text stringlengths 2 132k | source dict |
|---|---|
0 , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Delta j&=0,\\[1.2ex]\Delta \left(vj^{2}+p\right)&=0,\\[1.2ex]\Delta h^{t}&=0,\end{aligned}}} where h t {\displaystyle h^{t}} is the specific total enthalpy. These are the usually expressed in the convective variables: Δ j = 0 , Δ ( u 2 v + p ) = 0 , Δ ( e + 1 2 u 2 + p v ) = 0 , {\di... | {
"page_id": 396022,
"source": null,
"title": "Euler equations (fluid dynamics)"
} |
v ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}u^{2}(v,p)&=u_{0}^{2}+(p-p_{0})(v_{0}+v),\\[1.2ex]e(v,p)&=e_{0}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}(p+p_{0})(v_{0}-v).\end{aligned}}} The Hugoniot equation, coupled with the fundamental equation of state of the material: e = e ( v , p ) , {\displaystyle e=e(v,p),} describes in general in the pressure v... | {
"page_id": 396022,
"source": null,
"title": "Euler equations (fluid dynamics)"
} |
{F} \cdot {\hat {n}}\,ds\,dt=\mathbf {0} .} Now by defining the node conserved quantity: y m , n ≡ 1 V m ∫ V m y ( r , t n ) d V , {\displaystyle \mathbf {y} _{m,n}\equiv {\frac {1}{V_{m}}}\int _{V_{m}}\mathbf {y} (\mathbf {r} ,t_{n})\,dV,} we deduce the finite volume form: y m , n + 1 = y m , n − 1 V m ∫ t n t n + 1 ∮... | {
"page_id": 396022,
"source": null,
"title": "Euler equations (fluid dynamics)"
} |
) m ( s − s 0 ) ( v 0 v ) γ − 1 , {\displaystyle e(v,s)=e_{0}e^{(\gamma -1)m\left(s-s_{0}\right)}\left({v_{0} \over v}\right)^{\gamma -1},} where e {\displaystyle e} is the specific energy, v {\displaystyle v} is the specific volume, s {\displaystyle s} is the specific entropy, m {\displaystyle m} is the molecular mass... | {
"page_id": 396022,
"source": null,
"title": "Euler equations (fluid dynamics)"
} |
}={\begin{pmatrix}u&-v&0\\0&u&v\\0&\gamma p&u\end{pmatrix}}.} === Steady flow in material coordinates === In the case of steady flow, it is convenient to choose the Frenet–Serret frame along a streamline as the coordinate system for describing the steady momentum Euler equation: u ⋅ ∇ u = − 1 ρ ∇ p , {\displaystyle {\b... | {
"page_id": 396022,
"source": null,
"title": "Euler equations (fluid dynamics)"
} |
∂ p ∂ n ( ∂ / ∂ n ≡ e n ⋅ ∇ ) , 0 = − 1 ρ ∂ p ∂ b ( ∂ / ∂ b ≡ e b ⋅ ∇ ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\displaystyle u{\frac {\partial u}{\partial s}}&=-{\frac {1}{\rho }}{\frac {\partial p}{\partial s}},\\\displaystyle {u^{2} \over R}&=-{\frac {1}{\rho }}{\frac {\partial p}{\partial n}}&({\partial /\partial n}\equiv... | {
"page_id": 396022,
"source": null,
"title": "Euler equations (fluid dynamics)"
} |
curvature theorem". This "theorem" explains clearly why there are such low pressures in the centre of vortices, which consist of concentric circles of streamlines. This also is a way to intuitively explain why airfoils generate lift forces. == Exact solutions == All potential flow solutions are also solutions of the Eu... | {
"page_id": 396022,
"source": null,
"title": "Euler equations (fluid dynamics)"
} |
Quantum photoelectrochemistry is the investigation of the quantum mechanical nature of photoelectrochemistry, the subfield of study within physical chemistry concerned with the interaction of light with electrochemical systems, typically through the application of quantum chemical calculations. Quantum photoelectrochem... | {
"page_id": 48630521,
"source": null,
"title": "Quantum photoelectrochemistry"
} |
Matrix metalloproteinase 15 also known as MMP15 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the MMP15 gene. == Function == Proteins of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family are involved in the breakdown of extracellular matrix in normal physiological processes, such as embryonic development, reproduction, and tissue ... | {
"page_id": 21760762,
"source": null,
"title": "MMP15"
} |
The far-western blot, or far-western blotting, is a molecular biological method based on the technique of western blot to detect protein-protein interaction in vitro. Whereas western blot uses an antibody probe to detect a protein of interest, far-western blot uses a non-antibody probe which can bind the protein of int... | {
"page_id": 5638908,
"source": null,
"title": "Far-western blot"
} |
Hilbert C*-modules are mathematical objects that generalise the notion of Hilbert spaces (which are themselves generalisations of Euclidean space), in that they endow a linear space with an "inner product" that takes values in a C*-algebra. They were first introduced in the work of Irving Kaplansky in 1953, which devel... | {
"page_id": 16059132,
"source": null,
"title": "Hilbert C*-module"
} |
α + ⟨ x , z ⟩ A β {\displaystyle \langle x,y\alpha +z\beta \rangle _{A}=\langle x,y\rangle _{A}\alpha +\langle x,z\rangle _{A}\beta } (i.e. the inner product is C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } -linear in its second argument). For all x {\displaystyle x} , y {\displaystyle y} in E {\displaystyle E} , and a {\displaystyle... | {
"page_id": 16059132,
"source": null,
"title": "Hilbert C*-module"
} |
x , x ⟩ A ‖ 1 2 . {\displaystyle \Vert x\Vert =\Vert \langle x,x\rangle _{A}\Vert ^{\frac {1}{2}}.} The norm-completion of E {\displaystyle E} , still denoted by E {\displaystyle E} , is said to be a Hilbert A {\displaystyle A} -module or a Hilbert C*-module over the C*-algebra A {\displaystyle A} . The Cauchy–Schwarz ... | {
"page_id": 16059132,
"source": null,
"title": "Hilbert C*-module"
} |
dense in E {\displaystyle E} . In the case when ⟨ E , E ⟩ A {\displaystyle \langle E,E\rangle _{A}} is dense in A {\displaystyle A} , E {\displaystyle E} is said to be full. This does not generally hold. == Examples == === Hilbert spaces === Since the complex numbers C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } are a C*-algebra with... | {
"page_id": 16059132,
"source": null,
"title": "Hilbert C*-module"
} |
A {\displaystyle A} is a Hilbert A {\displaystyle A} -module with the action given by right multiplication in A {\displaystyle A} and the inner product ⟨ a , b ⟩ = a ∗ b {\displaystyle \langle a,b\rangle =a^{*}b} . By the C*-identity, the Hilbert module norm coincides with C*-norm on A {\displaystyle A} . The (algebrai... | {
"page_id": 16059132,
"source": null,
"title": "Hilbert C*-module"
} |
is an isometric isomorphism E ⊕ ℓ 2 ( A ) ≅ ℓ 2 ( A ) . {\displaystyle E\oplus \ell ^{2}(A)\cong \ell ^{2}(A).} == Maps between Hilbert modules == Let E {\displaystyle E} and F {\displaystyle F} be two Hilbert modules over the same C*-algebra A {\displaystyle A} . These are then Banach spaces, so it is possible to spea... | {
"page_id": 16059132,
"source": null,
"title": "Hilbert C*-module"
} |
T {\displaystyle ST} is adjointable with adjoint S ∗ T ∗ {\displaystyle S^{*}T^{*}} . The adjointable operators E → F {\displaystyle E\to F} form a subspace B ( E , F ) {\displaystyle \mathbb {B} (E,F)} of L ( E , F ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}(E,F)} , which is complete in the operator norm. In the case F = E {\disp... | {
"page_id": 16059132,
"source": null,
"title": "Hilbert C*-module"
} |
C*-correspondence is a Hilbert B {\displaystyle B} -module equipped with a left action of A {\displaystyle A} by adjointable maps that is faithful. (NB: Some authors require the left action to be non-degenerate instead.) These objects are used in the formulation of Morita equivalence for C*-algebras, see applications i... | {
"page_id": 16059132,
"source": null,
"title": "Hilbert C*-module"
} |
=== Toeplitz algebra of a correspondence === Given a C*-algebra A {\displaystyle A} , and an ( A , A ) {\displaystyle (A,A)} correspondence E {\displaystyle E} , its Toeplitz algebra T ( E ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {T}}(E)} is defined as the universal algebra for Toeplitz representations (defined below). The classical... | {
"page_id": 16059132,
"source": null,
"title": "Hilbert C*-module"
} |
, ϕ ) {\displaystyle (S,\phi )} is any Toeplitz representation of E {\displaystyle E} (in an arbitrary algebra D {\displaystyle D} ) there is a unique *-homomorphism Φ : T ( E ) → D {\displaystyle \Phi \colon {\mathcal {T}}(E)\to D} such that S = Φ ∘ T {\displaystyle S=\Phi \circ T} and ϕ = Φ ∘ ι {\displaystyle \phi =\... | {
"page_id": 16059132,
"source": null,
"title": "Hilbert C*-module"
} |
Artificial intelligence and machine learning techniques are used in video games for a wide variety of applications such as non-player character (NPC) control, procedural content generation (PCG) and deep learning-based content generation. Machine learning is a subset of artificial intelligence that uses historical data... | {
"page_id": 60951296,
"source": null,
"title": "Machine learning in video games"
} |
smaller local patterns while later layers will learn larger patterns based on the previous patterns. A CNN's ability to learn visual data has made it a commonly used tool for deep learning in games. === Recurrent neural network === Recurrent neural networks are a type of ANN that are designed to process sequences of da... | {
"page_id": 60951296,
"source": null,
"title": "Machine learning in video games"
} |
learning is used heavily in the field of machine learning and can be seen in methods such as Q-learning, policy search, Deep Q-networks and others. It has seen strong performance in both the field of games and robotics. === Neuroevolution === Neuroevolution involves the use of both neural networks and evolutionary algo... | {
"page_id": 60951296,
"source": null,
"title": "Machine learning in video games"
} |
was the first AI agent to beat a professional Go player. AlphaGo used a deep learning model to train the weights of a Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS). The deep learning model consisted of 2 ANN, a policy network to predict the probabilities of potential moves by opponents, and a value network to predict the win chance o... | {
"page_id": 60951296,
"source": null,
"title": "Machine learning in video games"
} |
trained with supervised learning, it watched replays of many human games in order to learn basic strategies. It then trained against different versions of itself and was improved through reinforcement learning. The final version was hugely successful, but only trained to play on a specific map in a protoss mirror match... | {
"page_id": 60951296,
"source": null,
"title": "Machine learning in video games"
} |
is based on model-free deep reinforcement learning. === Generalized games === There have been attempts to make machine learning agents that are able to play more than one game. These "general" gaming agents are trained to understand games based on shared properties between them. ==== AlphaZero ==== AlphaZero is a modif... | {
"page_id": 60951296,
"source": null,
"title": "Machine learning in video games"
} |
This example show how difficult it can be to train a deep learning agent to perform in more generalized situations. Machine learning agents have shown great success in a variety of different games. However, agents that are too competent also risk making games too difficult for new or casual players. Research has shown ... | {
"page_id": 60951296,
"source": null,
"title": "Machine learning in video games"
} |
strategies for over 50 different Atari games based on screen data. === Doom === Doom (1993) is a first-person shooter (FPS) game. Student researchers from Carnegie Mellon University used computer vision techniques to create an agent that could play the game using only image pixel input from the game. The students used ... | {
"page_id": 60951296,
"source": null,
"title": "Machine learning in video games"
} |
define the range of content possible, meaning that a human developer decides what features make up a valid piece of generated content. Machine learning is theoretically capable of learning these features when given examples to train off of, thus greatly reducing the complicated step of developers specifying the details... | {
"page_id": 60951296,
"source": null,
"title": "Machine learning in video games"
} |
generations were often not optimal when taking gameplay metrics such as player movement into account, a separate research project in 2017 tried to resolve this problem by generating levels based on player movement using Markov Chains. These projects were not subjected to human testing and may not meet human playability... | {
"page_id": 60951296,
"source": null,
"title": "Machine learning in video games"
} |
Machine learning has seen use in the experimental field of music generation; it is uniquely suited to processing raw unstructured data and forming high level representations that could be applied to the diverse field of music. Most attempted methods have involved the use of ANN in some form. Methods include the use of ... | {
"page_id": 60951296,
"source": null,
"title": "Machine learning in video games"
} |
Flow-FISH (fluorescence in-situ hybridization) is a cytogenetic technique to quantify the copy number of RNA or specific repetitive elements in genomic DNA of whole cell populations via the combination of flow cytometry with cytogenetic fluorescent in situ hybridization staining protocols. Flow-FISH is most commonly us... | {
"page_id": 15272708,
"source": null,
"title": "Flow-FISH"
} |
of the resultant fluorescent spots could then be analyzed via a specialized computer program to yield quantitative fluorescence values that can then be used to estimate actual telomere length. The fluorescence yielded by probe staining is considered to be quantitative because PNA binds preferentially to DNA at low ioni... | {
"page_id": 15272708,
"source": null,
"title": "Flow-FISH"
} |
types that have not in the past proven to be good candidates for flow-FISH can be analyzed via extraction of nuclei and performance of the technique on them directly. == References == | {
"page_id": 15272708,
"source": null,
"title": "Flow-FISH"
} |
The International Plant Nutrition Colloquium (IPNC) is an international conference held every four years for the promotion of research within the field of plant nutrition. Prior to 1981, it was known as the International Colloquium on Plant Analysis and Fertiliser Problems. The IPNC is organised by the International Pl... | {
"page_id": 53218057,
"source": null,
"title": "International Plant Nutrition Colloquium"
} |
Anabaena variabilis is a species of filamentous cyanobacterium. This species of the genus Anabaena and the domain Eubacteria is capable of photosynthesis. This species is heterotrophic, meaning that it may grow without light in the presence of fructose. It also can convert atmospheric dinitrogen to ammonia via nitrogen... | {
"page_id": 31525643,
"source": null,
"title": "Anabaena variabilis"
} |
16663890. | {
"page_id": 31525643,
"source": null,
"title": "Anabaena variabilis"
} |
In biochemistry and nutrition, a monounsaturated fat is a fat that contains a monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), a subclass of fatty acid characterized by having a double bond in the fatty acid chain with all of the remaining carbon atoms being single-bonded. By contrast, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have more t... | {
"page_id": 1051404,
"source": null,
"title": "Monounsaturated fat"
} |
of saturated fat was minimal in comparison. A 2017 review found evidence that the practice of a Mediterranean diet could lead to a decreased risk of cardiovascular diseases, overall cancer incidence, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, and early death. A 2018 review showed that the practice of the Mediterranean diet ... | {
"page_id": 1051404,
"source": null,
"title": "Monounsaturated fat"
} |
Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life is an introductory textbook of biology, for students. The fifteenth edition was published in 2019, by Cengage Learning. It was compiled by Cecie Starr and Ralph Taggart with pictures and illustrations by Lisa Starr. Its contents include concepts in molecular biology and biochemi... | {
"page_id": 5049099,
"source": null,
"title": "Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life"
} |
Adaptive type – in evolutionary biology – is any population or taxon which have the potential for a particular or total occupation of given free of underutilized home habitats or position in the general economy of nature. In evolutionary sense, the emergence of new adaptive type is usually a result of adaptive radiatio... | {
"page_id": 53742353,
"source": null,
"title": "Adaptive type"
} |
Speciation | {
"page_id": 53742353,
"source": null,
"title": "Adaptive type"
} |
Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski Monument (Polish: Pomnik Eugeniusza Kwiatkowskiego) is a sculpture in Warsaw, Poland, located in the Royal Baths Park, within the neighbourhood of Ujazdów in the Downtown district. The monument has a form a bronze bust of Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski, a 20th-century politician, chemist, and economist, wh... | {
"page_id": 78318353,
"source": null,
"title": "Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski Monument"
} |
Superheavy elements, also known as transactinide elements, transactinides, or super-heavy elements, or superheavies for short, are the chemical elements with atomic number greater than 104. The superheavy elements are those beyond the actinides in the periodic table; the last actinide is lawrencium (atomic number 103).... | {
"page_id": 2231059,
"source": null,
"title": "Superheavy element"
} |
=== Synthesis of superheavy nuclei === A superheavy atomic nucleus is created in a nuclear reaction that combines two other nuclei of unequal size into one; roughly, the more unequal the two nuclei in terms of mass, the greater the possibility that the two react. The material made of the heavier nuclei is made into a t... | {
"page_id": 2231059,
"source": null,
"title": "Superheavy element"
} |
If the two nuclei can stay close past that phase, multiple nuclear interactions result in redistribution of energy and an energy equilibrium. The resulting merger is an excited state—termed a compound nucleus—and thus it is very unstable. To reach a more stable state, the temporary merger may fission without formation ... | {
"page_id": 2231059,
"source": null,
"title": "Superheavy element"
} |
is very short; as nuclei become larger, its influence on the outermost nucleons (protons and neutrons) weakens. At the same time, the nucleus is torn apart by electrostatic repulsion between protons, and its range is not limited. Total binding energy provided by the strong interaction increases linearly with the number... | {
"page_id": 2231059,
"source": null,
"title": "Superheavy element"
} |
resistant to spontaneous fission and will primarily undergo alpha decay with longer half-lives. Subsequent discoveries suggested that the predicted island might be further than originally anticipated; they also showed that nuclei intermediate between the long-lived actinides and the predicted island are deformed, and g... | {
"page_id": 2231059,
"source": null,
"title": "Superheavy element"
} |
== History == === Early predictions === The heaviest element known at the end of the 19th century was uranium, with an atomic mass of about 240 (now known to be 238) amu. Accordingly, it was placed in the last row of the periodic table; this fueled speculation about the possible existence of elements heavier than urani... | {
"page_id": 2231059,
"source": null,
"title": "Superheavy element"
} |
for Heavy Ion Research in Germany, and Riken in Japan – identified and confirmed the elements lawrencium to oganesson according to the criteria of the IUPAC–IUPAP Transfermium Working Groups and subsequent Joint Working Parties. These discoveries complete the seventh row of the periodic table. The next two elements, un... | {
"page_id": 2231059,
"source": null,
"title": "Superheavy element"
} |
7s electrons and makes the 7p orbitals accessible in low excitation states. Elements 103 to 112, lawrencium to copernicium, form the 6d series of transition elements. Experimental evidence shows that elements 103–108 behave as expected for their position in the periodic table, as heavier homologs of lutetium through os... | {
"page_id": 2231059,
"source": null,
"title": "Superheavy element"
} |
alkali and alkaline earth metal respectively. The 8s electrons are expected to be relativistically stabilized, so that the trend toward higher reactivity down these groups will reverse and the elements will behave more like their period 5 homologs, rubidium and strontium. The 7p3/2 orbital is still relativistically des... | {
"page_id": 2231059,
"source": null,
"title": "Superheavy element"
} |
elements == It has been suggested that elements beyond Z = 126 be called beyond superheavy elements. Other sources refer to elements around Z = 164 as hyperheavy elements. == See also == Bose–Einstein condensate (also known as Superatom) Island of stability == Notes == == References == === Bibliography === Audi, G.; Ko... | {
"page_id": 2231059,
"source": null,
"title": "Superheavy element"
} |
Stephan Swanson came to prominence as a marine researcher when he successfully placed the satellite transmitter on the famous Great white shark Nicole, the first great white shark ever to be tracked on a 20,000 kilometer migration from South Africa to Australia and back. Due to his ability to handle large marine predat... | {
"page_id": 18877204,
"source": null,
"title": "Stephan Swanson"
} |
Laboratory of Solid State Microstructure (LSSMS, Chinese: 固体微结构物理国家重点实验室) is located in Nanjing University, China. It is a key laboratory in physics, associated with such faculties as schools of physics and electronics and department of materials of engineering school at Nanjing University. The Laboratory has accomplis... | {
"page_id": 3017492,
"source": null,
"title": "Laboratory of Solid State Microstructure, Nanjing University"
} |
Cytochrome P450, family 26, also known as CYP26, is an mammal cytochrome P450 monooxygenase family found in human genome. There are three members in the human genome, CYP26A1, CYP26B1 and CYP26C1. Synteny mapping of CYP26 family members showing linkages to CYP16 family members of many invertebrates, means the tetrapod'... | {
"page_id": 71174935,
"source": null,
"title": "CYP26 family"
} |
Écriture féminine, or "women's writing", is a term coined by French feminist and literary theorist Hélène Cixous in her 1975 essay "The Laugh of the Medusa". Cixous aimed to establish a genre of literary writing that deviates from traditional masculine styles of writing, one which examines the relationship between the ... | {
"page_id": 854811,
"source": null,
"title": "Écriture féminine"
} |
driven away as violently as from their bodies" because their sexual pleasure has been repressed and denied expression. Inspired by Cixous' essay, a recent book titled Laughing with Medusa (2006) analyzes the collective work of Julia Kristeva, Luce Irigaray, Bracha Ettinger and Hélène Cixous. These writers are as a whol... | {
"page_id": 854811,
"source": null,
"title": "Écriture féminine"
} |
written by women about femininity: about their sexuality, that is, its infinite and mobile complexity; about their eroticization, sudden turn-ons of a certain minuscule-immense area of their bodies; not about destiny, but about the adventure of such and such a drive, about trips, crossings, trudges, abrupt and gradual ... | {
"page_id": 854811,
"source": null,
"title": "Écriture féminine"
} |
clear that the notion as put forward by Cixous raises many problems. The realm of the body, for instance, is seen as somehow immune to social and gender condition and able to issue forth a pure essence of the feminine. Such essentialism is difficult to square with feminism which emphasizes femininity as a social constr... | {
"page_id": 854811,
"source": null,
"title": "Écriture féminine"
} |
and trans-subjective connectivity that originates in the subject and humanizes her and him, according to Ettinger, via the feminine sexuality, pre-maternal experiences and maternal potentiality. Ettinger's language, developed slowly from 1985 and until now in poetic writing in artist's books and in academic writing, in... | {
"page_id": 854811,
"source": null,
"title": "Écriture féminine"
} |
(1996), would exclude much of women's writing from the feminist canon. == Literary examples == As a result of the difficulties inherent in the notion of "écriture féminine", very few books of literary criticism have run the risk of using it as a critical tool. A. S. Byatt offers: "There is a marine and salty female wav... | {
"page_id": 854811,
"source": null,
"title": "Écriture féminine"
} |
Atomic theory is the scientific theory that matter is composed of particles called atoms. The definition of the word "atom" has changed over the years in response to scientific discoveries. Initially, it referred to a hypothetical concept of there being some fundamental particle of matter, too small to be seen by the n... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
a number of important developments in chemistry emerged without referring to the notion of an atomic theory. The first was Antoine Lavoisier who showed that compounds consist of elements in constant proportion, redefining an element as a substance which scientists could not decompose into simpler substances by experime... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
A System of Chemistry in 1807. According to Thomson, Dalton's idea first occurred to him when experimenting with "olefiant gas" (ethylene) and "carburetted hydrogen gas" (methane). Dalton found that "carburetted hydrogen gas" contains twice as much hydrogen per measure of carbon as "olefiant gas", and concluded that a ... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
which is 78.1% iron and 21.9% oxygen. The other iron oxide is a red powder, which Dalton referred to as "the intermediate or red oxide of iron" which is 70.4% iron and 29.6% oxygen. Adjusting these figures, in the black powder there is about 28 g of oxygen for every 100 g of iron, and in the red powder there is about 4... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
and NO2. Dalton defined an atom as being the "ultimate particle" of a chemical substance, and he used the term "compound atom" to refer to "ultimate particles" which contain two or more elements. This is inconsistent with the modern definition, wherein an atom is the basic particle of a chemical element and a molecule ... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
atoms as multiples of the hydrogen atom's weight, which Dalton knew was the lightest element. By his measurements, 7 grams of oxygen will combine with 1 gram of hydrogen to make 8 grams of water with nothing left over, and assuming a water molecule to be one oxygen atom and one hydrogen atom, he concluded that oxygen's... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
theory attracted widespread interest but not everyone accepted it at first. The law of multiple proportions was shown not to be a universal law when it came to organic substances, whose molecules can be quite large. For instance, in oleic acid there is 34 g of hydrogen for every 216 g of carbon, and in methane there is... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
atom being the basic particle of an element, and a molecule being an agglomeration of atoms—were established in the late half of the 19th century. A key event was the Karlsruhe Congress in Germany in 1860. As the first international congress of chemists, its goal was to establish some standards in the community. A majo... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
directly observing atoms. They inferred the existence of atoms through indirect observations, such as Dalton's law of multiple proportions. Some scientists adopted positions aligned with the philosophy of positivism, arguing that scientists should not attempt to deduce the deeper reality of the universe, but only syste... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
molecules in such a way that he could predict how many isomers a compound could have. Consider, for example, pentane (C5H12). In van 't Hoff's way of modelling molecules, there are three possible configurations for pentane, and scientists did go on to discover three and only three isomers of pentane. Isomerism was not ... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
group with other elements with similar properties. For instance, tellurium is placed before iodine even though tellurium is heavier (127.6 vs 126.9) so that iodine can be in the same column as the other halogens. The modern periodic table is based on atomic number, which is equivalent to the nuclear charge, a change ha... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
"not have published those papers at all, but confined myself to the treatment of some few points [that were distinct]." All of statistical mechanics and the laws of heat, gas, and entropy took the existence of atoms as a necessary postulate. === Brownian motion === In 1827, the British botanist Robert Brown observed th... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
mass-to-charge ratios that varied depending on the material of the electrodes and the type of gas in the reaction chamber, indicating they were different kinds of particles.: 363 In 1898, Thomson measured the charge on ions to be roughly 6 × 10−10 electrostatic units (2 × 10−19 Coulombs).: 85 In 1899, he showed that ne... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
that ions are atoms that have a surplus or shortage of electrons. Thomson's model is popularly known as the plum pudding model, based on the idea that the electrons are distributed throughout the sphere of positive charge with the same density as raisins in a plum pudding. Neither Thomson nor his colleagues ever used t... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
certain radioactive substances such as radium). The alpha particles were being scattered by the air in the detection chamber, which made the measurements unreliable. Thomson had encountered a similar problem in his work on cathode rays, which he solved by creating a near-perfect vacuum in his instruments. Rutherford di... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
etc.). Amateur physicist Antonius van den Broek noted that there was a more precise relation between the charge and the element's numeric sequence in the order of atomic weights. The sequence number came be called the atomic number and it replaced atomic weight in organizing the periodic table. == Bohr model == Rutherf... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
He+.: 197 He also used he model to describe the structure of the periodic table and aspects of chemical bonding. Together these results lead to Bohr's model being widely accepted by the end of 1915.: 91 Bohr's model was not perfect. It could only predict the spectral lines of hydrogen, not those of multielectron atoms.... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
all atoms are agglomerations of hydrogen, a particle which he dubbed "the protyle". Prout's hypothesis was put into doubt when some elements were found to deviate from this pattern—e.g. chlorine atoms on average weigh 35.45 daltons—but when isotopes were discovered in 1913, Prout's observation gained renewed attention.... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
"proton" was suggested by Rutherford at an informal meeting of fellow physicists in Cardiff in 1920. The charge number of an atomic nucleus was found to be equal to the element's ordinal position on the periodic table. The nuclear charge number thus provided a simple and clear-cut way of distinguishing the chemical ele... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
Rutherford even hypothesized that a proton and an electron could bind tightly together into a "neutral doublet". Rutherford wrote that the existence of such "neutral doublets" moving freely through space would provide a more plausible explanation for how the heavier elements could have formed in the genesis of the Univ... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
that describes an electron as a wave function instead of a point. This approach predicted many of the spectral phenomena that Bohr's model failed to explain, but it was difficult to visualize, and faced opposition. One of its critics, Max Born, proposed instead that Schrödinger's wave function did not describe the phys... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
contains just two electrons—numerical methods are used to solve the Schrödinger equation. Qualitatively the shape of the atomic orbitals of multi-electron atoms resemble the states of the hydrogen atom. The Pauli principle requires the distribution of these electrons within the atomic orbitals such that no more than tw... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
Charles Adolphe Wurtz (1881) The Atomic Theory, D. Appleton and Company, New York. Alan J. Rocke (1984) Chemical Atomism in the Nineteenth Century: From Dalton to Cannizzaro, Ohio State University Press, Columbus (open access full text at http://digital.case.edu/islandora/object/ksl%3Ax633gj985). == External links == A... | {
"page_id": 2844,
"source": null,
"title": "History of atomic theory"
} |
The Aberdeen Bestiary (Aberdeen University Library, Univ Lib. MS 24) is a 12th-century English illuminated manuscript bestiary that was first listed in 1542 in the inventory of the Old Royal Library at the Palace of Westminster. Due to similarities, it is often considered to be the "sister" manuscript of the Ashmole Be... | {
"page_id": 2853,
"source": null,
"title": "Aberdeen Bestiary"
} |
bestiary. How King Henry acquired the manuscript remains unknown although it was probably taken from a monastery. The manuscript appears to have been well-read by the family based on the amount of reading wear on the edges of the pages. Around the time King James of Scotland became the King of England the bestiary was ... | {
"page_id": 2853,
"source": null,
"title": "Aberdeen Bestiary"
} |
years of each other due to their stylistic and material similarities and the fact that both are crafted with the finest materials of their time. Stylistically both manuscripts are very similar but the Aberdeen has figures that are both more voluminous and less energetic than those of the Ashmole Bestiary. The color usa... | {
"page_id": 2853,
"source": null,
"title": "Aberdeen Bestiary"
} |
with a large full page illumination Biblical Creation scene in the manuscript. Folio 5 recto shows Adam, a large figure surrounded by gold leaf and towering over others, with the theme of 'Adam naming the animals' - this starts the compilation of the bestiary portion within the manuscript. Folio 5 verso depicts quadrup... | {
"page_id": 2853,
"source": null,
"title": "Aberdeen Bestiary"
} |
as leopards, panthers and their characteristic as well as other large wild and domesticated beasts. === Missing Folios === On folio 6 recto there was likely intended to be a depiction of a lion as in the Ashmole bestiary, but in this instance the pages were left blank although there are markings of margin lines. In com... | {
"page_id": 2853,
"source": null,
"title": "Aberdeen Bestiary"
} |
: Herd (Armentum) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 8) === Beasts (Bestiae) === Folio 7 recto : Lion (Leo) (Physiologus, Chapter 1; Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, ii, 3–6) Folio 8 recto : Tiger (Tigris) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, ii, 7) Folio 8 verso : Pard (Pard) (Isidore of S... | {
"page_id": 2853,
"source": null,
"title": "Aberdeen Bestiary"
} |
10) Folio 21 recto : Ram (Aries) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 11) Folio 21 recto : Lamb (Agnus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 12; Ambrose, Hexaemeron, Book VI, 28) Folio 21 recto : He-goat (Hircus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 14) Folio 21 verso : Kid (Hedus) (Isidor... | {
"page_id": 2853,
"source": null,
"title": "Aberdeen Bestiary"
} |
33 verso : Cedar (Cedrus) Folio 34 verso : Pelican (Pellicanus) - Orange and blue Folio 35 verso : Night heron (Nicticorax) Folio 36 recto : Hoopoe (Epops) Folio 36 verso : Magpie (Pica) Folio 37 recto : Raven (Corvus) Folio 38 verso : Cock (Gallus) Folio 41 recto : Ostrich (Strutio) Folio 44 recto : Vulture (Vultur) F... | {
"page_id": 2853,
"source": null,
"title": "Aberdeen Bestiary"
} |
Folio 69 verso : Siren (Siren) Folio 69 verso : Seps (Seps) Folio 69 verso : Dipsa (Dipsa) Folio 69 verso : Lizard (Lacertus) Folio 69 verso : Salamander (Salamandra) Folio 70 recto : Saura (Saura) Folio 70 verso : Newt (Stellio) Folio 71 recto : Of the nature of Snakes (De natura serpentium) === Worms (Vermes) === Fol... | {
"page_id": 2853,
"source": null,
"title": "Aberdeen Bestiary"
} |
of man's body (Ysidorus de membris hominis) Folio 91 recto : Of the age of man (De etate hominis) === Stones (Lapides) === Folio 93 verso : Fire-bearing stone (Lapis ignifer) Folio 94 verso : Adamas stone (Lapis adamas) Folio 96 recto : Myrmecoleon (Mermecoleon) Folio 96 verso : Verse (Versus) Folio 97 recto : Stone in... | {
"page_id": 2853,
"source": null,
"title": "Aberdeen Bestiary"
} |
Well-known types of reactions that involve inorganic compounds include: Alkylation Alkyne trimerisation Alkyne metathesis Aminolysis Amination Arylation Barbier reaction Beta-hydride elimination Birch reduction Bönnemann cyclization Bromination Buchwald–Hartwig coupling Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling Calcination Carbometa... | {
"page_id": 32770854,
"source": null,
"title": "List of inorganic reactions"
} |
Autodisplay is a genetic engineering technique which is used to insert a protein of interest on the outer surface of gram-negative bacteria. This is accomplished by attaching the protein of interest to a protein which is known to localize to the surface of the bacterial outer membrane. First introduced in the 1990s, th... | {
"page_id": 39848744,
"source": null,
"title": "Autodisplay"
} |
limiting the usefulness of this system. Subsequently, the IgA1 protease was replaced by an autotransporter native to E. coli, namely the AIDA-1 protein from Enteropathogenic E. coli. This was expressed to much higher levels in E. coli than the previously used N. gonorrhoeae protein had been, allowing this system to be ... | {
"page_id": 39848744,
"source": null,
"title": "Autodisplay"
} |
In pharmacology, Schild regression analysis, based upon the Schild equation, both named for Heinz Otto Schild, are tools for studying the effects of agonists and antagonists on the response caused by the receptor or on ligand-receptor binding. == Concept == Dose-response curves can be constructed to describe response o... | {
"page_id": 9374505,
"source": null,
"title": "Schild equation"
} |
( r − 1 ) {\displaystyle \log _{10}(r-1)} as the ordinate and log 10 [ B ] {\displaystyle \log _{10}[{\ce {B}}]} as the abscissa. This is done by taking the base-10 logarithm of both sides of the previous equation after subtracting 1: log 10 ( r − 1 ) = log 10 [ B ] − log 10 ( K B ) {\displaystyle \log _{10}(r-... | {
"page_id": 9374505,
"source": null,
"title": "Schild equation"
} |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.