany auditioned for the role of Bree for the series' pilot episode in 2004. Cherry offered her the role three times, but she rejected it, and Marcia Cross was hired soon after. Delany turned down the role because she believed the Bree character was too similar to her character on "Pasadena". Cherry acknowledged that while Delany captured the slyness he had originally intended for the character, Cross ultimately became the better choice: "Marcia, who will be the first to tell you, 'I'm not funny, I never get the joke,' her Bree was kind of oblivious to her own Breeness. Interestingly enough, when we went forward with the show, it became a much funnier character than I envisioned." While developing the Katherine character, Cherry immediately offered the role to Delany. "That's unusual in Hollywood," Delany commented. "Usually when you say 'no,' they hold it against you for the rest of your career. I've experienced that." Cherry offered Nathan Fillion the role of Katherine's second husband, Adam. Fillion was asked to choose what type of doctor his character would be. He recalled, "I said I'd be a gynecologist so I could interact with all the women." Known mostly for his work in the sci-fi genre, Fillion considered his role on "Desperate Housewives" a return to his roots, as he had acted on the soap opera "One Life to Live" earlier in his career. Tuc Watkins auditioned for the role and was cast as Bob Hunter on the series a few weeks later. Lyndsy Fonseca joined the cast as Katherine's daughter, Dylan. Fonseca stated that her character's mother keeps Dylan "on a rigorous schedule and a short leash. Almost like a dog." The episode continued Lynette's cancer storyline, which Cherry intended to be both emotional and comical. He notes, "we established from very early on that she's suffering from non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, so we never once let the audience think she's going to die. It's more about examining how your friends and family react to you when you're sick." From this episode forward, a synthesized version of Danny Elfman’s theme is heard in the brief main title sequence, as arranged and performed by series composer Steve Jablonsky. Reception. Awards. Marcia Cross submitted this episode for consideration of her work for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series for the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards. She was placed in the Top 10, but did not garner a nomination. Viewership and ratings. According to ABC, "Now You Know" was watched by 19.32 million viewers. It held a 12.2 rating/18 share, the night's best rating across all networks, and placed as the fourth most-watched program of the week, behind "CSI" on CBS, and "Dancing with the Stars" and "Grey's Anatomy" on ABC. "Now You Know" was the least-watched season premiere of "Desperate Housewives" at the time, drawing about five million fewer viewers than the third season premiere a year earlier, a 23 percent decrease in viewership. According to "The New York Times", viewership was down due to an increase in DVR usage. Critical. "Entertainment Weekly" Tim Stack praised the Bree storyline, calling its scenes the best of the episode. He was critical of the Lynette storyline and highlighted its implausibility, calling it "a cop-out and just an excuse for drama." However, he appreciated the scene in which Lynette reveals her cancer to her friends. Stack enjoyed the addition of the Mayfair family, stating that although he was not a fan of Delany's acting, "seems perfect for this role and looks to be a choice adversary for Bree." He also praised the set-up for their mystery storyline. Stack was critical of the Edie character, opining: "She used to be funny and sexy, but now she's just a big loon." He dismissed Susan's storyline as "lame" and deemed the character "obnoxious." He also noted the significant absence of the Gabrielle character. Robert Bianco of "USA Today" declared that the show was "back in fine form." He called the episode amusing, opining that the episode "launched a plethora of promising stories while introducing welcome new residents Dana Delany and Nathan Fillion." "TV Guide" Matt Roush enjoyed the episode, complimenting the addition of the new cast members. Regarding the Katherine character, he wrote, "while she's obviously harboring a dark secret, at least there's no one trapped in the basement," referencing the Betty Applewhite storyline from the second season. He identified the Susan and Mike storyline as problematic, as "She's so annoying, and he's so boring." Roush also noted that Felicity Huffman was "making the most of her cancer storyline." Filipino controversy. Following the episode's broadcast, the show's producers and ABC were criticized for including an alleged racial slur in the episode. In the scene in which the Susan character is informed she may be entering menopause, she replies: "OK, before we go any further, can I check these diplomas? Just to make sure they aren't, like, from some med school in the Philippines?" Viewers called ABC to complain and an online petition had gathered 30,000 signatures by October 3, 2007, three days after the episode's original broadcast. Several politicians and medical professionals of Filipino descent, including Health Secretary Francisco Duque III on Manila, condemned ABC for airing the line. On October 4, ABC announced that the episode had been removed from online platforms in order for the line to be removed; the line was also removed from future broadcasts and DVD productions of the episode. Nevertheless, network boycotts and other forms of protest continued.

proceeding for the academy

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=624224

A getter is a deposit of reactive material that is placed inside a vacuum system, for the purpose of completing and maintaining the vacuum. When gas molecules strike the getter material, they combine with it chemically or by absorption. Thus the getter removes small amounts of gas from the evacuated space. The getter is usually a coating applied to a surface within the evacuated chamber. A vacuum is initially created by connecting a closed and tight container to a vacuum pump. After achieving a sufficient vacuum, the container can be sealed, or the vacuum pump can be left running. Getters are especially important in sealed systems, such as vacuum tubes, including cathode ray tubes (CRTs) and vacuum insulated panels, which must maintain a vacuum for a long time. This is because the inner surfaces of the container release adsorbed gases for a long time after the vacuum is established. The getter continually removes residues of a reactive gas, such as oxygen, as long as it is desorbed from a surface, or continuously penetrating in the system (tiny leaks or diffusion through a permeable material). Even in systems which are continually evacuated by a vacuum pump, getters are also used to remove residual gas, often to achieve a higher vacuum than the pump could achieve alone. Although it is often present in minute amounts and has no moving parts, a getter behaves in itself as a vacuum pump. It is an ultimate chemical sink for reactive gases. Getters cannot react with inert gases, though some getters will adsorb them in a reversible way. Also, hydrogen is usually handled by adsorption rather than by reaction. Types. To avoid being contaminated by the atmosphere, the getter must be introduced into the vacuum system in an inactive form during assembly, and activated after evacuation. This is usually done by heat. Different types of getter use different ways of doing this: Flashed getters. Flashed getters are prepared by arranging a reservoir of volatile and reactive material inside the vacuum system. After the system has been evacuated and sealed, the material is heated (usually by radio frequency induction heating). After evaporating, it deposits as a coating on the interior surfaces of the system. Flashed getters (typically made with barium) are commonly used in vacuum tubes. Most getters can be seen as a silvery metallic spot on the inside of the tube's glass envelope. Large transmission tubes and specialty systems often use more exotic getters, including aluminium, magnesium, calcium, sodium, strontium, caesium, and phosphorus. If the getter is exposed to atmospheric air (for example, if the tube breaks or develops a leak), it turns white and becomes useless. For this reason, flashed getters are only used in sealed systems. A functioning phosphorus getter looks very much like an oxidised metal getter, although it has an iridescent pink or orange appearance which oxidised metal getters lack. Phosphorus was frequently used before metallic getters were developed. In systems which need to be opened to air for maintenance, a titanium sublimation pump provides similar functionality to flashed getters, but can be flashed repeatedly. Alternatively, nonevaporable getters may be used. Those unfamiliar with sealed vacuum devices, such as vacuum tubes/thermionic valves, high-pressure sodium lamps or some types of metal-halide lamps, often notice the shiny flash getter deposit and mistakenly think it is a sign of failure or degradation of the device. Contemporary high-intensity discharge lamps tend to use non-evaporable getters rather than flash getters. Those familiar with such devices can often make qualitative assessments as to the hardness or quality of the vacuum within by the appearance of the flash getter deposit, with a shiny deposit indicating a good vacuum. As the getter is used up, the deposit often becomes thin and translucent, particularly at the edges. It can take on a brownish-red semi-translucent appearance, which indicates poor seals or extensive use of the device at elevated temperatures. A white deposit, usually barium oxide, indicates total failure of the seal on the vacuum system, as shown in the fluorescent display module depicted above. Activation. The typical flashed getter used in small vacuum tubes "(seen in 12AX7 tube, top)" consists of a ring-shaped structure made from a long strip of nickel, which is folded into a long, narrow trough, filled with a mixture of barium azide and powdered glass, and then folded into the closed ring shape. The getter is attached with its trough opening facing upward toward the glass, in the specific case depicted above. During activation, while the bulb is still connected to the pump, an RF induction heating coil connected to a powerful RF oscillator operating in the 27 MHz or 40.68 MHz ISM band is positioned around the bulb in the plane of the ring. The coil acts as the primary of a transformer and the ring as a single shorted turn. Large RF currents flow in the ring, heating it. The coil is moved along the axis of the bulb so as not to overheat and melt the ring. As the ring is heated, the barium azide decomposes into barium vapor and nitrogen. The nitrogen is pumped out and the barium condenses on the bulb above the plane of the ring forming a mirror-like deposit with a large surface area. The powdered glass in the ring melts and entraps any particles which could otherwise escape loose inside the bulb causing later problems. The barium combines with any free gas when activated and continues to act after the bulb is sealed off from the pump. During use, the internal electrodes and other parts of the tube get hot. This can cause adsorbed gases to be released from metallic parts, such as anodes (plates), grids, or non-metallic porous parts, such as sintered ceramic parts. The gas is trapped on the large area of reactive barium on the bulb wall and removed from the tube. Non-evaporable getters. "Non-evaporable getters", which work at high temperature, generally consist of a film of a special alloy, often primarily zirconium; the requirement is that the alloy materials must form a passivation layer at room temperature which disappears when heated. Common alloys have names of the form St (Stabil) followed by a number: In tubes used in electronics, the getter material coats plates within the tube which are heated in normal operation; when getters are used within more general vacuum systems, such as in semiconductor manufacturing, they are introduced as separate pieces of equipment in the vacuum chamber, and turned on when needed. Deposited and patterned getter material is being used in microelectronics packaging to provide an ultra-high vacuum in a sealed cavity. To enhance the getter pumping capacity, the activation temperature must be maximized, considering the process limitations. It is, of course, important not to heat the getter when the system is not already in a good vacuum.

unconfined vapors

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3444072

In mathematical optimization, the push–relabel algorithm (alternatively, preflow–push algorithm) is an algorithm for computing maximum flows in a flow network. The name "push–relabel" comes from the two basic operations used in the algorithm. Throughout its execution, the algorithm maintains a "preflow" and gradually converts it into a maximum flow by moving flow locally between neighboring nodes using "push" operations under the guidance of an admissible network maintained by "relabel" operations. In comparison, the Ford–Fulkerson algorithm performs global augmentations that send flow following paths from the source all the way to the sink. The push–relabel algorithm is considered one of the most efficient maximum flow algorithms. The generic algorithm has a strongly polynomial time complexity, which is asymptotically more efficient than the Edmonds–Karp algorithm. Specific variants of the algorithms achieve even lower time complexities. The variant based on the highest label node selection rule has time complexity and is generally regarded as the benchmark for maximum flow algorithms. Subcubic time complexity can be achieved using dynamic trees, although in practice it is less efficient. The push–relabel algorithm has been extended to compute minimum cost flows. The idea of distance labels has led to a more efficient augmenting path algorithm, which in turn can be incorporated back into the push–relabel algorithm to create a variant with even higher empirical performance. History. The concept of a preflow was originally designed by Alexander V. Karzanov and was published in 1974 in Soviet Mathematical Dokladi 15. This pre-flow algorithm also used a push operation; however, it used distances in the auxiliary network to determine where to push the flow instead of a labeling system. The push-relabel algorithm was designed by Andrew V. Goldberg and Robert Tarjan. The algorithm was initially presented in November 1986 in STOC '86: Proceedings of the eighteenth annual ACM symposium on Theory of computing, and then officially in October 1988 as an article in the Journal of the ACM. Both papers detail a generic form of the algorithm terminating in along with a sequential implementation, a implementation using dynamic trees, and parallel/distributed implementation. A explained in Goldberg-Tarjan introduced distance labels by incorporating them into the parallel maximum flow algorithm of Yossi Shiloach and Uzi Vishkin. Concepts. Definitions and notations. Let: and The push–relabel algorithm uses a nonnegative integer valid labeling function which makes use of "distance labels", or "heights", on nodes to determine which arcs should be selected for the push operation. This labeling function is denoted by . This function must satisfy the following conditions in order to be considered valid: In the algorithm, the label values of and are fixed. is a lower bound of the unweighted distance from to in   if is reachable from . If has been disconnected from , then is a lower bound of the unweighted distance from to . As a result, if a valid labeling function exists, there are no paths in   because no such paths can be longer than . An arc   is called admissible if . The admissible network is composed of the set of arcs   that are admissible. The admissible network is acyclic. Operations. Initialization. The algorithm starts by creating a residual graph, initializing the preflow values to zero and performing a set of saturating push operations on residual arcs exiting the source, . Similarly, the labels are initialized such that the label at the source is the number of nodes in the graph, , and all other nodes are given a label of zero. Once the initialization is complete the algorithm repeatedly performs either the push or relabel operations against active nodes until no applicable operation can be performed. Push. The push operation applies on an admissible out-arc of an active node in . It moves units of flow from to . push(u, v): assert xf[u] > 0 and 𝓁[u] == 𝓁[v] + 1 Δ = min(xf[u], c[u][v] - f[u][v]) f[u][v] += Δ f[v][u] -= Δ xf[u] -= Δ xf[v] += Δ A push operation that causes to reach is called a saturating push since it uses up all the available capacity of the residual arc. Otherwise, all of the excess at the node is pushed across the residual arc. This is called an unsaturating or non-saturating push. Relabel. The relabel operation applies on an active node without any admissible out-arcs in . It modifies to be the minimum value such that an admissible out-arc is created. Note that this always increases and never creates a steep arc, which is an arc such that , and . relabel(u): assert xf[u] > 0 and 𝓁[u] <= 𝓁[v] for all v such that cf[u][v] > 0 𝓁[u] = 1 + min(𝓁[v] for all v such that cf[u][v] > 0) Effects of push and relabel. After a push or relabel operation, remains a valid labeling function with respect to . For a push operation on an admissible arc , it may add an arc to , where ; it may also remove the arc from , where it effectively removes the constraint . To see that a relabel operation on node preserves the validity of , notice that this is trivially guaranteed by definition for the out-arcs of "u" in . For the in-arcs of in , the increased can only satisfy the constraints less tightly, not violate them. The generic push–relabel algorithm. The generic push–relabel algorithm is used as a proof of concept only and does not contain implementation details on how to select an active node for the push and relabel operations. This generic version of the algorithm will terminate in . Since , , and there are no paths longer than in , in order for to satisfy the valid labeling condition must be disconnected from . At initialisation, the algorithm fulfills this requirement by creating a pre-flow that saturates all out-arcs of , after which is trivially valid for all . After initialisation, the algorithm repeatedly executes an applicable push or relabel operation until no such operations apply, at which point the pre-flow has been converted into a maximum flow. generic-push-relabel(G, c, s, t): create a pre-flow f that saturates all out-arcs of s let 𝓁[s] = |V| while there is an applicable push or relabel operation do execute the operation Correctness. The algorithm maintains the condition that is a valid labeling during its execution. This can be proven true by examining the effects of the push and relabel operations on the label function . The relabel operation increases the label value by the associated minimum plus one which will always satisfy the constraint. The push operation can send flow from to if . This may add to and may delete from . The addition of to will not affect the valid labeling since . The deletion of from removes the corresponding constraint since the valid labeling property only applies to residual arcs in . If a preflow and a valid labeling for exists then there is no augmenting path from to in the residual graph . This can be proven by contradiction based on inequalities which arise in the labeling function when supposing that an augmenting path does exist. If the algorithm terminates, then all nodes in are not active. This means all have no excess flow, and with no excess the preflow obeys the flow conservation constraint and can be considered a normal flow. This flow is the maximum flow according to the max-flow min-cut theorem since there is no augmenting path from to . Therefore, the algorithm will return the maximum flow upon termination. Time complexity. In order to bound the time complexity of the algorithm, we must analyze the number of push and relabel operations which occur within the main loop. The numbers of relabel, saturating push and nonsaturating push operations are analyzed separately. In the algorithm, the relabel operation can be performed at most times. This is because the labeling value for any node "u" can never decrease, and the maximum label value is at most for all nodes. This means the relabel operation could potentially be performed times for all nodes (i.e. ). This results in a bound of for the relabel operation. Each saturating push on an admissible arc removes the arc from . For the arc to be reinserted into for another saturating push, must first be relabeled, followed by a push on the arc , then must be relabeled. In the process, increases by at least two. Therefore, there are saturating pushes on , and the total number of saturating pushes is at most . This results in a time bound of for the saturating push operations. Bounding the number of nonsaturating pushes can be achieved via a potential argument. We use the potential function (i.e. is the sum of the labels of all active nodes). It is obvious that is initially and stays nonnegative throughout the execution of the algorithm. Both relabels and saturating pushes can increase . However, the value of must be equal to 0 at termination since there cannot be any remaining active nodes at the end of the algorithm's execution. This means that over the execution of the algorithm, the nonsaturating pushes must make up the difference of the relabel and saturating push operations in order for to terminate with a value of 0. The relabel operation can increase by at most . A saturating push on activates if it was inactive before the push, increasing by at most . Hence, the total contribution of all saturating pushes operations to is at most . A nonsaturating push on always deactivates , but it can also activate as in a saturating push. As a result, it decreases by at least . Since relabels and saturating pushes increase , the total number of nonsaturating pushes must make up the difference of . This results in a time bound of for the nonsaturating push operations. In sum, the algorithm executes relabels, saturating pushes and nonsaturating pushes. Data structures can be designed to pick and execute an applicable operation in time. Therefore, the time complexity of the algorithm is . Example. The following is a sample execution of the generic push-relabel algorithm, as defined above, on the following simple network flow graph diagram. In the example, the and values denote the label and excess , respectively, of the node during the execution of the algorithm. Each residual graph in the example only contains the residual arcs with a capacity larger than zero. Each residual graph may contain multiple iterations of the loop. The example (but with initial flow of 0) can be run here interactively. Practical implementations. While the generic push–relabel algorithm has time complexity, efficient implementations achieve or lower time complexity by enforcing appropriate rules in selecting applicable push and relabel operations. The empirical performance can be further improved by heuristics. "Current-arc" data structure and discharge operation. The "current-arc" data structure is a mechanism for visiting the in- and out-neighbors of a node in the flow network in a static circular order. If a singly linked list of neighbors is created for a node, the data structure can be as simple as a pointer into the list that steps through the list and rewinds to the head when it runs off the end. Based on the "current-arc" data structure, the discharge operation can be defined. A discharge operation applies on an active node and repeatedly pushes flow from the node until it becomes inactive, relabeling it as necessary to create admissible arcs in the process. discharge(u): while xf[u] > 0 do if current-arc[u] has run off the end of neighbors[u] then relabel(u) rewind current-arc[u] else let (u, v) = current-arc[u] if (u, v) is admissible then push(u, v) let current-arc[u] point to the next neighbor of u Active node selection rules. Definition of the discharge operation reduces the push–relabel algorithm to repeatedly selecting an active node to discharge. Depending on the selection rule, the algorithm exhibits different time complexities. For the sake of brevity, we ignore and when referring to the nodes in the following discussion. FIFO selection rule. The FIFO push–relabel algorithm organizes the active nodes into a queue. The initial active nodes can be inserted in arbitrary order. The algorithm always removes the node at the front of the queue for discharging. Whenever an inactive node becomes active, it is appended to the back of the queue. The algorithm has time complexity. Relabel-to-front selection rule. The relabel-to-front push–relabel algorithm organizes all nodes into a linked list and maintains the invariant that the list is topologically sorted with respect to the admissible network. The algorithm scans the list from front to back and performs a discharge operation on the current node if it is active. If the node is relabeled, it is moved to the front of the list, and the scan is restarted from the front. The algorithm also has time complexity. Highest label selection rule. The highest-label push–relabel algorithm organizes all nodes into buckets indexed by their labels. The algorithm always selects an active node with the largest label to discharge. The algorithm has time complexity. If the lowest-label selection rule is used instead, the time complexity becomes . Implementation techniques. Although in the description of the generic push–relabel algorithm above, is set to zero for each node "u" other than and at the beginning, it is preferable to perform a backward breadth-first search from to compute exact labels. The algorithm is typically separated into two phases. Phase one computes a maximum pre-flow by discharging only active nodes whose labels are below . Phase two converts the maximum preflow into a maximum flow by returning excess flow that cannot reach to . It can be shown that phase two has time complexity regardless of the order of push and relabel operations and is therefore dominated by phase one. Alternatively, it can be implemented using flow decomposition. Heuristics are crucial to improving the empirical performance of the algorithm. Two commonly used heuristics are the gap heuristic and the global relabeling heuristic. The gap heuristic detects gaps in the labeling function. If there is a label for which there is no node such that , then any node with has been disconnected from and can be relabeled to immediately. The global relabeling heuristic periodically performs backward breadth-first search from in to compute the exact labels of the nodes. Both heuristics skip unhelpful relabel operations, which are a bottleneck of the algorithm and contribute to the ineffectiveness of dynamic trees. Sample implementations. void push(const int * const * C, int ** F, int *excess, int u, int v) { int send = MIN(excess[u], C[u][v] - F[u][v]); F[u][v] += send; F[v][u] -= send; excess[u] -= send; excess[v] += send; void relabel(const int * const * C, const int * const * F, int *height, int u) { int v; int min_height = INFINITE; for (v = 0; v < NODES; v++) { if (C[u][v] - F[u][v] > 0) { min_height = MIN(min_height, height[v]); height[u] = min_height + 1; void discharge(const int * const * C, int ** F, int *excess, int *height, int *seen, int u) { while (excess[u] > 0) { if (seen[u] < NODES) { int v = seen[u]; if ((C[u][v] - F[u][v] > 0) && (height[u] > height[v])) { push(C, F, excess, u, v); } else { seen[u] += 1; } else { relabel(C, F, height, u); seen[u] = 0; void moveToFront(int i, int *A) { int temp = A[i]; int n; for (n = i; n > 0; n--) { A[n] = A[n-1]; A[0] = temp; int pushRelabel(const int * const * C, int ** F, int source, int sink) { int *excess, *height, *list, *seen, i, p; excess = (int *) calloc(NODES, sizeof(int)); height = (int *) calloc(NODES, sizeof(int)); seen = (int *) calloc(NODES, sizeof(int)); list = (int *) calloc((NODES-2), sizeof(int)); for (i = 0, p = 0; i < NODES; i++){ if ((i != source) && (i != sink)) { list[p] = i; p++; height[source] = NODES; excess[source] = INFINITE; for (i = 0; i < NODES; i++) push(C, F, excess, source, i); p = 0; while (p < NODES - 2) { int u = list[p]; int old_height = height[u]; discharge(C, F, excess, height, seen, u); if (height[u] > old_height) { moveToFront(p, list); p = 0; } else { p += 1; int maxflow = 0; for (i = 0; i < NODES; i++) maxflow += F[source][i]; free(list); free(seen); free(height); free(excess); return maxflow; void printMatrix(const int * const * M) { int i, j; for (i = 0; i < NODES; i++) { for (j = 0; j < NODES; j++) printf("%d\t",M[i][j]); printf("\n"); int main(void) { int **flow, **capacities, i; flow = (int **) calloc(NODES, sizeof(int*)); capacities = (int **) calloc(NODES, sizeof(int*)); for (i = 0; i < NODES; i++) { flow[i] = (int *) calloc(NODES, sizeof(int)); capacities[i] = (int *) calloc(NODES, sizeof(int)); // Sample graph capacities[0][1] = 2; capacities[0][2] = 9; capacities[1][2] = 1; capacities[1][3] = 0; capacities[1][4] = 0; capacities[2][4] = 7; capacities[3][5] = 7; capacities[4][5] = 4; printf("Capacity:\n"); printMatrix(capacities); printf("Max Flow:\n%d\n", pushRelabel(capacities, flow, 0, 5)); printf("Flows:\n"); printMatrix(flow); return 0; def relabel_to_front(C, source: int, sink: int) -> int: n = len(C) # C is the capacity matrix F = [[0] * n for _ in range(n)] # residual capacity from u to v is C[u][v] - F[u][v] height = [0] * n # height of node excess = [0] * n # flow into node minus flow from node seen = [0] * n # neighbours seen since last relabel # node "queue" nodelist = [i for i in range(n) if i != source and i != sink] def push(u, v): send = min(excess[u], C[u][v] - F[u][v]) F[u][v] += send F[v][u] -= send excess[u] -= send excess[v] += send def relabel(u): # Find smallest new height making a push possible, # if such a push is possible at all. min_height = ∞ for v in xrange(n): if C[u][v] - F[u][v] > 0: min_height = min(min_height, height[v]) height[u] = min_height + 1 def discharge(u): while excess[u] > 0: if seen[u] < n: # check next neighbour v = seen[u] if C[u][v] - F[u][v] > 0 and height[u] > height[v]: push(u, v) else: seen[u] += 1 else: # we have checked all neighbours. must relabel relabel(u) seen[u] = 0 height[source] = n # longest path from source to sink is less than n long excess[source] = ∞ # send as much flow as possible to neighbours of source for v in range(n): push(source, v) p = 0 while p < len(nodelist): u = nodelist[p] old_height = height[u] discharge(u) if height[u] > old_height: nodelist.insert(0, nodelist.pop(p)) # move to front of list p = 0 # start from front of list else: p += 1 return sum(F[source]) References. [[Category:Network flow problem]] [[Category:Graph algorithms]]

most significant factor