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where does a star come from on your eye | Star of David - wikipedia
The Star of David (✡), known in Hebrew as the Shield of David or Magen David (Hebrew מָגֵן דָּוִד ; Biblical Hebrew Māḡēn Dāwīḏ (maːˈɣeːn daːˈwiːð), Tiberian (mɔˈɣen dɔˈvið), Modern Hebrew (maˈɡen daˈvid), Ashkenazi Hebrew and Yiddish Mogein Dovid (ˈmɔɡeɪn ˈdɔvid) or Mogen Dovid), is a generally recognized symbol of modern Jewish identity and Judaism. Its shape is that of a hexagram, the compound of two equilateral triangles. Unlike the menorah, the Lion of Judah, the shofar and the lulav, the Star of David was never a uniquely Jewish symbol, although it had been used in that way as a printer 's colophon since the sixteenth century.
During the 19th century the symbol began to proliferate among the Jewish communities of Eastern Europe, ultimately being used among the Jewish communities in the Pale of Settlement. A significant motivating factor, according to scholar Gershom Sholem, was the desire to represent Jewish religion and / or identity in the same manner the Christian cross identified that religion 's believers. The earliest Jewish usage of the symbol was inherited from medieval Arabic literature by Kabbalists for use in talismanic protective amulets (segulot) where it was known as a Seal of Solomon. The symbol was also used in Christian churches as a decorative motif many centuries before its first known use in a Jewish synagogue. Before the 19th century, official use in Jewish communities was generally known only in the region of today 's Czech Republic, Austria and possibly parts of Southern Germany, having begun in medieval Prague.
The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community, and later the broader Jewish community, after it was chosen as the central symbol on a flag at the First Zionist Congress in 1897.
The identification of the term "Star of David '' or "Shield of David '' with the hexagram shape dates to the 17th century. The term "Shield of David '' is also used in the Siddur (Jewish prayer book) as a title of the God of Israel.
The hexagram does appear occasionally in Jewish contexts since antiquity, apparently as a decorative motif. For example, in Israel, there is a stone bearing a hexagram from the arch of a 3rd -- 4th century synagogue in the Galilee. Originally, the hexagram may have been employed as an architectural ornament on synagogues, as it is, for example, on the cathedrals of Brandenburg and Stendal, and on the Marktkirche at Hanover. A hexagram in this form is found on the ancient synagogue at Capernaum. In the synagogues, perhaps, it was associated with the mezuzah.
The use of the hexagram in a Jewish context as a possibly meaningful symbol may occur as early as the 11th century, in the decoration of the carpet page of the famous Tanakh manuscript, the Leningrad Codex dated 1008. Similarly, the symbol illuminates a medieval Tanakh manuscript dated 1307 belonging to Rabbi Yosef bar Yehuda ben Marvas from Toledo, Spain. A Siddur dated 1512 from Prague displays a large hexagram on the cover with the phrase, "He will merit to bestow a bountiful gift on anyone who grasps the Shield of David. ''
A hexagram has been noted on a Jewish tombstone in Taranto, Apulia in Southern Italy, which may date as early as the third century CE. The Jews of Apulia were noted for their scholarship in Kabbalah, which has been connected to the use of the Star of David.
Medieval Kabbalistic grimoires show hexagrams among the tables of segulot, but without identifying them as "Shield of David ''.
In the Renaissance Period, in the 16th - century Land of Israel, the book Ets Khayim conveys the Kabbalah of Ha - Ari (Rabbi Isaac Luria) who arranges the traditional items on the seder plate for Passover into two triangles, where they explicitly correspond to Jewish mystical concepts. The six sfirot of the masculine Zer Anpin correspond to the six items on the seder plate, while the seventh sfira being the feminine Malkhut corresponds to the plate itself.
However, these seder - plate triangles are parallel, one above the other, and do not actually form a hexagram.
According to G.S. Oegema (1996)
Isaac Luria provided the hexagram with a further mystical meaning. In his book Etz Chayim he teaches that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram: above the three sefirot "Crown '', "Wisdom '', and "Insight '', below the other seven.
Similarly, M. Costa wrote that M. Gudemann and other researchers in the 1920s claimed that Isaac Luria was influential in turning the Star of David into a national Jewish emblem by teaching that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram. Gershom Scholem (1990) disagrees with this view, arguing that Isaac Luria talked about parallel triangles one beneath the other and not about the hexagram.
The Star of David at least since the 20th century remains associated with the number seven and thus with the Menorah, and popular accounts associate it with the six directions of space plus the center (under the influence of the description of space found in the Sefer Yetsira: Up, Down, East, West, South, North, and Center), or the Six Sefirot of the Male (Zeir Anpin) united with the Seventh Sefirot of the Female (Nukva). Some say that one triangle represents the ruling tribe of Judah and the other the former ruling tribe of Benjamin. It is also seen as a dalet and yud, the two letters assigned to Judah. There are 12 Vav, or "men, '' representing the 12 tribes or patriarchs of Israel.
In 1354, King of Bohemia Charles IV prescribed for the Jews of Prague a red flag with both David 's shield and Solomon 's seal, while the red flag with which the Jews met King Matthias of Hungary in the 15th century showed two pentagrams with two golden stars.
In 1460, the Jews of Ofen (Budapest, Hungary) received King Matthias Corvinus with a red flag on which were two Shields of David and two stars. In the first Hebrew prayer book, printed in Prague in 1512, a large hexagram appears on the cover. In the colophon is written: "Each man beneath his flag according to the house of their fathers... and he will merit to bestow a bountiful gift on anyone who grasps the Shield of David. '' In 1592, Mordechai Maizel was allowed to affix "a flag of King David, similar to that located on the Main Synagogue '' on his synagogue in Prague. Following the Battle of Prague (1648), the Jews of Prague were again granted a flag, in recognition in their contribution to the city 's defense. That flag showed a yellow hexagram on a red background, with a star placed in the center of the hexagram.
The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community, and later the broader Jewish community, after it was chosen to represent the First Zionist Congress in 1897.
A year before the congress, Herzl had written in his 1896 Der Judenstaat:
We have no flag, and we need one. If we desire to lead many men, we must raise a symbol above their heads. I would suggest a white flag, with seven golden stars. The white field symbolizes our pure new life; the stars are the seven golden hours of our working - day. For we shall march into the Promised Land carrying the badge of honor.
David Wolffsohn (1856 -- 1914), a businessman prominent in the early Zionist movement, was aware that the nascent Zionist movement had no official flag, and that the design proposed by Theodor Herzl was gaining no significant support, wrote:
At the behest of our leader Herzl, I came to Basle to make preparations for the Zionist Congress. Among many other problems that occupied me then was one that contained something of the essence of the Jewish problem. What flag would we hang in the Congress Hall? Then an idea struck me. We have a flag -- and it is blue and white. The talith (prayer shawl) with which we wrap ourselves when we pray: that is our symbol. Let us take this Talith from its bag and unroll it before the eyes of Israel and the eyes of all nations. So I ordered a blue and white flag with the Shield of David painted upon it. That is how the national flag, that flew over Congress Hall, came into being.
In the early 20th century, the symbol began to be used to express Jewish affiliations in sports. Hakoah Vienna was a Jewish sports club founded in Vienna, Austria, in 1909 whose teams competed with the Star of David on the chest of their uniforms, and won the 1925 Austrian League soccer championship. Similarly, The Philadelphia Sphas basketball team in Philadelphia (whose name was an acronym of its founding South Philadelphia Hebrew Association) wore a large Star of David on their jerseys to proudly proclaim their Jewish identity, as they competed in the first half of the 20th century.
In boxing, Benny "the Ghetto Wizard '' Leonard (who said he felt as though he was fighting for all Jews) fought with a Star of David embroidered on his trunks in the 1910s. World heavyweight boxing champion Max Baer fought with a Star of David on his trunks as well, notably, for the first time as he knocked out Nazi Germany hero Max Schmeling in 1933; Hitler never permitted Schmeling to fight a Jew again.
A Star of David, often yellow, was used by the Nazis during the Holocaust to identify Jews. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, there initially were different local decrees forcing Jews to wear distinct signs (e.g. in the General Government, a white armband with a blue Star of David; in the Warthegau, a yellow badge, in the form of a Star of David, on the left breast and on the back). If a Jew was found in public without the star, he could be severely punished. The requirement to wear the Star of David with the word Jude (German for Jew) was then extended to all Jews over the age of six in the Reich and in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (by a decree issued on September 1, 1941 and signed by Reinhard Heydrich) and was gradually introduced in other Nazi - occupied areas. Others, however, wore the Star of David as a symbol of defiance against Nazi antisemitism, as in the case of United States Army private Hal Baumgarten, who wore a Star of David emblazoned on his back during the 1944 invasion of Normandy.
The flag of Israel, depicting a blue Star of David on a white background, between two horizontal blue stripes was adopted on October 28, 1948, five months after the country 's establishment. The origins of the flag 's design date from the First Zionist Congress in 1897; the flag has subsequently been known as the "flag of Zion ''.
Many Modern Orthodox synagogues, and many synagogues of other Jewish movements, have the Israeli flag with the Star of David prominently displayed at the front of the synagogues near the Ark containing the Torah scrolls.
Magen David Adom (MDA) ("Red Star of David '' or, translated literally, "Red Shield of David '') is Israel 's only official emergency medical, disaster, ambulance service.
It has been an official member of the International Committee of the Red Cross since June 2006. According to the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Magen David Adom was boycotted by the International Committee of the Red Cross, which refused to grant the organization membership because "it was (...) argued that having an emblem used by only one country was contrary to the principles of universality. '' Other commentators said the ICRC did not recognize the medical and humanitarian use of this Jewish symbol, a Red Shield, alongside the Christian cross and the Muslim crescent.
Since 1948, the Star of David has carried the dual significance of representing both the state of Israel, and Jewish identity in general. In the United States especially, it continues to be used in the latter sense by a number of athletes.
In baseball, Jewish major leaguer Gabe Kapler had a Star of David tattooed on his left calf in 2000, with the words "strong - willed '' and "strong - minded '', major leaguer Mike "SuperJew '' Epstein drew a Star of David on his baseball glove, and major leaguer Ron Blomberg had a Star of David emblazoned in the knob of his bat which is on display at the Baseball Hall of Fame.
NBA basketball star Amar'e Stoudemire, who says he is spiritually and culturally Jewish, had a Star of David tattoo put on his left hand in 2010. NFL football defensive end Igor Olshansky has Star of David tattoos on each side of his neck, near his shoulders. Israeli golfer Laetitia Beck displays a blue - and - white magen david symbol on her golf apparel.
In boxing, Jewish light heavyweight world champion Mike "The Jewish Bomber '' Rossman fought with a Star of David embroidered on his boxing trunks, and also has a blue Star of David tattoo on the outside of his right calf.
Other boxers fought with Stars of David embroidered on their trunks include world lightweight champion, world light heavyweight boxing champion Battling Levinsky, Barney Ross (world champion as a lightweight, as a junior welterweight, and as a welterweight), world flyweight boxing champion Victor "Young '' Peres, world bantamweight champion Alphonse Halimi, and more recently World Boxing Association super welterweight champion Yuri Foreman, light welterweight champion Cletus Seldin, and light middleweight Boyd Melson. Welterweight Zachary "Kid Yamaka '' Wohlman has a tattoo of a Star of David across his stomach, and welterweight Dmitriy Salita even boxes under the nickname "Star of David ''.
Maccabi clubs still use the Star of David in their emblems.
The Jewish Encyclopedia cites a 12th - century Karaite document as the earliest Jewish literary source to mention a symbol called "Magen Dawid '' (without specifying its shape).
The name ' Shield of David ' was used by at least the 11th century as a title of the God of Israel, independent of the use of the symbol. The phrase occurs independently as a Divine title in the Siddur, the traditional Jewish prayer book, where it poetically refers to the Divine protection of ancient King David and the anticipated restoration of his dynastic house, perhaps based on Psalm 18, which is attributed to David, and in which God is compared to a shield (v. 31 and v. 36). The term occurs at the end of the "Samkhaynu / Gladden us '' blessing, which is recited after the reading of the Haftara portion on Saturday and holidays.
The earliest known text related to Judaism which mentions a sign called the "Shield of David '' is Eshkol Ha - Kofer by the Karaite Judah Hadassi, in the mid-12th century CE:
Seven names of angels precede the mezuzah: Michael, Gabriel, etc.... Tetragrammaton protect you! And likewise the sign, called the "Shield of David '', is placed beside the name of each angel.
This book is of Karaite, and not of Rabbinic Jewish origin, and it does not describe the shape of the sign in any way.
Star in the Schneider Synagogue, Istanbul
Star in the Ari Ashkenazi Synagogue, Safed
The Magen David Adom emblem
A synagogue in Karlsruhe, Germany, with the outline of a Star of David
A recruitment poster published in American Jewish magazines during WWI. Daughter of Zion (representing the Jewish people): Your Old New Land must have you! Join the Jewish regiment.
Roundel displayed on Israeli Air Force aircraft, 1948 - today
Stained glass Star of David
USVA headstone emblem 3
USVA headstone emblem 44
Morocco horse cover embroidery
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held office longer than any previous texas governor | Governor of Texas - Wikipedia
The Governor of Texas is the head of the executive branch of Texas 's government and the commander - in - chief of the state 's military forces. The governor has the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Texas Legislature, and to convene the legislature. The governor may grant pardons in cases other than impeachment (but only when recommended by the Board of Pardons and Paroles) or in the case of treason, with permission by the legislature. The current Governor is Greg Abbott.
The state 's first constitution in 1845 established the office of governor, to serve for two years, but no more than four years out of every six (essentially a limit of no more than two consecutive terms). The 1861 secessionist constitution set the term start date at the first Monday in the November following the election. The 1866 constitution, adopted just after the American Civil War, increased terms to 4 years, but no more than 8 years out of every 12, and moved the start date to the first Thursday after the organization of the legislature, or "as soon thereafter as practicable ''. The Reconstruction constitution of 1869 removed the limit on terms, Texas remains one of 14 states with no gubernatorial term limit. The present constitution of 1876 shortened terms back to two years, but a 1972 amendment increased it again to four years.
The gubernatorial election is held every four years on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November and does not coincide with the presidential elections. The governor is sworn in on the third Tuesday of January every four years along with the lieutenant governor, so Abbott and current Lieutenant Governor Dan Patrick both took office on January 20, 2015.
Despite the lack of term limits, no Texas governor in the 19th or 20th centuries ever served more than seven and a half consecutive years in office (Allan Shivers) or eight years total service (Bill Clements, in two non-consecutive four - year terms). Former Governor Rick Perry, who served from 2000 to 2015, has now surpassed both these records, becoming the first Texas governor to serve three consecutive terms. When Perry won the general election on November 2, 2010, he joined Shivers, Price Daniel, and John Connally as the only Texas governors elected to three terms (the terms served by Governors Shivers, Daniel, and Connally were 2 year terms). In case of a vacancy in the office of governor, the lieutenant governor becomes governor. This rule was added only in a 1999 amendment, prior to which the lieutenant governor only acted as governor, except during the time of the 1861 constitution, which said that the lieutenant governor would be styled "Governor of the State of Texas '' in case of vacancy.
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who does the voice of masha and the bear | Masha and the Bear - Wikipedia
Masha and the Bear (Russian: (Ма́ша и Медве́дь, Masha i Medved) error: ((lang)): text has italic markup (help), IPA: (ˈmaʂə i mjɪdˈvetj)) is a Russian animated television series created by Oleg Kuzovkov and produced by Animaccord Animation Studio (Moscow, the Russian Federation), loosely based on the oral children 's folk story of the same name. The show focuses on the adventures of a little girl named Masha and a fatherly bear that always keeps her from disasters. The first episode was released in 2009.
The series has been translated into 25 languages and was broadcast in more than 100 countries. The series was released on Netflix and through NBCUniversal.
Many of the episodes have been successful on YouTube; in particular, one copy of the video "Маша плюс каша '' ("Recipe for Disaster '', in English version) has received over 2.9 billion views, making it the site 's sixth most viewed video of all time, and the most viewed video on YouTube that is not a music video. The remaining top ten most viewed Masha and the Bear videos are: "Bon Appétit '', with over 1.0 billion views; "Laundry Day '', with over 940 million views; "La Dolce Vita '', with over 700 million views; "The Foundling '', with over 680 million views; "Hocus - Pocus '', with over 560 million views; "One, Two, Three! Light the Christmas Tree! '', with over 490 million views; "Two Much '', with over 470 million views; "Little Cousin '', with over 440 million views; and "Home - Grown Ninjas '', with over 340 million views. Masha and the Bear is the only non-music artist to have two videos exceeding a billion views.
The show consists of three full seasons, with 26 episodes each. The first thirteen episodes of the fourth season have been launched already.
For the first season in English, Elsie Fisher -- the voice of Agnes, the youngest of the three girls in the Despicable Me films -- was chosen to dub the voice of Masha.
In 2015 the Slovak company COMUNIQUE acquired a license to create an ice show based on Masha and the Bear stories called Masha and the Bear on Ice. The show was presented for the first time on October 3, 2015, in Košice, Slovakia, and has also been performed in the Czech Republic, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, the United Arab Emirates and Estonia.
Masha is a Russian girl who lives in the forest with her pig, goat and dog. All the animals in the forest are afraid of her as she is constantly forcing them to play with her. One morning, Masha sees a butterfly and inadvertently follows it inside the home of a bear who has gone fishing. While playing there, she makes a big mess. When the Bear returns, he sees the disaster caused by Masha. The Bear tries to get rid of Masha, but he is unsuccessful, and he and Masha become friends.
In each episode of the show, Masha is portrayed as a smart, kind, but mischievous little girl who is exploring the world around her. This leads to many funny and entertaining situations. The kind - hearted Bear is always trying to keep Masha out of trouble, but often ends up the unintended victim of her mischief. There are several supporting characters in the series, including Masha 's cousin Dasha, a penguin adopted by the Bear, a young panda cub from China, who is the Bear 's cousin, two wolves who live in an old UAZ ambulance car, a tiger that used to work with the Bear in the circus, and a Female Bear that is the object of the bear 's affections. Characters also include a hare, squirrels and hedgehogs, a pig called Rosie, a goat, and a dog who all live in Masha 's front yard.
According to the project 's director, Denis Chervyatsov,
Masha was based on a real person... In the 1990s, the project 's artistic director, Oleg Kuzovkov, was on holiday when he saw a little girl on the beach. The child was so genuine and open that she could easily walk up to a stranger and play chess with him or pick up his flippers and go swimming. However, after a few days, the vacationers began to hide...
The series ' production has been handled domestically at Animaccord Animation studio since 2008. The scenario for each episode is written by Oleg Kuzovkov, creator of the cartoon. Then the storyboarding is developed in accordance with the script and, in general, consists of at least 2000 slides. After the team finalizes the plot of an episode, the work for the 2D animatic kicks off. At this stage, animators define the duration of each scene in an episode, how characters are placed in it and interact with each other. After this step of the production is finished, the episode is passed for dubbing. Dubbing must be completed before 3D animation is applied, as the 3D animators need to know the characters ' dialogue, intonations, and emotions in advance in order to keep their lip movements synchronized to the audio and make their facial expressions look realistic.
The 3D animation process begins right after dubbing has been finished. Animators manipulate all the movements that happen during the scenes, such as opening doors, taking books from bookshelves, and creating all the bodily movements required to bring the characters to life.
Rendering brings all the processes together. Renderers colorize grey 3D models and add such details as the Bear 's fur, Masha 's hair, etc. They create the lighting and weather in the scene as determined by the script.
Composing is the final stage of production, where the composers review all scenes of an episode, checking the color intensities, smoothing the edges of 3D models, and bringing all the components together to form a complete episode. Then the work is approved by the director and script - writer and uploaded to the show 's official YouTube channel (MashaBearTV).
Masha, her cousin and Father Frost are the only characters who speak. The others communicate through pantomime or wordless sounds.
For the first two seasons, Masha 's voice in the original Russian version was performed by Alina Kukushkina, who was 6 years old when she began to dub Masha. For the third season (seven years later in 2015), the officials of Animaccord studio confirmed that the new voice of Masha would be 6 - year - old Varvara Sarantseva. The show 's sound designer, Boris Kutnevich, provides the voice of The Bear. Mark Kutnevich provides the voice of The Hare.
For the English version, Elsie Fisher -- the voice of Agnes in the Despicable Me films -- dubbed the voice of Masha in the first season. In subsequent seasons Masha was dubbed by Rebecca Bloom (ep. 27 -- 39) and Angelica Keamy (ep. 40 -- 52) and now is Giulia De Carvalho and Kaitlyn McCormick.
The music for each episode is written by Russian composer Vasiliy Bogatirev. Most of the songs used in the cartoon, such as the soundtracks of "Laundry Day '' and "The Grand Piano Lesson '' episodes, became very popular in Russia and abroad.
According to the Associated Press, "Masha, who is dressed in a folk costume with a headscarf, became a household name in many Muslim nations including Indonesia. '' Dmitry Loveyko, managing director of Animaccord, said that "It 's a Muslim country, so we thought we 're lucky she wears a headscarf and her legs are covered! ''
The first Masha and the Bear mobile app was released by Apps Ministry in August 2011. In 2013 the first mobile game "Masha and the Bear: Search and Rescue '' was published by Apps Ministry. Later more publishers such as Indigo Kids, PSV Studio, Noviy Disk developed and released games and apps featuring Masha and the Bear.
Netflix has released 27 of the first 29 episodes in 9 episodes of 3 segments each. Many of the videos were uploaded multiple times on three different YouTube channels ("Маша и Медведь '', "Get Movies '' and "Masha and The Bear '') so their view counts across up to three channels have been combined.
Debuts dates listed are for English releases in Canada on Treehouse TV, original air dates in Russia unknown:
Series description is "Masha retells fairy tales in her own way. ''
Debut dates listed per Treehouse TV:
Masha (Diminutive form of the name Maria / Mary) is a six year old girl. Masha is naughty and hyperactive, and always thinks about playing. She lives in a house near a railway station; near her house there is a path that leads to Bear 's house. Masha loves Bear very much, but in her games she tends to create problems for Bear. Her parents do not appear in the series. She loves sweets, jumping in a bucket, and looking at drawings of Masha and Bear. Masha 's character combines the characteristics of 6 - year - olds (making grammatical errors when speaking, crying when she is not given what she wants) with adult skills (playing tennis, fishing, making preserves, playing electric guitar). She is voiced by Alina Kukushkina.
The Bear is a retired circus bear who lives in a tree house in the forest. His past occupation makes him very talented in performing arts (like juggling, unicycling, and even stage magic) although he 's also known to dabble into other hobbies and even some intellectual pursuits. Some episodes feature flashbacks in which he remembers his childhood as a cub in the same house. In some episodes of the Russian - language version, Masha calls him "Mishka '' (Russian: Мишка, English: Literally "Little Bear ''), which is a traditional name given to bears in Russian tales. He is a huge bear with a big heart and he is Masha 's best friend, as well as a parental figure to her.
A dog, a goat, a pig, and, in the first episode, chickens. They live outside Masha 's house in her front yard but almost every time Masha comes out they hide themselves to avoid her. The Pig is often forced to play with Masha, who makes it dress up like a baby in a stroller. In the episode "Dance Fever '' it is revealed that the pig 's name is Rosie.
The wild animals are a hare, squirrels, hedgehogs, and two wolves. Masha and a certain Hare (in the episode ' One, two three! Light the Christmas Tree ' the present list of Father Frost in English describes this creature as ' Bunny ') often play hockey together (and make a mess or accidentally hurt someone), and the Hare is occasionally an antagonist of the Bear, due to stealing carrots from the Bear 's garden. The two Wolves live in a derelict ambulance car on top of a hill and often look for something to eat, and strangely act as medics for any apparent injuries or illnesses though they sometimes fear Masha (due to the Russian idiomatic expression "wolves are orderlies of the woods '' ("Волки -- санитары леса ''), living in an ambulance cab and acting as medics is a pun).
The She - Bear is a female bear. The Bear is enamored of her and sometimes goes out of his way to impress or even woo her. The first time she rebuffed him in favor of the Black Bear, only to realize how self - absorbed he is, and another time she turned her nose up at the Bear 's banjo playing as she preferred more modern music. Even so, the She - Bear usually opens up to the Bear, such as the time she agreed to have a dinner with him, and she is sometimes kind to Masha, such as giving her a fashion magazine, helping to train her for her tennis match against the Black Bear, and helping her learn to ice - skate.
Dasha is Masha 's cousin from Moscow. She looks like Masha but she is very different, she has beige hair, blue eyes, wears blue glasses and an orange dress. She is afraid of the Bear and calls him "Shaggy ''.
Panda is a panda cub and the Bear 's young cousin from China. He and Masha are rivals, often bickering every time he comes for a visit, but they occasionally get along and have fun together.
A tiger and the Bear are best friends from their days performing together in the circus.
The Bear 's worst enemy and Bear 's chief rival for the attentions of the She - Bear. The Black Bear has an arrogant and unsportsmanlike personality, cheating to win against Masha in a tennis game, and laughing at her when she grows gigantic. Bear 's biggest fear is if Black bear and she bear marry which is shown in Game Over when bear imagines what will happen if he Plays games his whole life
A penguin that first appears in "The Foundling '', as an egg that Masha finds and makes the Bear hatch. The Penguin quickly imprints on the Bear as his parental - figure and the Bear forms a sincere bond with him but chooses to send the Penguin to live in Antarctica for his own health. Even so, they stay in touch and the Penguin once visited.
He is a Santa Claus - like character from Russia who appears in Christmas - themed shows.
These aliens appeared in episode 65. They live far away from Earth in the Universe. When 3 specimen accidentally crashed on Earth they were helped by Bear and Masha to get back to their spaceship.
A spin - off series to the show titled Masha 's Tales is also available on Netflix. In the show Masha (voiced by a much older actress) tells classic Russian fairy tales as well as some Grimms ' Fairy Tales to her toys. However, Masha makes up her own way of telling the stories (Such as putting a magical nutcracker who turns into a prince when she adapts Cinderella). She also mixes up the morals of the stories by often adding an additional ending so that way it could fit with what she 's telling her toys. Masha 's Tales premiered on Cartoon Network UK 's sister pre-school channel, Cartoonito on June 20, 2016. Another spin - off of the Masha and the Bear franchise -- Masha 's Spooky Stories -- premiered on Cartoonito UK and Netflix in October 2016.
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what is the objective of consumer protection act 1986 | Consumer protection Act, 1986 (India) - Wikipedia
Consumer Protection Act, 1986 is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted in 1986 to protect the interests of consumers in India. It makes provision for the establishment of consumer councils and other authorities for the settlement of consumers ' disputes and for matters connected therewith also.
This statute is regarded as the Magna Carta in the field of consumer protection for checking the unfair trade practices and ' defect in goods ' and ' deficiencies in services ' as far as India is concerned. It led to the establishment of a widespread network of consumer forums and appellate courts all over India. It has significantly impacted how businesses approach consumer complaints and empowered consumers to a great extent.
Consumer Protection Councils are established at the national, state and district level to increase consumer awareness.
The Central Govt. shall by notification establish with effect from (w.e.f) such date as it may specify in such notification a Council to be known as the Central Consumer Protection Council
The objectives of the Central Council is to promote and to protect the rights of the consumers such as: -
The object of the State Council
Consumer courts do not have jurisdiction over matters where services or goods were bought for a commercial purpose.
Subject to the other provisions of this Act, the State Commission shall have jurisdiction: -
(a) to entertain --
(i) complaints where the value of the goods or services and compensation, if any, claimed exceeds rupees one crore; and
(ii) appeals against the orders of any State Commission; and
(b) to call for the records and pass appropriate orders in any consumer dispute which is pending before or has been decided by any State Commission. However, the Supreme Court of India has held that the jurisdiction of National Commission under Revision Jurisdiction is very limited and can only be exercised when State Commission exceeds its jurisdiction, fails to exercise its jurisdiction or there is material illegality in the order passed by State Commission.
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is yellowstone national park in montana or wyoming | Yellowstone National Park - wikipedia
United States
Yellowstone National Park is an American national park located in Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho. It was established by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1872. Yellowstone was the first national park in the U.S. and is also widely held to be the first national park in the world. The park is known for its wildlife and its many geothermal features, especially Old Faithful geyser, one of its most popular features. It has many types of ecosystems, but the subalpine forest is the most abundant. It is part of the South Central Rockies forests ecoregion.
Native Americans have lived in the Yellowstone region for at least 11,000 years. Aside from visits by mountain men during the early - to - mid-19th century, organized exploration did not begin until the late 1860s. Management and control of the park originally fell under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Interior, the first being Columbus Delano. However, the U.S. Army was subsequently commissioned to oversee management of Yellowstone for a 30 - year period between 1886 and 1916. In 1917, administration of the park was transferred to the National Park Service, which had been created the previous year. Hundreds of structures have been built and are protected for their architectural and historical significance, and researchers have examined more than a thousand archaeological sites.
Yellowstone National Park spans an area of 3,468.4 square miles (8,983 km), comprising lakes, canyons, rivers and mountain ranges. Yellowstone Lake is one of the largest high - elevation lakes in North America and is centered over the Yellowstone Caldera, the largest supervolcano on the continent. The caldera is considered an active volcano. It has erupted with tremendous force several times in the last two million years. Half of the world 's geysers and hydrothermal features are in Yellowstone, fueled by this ongoing volcanism. Lava flows and rocks from volcanic eruptions cover most of the land area of Yellowstone. The park is the centerpiece of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the largest remaining nearly - intact ecosystem in the Earth 's northern temperate zone. In 1978, Yellowstone was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Hundreds of species of mammals, birds, fish, and reptiles have been documented, including several that are either endangered or threatened. The vast forests and grasslands also include unique species of plants. Yellowstone Park is the largest and most famous megafauna location in the contiguous United States. Grizzly bears, wolves, and free - ranging herds of bison and elk live in this park. The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the oldest and largest public bison herd in the United States. Forest fires occur in the park each year; in the large forest fires of 1988, nearly one third of the park was burnt. Yellowstone has numerous recreational opportunities, including hiking, camping, boating, fishing and sightseeing. Paved roads provide close access to the major geothermal areas as well as some of the lakes and waterfalls. During the winter, visitors often access the park by way of guided tours that use either snow coaches or snowmobiles.
The park contains the headwaters of the Yellowstone River, from which it takes its historical name. Near the end of the 18th century, French trappers named the river Roche Jaune, which is probably a translation of the Hidatsa name Mi tsi a-da - zi ("Yellow Rock River ''). Later, American trappers rendered the French name in English as "Yellow Stone ''. Although it is commonly believed that the river was named for the yellow rocks seen in the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, the Native American name source is unclear.
The human history of the park begins at least 11,000 years ago when Native Americans began to hunt and fish in the region. During the construction of the post office in Gardiner, Montana, in the 1950s, an obsidian projectile point of Clovis origin was found that dated from approximately 11,000 years ago. These Paleo - Indians, of the Clovis culture, used the significant amounts of obsidian found in the park to make cutting tools and weapons. Arrowheads made of Yellowstone obsidian have been found as far away as the Mississippi Valley, indicating that a regular obsidian trade existed between local tribes and tribes farther east. By the time white explorers first entered the region during the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1805, they encountered the Nez Perce, Crow, and Shoshone tribes. While passing through present day Montana, the expedition members heard of the Yellowstone region to the south, but they did not investigate it.
In 1806, John Colter, a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, left to join a group of fur trappers. After splitting up with the other trappers in 1807, Colter passed through a portion of what later became the park, during the winter of 1807 -- 1808. He observed at least one geothermal area in the northeastern section of the park, near Tower Fall. After surviving wounds he suffered in a battle with members of the Crow and Blackfoot tribes in 1809, Colter described a place of "fire and brimstone '' that most people dismissed as delirium; the supposedly imaginary place was nicknamed "Colter 's Hell ''. Over the next 40 years, numerous reports from mountain men and trappers told of boiling mud, steaming rivers, and petrified trees, yet most of these reports were believed at the time to be myth.
After an 1856 exploration, mountain man Jim Bridger (also believed to be the first or second European American to have seen the Great Salt Lake) reported observing boiling springs, spouting water, and a mountain of glass and yellow rock. These reports were largely ignored because Bridger was a known "spinner of yarns ''. In 1859, a U.S. Army Surveyor named Captain William F. Raynolds embarked on a two - year survey of the northern Rockies. After wintering in Wyoming, in May 1860, Raynolds and his party -- which included naturalist Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden and guide Jim Bridger -- attempted to cross the Continental Divide over Two Ocean Plateau from the Wind River drainage in northwest Wyoming. Heavy spring snows prevented their passage, but had they been able to traverse the divide, the party would have been the first organized survey to enter the Yellowstone region. The American Civil War hampered further organized explorations until the late 1860s.
The first detailed expedition to the Yellowstone area was the Cook -- Folsom -- Peterson Expedition of 1869, which consisted of three privately funded explorers. The Folsom party followed the Yellowstone River to Yellowstone Lake. The members of the Folsom party kept a journal and based on the information it reported, a party of Montana residents organized the Washburn -- Langford -- Doane Expedition in 1870. It was headed by the surveyor - general of Montana Henry Washburn, and included Nathaniel P. Langford (who later became known as "National Park '' Langford) and a U.S. Army detachment commanded by Lt. Gustavus Doane.
The expedition spent about a month exploring the region, collecting specimens and naming sites of interest. A Montana writer and lawyer named Cornelius Hedges, who had been a member of the Washburn expedition, proposed that the region should be set aside and protected as a national park; he wrote detailed articles about his observations for the Helena Herald newspaper between 1870 and 1871. Hedges essentially restated comments made in October 1865 by acting Montana Territorial Governor Thomas Francis Meagher, who had previously commented that the region should be protected. Others made similar suggestions. In an 1871 letter from Jay Cooke to Ferdinand V. Hayden, Cooke wrote that his friend, Congressman William D. Kelley had also suggested "Congress pass a bill reserving the Great Geyser Basin as a public park forever ''.
In 1871, eleven years after his failed first effort, Ferdinand V. Hayden was finally able to explore the region. With government sponsorship, he returned to the region with a second, larger expedition, the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871. He compiled a comprehensive report, including large - format photographs by William Henry Jackson and paintings by Thomas Moran. The report helped to convince the U.S. Congress to withdraw this region from public auction. On March 1, 1872, President Ulysses S. Grant signed The Act of Dedication law that created Yellowstone National Park.
Hayden, while not the only person to have thought of creating a park in the region, was its first and most enthusiastic advocate. He believed in "setting aside the area as a pleasure ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people '' and warned that there were those who would come and "make merchandise of these beautiful specimens ''. Worrying the area could face the same fate as Niagara Falls, he concluded the site should "be as free as the air or Water. '' In his report to the Committee on Public Lands, he concluded that if the bill failed to become law, "the vandals who are now waiting to enter into this wonder - land, will in a single season despoil, beyond recovery, these remarkable curiosities, which have required all the cunning skill of nature thousands of years to prepare ''.
Hayden and his 1871 party recognized Yellowstone as a priceless treasure that would become rarer with time. He wished for others to see and experience it as well. Eventually the railroads and, some time after that, the automobile would make that possible. The Park was not set aside strictly for ecological purposes; however, the designation "pleasure ground '' was not an invitation to create an amusement park. Hayden imagined something akin to the scenic resorts and baths in England, Germany, and Switzerland.
THE ACT OF DEDICATION
AN ACT to set apart a certain tract of land lying near the headwaters of the Yellowstone River as a public park. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the tract of land in the Territories of Montana and Wyoming... is hereby reserved and withdrawn from settlement, occupancy, or sale under the laws of the United States, and dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasuring ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people; and all persons who shall locate, or settle upon, or occupy the same or any part thereof, except as hereinafter provided, shall be considered trespassers and removed there from... Approved March 1, 1872.
Signed by:
There was considerable local opposition to the Yellowstone National Park during its early years. Some of the locals feared that the regional economy would be unable to thrive if there remained strict federal prohibitions against resource development or settlement within park boundaries and local entrepreneurs advocated reducing the size of the park so that mining, hunting, and logging activities could be developed. To this end, numerous bills were introduced into Congress by Montana representatives who sought to remove the federal land - use restrictions.
After the park 's official formation, Nathaniel Langford was appointed as the park 's first superintendent in 1872 by Secretary of Interior Columbus Delano. Langford served for five years but was denied a salary, funding, and staff. Langford lacked the means to improve the land or properly protect the park, and without formal policy or regulations, he had few legal methods to enforce such protection. This left Yellowstone vulnerable to poachers, vandals, and others seeking to raid its resources. He addressed the practical problems park administrators faced in the 1872 Report to the Secretary of the Interior and correctly predicted that Yellowstone would become a major international attraction deserving the continuing stewardship of the government. In 1874, both Langford and Delano advocated the creation of a federal agency to protect the vast park, but Congress refused. In 1875, Colonel William Ludlow, who had previously explored areas of Montana under the command of George Armstrong Custer, was assigned to organize and lead an expedition to Montana and the newly established Yellowstone Park. Observations about the lawlessness and exploitation of park resources were included in Ludlow 's Report of a Reconnaissance to the Yellowstone National Park. The report included letters and attachments by other expedition members, including naturalist and mineralogist George Bird Grinnell.
Grinnell documented the poaching of buffalo, deer, elk, and antelope for hides. "It is estimated that during the winter of 1874 -- 1875, not less than 3,000 buffalo and mule deer suffer even more severely than the elk, and the antelope nearly as much. ''
As a result, Langford was forced to step down in 1877. Having traveled through Yellowstone and witnessed land management problems first hand, Philetus Norris volunteered for the position following Langford 's exit. Congress finally saw fit to implement a salary for the position, as well as to provide a minimal funding to operate the park. Norris used these funds to expand access to the park, building numerous crude roads and facilities.
In 1880, Harry Yount was appointed as a gamekeeper to control poaching and vandalism in the park. Yount had previously spent decades exploring the mountain country of present - day Wyoming, including the Grand Tetons, after joining F V. Hayden 's Geological Survey in 1873. Yount is the first national park ranger, and Yount 's Peak, at the head of the Yellowstone River, was named in his honor. However, these measures still proved to be insufficient in protecting the park, as neither Norris, nor the three superintendents who followed, were given sufficient manpower or resources.
The Northern Pacific Railroad built a train station in Livingston, Montana, connecting to the northern entrance in the early 1880s, which helped to increase visitation from 300 in 1872 to 5,000 in 1883. Visitors in these early years faced poor roads and limited services, and most access into the park was on horse or via stagecoach. By 1908 visitation increased enough to attract a Union Pacific Railroad connection to West Yellowstone, though rail visitation fell off considerably by World War II and ceased around the 1960s. Much of the railroad line was converted to nature trails, among them the Yellowstone Branch Line Trail.
During the 1870s and 1880s Native American tribes were effectively excluded from the national park. Under a half - dozen tribes had made seasonal use of the Yellowstone area, but the only year - round residents were small bands of Eastern Shoshone known as "Sheepeaters ''. They left the area under the assurances of a treaty negotiated in 1868, under which the Sheepeaters ceded their lands but retained the right to hunt in Yellowstone. The United States never ratified the treaty and refused to recognize the claims of the Sheepeaters or any other tribe that had used Yellowstone.
The Nez Perce band associated with Chief Joseph, numbering about 750 people, passed through Yellowstone National Park in thirteen days during late August 1877. They were being pursued by the U.S. Army and entered the national park about two weeks after the Battle of the Big Hole. Some of the Nez Perce were friendly to the tourists and other people they encountered in the park; some were not. Nine park visitors were briefly taken captive. Despite Joseph and other chiefs ordering that no one should be harmed, at least two people were killed and several wounded. One of the areas where encounters occurred was in Lower Geyser Basin and east along a branch of the Firehole River to Mary Mountain and beyond. That stream is still known as Nez Perce Creek. A group of Bannocks entered the park in 1878, alarming park Superintendent Philetus Norris. In the aftermath of the Sheepeater Indian War of 1879, Norris built a fort to prevent Native Americans from entering the national park.
Ongoing poaching and destruction of natural resources continued unabated until the U.S. Army arrived at Mammoth Hot Springs in 1886 and built Camp Sheridan. Over the next 22 years the army constructed permanent structures, and Camp Sheridan was renamed Fort Yellowstone. On May 7, 1894, the Boone and Crockett Club, acting through the personality of George G. Vest, Arnold Hague, William Hallett Phillips, W.A. Wadsworth, Archibald Rogers, Theodore Roosevelt, and George Bird Grinnell were successful in carrying through the Park Protection Act, which saved the Park. The Lacey Act of 1900 provided legal support for the officials prosecuting poachers. With the funding and manpower necessary to keep a diligent watch, the army developed their own policies and regulations that permitted public access while protecting park wildlife and natural resources. When the National Park Service was created in 1916, many of the management principles developed by the army were adopted by the new agency. The army turned control over to the National Park Service on October 31, 1918.
In 1898, the naturalist John Muir described the park as follows: "However orderly your excursions or aimless, again and again amid the calmest, stillest scenery you will be brought to a standstill hushed and awe - stricken before phenomena wholly new to you. Boiling springs and huge deep pools of purest green and azure water, thousands of them, are plashing and heaving in these high, cool mountains as if a fierce furnace fire were burning beneath each one of them; and a hundred geysers, white torrents of boiling water and steam, like inverted waterfalls, are ever and anon rushing up out of the hot, black underworld. ''
By 1915, 1,000 automobiles per year were entering the park, resulting in conflicts with horses and horse - drawn transportation. Horse travel on roads was eventually prohibited.
The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), a New Deal relief agency for young men, played a major role between 1933 and 1942 in developing Yellowstone facilities. CCC projects included reforestation, campground development of many of the park 's trails and campgrounds, trail construction, fire hazard reduction, and fire - fighting work. The CCC built the majority of the early visitor centers, campgrounds and the current system of park roads.
During World War II, tourist travel fell sharply, staffing was cut, and many facilities fell into disrepair. By the 1950s, visitation increased tremendously in Yellowstone and other national parks. To accommodate the increased visitation, park officials implemented Mission 66, an effort to modernize and expand park service facilities. Planned to be completed by 1966, in honor of the 50th anniversary of the founding of the National Park Service, Mission 66 construction diverged from the traditional log cabin style with design features of a modern style. During the late 1980s, most construction styles in Yellowstone reverted to the more traditional designs. After the enormous forest fires of 1988 damaged much of Grant Village, structures there were rebuilt in the traditional style. The visitor center at Canyon Village, which opened in 2006, incorporates a more traditional design as well.
The 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake just west of Yellowstone at Hebgen Lake damaged roads and some structures in the park. In the northwest section of the park, new geysers were found, and many existing hot springs became turbid. It was the most powerful earthquake to hit the region in recorded history.
In 1963, after several years of public controversy regarding the forced reduction of the elk population in Yellowstone, United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall appointed an advisory board to collect scientific data to inform future wildlife management of the national parks. In a paper known as the Leopold Report, the committee observed that culling programs at other national parks had been ineffective, and recommended management of Yellowstone 's elk population.
The wildfires during the summer of 1988 were the largest in the history of the park. Approximately 793,880 acres (321,272 ha; 1,240 sq mi) or 36 % of the parkland was impacted by the fires, leading to a systematic re-evaluation of fire management policies. The fire season of 1988 was considered normal until a combination of drought and heat by mid-July contributed to an extreme fire danger. On "Black Saturday '', August 20, 1988, strong winds expanded the fires rapidly, and more than 150,000 acres (61,000 ha; 230 sq mi) burned.
The expansive cultural history of the park has been documented by the 1,000 archeological sites that have been discovered. The park has 1,106 historic structures and features, and of these Obsidian Cliff and five buildings have been designated National Historic Landmarks. Yellowstone was designated an International Biosphere Reserve on October 26, 1976, and a UN World Heritage Site on September 8, 1978. The park was placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger from 1995 to 2003 due to the effects of tourism, infection of wildlife, and issues with invasive species. In 2010, Yellowstone National Park was honored with its own quarter under the America the Beautiful Quarters Program.
Justin Ferrell explores three moral sensibilities that motivated activists in dealing with Yellowstone. First came the utilitarian vision of maximum exploitation of natural resources, characteristic of developers in the late 19th century. Second was the spiritual vision of nature inspired by the Romanticism and the transcendentalists in the mid-19th century. The twentieth century saw the biocentric moral vision that focuses on the health of the ecosystem as theorized by Aldo Leopold, which led to the expansion of federally protected areas and to the surrounding ecosystems.
The Heritage and Research Center is located at Gardiner, Montana, near the north entrance to the park. The center is home to the Yellowstone National Park 's museum collection, archives, research library, historian, archeology lab, and herbarium. The Yellowstone National Park Archives maintain collections of historical records of Yellowstone and the National Park Service. The collection includes the administrative records of Yellowstone, as well as resource management records, records from major projects, and donated manuscripts and personal papers. The archives are affiliated with the National Archives and Records Administration.
Approximately 96 percent of the land area of Yellowstone National Park is located within the state of Wyoming. Another three percent is within Montana, with the remaining one percent in Idaho. The park is 63 miles (101 km) north to south, and 54 miles (87 km) west to east by air. Yellowstone is 2,219,789 acres (898,317 ha; 3,468.420 sq mi) in area, larger than the states of Rhode Island or Delaware. Rivers and lakes cover five percent of the land area, with the largest water body being Yellowstone Lake at 87,040 acres (35,220 ha; 136.00 sq mi). Yellowstone Lake is up to 400 feet (120 m) deep and has 110 miles (180 km) of shoreline. At an elevation of 7,733 feet (2,357 m) above sea level, Yellowstone Lake is the largest high altitude lake in North America. Forests comprise 80 percent of the land area of the park; most of the rest is grassland.
The Continental Divide of North America runs diagonally through the southwestern part of the park. The divide is a topographic feature that separates Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean water drainages. About one third of the park lies on the west side of the divide. The origins of the Yellowstone and Snake Rivers are near each other but on opposite sides of the divide. As a result, the waters of the Snake River flow to the Pacific Ocean, while those of the Yellowstone find their way to the Atlantic Ocean via the Gulf of Mexico.
The park sits on the Yellowstone Plateau, at an average elevation of 8,000 feet (2,400 m) above sea level. The plateau is bounded on nearly all sides by mountain ranges of the Middle Rocky Mountains, which range from 9,000 to 11,000 feet (2,700 to 3,400 m) in elevation. The highest point in the park is atop Eagle Peak (11,358 feet or 3,462 metres) and the lowest is along Reese Creek (5,282 feet or 1,610 metres). Nearby mountain ranges include the Gallatin Range to the northwest, the Beartooth Mountains in the north, the Absaroka Range to the east, and the Teton Range and the Madison Range to the southwest and west. The most prominent summit on the Yellowstone Plateau is Mount Washburn at 10,243 feet (3,122 m).
Yellowstone National Park has one of the world 's largest petrified forests, trees which were long ago buried by ash and soil and transformed from wood to mineral materials. This ash and other volcanic debris are believed to have come from the park area itself. This is largely because Yellowstone is actually a massive caldera of a supervolcano. There are 290 waterfalls of at least 15 feet (4.6 m) in the park, the highest being the Lower Falls of the Yellowstone River at 308 feet (94 m).
Three deep canyons are located in the park, cut through the volcanic tuff of the Yellowstone Plateau by rivers over the last 640,000 years. The Lewis River flows through Lewis Canyon in the south, and the Yellowstone River has carved two colorful canyons, the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone and the Black Canyon of the Yellowstone in its journey north.
Yellowstone is at the northeastern end of the Snake River Plain, a great U-shaped arc through the mountains that extends from Boise, Idaho some 400 miles (640 km) to the west.
The volcanism of Yellowstone is believed to be linked to the somewhat older volcanism of Snake River plain. Yellowstone is thus the active part of a hotspot that has moved northeast over time. The origin of this hotspot volcanism is disputed. One theory holds that a mantle plume has caused the Yellowstone hotspot to migrate northeast, while another theory explains migrating hotspot volcanism as the result of the fragmentation and dynamics of the subducted Farallon Plate in Earth 's interior.
The Yellowstone Caldera is the largest volcanic system in North America. It has been termed a "supervolcano '' because the caldera was formed by exceptionally large explosive eruptions. The magma chamber that lies under Yellowstone is estimated to be a single connected chamber, about 37 miles (60 km) long, 18 miles (29 km) wide, and 3 to 7 miles (5 to 12 km) deep. The current caldera was created by a cataclysmic eruption that occurred 640,000 years ago, which released more than 240 cubic miles (1,000 km3) of ash, rock and pyroclastic materials. This eruption was more than 1,000 times larger than the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. It produced a caldera nearly five eighths of a mile (1 km) deep and 45 by 28 miles (72 by 45 km) in area and deposited the Lava Creek Tuff, a welded tuff geologic formation. The most violent known eruption, which occurred 2.1 million years ago, ejected 588 cubic miles (2,450 km3) of volcanic material and created the rock formation known as the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff and created the Island Park Caldera. A smaller eruption ejected 67 cubic miles (280 km3) of material 1.3 million years ago, forming the Henry 's Fork Caldera and depositing the Mesa Falls Tuff.
Each of the three climactic eruptions released vast amounts of ash that blanketed much of central North America, falling many hundreds of miles away. The amount of ash and gases released into the atmosphere probably caused significant impacts to world weather patterns and led to the extinction of some species, primarily in North America.
A subsequent caldera - forming eruption occurred about 160,000 years ago. It formed the relatively small caldera that contains the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake. Since the last supereruption, a series of smaller eruptive cycles between 640,000 and 70,000 years ago, has nearly filled in the Yellowstone Caldera with 80 different eruptions of rhyolitic lavas such as those that can be seen at Obsidian Cliffs and basaltic lavas which can be viewed at Sheepeater Cliff. Lava strata are most easily seen at the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, where the Yellowstone River continues to carve into the ancient lava flows. The canyon is a classic V - shaped valley, indicative of river - type erosion rather than erosion caused by glaciation.
Each eruption is part of an eruptive cycle that climaxes with the partial collapse of the roof of the volcano 's partially emptied magma chamber. This creates a collapsed depression, called a caldera, and releases vast amounts of volcanic material, usually through fissures that ring the caldera. The time between the last three cataclysmic eruptions in the Yellowstone area has ranged from 600,000 to 800,000 years, but the small number of such climactic eruptions can not be used to make an accurate prediction for future volcanic events.
The most famous geyser in the park, and perhaps the world, is Old Faithful geyser, located in Upper Geyser Basin. Castle Geyser, Lion Geyser and Beehive Geyser are in the same basin. The park contains the largest active geyser in the world -- Steamboat Geyser in the Norris Geyser Basin. A study that was completed in 2011 found that at least 1283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone. Of these, an average of 465 are active in a given year. Yellowstone contains at least 10,000 thermal features altogether. Half of the world 's geysers and hydrothermal features are concentrated in Yellowstone.
In May 2001, the U.S. Geological Survey, Yellowstone National Park, and the University of Utah created the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO), a partnership for long - term monitoring of the geological processes of the Yellowstone Plateau volcanic field, for disseminating information concerning the potential hazards of this geologically active region.
In 2003, changes at the Norris Geyser Basin resulted in the temporary closure of some trails in the basin. New fumaroles were observed, and several geysers showed enhanced activity and increasing water temperatures. Several geysers became so hot that they were transformed into purely steaming features; the water had become superheated and they could no longer erupt normally. This coincided with the release of reports of a multiple year United States Geological Survey research project which mapped the bottom of Yellowstone Lake and identified a structural dome that had uplifted at some time in the past. Research indicated that these uplifts posed no immediate threat of a volcanic eruption, since they may have developed long ago, and there had been no temperature increase found near the uplifts. On March 10, 2004, a biologist discovered 5 dead bison which apparently had inhaled toxic geothermal gases trapped in the Norris Geyser Basin by a seasonal atmospheric inversion. This was closely followed by an upsurge of earthquake activity in April 2004. In 2006, it was reported that the Mallard Lake Dome and the Sour Creek Dome -- areas that have long been known to show significant changes in their ground movement -- had risen at a rate of 1.5 to 2.4 inches (3.8 to 6.1 cm) per year from mid -- 2004 through 2006. As of late 2007, the uplift has continued at a reduced rate. These events inspired a great deal of media attention and speculation about the geologic future of the region. Experts responded to the conjecture by informing the public that there was no increased risk of a volcanic eruption in the near future. However, these changes demonstrate the dynamic nature of the Yellowstone hydrothermal system.
Yellowstone experiences thousands of small earthquakes every year, virtually all of which are undetectable to people. There have been six earthquakes with at least magnitude 6 or greater in historical times, including the 7.5 ‐ magnitude Hebgen Lake earthquake which occurred just outside the northwest boundary of the park in 1959. This quake triggered a huge landslide, which caused a partial dam collapse on Hebgen Lake; immediately downstream, the sediment from the landslide dammed the river and created a new lake, known as Earthquake Lake. Twenty - eight people were killed, and property damage was extensive in the immediate region. The earthquake caused some geysers in the northwestern section of the park to erupt, large cracks in the ground formed and emitted steam, and some hot springs that normally have clear water turned muddy. A 6.1 ‐ magnitude earthquake struck inside the park on June 30, 1975, but damage was minimal.
For three months in 1985, 3,000 minor earthquakes were detected in the northwestern section of the park, during what has been referred to as an earthquake swarm, and has been attributed to minor subsidence of the Yellowstone caldera. Beginning on April 30, 2007, 16 small earthquakes with magnitudes up to 2.7 occurred in the Yellowstone Caldera for several days. These swarms of earthquakes are common, and there have been 70 such swarms between 1983 and 2008. In December 2008, over 250 earthquakes were measured over a four - day span under Yellowstone Lake, the largest measuring a magnitude of 3.9. In January 2010, more than 250 earthquakes were detected over a two - day period. Seismic activity in Yellowstone National Park continues and is reported hourly by the Earthquake Hazards Program of the U.S. Geological Survey.
On March 30, 2014, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck almost the very middle of Yellowstone near the Norris Basin at 6: 34 am; reports indicated no damage. This was the largest earthquake to hit the park since February 22, 1980.
Yellowstone National Park is the centerpiece of the 20 million acre / 31,250 square - mile (8,093,712 ha / 80,937 km) Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, a region that includes Grand Teton National Park, adjacent National Forests and expansive wilderness areas in those forests. The ecosystem is the largest remaining continuous stretch of mostly undeveloped pristine land in the contiguous United States, considered the world 's largest intact ecosystem in the northern temperate zone. With the successful wolf reintroduction program, which began in the 1990s, virtually all the original faunal species known to inhabit the region when white explorers first entered the area can still be found there.
Over 1,700 species of trees and other vascular plants are native to the park. Another 170 species are considered to be exotic species and are non-native. Of the eight conifer tree species documented, Lodgepole Pine forests cover 80 % of the total forested areas. Other conifers, such as Subalpine Fir, Engelmann Spruce, Rocky Mountain Douglas - fir and Whitebark Pine, are found in scattered groves throughout the park. As of 2007, the whitebark pine is threatened by a fungus known as white pine blister rust; however, this is mostly confined to forests well to the north and west. In Yellowstone, about seven percent of the whitebark pine species have been impacted with the fungus, compared to nearly complete infestations in northwestern Montana. Quaking Aspen and willows are the most common species of deciduous trees. The aspen forests have declined significantly since the early 20th century, but scientists at Oregon State University attribute recent recovery of the aspen to the reintroduction of wolves which has changed the grazing habits of local elk.
There are dozens of species of flowering plants that have been identified, most of which bloom between the months of May and September. The Yellowstone sand verbena is a rare flowering plant found only in Yellowstone. It is closely related to species usually found in much warmer climates, making the sand verbena an enigma. The estimated 8,000 examples of this rare flowering plant all make their home in the sandy soils on the shores of Yellowstone Lake, well above the waterline.
In Yellowstone 's hot waters, bacteria form mats of bizarre shapes consisting of trillions of individuals. These bacteria are some of the most primitive life forms on earth. Flies and other arthropods live on the mats, even in the middle of the bitterly cold winters. Initially, scientists thought that microbes there gained sustenance only from sulfur. In 2005 researchers from the University of Colorado at Boulder discovered that the sustenance for at least some of the diverse hyperthermophilic species is molecular hydrogen.
Thermus aquaticus is a bacterium found in the Yellowstone hot springs that produces an important enzyme (Taq polymerase) that is easily replicated in the lab and is useful in replicating DNA as part of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) process. The retrieval of these bacteria can be achieved with no impact to the ecosystem. Other bacteria in the Yellowstone hot springs may also prove useful to scientists who are searching for cures for various diseases. In 2016, researchers from Uppsala University reported the discovery of a class of thermophiles, Hadesarchaea, in Yellowstone 's Culex Basin. These organisms are capable of converting carbon monoxide and water to carbon dioxide and oxygen.
Non-native plants sometimes threaten native species by using up nutrient resources. Though exotic species are most commonly found in areas with the greatest human visitation, such as near roads and at major tourist areas, they have also spread into the backcountry. Generally, most exotic species are controlled by pulling the plants out of the soil or by spraying, both of which are time consuming and expensive.
Yellowstone is widely considered to be the finest megafauna wildlife habitat in the lower 48 states. There are almost 60 species of mammals in the park, including the timber wolf, coyote, the threatened Canadian lynx, and grizzly bears. Other large mammals include the bison (often referred to as buffalo), black bear, elk, moose, mule deer, white - tailed deer, mountain goat, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, and cougar.
The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the largest public herd of American bison in the United States. The relatively large bison populations are a concern for ranchers, who fear that the species can transmit bovine diseases to their domesticated cousins. In fact, about half of Yellowstone 's bison have been exposed to brucellosis, a bacterial disease that came to North America with European cattle that may cause cattle to miscarry. The disease has little effect on park bison, and no reported case of transmission from wild bison to domestic livestock has been filed. However, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has stated that bison are the "likely source '' of the spread of the disease in cattle in Wyoming and North Dakota. Elk also carry the disease and are believed to have transmitted the infection to horses and cattle. Bison once numbered between 30 and 60 million individuals throughout North America, and Yellowstone remains one of their last strongholds. Their populations had increased from less than 50 in the park in 1902 to 4,000 by 2003. The Yellowstone Park bison herd reached a peak in 2005 with 4,900 animals. Despite a summer estimated population of 4,700 in 2007, the number dropped to 3,000 in 2008 after a harsh winter and controversial brucellosis management sending hundreds to slaughter. The Yellowstone Park bison herd is believed to be one of only four free roaming and genetically pure herds on public lands in North America. The other three herds are the Henry Mountains bison herd of Utah, at Wind Cave National Park in South Dakota and in Elk Island National Park in Alberta.
To combat the perceived threat of brucellosis transmission to cattle, national park personnel regularly harass bison herds back into the park when they venture outside of the area 's borders. During the winter of 1996 -- 97, the bison herd was so large that 1,079 bison that had exited the park were shot or sent to slaughter. Animal rights activists argue that this is a cruel practice and that the possibility for disease transmission is not as great as some ranchers maintain. Ecologists point out that the bison are merely traveling to seasonal grazing areas that lie within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem that have been converted to cattle grazing, some of which are within National Forests and are leased to private ranchers. APHIS has stated that with vaccinations and other means, brucellosis can be eliminated from the bison and elk herds throughout Yellowstone.
Starting in 1914, in an effort to protect elk populations, the U.S. Congress appropriated funds to be used for the purposes of "destroying wolves, prairie dogs, and other animals injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry '' on public lands. Park Service hunters carried out these orders, and by 1926 they had killed 136 wolves, and wolves were virtually eliminated from Yellowstone. Further exterminations continued until the National Park Service ended the practice in 1935. With the passing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973, the wolf was one of the first mammal species listed. After the wolves were extirpated from Yellowstone, the coyote then became the park 's top canine predator. However, the coyote is not able to bring down large animals, and the result of this lack of a top predator on these populations was a marked increase in lame and sick megafauna.
By the 1990s, the Federal government had reversed its views on wolves. In a controversial decision by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (which oversees threatened and endangered species), northwestern wolves imported from Canada were reintroduced into the park. Reintroduction efforts have been successful with populations remaining relatively stable. A survey conducted in 2005 reported that there were 13 wolf packs, totaling 118 individuals in Yellowstone and 326 in the entire ecosystem. These park figures were lower than those reported in 2004 but may be attributable to wolf migration to other nearby areas as suggested by the substantial increase in the Montana population during that interval. Almost all the wolves documented were descended from the 66 wolves reintroduced in 1995 -- 96. The recovery of populations throughout the states of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho has been so successful that on February 27, 2008, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service removed the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf population from the endangered species list.
An estimated 600 grizzly bears live in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, with more than half of the population living within Yellowstone. The grizzly is currently listed as a threatened species, however the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has announced that they intend to take it off the endangered species list for the Yellowstone region but will likely keep it listed in areas where it has not yet recovered fully. Opponents of delisting the grizzly are concerned that states might once again allow hunting and that better conservation measures need to be implemented to ensure a sustainable population. Black bears are common in the park and were a park symbol due to visitor interaction with the bears starting in 1910. Feeding and close contact with bears has not been permitted since the 1960s to reduce their desire for human foods. Yellowstone is one of the few places in the United States where black bears can be seen coexisting with grizzly bears. Black bear observations occur most often in the park 's northern ranges and in the Bechler area which is in the park 's southwestern corner.
Population figures for elk are in excess of 30,000 -- the largest population of any large mammal species in Yellowstone. The northern herd has decreased enormously since the mid ‐ 1990s; this has been attributed to wolf predation and causal effects such as elk using more forested regions to evade predation, consequently making it harder for researchers to accurately count them. The northern herd migrates west into southwestern Montana in the winter. The southern herd migrates southward, and the majority of these elk winter on the National Elk Refuge, immediately southeast of Grand Teton National Park. The southern herd migration is the largest mammalian migration remaining in the U.S. outside of Alaska.
In 2003 the tracks of one female lynx and her cub were spotted and followed for over 2 miles (3.2 km). Fecal material and other evidence obtained were tested and confirmed to be those of a lynx. No visual confirmation was made, however. Lynx have not been seen in Yellowstone since 1998, though DNA taken from hair samples obtained in 2001 confirmed that lynx were at least transient to the park. Other less commonly seen mammals include the mountain lion and wolverine. The mountain lion has an estimated population of only 25 individuals parkwide. The wolverine is another rare park mammal, and accurate population figures for this species are not known. These uncommon and rare mammals provide insight into the health of protected lands such as Yellowstone and help managers make determinations as to how best to preserve habitats.
Eighteen species of fish live in Yellowstone, including the core range of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout -- a fish highly sought by anglers. The Yellowstone cutthroat trout has faced several threats since the 1980s, including the suspected illegal introduction into Yellowstone Lake of lake trout, an invasive species which consume the smaller cutthroat trout. Although lake trout were established in Shoshone and Lewis lakes in the Snake River drainage from U.S. Government stocking operations in 1890, it was never officially introduced into the Yellowstone River drainage. The cutthroat trout has also faced an ongoing drought, as well as the accidental introduction of a parasite -- whirling disease -- which causes a terminal nervous system disease in younger fish. Since 2001, all native sport fish species caught in Yellowstone waterways are subject to a catch and release law. Yellowstone is also home to six species of reptiles, such as the painted turtle and Prairie rattlesnake, and four species of amphibians, including the Boreal Chorus Frog.
311 species of birds have been reported, almost half of which nest in Yellowstone. As of 1999, twenty - six pairs of nesting bald eagles have been documented. Extremely rare sightings of whooping cranes have been recorded, however only three examples of this species are known to live in the Rocky Mountains, out of 385 known worldwide. Other birds, considered to be species of special concern because of their rarity in Yellowstone, include the common loon, harlequin duck, osprey, peregrine falcon and the trumpeter swan.
As wildfire is a natural part of most ecosystems, plants that are indigenous to Yellowstone have adapted in a variety of ways. Douglas - fir have a thick bark which protects the inner section of the tree from most fires. Lodgepole Pines -- the most common tree species in the park -- generally have cones that are only opened by the heat of fire. Their seeds are held in place by a tough resin, and fire assists in melting the resin, allowing the seeds to disperse. Fire clears out dead and downed wood, providing fewer obstacles for lodgepole pines to flourish. Subalpine Fir, Engelmann Spruce, Whitebark Pine, and other species tend to grow in colder and moister areas, where fire is less likely to occur. Aspen trees sprout new growth from their roots, and even if a severe fire kills the tree above ground, the roots often survive unharmed because they are insulated from the heat by soil. The National Park Service estimates that in natural conditions, grasslands in Yellowstone burned an average of every 20 to 25 years, while forests in the park would experience fire about every 300 years.
About thirty - five natural forest fires are ignited each year by lightning, while another six to ten are started by people -- in most cases by accident. Yellowstone National Park has three fire lookout towers, each staffed by trained fire fighters. The easiest one to reach is atop Mount Washburn, which has interpretive exhibits and an observation deck open to the public. The park also monitors fire from the air and relies on visitor reports of smoke and / or flames. Fire towers are staffed almost continuously from late June to mid-September -- the primary fire season. Fires burn with the greatest intensity in the late afternoon and evening. Few fires burn more than 100 acres (40 ha), and the vast majority of fires reach only a little over an acre (0.5 ha) before they burn themselves out. Fire management focuses on monitoring dead and down wood quantities, soil and tree moisture, and the weather, to determine those areas most vulnerable to fire should one ignite. Current policy is to suppress all human caused fires and to evaluate natural fires, examining the benefit or detriment they may pose on the ecosystem. If a fire is considered to be an immediate threat to people and structures, or will burn out of control, then fire suppression is performed.
In an effort to minimize the chances of out of control fires and threats to people and structures, park employees do more than just monitor the potential for fire. Controlled burns are prescribed fires which are deliberately started to remove dead timber under conditions which allow fire fighters an opportunity to carefully control where and how much wood is consumed. Natural fires are sometimes considered prescribed fires if they are left to burn. In Yellowstone, unlike some other parks, there have been very few fires deliberately started by employees as prescribed burns. However, over the last 30 years, over 300 natural fires have been allowed to burn naturally. In addition, fire fighters remove dead and down wood and other hazards from areas where they will be a potential fire threat to lives and property, reducing the chances of fire danger in these areas. Fire monitors also regulate fire through educational services to the public and have been known to temporarily ban campfires from campgrounds during periods of high fire danger. The common notion in early United States land management policies was that all forest fires were bad. Fire was seen as a purely destructive force and there was little understanding that it was an integral part of the ecosystem. Consequently, until the 1970s, when a better understanding of wildfire was developed, all fires were suppressed. This led to an increase in dead and dying forests, which would later provide the fuel load for fires that would be much harder, and in some cases, impossible to control. Fire Management Plans were implemented, detailing that natural fires should be allowed to burn if they posed no immediate threat to lives and property.
1988 started with a wet spring season although by summer, drought began moving in throughout the northern Rockies, creating the driest year on record to that point. Grasses and plants which grew well in the early summer from the abundant spring moisture produced plenty of grass, which soon turned to dry tinder. The National Park Service began firefighting efforts to keep the fires under control, but the extreme drought made suppression difficult. Between July 15 and 21, 1988, fires quickly spread from 8,500 acres (3,400 ha; 13.3 sq mi) throughout the entire Yellowstone region, which included areas outside the park, to 99,000 acres (40,000 ha; 155 sq mi) on the park land alone. By the end of the month, the fires were out of control. Large fires burned together, and on August 20, 1988, the single worst day of the fires, more than 150,000 acres (61,000 ha; 230 sq mi) were consumed. Seven large fires were responsible for 95 % of the 793,000 acres (321,000 ha; 1,239 sq mi) that were burned over the next couple of months. A total of 25,000 firefighters and U.S. military forces participated in the suppression efforts, at a cost of 120 million dollars. By the time winter brought snow that helped extinguish the last flames, the fires had destroyed 67 structures and caused several million dollars in damage. Though no civilian lives were lost, two personnel associated with the firefighting efforts were killed.
Contrary to media reports and speculation at the time, the fires killed very few park animals -- surveys indicated that only about 345 elk (of an estimated 40,000 -- 50,000), 36 deer, 12 moose, 6 black bears, and 9 bison had perished. Changes in fire management policies were implemented by land management agencies throughout the United States, based on knowledge gained from the 1988 fires and the evaluation of scientists and experts from various fields. By 1992, Yellowstone had adopted a new fire management plan which observed stricter guidelines for the management of natural fires.
Yellowstone climate is greatly influenced by altitude, with lower elevations generally found to be warmer year - round. The record high temperature was 99 ° F (37 ° C) in 2002, while the coldest temperature recorded is − 66 ° F (− 54 ° C) in 1933. During the summer months of June to early September, daytime highs are normally in the 70 to 80 ° F (21 to 27 ° C) range, while night time lows can go to below freezing (0 ° C) especially at higher altitudes. Summer afternoons are frequently accompanied by thunderstorms. Spring and fall temperatures range between 30 and 60 ° F (− 1 and 16 ° C) with nights in the teens to single digits (− 5 to − 20 ° C). Winter in Yellowstone is accompanied by high temperatures usually between zero and 20 ° F (− 20 to − 5 ° C) and nighttime temperatures below 0 ° F (− 18 ° C) for most of the winter.
Precipitation in Yellowstone is highly variable and ranges from 15 inches (380 mm) annually near Mammoth Hot Springs, to 80 inches (2,000 mm) in the southwestern sections of the park. The precipitation of Yellowstone is greatly influenced by the moisture channel formed by the Snake River Plain to the west that was, in turn, formed by Yellowstone itself. Snow is possible in any month of the year, but most common between November and April, with averages of 150 inches (3,800 mm) annually around Yellowstone Lake, to twice that amount at higher elevations.
Tornadoes in Yellowstone are rare; however, on July 21, 1987, the most powerful tornado recorded in Wyoming touched down in the Teton Wilderness of Bridger - Teton National Forest and hit Yellowstone National Park. Called the Teton -- Yellowstone tornado, it was classified as an F4, with wind speeds estimated at between 207 and 260 miles per hour (333 and 418 km / h). The tornado left a path of destruction 1 to 2 miles (1.6 to 3.2 km) wide, and 24 miles (39 km) long, and leveled 15,000 acres (6,100 ha; 23 sq mi) of mature pine forest.
The climate at Yellowstone Lake is classified as subarctic (Dfc), according to Köppen - Geiger climate classification, while at the park headquarters the classification is humid continental (Dfb).
Yellowstone ranks among the most popular national parks in the United States. Since the mid-1960s, at least 2 million tourists have visited the park almost every year. Average annual visitation increased to 3.5 million during the ten - year period from 2007 to 2016, with a record of 4,257,177 recreational visitors in 2016. July is the busiest month for Yellowstone National Park. At peak summer levels, 3,700 employees work for Yellowstone National Park concessionaires. Concessionaires manage nine hotels and lodges, with a total of 2,238 hotel rooms and cabins available. They also oversee gas stations, stores and most of the campgrounds. Another 800 employees work either permanently or seasonally for the National Park Service.
Park service roads lead to major features; however, road reconstruction has produced temporary road closures. Yellowstone is in the midst of a long term road reconstruction effort, which is hampered by a short repair season. In the winter, all roads aside from the one which enters from Gardiner, Montana, and extends to Cooke City, Montana, are closed to wheeled vehicles. Park roads are closed to wheeled vehicles from early November to mid April, but some park roads remain closed until mid-May. The park has 310 miles (500 km) of paved roads which can be accessed from five different entrances. There is no public transportation available inside the park, but several tour companies can be contacted for guided motorized transport. In the winter, concessionaires operate guided snowmobile and snow coach tours, though their numbers and access are based on quotas established by the National Park Service. Facilities in the Old Faithful, Canyon and Mammoth Hot Springs areas of the park are very busy during the summer months. Traffic jams created by road construction or by people observing wildlife can result in long delays.
The National Park Service maintains 9 visitor centers and museums and is responsible for maintenance of historical structures and many of the other 2,000 buildings. These structures include National Historical Landmarks such as the Old Faithful Inn built from 1903 to 1904 and the entire Fort Yellowstone -- Mammoth Hot Springs Historic District. An historical and educational tour is available at Fort Yellowstone which details the history of the National Park Service and the development of the park. Campfire programs, guided walks and other interpretive presentations are available at numerous locations in the summer, and on a limited basis during other seasons.
Camping is available at a dozen campgrounds with more than 2,000 campsites. Camping is also available in surrounding National Forests, as well as in Grand Teton National Park to the south. Backcountry campsites are accessible only by foot or by horseback and require a permit. There are 1,100 miles (1,800 km) of hiking trails available. The park is not considered to be a good destination for mountaineering because of the instability of volcanic rock which predominates. Visitors with pets are required to keep them on a leash at all times and are limited to areas near roadways and in "frontcountry '' zones such as drive in campgrounds. Around thermal features, wooden and paved trails have been constructed to ensure visitor safety, and most of these areas are handicapped accessible. The National Park Service maintains a year - round clinic at Mammoth Hot Springs and provides emergency services throughout the year.
Hunting is not permitted, though it is allowed in the surrounding national forests during open season. Fishing is a popular activity, and a Yellowstone Park fishing license is required to fish in park waters. Many park waters are fly fishing only and all native fish species are catch and release only. Boating is prohibited on rivers and creeks except for a 5 miles (8.0 km) stretch of the Lewis River between Lewis and Shoshone Lake, and it is open to non-motorized use only. Yellowstone Lake has a marina, and the lake is the most popular boating destination.
In the early history of the park, visitors were allowed, and sometimes even encouraged, to feed the bears. Visitors welcomed the chance to get their pictures taken with the bears, who had learned to beg for food. This led to numerous injuries to humans each year. In 1970, park officials changed their policy and started a vigorous program to educate the public on the dangers of close contact with bears, and to try to eliminate opportunities for bears to find food in campgrounds and trash collection areas. Although it has become more difficult to observe bears in recent years, the number of human injuries and deaths has taken a significant drop and visitors are in less danger. The eighth recorded bear - related death in the park 's history occurred in August 2015.
Other protected lands in the region include Caribou - Targhee, Gallatin, Custer, Shoshone and Bridger - Teton National Forests. The National Park Service 's John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway is to the south and leads to Grand Teton National Park. The famed Beartooth Highway provides access from the northeast and has spectacular high altitude scenery. Nearby communities include West Yellowstone, Montana; Cody, Wyoming; Red Lodge, Montana; Ashton, Idaho; and Gardiner, Montana. The closest air transport is available by way of Bozeman, Montana; Billings, Montana; Jackson; Cody, Wyoming, or Idaho Falls, Idaho. Salt Lake City, 320 miles (510 km) to the south, is the closest large metropolitan area.
The entire park is within the jurisdiction of the United States District Court for the District of Wyoming, making it the only federal court district that includes portions of more than one state (Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming). Law professor Brian C. Kalt has argued that it may be impossible to impanel a jury in compliance with the Vicinage Clause of the Sixth Amendment for a crime committed solely in the unpopulated Idaho portion of the park (and that it would be difficult to do so for a crime committed solely in the lightly populated Montana portion). One defendant, who was accused of a wildlife - related crime in the Montana portion of the park, attempted to raise this argument but eventually pleaded guilty, with the plea deal including his specific agreement not to raise the issue in his appeal.
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organisational structure of the south african police service | South African police Service - wikipedia
The South African Police Service (SAPS) is the national police force of the Republic of South Africa. Its 1,138 police stations in South Africa are divided according to the provincial borders, and a Provincial Commissioner is appointed in each province. The 9 Provincial Commissioners report directly to the National Commissioner. The head office is in the Wachthuis Building in Pretoria.
The Constitution of South Africa lays down that the South African Police Service has a responsibility to prevent, combat and investigate crime, maintain public order, protect and secure the inhabitants of the Republic and their property, uphold and enforce the law, create a safe and secure environment for all people in South Africa, prevent anything that may threaten the safety or security of any community, investigate any crimes that threaten the safety or security of any community, ensure criminals are brought to justice and participate in efforts to address the causes of crime. However Amnesty International and others have expressed serious concerns about police brutality in South Africa, including torture and extrajudicial killings. Former Constitutional Court judge Zak Yacoob has argued that the post-apartheid police force is no better than the apartheid police force. Sipho Hlongwane, writing in Business Day, has argued that "South Africa is a brutal police state ''.
Between 1 April 2009 and 31 March 2010, 107 SAPS officers died while on duty.
The South African Police Service traces its origin to the Dutch Watch, a paramilitary organisation formed by settlers in the Cape in 1655, initially to protect civilians against attack and later to maintain law and order. In 1795 British officials assumed control over the Dutch Watch and in 1825 they organised the Cape Constabulary, which became the Cape Town Police Force in 1840. In 1854 a police force was established in Durban which would become the Durban Borough Police and in 1935 the Durban City Police (DCP). Act 3 of 1855 established the Frontier Armed and Mounted Police Force in the Eastern Cape, restyled as the Cape Mounted Riflemen in 1878.
The South African Police was eventually created after the Union of South Africa in 1913. Four years later, the Mounted Riflemen 's Association relinquished its civilian responsibilities to the SAP as most of its riflemen left to serve in World War I. The SAP and the military maintained their close relationship even after the SAP assumed permanent responsibility for domestic law and order in 1926. Police officials often called on the army for support in emergencies. In World War II, one SAP brigade served with the 2nd Infantry Division of the South African Army in North Africa.
When the National Party (NP) edged out its more liberal opponents in nationwide elections in 1948, the new government enacted legislation strengthening the relationship between the police and the military. The police were heavily armed after that, especially when facing unruly or hostile crowds. The Police Act (No. 7) of 1958 broadened the mission of the SAP beyond conventional police functions, such as maintaining law and order and investigating and preventing crime, and gave the police extraordinary powers to quell unrest and to conduct counterinsurgency activities. The Police Amendment Act (No. 70) of 1965 empowered the police to search without warrant any person, receptacle, vehicle, aircraft, or premise within one mile of any national border and to seize anything found during such a search. This search - and - seize zone was extended to within eight miles of any border in 1979 and to the entire country in 1983.
After the end of apartheid, the SAP was renamed the South African Police Service (SAPS), and the Ministry of Law and Order was renamed the Ministry of Safety and Security, in keeping with these symbolic reforms. The new minister of safety and security, Sydney Mufamadi, obtained police training assistance from Zimbabwe, the United Kingdom and Canada and proclaimed that racial tolerance and human rights would be central to police training programs in the future. By the end of 1995, the SAPS had incorporated the ten police agencies from the former homelands and had reorganised at both the national level and at the level of South Africa 's nine new provinces.
The distribution of South African Police Service personnel has been controversial with local legislators questioning why areas most in need of policing resources being neglected on both a provincial level as well as on a police precinct level. The department was criticised by the Western Cape Government for providing the lowest number police personnel adjusted for population in the country with a shortage of 2 392 police despite the province having the highest murder rate. Within the Western Cape the department has been criticised for providing the lowest numbers police personnel - adjusted for population - to areas with the highest crime rates. This was the subject of the Khayelitsha Commission of Inquirery by provincial government.
South African Police officers on duty generally carry a Vektor Z88 9mm pistol (although a more compact pistol, the RAP 401, is available if officers request it) and pepper spray while officers in Cape Town along with some other services of the force are equipped with the Glock 17. Each police patrol is usually also equipped a R5 rifle in the car.
To quell disturbances, the SAP used a variety of arms, including R1 semi-automatic rifles, BXP sub-machine gun, Musler 12 gauge shotgun which is capable of firing the new generation of anti-riot rubber bullets which are contained in a standard 12 bore shotgun cartridge as well as tear gas grenades using a so - called ballistic cartridge and pencil flares.
The R1 rifle has been withdrawn from all front - line police armories since the mid-1990s, but is still used by elements of the Special Task Force.
Through the early 1990s, the police were also equipped with smoke and tear - gas dispensing vehicles, tank trucks with water cannons, vehicles that dispensed barbed wire or razor wire to cordon off areas rapidly, and a number of rotor and fixed wing aircraft for surveillance, ground force management, crime prevention, rapid deployment of Task Force and specialist teams to crime scenes and VIP personnel movements.
Eurocopter MBB BO105 and Kawasaki BK117 Helicopters equipped with 30Million candle power nightsun spotlights and LEO / FLIR equipment enabled their 24x7 day / night operational capability. Riot - control forces deployed in specially designed buses or Casspir armoured personnel carriers.
The SAPS includes a large reserve division named the South African Reserve Police Service. These members help part - time to combat crime in South Africa.
Three police unions were active in bargaining on behalf of police personnel and in protecting the interests of the work force, as of 1996. These are the Police and Prisons Civil Rights Union, which has about 150 000 members; the South African Policing Union (SAPU), which has about 35,000 members; and the Public Service Association (PSA), which has about 4,000 members.
The commissioned officers in the force are 57 % black, 28 % white, 10 % coloured, 2 % Indian; 70 % male, 30 % female. Non-commissioned officers are 78 % black, 10 % coloured, 10 % white, 2 % Indian; 78 % male, 22 % female.
The SAPS headquarters in Pretoria is organized into six divisions. These are the Crime Combating and Investigation Division, the Visible Policing Division, the Internal Stability Division, the Community Relations Division, the Supporting Services Division, and the Human Resource Management Division.
The Crime Combating and Investigation Division holds overall responsibility for coordinating information about crime and investigative procedures. It administers the SAPS Criminal Record Centre, the SAPS Commercial Crime Unit, the SAPS Diamond and Gold Branch, the South African Narcotics Bureau, the Stock Theft Unit, the Inspectorate for Explosives, murder and robbery units located in each major city, and vehicle theft units throughout the country. In addition, the division manages the National Bureau of Missing Persons, which was established in late 1994.
The Visible Policing Division manages highly public police operations, such as guarding senior government officials and dignitaries. Most government residences are guarded by members of the division 's Special Guard Unit. The division 's all - volunteer Special Task Force handles hostage situations and other high - risk activities. The Internal Stability Division is responsible for preventing and quelling internal unrest, and for assisting other divisions in combating crime. The Community Relations Division consults with all police divisions concerning accountability and respect for human rights. The Supporting Services Division manages financial, legal, and administrative aspects of the SAPS. The Human Resource Management Division helps to hire, to train, and to maintain a competent work force for the SAPS.
The Annual Report of the South African Police Service (SAPS) for the period 1 April 2007 to 31 March 2008, was published on 29 August 2008. In terms of this report, the structure of the SAPS looks quite different from in 1996.
The National Commissioner is assisted by five Deputy National Commissioners (DNC):
The current ranking system of the SAPS was adopted on 1 April 2010. The change caused some controversy as the new ranks like "general '' and "colonel '' have a military connotation. Furthermore, the new rank system mirrors the system used by the South African Police during the apartheid era. In 2009, Deputy Minister of Police Fikile Mbalula spoke of making the police a paramilitary force by changing the SAPS ranking system so that it would closely mirror the military ranking system. This created a significant amount of controversy from people critical of what they called the "militarisation '' of the police.
Reservists within the organization shall, in the future, be appointed without any ranks. Existing reservists will retain their current ranks.
The South African Police Service operate a fleet of 45 aeroplanes and helicopters.
Airplanes
Helicopters
On 10 September 2007 a warrant of arrest was issued by the National Prosecuting Authority (NPA) for National Police Commissioner (served as Interpol President from 2004 until 12 January 2008 when he resigned voluntarily) Jackie Selebi. On 23 September 2007 President Mbeki suspended NPA Head Vusi Pikoli, allegedly because of "an irretrievable breakdown '' in the relationship between Pikoli and Justice Minister Brigitte Mabandla. However, journalists at the Mail and Guardian claim to have solid information supporting the widespread suspicion that President Mbeki suspended Pikoli as part of a bid to shield Police Commissioner Selebi. According to the Mail and Guardian on 5 October 2007 the NPA was investigating Selebi for corruption, fraud, racketeering and defeating the ends of justice. Selebi was found guilty of corruption on 2 July 2010, but not guilty of further charges of perverting the course of justice.
In February 2011 Bheki Cele was implicated in unlawful conduct and maladministration with a R500m lease agreement for the new police headquarters in Pretoria. On 24 October 2011, President Jacob Zuma announced that Cele had been suspended pending an investigation into the agreement.
On 12 June 2012, after a recommendation from a board of inquiry, Zuma dismissed Cele and announced that Riah Phiyega, the first female commissioner, would replace him.
Since the departure of democratic South Africa 's first national commissioner, General George Fivaz in January 2000, a number of successive police commissioners were unable to complete a single term in office as they were implicated in and charged with misconduct.
The Marikana Massacre, was a mass shooting that occurred when police broke up a gathering by striking Lonmin workers on a ' koppie ' (hilltop) near the Nkaneng shack settlement in Marikana on Thursday, 16 August 2012. 34 miners died during the incident and an additional 78 miners were injured, causing anger and outcry against the police and South African government. Further controversy emerged after it was discovered that most of the victims were shot in the back and many victims were shot far from police lines.
The incident took place at the Lonmin platinum mines in Marikana, South Africa. It was the single most deadly incident between police and the civilian population in South Africa since the 1960 Sharpeville Massacre and has been referred to as a turning - point in post-1994 South African society.
It later emerged that the violence had actually started on 11 August when leaders from the National Union of Mineworkers opened fire on striking NUM members killing two. It is alleged that police did nothing in the aftermath thereby creating a situation in which workers felt that they would have to use other means to protect themselves. Between the 12 and 14 August, approximately 8 more people were killed including two policemen and two security guards.
The incident occurred at the early hours of Wednesday morning 21 February 2018 at Ngcobo.
Amnesty International has expressed concerns about police brutality, including torture and extrajudicial killings, in South Africa. There has also been concern about brutal training methods for the police. According to Peter Jordi from the Wits Law Clinic "(Police) Torture is spiralling out of control. It is happening everywhere. '' Brandon Edmonds argues that "The cops prey on the poor in this country. '' In April 2012 an editorial in The Times opined that "It seems torture and outright violation of human rights is becoming the order of the day for some of our police officers and experts warn that the line between criminals and our law enforcement officers is "blurred ''. ''
In February 2013, police in Daveyton, Gauteng were caught on video brutalising Mido Macia, a Mozambican taxi driver accused of parking illegally. They handcuffed Macia to a police van, and dragged him through the streets. Macia later died of his injuries. Eight police officers were later arrested for his death.
According to Mamphela Ramphele one of the rallying cries of the freedom struggle was the protest against police brutality, against deaths in detention. More people are dying now in police custody than ever before. We have brutality no different from during the Apartheid era.
630 police officers from Gauteng Province were arrested in 2011, most for fraud and corruption, but also for rape and murder.
A number of community organisations and social movements have accused the SAPS of acting against them with illegality and brutality. Independent studies have confirmed that the SAPS has been used to repress peaceful marches and freedom of association.
On 27 April 2009, SAPS attempted to ban a well - known event among the social movements called unFreedom Day and was implicated in support for September 2009 ANC mob that attacked the elected leadership of the shack settlement at Kennedy Road, Durban.
SAPS has also been implicated in draconian policing measures. Numerous accusations come from the infamous Blikkiesdorp Temporary Relocation Area in Delft, Cape Town where police have been accused of suppression of freedoms and illegal curfews.
A number of unarmed protestors have been killed by the South African Police since 2000. The following list is not complete and does not include victims of the Marikana Massacre:
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.
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who does the voiceover on the dacia advert | Ralph Ineson - wikipedia
Ralph Michael Ineson (born 15 December 1969) is an English actor, best known as Dagmer Cleftjaw in Game of Thrones, Amycus Carrow in the last three Harry Potter films, William in The Witch and Chris Finch in the BBC series The Office.
Ineson was born in Leeds, West Riding of Yorkshire and educated at Woodleigh School, North Yorkshire and Pocklington School. In the early 1990s, after studying Theatre Studies at Lancaster University, he was a teacher at York Sixth Form College, where he was also a cricket coach.
He played the recurring character Chris Finch in the BBC comedy The Office. He starred as Donald Bamford in the sitcom Goodnight Sweetheart, as Zack in the soap opera Coronation Street, and played ex-soldier "Sam Walker '' in the first series of Spooks. He played Luke Mullen in the BBC drama Playing the Field. He had a minor part in episode four of the first series of BBC drama This Life. He starred in Suburban Shootout, which aired on Paramount Comedy and Five. He played Frank Monk in series 7 of Waking The Dead in the episode, "Wounds ''. He played Dagmer Cleftjaw in the second season of HBO 's Game of Thrones. He also appeared in an Imperial Leather advert as a fireman.
Ineson had a minor role in the fifth and sixth series of BBC drama Waterloo Road in 2009 playing the role of Jon Fry. He had a small role in an episode of Channel 4 comedy The IT Crowd, as Paul, a buttock - kissing masseur, in the series 4 episode "Something Happened ''. In the 2012 ITV Titanic mini-series he played Steward Hart. In 2016, he appeared in the third season of the BBC Two series Peaky Blinders, playing the part of Connor Nutley. In 2018, he will appear in the Netflix Coen brothers series The Ballad of Buster Scruggs.
Ineson 's Hollywood film credits include First Knight, From Hell, Shopping (1994) he played Dix Sex & Drugs & Rock & Roll and a brief role in The Damned United. He played Amycus Carrow, a Death Eater, in Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 and Part 2. He also appeared in the 2008 film Cass, as Sergeant Mullins.
In 2014, he appeared in the Marvel Studios film Guardians of the Galaxy. In 2015, he had a small role in the spy film Kingsman: The Secret Service, playing a policeman that interviews Eggsy.
He played William alongside Anya Taylor - Joy and Kate Dickie in Robert Eggers 's critically acclaimed debut film The Witch, which saw Eggers win Best Director at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival.
Ineson has used his distinctive Yorkshire accent in a variety of voice over work. He has narrated TV programmes Licence to Drill, Salvage Hunters on the Discovery Channel, the 2010 Sky TV series Inside Gatwick, the BBC1 series Claimed and Shamed.
In the 2012 -- 13 BBC Radio 4 dramatisations of the ten Martin Beck police novels by Maj Sjöwall and Per Wahlöö, Ineson played policeman Gunvald Larsson.
In 2013, he voiced the Channel 4 series Skint which followed the lives of British families from underprivileged backgrounds. In 2015, he narrated Countryside 999 on BBC One. He narrated the BBC One documentary Series Gears and Tears which follows the characters of British BriSCA Formula 1 Stock Cars.
TV adverts that have used his voice include: lastminute.com, Dacia cars, Gaviscon and Wickes. He also did the Sky Bet adverts during Sky Sports football coverage.
In video games, Ineson returned to voice Amycus Carrow in the video game adaptation of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2, and gave his voice and likeness for the infamous pirate Charles Vane in Assassin 's Creed IV: Black Flag.
He is a supporter of Leeds United, and is a member of the Leeds United Supporter 's Trust.
He has been married to Ali Ineson, editor of make - up artist magazine Warpaint, since 1993, and they have two children.
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where is raising the flag on iwo jima statue | Marine Corps War memorial - Wikipedia
The United States Marine Corps War Memorial (Iwo Jima Memorial) is a national memorial located in Arlington County, Virginia, in the United States. Dedicated 64 years ago in 1954, it is located in Arlington Ridge Park, near the Ord - Weitzel Gate to Arlington National Cemetery and the Netherlands Carillon. The war memorial is dedicated to all U.S. Marine Corps personnel who died in the defense of the United States since 1775.
The memorial was inspired by the iconic 1945 photograph of six Marines raising a U.S. flag atop Mount Suribachi during the Battle of Iwo Jima in World War II. It was taken by Associated Press combat photographer Joe Rosenthal. Upon first seeing the photograph, sculptor Felix de Weldon created a maquette for a sculpture based on the photo in a single weekend at Patuxent River Naval Air Station in Maryland, where he was serving in the Navy. He and architect Horace W. Peaslee designed the memorial. Their proposal was presented to Congress, but funding was not possible during the war. In 1947, a federal foundation was established to raise funds for the memorial.
The centerpiece of the memorial is a colossal sculpture group depicting the six Marines who raised the second (and larger) replacement U.S. flag atop Mount Suribachi on February 23, 1945. They were: Marine Sergeant Michael Strank, Corporal Harlon Block, Private First Class Rene Gagnon, Private First Class Ira Hayes, Private First Class Harold Schultz, and Private First Class Franklin Sousley.
The flag - raising also was recorded by Marine Sergeant Bill Genaust, a combat motion picture cameraman, who filmed the event in color while standing beside Rosenthal. Genaust 's footage was included in the 1945 newsreel "Carriers Hit Tokyo, '' and established that the second flag raising was not staged. He was killed by the Japanese after entering a cave on Iwo Jima during the battle. Genaust 's remains have never been found.
The commission for the memorial was awarded in 1951. De Weldon spent three years creating a full - sized master model in plaster, with figures 32 feet (9.8 m) tall. This was disassembled like a giant puzzle, and each piece was separately cast in bronze. Peaslee 's base for the memorial is made of black diabase granite from a quarry in Lönsboda, a small town in the southernmost province of Sweden. It features a number of inscriptions. Groundbreaking was held on February 19, 1954. Construction of the memorial began in September. The bronze pieces of the sculpture were assembled to Brooklyn, New York for casting in bronze. This took about 3 months to complete. After that, they were reassembled into a dozen pieces and were shipped back to Arlington, Virginia in a 3 truck convoy, to which was added a 60 feet (18 m) flagpole. The total cost of the memorial was $850,000, including the development of the site. It was paid for with donations from U.S. Marines, former Marines, Marine Corps Reservists, friends of the Marine Corps, and members of the Naval Service; no public funds were used.
The memorial was dedicated on November 10, 1954, the 179th anniversary of the founding of the Marine Corps. The Presiding officials included President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Vice President Richard Nixon, Deputy Secretary of Defense Robert Anderson (Honorary Chairman of the Day), Assistant Secretary of the Interior Fred G. Aandahl, and sculptor Felix de Weldon. Speeches were given by Richard Nixon, Robert Anderson who dedicated the memorial, Felix de Weldon, and General Lemuel Shepherd, 20th Commandant of the Marine Corps who presented the memorial to the American people.
In 1961, President John F. Kennedy issued a proclamation on June 12 that a Flag of the United States should fly over the memorial 24 hours a day, one of the few official sites where this is required. Despite being mounted on the staff of the sculpture, which depicts an event that occurred when the U.S. flag had 48 stars, the flag used is a modern one (specifically, one featuring the number and arrangement of stars prescribed as of when the flag is being flown) in keeping with both the text of the proclamation and the memorial 's dedication to all Marines who died in defense of the United States regardless of when their deaths occurred.
The memorial is located on a high ridge, overlooking the national capital. The Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C. uses the memorial as the centerpiece of its weekly Sunset Parade, featuring the Drum and Bugle Corps and the Silent Drill Platoon.
The memorial consists of front and rear inscriptions, and inscribed in gold letters around the polished black granite upper base of the memorial is the date and location of every United States Marine Corps major action up to the present time.
Front (west side): "Uncommon Valor Was A Common Virtue '' -- "Semper Fidelis ''
Rear (east side): "In Honor And Memory Of The Men Of The United States Marine Corps Who Have Given Their Lives To Their Country Since 10 November 1775 ''
Felix de Weldon 's and Joe Rosenthal 's names are also inscribed on the bottom left and bottom right base of the front side of the memorial. Rosenthal 's name was added in 1982.
"Dedicated To The Marine Dead Of All Wars, And Their Comrades Of Other Services Who Fell Fighting Beside Them.
Created By Felix De Weldon, And Inspired By The Immortal Photograph Taken By Joseph J. Rosenthal On February 23, 1945, Atop Mt. Suribachi, Iwo Jima, Volcano Islands.
Erected By The Marine Corps War Memorial Foundation, With Funds Provided By Marines And Their Friends, And With The Cooperation And Support Of Many Public Officials.
Dedicated, November 10, 1954 ''
A persistent rumor has attributed the existence of a thirteenth hand from the six statues of the men depicted on the memorial and speculation about the possible reasons for it. When informed of the rumor, de Weldon exclaimed, "Thirteen hands. Who needed 13 hands? Twelve were enough. ''
In the siting controversy for the U.S. Air Force Memorial, originally to be near de Weldon 's work, J. Carter Brown (in 1998, chairman of the United States Commission of Fine Arts) described the Marine Corps Memorial as, "I would say that the Iwo Jima memorial is kitsch. It was taken from a photograph, it is by a sculptor, even though he was a member of this commission at one point, who is not going to go down as a Michelangelo in history -- and yet it is very effective, largely because of its site. '' This remark was met with calls for Brown 's resignation from the commission, and disagreement over the categorization from the commission 's staff.
On April 29, 2015, philanthropist David Rubenstein pledged over five million dollars to refurbish the memorial in honor of his father, a Marine veteran from World War II who died in 2013, "and all Marines who have died in service to the United States. '' The $5.37 million donation, made through the National Park Foundation, supported cleaning and waxing the statue, polishing the black granite panels, regilding inscriptions, relandscaping, and making repairs to the pavement, lighting and flagpole. The work took about two years to complete. While the Park Service performs regular routine maintenance, this was the first comprehensive refurbishment of the memorial since its dedication in 1954.
When there were no government funds for sculpture during the war, the sculptor financed a concrete version of similar design in a one - third size that was placed on a parcel of land in Washington, D.C. until 1947, when it was put into storage. It later was restored and displayed at a museum on an aircraft carrier and again, returned to storage. This small concrete statue of the second U.S. flag raising at Iwo Jima in 1945 was scheduled to be auctioned in February 2013 at a New York auction dedicated to World War II artifacts, but it failed to receive the minimum bid required for the auction of it to begin.
Other related memorials and copies:
The 5th Marine Division Memorial, at the U.S. flag - raising site on Mount Suribachi, Iwo Jima.
Marine Corps Memorial, Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia.
Iwo Jima Memorial, Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island, South Carolina.
Pacific War Memorial, Marine Corps Base Hawaii.
War Memorial (1973), U.S. Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island
Iwo Jima Monument (1982), Marine Military Academy, Harlingen, Texas.
National Iwo Jima Memorial (1995), Newington, Connecticut
The copy in Fall River, Massachusetts (2005)
Sculptor Felix de Weldon with his master model.
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Marine Corps.
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 26 '' N 77 ° 04 ′ 11 '' W / 38.890432 ° N 77.069714 ° W / 38.890432; - 77.069714
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when did puerto rico become a us property | History of Puerto Rico - wikipedia
The history of Puerto Rico began with the settlement of the archipelago of Puerto Rico by the Ortoiroid people between 3,000 and 2,000 BC. Other tribes, such as the Saladoid and Arawak Indians, populated the island between 430 BC and 1000 AD. At the time of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the New World in 1492, the dominant indigenous culture was that of the Taínos. The Taíno people 's numbers went dangerously low during the later half of the 16th century because of new infectious diseases carried by Europeans, exploitation by Spanish settlers, and warfare.
Located in the northeastern Caribbean, Puerto Rico formed a key part of the Spanish Empire from the early years of the exploration, conquest and colonization of the New World. The island was a major military post during many wars between Spain and other European powers for control of the region in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The smallest of the Greater Antilles, Puerto Rico was a stepping - stone in the passage from Europe to Cuba, Mexico, Central America, and the northern territories of South America. Throughout most of the 19th century until the conclusion of the Spanish -- American War, Puerto Rico and Cuba were the last two Spanish colonies in the New World; they served as Spain 's final outposts in a strategy to regain control of the American continents. Realizing that it was in danger of losing its two remaining Caribbean territories, the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815. The decree was printed in Spanish, English and French in order to attract Europeans, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity and strength with the arrival of new settlers. Free land was offered to those who wanted to populate the islands on the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church.
In 1898, during the Spanish -- American War, Puerto Rico was invaded and subsequently became a possession of the United States. The first years of the 20th century were marked by the struggle to obtain greater democratic rights from the United States. The Foraker Act of 1900, which established a civil government, and the Jones Act of 1917, which made Puerto Ricans U.S. citizens, paved the way for the drafting of Puerto Rico 's Constitution and its approval by Congress and Puerto Rican voters in 1952. However, the political status of Puerto Rico, a Commonwealth controlled by the United States, remains an anomaly.
The settlement of Puerto Rico began with the establishment of the Ortoiroid culture from the Orinoco region in South America. Some scholars suggest that their settlement dates back 4000 years. An archeological dig at the island of Vieques in 1990 found the remains of what is believed to be an Ortoiroid man (named Puerto Ferro man) which was dated to around 2000 BC. The Ortoiroid were displaced by the Saladoid, a culture from the same region that arrived on the island between 430 and 250 BC.
Between the seventh and 11th centuries, the Arawak are thought to have settled the island. During this time the Taíno culture developed, and by approximately 1000 AD, it had become dominant. Taíno culture has been traced to the village of Saladero at the basin of the Orinoco River in Venezuela; the Taíno migrated to Puerto Rico by crossing the Lesser Antilles.
At the time of Columbus ' arrival, an estimated 30 to 60 thousand Taíno Amerindians, led by the cacique (chief) Agüeybaná, inhabited the island. They called it "Borinquen '', "the great land of the valiant and noble Lord ''. The natives lived in small villages led by a cacique and subsisted on hunting, fishing and gathering of indigenous cassava root and fruit. When the Spaniards arrived in 1493, the Taíno were already in conflict with the raiding Carib, who were moving up the Antilles chain. The Taíno domination of the island was nearing its end, and the Spanish arrival marked the beginning of their extinction. Their culture, however, remains part of that of contemporary Puerto Rico. Musical instruments such as maracas and güiro, the hammock, and words such as Mayagüez, Arecibo, iguana, Caguas and huracán (hurricane) are examples of the legacy left by the Taíno.
On September 24, 1493, Christopher Columbus set sail on his second voyage with 17 ships and 1,200 to 1,500 soldiers from Cádiz. On November 19, 1493 he landed on the island, naming it San Juan Bautista in honor of Saint John the Baptist. The first European colony, Caparra, was founded on August 8, 1508 by Juan Ponce de León, a lieutenant under Columbus, who was greeted by the Taíno Cacique Agüeybaná and who later became the first governor of the island. Ponce de Leon was actively involved in the Higuey massacre of 1503 in Puerto Rico. In 1508, Sir Ponce de Leon was chosen by the Spanish Crown to lead the conquest and slavery of the Taíno Indians for gold mining operations. The following year, the colony was abandoned in favor of a nearby islet on the coast, named Puerto Rico (Rich Port), which had a suitable harbor. In 1511, a second settlement, San Germán was established in the southwestern part of the island. According to the "500TH Florida Discovery Council Round Table '', on March 3, 1513, Juan Ponce de León, organized and commenced an expedition (with a crew of 200, including women and free blacks) departing from "Punta Aguada '' Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico was the historic first gateway to the discovery of Florida, which opened the door to the settlement of the southeastern United States. They introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language and more to the land (Florida) that later became the United States of America. This settlement occurred 107 years before the Pilgrims landed. During the 1520s, the island took the name of Puerto Rico while the port became San Juan.
The Spanish settlers established the first repartimiento system, under which natives were distributed to Spanish officials to be used as slave labor. On December 27, 1512, under pressure from the Roman Catholic Church, Ferdinand II of Aragon issued the Burgos ' Laws, which modified the repartimiento into a system called encomiendas, aimed at ending the exploitation. The laws prohibited the use of any form of punishment toward the indigenous people, regulated their work hours, pay, hygiene, and care, and ordered them to be catechized. In 1511, the Taínos revolted against the Spanish; cacique Urayoán, as planned by Agüeybaná II, ordered his warriors to drown the Spanish soldier Diego Salcedo to determine whether the Spaniards were immortal. After drowning Salcedo, they kept watch over his body for three days to confirm his death. The revolt was easily crushed by Ponce de León and within a few decades much of the native population had been decimated by disease, violence, and a high occurrence of suicide. As a result, Taíno culture, language, and traditions were generally destroyed, and were claimed to have "vanished '' 50 years after Christopher Columbus arrived. Since the early 21st century, efforts have been made to revive and rebuild Taíno culture.
The Roman Catholic Church of chappel, realizing the opportunity to expand its influence, also participated in colonizing the island. On August 8, 1511, Pope Julius II established three dioceses in the New World, one in Puerto Rico and two on the island of Hispaniola under the archbishop of Seville. The Canon of Salamanca, Alonso Manso, was appointed bishop of the Puerto Rican diocese. On September 26, 1512, before his arrival on the island, the first school of advanced studies was established by the bishop. Taking possession in 1513, he became the first bishop to arrive in the Americas. Puerto Rico would also become the first ecclesiastical headquarters in the New World during the reign of Pope Leo X and the general headquarters of the Spanish Inquisition in the New World.
As part of the colonization process, African slaves were brought to the island in 1513. Following the decline of the Taíno population, more slaves were brought to Puerto Rico; however, the number of slaves on the island paled in comparison to those in neighboring islands. Also, early in the colonization of Puerto Rico, attempts were made to wrest control of Puerto Rico from Spain. The Caribs, a raiding tribe of the Caribbean, attacked Spanish settlements along the banks of the Daguao and Macao rivers in 1514 and again in 1521 but each time they were easily repelled by the superior Spanish firepower. However, these would not be the last attempts at control of Puerto Rico. The European powers quickly realized the potential of the newly discovered lands and attempted to gain control of them.
The first school in Puerto Rico and the first school in the United States after Puerto Rico became a US territory, was the Escuela de Gramatica (Grammar School). The school was established by Bishop Alonso Manso in 1513, in the area where the Cathedral of San Juan was to be constructed. The school was free of charge and the courses taught were Latin language, literature, history, science, art, philosophy and theology.
Sparked by the possibility of immense wealth, many European powers made attempts to wrest control of the Americas from Spain in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Success in invasion varied, and ultimately all Spanish opponents failed to maintain permanent control of the island. In 1528, the French, recognizing the strategic value of Puerto Rico, sacked and burned the southwestern town of San Germán. They also destroyed many of the island 's first settlements, including Guánica, Sotomayor, Daguao and Loíza before the local militia forced them to retreat. The only settlement that remained was the capital, San Juan. French corsairs would again sack San Germán in 1538 and 1554.
Spain, determined to defend its possession, began the fortification of the inlet of San Juan in the early 16th century. In 1532, construction of the first fortifications began with La Fortaleza (the Fortress) near the entrance to San Juan Bay. Seven years later the construction of massive defenses around San Juan began, including Fort San Felipe del Morro astride the entrance to San Juan Bay. Later, Fort San Cristóbal and Fort San Jerónimo -- built with a financial subsidy from the Mexican mines -- garrisoned troops and defended against land attacks. In 1587, engineers Juan de Tejada and Juan Bautista Antonelli redesigned Fort San Felipe del Morro; these changes endure. Politically, Puerto Rico was reorganized in 1580 into a captaincy general to provide for more autonomy and quick administrative responses to military threats.
On November 22, 1595, English privateer Sir Francis Drake -- with 27 vessels and 2,500 troops -- sailed into San Juan Bay intending to loot the city. However, they were unable to defeat the forces entrenched in the forts. Knowing Drake had failed to overcome the city 's defenses by sea, on June 15, 1598, the Royal Navy, led by George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland, landed troops from 21 ships to the east in Santurce. Clifford and his men met Spanish resistance while attempting to cross the San Antonio bridge (from an area known today as Condado) into the islet of San Juan. Nonetheless, the English conquered the island and held it for several months. They were forced to abandon the island owing to an outbreak of dysentery among the troops. The following year Spain sent soldiers, cannons, and a new governor, Alonso de Mercado, to rebuild the city of San Juan.
The 17th and 18th centuries saw more attacks on the island. On September 25, 1625, the Dutch, under the leadership of Boudewijn Hendrick (Balduino Enrico), attacked San Juan, besieging Fort San Felipe del Morro and La Fortaleza. Residents fled the city but the Spanish, led by Governor Juan de Haro, were able to repel the Dutch troops from Fort San Felipe del Morro. The fortification of San Juan continued; in 1634, Philip IV of Spain fortified Fort San Cristóbal, along with six fortresses linked by a line of sandstone walls surrounding the city. In 1702, the English assaulted the town of Arecibo, located on the north coast, west of San Juan, with no success. In 1797, the French and Spanish declared war on the United Kingdom. The British attempted again to conquer the island, attacking San Juan with an invasion force of 7,000 troops and an armada consisting of 64 warships under the command of General Ralph Abercromby. Captain General Don Ramón de Castro and his army successfully resisted the attack.
Amidst the constant attacks, the first threads of Puerto Rican society emerged. A 1765 census conducted by Lt. General Alejandro O'Reilly showed a total population of 44,883, of which 5,037 (11.2 %) were slaves, a low percentage compared to the other Spanish colonies in the Caribbean. In 1786 the first comprehensive history of Puerto Rico -- Historia Geográfica, Civil y Política de Puerto Rico by Fray Iñigo Abbad y Lasierra -- was published in Madrid, documenting the history of Puerto Rico from the time of Columbus ' landing in 1493 until 1783. The book also presents a first hand account of Puerto Rican identity, including music, clothing, personality and nationality.
In 1779, Puerto Ricans fought in the American Revolutionary War under the command of Bernardo de Gálvez, who was named Field Marshal of the Spanish colonial army in North America. Puerto Ricans participated in the capture of Pensacola, the capital of the British colony of West Florida and the cities of Baton Rouge, St. Louis and Mobile. The Puerto Rican troops, commanded by Brigadier General Ramón de Castro, helped defeat the British and Indian army of 2,500 soldiers and British warships in Pensacola.
The 19th century brought many changes to Puerto Rico, both political and social. In 1809, the Spanish government, in opposition to Napoleon, was convened in Cádiz in southern Spain. While still swearing allegiance to the king, the Supreme Central Junta invited voting representatives from the colonies. Ramón Power y Giralt was nominated as the local delegate to the Cádiz Cortes. The Ley Power ("the Power Act '') soon followed, which designated five ports for free commerce -- Fajardo, Mayagüez, Aguadilla, Cabo Rojo and Ponce -- and established economic reforms with the goal of developing a more efficient economy. In 1812, the Cádiz Constitution was adopted, dividing Spain and its territories into provinces, each with a local corporation or council to promote its prosperity and defend its interests; this granted Puerto Ricans conditional citizenship.
On August 10, 1815, the Royal Decree of Grace was issued, allowing foreigners to enter Puerto Rico (including French refugees from Hispaniola), and opening the port to trade with nations other than Spain. This was the beginning of agriculture - based economic growth, with sugar, tobacco and coffee being the main products. The Decree also gave free land to anyone who swore their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and their allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. Thousands of families from all regions of Spain (particularly Asturias, Catalonia, Majorca and Galicia), Germany, Corsica, Ireland, France, Portugal, the Canary Islands and other locations, escaping from harsh economic times in Europe and lured by the offer of free land, soon immigrated to Puerto Rico. However, these small gains in autonomy and rights were short lived. After the fall of Napoleon, absolute power returned to Spain, which revoked the Cádiz Constitution and reinstated Puerto Rico to its former condition as a colony, subject to the unrestricted power of the Spanish monarch.
The integration of immigrants into Puerto Rican culture and other events changed Puerto Rican society. On June 25, 1835, Queen María Cristina abolished the slave trade to Spanish colonies. In 1851, Governor Juan de la Pezuela Cevallos founded the Royal Academy of Belles Letters. The academy licensed primary school teachers, formulated school methods, and held literary contests that promoted the intellectual and literary progress of the island.
In 1858, Samuel Morse introduced wired communication to Latin America when he established a telegraph system in Puerto Rico. Morse 's oldest daughter Susan Walker Morse (1821 -- 1885), would often visit her uncle Charles Pickering Walker who owned the Hacienda Concordia in the town of Guayama. Morse, who often spent his winters at the Hacienda with his daughter and son - in - law, who lived and owned the Hacienda Henriqueta, set a two - mile telegraph line connecting his son - in - law 's hacienda to their house in Arroyo. The line was inaugurated on March 1, 1859 in a ceremony flanked by the Spanish and American flags. The first lines transmitted by Morse that day in Puerto Rico were:
Puerto Rico, beautiful jewel! When you are linked with the other jewels of the Antilles in the necklace of the world 's telegraph, yours will not shine less brilliantly in the crown of your Queen!
Minor slave revolts had occurred in the island during this period, However the revolt planned and organized by Marcos Xiorro in 1821, was the most important of them all. Even though the conspiracy was unsuccessful, he achieved legendary status among the slaves and is part of Puerto Rico 's folklore.
The last half of the 19th century was marked by the Puerto Rican struggle for sovereignty. A census conducted in 1860 revealed a population of 583,308. Of these, 300,406 (51.5 %) were white and 282,775 (48.5 %) were persons of color, the latter including people of primarily African heritage, mulattos and mestizos. The majority of the population in Puerto Rico was illiterate (83.7 %) and lived in poverty, and the agricultural industry -- at the time, the main source of income -- was hampered by lack of road infrastructure, adequate tools and equipment, and natural disasters, including hurricanes and droughts. The economy also suffered from increasing tariffs and taxes imposed by the Spanish Crown. Furthermore, Spain had begun to exile or jail any person who called for liberal reforms.
On September 23, 1868, hundreds of men and women in the town of Lares -- stricken by poverty and politically estranged from Spain -- revolted against Spanish rule, seeking Puerto Rican independence. The Grito de Lares ("Lares Cry '' or "Lares Uprising '') was planned by a group led by Dr. Ramón Emeterio Betances, at the time exiled to the Dominican Republic, and Segundo Ruiz Belvis. Dr. Betances had founded the Comité Revolucionario de Puerto Rico (Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico) in January 1868. The most important figures in the uprising were Manuel Rojas, Mathias Brugman, Mariana Bracetti, Francisco Ramírez Medina and Lola Rodríguez de Tió. The uprising, although significant, was quickly controlled by Spanish authorities.
Following the Grito de Lares revolt, political and social reforms occurred toward the end of the 19th century. On June 4, 1870, due to the efforts of Román Baldorioty de Castro, Luis Padial and Julio Vizcarrondo, the Moret Law was approved, giving freedom to slaves born after September 17, 1868 or over 60 years old; on March 22, 1873, the Spanish National Assembly officially abolished, with a few special clauses, slavery in Puerto Rico. In 1870, the first political organizations on the island were formed as two factions emerged. The Traditionalists, known as the Partido Liberal Conservador (Liberal Conservative Party) were led by José R. Fernández, Pablo Ubarri and Francisco Paula Acuña and advocated assimilation into the political party system of Spain. The Autonomists, known as the Partido Liberal Reformista (Liberal Reformist Party) were led by Román Baldorioty de Castro, José Julián Acosta, Nicolás Aguayo and Pedro Gerónimo Goico and advocated decentralization away from Spanish control. Both parties would later change their names to Partido Incondicional Español (Unconditional Spanish Party) and Partido Federal Reformista (Reformist Federal Party), respectively. In March 1887, the Partido Federal Reformista was reformed and named the Partido Autonomista Puertorriqueño (Puerto Rican Autonomist Party); it tried to create a political and legal identity for Puerto Rico while emulating Spain in all political matters. It was led by Román Baldorioty de Castro, José Celso Barbosa, Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón and Luis Muñoz Rivera.
Leaders of "El Grito de Lares '', who were in exile in New York City, joined the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee, founded on December 8, 1895, and continued their quest for Puerto Rican independence. In 1897, Antonio Mattei Lluberas and the local leaders of the independence movement of the town of Yauco, organized another uprising, which became known as the "Intentona de Yauco ''. This was the first time that the current Puerto Rican flag was unfurled in Puerto Rican soil. The local conservative political factions, which believed that such an attempt would be a threat to their struggle for autonomy, opposed such an action. Rumors of the planned event spread to the local Spanish authorities who acted swiftly and put an end to what would be the last major uprising in the island to Spanish colonial rule.
The struggle for autonomy came close to achieving its goal on November 25, 1897, when the Carta Autonómica (Charter of Autonomy), which conceded political and administrative autonomy to the island, was approved in Spain. In the past 400 - plus years, after centuries of colonial rule, Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, the Prime Minister of Spain granted the island an autonomous government on November 25, 1897 in the empire 's legislative body in Cádiz, Spain, and trade was opened up with the United States and European colonies. The charter maintained a governor appointed by Spain, who held the power to veto any legislative decision he disagreed with, and a partially elected parliamentary structure. That same year, the Partido Autonomista Ortodoxo (Orthodox Autonomist Party), led by José Celso Barbosa and Manuel Fernández Juncos, was founded. On February 9, 1898, the new government officially began. Local legislature set its own budget and taxes. They accepted or rejected commercial treaties concluded by Spain. In February 1898, Governor General Manuel Macías inaugurated the new government of Puerto Rico under the Autonomous Charter which gave town councils complete autonomy in local matters. Subsequently, the governor had no authority to intervene in civil and political matters unless authorized to do so by the Cabinet. General elections were held in March and on July 17, 1898 Puerto Rico 's autonomous government began to function, but not for long.
In 1890, Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker, wrote a book titled The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued for the creation of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British Royal Navy. Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean Sea; these would serve as coaling and naval stations, as well as strategic points of defense after construction of a canal in the Isthmus. Since 1894, the Naval War College had been formulating plans for war with Spain and by 1896, the Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan which included military operations in Puerto Rican waters.
On March 10, 1898, Dr. Julio J. Henna and Robert H. Todd, leaders of the Puerto Rican section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, began to correspond with United States President William McKinley and the United States Senate in hopes that they would consider including Puerto Rico in the intervention planned for Cuba. Henna and Todd also provided the US government with information about the Spanish military presence on the island. On April 24, Spanish Minister of Defense Segismundo Bermejo sent instructions to Spanish Admiral Cervera to proceed with his fleet from Cape Verde to the Caribbean, Cuba and Puerto Rico. In May, Lt. Henry H. Whitney of the United States Fourth Artillery was sent to Puerto Rico on a reconnaissance mission. He provided maps and information on the Spanish military forces to the US government that would be useful for an invasion.
The Spanish -- American War broke out in late April. The American strategy was to seize Spanish colonies in the Atlantic -- Puerto Rico and Cuba -- and their possessions in the Pacific -- the Philippines and Guam. On May 10, Spanish forces at Fort San Cristóbal under the command of Capt. Ángel Rivero Méndez in San Juan exchanged fire with the USS Yale under the command of Capt. William C. Wise. Two days later, on May 12, a squadron of 12 US ships commanded by Rear Admiral William T. Sampson bombarded installations at San Juan. On June 25, the USS Yosemite blocked San Juan harbor. On July 18, General Nelson A. Miles, commander of US forces, received orders to sail for Puerto Rico and to land his troops. On July 21, a convoy with nine transports and 3,300 soldiers, escorted by USS Massachusetts, sailed for Puerto Rico from Guantánamo. General Nelson Miles landed unopposed at Guánica, located in the southern coast of the island, on July 25, 1898, with the first contingent of American troops. Opposition was met in the southern and central regions of the island but by the end of August the island was under United States control.
On August 12, peace protocols were signed in Washington and Spanish Commissions met in San Juan on September 9 to discuss the details of the withdrawal of Spanish troops and the cession of the island to the United States. On October 1, an initial meeting was held in Paris to draft the Peace Treaty and on December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed (ratified by the US Senate February 6, 1899). Spain renounced all claim to Cuba, ceded Guam and Puerto Rico and its dependent islets to the United States, and transferred sovereignty over the Philippines to the United States and in turn was paid $20,000,000 ($580 million in 2016 dollars) by the U.S. General John R. Brooke became the first United States military governor of the island.
After the ratification of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, Puerto Rico came under the military control of the United States of America. This brought about significant changes: the name of the island was changed to Porto Rico (it would be changed back to Puerto Rico in 1932) and the currency was changed from the Puerto Rican peso to the United States dollar. Freedom of assembly, speech, press, and religion were decreed and an eight - hour day for government employees was established. A public school system was begun and the U.S. Postal service was extended to the island. The highway system was enlarged, and bridges over the more important rivers were constructed. The government lottery was abolished, cockfighting was forbidden, and a centralized public health service established. Health conditions were poor at the time, with high rates of infant mortality and numerous endemic diseases.
The beginning of the military government also marked the creation of new political groups. The Partido Republicano (Republican Party) and the American Federal Party were created, led by José Celso Barbosa and Luis Muñoz Rivera, respectively. Both groups supported annexation by the United States as a solution to the colonial situation. The island 's Creole sugar planters, who had suffered from declining prices, hoped that U.S. rule would help them gain access to the North American market.
Disaster struck in August 1899, when two hurricanes ravaged the island: the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane on August 8, and an unnamed hurricane on August 22. Approximately 3,400 people died in the floods and thousands were left without shelter, food, or work. The effects on the economy were devastating: millions of dollars were lost due to the destruction of the majority of the sugar and coffee plantations.
The military government in Puerto Rico was short lived; it was disbanded on April 2, 1900, when the U.S. Congress enacted the Foraker Act (also known as the Organic Act of 1900), sponsored by Senator Joseph B. Foraker. This act established a civil government and free commerce between the island and the United States. The structure of the insular government included a governor appointed by the president, an executive council (the equivalent of a senate), and a legislature with 35 members, though the executive veto required a two - thirds vote to override. The first appointed civil governor, Charles Herbert Allen, was inaugurated on May 1, 1900. On June 5, President William McKinley appointed an Executive Council which included five Puerto Rican members and six U.S. members. The act also established the creation of a judicial system headed by the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico and allowed Puerto Rico to send a Resident Commissioner as a representative to Congress. The Department of Education was subsequently formed, headed by Martin Grove Brumbaugh (later governor of Pennsylvania). Teaching was conducted entirely in English with Spanish treated as a special subject. However, both Spanish and English were official languages in the island. On November 6, the first elections under the Foraker Act were held and on December 3, the first Legislative Assembly took office. On March 14, 1901, Federico Degetau took office as the first Resident Commissioner from Puerto Rico in Washington. The Foraker Act, (with the influence of a fearful progressive) placed a limit of 500 acres (2.0 km) as the amount of land that any one person was allowed to own. This part of the Act was not enforced.
The American program included building up a modern economic infrastructure that included roads, ports, electric power systems, and telephones and telegraphs, as well as hospitals and programs to develop agriculture.
Sugar mill owners in 1898 -- 1945 had made their sugar mills turn into a monocultural plantation in the 20th century economy. The sugar mills, tobacco, and cigar and cigarette factories gained the United States ' attention due to the fast production and large amount. Women and children were the ones working in these industries. Puerto Rican trades had gone to the United States 95 % of the time. In 1914, the coffee production that once was steady had failed.
The sugar industry rose along with the economy. The mill owners who were Puerto Ricans and the people who lived on the island who were French and Spanish took the United States ' corporate capital. The United States had four operations were part of the United sugar refineries that was owned by Cuba and the Dominican Republic. In 1870, Congress made the tariff wall in order to domestic producers of sugar. This had an effect of putting sugar producers into bankruptcy. The United States acquired jurisdiction over Puerto Rico where there was free trade between the two. Capital flowed into Puerto Rico with the effect of modernizing its sugar processing mills due to the United States ' influence.
The United States had formed a Tobacco Trust that had basis rules for cigarettes, but Puerto Ricans had issues when it came to brand and local marketing. The Tobacco Trust controlled cigarettes and cigar production as well as controlled the tobacco leaf. There was a fall of the industry due to the exports.
During the time when sugar was not going well the coffee in the late 1800s. What changed the coffee production started when the export production replaced the farming. People lost their land and properties, the amount of land disposal shrank and the people hoped that Europe would take part in the trade of coffee, but they did not. Coffee makers were not happy with them being controlled by the United States. In 1933 most of the people worked as families instead of individuals most likely due to 90 percent of the output due to them being poor.
In 1899, the United States took over rich lands that influenced Puerto Rico 's economy that soon made Puerto Rico a state that was more capitalized in operation. There was no limit in their treads to the United States, the sugar industry had expanded and irrigation payments. The taxes Hollander Act was taxing 2 percent on rural property in 1901. This made the people very angry and the people protested. The people were able to bring the tax down to 1 percent but this still forced landowners to sell their land.
The American administrators put great emphasis on developing a modern school system. English - language instruction provoked fears of cultural genocide. This effort generated resistance from teachers, parents, politicians, intellectuals and others. Resistance to the imposition of English was part of a larger effort to resist invasion and colonization. The schools became an important arena for cultural identity, as promoted by the middle - class local teachers who rejected the idea of creating Hispanic Yankees speaking only English, and instead sought to have an autonomous Puerto Rican culture that incorporated the best of modern pedagogy and learning, with a respect for the island 's Hispanic language and cultural traditions. U.S. officials underestimated the place of Spanish in Puerto Rican culture. By 1898 Spanish was firmly rooted in the population. Spanish was also one of the leading international languages, through which Puerto Ricans were in contact with the world. It was the language in which culture was communicated. The level of opposition to the imposition of English was such that it led to the failure of U.S. language policies in Puerto Rico.
One shock came in 1935, however, when a New York study found Puerto Rican schoolchildren in New York City to be seriously deficient in basic skills. After 39 years of the imposition of English at the University of Puerto Rico, Spanish became the preferred language of instruction in 1942, and in the public schools the vernacular of Puerto Ricans became the language of teaching and learning in 1940 -- 50.
Puerto Rico 's agricultural economy was transformed into a sugar monoculture economy, supplemented by gardens for local consumption. American sugar companies had an advantage over the local sugar plantation owners. The local plantation owner could finance his operations only at local banks which offered high interest rates, compared to the low rates that American companies received from the commercial banks in Wall Street. This factor, plus the tariffs imposed, forced many of the local sugar plantation owners to go bankrupt or to sell their holdings to the more powerful sugar companies. Sugar was considered one of the few strategic commodities in which the United States was not fully self - sufficient.
An economically evolving Puerto Rico called for a new advancement in political status. Powerful, innovative Puerto Rican leaders including Luis Muñoz Rivera, José de Diego, Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón, Manuel Zeno Gandía, Luis Lloréns Torres, Eugenio Benítez Castaño, and Pedro Franceschi contributed to the rise of multiple successful political parties. However, the birth of multiple political groups led to a diversion of the island 's interests: uniting as a statehood with the US, becoming a US territory commonwealth, or declaring independence altogether. In 1900, the Partido Federal (Federal Party) was formed during the US military rule of the island after the Spanish -- American War. It was formed by Luis Munoz Rivera and other members of the Autonomist Party. The Partido Federal favored immediate transformation of Puerto Rico into an organized unincorporated territory and eventually join US statehood. The Partido Obrero Socialista de Puerto Rico (Socialist Labor Party of Puerto Rico) were founded by Santiago Iglesias Pantin. Overtime the Partido Obrero Socialista de Puerto Rico was also in favor of statehood with the US. The Partido Federal campaigned for assimilation into the United States and wanted to develop prosperously with their best interests under the new US administration. They wanted to fully integrate US law and government. Their plan was to become a territory and have representation through a delegate and eventually become a US state with no restrictions. The Partido Obrero Socialista de Puerto Rico did not advocate for independence. Instead party leader, Santiago Iglesias Pantin, advocated for statehood and change in economic policies which were influenced by his practice in founding the Federación Regional de Trabajadores (Regional Workers Federation) and labor newspaper Ensayo Obrero. The party was based on the principles of the Socialist Labor Party of America and received much support from American colonial authorities. After the dissolution of the Federal Party, Luis Muñoz Rivera and José de Diego founded the Partido Unionista de Puerto Rico (Unionist Party of Puerto Rico) in 1904. The Unionist Party of Puerto Rico aimed to secure "the right of Puerto Rico to assert its own personality, either through statehood or independence. '' The beginning of the Partido Independentista, the independence party, was in 1909. Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón, Manuel Zeno Gandía, Luis Lloréns Torres, Eugenio Benítez Castaño, and Pedro Franceschi founded the party which was the first political party whose agenda was the independence of Puerto Rico. Another change occurred during the year the party was founded. The Olmsted Amendment changed the Foraker Act, which was designed to switch the Puerto Rican government from a military one to a government ran by the civilians. Instead, the Olmsted act called for the government to be managed solely under the executive branch.
The Puerto Rican status quo was again altered in 1909 when the Foraker Act, which replaced military rule with a civilian government in Puerto Rico, was modified by the Olmsted Amendment. This amendment placed the supervision of Puerto Rican affairs in the jurisdiction of an executive department designated by the president of the United States. In 1914, the first Puerto Rican officers, Martín Travieso (Secretary) and Manuel V. Domenech (Commissioner of Interiors), were assigned to the Executive Cabinet. This allowed for native Puerto Ricans to hold a majority in the Council, which consisted of five members selected by the president, for the first time in history. A 1915 delegation from Puerto Rico, accompanied by the Governor Arthur Yager, traveled to Washington, D.C. to ask Congress to grant the island more autonomy. Luis Muñoz Rivera became one of the founders of the Union Party in Puerto Rico who was against the Foraker Act. This delegation and speeches made by Resident Commissioner Muñoz Rivera in Congress, coupled with political and economic interests, led to the drafting of the Jones -- Shafroth Act of 1917 (Jones Act).
The Jones Act was made to replace the Foraker Act, which allowed for the free entry of Puerto Rican goods into the U.S. market. The Jones Act was approved by the U.S. Congress on December 5, 1916, and signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on March 2, 1917. Although it extended citizenship to Puerto Ricans, it was n't always welcomed. The Partido Union had opposed extension of U.S. citizenship in 1912 if it did n't make Puerto Rico a state. If they did n't become a state, U.S. citizenship would be interpreted as an attempt to block independence of the Puerto Ricans. For them, the promise of citizenship did n't affirm the promise of statehood, it excluded any considerations of independence.
The law made Puerto Rico a United States territory which is "organized but unincorporated, '' much like a colony. Puerto Ricans were also collectively given a restricted U.S. citizenship. This implied that Puerto Ricans in the island did not have full American citizenship rights, such as the right to vote for the President of the United States. The Act allowed conscription to be extended to the island, sending 20,000 Puerto Rican soldiers to the United States Army during the First World War. The Act also divided governmental powers into three branches: executive (appointed by the President of the United States), legislative, and judicial. The legislative branch was composed of the senate, consisting of 19 members, and a house of representatives, consisting of 39 members. The members of the legislature were freely elected by the Puerto Rican people. A bill of rights, which established elections to be held every four years, was also created.
Though the Act created a more structured government for Puerto Rico, the United States Congress still held the right to veto or amend bills and laws passed by the provincial legislative body. In addition to veto power, the United States could prevent the enforcing of actions taken by the legislature. The Act stated that the President of the United States was to appoint members of the Puerto Rico 's legislative branch, as well as the directors of the six major government departments - agriculture and labor, health, interior, and treasury (with the advisement of Congress) and the Attorney General and the commissioner of education. The Act also made English the official language of the Puerto Rican courts, government, and the public education systems.
On October 11, 1918, an earthquake occurred, with an approximate magnitude of 7.3 on the Richter scale, accompanied by a tsunami reaching 6.1 metres (20 ft) in height. The epicenter was located northwest of Aguadilla in the Mona Passage (between Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic). This earthquake caused great damage and loss of life at Mayagüez, and lesser damage along the west coast. Tremors continued for several weeks. Approximately 116 casualties were reported resulting from the earthquake and 40 from the tsunami.
Some politicians were in favor of Puerto Rico becoming an incorporated state of the U.S., while others wanted Puerto Rico to gain independence from the United States. Amid this debate, a nationalist group emerged that encouraged radical activism for Puerto Rico to become independent from the United States. As a consequence of the Jones Act and the establishment of elections, a new political party, the Partido Nacionalista de Puerto Rico (Puerto Rican Nationalist Party), was founded on September 17, 1922. This party used advocated massive demonstrations and protests against any political activity that was not going to result in Puerto Rico gaining independence. In 1924, Pedro Albizu Campos joined the party and later became the vice president in 1927. In 1930, Albizu was elected president. Being the president, he instilled many of his political ideologies into the party which was composed heavily of anticolonial politics and feelings of contempt against the United States. In the 1930s, the Nationalist Party, led by president Pedro Albizu Campos failed to attract sufficient electoral support and withdrew from political participation. Increased conflict arose between their adherents and the authorities. On October 20, 1935 Albizu testified against the dean of the University of Puerto Rico, claiming that he wanted to Americanize the institution. Four days later a student assembly gathered and declared Albizu a persona non grata, forbidding him to speak there. Albizu was later arrested and convicted of conspiring to overthrow the American government. He was arrested for breaking the Smith Act of 1940 which declared that it was against the law for anyone to teach or be part of a group that encouraged the overthrow of the American government.
On October 23, 1935, a student assembly was planned to be held at the University of Puerto Rico - Río Piedras campus. Its officials asked Governor Blanton Winship to provide armed police officers for the campus, to forestall possible violence. Colonel Elisha Francis Riggs, the U.S. appointed Police Chief, commanded the forces. A couple of police officers spotted what they believed to be a suspicious - looking automobile and asked the driver Ramón S. Pagán for his license. Pagán was the Secretary of the Nationalist Party at this time. He was accompanied in the car by his friends and other Nationalist Party members Pedro Quiñones and Eduardo Rodríguez. The police officers asked Pagán to slowly drive to the police station on Calle Arzuaga, but a block from the station, the police surrounded the vehicle and fired their guns into the car. Pagán, Quiñones, and Rodríguez were not armed with weapons. José Santiago Barea, another Nationalist, was approaching the car when police began shooting. It resulted in the death of the four nationalists and one bystander.
In retaliation for the "Río Piedras massacre '' at the University of Rio Piedras, on February 23, 1936, Nationalists Hiram Rosado and Elias Beauchamp killed Colonel E. Francis Riggs in San Juan. They were taken into custody where they were killed by policemen and officers while being held at the San Juan headquarters. Rosado and Beauchamp were declared heroes by the Nationalist Party president, Pedro Albizu - Campos. Shortly after, the San Juan Federal Court had Albizu arrested for his incitement of discontent. After initially being found innocent in a jury with seven Puerto Ricans and two North Americans, the judge ordered a new jury which had ten North Americans and two Puerto Ricans, who found him guilty. On July 31, 1936, Albizu and several other Nationalists such as Juan Antonio Corretjer and Clemente Soto Vélez were convicted of being associated with Riggs ' murder. They were sentenced to six to 10 years in a federal prison in the United States.
On March 21, 1937, a peaceful march was organized by the Nationalist Party, under Pedro Alibizu Campos, to commemorate the ending of slavery in Puerto Rico in 1873 by the governing Spanish National Assembly. The police, under the orders of General Blanton Winship, the US - appointed colonial Governor of Puerto Rico, opened fire at the peaceful Puerto Rican Nationalist Party parade, which is now known as the "Ponce massacre '': 20 unarmed people (including two policemen) were killed, with wounded persons ranging between 100 -- 200. This occurred because the head of the police force in Juana Díaz, Guillermo Soldevila, raised a whip and struck the chest of Tomás Lopez de Victoria, the captain of the cadet corps, and told him to stop the march. As a result, a police officer, Armando Martinez, ran from the corner in front of the Nationalist council and fired once into the air. This prompted many others to fire their arms.
On July 25, 1938, a little over a year after the Ponce massacre, Governor Winship ordered a military parade take place in the city of Ponce in celebration of the American invasion of Puerto Rico. Such celebrations customarily took place in San Juan, the capital of the colonial government. At the parade, an attempt was made to assassinate Winship, allegedly by members of the Nationalist Party. It was the first time in Puerto Rico 's long history that an attempt had been made against a governor. Although Winship escaped unscathed, a total of 36 people were wounded, including a colonel in the National Guard and the Nationalist gunman.
In the years after World War II, social, political and economical changes began to take place that have continued to shape the island 's character today. The late 1940s brought the beginning of a major migration to the continental United States, mainly to New York City. The main reasons for this were an undesirable economic situation brought by the Great Depression, as well as strong recruiting by the U.S. armed forces for personnel and U.S. companies for workers.
In 1946 President Truman appointed Resident Commissioner Jesús T. Piñero to serve as island governor; he was the first Puerto Rican appointed to that position. On June 10, 1948, Piñero signed the infamous "Ley de la Mordaza '' (Gag Law). Law 53, as it was officially known, was passed by the Puerto Rican legislature presided by Luis Muñoz Marín on May 21, 1948. The Law made it illegal to display the Puerto Rican flag, sing a nationalist song, talk about independence or to campaign for the independence of the island. It resembled the anti-communist Smith Law passed in the United States.
The U.S. Congress passed an act allowing Puerto Ricans to elect their governor, and the first elections under this act were held on November 2, 1948. Luis Muñoz Marín, president of the Puerto Rican Senate, successfully campaigned and became the first democratically elected Governor of the island on January 2, 1949.
On July 4, 1950, President Harry S. Truman signed Public Act 600, which allowed Puerto Ricans to draft their own constitution establishing their own internal government structures; it also renamed the body politic as the "Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. '' in English and "Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico '' in Spanish. (The Commonwealth designation was similar to the bodies politic of the states of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia and Kentucky.) Once in office, Muñoz Marin did not pursue Puerto Rican Independence, which angered some of his constituency.
On October 30, 1950, a group of Puerto Rican nationalists, led by Pedro Albizu Campos, staged several local attacks, known as the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party revolts of the 1950s, the most successful of which is known as the Jayuya Uprising. The revolts included an attack on the governor 's mansion, La Fortaleza. Puerto Rican military forces were called in to put down the Jayuya Uprising. Two days later, two Nationalists from New York tried to storm in to Blair House, then the president 's temporary residence, to assassinate United States President Harry S. Truman. These acts led Muñoz to crack down on Puerto Rican nationalists and advocates of Puerto Rican independence. The actions by both Muñoz and the United States ' Government would later be determined as infringing on constitutional rights.
In February 1952, the Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by voters in a referendum, and a federal law approved it, subject to striking Sec. 20 of Article II and adding text to Sec. 3 of Article VII of the final draft, amendments that were finally ratified in November of that year. The island organized as the Estado Libre Asociado (Commonwealth of Puerto Rico). That same year marked the first time that the Flag of Puerto Rico could be publicly displayed, after having been criminalized in 1948 by the Popular Democratic Party - controlled government. In March 1954, four Nationalists fired guns from the visitors gallery in the US House of Representatives at the Capitol, to protest the lack of Puerto Rican independence, wounding several persons.
Luis A. Ferré founded Estadistas Unidos (United Statehooders), an organization to campaign for statehood in the 1967 plebiscite, after the Statehood Republican Party chose to boycott the vote. On July 23, 1967, the first plebiscite on the political status of Puerto Rico was held. Voters affirmed continuation of Commonwealth status (Commonwealth -- 60.4 % Statehood -- 39 %; Independence -- 0.6 %). Other plebiscites have been held to determine the political status of Puerto Rico, in 1993 and in 1998. Both times, although by smaller margins, the status quo has been upheld. In 2012, a majority voted to reject the current status and voted to become a state. The referendum was controversial as opponents had tried to persuade people to abstain from voting altogether and argued the vote was invalid.
As the U.S. Constitution empowers Congress to admit new states, the referendum could be taken only as a sign of popular opinion. Legally the island remains a territory of the United States, under congressional supervision. After the 1967 plebiscite, the Partido Nuevo Progresista (New Progressive Party or New Party for Progress) was organized under Ferré 's leadership. The party campaigned for Puerto Rico to become the 51st state of the Union. Luis A. Ferré was elected governor on November 5, 1968, with 43.6 % of the vote, the first time a pro-statehood governor had received a plurality. The New Progressive Party, the Popular Democratic Party, and the Independence Party constitute the current political status - based registered political parties in the island.
Puerto Rico continues to struggle to define its political status. Even though Puerto Rico was granted the right to draft its own Constitution, approved conditionally by Congress on July 3, 1952, it remains an unincorporated organized territory of the United States. Its ambiguous status continues to spark political debates which dominate Puerto Rican society.
On July 23, 1967, the first plebiscite on the political status of Puerto Rico was held. Voters overwhelmingly affirmed continuation of Commonwealth status (with 60.4 % voting to remain a commonwealth, 39 % voting to work towards statehood. Other referendums have been subsequently held to determine the political status of Puerto Rico, in 1993 and in 1998. In all three of these, the status quo has been upheld; there was no strong feeling in favor of independence or statehood.
The Puerto Rican status referendum, 2012 occurred on November 6, 2012. The result a 54 % majority of the ballots cast against the continuation of the island 's territorial political status, and in favor of a new status. Of votes for new status, a 61.1 % majority chose statehood. This was by far the most successful referendum for statehood advocates. In all earlier referenda, votes for statehood were matched almost equally by votes for remaining an American territory, with the remainder for independence. Support for U.S. statehood has risen in each successive popular referendum. Because there were almost 500,000 blank ballots in the 2012 referendum, creating confusion as to the voters ' true desire, Congress decided to ignore the vote.
The Puerto Rican status referendum, 2017 occurred on June 11, 2017. While initially the referendum would only have the options of statehood and independence / free association, a letter from the Trump administration recommended to add the Commonwealth, the current status, in the plebiscite. The option had been removed from this plebiscite in response to the results of the plebiscite in 2012 which asked whether to remain in the current status and No had won. However, the Trump administration cited changes in demographics during the past 5 years to add the option once again. Amendments to the plebiscite bill were adopted making ballot wording changes requested by the U.S. Department of Justice, as well as adding a "current territorial status '' option.
Governor Ricardo Rosselló is strongly in favor of statehood to help develop the economy and help to "solve our 500 - year - old colonial dilemma... Colonialism is not an option... It 's a civil rights issue... 3.5 million citizens seeking an absolute democracy, '' he told the news media. Benefits of statehood include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter is currently prohibited.
Regardless of the outcome of the referendum, action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.
While the eye of Category 5 Hurricane Irma passed north of the island on September 5, 2017, winds were sufficient to leave 1 million citizens without power. On September 20, 2017, Hurricane Maria hit the island directly, destroying infrastructure including most homes, all electricity, most potable water supplies, transportation, and communication.
Coffee was a major industry before the 1940s. Arabica beans were introduced to the island in 1736. Production soared in the central mountainous area after 1855 because of cheap land, a low - paid and plentiful workforce, good credit facilities, and a growing market in the U.S., Spain and Europe. Decline set in after 1897, and the end came with a major hurricane in 1928 and the 1930s depression. While coffee declined, sugar and tobacco grew in importance, thanks to the large mainland market.
The island 's social and economic structure modernized after 1898, with new infrastructure such as roads, ports, railroads and telegraph lines, and new public health measures. The high infant mortality death rate of the late 19th century declined steadily, thanks in large measure to basic public health programs.
Land tenure did not become concentrated in fewer hands, but incomes increased as American agribusiness and capital investments arrived. The land tenure system in the firm control of local farmers (small, medium, and large). After 1940 dairying became an industry second only to sugar, and had a higher dollar output than the better - known traditional crops -- coffee and tobacco.
In the 1920s, the economy of Puerto Rico boomed. A dramatic increase in the price of sugar, Puerto Rico 's principal export, brought cash to the farmers. As a result, the island 's infrastructure was steadily upgraded. New schools, roads and bridges were constructed. The increase in private wealth was reflected in the erection of many residences, while the development of commerce and agriculture stimulated the extension of banking and transport facilities.
This period of prosperity came to an end in 1929 with the onset of the Great Depression. At the time, agriculture was the main contributor to the economy. Industry and commerce slowed during the 1930s as well. The problems were aggravated when on September 27, 1932, Hurricane San Ciprián struck the island. Exact figures of the destruction are not known but estimates say that 200 -- 300 people were killed, more than a thousand were injured, and property damage escalated to $30 -- 50 million ($530 million to $880 million as of 2016).
The agricultural production, the principal economic driver for the island, came to a standstill. Under President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal, a Puerto Rican Reconstruction Administration was authorized. Funds were made available for construction of new housing, infrastructure, including transportation improvements and other capital investment to improve island conditions. In 1938, a new federal minimum wage law was passed, establishing it at 25 cents an hour. As a consequence, two - thirds of the island 's textile factories closed because they could not be profitable while paying workers at that level.
After World War II, large numbers of young people migrated to the mainland 's industrial cities for work and remitted dollars back to their families. In 1950 Washington introduced Operation Bootstrap, which greatly stimulated economic growth from 1950 until the 1970s. Due to billions of dollars of corporate investments, the growth rate was 6 % for the 1950s, 5 % for the 1960s, and 4 % for the 1970s. Puerto Rico became one of the most affluent economies in Latin America. However, it had to import 80 % of its food.
Operation Bootstrap was sponsored by governor Muñoz Marín. It was coupled with agrarian reform (land redistribution) that limited the area that could be held by large sugarcane interests. Operation Bootstrap enticed US mainland investors to transfer or create manufacturing plants by granting them local and federal tax concessions, but maintaining the access to mainland markets free of import duties. Another incentive was the lower wage scales in the densely populated island. The program accelerated the shift from an agricultural to an industrial society. The 1950s saw the development of labor - intensive light industries, such as textiles; later manufacturing gave way to heavy industry, such as petrochemicals and oil refining, in the 1960s and 1970s. Muñoz Marín 's development programs brought some prosperity for an emergent middle class. The industrialization was in part fueled by generous local incentives and freedom from federal taxation, while providing access to continental US markets without import duties. As a result, a rural agricultural society was transformed into an industrial working class. Manufacturing activity, however, has been burdened by electricity rates two to three times the average in the United States.
In 2005, protests over the noise of bombing practice forced the closure of Roosevelt Roads Naval Station. This resulted in a loss of 6,000 jobs and an annual decrease in income of $300 million.
In 2006, Puerto Rico saw its credit rating downgraded to one notch above non-investment grade by the main credit rating agencies, with the possibility of more downgrades happening in the near future. This has led to fiscal measures to reduce government spending, increase revenues and balance the budget, and the implementation in 2006 and expansion in 2013 of a 7 % sales tax.
Present - day Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination and a leading pharmaceutical and manufacturing center, as well as a major financial center for the Caribbean.
In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government - debt crisis posed serious problems for the government which was saddled with outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with a 45 percent poverty rate and 12.4 % unemployment that is more than twice the mainland U.S. average. The debt had been increasing during a decade long recession.
The Commonwealth had been defaulting on many debts, including bonds, since 2015. "Without action before April, Puerto Rico 's ability to execute contracts for Fiscal Year 2018 with its managed care organizations will be threatened, thereby putting at risk beginning July 1, 2017 the health care of up to 900,000 poor U.S. citizens living in Puerto Rico '', according to a letter sent to Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Health and Human Services. They also said that "Congress must enact measures recommended by both Republicans and Democrats that fix Puerto Rico 's inequitable health care financing structure and promote sustained economic growth. ''
Initially, the oversight board created under PROMESA called for Puerto Rico 's governor Ricardo Rosselló to deliver a fiscal turnaround plan by January 28. Just before that deadline, the control board gave the Commonwealth government until February 28 to present a fiscal plan (including negotiations with creditors for restructuring debt) to solve the problems. A moratorium on lawsuits by debtors was extended to May 31. It is essential for Puerto Rico to reach restructuring deals to avoid a bankruptcy - like process under PROMESA.
In May 2017, after Puerto Rico 's water system was massively damaged by Hurricane Maria, the Natural Resources Defense Council, a non-profit international environmental advocacy group, reported that Puerto Rico 's potable water system was the worst as measured by the Safe Drinking Water Act, with 70 % of the population living with water that violated U.S. law.
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the author of the play/book ratnawali is | Ratnavali - wikipedia
Ratnavali is a Sanskrit drama about a beautiful princess named Ratnavali, and a great king named Udayana. It is attributed to the Indian emperor Harsha (606 -- 648). It is a Natika in four acts. One of the first textual references to the celebration of Holi, the festival of Colours have been found in this text.
Udayana, King of Kaushambi, is both valiant and romantic. He is happily married to Vasavadatta, princess of a neighboring kingdom, and the story of their courtship and wedding is the subject of an earlier work, Svapnavasavadattam, written by Bhāsa.
Udayana is well - served by Yougandharayana, an extremely loyal and astute, if rather presumptuous and devious minister. Yougandharayana now wishes the king to marry Ratnavali, princess of the distant island kingdom of Simhala (presumably Sri Lanka). This is because a sage had prophesied that the man who marries Ratnavali would become a Sarvabhauma (Emperor). Incidentally, Ratnavali 's father, king Vikramabahu of Simhala, is Vasavadatta 's uncle. He is aware that Udayana and Vasavadatta are unusually close to each other (because they had married for love), and that a second wife would either be unhappy herself or make his niece Vasavadatta unhappy. He is therefore initially reluctant to accept the proposal of marriage which the minister makes to him. While the envoys from Kaushambi are still in Simhala with the proposal, the news reaches them that Queen Vasavadatta is dead, having perished in a fire which engulfed a hunting camp at Lavanaka. This news is in fact a falsehood initiated by the devious minister in order to facilitate the second marriage. King Vikramabahu is however taken in by the ploy, and agrees to give his daughter in marriage to Udayana. The necessary preparations are made, and Princess Ratnavali embarks on a ship to make the voyage to Kaushambi and her new life as queen of that kingdom.
Unfortunately, a storm crosses their path and the ship gets wrecked. Ratnavali alone is rescued by a passing merchant ship, and reaches the mainland safely. She however does not reveal her identity as princess of Simhala to the people who rescue her, because she is fearful of being held for political ransom, that her father or fiancée will be made to give up territories to secure her release. She therefore pretends to be suffering from amnesia. The merchants who rescue her are impressed by her rich garments, her refined speech and cultivated manners. They infer from all this that she is a lady of noble birth. Therefore, when they reach their native land (which is Kaushambi, by a coincidence), they place the nameless maiden in the custody of minister Yougandharayana. By this time, news of the shipwreck and the loss of Princess Ratnavali has reached Kaushambi. The minister immediately recognizes that the girl rescued from the sea and suffering from amnesia is almost certainly the princess. He also sees the situation as an opportunity to reconcile Vasavadatta to the idea of receiving a co-wife. He gives the rescued girl a new name, "Sagarika, '' ("Ocean - lady ''), takes her to the queen and asks her to keep the homeless waif as a maid. The queen agrees, and "Sagarika '' becomes Vasavadatta 's maid.
Once, in the cupid festival, Sagarika sees Udayana and instantly falls in love with him. Sagarika sits in a grove and keeps herself occupied in drawing Udayana 's picture and fantasizing about him. Her shrewd friend Susangatha finds her, takes the picture into her hands and draws the picture of Sagarika by the side of the king. Sagarika confesses her love to Susangatha and a bird Sarika hears the conversation. Suddenly, there is a panic in the grove because of an escaped monkey and the maidens run away from there.
After a while, the Udayana and his jester enter the grove and hear the bird Sarika reproduce the ladies ' conversation. They find the picture Sagarika and Susangatha have drawn, and Udayana finds it alluring. By this time, the two maidens return and overhear the conversation of the king and his jester, and see that Udayana is interested in Sagarika. Susangatha then makes a plan to bring Udayana and Sagarika together, but Vasavadatta (Udayana 's first wife) also finds the picture when walking in the grove. Susangatha 's plan is destroyed by the angry Vasavadatta and she leaves the grove without accepting Udayana 's words of appeasement.
In the third act, the jester and Susangata hatch a plan to make Udayana and Sagarika meet. Sagarika disguises herself as Vasavadatta, and Susangata as her maid. They go to meet Udayana, who has been told of the plan and is expecting Sagarika to come in Vasavadatta 's disguise. But the real Vasavadatta comes to know of this plan and also sets off to meet Udayana. Vasavadatta reaches him first, but Udayana mistakes her for Sagarika and declares that he loves her. Vasavadatta is very angry at Udayana for the second time, and reproaches him and walks away. Sagarika comes to know that their plan is foiled again, and ties a noose to her neck wanting to commit suicide. Meanwhile, Udayana is frantically searching for the real Vasavadatta, and finds Sagarika about to die. He mistakes her for the real Vasavadatta, and saves her. Afterwards, the two recognize each other and finally they have a chance to declare their love. But at exactly the same moment, Vasavadatta, having calmed down, comes back to Udayana ready for appeasement. She is outraged for the third time on seeing Sagarika and Udayana together, and throws Sagarika into prison.
In the fourth act, no one knows where Sagarika is imprisoned by Vasavadatta. Suddenly, there is heard a news of the royal harem catching fire. It turns out that Sagarika is kept there, and Vasavadatta turns remorseful. She implores Udayana to run to her rescue. Udayana comes out safely from the fire with Sagarika. It is later revealed that the entire fire was a trick by a magician. At this tense moment, Babhravya and Vasubhuti recognize Sagarika to be the Simhala princess. Yaugandharayana enters and reveals himself to be the plotter. Vasavadatta now gladly brings about the marriage of Udayana and Ratnavali, her cousin, relying on the prophecy.
A Natika should be based on an invented love - story according to Sahityadarpana. But this play, although a natika, does not present to us an entirely original story.
The Udayana legend is found in both Jaina and Bauddha literature besides the Kathasaritsagara, Brihatkathamanjari and Brihatkathalokasangraha. The Jaina legends are not earlier than the 12th century, while the Bauddha ones are of about 4th century.
Many distinguished poets of ancient India, who flourished before Sri Harsha, have referred to the love of Udayana and Vasavadatta, and the devotion of Yougandharayana for his master Udayana. This shows how popular the story of Udayana was even in Ancient India. Kalidasa has referred to Udayana in his Meghaduta. Śudraka refers in his Mricchakatika to the devotion of minister Yaugandharayana to Udayana. Bhāsa has dramatized the story in his two plays Pratignayougandharayanam and Swapnavāsadattam.
In conclusion, it can be said that it is not unlikely that Sri Harsha took the frame - work of the Udayana story from either the Bauddha literature or some early version of the Brihatkatha and dramatized it in his own way. Although the story is not entirely invented, it must be admitted that the treatment of it at Harsha 's hands is quite original and that the play on the whole is a very charming one.
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where is naples florida located on the map | Naples, Florida - wikipedia
Naples is a city in Collier County, Florida, United States. As of 2015, the city 's population was about 20,600. Naples is a principal city of the Naples - Marco Island, Florida Metropolitan Statistical Area, which had a population of about 322,000 as of 2015. Naples is one of the wealthiest cities in the United States, with the sixth highest per capita income in the country, and the second highest proportion of millionaires per capita in the US. Real estate is among the most expensive in the country, with houses for sale in excess of $40 million.
The city of Naples was founded during the late 1880s by former Confederate general and Kentucky U.S. Senator John Stuart Williams and his partner, Louisville businessman Walter N. Haldeman, the publisher of the Louisville Courier - Journal. Throughout the 1870s and ' 80s, magazine and newspaper stories telling of the area 's mild climate and abundant fish and game likened it to the sunny Italian peninsula. The name Naples caught on when promoters described the bay as "surpassing the bay in Naples, Italy ''. Major development was anticipated after the railroad reached Naples on January 7, 1927, and the Tamiami Trail linking Naples to Miami was completed in 1928, but did not begin until after the Great Depression and World War II. During the war the U.S. Army Air Forces built a small airfield and used it for training purposes; it is now the Naples Municipal Airport.
After a hurricane in 1945, fill was required to repair the damage. A local dredging company, Forrest Walker & Sons, created a lake north of 16th Avenue S, between Gordon Drive and Gulf Shore Boulevard. In 1949, Forrest Walker asked Mr. Rust to sell him the 296 acres (120 ha) from Jamaica Channel to today 's 14th Avenue S. The Jamaica Channel was widened, one canal was dredged, and 14th Avenue S was created by March 1950; a new subdivision was named "Aqualane Shores '' at the opening party that same year. Additional channels were eventually added to the south of 14th Avenue S and are named alphabetically for local water birds. The first channel south of 14th Avenue S is Anhinga Channel, then Bittern Channel is south of 15th Avenue S, Crane Channel is south of 16th Avenue S, Duck Channel is south of 17th Avenue S, and Egret Channel is north of 21st Avenue S. From the channels there are coves named Flamingo, Gull, Heron, and Ibis, as well as the original Aqua Cove. These initial channels, canals, and coves were dredged and bulldozed from the mangrove swamps. Where shallow rock precluded digging, land was filled to create lots with navigable water.
The Aqualane Shores Association was incorporated as a non-profit corporation on February 3, 1966. It served lot owners in the area roughly bounded by the Bay of Naples to the east, Gordon Drive to the west, and the land between 14th Avenue and 21st Avenue S, as well as Marina Drive, Forrest Lane, and Southwinds Drive. Thirty years later, in 1996, a state - mandated city master plan renamed the area to the Aqualane Shores Neighborhood and extended its boundary west to the Gulf of Mexico, east to the Bay of Naples, and the area from 14th Avenue S all the way south to Jamaica Channel. The numerous canals and waterfront homes add a distinctive feature to the south portion of Naples and provide access to the Gulf of Mexico for many homeowners.
As of the census of 2010, there were 19,537 people, 9,710 households, and 6,568 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,744.3 per square mile (673.2 / km). There were 16,957 housing units at an average density of 1,410.0 per square mile (544.2 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 94.1 % White, 4.5 % Black, 0.12 % Native American, 0.33 % Asian, 0.02 % Pacific Islander, 0.30 % from other races, and 1.0 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.5 % of the population.
There were 9,708 households out of which 10.9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.8 % were married couples living together, 5.0 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.2 % were non-families. 34.0 % of all households were made up of individuals and 20.1 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.92 and the average family size was 2.38.
In the city, the population was spread out with 10.9 % under the age of 18, 2.3 % from 18 to 24, 14.5 % from 25 to 44, 30.0 % from 45 to 64, and 42.3 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 61 years. For every 100 females there were 86.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.9 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $71,553, and the median income for a family was $102,262. Males had a median income of $86,092 versus $30,948 for females. The per capita income for the city was $61,141. About 3.1 % of families and 5.9 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.1 % of those under age 18 and 3.3 % of those age 65 or over.
The economy of Naples is based largely on tourism and was historically based on real estate development and agriculture. Due to its proximity to the Everglades and Ten Thousand Islands, Naples is also popular among ecotourists.
Companies based in Naples include Alavista Solutions, Beasley Broadcast Group and ASG Software Solutions, in addition to numerous small businesses. Due to the wealth present in Collier County, Naples is also home to many small non-profit organizations.
The surrounding Naples metro area is home to major private employers. Fortune 1000 company Health Management Associates, technology company NewsBank.
In 2009, Naples was ranked as one of 10 pricey cities worth its high cost.
Naples is located in southwest Florida at 26.139, − 81.795 on U.S. Highway 41 between Miami to the east and Fort Myers to the north.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 16.4 square miles (42.5 km), of which 12.3 square miles (31.9 km) is land and 4.1 square miles (10.7 km), or 25.09 %, is water.
Naples experiences a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw), with hot and wet summers, and warm and dry winters. Naples reports more than 2900 hours of sunshine a year and more than 300 sunny days a year. Naples is normally frost free and the growing season is 365 days.
Naples is served by the District School Board of Collier County and various private institutions including the following:
Elementary schools
Middle schools
High schools
While no colleges are based within the city limits, Ave Maria School of Law 's campus is in the Vineyards Development in North Naples, and Florida Gulf Coast University near Estero operates continuing education classes from their Naples Center campus. Southwest Florida is home to several other institutions including:
With over 800 alumni living in Naples, the Ohio State University once established the nation 's biggest alumni club in the early 2000s (outside of their hometown of Columbus, Ohio). This is most likely due in large part to the overwhelming number of Midwesterners who have relocated to Naples.
Naples is served by several bus routes operated by the Collier Area Transit. Service runs seven days a week.
The region is served by the NCH Healthcare System, which currently has 681 beds between two hospitals, and Physician 's Regional Healthcare System, which has two hospitals and currently 201 beds and is owned by the Health Management Associates, headquartered at 5811 Pelican Bay Blvd in North Naples. In addition to the two hospitals, the company operates six clinics in Naples.
Healthcare Network of Southwest Florida (HCN) was founded in 1977 to serve migrant farmworkers and their families in Immokalee. It now provides care to over 41,000 residents of Collier County through 20 practices, including internal medicine, family practice, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, behavioral health and dental care.
Tourism is a major industry for the city. The Naples area is home to several major land reserves, including the Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary, Everglades National Park, Big Cypress National Preserve, Florida Panther National Wildlife Refuge, Ten Thousand Islands National Wildlife Refuge, and Picayune Strand State Forest. The Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary is known not only for its 11,000 acres (45 km) of landscape and wildlife, but for a two and a half - mile long boardwalk winding through the sanctuary. The Naples area is also home to the Naples Zoo at Caribbean Gardens, which dates back to 1919.
The city is served by the Naples Municipal Airport.
Downtown Naples is home to The Naples Players, the 5th Avenue South, and 3rd Street South shopping districts, which feature a variety of antique shops. Gallery Row is a concentration among the numerous art galleries spread throughout the downtown area. The Village on Venetian Bay is an upscale open - air shopping district on the Gulf coast. Located directly off of Tamiami Trail are the Waterside Shops, an upscale open - air center. Near downtown on Naples Bay and the Gordon River is the shopping district of Tin City. This open - air shopping center specializes in antiques and handmade local novelties. Also, near downtown is Big Cypress Market Place with over 100 diverse vendors. Naples hosts The Oliver Group Champions Cup of the Outback Champions Tennis Series each year. Naples is also the home of swamp buggy races, held three times each year at the Florida Sports Park.
The Naples Half Marathon is a half marathon held every year in Naples since 1989, with record participation in 2013 of 2,038 runners. The race has been called one of the best half - marathons in the United States by Runner 's World magazine.
Naples is home to The Naples Players, Naples Shakespeare Festival (and sister company Marco Island Shakespeare Festival), Opera Naples, and the Equity Theatre Companies Theatre Zone and Gulfshore Playhouse. The Naples Philharmonic and the Baker Museum are located at Artis -- Naples, which also serves as the educational campus for the Naples Philharmonic Youth Orchestra and Philharmonic Youth Chorus. The Holocaust Museum and Education Center of Southwest Florida educates about 155,000 students each year both in its facility and with a locally traveling exhibit.
The beach on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico is more than 10 miles (16 km) long and is known for its cleanliness and pristine white sand. In 2005, Naples was voted the best beach in America by the Travel Channel.
Naples area beaches include:
With more than 80 championship golf courses in the Naples area, Naples is the self - titled "Golf Capital of the World '', claiming to have more holes per capita than any other community.
In December 2009, Florida Governor Charlie Crist met with Chicago Cubs president Crane Kenney, chairman Tom Ricketts and other team officials about possibly moving the Cubs ' spring training and minor league facilities from Mesa, Arizona, to Naples.
Notes
Bibliography
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list of all the gods in ancient egypt | Egyptian mythology - wikipedia
Egyptian mythology is the collection of myths from ancient Egypt, which describe the actions of the Egyptian gods as a means of understanding the world. The beliefs that these myths express are an important part of ancient Egyptian religion. Myths appear frequently in Egyptian writings and art, particularly in short stories and in religious material such as hymns, ritual texts, funerary texts, and temple decoration. These sources rarely contain a complete account of a myth and often describe only brief fragments.
Inspired by the cycles of nature, the Egyptians saw time in the present as a series of recurring patterns, whereas the earliest periods of time were linear. Myths are set in these earliest times, and myth sets the pattern for the cycles of the present. Present events repeat the events of myth, and in doing so renew maat, the fundamental order of the universe. Amongst the most important episodes from the mythic past are the creation myths, in which the gods form the universe out of primordial chaos; the stories of the reign of the sun god Ra upon the earth; and the Osiris myth, concerning the struggles of the gods Osiris, Isis, and Horus against the disruptive god Set. Events from the present that might be regarded as myths include Ra 's daily journey through the world and its otherworldly counterpart, the Duat. Recurring themes in these mythic episodes include the conflict between the upholders of maat and the forces of disorder, the importance of the pharaoh in maintaining maat, and the continual death and regeneration of the gods.
The details of these sacred events differ greatly from one text to another and often seem contradictory. Egyptian myths are primarily metaphorical, translating the essence and behavior of deities into terms that humans can understand. Each variant of a myth represents a different symbolic perspective, enriching the Egyptians ' understanding of the gods and the world.
Mythology profoundly influenced Egyptian culture. It inspired or influenced many religious rituals and provided the ideological basis for kingship. Scenes and symbols from myth appeared in art in tombs, temples, and amulets. In literature, myths or elements of them were used in stories that range from humor to allegory, demonstrating that the Egyptians adapted mythology to serve a wide variety of purposes.
The development of Egyptian myth is difficult to trace. Egyptologists must make educated guesses about its earliest phases, based on written sources that appeared much later. One obvious influence on myth is the Egyptians ' natural surroundings. Each day the sun rose and set, bringing light to the land and regulating human activity; each year the Nile flooded, renewing the fertility of the soil and allowing the highly productive farming that sustained Egyptian civilization. Thus the Egyptians saw water and the sun as symbols of life and thought of time as a series of natural cycles. This orderly pattern was at constant risk of disruption: unusually low floods resulted in famine, and high floods destroyed crops and buildings. The hospitable Nile valley was surrounded by harsh desert, populated by peoples the Egyptians regarded as uncivilized enemies of order. For these reasons, the Egyptians saw their land as an isolated place of stability, or maat, surrounded and endangered by chaos. These themes -- order, chaos, and renewal -- appear repeatedly in Egyptian religious thought.
Another possible source for mythology is ritual. Many rituals make reference to myths and are sometimes based directly on them. But it is difficult to determine whether a culture 's myths developed before rituals or vice versa. Questions about this relationship between myth and ritual have spawned much discussion among Egyptologists and scholars of comparative religion in general. In ancient Egypt, the earliest evidence of religious practices predates written myths. Rituals early in Egyptian history included only a few motifs from myth. For these reasons, some scholars have argued that, in Egypt, rituals emerged before myths. But because the early evidence is so sparse, the question may never be resolved for certain.
In private rituals, which are often called "magical '', the myth and the ritual are particularly closely tied. Many of the myth - like stories that appear in the rituals ' texts are not found in other sources. Even the widespread motif of the goddess Isis rescuing her poisoned son Horus appears only in this type of text. The Egyptologist David Frankfurter argues that these rituals adapt basic mythic traditions to fit the specific ritual, creating elaborate new stories (called historiolas) based on myth. In contrast, J.F. Borghouts says of magical texts that there is "not a shred of evidence that a specific kind of ' unorthodox ' mythology was coined... for this genre. ''
Much of Egyptian mythology consists of origin myths, explaining the beginnings of various elements of the world, including human institutions and natural phenomena. Kingship arises among the gods at the beginning of time and later passed to the human pharaohs; warfare originates when humans begin fighting each other after the sun god 's withdrawal into the sky. Myths also describe the supposed beginnings of less fundamental traditions. In a minor mythic episode, Horus becomes angry with his mother Isis and cuts off her head. Isis replaces her lost head with that of a cow. This event explains why Isis was sometimes depicted with the horns of a cow as part of her headdress.
Some myths may have been inspired by historical events. The unification of Egypt under the pharaohs, at the end of the Predynastic Period around 3100 BC, made the king the focus of Egyptian religion, and thus the ideology of kingship became an important part of mythology. In the wake of unification, gods that were once local patron deities gained national importance, forming new relationships that linked the local deities into a unified national tradition. Geraldine Pinch suggests that early myths may have formed from these relationships. Egyptian sources link the mythical strife between the gods Horus and Set with a conflict between the regions of Upper and Lower Egypt, which may have happened in the late Predynastic era or in the Early Dynastic Period.
After these early times, most changes to mythology developed and adapted preexisting concepts rather than creating new ones, although there were exceptions. Many scholars have suggested that the myth of the sun god withdrawing into the sky, leaving humans to fight among themselves, was inspired by the breakdown of royal authority and national unity at the end of the Old Kingdom (c. 2686 BC -- 2181 BC). In the New Kingdom (c. 1550 -- 1070 BC), minor myths developed around deities like Yam and Anat who had been adopted from Canaanite religion. In contrast, during the Greek and Roman eras (332 BC -- 641 AD), Greco - Roman culture had little influence on Egyptian mythology.
Scholars have difficulty defining which ancient Egyptian beliefs are myths. The basic definition of myth suggested by the Egyptologist John Baines is "a sacred or culturally central narrative ''. In Egypt, the narratives that are central to culture and religion are almost entirely about events among the gods. Actual narratives about the gods ' actions are rare in Egyptian texts, particularly from early periods, and most references to such events are mere mentions or allusions. Some Egyptologists, like Baines, argue that narratives complete enough to be called "myths '' existed in all periods, but that Egyptian tradition did not favor writing them down. Others, like Jan Assmann, have said that true myths were rare in Egypt and may only have emerged partway through its history, developing out of the fragments of narration that appear in the earliest writings. Recently, however, Vincent Arieh Tobin and Susanne Bickel have suggested that lengthy narration was not needed in Egyptian mythology because of its complex and flexible nature. Tobin argues that narrative is even alien to myth, because narratives tend to form a simple and fixed perspective on the events they describe. If narration is not needed for myth, any statement that conveys an idea about the nature or actions of a god can be called "mythic ''.
Like myths in many other cultures, Egyptian myths serve to justify human traditions and to address fundamental questions about the world, such as the nature of disorder and the ultimate fate of the universe. The Egyptians explained these profound issues through statements about the gods.
Egyptian deities represent natural phenomena, from physical objects like the earth or the sun to abstract forces like knowledge and creativity. The actions and interactions of the gods, the Egyptians believed, govern the behavior of all of these forces and elements. For the most part, the Egyptians did not describe these mysterious processes in explicit theological writings. Instead, the relationships and interactions of the gods illustrated such processes implicitly.
Most of Egypt 's gods, including many of the major ones, do not have significant roles in mythic narratives, although their nature and relationships with other deities are often established in lists or bare statements without narration. For the gods who are deeply involved in narratives, mythic events are very important expressions of their roles in the cosmos. Therefore, if only narratives are myths, mythology is a major element in Egyptian religious understanding, but not as essential as it is in many other cultures.
The true realm of the gods is mysterious and inaccessible to humans. Mythological stories use symbolism to make the events in this realm comprehensible. Not every detail of a mythic account has symbolic significance. Some images and incidents, even in religious texts, are meant simply as visual or dramatic embellishments of broader, more meaningful myths.
Few complete stories appear in Egyptian mythological sources. These sources often contain nothing more than allusions to the events to which they relate, and texts that contain actual narratives tell only portions of a larger story. Thus, for any given myth the Egyptians may have had only the general outlines of a story, from which fragments describing particular incidents were drawn. Moreover, the gods are not well - defined characters, and the motivations for their sometimes inconsistent actions are rarely given. Egyptian myths are not, therefore, fully developed tales. Their importance lay in their underlying meaning, not their characteristics as stories. Instead of coalescing into lengthy, fixed narratives, they remained highly flexible and non-dogmatic.
So flexible were Egyptian myths that they could seemingly conflict with each other. Many descriptions of the creation of the world and the movements of the sun occur in Egyptian texts, some very different from each other. The relationships between gods were fluid, so that, for instance, the goddess Hathor could be called the mother, wife, or daughter of the sun god Ra. Separate deities could even be syncretized, or linked, as a single being. Thus the creator god Atum was combined with Ra to form Ra - Atum.
One commonly suggested reason for inconsistencies in myth is that religious ideas differed over time and in different regions. The local cults of various deities developed theologies centered on their own patron gods. As the influence of different cults shifted, some mythological systems attained national dominance. In the Old Kingdom (c. 2686 -- 2181 BC) the most important of these systems was the cults of Ra and Atum, centered at Heliopolis. They formed a mythical family, the Ennead, that was said to have created the world. It included the most important deities of the time but gave primacy to Atum and Ra. The Egyptians also overlaid old religious ideas with new ones. For instance, the god Ptah, whose cult was centered at Memphis, was also said to be the creator of the world. Ptah 's creation myth incorporates older myths by saying that it is the Ennead who carry out Ptah 's creative commands. Thus, the myth makes Ptah older and greater than the Ennead. Many scholars have seen this myth as a political attempt to assert the superiority of Memphis ' god over those of Heliopolis. By combining concepts in this way, the Egyptians produced an immensely complicated set of deities and myths.
Egyptologists in the early twentieth century thought that politically motivated changes like these were the principal reason for the contradictory imagery in Egyptian myth. However, in the 1940s, Henri Frankfort, realizing the symbolic nature of Egyptian mythology, argued that apparently contradictory ideas are part of the "multiplicity of approaches '' that the Egyptians used to understand the divine realm. Frankfort 's arguments are the basis for much of the more recent analysis of Egyptian beliefs. Political changes affected Egyptian beliefs, but the ideas that emerged through those changes also have deeper meaning. Multiple versions of the same myth express different aspects of the same phenomenon; different gods that behave in a similar way reflect the close connections between natural forces. The varying symbols of Egyptian mythology express ideas too complex to be seen through a single lens.
The sources that are available range from solemn hymns to entertaining stories. Without a single, canonical version of any myth, the Egyptians adapted the broad traditions of myth to fit the varied purposes of their writings. Most Egyptians were illiterate and may therefore have had an elaborate oral tradition that transmitted myths through spoken storytelling. Susanne Bickel suggests that the existence of this tradition helps explain why many texts related to myth give little detail: the myths were already known to every Egyptian. Very little evidence of this oral tradition has survived, and modern knowledge of Egyptian myths is drawn from written and pictorial sources. Only a small proportion of these sources has survived to the present, so much of the mythological information that was once written down has been lost. This information is not equally abundant in all periods, so the beliefs that Egyptians held in some eras of their history are more poorly understood than the beliefs in better documented times.
Many gods appear in artwork from the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt 's history (c. 3100 -- 2686 BC), but little about the gods ' actions can be gleaned from these sources because they include minimal writing. The Egyptians began using writing more extensively in the Old Kingdom, in which appeared the first major source of Egyptian mythology: the Pyramid Texts. These texts are a collection of several hundred incantations inscribed in the interiors of pyramids beginning in the 24th century BC. They were the first Egyptian funerary texts, intended to ensure that the kings buried in the pyramid would pass safely through the afterlife. Many of the incantations allude to myths related to the afterlife, including creation myths and the myth of Osiris. Many of the texts are likely much older than their first known written copies, and they therefore provide clues about the early stages of Egyptian religious belief.
During the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181 -- 2055 BC), the Pyramid Texts developed into the Coffin Texts, which contain similar material and were available to non-royals. Succeeding funerary texts, like the Book of the Dead in the New Kingdom and the Books of Breathing from the Late Period (664 -- 323 BC) and after, developed out of these earlier collections. The New Kingdom also saw the development of another type of funerary text, containing detailed and cohesive descriptions of the nocturnal journey of the sun god. Texts of this type include the Amduat, the Book of Gates, and the Book of Caverns.
Temples, whose surviving remains date mostly from the New Kingdom and later, are another important source of myth. Many temples had a per - ankh, or temple library, storing papyri for rituals and other uses. Some of these papyri contain hymns, which, in praising a god for its actions, often refer to the myths that define those actions. Other temple papyri describe rituals, many of which are based partly on myth. Scattered remnants of these papyrus collections have survived to the present. It is possible that the collections included more systematic records of myths, but no evidence of such texts has survived. Mythological texts and illustrations, similar to those on temple papyri, also appear in the decoration of the temple buildings. The elaborately decorated and well - preserved temples of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods (305 BC -- AD 380) are an especially rich source of myth.
The Egyptians also performed rituals for personal goals such as protection from or healing of illness. These rituals are often called "magical '' rather than religious, but they were believed to work on the same principles as temple ceremonies, evoking mythical events as the basis for the ritual.
Information from religious sources is limited by a system of traditional restrictions on what they could describe and depict. The murder of the god Osiris, for instance, is never explicitly described in Egyptian writings. The Egyptians believed that words and images could affect reality, so they avoided the risk of making such negative events real. The conventions of Egyptian art were also poorly suited for portraying whole narratives, so most myth - related artwork consists of sparse individual scenes.
References to myth also appear in non-religious Egyptian literature, beginning in the Middle Kingdom. Many of these references are mere allusions to mythic motifs, but several stories are based entirely on mythic narratives. These more direct renderings of myth are particularly common in the Late and Greco - Roman periods when, according to scholars such as Heike Sternberg, Egyptian myths reached their most fully developed state.
The attitudes toward myth in nonreligious Egyptian texts vary greatly. Some stories resemble the narratives from magical texts, while others are more clearly meant as entertainment and even contain humorous episodes.
A final source of Egyptian myth is the writings of Greek and Roman writers like Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, who described Egyptian religion in the last centuries of its existence. Prominent among these writers is Plutarch, whose work De Iside et Osiride contains, among other things, the longest ancient account of the myth of Osiris. These authors ' knowledge of Egyptian religion was limited because they were excluded from many religious practices, and their statements about Egyptian beliefs are affected by their biases about Egypt 's culture.
The Egyptian word written m3ˁt, often rendered maat or ma'at, refers to the fundamental order of the universe in Egyptian belief. Established at the creation of the world, maat distinguishes the world from the chaos that preceded and surrounds it. Maat encompasses both the proper behavior of humans and the normal functioning of the forces of nature, both of which make life and happiness possible. Because the actions of the gods govern natural forces and myths express those actions, Egyptian mythology represents the proper functioning of the world and the sustenance of life itself.
To the Egyptians, the most important human maintainer of maat is the pharaoh. In myth the pharaoh is the son of a variety of deities. As such, he is their designated representative, obligated to maintain order in human society just as they do in nature, and to continue the rituals that sustain them and their activities.
In Egyptian belief, the disorder that predates the ordered world exists beyond the world as an infinite expanse of formless water, personified by the god Nun. The earth, personified by the god Geb, is a flat piece of land over which arches the sky, usually represented by the goddess Nut. The two are separated by the personification of air, Shu. The sun god Ra is said to travel through the sky, across the body of Nut, enlivening the world with his light. At night Ra passes beyond the western horizon into the Duat, a mysterious region that borders the formlessness of Nun. At dawn he emerges from the Duat in the eastern horizon.
The nature of the sky and the location of the Duat are uncertain. Egyptian texts variously describe the nighttime sun as traveling beneath the earth and within the body of Nut. The Egyptologist James P. Allen believes that these explanations of the sun 's movements are dissimilar but coexisting ideas. In Allen 's view, Nut represents the visible surface of the waters of Nun, with the stars floating on this surface. The sun, therefore, sails across the water in a circle, each night passing beyond the horizon to reach the skies that arch beneath the inverted land of the Duat. Leonard H. Lesko, however, believes that the Egyptians saw the sky as a solid canopy and described the sun as traveling through the Duat above the surface of the sky, from west to east, during the night. Joanne Conman, modifying Lesko 's model, argues that this solid sky is a moving, concave dome overarching a deeply convex earth. The sun and the stars move along with this dome, and their passage below the horizon is simply their movement over areas of the earth that the Egyptians could not see. These regions would then be the Duat.
The fertile lands of the Nile Valley (Upper Egypt) and Delta (Lower Egypt) lie at the center of the world in Egyptian cosmology. Outside them are the infertile deserts, which are associated with the chaos that lies beyond the world. Somewhere beyond them is the horizon, the akhet. There, two mountains, in the east and the west, mark the places where the sun enters and exits the Duat.
Foreign nations are associated with the hostile deserts in Egyptian ideology. Foreign people, likewise, are generally lumped in with the "nine bows '', people who threaten pharaonic rule and the stability of maat, although peoples allied with or subject to Egypt may be viewed more positively. For these reasons, events in Egyptian mythology rarely take place in foreign lands. While some stories pertain to the sky or the Duat, Egypt itself is usually the scene for the actions of the gods. Often, even the myths set in Egypt seem to take place on a plane of existence separate from that inhabited by living humans, although in other stories, humans and gods interact. In either case, the Egyptian gods are deeply tied to their home land.
The Egyptians ' vision of time was influenced by their environment. Each day the sun rose and set, bringing light to the land and regulating human activity; each year the Nile flooded, renewing the fertility of the soil and allowing the highly productive agriculture that sustained Egyptian civilization. These periodic events inspired the Egyptians to see all of time as a series of recurring patterns regulated by maat, renewing the gods and the universe. Although the Egyptians recognized that different historical eras differ in their particulars, mythic patterns dominate the Egyptian perception of history.
Many Egyptian stories about the gods are characterized as having taken place in a primeval time when the gods were manifest on the earth and ruled over it. After this time, the Egyptians believed, authority on earth passed to human pharaohs. This primeval era seems to predate the start of the sun 's journey and the recurring patterns of the present world. At the other end of time is the end of the cycles and the dissolution of the world. Because these distant periods lend themselves to linear narrative better than the cycles of the present, John Baines sees them as the only periods in which true myths take place. Yet, to some extent, the cyclical aspect of time was present in the mythic past as well. Egyptians saw even stories that were set in that time as being perpetually true. The myths were made real every time the events to which they were related occurred. These events were celebrated with rituals, which often evoked myths. Ritual allowed time to periodically return to the mythic past and renew life in the universe.
Some of the most important categories of myths are described below. Because of the fragmentary nature of Egyptian myths, there is little indication in Egyptian sources of a chronological sequence of mythical events. Nevertheless, the categories are arranged in a very loose chronological order.
Among the most important myths were those describing the creation of the world. The Egyptian developed many accounts of the creation, which differ greatly in the events they describe. In particular, the deities credited with creating the world vary in each account. This difference partly reflects the desire of Egypt 's cities and priesthoods to exalt their own patron gods by attributing creation to them. Yet the differing accounts were not regarded as contradictory; instead, the Egyptians saw the creation process as having many aspects and involving many divine forces.
One common feature of the myths is the emergence of the world from the waters of chaos that surround it. This event represents the establishment of maat and the origin of life. One fragmentary tradition centers on the eight gods of the Ogdoad, who represent the characteristics of the primeval water itself. Their actions give rise to the sun (represented in creation myths by various gods, especially Ra), whose birth forms a space of light and dryness within the dark water. The sun rises from the first mound of dry land, another common motif in the creation myths, which was likely inspired by the sight of mounds of earth emerging as the Nile flood receded. With the emergence of the sun god, the establisher of maat, the world has its first ruler. Accounts from the first millennium BC focus on the actions of the creator god in subduing the forces of chaos that threaten the newly ordered world.
Atum, a god closely connected with the sun and the primeval mound, is the focus of a creation myth dating back at least to the Old Kingdom. Atum, who incorporates all the elements of the world, exists within the waters as a potential being. At the time of creation he emerges to produce other gods, resulting in a set of nine deities, the Ennead, which includes Geb, Nut, and other key elements of the world. The Ennead can by extension stand for all the gods, so its creation represents the differentiation of Atum 's unified potential being into the multiplicity of elements present within the world.
Over time, the Egyptians developed more abstract perspectives on the creation process. By the time of the Coffin Texts, they described the formation of the world as the realization of a concept first developed within the mind of the creator god. The force of heka, or magic, which links things in the divine realm and things in the physical world, is the power that links the creator 's original concept with its physical realization. Heka itself can be personified as a god, but this intellectual process of creation is not associated with that god alone. An inscription from the Third Intermediate Period (c. 1070 -- 664 BC), whose text may be much older, describes the process in detail and attributes it to the god Ptah, whose close association with craftsmen makes him a suitable deity to give a physical form to the original creative vision. Hymns from the New Kingdom describe the god Amun, a mysterious power that lies behind even the other gods, as the ultimate source of this creative vision.
The origin of humans is not a major feature of Egyptian creation stories. In some texts the first humans spring from tears that Ra - Atum or his feminine aspect, the Eye of Ra, sheds in a moment of weakness and distress, foreshadowing humans ' flawed nature and sorrowful lives. Others say humans are molded from clay by the god Khnum. But overall, the focus of the creation myths is the establishment of cosmic order rather than the special place of humans within it.
In the period of the mythic past after the creation, Ra dwells on earth as king of the gods and of humans. This period is the closest thing to a golden age in Egyptian tradition, the period of stability that the Egyptians constantly sought to evoke and imitate. Yet the stories about Ra 's reign focus on conflicts between him and forces that disrupt his rule, reflecting the king 's role in Egyptian ideology as enforcer of maat.
In an episode known in different versions from temple texts, some of the gods defy Ra 's authority, and he destroys them with the help and advice of other gods like Thoth and Horus the Elder. At one point he faces dissent even from an extension of himself, the Eye of Ra, which can act independently of him in the form of a goddess. The Eye goddess becomes angry with Ra and runs away from him, wandering wild and dangerous in the lands outside Egypt. Weakened by her absence, Ra sends one of the other gods -- Shu, Thoth, or Anhur, in different accounts -- to retrieve her, by force or persuasion. Because the Eye of Ra is associated with the star Sothis, whose heliacal rising signaled the start of the Nile flood, the return of the Eye goddess to Egypt coincides with the life - giving inundation. Upon her return, the goddess becomes the consort of Ra or of the god who has retrieved her. Her pacification restores order and renews life.
As Ra grows older and weaker, humanity, too, turns against him. In an episode often called "The Destruction of Mankind '', related in The Book of the Heavenly Cow, Ra discovers that humanity is plotting rebellion against him and sends his Eye to punish them. She slays many people, but Ra apparently decides that he does not want her to destroy all of humanity. He has beer dyed red to resemble blood and spreads it over the field. The Eye goddess drinks the beer, becomes drunk, and ceases her rampage. Ra then withdraws into the sky, weary of ruling on earth, and begins his daily journey through the heavens and the Duat. The surviving humans are dismayed, and they attack the people among them who plotted against Ra. This event is the origin of warfare, death, and humans ' constant struggle to protect maat from the destructive actions of other people.
In The Book of the Heavenly Cow, the results of the destruction of mankind seem to mark the end of the direct reign of the gods and of the linear time of myth. The beginning of Ra 's journey is the beginning of the cyclical time of the present. Yet in other sources, mythic time continues after this change. Egyptian accounts give sequences of divine rulers who take the place of the sun god as king on earth, each reigning for many thousands of years. Although accounts differ as to which gods reigned and in what order, the succession from Ra - Atum to his descendants Shu and Geb -- in which the kingship passes to the male in each generation of the Ennead -- is common. Both of them face revolts that parallel those in the reign of the sun god, but the revolt that receives the most attention in Egyptian sources is the one in the reign of Geb 's heir Osiris.
The collection of episodes surrounding Osiris ' death and succession is the most elaborate of all Egyptian myths, and it had the most widespread influence in Egyptian culture. In the first portion of the myth, Osiris, who is associated with both fertility and kingship, is killed and his position usurped by his brother Set. In some versions of the myth, Osiris is actually dismembered and the pieces of his corpse scattered across Egypt. Osiris ' sister and wife, Isis, finds her husband 's body and restores it to wholeness. She is assisted by funerary deities such as Nephthys and Anubis, and the process of Osiris ' restoration reflects Egyptian traditions of embalming and burial. Isis then briefly revives Osiris to conceive an heir with him: the god Horus.
The next portion of the myth concerns Horus ' birth and childhood. Isis gives birth to and raises her son in secluded places, hidden from the menace of Set. The episodes in this phase of the myth concern Isis ' efforts to protect her son from Set or other hostile beings, or to heal him from sickness or injury. In these episodes Isis is the epitome of maternal devotion and a powerful practitioner of healing magic.
In the third phase of the story, Horus competes with Set for the kingship. Their struggle encompasses a great number of separate episodes and ranges in character from violent conflict to a legal judgment by the assembled gods. In one important episode, Set tears out one or both of Horus ' eyes, which are later restored by the healing efforts of Thoth or Hathor. For this reason, the Eye of Horus is a prominent symbol of life and well - being in Egyptian iconography. Because Horus is a sky god, with one eye equated with the sun and the other with the moon, the destruction and restoration of the single eye explains why the moon is less bright than the sun.
Texts present two different resolutions for the divine contest: one in which Egypt is divided between the two claimants, and another in which Horus becomes sole ruler. In the latter version, the ascension of Horus, Osiris ' rightful heir, symbolizes the reestablishment of maat after the unrighteous rule of Set. With order restored, Horus can perform the funerary rites for his father that are his duty as son and heir. Through this service Osiris is given new life in the Duat, whose ruler he becomes. The relationship between Osiris as king of the dead and Horus as king of the living stands for the relationship between every king and his deceased predecessors. Osiris, meanwhile, represents the regeneration of life. On earth he is credited with the annual growth of crops, and in the Duat he is involved in the rebirth of the sun and of deceased human souls.
Although Horus to some extent represents any living pharaoh, he is not the end of the lineage of ruling gods. He is succeeded first by gods and then by spirits that represent dim memories of Egypt 's Predynastic rulers, the souls of Nekhen and Pe. They link the entirely mythical rulers to the final part of the sequence, the lineage of Egypt 's historical kings.
Several disparate Egyptian texts address a similar theme: the birth of a divinely fathered child who is heir to the kingship. The earliest known appearance of such a story does not appear to be a myth but an entertaining folktale, found in the Middle Kingdom Westcar Papyrus, about the birth of the first three kings of Egypt 's Fifth Dynasty. In that story, the three kings are the offspring of Ra and a human woman. The same theme appears in a firmly religious context in the New Kingdom, when the rulers Hatshepsut, Amenhotep III, and Ramesses II depicted in temple reliefs their own conception and birth, in which the god Amun is the father and the historical queen the mother. By stating that the king originated among the gods and was deliberately created by the most important god of the period, the story gives a mythical background to the king 's coronation, which appears alongside the birth story. The divine connection legitimizes the king 's rule and provides a rationale for his role as intercessor between gods and humans.
Similar scenes appear in many post-New Kingdom temples, but this time the events they depict involve the gods alone. In this period, most temples were dedicated to a mythical family of deities, usually a father, mother, and son. In these versions of the story, the birth is that of the son in each triad. Each of these child gods is the heir to the throne, who will restore stability to the country. This shift in focus from the human king to the gods who are associated with him reflects a decline in the status of the pharaoh in the late stages of Egyptian history.
Ra 's movements through the sky and the Duat are not fully narrated in Egyptian sources, although funerary texts like the Amduat, Book of Gates, and Book of Caverns relate the nighttime half of the journey in sequences of vignettes. This journey is key to Ra 's nature and to the sustenance of all life.
In traveling across the sky, Ra brings light to the earth, sustaining all things that live there. He reaches the peak of his strength at noon and then ages and weakens as he moves toward sunset. In the evening, Ra takes the form of Atum, the creator god, oldest of all things in the world. According to early Egyptian texts, at the end of the day he spits out all the other deities, whom he devoured at sunrise. Here they represent the stars, and the story explains why the stars are visible at night and seemingly absent during the day.
At sunset Ra passes through the akhet, the horizon, in the west. At times the horizon is described as a gate or door that leads to the Duat. At others, the sky goddess Nut is said to swallow the sun god, so that his journey through the Duat is likened to a journey through her body. In funerary texts, the Duat and the deities in it are portrayed in elaborate, detailed, and widely varying imagery. These images are symbolic of the awesome and enigmatic nature of the Duat, where both the gods and the dead are renewed by contact with the original powers of creation. Indeed, although Egyptian texts avoid saying it explicitly, Ra 's entry into the Duat is seen as his death.
Certain themes appear repeatedly in depictions of the journey. Ra overcomes numerous obstacles in his course, representative of the effort necessary to maintain maat. The greatest challenge is the opposition of Apep, a serpent god who represents the destructive aspect of disorder, and who threatens to destroy the sun god and plunge creation into chaos. In many of the texts, Ra overcomes these obstacles with the assistance of other deities who travel with him; they stand for various powers that are necessary to uphold Ra 's authority. In his passage Ra also brings light to the Duat, enlivening the blessed dead who dwell there. In contrast, his enemies -- people who have undermined maat -- are tormented and thrown into dark pits or lakes of fire.
The key event in the journey is the meeting of Ra and Osiris. In the New Kingdom, this event developed into a complex symbol of the Egyptian conception of life and time. Osiris, relegated to the Duat, is like a mummified body within its tomb. Ra, endlessly moving, is like the ba, or soul, of a deceased human, which may travel during the day but must return to its body each night. When Ra and Osiris meet, they merge into a single being. Their pairing reflects the Egyptian vision of time as a continuous repeating pattern, with one member (Osiris) being always static and the other (Ra) living in a constant cycle. Once he has united with Osiris ' regenerative power, Ra continues on his journey with renewed vitality. This renewal makes possible Ra 's emergence at dawn, which is seen as the rebirth of the sun -- expressed by a metaphor in which Nut gives birth to Ra after she has swallowed him -- and the repetition of the first sunrise at the moment of creation. At this moment, the rising sun god swallows the stars once more, absorbing their power. In this revitalized state, Ra is depicted as a child or as the scarab beetle god Khepri, both of which represent rebirth in Egyptian iconography.
Egyptian texts typically treat the dissolution of the world as a possibility to be avoided, and for that reason they do not often describe it in detail. However, many texts allude to the idea that the world, after countless cycles of renewal, is destined to end. This end is described in a passage in the Coffin Texts and a more explicit one in the Book of the Dead, in which Atum says that he will one day dissolve the ordered world and return to his primeval, inert state within the waters of chaos. All things other than the creator will cease to exist, except Osiris, who will survive along with him. Details about this eschatological prospect are left unclear, including the fate of the dead who are associated with Osiris. Yet with the creator god and the god of renewal together in the waters that gave rise to the orderly world, there is the potential for a new creation to arise in the same manner as the old.
Because the Egyptians rarely described theological ideas explicitly, the implicit ideas of mythology formed much of the basis for Egyptian religion. The purpose of Egyptian religion was the maintenance of maat, and the concepts that myths express were believed to be essential to maat. The rituals of Egyptian religion were meant to make the mythic events, and the concepts they represented, real once more, thereby renewing maat. The rituals were believed to achieve this effect through the force of heka, the same connection between the physical and divine realms that enabled the original creation.
For this reason, Egyptian rituals often included actions that symbolized mythical events. Temple rites included the destruction of models representing malign gods like Set or Apophis, private magical spells called upon Isis to heal the sick as she did for Horus, and funerary rites such as the Opening of the Mouth ceremony and ritual offerings to the dead evoked the myth of Osiris ' resurrection. Yet rituals rarely, if ever, involved dramatic reenactments of myths. There are borderline cases, like a ceremony alluding to the Osiris myth in which two women took on the roles of Isis and Nephthys, but scholars disagree about whether these performances formed sequences of events. Much of Egyptian ritual was focused on more basic activities like giving offerings to the gods, with mythic themes serving as ideological background rather than as the focus of a rite. Nevertheless, myth and ritual strongly influenced each other. Myths could inspire rituals, like the ceremony with Isis and Nephthys; and rituals that did not originally have a mythic meaning could be reinterpreted as having one, as in the case of offering ceremonies, in which food and other items given to the gods or the dead were equated with the Eye of Horus.
Kingship was a key element of Egyptian religion, through the king 's role as link between humanity and the gods. Myths explain the background for this connection between royalty and divinity. The myths about the Ennead establish the king as heir to the lineage of rulers reaching back to the creator; the myth of divine birth states that the king is the son and heir of a god; and the myths about Osiris and Horus emphasize that rightful succession to the throne is essential to the maintenance of maat. Thus, mythology provided the rationale for the very nature of Egyptian government.
Illustrations of gods and mythical events appear extensively alongside religious writing in tombs, temples, and funerary texts. Mythological scenes in Egyptian artwork are rarely placed in sequence as a narrative, but individual scenes, particularly depicting the resurrection of Osiris, do sometimes appear in religious artwork.
Allusions to myth were very widespread in Egyptian art and architecture. In temple design, the central path of the temple axis was likened to the sun god 's path across the sky, and the sanctuary at the end of the path represented the place of creation from which he rose. Temple decoration was filled with solar emblems that underscored this relationship. Similarly, the corridors of tombs were linked with the god 's journey through the Duat, and the burial chamber with the tomb of Osiris. The pyramid, the best - known of all Egyptian architectural forms, may have been inspired by mythic symbolism, for it represented the mound of creation and the original sunrise, appropriate for a monument intended to assure the owner 's rebirth after death. Symbols in Egyptian tradition were frequently reinterpreted, so that the meanings of mythical symbols could change and multiply over time like the myths themselves.
More ordinary works of art were also designed to evoke mythic themes, like the amulets that Egyptians commonly wore to invoke divine powers. The Eye of Horus, for instance, was a very common shape for protective amulets because it represented Horus ' well - being after the restoration of his lost eye. Scarab - shaped amulets symbolized the regeneration of life, referring to the god Khepri, the form that the sun god was said to take at dawn.
Themes and motifs from mythology appear frequently in Egyptian literature, even outside of religious writings. An early instruction text, the "Teaching for King Merykara '' from the Middle Kingdom, contains a brief reference to a myth of some kind, possibly the Destruction of Mankind; the earliest known Egyptian short story, "Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor '', incorporates ideas about the gods and the eventual dissolution of the world into a story set in the past. Some later stories take much of their plot from mythical events: "Tale of the Two Brothers '' adapts parts of the Osiris myth into a fantastic story about ordinary people, and "The Blinding of Truth by Falsehood '' transforms the conflict between Horus and Set into an allegory.
A fragment of a text about the actions of Horus and Set dates to the Middle Kingdom, suggesting that stories about the gods arose in that era. Several texts of this type are known from the New Kingdom, and many more were written in the Late and Greco - Roman periods. Although these texts are more clearly derived from myth than those mentioned above, they still adapt the myths for non-religious purposes. "The Contendings of Horus and Seth '', from the New Kingdom, tells the story of the conflict between the two gods, often with a humorous and seemingly irreverent tone. The Roman - era "Myth of the Eye of the Sun '' incorporates fables into a framing story taken from myth. The goals of written fiction could also affect the narratives in magical texts, as with the New Kingdom story "Isis, the Rich Woman 's Son, and the Fisherman 's Wife '', which conveys a moral message unconnected to its magical purpose. The variety of ways that these stories treat mythology demonstrates the wide range of purposes that myth could serve in Egyptian culture.
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when did hairspray first come out on broadway | Hairspray (musical) - wikipedia
Hairspray is an American musical with music by Marc Shaiman, lyrics by Scott Wittman and Shaiman and a book by Mark O'Donnell and Thomas Meehan, based on John Waters 's 1988 film of the same name. The songs include 1960s - style dance music and "downtown '' rhythm and blues. In 1962 Baltimore, Maryland, plump teenager Tracy Turnblad 's dream is to dance on The Corny Collins Show, a local TV dance program based on the real - life Buddy Deane Show. When Tracy wins a role on the show, she becomes a celebrity overnight, and meets a colorful group of characters, leading to social change as Tracy campaigns for the show 's integration.
In 2003 it won eight Tony Awards, including one for Best Musical, out of 13 nominations. It ran for 2,642 performances, and closed on January 4, 2009. Hairspray has also had national tours, a West End production, and numerous foreign productions and was adapted as a 2007 musical film. The London production was nominated for a record - setting eleven Laurence Olivier Awards, winning four including Best New Musical.
According to interviews included as an extra feature on the 2007 film 's DVD release, theatre producer Margo Lion first conceived of Hairspray as a stage musical in 1998 after seeing the original film on television. "I was home looking at a lot of movies, and one of those movies was Hairspray. '' She contacted John Waters, who gave her his blessing, then acquired the rights from New Line Cinema. Lion contacted Marc Shaiman, who expressed interest in the project only if his partner Scott Wittman could participate, and Lion agreed. The two enlisted the help of actress and singer Annie Golden to produce a demo recording containing three songs, one of which, "Good Morning Baltimore, '' eventually became the show 's opening number. Based on their initial work, Lion felt confident that she had hired the right team.
Lion contacted Rob Marshall about directing the musical. At the time he was involved in negotiations to direct the screen adaptation of Chicago, but he agreed to become involved in the early development stages of Hairspray with the stipulation he would drop out if assigned the film. Marshall remembered Marissa Jaret Winokur from her brief appearance in the film American Beauty and arranged a meeting with Shaiman and Wittman. The two immediately felt she was right for the role of Tracy Turnblad but hesitated to commit without seeing any other auditions. They hired Winokur to work with them on the project with the understanding she might be replaced later. One year later, Winokur was diagnosed with cervical cancer. Certain she would lose the role if the creative team learned about her condition, she underwent a hysterectomy without telling anyone but her immediate family. The treatment and surgery succeeded, and Winokur returned to the project. Meanwhile, Marshall had started work on Chicago, and Lion hired Jack O'Brien and Jerry Mitchell to direct and to choreograph, respectively. Winokur was one of the first to audition for the role of Tracy Turnblad and spent two years preparing with voice and dance lessons. Tracy 's mother had been portrayed by Divine in the original film, and Shaiman liked the idea of maintaining the tradition of casting a male as Edna Turnblad. Harvey Fierstein auditioned for the role with a "half hour vocal audition ''. He thought they were "pacifying '' him, but he was told "they do n't want anyone but you ''.
According to Shaiman, one song, "I Know Where I 've Been, '' became controversial during the genesis of the score:
The civil rights story line is a very important aspect of the musical. This story line and the show is empowering for African Americans as it brings the audience 's attention to their stories and the true events that were occurring in the 1960 's, and does n't shy away from exploring and exposing them to audiences all over the world. For example, the Corny Collins Show aspect of the musical, is based on a real show in 1960 's Baltimore called The Buddy Deane Show. Therefore, viewer 's can see the real socio - cultural issues that were occurring in America during this time such as segregation, and events surrounding the Buddy Deane Show, which otherwise may have been forgotten.
After a successful tryout at Seattle 's 5th Avenue Theatre, Hairspray opened on Broadway at the Neil Simon Theatre on August 15, 2002. Jack O'Brien directed the production, which Jerry Mitchell choreographed, with set design by David Rockwell, costume design by William Ivey Long, lighting design by Kenneth Posner, sound design by Steve C. Kennedy, and the many distinctive wigs in the show by Paul Huntley. The original Broadway cast included Marissa Jaret Winokur and Harvey Fierstein in the lead roles of Tracy and Edna respectively. The cast also featured Matthew Morrison as Link, Laura Bell Bundy as Amber, Kerry Butler as Penny, Linda Hart as Velma, Mary Bond Davis as Motormouth Maybelle, Corey Reynolds as Seaweed, Jackie Hoffman as Matron, Dick Latessa as Wilbur, and Clarke Thorell as Corny Collins. Kamilah Marshall, Shayna Steele, and Judine Richard played the Dynamites.
Hairspray received Tony Award nominations in 13 categories, winning eight, including for best musical, book, score and direction. Winokur, Fierstein and Latessa received awards for their performances. The production ran for more than six years, closing on January 4, 2009 after 2,642 performances. Thorell returned to the cast for the final ten months. Fierstein and Winokur returned to the cast for the final performances.
The West End production opened at the Shaftesbury Theatre on October 11, 2007 for previews before its official opening on October 30. Michael Ball played Edna, with Mel Smith as Wilbur Turnblad, newcomer Leanne Jones as Tracy, Tracie Bennett as Velma, Paul Manuel as Corny Collins, Rachael Wooding as Amber, Elinor Collett as Penny, and Ben James - Ellis as Link. The original creative team of the Broadway production, with director Jack O'Brien and choreographer Jerry Mitchell, reunited for the London production. The show garnered a record - setting eleven Olivier Award nominations and won for Best New Musical, as well as acting awards for Best Actress and Actor in a musical (Jones and Ball). The production closed on March 28, 2010 after a run of nearly two - and - a-half years and over 1,000 performances.
An Australian production of Hairspray opened in Melbourne at the Princess Theatre on October 2, 2010 to critical acclaim. It was directed by David Atkins and choreographed by So You Think You Can Dance Australia judge Jason Coleman. The show moved to Sydney from June 23, 2011. The cast included Jaz Flowers as Tracy, Trevor Ashley as Edna, Jack Chambers as Link, and Tevin Campbell reprising his role from the Broadway production as Seaweed J. Stubbs. Atkins redesigned the production using new technologies. The set used enormous LED screens, which moved around the stage in various combinations, as the characters interacted with animated landscapes generated across the screens. The musical opened at Sydney 's Lyric Theatre at The Star Casino on 11 June 2011 and closed on 25 September 2011, two weeks earlier than anticipated, ending its Australian run.
The first U.S. national tour started a run in September 2003 in Baltimore and ended in June 2006. It starred Carly Jibson as Tracy, Bruce Vilanch as Edna, Terron Brooks as Seaweed, Sandra DeNise as Penny, Susan Cella as Velma, and Ramona Cole (soon replaced by Charlotte Crossley) as Motormouth Maybelle. When the tour stopped in Los Angeles, Winokur reprised her role as Tracy, together with the original Broadway Link, Matthew Morrison. The same creative team of Jack O'Brien (dir.) and Jerry Mitchell (chor) were at the helm. Lon Hoyt served as music supervisor. Jim Vukovich served as music director for the entire 33 months on the road.
In July 2006, a non-Equity U.S. and Asian tour opened in Atlantic City 's Harrah 's Casino. The shorter "casino version '' was used for a six - week run, but when the tour moved on, it continued with the full version of the show minus the character of Lorraine. The production starred Brooklynn Pulver as Tracy, Jerry O'Boyle as Edna, Dan Ferretti as Wilbur, Constantine Rousouli as Link, Christian Dante White as Seaweed, Alyssa Malgeri as Penny, Jarret Mallon as Corny, Happy McPartlin as Velma, Pearl Thomas as Amber, and Yvette Clark as Motormouth Maybelle. The tour played sit down engagements in Tokyo, Shanghai and Beijing. It played its final performance on April 25, 2010 at the Fox Performing Arts Center in Riverside, California.
After the West End production closed, Hairspray began touring the UK and Ireland, starting at the Wales Millennium Centre in Cardiff on April 7, 2010, following previews from March 30. The tour stars Michael Ball as Edna, alternating with Michael Starke and Brian Conley; Les Dennis, Nigel Planer and Micky Dolenz alternating as Wilbur and Laurie Scarth as Tracy.
Hairspray toured the UK and Ireland in 2013. The show opened on February 13 in The Lowry Theatre in Manchester with Mark Benton playing Edna Turnblad, Lucy Benjamin playing Velma Von Tussle, Marcus Collins as Seaweed Stubbs and Freya Sutton as Tracy Turnblad, respectively. MM Musicals presented the show at FairfieldHalls, Croydon, in the Ashcroft Theatre, from 19 -- 22 November 2014, with Corin Miller as Tracy, Andy Lingfield as Edna, and Natalie Cave as Penny.
Mark Goucher produced a Hairspray tour in the UK from September 2015, starting in Leicester at the Curve.
A new production of Hairspray will return at the end of summer 2017 to once again tour the UK, starring Norman Pace as Wilbur, Brenda Edwards as Motormouth, Layton Williams and newcomer Rebecca Mendoza as Tracy.
A Las Vegas production ran at the Luxor Hotel in 2006 starring Katrina Rose Dideriksen as Tracy, Austin Miller as Link, and Fierstein and Latessa reprising their roles as Edna and Wilbur. This ninety - minute version was played in one act. Cut songs included "The Big Dollhouse '', "(The Legend of) Miss Baltimore Crabs '', "Velma 's Revenge '', "Good Morning Baltimore (Reprise) '', and "Cooties ''.
Royal Caribbean International presents the show on their new ship MS Oasis of the Seas, which made its maiden voyage in December 2009. The show is performed in the ship 's 1350 seat Opal Theater three times on each seven - night cruise.
In 2018 the MS Symphony of the Seas made its maiden voyage, performing Hairspray. The show is performed in one act, restoring "(The Legend of) Miss Baltimore Crabs '' but like the Las Vegas version omitting "The Big Dollhouse '', "Velma 's Revenge '', "Good Morning Baltimore (Reprise) '', and "Cooties ''. The second verse of "It Takes Two '' was also omitted.
The Riverton Arts Council in Riverton, Utah, performed the U.S. regional premiere at the Sandra N. Lloyd Performing Arts Center from July 30 to August 21, 2010.
A production at the Hollywood Bowl ran from August 5 -- 7, 2011, directed and choreographed by Jerry Mitchell. Original Broadway cast members Fierstein and Winokur reprised their roles as Edna and Tracy Turnblad. The cast also featured Corbin Bleu (Seaweed J. Stubbs), Drew Carey (Wilbur), Diana DeGarmo (Penny), Mo Gaffney (Prudy and others), Nick Jonas (Link Larkin), Darlene Love (Motormouth Maybelle), Susan Anton (Velma Von Tussle), and John Stamos (Corny Collins).
The first international production opened in Toronto at the Princess of Wales Theatre in April 2004 and ran for 245 performances. Vanessa Olivarez, a former American Idol contestant, starred as Tracy, and Jay Brazeau starred as Edna. Stephanie Pitsiladis, cast as the standby for Vanessa, is the first Canadian to have portrayed the role of Tracy Turnblad.
A South African production opened in Johannesburg in October 2007 with the original direction and choreography recreated by Matt Lenz and Greg Graham. New set and costume designs were by Michael Bottari and Ronald Case. A production in Buenos Aires, Argentina, opened on July 16, 2008 starring Enrique Pinti as Edna. The role of Tracy was cast through a reality - competition show called Yo Quiero Ser la Protagonista de Hairspray ' (I Want to Be Hairspray 's Protagonist).
On November 14, 2008, a production of Hairspray in Manila in the Philippines, starring Madel Ching as Tracy and Michael de Mesa as Edna. The production closed on December 7, 2008. On July 10, 2009, a Brazilian production opened in Rio de Janeiro, starring Simone Gutierrez as Tracy and Edson Celulari as Edna. A 2010 Brazilian tour stopped in São Paulo, Brasilia, Curitiba and Porto Alegre.
A Dutch production ran during the 2009 / 2010 season. Edna Turnblad was played by Arjan Ederveen and Link was Jim Bakkum (runner - up in the first season of the Dutch American Idol). On December 6, 2009 a German production opened in Cologne. Edna is played alternately by Uwe Ochsenknecht and comedian Tetje Mierendorf. Tracy is played by Maite Kelly, former member of The Kelly Family and Penny is Jana Stelley. The first production of Hairspray in the German language, however, took place at the Theater St. Gallen, Switzerland. A re-creation of the Broadway / Wast End production of the show opened in Dubai in July 2010 with Leanne Jones, from the West End production, reprising her role as Tracy and Antony Stuart - Hicks as Edna.
Other productions opened in Canada, Finland, Japan, South Korea, Italy, St. Gallen, Switzerland (in German) and Brazil. The musical also played in Shanghai, China, at the Shanghai Grand Theatre in July 2008 and Stockholm, Sweden in September 2008. Other productions are planned for France, Israel, Denmark, Iceland, Norway and Mexico. Hairspray has been translated into German, Finnish, Spanish, Japanese, Korean, Italian, Portuguese, French and Hebrew.
There was a production which was performed in the Hong Kong Cultural Center, by a performing arts company called Face Production. They won a HK Heckler Award for Best Musical, Best Actress and Best Set Design.
In August 2008, the British television channel Sky 1 began broadcasting Hairspray: The School Musical, which followed the development of a North London comprehensive school 's production of Hairspray from audition to performance, with input from various actors and creatives, including members of the Broadway production team and the West End cast.
The first amateur MTI production was produced at the French Woods Festival of the Performing Arts in the summer of 2008. The Junior version was released by MTI on December 9, 2013. This version excludes the musical numbers "I Can Hear the Bells '', "(The Legend of) Miss Baltimore Crabs '', "Velma 's Revenge '', "You 're Timeless to Me '', and "Big, Blonde, and Beautiful ''.
Hairspray was the next live musical to be produced by NBC, and was broadcast on December 7, 2016. Newcomer Maddie Baillio was chosen to play Tracy Turnblad. Jennifer Hudson and Harvey Fierstein starred as Motormouth Maybelle and Edna Turnblad, respectively. Martin Short portrayed Wilbur Turnblad and Derek Hough played Corny Collins. Kristin Chenoweth starred as Velma Von Tussle, and Ariana Grande played the role of Penny Pingleton. The roles of Amber Von Tussle, Link Larkin, and Seaweed J. Stubbs were played by Dove Cameron, Garrett Clayton, and Ephraim Sykes, respectively. Sean Hayes portrayed Mr. Pinky, and Rosie O'Donnell played the gym teacher.
It is June 1962 in Baltimore. Tracy Turnblad, an overweight high school student, wakes up ("Good Morning Baltimore '') and goes to school, where she receives a warning for "inappropriate hair height ''. After school, Tracy rushes home with her best friend, Penny, to catch the local teenage dance show, The Corny Collins Show ("The Nicest Kids in Town ''). Edna, Tracy 's shy and overweight mother, is ironing and complains about the noise of the music coming from the television, while Penny 's mother, Prudy, complains about it being race music. After an announcement that auditions for a place on the show will be held due to the fact that Brenda (one of the Corny Collins Council Members) has taken a leave of absence from the show for "9 months '', Tracy begs her mother for permission to audition. Edna, fearing that Tracy will be laughed at due to her weight, refuses. Penny and Amber (the main dancer on The Corny Collins Show) have similar arguments with their mothers ("Mama, I 'm a Big Girl Now '').
After gaining permission and support from her father, Wilbur, Tracy auditions for the show and bumps into teenage heartthrob, Link Larkin, which leads into a dream sequence ("I Can Hear the Bells ''). Velma Von Tussle, the racist producer of The Corny Collins Show, rejects Tracy from the audition because of her size ("(The Legend of) Miss Baltimore Crabs ''), as well as refusing a black girl, Little Inez. Back at school, Tracy is sent to detention for her "monumental hair - do n't ''. There she meets black dancer Seaweed J. Stubbs (the son of the hostess of "Negro Day '' on The Corny Collins Show, Motormouth Maybelle), who teaches her several dance moves. She uses the new dance steps at the Sophomore Hop the following day to introduce herself to Corny Collins ("The Madison ''). When Corny sees how well Tracy can dance, he gives her a place on the show ("The Nicest Kids in Town '' (Reprise)). During the broadcast, Link, following Corny 's suggestion, sings "It Takes Two '' to Tracy, much to Amber 's dismay. After the show, Mr. Spritzer, the show 's worrisome sponsor, appeals to Velma over Tracy 's appointment to the Council. Velma, threatening to fire Corny from the show, is eventually left distraught and determines to ruin Tracy ("Velma 's Revenge '').
At the Turnblad house, Edna is receiving calls from fans who saw Tracy on the show. A call comes in from Mr. Pinky, the owner of a plus - size dress shop, for an endorsement. Tracy pleads with her mother to come with her and to act as her agent although Edna has not left their apartment in years. Finally making it outside, Edna is given a huge makeover ("Welcome to the 60 's '') and Tracy becomes the spokes - girl for the shop. At school, signs of Tracy 's fame are evident in the schoolyard, with graffiti on the walls and Shelly, another Council Member sporting Tracy 's signature hairdo. During a game of dodge ball, a jealous Amber knocks Tracy out, and Link rushes to her side. Penny and Seaweed, who have developed a liking for each other, rush to fetch the school nurse, only to find her out sick. Seaweed, suggesting that some fun would make Tracy feel better, invites all of them to his mother 's record shop for a platter party ("Run and Tell That ''). At the shop, Tracy rallies everyone to march against the station on the following day 's Mother - Daughter Day, as blacks are not allowed on the show except for the monthly Negro Day. Before they start, Motormouth Maybelle convinces the initially reluctant Edna and Wilbur to march as well. Link declined to participate for the sake of his contract with the show. During the protest, led by Motormouth, Velma calls the police and fights break out. When the police arrive on the scene, almost everyone is arrested ("Big, Blonde and Beautiful '').
After the march, most of the women are locked up in a women 's penitentiary ("The Big Dollhouse ''). Because of Velma 's dirty tactics, the governor pardons and releases both her and Amber. Wilbur bails out the remaining people, excluding Tracy who is forced to remain in jail through another one of Velma 's manipulations. Tracy is alone and wishes that Link could be with her ("Good Morning Baltimore '' (Reprise)). Back at the Har - De-Har Hut (Wilbur 's joke shop), Wilbur and Edna are left destitute because of the money it cost them to bail everyone out and with Tracy still in prison. Edna sympathizes with her daughter 's dream -- she had dreamt of making her "own line of queen - sized dress patterns ''. Edna and Wilbur reminisce about their past and how they can never be parted from each other ("(You 're) Timeless to Me ''). During the night, Link sneaks into the jail where he finds Tracy in solitary confinement. As Link and Tracy reunite, Penny 's mother, Prudy, punishes Penny for "going to jail without her permission '' and ties her up in her bedroom where Seaweed comes to her rescue. Both couples declare their love for one another ("Without Love ''). After escaping from their respective prisons, the couples seek refuge at Motormouth Maybelle 's Record Shop. Tracy thinks that it is unfair that after all of their hard work, The Corny Collins Show is still segregated. They devise a plan to help integrate the show, and Motormouth remembers their long fight for equality ("I Know Where I 've Been '').
On the day of the Miss Teenage Hairspray competition, Corny Collins starts the show with a song ("(It 's) Hairspray ''). Amber shows off her talents in a bid to get more votes from the viewers ("Cooties ''). Just as the results are about to be announced, Tracy stuns Amber as she makes her entrance in a magenta dress without any petticoat underneath, taking over the stage, and is joined by Link, Penny, Seaweed, Edna, Wilbur, Little Inez, and Motormouth. Tracy is declared the winner of the competition. Amber and Velma protest the results, claiming that it is all wrong. Little Inez then tries to take the crown by force when Amber refuses to hand it over, but Tracy stops her, claiming that her heart is set on something more important, which is Link and her future. She then proclaims the Corny Collins show is "now and forevermore '' racially integrated, to much applause. When all is announced, Mr. Spritzer runs onstage thrilled with the public 's response to the telecast and announces that the governor has pardoned Tracy and gave her a full college scholarship and he offers Link a recording contract and Velma the position of vice president of Ultra Glow -- beauty products for women of color, much to the latter 's chagrin. Prudy arrives at the station and, seeing how happy Penny is with Seaweed, accepts her daughter for who she is. At the height of the moment, the company invites Amber and Velma to join the celebration. With the station in joyous celebration, Tracy and Link cement their love with a kiss ("You Ca n't Stop the Beat '').
Principal roles and casts of major productions of stage productions of Hairspray
† Not on the cast recording.
Hairspray went through several revisions before and during its pre-Broadway run in Seattle, in the process eliminating and replacing several musical numbers. In Seattle, an infomercial about safety on the road titled "Blood on the Pavement '' followed "The Nicest Kids in Town '', and is included on the cast album, following "You Ca n't Stop the Beat ''. In early revisions, various songs, including "The Status Quo '' and "Velma 's Cha - Cha '' (its short reprise replaced by "Rage, '' in turn dropped in favor of "Velma 's Revenge ''), were used during Tracy 's audition and dismissal, but the team instead opted for "(The Legend of) Miss Baltimore Crabs '', as the audience did not like seeing Tracy being verbally attacked after "I Can Hear the Bells ''. After the auditions, there was a scene in the Har - De-Har Hut in which Wilbur tried to cheer up Tracy after her rejection, singing that "It Does n't Get Better than This ''. Later replaced by the similar "Positivity '', the scene was later cut early in the Seattle tryout as it was deemed emotionally redundant.
After Tracy eventually made it on the show, there was a song "The New Girl in Town '', which was sung first by the Council girls and later by the black Girls. Although later cut early during the Seattle tryout, it was included in the 2007 film and appears in the show 's instrumental score. "The Mother - Daughter Cha - Cha - Cha '' was another cut number that originally followed "Big, Blonde, and Beautiful ''. Later, the writers absorbed the protest rally and Mother - Daughter Day into the number, thus deleting the song and folding the sequence into a single scene. A song called "Step on Up '' was also cut in favor of "I Know Where I 've Been ''. Early on in the genesis of the show, the plot involved a "Miss Auto Show '' competition, as in the 1988 film, instead of "Miss Teenage Hairspray ''. For this competition, later revised due to the cost of cars onstage, there was a song called "Take a Spin '' sung by Corny in the place where "(It 's) Hairspray '' is now. After Amber 's rendition of "Cooties '', Tracy had a song before the finale called "It Ai n't Over ' Til the Fat Lady Sings, '' though it was cut after the third reading of the show; it was included as a track on the Special Edition of the 2007 motion picture 's soundtrack.
Hairspray 's orchestration calls for fifteen musicians: three keyboards, the first of which is played by the conductor, bass guitar, two guitars, drums, percussion, trumpet, trombone, two woodwind players, two violins, and cello. The guitarists both double on acoustic and electric guitars, and the trumpet doubles on flugelhorn; the original Broadway production also featured a piccolo trumpet double. The first woodwind player doubles on tenor and alto saxophones, flute and clarinet. The second woodwind player doubles on tenor, alto and baritone saxophones, flute and clarinet.
In the original Broadway production, a few of the actors mimed on musical instruments in order to fulfil a minimum musician requirement at the Neil Simon Theatre.
Hairspray explores the themes of racial prejudice and freedom of expression. It highlights individuality, and the importance of everyone working together for something to become revolutionary. The musical is empowering, as although it touches on racial issues that were prevalent in 1960s America, it focuses more on the attitudes that are associated with it, and the power that we have to change discrimination. The musical encourages individuality, acceptance and freedom. It is a musical that can be applied to any social context and time, as it highlights ongoing issues such as fat - shaming, racism and discrimination. It also explores femininity in terms of the female characters. Notably, Tracy 's mother, Edna Turnblad, is performed in drag during the shows. Allowing a drag role for Edna adds a queerness to the musical as it does not include any gay characters. Edna is considered to be the non-racialised other that is part of the story in Hairspray. The musical also challenges the societal norms of a female. The body size of Edna also adds emphasis to the diva roles that are present in the show. Thus, the musical highlights female characters that are strong and associated with diva characteristics.
' Hairspray ' the musical emphasises on issues of acceptance and discrimination within society. Being set in the 1960s, the musical highlights the struggles of racial discrimination of African - Americans during the civil rights movement, with a focus on the world of popular culture. It is empowering by acknowledging the challenges and limitations enforced on African Americans during this time, and also reminds audiences of the progress made as a result of the civil rights movement. Its message can also be used to empower change for other forms of discrimination that are still relevant in today 's society.
According to Variety, Hairspray received thirteen favorable and four mixed reviews. Charles Isherwood, in his Variety review wrote: "... this sweet, infinitely spirited, bubblegum - flavored confection wo n't be lacking for buyers any time soon. Arriving in an aerosol fog of advance hype, it more than lives up to its promise. '' Ben Brantley wrote: "So what if it 's more than a little pushy in its social preaching? Stocked with canny, deliriously tuneful songs by Marc Shaiman and Scott Wittman and directed by Jack O'Brien with a common touch that stops short of vulgarity, ' Hairspray ' is as sweet as a show can be without promoting tooth decay... (it) succeeds in recreating the pleasures of the old - fashioned musical comedy without seeming old - fashioned... Shaiman... is taking the infectious hooks and rhythms from period pop and R&B and translating them into the big, bouncy sound that Broadway demands... And while the savvy arrangements... nod happily to Motown, Elvis, Lesley Gore ballads and standards like "Higher and Higher, '' the score 's appeal is n't nostalgic. It 's music that builds its own self - contained, improbably symmetrical world... '' New York 's Daily News wrote, "As Tracy, Marissa Jaret Winokur has the heft, the pipes and an enormously appealing stage presence. Her dancing may not be as special as the plot suggests, but she wins your heart... With this role, Fierstein places himself in the great line of Broadway divas. ''
Hairspray opened with a $12 million advance; after the Tony Awards show (in June 2003), it was expected to do five times the business it normally did on a Monday. The entire $10.5 million investment was recouped by May 2003 (approximately 9 months after its Broadway opening). For 2002 - 03 it averaged 99 % capacity; for 2007 it averaged 86 %.
A film version was released in July 2007. The film was directed and choreographed by Adam Shankman and starred John Travolta as Edna Turnblad, Christopher Walken as Wilbur Turnblad, Queen Latifah as Maybelle, Michelle Pfeiffer as Velma Von Tussle, James Marsden as Corny Collins, and Nikki Blonsky as Tracy Turnblad. Hugh Jackman and Joey McIntyre were both considered to play the role of Corny Collins, but lost to Jackman 's X-Men co-star Marsden. NBC 's Hairspray Live!, directed by Kenny Leon and Alex Rudzinski, aired in December 2016 to mostly positive reviews.
Sources: PlaybillVault; Internet Broadway Database; Playbill; Playbill
Sources: Playbill; Playbill; Olivier Awards The Telegraph
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who is benny in benny and the jets | Bennie and the Jets - wikipedia
"Bennie and the Jets '' (also titled as "Benny & the Jets '') is a song composed by Elton John and Bernie Taupin. The song first appeared on the Goodbye Yellow Brick Road album in 1973. "Bennie and the Jets '' has been one of John 's most popular songs and was performed during John 's appearance at Live Aid. The track is spelled Benny on the sleeve of the single and in the track listing of the album, but Bennie on the album vinyl disc label.
"Bennie and the Jets '' was featured on side one of the Goodbye Yellow Brick Road album, and Elton John was set against releasing it as a single, believing it would fail. CKLW in Windsor, Ontario, began heavy airplay of the song and it became the # 1 song in the Detroit market. This attention caused other American and Canadian Top 40 stations to add it to their playlists as well and as a result, the song peaked at # 1 on the US singles chart in 1974. In the US, it was certified Gold on 8 April 1974 and Platinum on 13 September 1995 by the RIAA, and had sold 2.8 million copies by August 1976.
"Bennie and the Jets '' was also John 's first Top 40 hit on what at the time was called the Billboard Hot Soul Singles chart, where it peaked at # 15, the highest position out of the three of his singles which reached that chart. The acceptance of "Bennie '' on R&B radio helped land John, a huge soul music fan, a guest appearance on the 17 May 1975 edition of Soul Train, where he played "Bennie and the Jets '' and "Philadelphia Freedom ''. In Canada, it held the # 1 spot on the RPM national singles chart for two weeks (13 -- 20 April), becoming his first # 1 single of 1974 and his fourth overall.
The song tells of "Bennie and the Jets '', a fictional band of whom the song 's narrator is a fan. The song is written in the key of G major. In interviews, Taupin has said that the song 's lyrics are a satire on the music industry of the 1970s. The greed and glitz of the early 1970s music scene is portrayed by Taupin 's words:
Taupin also goes on to describe the flashy wardrobe of "Bennie '', the leader of the band:
Produced by Gus Dudgeon, the song was recorded during the "Goodbye Yellow Brick Road '' sessions in France at Château d'Hérouville 's Strawberry Studios, where John and Taupin had recorded their previous two albums, Honky Château and Do n't Shoot Me I 'm Only the Piano Player.
After recording the song in the studio, John and the band worried that it was too plain and unoriginal. In the Eagle Vision documentary on the making of Goodbye Yellow Brick Road, John recalled, "I fought tooth and nail against ' Bennie ' coming out as a single. '' According to guitarist Davey Johnstone, "' Bennie and the Jets ' was one of the oddest songs we ever recorded. We just sat back and said, ' This is really odd. ' '' While mixing the album, Dudgeon came up with the idea of creating a "live from Playhouse Theatre '' sound for the track. He added reverb effects, applause and other audience sounds from John 's previous concerts and a loop from the Jimi Hendrix live album Isle of Wight, plus whistles, giving it the "live concert recording '' feel that has since become a sort of trademark.
John rarely plays the song verbatim to the studio version, and often makes subtle or even drastic changes. Live, the piano solo in the middle of the song has been played in all sorts of variations, from very close to the original to wildly improvised and extended versions, such as the elaborate version during a Central Park concert in 1980 and another memorable take on it during the "Elton and his band '' part of the show recorded for what would become Live in Australia in December 1986. (It can be seen on various Laserdisc releases of the show.) He has also been known to end the song in a wide range of styles, including classical, swing, boogie - woogie and even using the signature five - note phrase from John Williams ' score for Close Encounters of the Third Kind.
In May 2017, an official music video for "Bennie and the Jets '' premiered at the Cannes Film Festival as a winner of Elton John: The Cut, a competition organized in partnership with AKQA, Pulse Films, and YouTube in honour of the fiftieth anniversary of his songwriting relationship with Bernie Taupin. The competition called upon independent filmmakers to submit treatments for music videos for one of three Elton John songs from the 1970s, with each song falling within a specific concept category. "Bennie and the Jets '' was designated for the choreography category, and was directed by Jack Whiteley and Laura Brownhill. The video was influenced by early cinema and the work of Busby Berkeley, portraying characters as participants on a talent show auditioning for Bennie.
The song contains the line "She 's got electric boots, a mohair suit '', which is often misheard as "She 's got electric boobs, and mohair shoes ''. A scene in the film 27 Dresses shows that this is but one of many mondegreens that listeners have invented for this song.
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who sang give me some sunshine in 3 idiots | Suraj Jagan - Wikipedia
Suraj Jagan (born May 11, 1967) is an Indian playback singer. He is noted for the song Give Me Some Sunshine from the award - winning movie 3 Idiots. The song received the "Best Emerging Male Performer '' award in the Max Stardust Award. Jagan 's singing career began in 1990, and has included both solo work and as front man for the rock band Dream Out Loud. He has also worked in advertising jingle campaigns, Bollywood playback singing, acting in theatre productions and an acting role in the Bollywood film Rock On!! & "Hunterrr ''.
Suraj Jagan began his career working in ad jingles, including the jingle You and I in this beautiful world for the award - winning "Hutch TVC '' ad, before making his Bollywood debut with the song Hum Naujawan Hai from the movie Pyaar Mein Kabhi Kabhi in 1997. The song was given to him by fellow rock vocalist Vishal Dadlani, who was one of the music directors of the film.
From 2007 onwards his Bollywood playback songs included "Hey Jhonny '' from Johnny Gaddaar, Dum Lagaa from Dil Dosti Etc and "No Big Deal '' from Money Hai Toh Honey Hai. He has also sung the song Zehreelay from the movie Rock On!! where he actually performed the song in the movie. He played a part in composing the song and starred in a short cameo in the film with the role of ' Ajay '. The blog Aspi 's Drift claimed at the time that Zehreelay was the first Death Metal song used in a Hindi film.
In 2009 he recorded the song "Give Me Some Sunshine '' for the film 3 Idiots. The film 's music director Shantanu Moitra composed the song with Suraj Jagan 's voice in mind, and stated that if the movie 's producers did not like Suraj Jagan 's voice with the original composition, he would change the tune but would not compromise Suraj Jagan as the singer of the song. Jagan said that "I 'll always be grateful to him for that. ''
His later playback singing work included Rang De from My Name Is Khan, Dil Dil Hai from 7 Khoon Maaf and Baby when you talk to me from Patiala House. His song Sadka Kiya with Mahalaxmi Iyer from the movie I Hate Luv Storys reached number one in the Indian music charts. He has said that it is his favourite song in Bollywood so far.
Suraj Jagan performs as a solo artist and is backed up by four rock musicians. Performances include:
www.mashain.com/surajjagan mvsr engineering college, hyderabad
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why would a recrystallization need to be done | Recrystallization (chemistry) - wikipedia
In chemistry, recrystallization is a technique used to purify chemicals. By dissolving both impurities and a compound in an appropriate solvent, either the desired compound or impurities can be removed from the solution, leaving the other behind. It is named for the crystals often formed when the compound precipitates out. Alternatively, recrystallization can refer to the natural growth of larger ice crystals at the expense of smaller ones.
In chemistry, recrystallization is a procedure for purifying compounds. The most typical situation is that a desired "compound A '' is contaminated by a small amount of "impurity B ''. There are various methods of purification that may be attempted (see Separation process), recrystallization being one of them. There are also different recrystallization techniques that can be used such as:
Typically, the mixture of "compound A '' and "impurity B '' are dissolved in the smallest amount of hot solvent to fully dissolve the mixture, thus making a saturated solution. The solution is then allowed to cool. As the solution cools the solubility of compounds in solution drops. This results in the desired compound dropping (recrystallizing) from solution. The slower the rate of cooling, the bigger the crystals form.
In an ideal situation the solubility product of the impurity, B, is not exceeded at any temperature. In that case the solid crystals will consist of pure A and all the impurity will remain in solution. The solid crystals are collected by filtration and the filtrate is discarded. If the solubility product of the impurity is exceeded, some of the impurity will co-precipitate. However, because of the relatively low concentration of the impurity, its concentration in the precipitated crystals will be less than its concentration in the original solid. Repeated recrystallization will result in an even purer crystalline precipitate. The purity is checked after each recrystallization by measuring the melting point, since impurities lower the melting point. NMR spectroscopy can also be used to check the level of impurity. Repeated recrystallization results in some loss of material because of the non-zero solubility of compound A.
The crystallization process requires an initiation step, such as the addition of a "seed '' crystal. In the laboratory a minuscule fragment of glass, produced by scratching the side of the glass recrystallization vessel, may provide the nucleus on which crystals may grow. Successful recrystallization depends on finding the right solvent. This is usually a combination of prediction / experience and trial / error. The compounds must be more soluble at the higher temperature than at the lower temperatures. Any insoluble impurity is removed by the technique of hot filtration.
This method is the same as the above but where two (or more) solvents are used. This relies on both "compound A '' and "impurity B '' being soluble in a first solvent. A second solvent is slowly added. Either "compound A '' or "impurity B '' will be insoluble in this solvent and precipitate, whilst the other of "compound A '' / "impurity B '' will remain in solution. Thus the proportion of first and second solvents is critical. Typically the second solvent is added slowly until one of the compounds begins to crystallize from solution and then the solution is cooled. Heating is not required for this technique but can be used.
The reverse of this method can be used where a mixture of solvent dissolves both A and B. One of the solvents is then removed by distillation or by an applied vacuum. This results in a change in the proportions of solvent causing either "compound A '' or "impurity B '' to precipitate.
Hot filtration can be used to separate "compound A '' from both "impurity B '' and some "insoluble matter C ''. This technique normally uses a single - solvent system as described above. When both "compound A '' and "impurity B '' are dissolved in the minimum amount of hot solvent, the solution is filtered to remove "insoluble matter C ''. This matter may be anything from a third impurity compound to fragments of broken glass. For a successful procedure, one must ensure that the filtration apparatus is hot in order to stop the dissolved compounds crystallizing from solution during filtration, thus forming crystals on the filter paper or funnel.
One way to achieve this is to heat a conical flask containing a small amount of clean solvent on a hot plate. A filter funnel is rested on the mouth, and hot solvent vapors keep the stem warm. Jacketed filter funnels may also be used. The filter paper is preferably fluted, rather than folded into a quarter; this allows quicker filtration, thus less opportunity for the desired compound to cool and crystallize from the solution.
Often it is simpler to do the filtration and recrystallization as two independent and separate steps. That is dissolve "compound A '' and "impurity B '' in a suitable solvent at room temperature, filter (to remove insoluble compound / glass), remove the solvent and then recrystallize using any of the methods listed above.
Crystallization requires an initiation step. This can be spontaneous or can be done by adding a small amount of the pure compound (a seed crystal) to the saturated solution, or can be done by simply scratching the glass surface to create a seeding surface for crystal growth. It is thought that even dust particles can act as simple seeds.
Growing crystals for X-ray crystallography can be quite difficult. For X-ray analysis, single perfect crystals are required. Typically a small amount (5 -- 100 mg) of pure compound is used, and crystals are allowed to grow very slowly. Several techniques can be used to grow these perfect crystals:
For ice, recrystallization refers to the growth of larger crystals at the expense of smaller ones. Some biological antifreeze proteins have been shown to inhibit this process, and the effect may be relevant in freezing - tolerant organisms.
Single protein crystal of lysozyme
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step is life so you think you can dance | Jabbawockeez - wikipedia
The Jabbawockeez (stylized as JabbaWocKeeZ) is an American hip - hop dance crew. Best known for being the winners of the first season of America 's Best Dance Crew in 2008. They were initially formed by members Kevin "KB '' Brewer, Phil "Swagger Boy '' Tayag, & Joe "Punkee '' Larot under the name "3 Muskee ''. By 2004, their members included Ben "B - Tek '' Chung, Chris "Cristyle '' Gatdula, Rynan "Kid Rainen '' Paguio, and Jeff "Phi '' Nguyen. Tony "Transformer '' Tran joined the crew in 2013. The Jabbawockeez do not have a group leader; choreography for their performances, as well as music and design choices, is made as a collective unit.
Phil "Swagger Boy '' Tayag, Kevin "KB '' Brewer, Joe "Punkee '' Larot began performing as a trio called "Three Muskee '' in Sacramento, California while wearing white masks and gloves. The mask and glove motif was adopted as a tribute to the 1970s San Francisco strutting crew Medea Sirkas. Gary "Gee One '' Kendall and Randy "DJ Wish One '' Bernal were both members of the MindTricks dance crew who were active in the San Francisco Bay Area. Both the MindTricks dance crew and the Three Muskee were friends and associates with each other. Tayag, Brewer, and Larot all later moved to the San Diego area, and what began as an effort to start a Southern California chapter of the MindTricks crew later evolved into Jabbawockeez.
Established in 2003 in San Diego, California, Jabbawockeez is the brainchild of the "Three Musky '' who wanted to showcase freestyle dance. The name Jabbawockeez, coined by Joe Larot, was inspired by the fantastical monster from the Lewis Carroll nonsense poem Jabberwocky. The white masks and gloves from Phil, Kevin, and Joe 's performances as Three Musky were adopted as the visual signature of the group. In San Diego, through Gary 's connections, the Jabbawockeez added b - boys Rynan "Kid Rainen '' Paguio and Chris "Cristyle '' Gatdula to the group. The original seven - member iteration of the Jabbawockeez began performing as a group in 2004. This lineup consisted of Gary, Randy, Phil, Kevin, Joe, Rynan, and Chris.
Jabbawockeez rounded out their numbers with additional members, bringing their total to eleven. Phoenix native Jeff "Phi '' Nguyen had met Rynan Paguio at various Los Angeles area auditions and performances and earned a spot in the Jabbawockeez in 2004 by battling Kevin Brewer. The Jabbawockeez also brought Kaba Modern alumnus Ben "B - Tek '' Chung and b - boys Eddie "Eddiestyles '' Gutierrez and Saso "Saso Fresh '' Jimenez into the fold. Stylistically, the Jabbawockeez style of dance features an eclectic mix of various urban styles, primarily popping & b - boying, along with a careful synchronicity to self - created instrumentals which one member dubs "Beat - Kune - Do '' (a play on the word "Jeet Kune Do '', a martial arts style created by Bruce Lee). In 2007, the Jabbawockeez appeared on the second season of America 's Got Talent. Performing with nine members, the group was eliminated in the Las Vegas callbacks episode. In 2008, they auditioned and were accepted onto the first season of America 's Best Dance Crew. And some requests also include of Mayhem, Tooboi and Philani Mangezi.
The Jabbawockeez auditioned as a seven - member contingent for the first season of America 's Best Dance Crew, because of crew member limits imposed by the show. Originally, the ABDC group was supposed to consist of Gary Kendell, Phil Tayag, Kevin Brewer, Joe Larot, Rynan Paguio, Chris Gatdula, and Phi Nguyen; however, when Gary died that year, and Joe suffered a knee injury during the audition rounds, the group chose Ben Chung to replace Joe on the show and left Gary 's spot vacant, proceeding with six members. They eventually went on to become the winners of the show. The win earned the crew $100,000 (USD).
Since ABDC, the Jabbawockeez have appeared in a Pepsi, Ford, and Gatorade commercials, and performed on Dancing with the Stars, So You Think You Can Dance, The Ellen DeGeneres Show, and Live with Regis and Kelly. They also made a cameo appearance in Step Up 2 The Streets, launched their own clothing line, and toured with New Kids on the Block, and Jesse McCartney. Along with the ABDC season two winner, Super Cr3w, Jabbawockeez were the opening act for the Battle of the VMAs ABDC special. The group also made an appearance on Cycle 13 of America 's Next Top Model during the episode "Dance With Me '' to help the contestants learn how to convey emotions with their bodies. They also starred in Shake It Up, a Disney Channel Comedy Show. On February 15, 2009, they accompanied and danced with NBA All - Star center Shaquille O'Neal in his NBA All - Star Game player introduction. On October 16, 2009, they performed in front of a crowd of 35,000 at the University of Florida 's Gator Growl. They also performed for DECA 's 66th Annual International Career Development Conference in Salt Lake City. On May 19, 2013 they were backup dancers for Taylor Swift 's performance at 2013 Billboard Music Awards. They have also appeared in Season 7, Episode 2 of The Bachelorette with Ashley Hebert.
The Jabbawockeez toured Australia from August 28 to August 30, 2009. The three - day tour was for Australian fans who were unable to see the crew due to the cancellation of the Australian leg of New Kids on the Block 's Full Service Tour. The group performed in Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane and made several appearances on MTV Iggy.
On May 7, 2010, the Jabbawockeez debuted their own live stage show called MÜS. I.C at the Monte Carlo Resort and Casino in Las Vegas. They are the first dance crew to headline a show in Las Vegas. The show included members from Super Cr3w, the winners of season two of America 's Best Dance Crew. Music for the show was produced by DJ collective The Bangerz and their costumes were designed by Kara Saun. Although scheduled to end in June, the show was later extended through August. Since its initial run, the show has moved to the Jupiters Hotel and Casino in Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia. They moved to the Luxor Hotel and Casino for their new show PRiSM in May 2013. PRiSM was housed in a brand new 850 - seat theater and a mural of the crew is painted in the lobby by performance artist David Garibaldi. As of November 2015, The Jabbawockeez started performing their new show called "JREAMZ '' at the MGM Grand
Since their MÜS. I.C show, the Jabbawockeez made an album consisting of all the songs that they used in the show. It was released on iTunes on March 1, 2011. Since this time, they have been working to establish JBWKZ Records by promoting fellow member Phil "Swagger Boy '' Tayag, who was part of the indie hip - hop group KNGDM with his brother P.C. and friend Kilo. KNGDM released "The Goodbye Mixtape '' in 2010, which included a song by Tayag titled, "Ima Get It ''. Tayag released an EP on February 12, 2012, titled "Privileged '', along with two videos on the Jabbawockeez YouTube channel for "Ima Get It '' and "FN G ''. "FN G '' featured Phil 's brother and KNGDM member P.C. The album is available on iTunes and was released on JBWKZ Records. The video for "Ima Get It '' was directed by fellow Jabawockeez member Chris Gatdula.
In partnership with Coca - Cola, the Jabbawockeez featured in a dance video to provide medicinal aid to children in underdeveloped countries. Coca - Cola agreed that for every dance video that choreographed to the song "Celebrate '' by Empire of the Sun & Tommy Trash and tagged "# CokeRedMoves '' in the video, they would donate 60 days worth of life - saving medicine to children afflicted with HIV. For the first 1000 videos submitted, Coca - Cola will donate upwards of $25,000 to the Global Fund to finance the HIV / AIDS program on the ground in Africa. In the premiere dance video, Jabbawockeez danced alongside other well - known dancers such as Ian Eastwood, Brian Puspos, Les Twins, 8 Flavahz and more.
The Jabbawockeez appeared in the season two episode "Dinner Party '' on Master of None, the Netflix series starring Aziz Ansari. In the episode, the Jabbawockeez are guest judges on the series 's fictional TV program Clash of the Cupcakes, in which Ansari 's character is frustrated they will not remove their masks to taste the cupcakes.
The group appeared as reborn on the first season of the 2017 reality program World of Dance. They performed alongside Kinjaz and made happy both the fans and judges. They have a record their of winning since 2007 - 2015, they have been unbeatable up until they separated because of some internal conflicts but are now back together now.
The group also appeared as part of Universal Studios Hollywood Halloween Horror Nights nighttime event in 2015 and 2016.
The first significant achievement of the Jabbawockeez was winning season 1 of America 's Best Dance Crew in 2008. In the 2008 AXA (Asian Excellence Awards), the Jabbawockeez had been voted as the Favorite Reality TV Star, where they also performed with Kaba Modern on stage. On August 5, 2012, they were the first dance crew to be awarded the Living Legend of Hip Hop Award from Hip Hop International. They were also the recipients of a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Set It Off Competition 2013, where the Jabbawockeez received the award via video and presented BabyWockee for her number.
Phil Tayag, also known as SB and Swaggerboy, is one of the original members of the Jabbawockeez. Phil is currently the CEO of the Jabbawockeez. Also recruited Thulani Mangezi a Zimbabwean whom he meet in Japan.
Phil is a choreographer and dancer for the Jabbawockeez. He is also a choreographer and dancer for Bruno Mars. After their success with the music video ' Uptown Funk ', which received more than 2 billion views, Phil Tayag has worked with Bruno Mars on the Super Bowl 50 show, the ' 24K Magic ' music video, and multiple live performances.
Apart from dancing, Phil also makes music. His biggest hit is the single ' We Just Made It ' from the movie Project X.
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which city was designated as unesco world book capital 2018 | World Book Capital - wikipedia
The success of World Book and Copyright Day, launched in 1996, encouraged UNESCO to develop the concept of World Book Capital City, selecting Madrid as the Capital for 2001. This was again a success, and so UNESCO 's General Conference resolved to make the designation of a World Book Capital City an annual event.
UNESCO invited the International Publishers Association, the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions and the International Booksellers Federation to participate in the nomination process, to ensure the three major branches of the book industry can participate in the decision.
The nomination does not include any financial prize; it rather acknowledges the best programmes dedicated to books and reading.
The nominating committee welcomes programmes -- presented by or endorsed by the mayor of the city making the application -- that promote and foster reading. The programmes are to run from one World Book and Copyright Day and the next. The nomination committee will turn its attention to certain criteria:
The following cities have been designated as World Book Capitals:
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opening for justin timberlake man of the woods tour | Man of the Woods tour - wikipedia
The Man of the Woods Tour is the sixth and current headlining concert tour by American singer Justin Timberlake. It is in support of his fifth studio album Man of the Woods (2018). The tour began on March 13, 2018, in Toronto, Canada and is scheduled to end on January 29, 2019, in Denver, Colorado. With the first leg of tour dates, over 450,000 tickets have been reportedly sold in early February.
The tour was first announced in January 2018, and due to demand additional dates were released soon after. On February 5, 2018, the day following Timberlake 's Super Bowl LII halftime show, Timberlake announced European tour dates, as well as second and third North American tour dates. Timberlake will tour Europe after the first North American leg, then will tour North America again starting in the fall. The third North American leg will begin in January 2019.
During a portion of the concert, Timberlake and his band the "Tennessee Kids '' sing around a campfire. The "Stage Bar '' VIP Experience on the tour includes a bar near the center stage, and a drink ticket. A disco dance floor is near the stage, where Timberlake performs "Rock Your Body ''
In May 2018, Billboard reported grosses totalling $36.6 million from the first five weeks, with 255,780 attendees at 16 shows, thus reaching number one on the magazine 's weekly ranking Hot Tours. The magazine expects the tour to reach a total of $275 million and 2 million attendees by the time it concludes. Timberlake 's sold - out Orlando concert on May 14 was the highest - grossing, single - day concert in Amway Center history with $2,387,112 and 17,839 attendees.
Toronto Star journalist Nick Krewen, who attended the opening date, gave it a score of four - out - of - four, writing "(the) stellar tour kickoff delivers the hits and the spectacle... Even with some of the most elaborate, sophisticated visual technology available at his disposal, pop superstar Justin Timberlake managed to have his campfire moment at the Air Canada Centre Tuesday night. With a literal campfire. '' Chicago Tribune 's Bob Gendron who attended the show at the United Center praised the spectacle and said "Parade leader. Spurned lover. Assertive dancer. Down - on - his - knees relationship savior. Bartender who handed shots out to his large ensemble. Outdoors lover who gathered around a campfire to play familiar songs. Timberlake embraced an array of roles, blurring the lines between entertainer, singer and actor. '' Adam Graham of the Detroit News wrote it "was an engrossing spectacle that turned the arena into his personal wooded playland; no concert artist has come close to using Little Caesars Arena 's space this creatively, save for perhaps Lady Gaga. (...) Timberlake was cool and commanding, taking the stage in a jean jacket and track pants and still looking like he owned the place. '' Graham also praised Timberlake 's band the Tennessee Kids, "(they) became his own E Street Band -- there were times, especially when the band turned around and played to the fans at the back of the arena, that the show recalled a Bruce Springsteen concert. ''
Franklin Soults of The Boston Globe described the first half of the show as "ritzy glamour, '' with the "undercut with casual outfits and attitudes that made the extravaganza feel almost relaxed, like a professional athlete 's seemingly effortless performance during a career - topping late season. '' Despite describing the sing - along around the campfire as "clumsy, '' he did believe that Timberlake won the crowd back towards the end of the show. The Oakland Press ' Gary Graff said "You 'd be hard - pressed to find a production that makes full use of an arena in as complete a way as Timberlake is doing '' and opined "the whole affair was tightly choreographed to appear precision at times, loose and improvisational at others. Timberlake and company were best when they were at their funkiest. '' Peter Larsen in Daily Breeze said in his review that Timberlake delivered "with swagger and style in a terrific night at the Forum, '' and noted the opening act The Shadowboxers "surely won over many with their energetic performance. ''
Jimmie Tramel of Tulsa World said Timberlake brought "cool factor '' to BOK Center, and noted his "appeal is such that among those spotted walking into the arena was state senator and former University of Tulsa football coach David Rader. '' Ed Masley of The Arizona Republic said "there were plenty of breathtaking nature scenes projected on the scrims that dotted the arena, '' while "it felt more like a night at the club in downtown Phoenix than a trip to Payson, '' about Timberlake he commented, "he 's only gotten better, as he proved repeatedly in the course of a heavily choreographed performance. His sense of showmanship has also gotten stronger through the years. ''
The following set list is from the show on March 13, 2018 in Toronto. It is not representative of all concerts for the duration of the tour.
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when is the pitch perfect 3 album coming out | Pitch Perfect 3 - wikipedia
Pitch Perfect 3 is a 2017 American musical comedy film directed by Trish Sie and written by Kay Cannon and Mike White. A sequel to Pitch Perfect 2 (2015), and the third and final installment in the Pitch Perfect series, the film stars Anna Kendrick, Anna Camp, Rebel Wilson, Brittany Snow, Hailee Steinfeld, Hana Mae Lee, Ester Dean, Chrissie Fit, Alexis Knapp, John Lithgow, Ruby Rose, Kelley Jakle, Shelley Regner, Elizabeth Banks, and John Michael Higgins. The film follows the Bellas, now graduated from college, reuniting for one final performance together during an overseas USO tour.
Principal photography on the film began in January 2017 in Atlanta, Georgia and ended in April 2017. The film was released in the United States on December 22, 2017, received mixed reviews from critics, and has grossed $183 million worldwide. It has become the second highest - grossing musical comedy film of all time, behind only the second film.
Two years after the events of the second movie, the Bellas have graduated college, but have jobs which they all hate. Desperate to see each other again to sing once more, Beca (Anna Kendrick), Fat Amy (Rebel Wilson), Chloe (Brittany Snow), Aubrey (Anna Camp), Lilly (Hana Mae Lee), Stacie (Alexis Knapp), Cynthia - Rose (Ester Dean), Florencia (Chrissie Fit), Jessica (Kelley Jakle), and Ashley (Shelley Regner) are all thrilled to learn that Emily (Hailee Steinfeld), now a senior at Barden and leader of the Barden Bellas, has seemingly asked for the Bellas to reunite at an event in New York Aquarium to sing with each other once more. Upon arriving at the reunion they are told that the reunion was not for the Bellas to sing together, but to watch Emily sing with the new Bellas.
They later gather at a bar in disappointment and Emily apologizes as she thought it would be the only way for them to see each other again. They all express how much they miss each other. Suddenly, Aubrey convinces them to join a USO performance accessed by her Army officer father. If they win the competition, they get to open for DJ Khaled. The Bellas gladly accept, all except for Stacie who is eight months pregnant at the moment and is unable to go with them. The Bellas later arrive at a hangar where two soldiers, Chicago (Matt Lanter) and Zeke (Troy Ian Hall) introduce them to their competition, revealed to be three other groups who use instruments, unlike the Bellas. When the band Evermoist, led by their leader Calamity (Ruby Rose) begin to mock and belittle the Bellas, the competitors are challenged to a riff - off by the Bellas, who leave defeated when the other groups compete using their musical instruments.
The Bellas are taken to a fancy hotel in Spain, where Chloe begins to catch an eye for Chicago. Fat Amy finds an old stuffed bunny sitting in her bed, which she recognizes as an old toy she used to hold when she was very little as her father Fergus (John Lithgow) sang her to sleep every night. Amy then realizes that her father is staying in the same hotel she is in and is shocked upon the discovery, seeing as how Fergus is an international criminal. Later that night, the Bellas are invited to a party at DJ Khaled 's suite at the hotel, where Fat Amy splits with the group when she is called to be at a poker tournament. The tournament was set up by Fergus, who promptly begs for Amy to be back in his life. A hesitant Amy finally agrees to do so after seeing how much he has changed. Beca, who develops a friendship with DJ Khaled 's music producer Theo (Guy Burnet), is taken to DJ Khaled 's music editing room. Beca produces a mix which impresses Theo who is prompted to send the mix to DJ Khaled. Moments later, the party is thrown into chaos when Aubrey accidentally sets the suite on fire.
The Bellas are left in disgrace after the incident with no hopes of winning the competition until Stacie calls the girls to inform she has given birth to a baby girl and named her Bella. This motivates the Bellas to just perform their hearts out without trying to win. Back at the USO competition, the Bellas perform tremendously to adoring crowds through different performances, repairing their reputation and chances to win in the process. Fergus is accepted by Amy, who believes he came to one of their performances to see her. He accidentally reveals that he has not seen her perform at all, while confessing that he is only trying to acquire an offshore account Amy 's mother set up which contains US $ 180 million. After Amy shuts out Fergus again, Chicago and Zeke escort her away from her father, who swears revenge on her. Meanwhile, only Beca is asked personally by DJ Khaled to open for him, disregarding the other Bellas. Beca politely declines the offer and leaves to her room. Later, the Bellas are taken away by a Frenchman in a dark grey van out onto a yacht in a nearby harbor. The yacht belongs to Fergus, who is using the Bellas as a means to get Amy to come for him. Amy and Beca hear of the kidnapping and decide to rescue the Bellas. Beca distracts Fergus by having the Bellas perform "Toxic '' for him and two of his men, just as Amy sets the yacht to explode. The Bellas escape the yacht just before it blows. Fergus survives the explosion and is arrested for his crimes.
After the Bellas are rescued by the military, Fat Amy reveals DJ Khaled 's proposition to Beca to the others. They encourage her to take the chance, and they all agree that now it 's time to move on with their lives, with Amy using her bank account for multiple tributes to singers named Amy, Aubrey trying to be a birthing coach, Flo 's juice cart becoming part of an international brand, Chloe getting accepted into vet school, Cynthia - Rose staying at the base to get into flight school, Emily going back to Barden to prepare for her upcoming abnormal psychology test while continuing her songwriting, and Lilly revealing that the reason she was quiet was because she was possessed by Satan and the yacht incident snapped her out of it, and that her real name is Ester. They know very well they 'll be separated, but still be connected to each other as a family. Later at the USO 's final performance, Beca opens for DJ Khaled and sings on stage, and afterwards brings up the Bellas onstage for the girls to sing their final performance with the other competitors gladly watching the Bellas sing "Freedom! ' 90 '' to their hearts content.
Gail (Elizabeth Banks) and John (John Michael Higgins) (who were the Bellas ' public announcers in the previous installments) finish filming the Bellas as part of a documentary they have been making about the girls throughout the whole film, only to be appalled when John realizes they did n't record the Bellas ' final performance, which was supposed to be the documentary 's big ending. A series of mid credit scenes reveal the Bellas ' separate story arcs closed out to their mostly happy endings, with Lilly hanging around with DJ Dragon Nutz, whom she flirted with earlier, Chloe and Chicago making out whilst Beca, watching uncomfortably, speaks with Theo about her new job now that he works for her, and Aubrey reconnects with her father.
On April 11, 2015, a month before the release of the second film, it was announced that Rebel Wilson would return for a third film, although she stated that she did not know if Anna Kendrick or other cast members would also reprise their roles. She added that she would be "up for a Fat Amy spin - off. '' Director, star, and producer of the second film Elizabeth Banks acknowledged the possibility of a third film during promotion of Pitch Perfect 2, saying, "I will say, it would be disingenuous to say that no one 's talking about a Pitch Perfect 3; the possibility of it. ''
On June 10, 2015, a third film was officially confirmed, and Kay Cannon was set to return to write the script. On June 15, 2015, it was announced that Kendrick and Wilson would both reprise their roles, and on July 28, 2015, Brittany Snow signed on to return. Paul Brooks again produced for Gold Circle Films, along with Max Handelman and Banks for Brownstone Productions. On October 27, 2015, Banks was officially announced to return as director for the film, though she exited in that capacity on June 3, 2016. On September 1, 2016, Trish Sie was confirmed to direct the film. On December 13, 2016, it was reported that Ruby Rose was in talks to join the film, while Anna Camp also signed on to return for the sequel. Cannon wrote the script with later drafts by Mike White and Dana Fox; White would eventually receive screenwriting credits alongside Cannon. On January 5, 2017, a table read occurred, with Ester Dean, Hana Mae Lee, Chrissie Fit, Kelley Jakle, and Shelley Regner also being confirmed to reprise their roles, and singer Andy Allo joining as Charity, a rival in a group opposing the Bellas. While it was revealed by vocal director Deke Sharon that Alexis Knapp is returning, she was n't spotted during the first month of filming, leading fans to show concerns that she might not be returning at all. However, on February 6, she posted a photo on Instagram, confirming her return, and was on set the following day.
Principal photography on the film began on January 5, 2017, and took place in Atlanta, Georgia and Cádiz, Spain. Filming wrapped on April 3, 2017.
Pitch Perfect 3 was initially scheduled for July 21, and August 4, 2017. It had its world premiere in Sydney, Australia, on November 29, 2017, and was released in the United States on December 22, 2017.
As of January 28, 2018, Pitch Perfect 3 has grossed $104 million in the United States and Canada, and $78.7 million in other territories, for a total of $182.7 million, against a production budget of $45 million.
In the United States and Canada, Pitch Perfect 3 was released alongside the openings of Downsizing and Father Figures, and the wide expansions of The Shape of Water and Darkest Hour, and was projected to gross $27 -- 35 million from 3,447 theaters in its opening weekend. The film took in $2.1 million from Thursday night previews, about half of the $4.6 million earned by its predecessor. Over the three - day weekend, which included Christmas Eve, it grossed $19.9 million (down nearly 70 % from the second film 's $69.2 million debut), finishing third at the box office, behind Star Wars: The Last Jedi and Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle. It grossed an additional $6.5 million on Christmas Day, for a four - day total of $26.4 million. It dropped 15 % the following weekend, grossing $16.8 million, and a total of $21.7 million over the four - day New Year 's frame.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 31 %, based on 116 reviews, with an average rating of 4.7 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Pitch Perfect 3 strains to recapture the magic that helped the original spawn a franchise, but ends up sending this increasingly unnecessary trilogy out on a low note. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 40 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale, the same score earned by its predecessor.
Owen Gleiberman of Variety gave the film a positive review, praising the cast and saying "The new film does n't add anything revolutionary to the Pitch Perfect formula. It still sounds like we 're in middle - period Glee written by someone who finds Ryan Murphy too solemn. But as directed by Trish Sie, the movie is bubbly, it 's fast, it 's hella synthetic - clever, and it 's an avid showcase for the personalities of its stars. ''
In a negative review for The Hollywood Reporter, Frank Scheck wrote "... what started out as a charmingly offbeat comic premise has inevitably degenerated into the sort of crass commercialism that probably would make the Bellas themselves turn up their noses. ''
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who got the first televised 147 in snooker | Maximum break - wikipedia
In snooker, the maximum break under normal circumstances is 147. This is often known as a maximum, a 147, or orally, a one - four - seven, and is attained by potting all fifteen reds with fifteen blacks for 120 points, followed by all six colours for a further 27 points.
Joe Davis compiled the first officially recognised maximum break in a 1955 exhibition match in London. In 1982, Steve Davis achieved the first official maximum in professional competition, such having been, also, the first televised one. The following year, Cliff Thorburn became the first player to make a maximum in the World Championship. Ronnie O'Sullivan holds the record of thirteen competitive maximum breaks, and he also has the record for the fastest competitive maximum break at 5 minutes 20 seconds, set at the 1997 World Championship.
Maximum breaks have gradually become more commonplace in professional snooker. Only 8 maximums were achieved in the 1980s, but 26 were attained in the 1990s and 35 in the 2000s. Thus far in the 2010s, over 60 maximums have been achieved. The 100th official maximum break in professional competition was achieved by Mark Selby at the UK Championship on 7 December 2013.
Breaks greater than 147 are possible in a free ball situation. This has been achieved only once in professional competition, when Jamie Burnett made a 148 break in the qualifying stages of the 2004 UK Championship.
Joe Davis compiled the first officially recognised maximum break on Saturday 22 January 1955 in a match against 68 - year - old fellow Englishman Willie Smith at Leicester Square Hall, London. The Billiards Association and Control Council initially refused to accept the break since the match was not played under their rules. At the time the professionals played using a rule (now standard) whereby after a foul a player could compel the offender to play the next stroke. It was only at a meeting on 20 March 1957 that they recognised the break. Davis was presented with a certificate to commemorate his achievement. The match between Davis and Smith was played as part of a series of events marking the closure of Leicester Square Hall. The hall, known as Thurston 's Hall until 1947, had hosted many important billiards and snooker matches since its opening in 1901, including 12 World Snooker Championship finals. The final match was a snooker contest, played on level terms, between Joe and Fred Davis from 24 to 29 January but from 17 to 22 January Joe Davis played Willie Smith at both billiards and snooker. In the snooker match Smith received 28 points in each frame but, despite this handicap, Davis won the match by 23 frames to 13..
John Spencer made the first tournament maximum break in the 1979 Holsten Lager International, but this did not count as an official maximum as the break was made on a non-templated table used during the event. The first official maximum break in professional competition was by Steve Davis in the 1982 Classic at the Queen Elizabeth Hall, Oldham, against fellow Englishman John Spencer winning a car for the achievement. This was also the first televised maximum. The following year, Canada 's Cliff Thorburn became the first player to make a maximum at the World Championship, in the fourth frame of his second round match against Welsh player Terry Griffiths.
For the next 11 seasons, only 14 other official maximum breaks were scored. Starting with 1994 / 1995, a maximum break has been achieved every single season, with a peak of 13 maximums during the 2016 / 2017 season. The 100th officially recognised maximum break in professional competition was made on 7 December 2013 by Mark Selby in the 7th frame of his semi-final match at the UK Championship against Ricky Walden. Since then, more than 30 maximum breaks have been officially recorded in professional competition. England 's Ronnie O'Sullivan has compiled thirteen ratified competitive maximum breaks, the most by any professional player. Following him are Scotsmen Stephen Hendry and John Higgins with eleven and eight respectively and China 's Ding Junhui with six. O'Sullivan also holds the record for the fastest competitive maximum break at 5 minutes 20 seconds, which he set at the 1997 World Championship.
At least six players have missed the final black on 140: Robin Hull, Ken Doherty, Barry Pinches, Mark Selby, Michael White and Thepchaiya Un-Nooh (twice in the 2015 -- 16 season).
Breaks above 147 are possible when an opponent fouls and leaves a free ball with all fifteen reds still remaining on the table. A break greater than 147 has happened only once in professional competition, when Scotland 's Jamie Burnett made a 148 at the qualifying stage of the 2004 UK Championship. England 's Jamie Cope attained a break of 155, the highest possible break including a free ball, in a practice frame in 2005. Alex Higgins was said to have attained the same feat.
The following table is a list of the official maximum breaks that have been achieved in professional competition.
In professional tournaments there was usually a substantial prize awarded to any player achieving a 147 break. For example, Ronnie O'Sullivan 's maximum at the 1997 World Championship earned him £ 165,000. Of this, £ 147,000 was for making the 147 break and £ 18,000 was for achieving the highest break of the tournament. This was however abolished in the 2010 / 2011 season.
In the 2011 / 2012 season World Snooker introduced a roll - over system for the maximum break prize money, the "rolling 147 prize ''. A maximum break is worth £ 5,000 in the televised stages and £ 500 in qualifying stages of major ranking events. There is a £ 500 prize in the Players Tour Championship events from the last 128 onwards. If a maximum is not made then the prize rolls over to the next event until somebody wins it.
At the 2016 Welsh Open, Ronnie O'Sullivan defeated Barry Pinches 4 -- 1 in the first round. In the fifth frame of the match, O'Sullivan declined the opportunity to make a maximum break, potting the pink off the penultimate red and completing a break of 146. He stated afterward that the prize money of £ 10,000 was not worthy of a 147. World Snooker chairman Barry Hearn called the decision "unacceptable '' and "disrespectful ''.
A break higher than 147 can be achieved when an opponent fouls and leaves the incoming player snookered on all 15 reds. The player can nominate one of the other colours as a red, known as a "free ball ", which carries the same value as a red for just that shot. By potting the free ball followed by a colour, then the reds with colours and the colours up to the pink or black, the player can compile a break of more than 147. If the free ball is followed by a black, and the player goes on to clear the table taking all reds with blacks and then all six colours, the total score for the break is 155.
In October 2004, during qualifying for the UK Championship, Jamie Burnett became the only player to record a break of more than 147 in tournament play, when he scored 148 against Leo Fernandez. He took the brown as the free ball, then potted the brown again followed by the 15 reds with 12 blacks, two pinks and a blue, then the six colours.
There are also at least eight breaks exceeding 147 that have been recorded in non-tournament settings:
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where did the uk come in the eurovision song contest yesterday | Portugal in the Eurovision Song contest - wikipedia
Portugal has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 50 times since its debut at the 1964 contest. Since then it has missed five contests (1970, 2000, 2002, 2013 and 2016). The contest is broadcast in Portugal by Rádio e Televisão de Portugal (RTP). Portugal won the contest for the first time in 2017 and hosted the 2018 contest in Lisbon.
Portugal finished last on its debut in 1964 and again in 1974, before achieving its best result of the 20th century in 1996, with Lúcia Moniz finishing sixth. The country then finished last for the third time in 1997. Having not appeared in the final since 2010 and as holders of the record for most appearances in the contest without a win, Portugal won at the 49th attempt, when Salvador Sobral won the 2017 contest with the song "Amar Pelos Dois ''. As hosts in 2018, the country finished last in the contest for the fourth time.
Portugal 's debut entry was António Calvário with "Oração ''. It was not a successful debut for the country, with Calvário coming last in the contest. Since then, Portugal has come last on three further occasions, in 1974, when Paulo de Carvalho sang "E depois do adeus '', in 1997, when Célia Lawson performed "Antes do adeus '' and in 2018 as a host country. Despite its last - place finish in the contest, "E depois do adeus '' gained notability for being used as the radio musical signal to begin the Carnation Revolution against the Estado Novo regime, being played at 22: 55 on the 24th of April, 1974. Prior to their sixth - place finish for Lúcia Moniz, with the song "O meu coração não tem cor '' in 1996, Portugal 's best result in the contest was two seventh - place finishes, for Carlos Mendes in 1972 and José Cid in 1980. Despite having some really weak results, the 90s were the most successful decade for the country, reaching the top 10 four times. Portugal had admission to take part in the 2000 and 2002 contest but refused. Its place was taken by Latvia both times, which ended up winning the contest in the latter year.
Since semi-finals were introduced in 2004, Portugal has failed to reach the final eight times, including from 2004 to 2007. In 2008, Vânia Fernandes finished 13th with the song "Senhora do Mar, '' Portugal 's best outcome since 1996. The country continued to be present in the final until 2010. In 2017, Portugal reached the finals with Salvador Sobral 's entry, "Amar pelos dois '', ending a 6 - year non-appearance in the finals, as it did not participate in the contest in 2013 and 2016 and did not qualify for the finals in 2011, 2012, 2014 and 2015, finally winning the contest for the first time ever, earning 758 points, setting the record for the highest number of points in the history of the competition, topping both the televoting and jury voting for the first time since Austria 's "Rise Like a Phoenix '' in 2014. It was the first winning song entirely performed in a country 's native language since Serbia 's "Molitva '' in 2007. In 2018, as a host country, Portugal came last for the fourth time in the contest, and for the first time in a non-joint last position. This was the third instance of a host country coming in the bottom 5 since 2015.
Portugal has been absent from five contests since their first participation. The country 's first absence was in 1970, where Portugal, along with four other countries, boycotted the contest due to the result of the previous year, when four countries were announced the winner.
Portugal missed the 2000 contest due to their poor average results over the past five years. Despite being eligible to enter the 2002 contest, RTP declined to enter, and was replaced by eventual winner Latvia.
The fourth absence was in 2013, when Portugal did n't participate for financial reasons.
The fifth absence was in 2016. RTP mentioned that this break was needed, so that the national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest had its contents renewed. In three of these four years when Portugal was absent, the contest was held in Sweden.
Festival da Canção (sometimes referred to as "Festival RTP da Canção '') is the Portuguese national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest, organized by RTP, and is normally held in February / March of the year of the contest. It is one of the longest - running Eurovision selection methods. Previously a number of regional juries selected the winner, however recently the winner has been selected through televoting. In 2009, 2010, 2017 and 2018, a 50 - 50 system between district juries and televote (like in the ESC) has been used.
In the years when Portugal does not participate in the contest, the Festival da Canção was not held, except in two occasions: in 1970, when Portugal boycotted the contest, and in 2000.
As of 2018, Portugal 's voting history is as follows:
Press Award
Artistic Award
Composer Award
All conductors are Portuguese except those marked with a flag.
In the late 1990s the English actor and comedian Steve Coogan created the character "Tony Ferrino '' for his television comedy series. "Tony Ferrino '' is supposedly a Portuguese singer and winner of the Eurovision Song Contest; he is a stereotype based on singers and entertainers often seen on European television programmes in the 1970s and 1980s. The BBC produced a one - off programme The Tony Ferrino Phenomenon in 1997.
Simone de Oliveira at Naples (1965)
José Cid at The Hague (1980)
Sofia Vitória at Istanbul (2004)
Sabrina at Helsinki (2007)
Vânia Fernandes at Belgrade (2008)
Flor - de-Lis at Moscow (2009)
Filipa Azevedo at Oslo (2010)
Suzy at Copenhagen (2014)
Leonor Andrade at Vienna (2015)
Salvador Sobral at Kyiv (2017)
Cláudia Pascoal at Lisbon (2018)
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what does it mean to be a soldier in the salvation army | Soldier (the Salvation Army) - wikipedia
A soldier is a Salvationist who is at least 14 years of age and has, with the approval of The Salvation Army Pastoral Care Council in each local Salvation Army corps (formerly called the Census Board), been enrolled as a warrior in the Christian denomination called The Salvation Army -- after signing the Salvation Army Articles of War. The soldier expresses his or her commitment in every area of life, but more specifically through the ministry and work of a local Salvation Army corps.
Salvationist Soldiers are considered by their peers to be covenanted warriors exercising ' holy passion ' to win the world for Jesus. The covenant, known as the Articles of War, is a lifelong commitment to God through The Salvation Army that is fleshed out by a full book of Orders and Regulations called Chosen to Be a Soldier published by the International Headquarters of The Salvation Army. There is also a complete book, formerly called the Handbook of Doctrine, now titled Salvation Story, that explains the doctrines to which the soldier subscribes.
The text of the covenant, which is quoted below, reflects the Army 's determination to remain faithful to its standards and principles. All Soldiers (including officers of all ranks) are urged from time to time to re-read the solemn undertakings to which they have set their hand and to reaffirm before God their dedication to Him and to The Salvation Army, so that their lifestyle and service will be in keeping with the Soldier 's Covenant.
Having completed ' recruits classes ', been approved by the Pastoral Care Council and having signed their Articles of War, a soldier is publicly enrolled under The Salvation Army flag usually as part of worship of a Salvation Army corps. The soldier makes a public declaration by reading the articles aloud and will often first wear a Salvation Army uniform on this day. An Officer of The Salvation Army, usually the corps officer of the corps into which the soldier is being enrolled, normally conducts this ceremony.
Soldiers are encouraged to wear the uniform as a sign of covenant community. The uniform is a visible profession of faith in Jesus Christ and identifies the wearer with the Christian faith. The uniform also identifies the wearer as being a person who can be called upon to discover more about the Christian faith.
The uniform differs according to rank, nationality, and activity engaged in.
The Basic Uniform for most territories is
Men
White Shirt, Navy Blue Jacket, Navy Blue Trousers, Navy Blue Tie, Navy Blue Peaked Cap,
Ladies
White Blouse Navy Blue Jacket, Navy Blue Skirt, A white or blue gilded brooch, Navy Blue Bowler style hat,
In Summer (May - September) Soldiers wear Summer Uniform which involves Ladies opting to wear an open neck blouse. Men wear shirt sleeves but still wear a tie. All Soldiers wear epaulettes which are Navy blue for Soldiers and pale blue for Songsters and Bandsman. Some Female soldiers now opt to wear trousers in lieu of a skirt. In most countries it is expected that Men remove their caps when indoors and Ladies keep their hats on whether indoors or out. However, there has been a decline in recent years of both men and women wearing headdress. It is likely in coming years that the cap and hat will be phased out.
Many Christians (including Salvation Army adherents) object to the tradition of soldiership for various reasons. The most prominent objection is the age at which children may be enrolled, i.e.: 14 years of age. Such opponents argue that it is immoral or deceptive to ask a child to sign a lifelong covenant at that age, particularly when they are too young to legally engage in some of the activities singled out in the Articles of War (consuming alcohol, smoking, etc.). Consequently, it is common for Soldiers to revoke or break their covenants when they reach adulthood.
Other objections are based on the Army 's preferred treatment of Soldiers, especially uniformed Soldiers. Many roles within the corps (including paid positions) are reserved exclusively for those in uniform, including, in some corps, the opportunity to play in the band or sing in the choir. Opponents to this practice cite the book of James, chapter 2, which prohibits Christians from showing preference to any person based on clothing in the context of corporate worship.
The Salvation Army takes seriously the capacity of children to have an authentic Christian experience. A Junior Soldier is a boy or girl who, having professed conversion, having signed the junior soldier 's promise, and being between the age of 7 and 13, becomes a Salvationist.
In some places Junior Soldiers also wear a form of uniform which differs according to the locality. A Junior Soldier uniform for a boy would be a white collar shirt, navy blue dress pants, black shoes, navy socks, Junior Soldier pins and tie. A Junior Soldier uniform for a girl would be a white collar shirt, navy blue skirt / skort, navy tights, black shoes, Junior Soldier pins. In Australia Junior soldiers have opted to wear a polo shirt reflecting the colours of The salvation Army flag (either blue, yellow or red). This gives the Juniors Soldier a sense of individuality while still belonging to the Junior corps. Often a uniform is not worn, but a Junior Soldier wears a badge (pin) with rings to indicate which level of activity or projects each Junior Soldier has attained (similar to a bar on a military medal).
The ' Junior Soldier promise ' reads this: "I know that Jesus is my Saviour from sin. I have asked him to forgive my sins, and I will trust him to keep me good. By his help, I will be his loving and obedient child, and will help others to follow him. I promise to pray, to read my Bible, and to lead a life that is clean in thought, word and deed. I will not use anything that may injure my body or my mind, including harmful drugs, alcohol and tobacco. ''
According to The Salvation Army Year Book 2008 as of 1 January 2007 there are 360,222 junior soldiers and 1,082,166 senior soldiers in The Salvation Army. Additionally, in the 2010 Year Book numbers have increased - Junior Soldiers total 378,009 and Senior Soldiers total 1,122,326 internationally. As at 2010 The Salvation Army was active in 120 countries.
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who plays president wallace's son on the 100 | Johnny Whitworth - wikipedia
Johnny Whitworth (born October 31, 1975) is an American actor. Whitworth is best known for his performance as villain Blackout in the superhero film Ghost Rider: Spirit of Vengeance (2012).
Whitworth 's early years were spent in his birthplace, Charleston, South Carolina, with his mother. As his parents were divorced, he eventually chose to live with his father in Plano, Texas. But following that he moved to Los Angeles with his mother and at the age of 18 started his acting career with a guest appearance on Party of Five in 1994. His debut in movies was with Bye Bye Love in 1995. That same year, he played A.J. in the film Empire Records.
Whitworth quit acting after his first few movies but then made a comeback in 1997 's The Rainmaker. He had a recurring role on the CBS crime drama CSI: Miami, where he played bad - boy Detective Jake Berkeley, a love interest of Calleigh Duquesne. The story line swiftly made Whitworth 's character a controversial one, as his competition for Duquesne was long - time CSI agent Eric Delko. From the end of Season 5 and throughout Season 6, Berkeley was no longer an ATF agent but a Miami - Dade homicide detective working with the CSI team. Whitworth returned in the first episode of Season 7 and again in the 21st episode of Season 8. This was his last appearance.
In 2003 he costarred in MTV 's musical adaptation of Wuthering Heights, which was a modern take on the classic novel. In 2007, Whitworth appeared in the film 3: 10 to Yuma, and in 2009 appeared in Gamer. He later appeared in the films Locked In and Limitless. He also played the villain Blackout in the 2012 film Ghost Rider: Spirit of Vengeance and Griffin Cavenaugh in the thriller Pathology.
From 2014 to 2015, Whitworth had the recurring role of Cage Wallace in the CW series The 100. In 2015, Whitworth had a recurring role in NBC series Blindspot.
He became a lifetime member of the prestigious Actors Studio in 2017.
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what is the characteristic feature of bouchard's nodes | Bouchard 's nodes - Wikipedia
Bouchard 's nodes are hard, bony outgrowths or gelatinous cysts on the proximal interphalangeal joints (the middle joints of fingers or toes). They are seen in osteoarthritis, where they are caused by formation of calcific spurs of the articular (joint) cartilage. Much less commonly, they may be seen in rheumatoid arthritis, where nodes are caused by antibody deposition to the synovium.
Bouchard 's nodes are comparable in presentation to Heberden 's nodes, which are similar osteoarthritic growths on the distal interphalangeal joints, but are significantly less common.
Bouchard 's nodes are named after French pathologist Charles Jacques Bouchard (1837 -- 1915).
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when does the sun set in north pole | Midnight sun - wikipedia
The midnight sun is a natural phenomenon that occurs in the summer months in places north of the Arctic Circle or south of the Antarctic Circle, when the sun remains visible at the local midnight. Around the summer solstice (approximately 21 June in the Northern Hemisphere and 22 December in the Southern Hemisphere) the sun is visible for the full 24 hours, given fair weather. The number of days per year with potential midnight sun increases the closer towards either pole one goes. Although approximately defined by the polar circles, in practice the midnight sun can be seen as much as 55 miles (90 km) outside the polar circle, as described below, and the exact latitudes of the farthest reaches of midnight sun depend on topography and vary slightly year - to - year.
Because there are no permanent human settlements south of the Antarctic Circle, apart from research stations, the countries and territories whose populations experience the midnight sun are limited to those crossed by the Arctic Circle: the Canadian Yukon, Nunavut, and Northwest Territories, and the nations of Iceland, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark (Greenland), Russia, and the State of Alaska in the United States. A quarter of Finland 's territory lies north of the Arctic Circle, and at the country 's northernmost point the sun does not set at all for 60 days during summer. In Svalbard, Norway, the northernmost inhabited region of Europe, there is no sunset from approximately 19 April to 23 August. The extreme sites are the poles, where the sun can be continuously visible for half the year. The North Pole has midnight sun for 6 months from late March to late September.
The opposite phenomenon, polar night, occurs in winter, when the sun stays below the horizon throughout the day.
Since the axial tilt of the Earth is considerable (approximately 23 degrees 27 minutes), the sun does not set at high latitudes in local summer. The sun remains continuously visible for one day during the summer solstice at the polar circle, for several weeks only 100 km closer to the pole, and for six months at the pole. At extreme latitudes, the midnight sun is usually referred to as polar day.
At the poles themselves, the sun rises and sets only once each year on the equinox. During the six months that the sun is above the horizon, it spends the days continuously moving in circles around the observer, gradually spiralling higher and reaching its highest circuit of the sky at the summer solstice.
Because of atmospheric refraction, and also because the sun is a disc rather than a point, the midnight sun may be experienced at latitudes slightly below the polar circle, though not exceeding one degree (depending on local conditions). For example, Iceland is known for its midnight sun, even though most of it (Grímsey is the exception) is slightly south of the Arctic Circle. For the same reasons, the period of sunlight at the poles is slightly longer than six months. Even the northern extremities of Scotland (and places at similar latitudes, such as St. Petersburg) experience twilight throughout the night in the northern sky at around the summer solstice.
Observers at heights appreciably above sea level can experience extended periods of midnight sun as a result of the "dip '' of the horizon viewed from altitude.
The term "midnight sun '' refers to the consecutive 24 - hour periods of sunlight experienced north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle. Other phenomena are sometimes referred to as "midnight sun '', but they are caused by time zones and the observance of daylight saving time. For instance, in Fairbanks, Alaska, which is south of the Arctic Circle, the sun sets at 12: 47 am at the summer solstice. This is because Fairbanks is 51 minutes ahead of its idealized time zone (as most of the state is in one time zone) and Alaska observes daylight saving time. (Fairbanks is at about 147.72 degrees west, corresponding to UTC − 9 hours 51 minutes, and is on UTC − 9 in winter.) This means that solar culmination occurs at about 12: 51 pm instead of at 12 noon.
If a precise moment for the genuine "midnight sun '' is required, the observer 's longitude, the local civil time and the equation of time must be taken into account. The moment of the sun 's closest approach to the horizon coincides with its passing due north at the observer 's position, which occurs only approximately at midnight in general. Each degree of longitude east of the Greenwich meridian makes the vital moment exactly 4 minutes earlier than midnight as shown on the clock, while each hour that the local civil time is ahead of coordinated universal time (UTC, also known as GMT) makes the moment an hour later. These two effects must be added. Furthermore, the equation of time (which depends on the date) must be added: a positive value on a given date means that the sun is running slightly ahead of its average position, so the value must be subtracted.
As an example, at the North Cape of Norway at midnight on June 21 / 22, the longitude of 25.9 degrees east makes the moment 103.2 minutes earlier by clock time; but the local time, 2 hours ahead of GMT in the summer, makes it 120 minutes later by clock time. The equation of time at that date is - 2.0 minutes. Therefore, the sun 's lowest elevation occurs 120 - 103.2 + 2.0 minutes after midnight: at 00.19 Central European Summer time. On other nearby dates the only thing different is the equation of time, so this remains a reasonable estimate for a considerable period. The sun 's altitude remains within half a degree of the minimum of about 5 degrees for about 45 minutes either side of this time.
Locations where the sun remains less than 6 (or 7) degrees below the horizon -- above 60 ° 34 ' (or 59 ° 34 ') latitude south of the Arctic Circle or north of the Antarctic Circle -- experience midnight twilight instead of midnight sun, so that daytime activities, such as reading, are still possible without artificial light on a clear night.
White Nights have become a common symbol of Saint Petersburg, Russia, where they occur from about 11 June to 2 July, and the last 10 days of June are celebrated with cultural events known as the White Nights Festival.
The midnight sun is visible at the Arctic Circle from 12 June until 1 July. This period extends as one travels north: At Cape Nordkinn, Norway, the northernmost point of Continental Europe, the midnight sun lasts approximately from 14 May to 29 July. On the Svalbard archipelago farther north, it lasts from 20 April to 22 August.
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who has scored the most points in the ryder cup | List of Ryder Cup records - wikipedia
The Ryder Cup is a biennial men 's golf competition between teams from Europe and the United States. Originally contested between Great Britain and the United States, the first official Ryder Cup took place in 1927. The representation of "Great Britain and Ireland '' was extended to include continental Europe from 1979.
In all the following tables Europe includes Great Britain / Great Britain and Ireland up to 1977.
For details of individual players ' complete Ryder Cup records see: List of European Ryder Cup golfers and List of American Ryder Cup golfers.
There have been a total of 984 individual matches played in the 42 Ryder Cups. Of these the United States has won 475, Europe (including Great Britain / Great Britain and Ireland up to 1977) has won 375 with 134 matches halved. Thus the United States have scored a total of 542 points to Europe 's 442.
36 holes matches were played up to 1959, 18 hole matches from 1961 onwards. Fourball matches were first played in 1963. The table includes three 18 hole single matches (in 1979, 1991 and 1993) which were not actually played because of injury but were declared as halved matches.
All victories by 7 or more holes for Europe and by 8 or more holes for the United States are listed.
The largest victory in a foursomes match was a 7&5 win by Aubrey Boomer & Charles Whitcombe against Leo Diegel & Bill Mehlhorn in 1927.
All victories by 5 or more holes for Europe and by 6 or more holes for the United States are listed.
The largest victory in a singles match has been a 5&4 win, achieved 9 times, firstly by Bernard Hunt against Jerry Barber in 1961.
The largest victory in a fourball match has been a 7&5 win by Lee Trevino & Jerry Pate against Nick Faldo & Sam Torrance in 1981.
Pairings used 7 or more times for Europe and 5 or more times for the United States are listed.
The ages given are on the first day of the Ryder Cup. Generally the leading 5 in each category are given.
The oldest rookie was Ted Ray in 1927. Excluding Ray, who was playing in the first Ryder Cup, Tom Haliburton who was 46 years, 130 days in 1961 is the oldest European rookie.
The oldest rookie was Fred Funk in 2004.
Peter Alliss, currently aged 87 years, 242 days, is the oldest living British / European Ryder Cup player and is the only survivor of the 1953 British team.
Jack Burke Jr. is the only survivor of the 1951, 1953 and 1955 American teams.
† ^ denotes age at death, or, if living, age as of 28 October 2018
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youtube we fell in love in a hopeless place | We Found Love - wikipedia
"We Found Love '' is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna from her sixth studio album, Talk That Talk (2011). It was written and produced by, and features Scottish DJ Calvin Harris; the song was also featured on his third album 18 Months (2012). "We Found Love '' premiered on September 22, 2011, on the Capital FM radio station in the United Kingdom, and was made available to download on the same day as the lead single from Talk That Talk. "We Found Love '' is an uptempo electro house song, with elements of techno and Europop. The song 's lyrics speak of a couple who "found love in a hopeless place ''.
The song topped the US Billboard Hot 100 for ten non-consecutive weeks, becoming the longest running number - one single of 2011. The single also surpassed "Umbrella '' and became Rihanna 's longest running number one single. It was the singer 's eleventh song to top the Hot 100, placing her in third place among female recording artists amassing the most number one singles. "We Found Love '' topped the charts in twenty - five other countries including Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. According to Billboard it is the 24th most successful single of all time in the US. As of 2015, the single has sold 10.5 million copies worldwide, thus being one of the best selling singles of all time.
The song 's accompanying music video, directed by Melina Matsoukas, depicts the singer as a drug - abusing thrill - seeker in a relationship that quickly spirals downward into addiction and violence. The video won a Grammy for "Best Short Form Music Video '' at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards and "Video of the Year '' at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards. The song has been performed on both the UK and US versions of The X Factor, as well as at the 2012 Grammy Awards and the 2012 BRIT Awards. Multiple recording artists have covered "We Found Love '' including alternative rock band Coldplay and English singer Jessie J. The song also used for the trailer of 2012 comedy - drama film Magic Mike, in the TV series Sherlock, and in the film American Honey.
Following the release and success of her album Loud (2010), Rihanna originally revealed via Twitter that the album would be re-issued with new songs and released in Fall 2011, writing that "(t) he (Loud era) continues with more new music to add to (your) collection ''. In September 2011, Rihanna again took to the social networking site to confirm that the plans had been scrapped, with the singer tweeting "I (thought about) a (re-release), but LOUD is its own body of work! Plus (you) guys work so hard that (you) deserve to act brand new ''. On September 19, 2011, Rihanna further provoked excitement amongst her followers when she posted that she was listening to the song, only to be re-tweeted by Calvin Harris, who replied "Sometimes it feels like we find love in the most hopeless place '', suggesting that his response contained possible lyrics from the song. In an interview with Capital FM, Harris -- who produced the track -- explained that followers of Rihanna had sent messages to him regarding their expectations of the song, saying "The song better not be rubbish '', which he interpreted as slightly threatening, but went on to say that "it 's all part of the fun ''. In an interview for Q magazine, Harris said of the lyric, "we found love in a hopeless place, '' "It could have been Jumpin Jaks in Dumfries (Harris ' home town), I do n't know exactly what I was thinking about. ''
"We Found Love '' premiered in the United Kingdom on September 22, 2011, on Capital FM, and was sent for mainstream adds in the United States on October 11, 2011. The song was released via iTunes on September 22, 2011. During an interview with MTV News, Calvin Harris revealed, "' We Found Love, ' is the most successful thing I 've done ever... It 's not strictly a song by me, obviously, it 's by Rihanna. She sings it... It was great to work with her... No one could have taken it as far as she did. You ca n't escape it here (in America). I 've heard it a lot. I 've heard it probably more times today than I did when I was mixing it. Which is a good thing... Ever since the Rihanna song did well, a lot of people want to do some stuff, which is great... That 's what I enjoy doing. In terms of actual names, I 've not done anything yet. '' In October 2012, British singer Leona Lewis claimed that she was originally chosen to sing the song but ended up losing it to Rihanna when Harris went touring with the latter, commenting. "I did n't commit to it because I wanted "Trouble '' to be my first single so I think that was another reason they went with Rihanna. It was the same version and production but mine 's better. '' In 2013, Nicole Scherzinger claimed that she was the first artist given the song but ended up rejecting it, commenting. "I 've got the demo of that song and I was busy at the time. They 'd sent me a few dance tracks and I was n't able to get to them and I was like, ' Oh there 's so much dance and I want to take a break from it. ''
The artwork for "We Found Love '' was released by Rihanna 's official Facebook page on September 22, 2011. Grady Smith of Entertainment Weekly 's The Music Mix criticized the song 's artwork, writing "' We found love in a hopeless place, ' Rihanna repeats over a David Guetta - ish synth beat. But judging by the single cover, her place does n't look too hopeless, does it? Maybe there 's a building on fire outside the frame, and that fire hydrant does n't work. I guess that would be hopeless. '' A reviewer for Sugar Magazine wrote that "On anyone else this would be a pretty odd look but Rihanna somehow makes a denim overload look good. '' A reviewer for Neon Limelight commented that Rihanna appeared to be adopting a tomboy image for the new project, writing, "She really is going for that sexy tomboy look this album era it seems; remember the laid back look she rocked on the single 's cover art? ''.
"We Found Love '' is an electro house song with elements of Europop, pop, techno, trance, and Euro disco. According to the digital music sheet published at musicnotes.com, the song is written in the key of F ♯ major and it is set at a tempo of 128 beats per minute. The instrumentation of "We Found Love '' consists of alarm bells, a keyboard, repetitive pumped - up synthesizers and 4 / 4 beats.
Rihanna 's vocal range in the song spans one octave, from the lower note of C ♯ to the higher note of C ♯. Priya Elan of NME commented that Rihanna sounds "extremely relaxed '' and Bill Lamb of About.com wrote that her vocals are simple and unaffected. Leah Collins of The Vancouver Sun wrote that Rihanna 's vocals on "We Found Love '' were similar to her vocals on "Fly ''. According to Elan, the keyboard work in the song bears resemblance to that in from "Only Girl (In the World) '' and the melody is similar to that of "Complicated '', a track included in Rihanna 's 2010 studio album Loud. Similarly, Michael Cragg of The Guardian noted that "We Found Love '' is in the same vein as "Only Girl (In the World) '', with regard to its dance beat.
The lyrical content of the song is sparse and largely revolves around Rihanna chanting the song 's hook line, "We found love in a hopeless place ''. Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone described it as "half - baked romantic ''. Rihanna starts the song in a falsetto airy voice as she sings, "Yellow diamonds in the light / And we 're standing side by side / As your shadow crosses mine / What it takes to come alive. '' Michael Cragg commented that the first chorus is almost being sidelined in favor of a large chunk of Harris 's riff, before they join on the second chorus. The hook repeatedly rings throughout the song.
The song received polarizing reviews from music critics. Amanda Dobbins of New York magazine praised the composition of the song, writing "Harris 's electro fingerprints are all over this one -- it plays like a straight house track, with some dreamy Rihanna vocals added in over the beat. '' Robbie Daw of Idolator commented on the song 's lyrics, with particular emphasis on the line "We found love in a hopeless place '', writing that it is possibly the best lyric in pop music so far in 2011. A reviewer for Instinct magazine praised the song, writing that "We Found Love '' does not mark a departure from the dance - floor oriented material Rihanna debuted on Loud, but it certainly boasts "a higher - energy, peak - hour vibe ''. Similarly, Michael Cragg of The Guardian commented that the song takes the dance direction Rihanna hinted at on "Only Girl (In the World) '' and continues releasing similar songs, making reference to "We Found Love ''. Cragg also likened the song to Leona Lewis 's recent single, "Collide '', but criticized the song 's structure, writing "(it) is slightly odd ''. He ended his review writing, "Either way, she could have recited Nick Clegg 's conference speech from Wednesday over the sound of Harris cracking his knuckles and it would be a hit. ''
Priya Elan of NME commented, "By now it 's pretty customary to have a jaw - on - the - floor reaction to the first single from a Rihanna album. ' Pon De Replay ', ' SOS ', ' Umbrella ', ' Russian Roulette ', ' Only Girl In The World '. '' Despite complimenting Rihanna for sounding extremely relaxed and calling her vocal as "luxurious calling to mind the atmosphere '', Elan concluded that the over-all effect is underwhelming. She continued by writing that instead of re-inventing the pop wheel, "We Found Love '' has "a whiff of treading - water about it '' and that "if there is a ' goosebump ' moment to be had it comes after many multiple plays and, dare we say it, a glass of something strong. '' Awarding "We Found Love '' two stars out of five, Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone was critical, writing that it "is much ado about very little indeed '' and that is "an insipid tune ''. He concluded that Rihanna repeats ' We found love in a hopeless place ' "approximately 350 times, hoping it will start to mean something. It 's the worst single of Rihanna 's career. It will probably top the Hot 100 anyway. '' Leah Collins of The Vancouver Sun initially praised Rihanna 's vocal performance in the song, writing that she "smoothes out her vocals '', before adding, "Angelic as she sounds, though, (her) performance -- which is mostly just her repeating the line ' We found love in a hopeless place ' -- seems to take second place to Harris ' repetitive synth - based blare. '' Similarly, Amos Barshad of Grantland criticized the singer 's vocal performance, calling it "a complete afterthought '' before concluding, "People who regularly attend the Electric Zoo festival: Rihanna wants your money! ''
A reviewer for GlobalGrind commented on the song 's lyrics, suggesting that there is perhaps an underlying message in the song for ex-boyfriend Chris Brown, in the line "We found love in a hopeless place ''. This further raised suspicion when Brown re-tweeted one of Rihanna 's posts on Twitter, which read "Sometimes it feels like we find love in the most hopeless place ''. Jessica Herndon of People magazine praised the song, saying that "' We Found Love ' had an amazing influence on people all across the world in 2012, becoming one of the most popular and most successful songs ''.
Pitchfork Media commented, "Over a frantic, Calvin Harris - produced, Guetta - meets - ' Sandstorm ' beat on her sixth record 's lead - off single, Rihanna repeats these words almost 20 times. ' We Found Love ' ranks among Ri 's best singles because it recognizes that there 's not much more that needs to be said: in three and a half minutes, the line moves from being a great pop lyric to a triumphant mantra to something suggestive of a whole spectrum of unspoken emotion. The best pop music transports you to somewhere beyond words, and Rihanna 's strongest singles all seem to be in on this secret. '' Allmusic chose the song as a highlight on Talk That Talk, and wrote about the "singer 's ecstatic vocal than Calvin Harris ' shrill, plinky production ''. Los Angeles Times commented that the song was an "ode for bad love '' and added it "would n't be out of place at Electric Daisy Carnival ''. The New York Times ' writer commented "' We Found Love ' almost criminally recalls the swinging Crystal Waters singles, with triumphant percussion somewhere between church and seventh - inning stretch. '' Billboard magazine also praised the song, saying that: "Through a haze of glitter and bliss, Rihanna emerges to let us find a gorgeous hook in a hopeless place, and Calvin Harris becomes a household name. '' As of January 2015, Billboard named "We Found Love '' as the best song of the 2010s (so far). USA Today considered the song to be a highlight on the set, commenting that Rihanna sings "bistfully ''. Entertainment Weekly noted, "U.K. club king Calvin Harris trades Rihanna 's usual somber synths for disco ecstasy on ' We Found Love, ' a song that builds and builds to a climax that 's so arena - ready it practically begs for someone to blow a vuvuzela ''.
MTV chose "We Found Love '' as the third best song of 2011, and "Video of the Year '' at the MTV Video Music Awards 2012. The writers of the website further commented, "The leadoff single from Talk That Talk is where Rihanna fully embraced EDM. Produced by Calvin Harris, ' We Found Love ' is a swirling party track about love and loss, the rare song that manages to be sad and joyous all at once. And it is a pinnacle of the pop / dance crossover, a throwback to ' 90s raves that could make even the most stoic lover of pop want to break out a glow stick and just dance. Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone put "We Found Love '' at number eleven on his list of Top 25 Songs of 2011 commenting, "While her other hits tried to camouflage her spindly voice, here it just strains for that spindly melody. '' It was named the third biggest love song of all time by Billboard.
"We Found Love '' made its chart debut on the New Zealand Singles Chart on September 26, 2011, at number 14, and in its fifth week, rose to number one. It remained at the top for nine straight weeks, becoming Rihanna 's longest - running single in the country, overtaking ' Umbrella ' which reigned for six weeks in 2007. The song has since been certified three - times platinum by the RIANZ, denoting shipments of 45,000 copies. In Australia, "We Found Love '' debuted on the Australian Singles Chart on October 9, 2011, at number three, before rising to number two for multiple weeks. As of February 2013, the song has been certified six - times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association, denoting shipments of 420,000 copies, marking Rihanna 's best - selling single in the country as a lead artist.
In the United States, the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on September 28, 2011, at number 16. "We Found Love '' became the singer 's fourth highest debut on the chart out of her 31 Hot 100 chart entries, with the highest being her collaboration with Eminem, "Love the Way You Lie '', which debuted at number two in July 2010. The following week, "We Found Love '' rose to number nine, giving Rihanna the record for a solo artist to have amassed twenty top - ten singles in the history of the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the shortest amount of time. Rihanna achieved the feat in a time span of six years and four months, surpassing the record previously held by Madonna who managed the achievement in a time span of six years and nine months. In its sixth week on the chart, the song reached number one, giving Rihanna her eleventh number - one single and Calvin Harris his first number - one single in the United States thus tying her with Whitney Houston in fifth place for the highest amount of number - one singles in the 53 - year history of the chart, behind The Beatles (20), Mariah Carey (18), Michael Jackson (13), and a fourth place tie between Madonna and The Supremes (both with 12). Rihanna also tied with Houston as the female artists with the third most number - one singles on the chart, behind Carey and Madonna. "We Found Love '' spent 8 consecutive weeks and two additional weeks (after 2 weeks at number two) at the top of the Billboard Hot 100, surpassing "Umbrella '' as Rihanna 's longest number - one single in the country, and was the longest - running number one of 2011. It was certified nine times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipping more than 9 million copies. As of June 2015, the song has sold 5.4 million digital copies in the US. On August 1, 2013, Billboard announced that "We Found Love '' is the 24th biggest Hot 100 hit of all time in the chart 's 55 - year history.
"We Found Love '' debuted at number seven on the US Hot Digital Songs chart, with digital download sales of 117,000 after only four days according to Nielsen SoundScan. In its fifth week, the song rose to number one, with sales of 231,000 copies, giving Rihanna her eleventh number - one song on the chart, further extending her record as the artist with the most number ones. The song spent a second week at number one on the chart, with sales of 243,000 copies, bringing total sales to 1,057,000 copies sold, marking Rihanna 's twentieth download to reach the million - selling milestone, extending her record for the most such downloads among women. On October 12, 2011, the song debuted at number 39 on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart and number 21 on the Pop Songs chart. It eventually reached number one on both charts. It was, until 2013, the most recent song to spend at least two consecutive weeks atop the US Hot Dance Club chart, until Daft Punk 's "Get Lucky ''. "We Found Love '' also peaked at numbers three and two on the US Latin Songs and Latin Pop Songs charts, becoming Rihanna 's highest - charting single on both charts. Furthermore, the song reached the top spot on the Canadian Hot 100 chart.
In Harris 's native United Kingdom, "We Found Love '' debuted at number one with 87,000 copies sold on the UK Singles Chart, UK Dance Chart and UK Singles Downloads Chart on October 9, 2011, despite only having been on sale for four days. With "We Found Love '' debuting atop the singles chart, the singer set a record by becoming the first female solo artist to top the chart six times in five consecutive years, having previously held pole position with "Umbrella '', "Take A Bow '', "Run This Town '', "Only Girl (In The World) '' and "What 's My Name '' between 2007 and 2011. The song retained its number - one position on all three charts for three consecutive weeks, selling 92,000 copies in its third week. Total sales for "We Found Love '' in the United Kingdom stood at 372,268 after just 24 days. In its fifth week, the song climbed a place to number two but then in its sixth week, the song returned to number - one for a fourth non-consecutive week (the record would be broken three years later when Pharrell Williams ' "Happy '' took a five - week break from the top - spot before returning to pole position) and eventually topped the chart for six weeks, resulting in Rihanna overtaking Adele as the artist with the most cumulutive weeks at number one of 2011, with a total of seven weeks between "We Found Love '' and her January release "What 's My Name? ''. In addition, in its sixth week Rihanna scored her second "chart double '' of the year when Talk That Talk and "We Found Love '' placed at number one on the albums and singles charts, respectively. This achievement had not been achieved since 1979 and made Rihanna the first female artist in chart history to score two "chart doubles '' in the same year, with the singer 's previous album Loud and its second single, ' What 's My Name? ' topping both charts earlier in 2011. By February 2012, the single had racked up 1,006,460 copies in 19 weeks, making it Rihanna 's second solo track (third overall) to reach the million sales plateau since October 2011, following "Love the Way You Lie '' and "Only Girl (In the World) ''. In November 2012, it was included on ' The Million Sellers ' list by the Official Charts Company, consisting of the best - selling singles in the UK that have sold at least one million copies since 1952. It charted at number 76 out of a total 123, having sold 1.13 million copies. As of February 2016, the song has sold 1.39 million copies in the UK, making it Rihanna 's biggest - selling single there. The song debuted at number one in Scotland on October 15, 2011. The single is the 9th best - selling song of all time by a female artist in the UK.
Elsewhere in Europe, the song topped the charts in Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Norway, Poland, Russia, Slovakia, Sweden and Switzerland and attained top - five positions in the Flanders and Wallonia regions of Belgium at numbers three and two, and reached number two in the Czech Republic and Spain and three in the Netherlands. In Germany "We Found Love '' entered the single chart at number one on October 28, 2011, becoming Rihanna 's fourth number one in the country. After being deposed for a week, the track rebounded to take the lead spending three further weeks at the top, becoming Rihanna 's second longest - running number one hit in the country after "Umbrella '' in 2007. In France, "We Found Love '' has sold 145,000 copies as of 2011. The song topped certain European charts for lengthy periods, including in Norway for nine non-consecutive weeks, Ireland for seven consecutive weeks and Denmark for six weeks.
The music video for "We Found Love '' was shot in late September 2011, in County Down, Northern Ireland and the New Lodge area of North Belfast. The video was directed by Melina Matsoukas, who had previously directed the videos for "Hard '' (2009), "Rude Boy '' (2010), "Rockstar 101 '' (2010) and the controversial "S&M '' (2011). Anticipation for the video grew in the United Kingdom when the national news picked up on the story of sixty - one - year - old Northern Ireland farmer Alan Graham withdrawing his permission to film in his barley field in Bangor, County Down after taking issue with Rihanna 's clothing, focusing on her appearing topless and also wearing a red bikini top which he thought was an "inappropriate state of undress ''. Rihanna and her film crew departed amiably after Graham advised them to "be acquainted with God and to consider his son, the Lord Jesus Christ, and his death and Resurrection. ''
The video begins with a monologue about love and heartbreak by an unseen narrator, fashion model Agyness Deyn. Multiple scenes of Rihanna and her lover, Dudley O'Shaughnessy, are intercut throughout the narration, depicting them in different love and hate situations with each other. The two are shown as completely enamored with each other while engaging in fun activities together, including enjoying their time at an indoor skating centre and eating in fast food restaurants. During the chorus, the video shows the romance to be somewhat warped, as images of drugs, various pills and dilated pupils are shown, while brief scenes of Rihanna and her boyfriend preparing to engage in sexual intercourse and their various stages of undress are shown. The chorus continues and the video abruptly cuts to Rihanna and other people at an outdoor rave, dancing to music. Calvin Harris features as the DJ during this scene.
From the second verse, Rihanna and her boyfriend are seen happily running amok in a supermarket, pushing each other in a shopping cart and spraying canned drinks at each other. This scene is interrupted with Rihanna in a Pontiac Trans Am outside with her boyfriend who begins to recklessly drive in circles, resulting in Rihanna asking him to stop the car which ensues into an argument between the pair. The video then progressively shows the couple experiencing mounting difficulties in their relationship. Rihanna removes herself from the car and returns moments later where we see her boyfriend grab her chin to look at him, suggesting that he is domestically violent towards her. During the final chorus Rihanna can be seen vomiting what appears to be pink and white streamers; she is also seen passed out on the street while her boyfriend tries to revive her. In another scene, Rihanna is seen lying on a couch while her boyfriend tattoos the word ' MINE ' on her backside. Eventually, Rihanna decides to leave her boyfriend after finding him passed out on the floor of his apartment -- and most likely due to the previous events shown throughout the video. The clip ends with Rihanna curled up in the corner of a room, crying.
The video generated controversy for its depiction of violence and drug use, as well as for Rihanna 's removal of her clothes during filming. One journalist wrote, "The song is probably one of the most talked about in the country following the Barbadian being told to ' find God ' after running naked through a Northern Irish farmer 's field. '' It was described as a "disgrace '' by an anti-rape campaigner, and Christian commenters worried about the effects of the video and that "Rihanna is damaging the moral and self - worth of young impressionable teens. '' However, The Guardian praised the video for being different in its time period and called it "a very British music video '', comparing it to UK TV series, Skins. The video won a Grammy Award for ' Best Short - Form Music Video. As of January 2015, Billboard named the video as the second best music video of the 2010s (so far).
Rihanna performed "We Found Love '' for the first time on November 14, 2011 during a concert of her Loud Tour in London. The song was then added to the setlist as the closing song for the rest of the tour until it ended on December 22. On November 17, 2011, Rihanna performed the song on first season of The X Factor USA. The performance featured Rihanna wearing torn jeans and a bomber jacket with neon signs also present on the stage. On November 20, 2011, Rihanna performed the song on the eighth season of The X Factor UK, featuring Rihanna wearing a small tartan dress.
On February 12, 2012, Rihanna performed "We Found Love '' at the 54th Grammy Awards held at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, followed by her duet single "Princess of China '' with Coldplay for first time. John Mitchell from MTV News said he thought Rihanna looked "gorgeous '' and that she gave "off a Tina Turner vibe -- Rihanna rocked the blond locks she introduced recently, wearing a tight, belly - baring ensemble. '' USA Today 's writer Ed Masley, praised the performance, describing it as "shout in shout - out ''. The Huffington Post also noted that the performance had "a twinge of Tina Turner ''. Time magazine graded the performance with an A, saying that "Rihanna never disappoints. Her pop songs are always danceable, often catchy and consistently awesome -- sometimes they even have some substance to them. Similarly, her Grammy performance was n't the flashiest or craziest, and she did n't bust out dance moves the way other entertainers did, but it was one of the most enjoyable. ''
Later that month, the singer performed the song at the 2012 BRIT Awards held on February 21, 2012, at The O2 Arena in London. The performance began with Rihanna, in only an old grandad - style jumper covering her body, in a clear cage as colourful paint began to be thrown inside with her, although none was thrown onto the singer herself. Dancers were also present as Rihanna emerged from the cage and began dancing along the broad stretch of stage. The performance concluded with big multi-coloured balloons pouring down red confetti from the ceiling as they burst, finalizing with Rihanna returning to the paint - covered cage and smearing it over herself ending with her silhouette being broadcast through the cage. At the ceremony, Rihanna also won the award for Best International Female Solo Artist. Whilst promoting her first feature film appearance in Battleship, Rihanna made a visit to Japan, performing "We Found Love '' on the Japanese music television program Music Station. She donned a traditional kimono and concluded the performance by crowd surfing into the audience. On April 24, 2012, Rihanna performed a special acoustic version of the song at the Time 100 gala for Time Magazine 's selection of that year 's 100 most influential people of which Rihanna was listed. Rihanna later performed "We Found Love '' at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24, 2012, as the seventeenth and final song on the set list. The performance featured a giant sphinx on the stage. On September 9, 2012, Rihanna performed the single (along with "Princess of China '' and "Run This Town '') with Coldplay and Jay - Z at the closing ceremony of the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London, entering on a steampunk pirate ship and also suspended in the air on a metal bench. On December 9, 2012, Rihanna performed "We Found Love '' in a medley with a solo version of "Stay '' on the final of series nine of the UK The X Factor. The performance featured Rihanna wearing white T - bar wedge sandals, strap around her calves, diamond earrings and silver jewellery. She also performed the song at the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards.
American singer Tinashe uploaded a music video for her cover on her YouTube account on October 21, 2011. British alternative rock band Coldplay, with whom Rihanna would later collaborate on their song "Princess of China '', covered "We Found Love '' on October 27, 2011, during a performance at BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge. Jocelyn Vena of MTV News called the performance "flawless '', writing "Lead singer Chris Martin 's haunting vocals and the band 's acoustic rendition, using drums, piano and guitar, play up the sadness of the track. '' Jason Lipshutz of Billboard magazine also noted that the band used "piano flourishes, a kick drum and a simple guitar lick to convey the song 's romantic declaration '', while making a ballad which was "reminiscent of Bruno Mars 's emotional reworking of Katy Perry 's ' California Gurls ' ''. Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone wrote: "It may surprise that their rendition is actually pretty good. Whereas Rihanna 's version is a thumping rave anthem, Chris Martin and company transform it into a lovely piano ballad nearly indistinguishable from many of their own songs. '' A writer for The Hollywood Reporter said: "Martin 's vocals blend with the piano for a slightly softer take on the tragic love story. '' On February 17, 2012, British singer Jessie J made a cover of the song on BBC Radio1 's Live Lounge.
Lea Michele and Naya Rivera covered the song in the climax of the third season 's tenth episode of Glee, "Yes / No ''. Romanian X Factor contestant Diana Hetea performed "We Found Love '' in the "Public 's Choice Gala '' on December 10, 2011. Even though ill of laryngitis, Hetea 's performance was praised all three judges that called it "(The) Perfect match for her! '' both visually and vocally. Kris Allen also covered the song mashing it with other songs by Katy Perry and other female artists. Carmen Smith also performed "We Found Love '' for her battle round in the Australian Version of the Voice which saw her through to next round.
In September 2012, Kelly Clarkson performed the song during a concert in Virginia Beach. In October 2012, British singer Ed Sheeran did an acoustic cover of the song for Sirius XM Radio. Lindsey Stirling covered it in a music video filmed in a Kenyan village. British pop rock band McFly covered "We Found Love '' on their "Keep Calm And Play Lounder '' tour 2012. Kele Okereke sang a verse of the song as the intro to his band Bloc Party 's song "Flux '' on their June 2012 U.K. tour. In July 2014, Tori Amos covered the song on her Unrepentant Geraldines Tour. In 2011, Boyce Avenue, a pop rock band, also made an acoustic cover of the song and released it iTunes and their YouTube channel.
The song also used for the trailer of 2012 comedy - drama film Magic Mike, in the TV series Sherlock, and in the films Mediterranea and American Honey.
In November 2011, R3hab released a remix of "We Found Love '' with a "Halloween '' sound. He explained "I made two versions... one version is more melodic and euphoric. This (first) one is more dark because the lyrics (to) ' We Found Love ' can also be seen as something dark. ' We are at the end of the world / And I still found love. ' So from there came the more darker chord progression and the more darker atmosphere, like Dracula is coming to get you. It 's just got a lot of emotion and that worked out great for me. ''
On January 13, 2012, Rap - Up released a remix of "We Found Love '' featuring American rapper Flo Rida. Flo Rida 's parts overlap Calvin Harris ' produced dance beats. In the opening lines, Flo Rida introduces himself and raps tongue twisters about Rihanna and The Bahamas, "You know I got love for you / See what happened was we in Bahams / I remember it was the ox summer, oh so pretty I /... Girl nice to meet you what 's the honour / Yeah she tap me told me she Rihanna. ''. He also references singer Mick Jagger singing that he is "rocking a party ' like I 'm Mick Jagger. '' Flo Rida, himself in an interview with NME revealed that it was an honor for him to work with Rihanna. He also revealed that "We Found Love '' was one of his favorite songs and that 's why he decided to make a remix with Rihanna. He added that Calvin Harris ' production impressed him and heavily influenced him on his future work. Rihanna also noted that she decided to work with Flo Rida because of his "wild '' productions on his songs.
Andrew Unterberger of the website PopDust wrote that Flo Rida was "exactly '' what the original version of "We Found Love '' was missing. He added, "No Rihanna, you got it backwards -- it 's Flo Rida who needs to have other, more talented people on his songs in order to turn them into hits, not the other way around... At least this remix does feature a sizeable contribution from Flo, as he shows up on both the intro and over the song 's primary instrumental hook with his trademark unintelligble yammering, though he gets in at least one reference to rocking a party ' like I 'm Mick Jagger. ' '' Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone praised the remix of the song, saying that "once again, Flo Rida shows his true rapping skills over the beat of Rihanna 's ' We Found Love ' ''. Both Billboard 's Erika Ramirez and Spin 's Marc Hogan praised the remixed version calling it "refreshing '' and "interesting ''. However, Becky Bain of the website Idolator was more negative towards the remix. She noted, "Being that Rihanna 's ' We Found Love ' has enough beats and synths to be its own remix, not to mention it could n't possibly be even more popular on the Hot 100... we find it pointless to release a new version of the single with Flo Rida. ''
Credits adapted from CD single liner notes.
Recording
Personnel
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Thanks to the later release date of "We Found Love '' in the United Kingdom, a singer called "Cover Girl '' rush - released a version before Rihanna was due to release hers. This version charted at number 54 in the UK Singles Chart.
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what does each export contribute to botswana's gdp | Economy of Botswana - wikipedia
Since gaining independence, Botswana has been one of the world 's fastest growing economies, averaging about 5 % per annum over the past decade. Growth in private sector employment averaged about 10 % per annum during the first 30 years of the country 's independence. After a period of stagnation at the turn of the 21st century, the economy of Botswana resumed registering strong levels of growth, with GDP growth exceeding 6 - 7 % targets. Botswana has been praised by the African Development Bank for sustaining one of the world 's longest economic booms. Economic growth since the late 1960s has been on par with some of Asia 's largest economies. The government has consistently maintained budget surpluses and has extensive foreign - exchange reserves.
Botswana 's impressive economic record has been built on a foundation of diamond mining, prudent fiscal policies, international financial and technical assistance, and a cautious foreign policy. It is rated as the least corrupt country in Africa by international corruption watchdog Transparency International. By one estimate, it has the fourth highest gross national income at purchasing power parity in Africa, giving it a standard of living around that of Mexico and Turkey.
Although Botswana 's economy is considered a model for countries in the region, its heavy dependence on mining and its high rate of HIV / AIDS infection (one in every three adults is seropositive) and unemployment could threaten its success in the future.
Trade unions represent a minority of workers in the Botswana economy. In general they are loosely organised "in - house '' unions, although the Botswana Federation of Trade Unions (BFTU) is consolidating its role as the sole national trade union centre in the country.
Agriculture still provides a livelihood for more than 80 % of the population but supplies only about 50 % of food needs and accounts for only 3 % of GDP. Subsistence farming and cattle raising predominate. The sector is plagued by erratic rainfall and poor soils. Tourism is also important to the economy. Substantial mineral deposits were found in the 1970s and the mining sector grew from 25 % of GDP in 1980 to 38 % in 1998. Unemployment officially stands 21 % but unofficial estimates place it closer to 40 %. The Orapa 2000 project doubled the capacity of the country 's main diamond mine from early 2000. This will be the main force behind continued economic expansion.
Economic growth slowed in 2005 - 2008 and turned negative in 2009 as a result of the Great Recession, contracting by 5.2 %. This was exacerbated by a major global downturn in the industrial sector, which shrank by 30 %, Botswana 's steep economic downturn contrasted with most other African nations which experienced continued growth through this period.
Some of Botswana 's budget deficits can be traced to relatively high military expenditures (about 4 % of GDP in 2004, according to the CIA World Factbook). Some critics have criticized this level of military spending, given the low likelihood of international conflict, but these troops are also used for multilateral operations and assistance efforts.
One of Botswana 's biggest challenges is its low level of economic diversification. As of 2008, it depended largely on services (45.2 %), industry (52.9 %) and agriculture (1.9 %) strictly linked to the trade with South Africa.
Botswana is part of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) with South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, and Namibia. The World Bank reports that in 2001 (the most recent year for which World Bank data are available), the SACU had a weighted average common external tariff rate of 3.6 percent. According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, "there are very few tariff or non-tariff barriers to trade with Botswana, apart from restrictions on licensing for some business operations, which are reserved for (Botswana) companies. '' Based on the revised trade factor methodology, Botswana 's trade policy score is unchanged.
The main export of Botswana is diamonds. As of 2017 it is the world 's second largest producer of diamonds after Russia. Due to Botswana 's heavy reliance on diamonds, strong global demand is vital to the health of the economy. Diamond exports provide Botswana 's economy with strong supplies of foreign exchange and have offered a basis for industrial development and stimulated improvements in Botswana 's infrastructure. However, despite their preeminent role in Botswana 's economy, there are concerns that diamond mines are not labour - intensive enough to provide sufficient employment for Botswana 's workforce, and this mismatch has been cited as a factor in the country 's structurally high unemployment rate.
Two large mining companies, Debswana (formed by the government and South Africa 's De Beers in equal partnership) and Bamangwato Concessions, Ltd. (BCL, also with substantial government equity participation) operate in the country. BCL was placed in provisional liquidation in late 2016, following years of loss - making operations, and was placed into final liquidation by the High Court in June 2017.
Since the early 1980s, the country has been one of the world 's largest producers of gem diamonds. Four large diamond mines have opened since independence. De Beers prospectors discovered diamonds in northern Botswana in the early 1970s. The first mine began production at Orapa in 1972, followed by a smaller mine at Letlhakane. What has become the single richest diamond mine in the world opened in Jwaneng in 1982. The mine was discovered when termites looking for water brought grains of diamond to the surface. Botswana produced a total over 30 million carats (6,000 kg) of diamonds (about 25 % of worldwide production) from the three Debswana mines in 1999, and is the highest producer of diamonds by value in the world. According to Debswana, the Orapa 2000 Expansion project increased the Orapa 's mine annual output from 6 million carats to 12 million carats and raised total production to 26 million carats. In 2003, Debswana opened the Damtshaa diamond mine about 220 kilometres (140 mi) west of the city of Francistown. The mine was placed into care and maintenance in December 2015 due to weak global demand but was scheduled to reopen in January 2018.
In 2008, Australia 's Kimberley Diamond Company opened a mine in Lerala, Botswana 's fifth mine and the first not operated by Debswana. However, Kimberley shut down the mine in May 2017, citing weak market conditions.
Most (70 %) of Botswana 's electricity is imported from South Africa 's Eskom. 80 % of domestic production is concentrated in one plant, Morupule Power Station near Palapye, operated by the Botswana Power Corporation. Debswana operates the nearby Morupule Colliery to supply coal to it. The Morupule mine exports coal to Zimbabwe, Zambia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In early 2008, the entire southern African region was hit hard by massive shortages in power, since the region works to share its power resources through the Southern African Power Pool, with most of the capacity coming from South Africa. Botswana has in turn put in place plans to become a net exporter of power to the regional pool, through governmental expansion of the Morupule power station, as well as encouraging private investment in the form of a 4 gigawatt power station by the Canadian Greenfield company CIC Energy. In 2012, CIC Energy was acquired by India 's Jindal Steel and Power. Jindal Africa currently aims to operate three surface mines in the coalfields of Mmamabula, as well as a power plant. According to the company, "the mine 's development will meet the demands of 600MW power station and export region coal markets, with the potential to employ more than 2,000 people. ''
Botswana also produces soda ash through Botash, a joint venture between the government and South Africa 's Chlor - Alkali Holdings (CAH) Group. Botash has been operating in the Sua Pan in northeastern Botswana since April 1991. Production of soda ash is estimated at around 420,000 per annum and is exported to South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Tourism is an increasingly important industry in Botswana, accounting for almost 12 % of GDP. One of the world 's unique ecosystems, the Okavango Delta, is located in Botswana. The country offers excellent game viewing and birding both in the Delta and in the Chobe Game Reserve -- home to one of the largest herds of free - ranging elephants in the world. Botswana 's Central Kalahari Game Reserve also offers good game viewing and some of the most remote and unspoiled wilderness in southern Africa.
A number of national parks and game reserves, with their abundant wildlife and wetlands, are major tourist attractions. The wildlife, including lions, brown hyenas, cheetahs, leopards, wild dogs and antelope, was described in great detail in the best - selling book Cry of the Kalahari by Mark and Delia Owens.
The main safari destinations for tourism are Moremi Game Reserve in the Okavango Delta, and Chobe National Park. Botswana is also participating in community based natural resource management projects by trying to involve villagers in tourism. One example is the village of Khwai and its Khwai Development Trust.
Botswana was the setting for the 1980 movie The Gods Must Be Crazy, although the movie was mostly filmed in South Africa. The seventh season of the Amazing Race visited Botswana. Tourism has been stimulated by the series of detective novels by Alexander McCall Smith and the American dramatisation that followed them.
More than half of Batswana live in rural areas and are dependent on subsistence crop and livestock farming, together with money sent home by relatives in urban areas. Agriculture meets only a small portion of food needs and contributes just 2.8 % to GDP -- primarily through beef exports -- but it remains a social and cultural touchstone. Cattle raising dominated Botswana 's social and economic life before independence. The Botswana Meat Commission (BMC) has a monopoly on beef production. The national herd was about 2.5 million in the mid-1990s, though the government - ordered slaughter of the entire herd in Botswana 's north - west Ngamiland District in 1995 has reduced the number by at least 200,000. The slaughter was ordered to prevent the spread of "cattle lung disease '' to other parts of the country.
Only about 0.7 % of total land area is arable. Crop production is hampered by traditional farming methods, recurrent drought, erosion, and disease. Most of the land under cultivation is in the eastern region. The principal crops for domestic use are sorghum, corn, and millet. Sorghum and maize production in 2004 were 32,000 tons and 10,000 tons, respectively. The sorghum and maize harvests comprise less than 10 % of the annual requirement of 250,000 tons. In 2004, Botswana 's agricultural imports (primarily cereals) exceeded agricultural exports by $102.5 million. Grain is often imported from South Africa. Smaller quantities of cowpeas, beans, and other pulses are also grown. The 2004 output of all these crops was about 20,000 tons; in addition, 16,000 tons of vegetables and 10,000 tons of fruit were grown.
Agricultural research has been devoted to soil conservation, grazing experiments, and developing and distributing improved strains of grain. The construction of dams and the drilling of boreholes to tap underground water are continuing government programmes. In early 1990, the government changed its official agricultural policy to emphasise the production only of those foodstuffs that can be raised economically. The Arable Lands Development Programme and the Tribal Grazing Land Policy are government programmes designed to help farmers in communal areas.
Botswana seeks to diversify its economy away from minerals, the earnings from which have levelled off. In 1998 - 99, non-mineral sectors of the economy grew at 8.9 %, partially offsetting a slight 4.4 % decline in the minerals sector. Foreign investment and management have been welcomed in Botswana.
External investment in Botswana has grown fitfully. In the early 1990s, two American companies, Owens Corning and H.J. Heinz, made major investments in production facilities in Botswana. In 1997, the St. Paul Group purchased Botswana Insurance, one of the country 's leading short - term insurance providers. An American Business Council (ABC), with over 30 member companies, was inaugurated in 1995.
Hyundai operated a car assembly plant in Botswana from 1994 to 2000.
Botswana seeks to further diversify its economy away from minerals, which account for a quarter of GDP, down from nearly half of GDP in the early 1990s. Foreign investment and management are welcomed in Botswana and, as a result, financial and services sectors have increased at an exponential rate in the 2000s to replace mining as the leading industry. Botswana abolished foreign exchange controls in 1999, has a low corporate tax rate (15 %), no prohibitions on foreign ownership of companies, and a moderate inflation rate (7.6 % November 2004).
The government considers private - sector participation as being critical to the success of the country 's Tenth National Development Plan (2009 -- 2016) and enhancing the role of research and development as being the most effective way to nurture entrepreneurship and private - sector growth. The government is considering additional policies to enhance competitiveness, including a new Foreign Direct Investment Strategy, Competition Policy, Privatisation Master Plan and National Export Development Strategy.
Botswana is known to have vast coal deposits making it possibly one of the most coal - rich countries in the world. Large coal mines, massive coal - fired power plants, as well as a coals to liquid plant (through the Fischer - Tropsch process) to produce synthetic automotive fuel have been planned.
With its proven record of good economic governance, Botswana was ranked as Africa 's least corrupt country by Transparency International in 2004, ahead of many European and Asian countries. The World Economic Forum rates Botswana as one of the two most economically competitive nations in Africa. In 2004 Botswana was once again assigned "A '' grade credit ratings by Moody 's and Standard & Poor 's. This ranks Botswana as by far the best credit risk in Africa and puts it on par with or above many countries in central Europe, East Asia, and Latin America.
U.S. investment in Botswana remains at relatively low levels, but continues to grow. Major U.S. corporations, such as H.J. Heinz and AON Corporation, are present through direct investments, while others, such as Kentucky Fried Chicken and Remax, are present via franchise. The sovereign credit ratings by Moody 's and Standard & Poor 's clearly indicate that, despite continued challenges such as small market size, landlocked location, and cumbersome bureaucratic processes, Botswana remains one of the best investment opportunities in the developing world. Botswana has a 90 - member American Business Council that accepts membership from American - affiliated companies.
Due to its history and geography, Botswana has long had deep ties to the economy of South Africa. The Southern Africa Customs Union (SACU), comprising Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, and South Africa, dates from 1910, and is the world 's oldest customs union. Namibia joined in 1990. Under this arrangement, South Africa has collected levies from customs, sales, and excise duties for all five members, sharing out proceeds based on each countries portion of imports. The exact formula for sharing revenues and the decision - making authority over duties -- held exclusively by the Government of South Africa -- became increasingly controversial, and the members renegotiated the arrangement in 2001. The new structure has now been formally ratified and a SACU Secretariat has been established in Windhoek, Namibia. Following South Africa 's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO), Botswana also joined; many of the SACU duties are thus declining, making products from outside the area more competitive in Botswana. Currently the SACU countries and the U.S. are negotiating a free trade agreement. Botswana is currently also negotiating a free trade agreement with Mercosur and an Economic Partnership Agreement with the European Union as part of SADC.
Gaborone is host to the headquarters of the fourteen - nation Southern African Development Community (SADC), a successor to the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC, established in 1980), which focused its efforts on freeing regional economic development from dependence on apartheid South Africa. SADC embraced the newly democratic South Africa as a member in 1994 and has a broad mandate to encourage growth, development, and economic integration in Southern Africa. SADC 's Trade Protocol, which was launched on 1 September 2000, calls for the elimination of all tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade by 2008 among the 11 signatory countries. If successful, it will give Botswana companies free access to the far larger regional market. SADC 's failure to distance itself from the Mugabe government in Zimbabwe has diminished the number of opportunities for cooperation between the U.S. and SADC.
Botswana has successfully carried an Action Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour, which was adopted in the period 2006 - 2007. Free the Children delisted Botswana as a nation harbouring child - labour facilities in 2008.
Botswana has a growing financial sector, and the country 's national stock market, the Botswana Stock Exchange (BSE), based in Gaborone, is given the responsibility to operate and regulate the equities and fixed interest securities market. Formally established in 1989, the BSE continues to be pivotal to Botswana 's financial system, and in particular the capital market, as an avenue on which government, quasi-government and the private sector can raise debt and equity capital. Although the BSE has just under 40 companies listed, it plays host to the most pre-eminent companies doing business in Botswana. These companies represent a spectrum of industries and commerce, from Banking and financial services to Wholesaling and Retailing, Tourism and Information Technology.
To date, the BSE is one of Africa 's best performing stock exchanges, averaging 24 % aggregate return in the past decade. This has allowed the BSE to be the third largest stock exchange, in terms of market capitalisation, in Southern Africa.
Given Botswana 's lack of exchange controls, stable currency and exceptionally performing stock market, the financial sector has attracted a host of global investors seeking better returns.
Botswana 's currency, the pula, is fully convertible and is valued against a basket of currencies heavily weighted toward the South African Rand. Profits and direct investment can be repatriated without restriction from Botswana. The Botswana Government eliminated all exchange controls in 1999. The Central Bank devalued the Pula by 7.5 % in February 2004 in a bid to maintain export competitiveness against the real appreciation of the Pula. There was a further 12 % devaluation in May 2005 and the policy of a "Crawling peg '' was adopted.
The recently established Non-Bank Financial Institutions Regulatory Authority (NBFIRA) is responsible for the oversight of all non-banking financial services entities in the country. As of 2005, about 54 percent of Botswana 's population had access to formal or informal financial services, and 43 percent is banked (with access to at least one formal banking product). The overall access ratio is still low, especially in rural areas, where there are 3.8 branches and 73 ATMs per 100,000 people. Mobile banking services have just started to be offered. In recent years the government and Central Bank have undertaken serious steps to modernize the country 's payment system infrastructure. These efforts included the establishment of a code - line clearing system for the exchange of cheques and electronic funds as well as a Real Time Gross Settlement (RTGS) system, including SWIFT connection. The stock exchange implemented a Central Securities Depository in 2007. Remittance Flows for Botswana amounted to USD 117 million in 2007, a figure that is higher than the total net value of official development assistance.
Gaborone is host to the headquarters of the 14 - nation Southern African Development Community (SADC). A successor to the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC), which focused its efforts on freeing regional economic development from dependence on apartheid in South Africa, SADC embraced the newly democratic South Africa as a member in 1994 and has a broad mandate to encourage growth, development, and economic integration in Southern Africa. SADC 's Trade Protocol, which was launched on 1 September 2000, calls for the elimination of all tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade by 2012 among the 11 signatory countries. If successful, it will give Botswana companies free access to the far larger regional market. The Regional Centre for Southern Africa (RCSA), which implements the U.S. Agency for International Development 's (USAID) Initiative for Southern Africa (ISA), is headquartered in Gaborone as well.
The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980 -- 2017.
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who has played batman in all the movies | Batman in film - wikipedia
The fictional superhero Batman, who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics, has appeared in various films since his inception. Created by Bob Kane and Bill Finger, the character first starred in two serial films in the 1940s: Batman and Batman and Robin. The character also appeared in the 1966 film Batman, which was a feature film adaptation of the 1960s Batman TV series starring Adam West and Burt Ward, who also starred in the film. Toward the end of the 1980s, the Warner Bros. studio began producing a series of feature films starring Batman, beginning with the 1989 film Batman, directed by Tim Burton and starring Michael Keaton. Burton and Keaton returned for the 1992 sequel Batman Returns, and in 1995, Joel Schumacher directed Batman Forever with Val Kilmer as Batman. Schumacher also directed the 1997 sequel Batman & Robin, which starred George Clooney. Batman & Robin was poorly received by both critics and fans, leading to the cancellation of Batman Unchained.
Following the cancellation of two further film proposals, the franchise was rebooted in 2005 with Batman Begins, directed by Christopher Nolan and starring Christian Bale. Nolan returned to direct two further installments through the release of The Dark Knight in 2008 and The Dark Knight Rises in 2012, with Bale reprising his role in both films. Both sequels earned over $1 billion worldwide, making Batman the second film franchise to have two of its films earn more than $1 billion worldwide. Referred to as The Dark Knight Trilogy, the critical acclaim and commercial success of Nolan 's films have been credited with restoring widespread popularity to the superhero, with the second installment considered one of the best superhero movies of all - time.
After Warner Bros. launched their own shared cinematic universe known as the DC Extended Universe in 2013, Ben Affleck was cast to portray Batman in the new expansive franchise, first appearing in 2016 with the Zack Snyder directed film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. The film would help begin a sequence of further DC Comics adaptations, including Justice League, a crossover film featuring other DC Comics characters, in 2017, and a stand - alone Batman film starring Affleck and directed by Matt Reeves. Dante Pereira - Olson will appear as Bruce Wayne in the 2019 film Joker, directed by Todd Phillips.
Batman has also appeared in multiple animated films, both as a starring character and as an ensemble character. While most animated films were released direct - to - video, the 1993 animated feature Batman: Mask of the Phantasm, based on the 1990s Batman: The Animated Series, was released theatrically. Having earned a total of U.S. $2,407,708,129 the Batman series is the fifth - highest - grossing film series in North America.
Batman was a 15 - chapter serial film released in 1943 by Columbia Pictures and was the first appearance of the comic book character on film. The serial starred Lewis Wilson as Batman and Douglas Croft as Robin. Being a World War II era production, the movie serial like many of this period was used as war - time propaganda and had an anti-Japanese bent with J. Carrol Naish playing the Japanese villain, an original character named Dr. Daka. Rounding out the cast were Shirley Patterson as Linda Page (Bruce Wayne 's love interest), and William Austin as Alfred. The plot is based on Batman, a US government agent, attempting to defeat the Japanese agent Dr. Daka, at the height of World War II.
The film is notable for being the first filmed appearance of Batman and for providing two core elements of the Batman mythos. The film introduced "The Bat 's Cave '' and the Grandfather clock entrance. The name was altered to the Batcave for the comic. William Austin, who played Alfred, had a trim physique and sported a thin mustache, while the contemporary comic book version of Alfred was overweight and clean - shaven prior to the serial 's release. The comics version of Alfred was altered to match that of Austin 's, and has stayed that way.
Batman and Robin was another 15 - chapter serial film released in 1949 by Columbia Pictures. Robert Lowery played Batman, while Johnny Duncan played Robin. Supporting players included Jane Adams as Vicki Vale and veteran character actor Lyle Talbot as Commissioner Gordon. The plot dealt with the Dynamic Duo facing off against the Wizard, a hooded villain whose identity remains a mystery throughout the serial until the end.
Batman (also known as Batman: The Movie) is a 1966 film adaptation of the popular Batman television series, and was the first full - length theatrical adaptation of the DC Comics character. The 20th Century Fox release starred Adam West as Batman and Burt Ward as Robin, as well as Lee Meriwether as Catwoman, Cesar Romero as the Joker, Burgess Meredith as the Penguin and Frank Gorshin as the Riddler.
The film was directed by Leslie H. Martinson, who also directed a pair of Batman episodes: "The Penguin Goes Straight '' and "Not Yet, He Ai n't, '' both from season one.
In the late 1970s, Batman 's popularity was waning. CBS was interested in producing a Batman in Outer Space film. Producers Michael Uslan and Benjamin Melniker purchased the film rights of Batman from DC Comics on October 3, 1979. It was Uslan 's wish "to make the definitive, dark, serious version of Batman, the way Bob Kane and Bill Finger had envisioned him in 1939. A creature of the night; stalking criminals in the shadows. '' Richard Maibaum was approached to write a script with Guy Hamilton to direct, but the two turned down the offer. Uslan was unsuccessful with pitching Batman to various movie studios because they wanted the film to be similar to the campy 1960s TV series. Columbia Pictures and United Artists were among those to turn down the film.
A disappointed Uslan then wrote a script titled Return of the Batman to give the film industry a better idea of his vision for the film. Uslan later compared its dark tone to that of The Dark Knight Returns, which his script pre-dated by six years. In November 1979, producer Jon Peters and Casablanca FilmWorks, headed by Peter Guber, joined the project. The four producers felt it was best to pattern the film 's development after that of Superman (1978). Uslan, Melniker and Guber pitched Batman to Universal Pictures, but the studio turned it down. The project was publicly announced with a budget of $15 million in July 1980 at the Comic Art Convention in New York. Casablanca FilmWorks was absorbed into PolyGram Pictures in 1980. Guber and Peters left PolyGram Pictures in 1982 and took the Batman film rights with them, although PolyGram would retain at least 7.5 % of the profits of said rights due to a contractual agreement. Guber and Peters immediately set up shop at Warner Bros., which finally decided to accept Batman.
Tom Mankiewicz completed a script titled The Batman in June 1983, focusing on Batman and Dick Grayson 's origins, with the Joker and Rupert Thorne as villains, and Silver St. Cloud as the romantic interest. Mankiewicz took inspiration from the limited series Batman: Strange Apparitions (ISBN 1 - 56389 - 500 - 5), written by Steve Englehart. Comic book artist Marshall Rogers, who worked with Englehart on Strange Apparitions, was hired for concept art. The Batman was then announced in late 1983 for a mid-1985 release date on a budget of $20 million. Originally, Mankiewicz had wanted an unknown actor for Batman, William Holden for James Gordon, David Niven as Alfred Pennyworth and Peter O'Toole as the Penguin who Mankiewicz wanted to portray as a mobster with low body temperature. Holden died in 1981 and Niven in 1983, so this would never come to pass. A number of filmmakers were attached to Mankiewicz ' script, including Ivan Reitman and Joe Dante. Reitman wanted to cast Bill Murray as Batman. For the role of Robin, Eddie Murphy and Michael J. Fox were candidates. Nine rewrites were performed by nine separate writers. Most of them were based on Strange Apparitions. However, it was Mankiewicz 's script that was still being used to guide the project.
Tim Burton took over as director of the first Batman film in 1986. Steve Englehart and Julie Hickson wrote film treatments before Sam Hamm wrote the first screenplay. Numerous A-list actors were considered for the role of Batman before Michael Keaton was cast. Keaton was a controversial choice for the role since, by 1988, he had become typecast as a comedic actor and many observers doubted he could portray a serious role. Jack Nicholson accepted the role of the Joker under strict conditions that dictated a high salary, a portion of the box office profits and his shooting schedule. Nicholson 's final salary is reported to be as high as $50 million. Principal photography took place at Pinewood Studios from October 1988 to January 1989. The budget escalated from $30 million to $48 million, while the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike forced Hamm to drop out. Rewrites were performed by Warren Skaaren, Charles McKeown and Jonathan Gems. Batman received positive reviews, broke numerous box office records, and won the Academy Award for Best Art Direction. The film grossed over $400 million, and left a legacy over the modern perception of the superhero film genre.
Burton originally did not want to direct a sequel because of his mixed emotions over the previous film. Sam Hamm 's first script had the Penguin and Catwoman searching for hidden treasure. Daniel Waters delivered a script that satisfied Burton, which convinced him to direct the film. Wesley Strick did an uncredited rewrite, deleting characterizations of Harvey Dent and Robin and rewriting the climax. Various A-list actresses lobbied hard for the role of Catwoman before Michelle Pfeiffer was cast, while Danny DeVito signed on to portray the Penguin. Filming started at Warner Bros. in Burbank, California in June 1991. Batman Returns was released with financial success, but Warner Bros. was disappointed with the film 's box office run because it earned less than its predecessor. However, Batman Returns was released to generally positive reviews, although a "parental backlash '' criticized the film for containing violence and sexual innuendos that were thought to be unsuitable for children. McDonald 's shut down its Happy Meal tie - in for Batman Returns.
Although Batman Returns was a financial success, Warner Bros. felt the film should have made more money. The studio decided to change the direction of the Batman film series to be more mainstream. Joel Schumacher replaced Tim Burton as director, while Burton decided to stay on as producer. However, Michael Keaton did not like the new direction the film series was heading in, and was replaced by Val Kilmer as Batman. Chris O'Donnell was introduced as Robin, Jim Carrey starred as The Riddler, while Tommy Lee Jones starred as Two - Face. Filming started in September 1994, and Schumacher encountered problems communicating with Kilmer and Jones. Batman Forever was released on June 16, 1995 with financial success, earning over $350 million worldwide and three Academy Award nominations, but the film was met with mixed reviews from critics.
After the release of Batman Forever, Warner Bros. started development on Batman & Robin, commissioning it on fast track for an adamant June 1997 release. Val Kilmer did not return, because of scheduling conflicts with The Saint, and was replaced by George Clooney. Arnold Schwarzenegger starred as Mr. Freeze, while Uma Thurman starred as Poison Ivy and Alicia Silverstone starred as Batgirl. Chris O'Donnell reprised his role as Robin. Principal photography began in September 1996 and finished in January 1997, two weeks ahead of the shooting schedule. Batman & Robin was released on June 20, 1997, and received primarily negative reviews. Observers criticized the film for its toyetic and campy approach, and for homosexual innuendos added by Schumacher. Still, the film was a financial success, but remains to be the least commercially successful live - action Batman film ever. Batman & Robin received numerous nominations at the Razzie Awards and ranks among the worst rated superhero films of all time.
During the filming of Batman & Robin, Warner Bros. was impressed with the dailies, prompting them to immediately hire Joel Schumacher to reprise his directing duties for a third film. Writer Akiva Goldsman, who worked on Batman Forever and Batman & Robin, turned down the chance to write the script. In late 1996, Warner Bros. and Schumacher hired Mark Protosevich to write the script for a fifth Batman film. A projected mid-1999 release date was announced. Titled Batman Unchained but often incorrectly referred to as Batman Triumphant, Protosevich 's script had the Scarecrow as the main villain and the Joker would return as a hallucination in Batman 's mind caused by the Scarecrow 's fear toxin. Harley Quinn appeared as a supporting character, written as the Joker 's daughter trying to kill Batman to avenge her father 's death. George Clooney, Chris O'Donnell and Alicia Silverstone were set to reprise the roles of Batman, Robin, and Batgirl. Schumacher had also approached Nicolas Cage for the role of Scarecrow. However, when Batman & Robin received negative reviews and failed to outgross any of its predecessors, Warner Bros. was unsure of their plans for Batman Unchained. The studio decided it was best to consider a live - action Batman Beyond film and an adaptation of Frank Miller 's Batman: Year One. Warner Bros. would then greenlight whichever idea suited them the most. Schumacher felt he "owe (d) the Batman culture a real Batman movie. I would go back to the basics and make a dark portrayal of the Dark Knight. '' He approached Warner Bros. to do Batman: Year One in mid-1998.
Despite Warner Bros. and Schumacher 's interest with Year One, Lee Shapiro, a comic book fan, and Stephen Wise pitched the studio with a script titled Batman: DarKnight in mid-1998. DarKnight, which was largely inspired by The Dark Knight Returns, had Bruce Wayne giving up his crime fighting career, and Dick Grayson attending Gotham University. Dr. Jonathan Crane uses his position as professor of psychology at Gotham University and as head psychiatrist at Arkham Asylum to conduct his experiments into fear (this element would later appear in Batman Begins). During a vengeful confrontation with a colleague, Dr. Kirk Langstrom, Crane unknowingly initiates Kirk 's transformation into the creature known as Man - Bat. Citizens of Gotham believe Man - Bat 's nightly activities to be Batman 's "bloodthirsty '' return. Bruce becomes Batman "to clear his name, '' and solve the mystery of Man - Bat. Kirk struggles with his "man - vs. - monster '' syndrome, as he longs to both reunite with his wife and get revenge on Crane, while Crane exacts revenge on those responsible for his dismissal from both Arkham and the university while encountering truths about his past. Warner Bros. decided not to move forward with the project, and passed on Batman: DarKnight in favor of Year One and Batman Beyond.
Chris O'Donnell revealed in a 2012 interview with Access Hollywood that a Robin spin - off had been considered; the project was cancelled after Batman & Robin.
By September 2000 Warner Bros. was developing a live action screen adaptation of Batman Beyond, written by Paul Dini, Neal Stephenson and Boaz Yakin, with the possibility of Yakin directing, as well as an adaptation of Frank Miller 's 1987 comic book story arc Batman: Year One. Despite interest from Schumacher, Darren Aronofsky was hired to direct and co-write with Miller, whom he previously collaborated with on an unproduced script for Ronin. Yakin developed one draft of the Batman Beyond screenplay with the writers but soon lost interest, and Warner Bros. abandoned Batman Beyond almost instantly in favor of Batman: Year One. Aronofsky and Miller intended to reboot the Batman franchise, "it 's somewhat based on the comic book, '' Aronofsky said. "Toss out everything you can imagine about Batman! Everything! We 're starting completely anew. '' Regular Aronofsky collaborator, Matthew Libatique, was set as cinematographer, and Christian Bale had been approached for the role of Batman. Coincidentally, Bale would be cast in the role for Batman Begins. At the same time, Warner Bros. was moving forward on a Catwoman spin - off. Around 2001, Warner commissioned the rewriting of the film 's script to The Matrix directors The Wachowskis, but The Wachowskis ' script did n't convince Warner. Joss Whedon was later hired to rewrite the script, but like happened with The Wachowskis ' script, Warner did n't like his script. In June 2002, the studio decided to move forward on Batman vs. Superman and abandon Year One.
Warner Bros. abandoned J.J. Abrams ' script for Superman: Flyby, which had been greenlighted with McG to direct. When McG dropped out in favor of Charlie 's Angels: Full Throttle, Warner Bros. approached Wolfgang Petersen to direct Superman: Flyby, however, in August 2001, Andrew Kevin Walker pitched Warner Bros. an idea titled Batman vs Superman, attaching Petersen as director. Superman: Flyby was put on hold, and Akiva Goldsman was hired to rewrite Walker 's Batman vs. Superman.
Goldsman 's draft, dated June 21, 2002, had Bruce Wayne going through a mental breakdown after his five - year retirement from crime fighting. Dick Grayson, Alfred Pennyworth and Commissioner Gordon are all dead, but Bruce finds some solace in his fiancée, Elizabeth Miller. Meanwhile, Clark Kent is struggling because of a recent divorce from Lois Lane. Clark and Bruce are close friends, and Clark is Bruce 's best man. After the Joker kills Elizabeth on their honeymoon, Bruce swears revenge, while Clark tries to hold him back. Bruce blames Clark for her death, and the two go against one another. Ultimately, Lex Luthor is revealed to have masterminded the entire plot to get Batman and Superman to destroy each other. The two decide to team up and stop Luthor. Christian Bale, who would play the character in Christopher Nolan 's Batman film trilogy, was simultaneously approached to portray Batman for Darren Aronofsky 's Batman: Year One, while Josh Hartnett was offered the role of Superman.
Filming was to start in early 2003, with plans for a five - to six - month shoot. The release date was set for the summer of 2004. However, Warner Bros. canceled development to focus on individual Superman and Batman projects after Abrams submitted another draft for Superman: Flyby. According to Petersen "(Warner Bros. ' chief) Alan Horn was so torn, because it 's such a fascinating concept to do a Batman versus Superman film. '' In the opening scene of I Am Legend, a billboard displays the Superman symbol within the Batman symbol in Times Square. It is meant as an in - joke by the film 's writer, Akiva Goldsman, who also wrote the script for Batman vs. Superman.
The Batman OnStar commercials were a series of six television commercials featuring Batman, created by ad - agency Campbell - Ewald and aired from 2000 to the beginning of 2002.
The ads were based on the film series and were basically an amalgamation of both directors ' visuals. For example, the Batmobile was the one used in Batman and Batman Returns, while the Batsuit was a combination of what was worn by Val Kilmer in Batman Forever and George Clooney in Batman & Robin. The commercials also featured the Danny Elfman Batman theme from Tim Burton 's two films.
Actor Bruce Thomas portrayed Batman in these ads, while Michael Gough reprised his role of Alfred Pennyworth in one of the ads. Baywatch actress Brooke Burns played Vicki Vale in an ad as well. Actor Brian Stepanek played the Riddler in one ad and Curtis Armstrong played the Joker in another.
Following a rejected Batman origin story reboot Joss Whedon pitched in December 2002, Warner Bros. hired Christopher Nolan and David S. Goyer to script Batman Begins. The duo aimed for a darker and more realistic tone, with humanity and realism being the basis of the film. The film was primarily shot in the United Kingdom and Chicago, and relied on traditional stunts and scale models with minimal use of computer - generated imagery. Christian Bale starred as Batman, Liam Neeson as Ra 's al Ghul, and Cillian Murphy as The Scarecrow. Katie Holmes appears in the movie as Bruce 's love interest, Rachel Dawes, a role created for the film. Alfred, the ex-British Army member was played by Michael Caine and Jim Gordon was portrayed by Gary Oldman. A new Batmobile (called the Tumbler) and a more mobile Batsuit were both created specifically for the film. The film begins with the death of Bruce 's parents and then explores his decision to leave Gotham and his training under the League of Assassins with Ra 's al Ghul, before he rebels against the League and adopts the guise of Batman, recognising that he can not condone their use of lethal force. The League attempt to attack Gotham using Jonathan Crane 's weaponised fear toxin, but Batman is able to defeat their plan, with Ra 's being killed when a train he is in crashes during a fight with Batman.
Batman Begins was both critically and commercially successful. The film opened on June 15, 2005, in the United States and Canada in 3,858 theaters. It grossed $48 million in its opening weekend, eventually grossing over $372 million worldwide. The film received an 85 % overall approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes. Critics noted that fear was a common motif throughout the film, and remarked that it had a darker tone compared with previous Batman films. The film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Cinematography and for three BAFTA awards. It was also listed at No. 81 on Empire 's "500 Greatest Movies of All Time '' and has maintained a standing on IMDb.com 's "Top 250 ''.
Christopher Nolan reprised his duties as director, and brought his brother, Jonathan, to co-write the script for the second installment. The Dark Knight featured Christian Bale reprising his role as Batman / Bruce Wayne, Heath Ledger as The Joker, and Aaron Eckhart as Harvey Dent / Two - Face. Principal photography began in April 2007 in Chicago and concluded in November. Other locations included Pinewood Studios, Ministry of Sound in London and Hong Kong. On January 22, 2008, after he had completed filming The Dark Knight, Ledger died from a bad combination of prescription medication. Warner Bros. had created a viral marketing campaign for The Dark Knight, developing promotional websites and trailers highlighting screen shots of Ledger as the Joker, but after Ledger 's death, the studio refocused its promotional campaign. The film depicts Gotham attempting to rebuild after Batman 's actions have caused so much damage to its organised crime families, aided by the prosecution of charismatic District Attorney Harvey Dent, but the involvement of the anarchic Joker threatens everything, as his actions lead to the death of Rachel Dawes and Harvey being scarred and transformed into Two - Face. Although Batman is able to stop the Joker from forcing two ferries - one loaded with civilians and the other with prisoners - to destroy each other, he is forced to take the blame for the murders committed by Dent to ensure that the city retains its hope for the future.
The film received broad critical acclaim, and set numerous records during its theatrical run. With just over $1 billion in revenue worldwide, it is the 31st - highest - grossing film of all time, unadjusted for inflation. The film received eight Academy Award nominations; it won the award for Best Sound Editing and Ledger was posthumously awarded Best Supporting Actor.
Nolan wanted the story for the third and final installment to keep him emotionally invested. "On a more superficial level, I have to ask the question, '' he reasoned, "how many good third movies in a franchise can people name? '' He returned out of finding a necessary way to continue the story, but feared midway through filming he would find a sequel redundant. The Dark Knight Rises is intended to complete Nolan 's Batman trilogy. By December 2008, Nolan completed a rough story outline, before he committed himself to Inception. In February 2010, work on the screenplay was commencing with David S. Goyer and Jonathan Nolan. When Goyer left to work on the Superman reboot, Jonathan was writing the script based on the story by his brother and Goyer. Tom Hardy was cast as Bane and Anne Hathaway plays Selina Kyle. Joseph Gordon - Levitt was cast as John Blake, and Marion Cotillard was cast as Miranda Tate. Filming began in May 2011 and concluded in November. Nolan chose not to film in 3 - D but, by focusing on improving image quality and scale using the IMAX format, hoped to push technological boundaries while nevertheless making the style of the film consistent with the previous two. Nolan had several meetings with IMAX Vice-President David Keighley to work on the logistics of projecting films in digital IMAX venues. The Dark Knight Rises featured more scenes shot in IMAX than The Dark Knight. Cinematographer Wally Pfister expressed interest in shooting the film entirely in IMAX. During the film, set eight years after Dark Knight, the arrival of new foe Bane forces Bruce to return to his old role as Batman, only to find himself overpowered and captured by Bane as Gotham is cut off from the rest of the world with a stolen Wayne Enterprises fusion generator prototype set to go off in a few months. With the aid of thief Selina Kyle, Bruce is able to return to Gotham and defeat Bane while redeeming his image as Batman. The film concludes with Bruce having ' retired ' as Batman after faking his death to live with Selina Kyle, evidence suggesting that he has passed on the Batcave to new ally Detective John Blake (real first name Robin) while Gotham rebuilds in memory of the Dark Knight 's heroism.
Upon release, The Dark Knight Rises received a positive critical response and was successful at the box office, going on to outgross its predecessor and become the 19th - highest - grossing film of all time grossing over $1.08 billion. However, unlike its predecessors, the film was not nominated for any Oscars during its year of eligibility at the 85th Academy Awards, much to the surprise of film industry insiders.
In February 2007, during pre-production for The Dark Knight, Warner Bros. hired husband and wife screenwriting duo Michelle and Kieran Mulroney to script a Justice League film featuring a younger Batman in a separate franchise. George Miller was hired to direct the following September, with Armie Hammer cast as Batman a month later and Teresa Palmer as Talia al Ghul. Filming had nearly commenced at Fox Studios Australia in Sydney, but was pushed back over the Writer 's Guild of America strike, and once more when the Australian Film Commission denied Warner Bros. a 45 percent tax rebate over lack of Australian actors in the film. Production offices were moved to Vancouver Film Studios in Canada for an expected July 2008 start and a planned summer 2009 theatrical release date, but Warner Bros. ultimately canceled Justice League following the success of The Dark Knight. Hammer 's option on his contract lapsed and the studio was more willing to proceed with Christopher Nolan to finish his trilogy separately with The Dark Knight Rises.
On June 13, 2013, a source from Warner Bros. told The Wrap that they were discussing more Man of Steel films, as well as a Superman / Batman film, Wonder Woman, and Aquaman. Warner Bros. announced that Superman and Batman would unite in a new film, a follow - up to Man of Steel (2013), taking its inspiration from the comic The Dark Knight Returns and set for release in 2015. Goyer stated at the Superman 75th Anniversary Panel at Comic - Con, that Batman and Superman would face off, and titles under consideration were Superman vs Batman or Batman vs Superman.
On August 22, 2013, The Hollywood Reporter announced the casting of Ben Affleck as Bruce Wayne / Batman. On January 17, 2014, it was announced that the film had been delayed from its original July 17, 2015 release date to May 6, 2016, in order to give the filmmakers "time to realize fully their vision, given the complex visual nature of the story ''. The film 's release was moved again to March 25, 2016, "avoiding a high - profile showdown with Captain America: Civil War on May 6, 2016 ''. At some point prior to the events of the film, Wayne Manor was burnt down, with Bruce and Alfred relocating to a smaller glass house above the Batcave. During the film, Bruce is subtly manipulated by Lex Luthor into perceiving Superman as an alien being too removed from humanity to be fully trusted, with Luthor intending to provoke a conflict between the two that will either force Superman to kill or see Batman defeat ' God '. Bruce 's dark views are implied to be the result of the Joker killing Robin in some past confrontation, with Batman showing a lack of concern about whether or not he kills his opponents in battle and branding certain criminals with the mark of the Bat. However, when he faces Superman with kryptonite weapons, he realises how far he has fallen when Superman asks him to ' save Martha ' (Luthor using Martha Kent as a hostage to provoke Superman into confronting Batman), the reminder of his own mother helping Batman realise what he has become and acknowledge that Superman is fundamentally human despite his powers. After Batman saves Martha Kent from Luthor 's minions, he fights alongside Superman and new hero Wonder Woman to contain the Kryptonian deformity Luthor created to kill Superman, a battle that results in Superman 's death when he stabs the deformity with the kryptonite spear and is impaled himself. Taking Luthor 's metahuman files, Bruce states that he intends to gather the metahumans to prepare for an implied future threat that Luthor made reference to.
In February 2009, Warner Bros. was developing a Suicide Squad film, with Dan Lin producing, and Justin Marks writing the script. In September 2014, David Ayer signed on to direct and write the screenplay for the film. Charles Roven is also set to produce the film. In November 2014 and March 2015, it was announced that Deadshot, Harley Quinn, Killer Croc and the Joker will appear in the film portrayed respectively by Will Smith, Margot Robbie, Adewale Akinnuoye - Agbaje and Jared Leto. Batman appears in brief flashbacks where he is involved in the capture of Deadshot and Harley Quinn, rescuing Harley from a submerged car after it crashed during a chase and she was abandoned by the Joker, and apprehending Deadshot after an anonymous tip led him to the assassin as Deadshot was Christmas - shopping with his daughter. Batman 's history with Killer Croc is also briefly referenced. At the film 's conclusion, Amanda Waller -- who appears to know that Bruce Wayne is Batman -- provides Bruce with files on various metahumans in exchange for his protection from future fallout from the Enchantress 's recent attack, Bruce informing Waller to shut down Task Force X as his friends will handle future problems.
Although he does not appear physically, Bruce Wayne is heavily referenced in Wonder Woman. After the events of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, Bruce successfully retrieves the photo from Lex Luthor 's archives which he used to threaten Diana, along with a watch that belonged to the father of Captain Steve Trevor. He transports them through an armored car to Diana, with a letter wishing to know her story someday. Diana recalls the events of the film as a flashback, after which she sends an E-mail to Bruce, "Thanks for bringing him back to me ''.
Shortly after filming had finished for Man of Steel, Warner Bros hired Will Beall to script a new Justice League film in June 2012. With the release of Man of Steel in June 2013, Goyer was hired to write a new Justice League script, with the Beall draft being scrapped. In April 2014, it was announced that Zack Snyder would also be directing Goyer 's Justice League script. Warner Bros. was reportedly courting Chris Terrio to rewrite Justice League the following July, after having been impressed with his rewrite of Batman v Superman.
By July 2015, Ben Affleck was in talks to star in, co-write with Geoff Johns, and possibly direct a standalone Batman film. In March 2016, Johns claimed that the appearance of Robin 's suit covered in graffiti from Dawn of Justice would be explored later and the identity of the deceased character was intentionally unspecified. Following the release of Dawn of Justice, William Morris Endeavor 's co-CEO Patrick Whitesell confirmed that Affleck had written a screenplay for a standalone Batman film that he hoped would be optioned by Warner Bros as well to direct. Warner Bros. CEO Kevin Tsujihara confirmed in April 2016 that the studio was moving ahead with Affleck 's stand - alone Batman film, which the actor would star in and direct. In May 2016, Jeremy Irons confirmed that he was "tied into The Batman '', while Affleck stated that his solo Batman film would borrow from the comics, but mainly be an "original story ''. In August 2016, Jared Leto expressed his hope that his version of the Joker would appear in Affleck 's Batman solo film. Later that month, Deathstroke was teased by Affleck through test footage, later confirmed by Johns that the character would be played by Joe Manganiello. In October 2016, Affleck stated the intended title for the film would be The Batman, but later clarified that the film could end up having a different title. Manganiello and Irons stated that filming would start in spring 2017.
In December 2016, Affleck confirmed that the film was on track to begin shooting in spring 2017. Later that month, Warner Bros. executive Greg Silverman stated that the film would be released in 2018. Around the same time, Affleck stated that the film had no script and that he may end up not directing it. Affleck planned to shoot the film in Los Angeles as doubling for Gotham City. He reaffirmed his commitment to direct the film in his appearance on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. In late January 2017, Affleck decided to step down as director, but would remain involved as producer and actor. By this point, writer Chris Terrio, who won an Academy Award for writing Affleck 's Argo and also helped script Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, had turned in a rewrite of the script. On February 10, 2017, it was announced that Matt Reeves was in talks to replace Affleck as the director of the film, however on February 17 it was reported that talks had broken down. Two weeks later, Reeves had officially signed on to direct and co-produce the film. Production was delayed until 2018 as Reeves was tied up in post-production on War for the Planet of the Apes until June 2017, and The Batman is being re-written to allow Reeves more creative freedom as a director. Reeves stated in an interview that the film will feature "an almost - noir driven, detective version of Batman '' that will emphasize the heart and mind of the character and will take inspiration from Alfred Hitchcock.
On August 2, 2018, Reeves appeared on a Television Critics Association panel and revealed many details about the film. He confirmed that The Batman is an original, noir - driven story and not an origin story. He also revealed that the script is nearing completion and that the film will be set in the established DCEU continuity. Affleck is still involved with the film and will also be a producer. The film is scheduled to start shooting in early 2019.
On October 23, 2018, Dante Pereira - Olson was cast as Bruce Wayne in the upcoming Joker film. The film will be set during the 1980s, where a failed stand - up comedian named Arthur Fleck turns to a life of crime and chaos in Gotham City.
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what is the role of a conductor in an orchestra | Conducting - wikipedia
Conducting is the art of directing a musical performance, such as an orchestral or choral concert. It has been defined as "the art of directing the simultaneous performance of several players or singers by the use of gesture. '' The primary duties of the conductor are to interpret the score created by a composer in a manner which is reflective of the specific indications within that score, set the tempo, ensure correct entries by various members of the ensemble, and to "shape '' the phrasing where appropriate. To convey their ideas and interpretation, conductors communicate with their musicians primarily through hand gestures, typically though not invariably with the aid of a baton, and may use other gestures or signals, such as eye contact with relevant performers. A conductor 's directions will almost invariably be supplemented or reinforced by verbal instructions or suggestions to their musicians in rehearsal prior to a performance.
The conductor typically stands on a raised podium with a large music stand for the full score, which contains the musical notation for all the instruments or voices. Since the mid-19th century, most conductors have not played an instrument when conducting, although in earlier periods of classical music history, leading an ensemble while playing an instrument was common. In Baroque music from the 1600s to the 1750s, the group would typically be led by the harpsichordist or first violinist (see concertmaster), an approach that in modern times has been revived by several music directors for music from this period. Conducting while playing a piano or synthesizer may also be done with musical theatre pit orchestras. Communication is typically non-verbal during a performance (this is strictly the case in art music, but in jazz big bands or large pop ensembles, there may be occasional spoken instructions, such as a "count in ''). However, in rehearsals, frequent interruptions allow the conductor to give verbal directions as to how the music should be played or sung.
Conductors act as guides to the orchestras or choirs they conduct. They choose the works to be performed and study their scores, to which they may make certain adjustments (e.g., regarding tempo, articulation, phrasing, repetitions of sections, and so on), work out their interpretation, and relay their vision to the performers. They may also attend to organizational matters, such as scheduling rehearsals, planning a concert season, hearing auditions and selecting members, and promoting their ensemble in the media. Orchestras, choirs, concert bands and other sizable musical ensembles such as big bands are usually led by conductors.
The principal conductor of an orchestra or opera company is sometimes referred to as a music director or chief conductor, or by the German words Kapellmeister or Dirigent. Conductors of choirs or choruses are sometimes referred to as choral director, chorus master, or choirmaster, particularly for choirs associated with an orchestra. Conductors of concert bands, military bands, marching bands and other bands may hold the title of band director, bandmaster, or drum major. Respected senior conductors are sometimes referred to by the Italian word, maestro ("master '' as in "one who has mastered the art '').
An early form of conducting is cheironomy, the use of hand gestures to indicate melodic shape. This has been practiced at least as far back as the Middle Ages. In the Christian church, the person giving these symbols held a staff to signify his role, and it seems that as music became rhythmically more complex, the staff was moved up and down to indicate the beat, acting as an early form of baton.
In the 17th century, other devices to indicate the passing of time came into use. Rolled up sheets of paper, smaller sticks and unadorned hands are all shown in pictures from this period. The large staff was responsible for the death of Jean - Baptiste Lully, who injured his foot with one while conducting a Te Deum for the King 's recovery from illness. The wound became gangrenous and Lully refused amputation, whereupon the gangrene spread to his leg and he died two months later.
In instrumental music throughout the 18th century, a member of the ensemble usually acted as the conductor. This was sometimes the concertmaster, who could use his bow as a baton, or a lutenist who would move the neck of his instrument in time with the beat. It was common to conduct from the harpsichord in pieces that had a basso continuo part. In opera performances, there were sometimes two conductors -- the keyboard player was in charge of the singers, and the principal violinist or leader was in charge of the orchestra.
On Fri, 30 Sep 1791 in Vienna, Mozart 's opera Die Zauberflöte (The Magic Flute) premiered at the Theater auf der Wieden (also known as the "Wiednertheater ''), with Mozart himself conducting the orchestra, according to documents and publicity posters from that time.
In 1798, Joseph Haydn conducted the premiere of Creation with his hands and a baton while Kapellmeister Weigl (sat) at the fortepiano.
By the early 19th century (ca. 1820), it became the norm to have a dedicated conductor, who did not also play an instrument during the performance. While some orchestras protested the introduction of the conductor, since they were used to having a concertmaster or keyboard player act as leader, eventually the role of a conductor was established. The size of the usual orchestra expanded during this period, and the use of a baton became more common, as it was easier to see than bare hands or rolled - up paper. Among the earliest notable conductors were Louis Spohr, Carl Maria von Weber, Louis - Antoine Jullien and Felix Mendelssohn, all of whom were also composers. Mendelssohn is claimed to have been the first conductor to utilize a wooden baton to keep time, a practice still generally in use in the 2010s. Prominent conductors who did not or do not use a baton include Pierre Boulez, Kurt Masur, James Conlon, Yuri Temirkanov, Leopold Stokowski, Vasily Safonov, Eugene Ormandy (for a period), and Dimitri Mitropoulos.
The composers Hector Berlioz and Richard Wagner attained greatness as conductors, and they wrote two of the earliest essays dedicated to the subject. Berlioz is considered the first virtuoso conductor. Wagner was largely responsible for shaping the conductor 's role as one who imposes his own view of a piece onto the performance rather than one who is just responsible for ensuring entries are made at the right time and that there is a unified beat. Predecessors who focused on conducting include François Habeneck, who founded the Orchestre de la Société des concerts du Conservatoire in 1828, though Berlioz was later to be alarmed at Habeneck 's loose standards of rehearsal. Pianist and composer Franz Liszt was also a conductor.
Wagner 's one - time champion Hans von Bülow (1830 -- 1894) was particularly celebrated as a conductor, although he also maintained his initial career as a pianist, an instrument on which he was regarded as among the greatest performers (he was a prized piano student of Franz Liszt, whose daughter Cosima he married -- although she was to abandon him for Wagner. Liszt was a major figure in the history of conducting, who attained remarkable performances).
Bülow raised the technical standards of conducting to an unprecedented level through such innovations as separate, detailed rehearsals of different sections of the orchestra ("sectional rehearsal ''). In his posts as head of (sequentially) the Bavarian State Opera, Meiningen Court Orchestra, and Berlin Philharmonic he brought a level of nuance and subtlety to orchestral performance previously heard only in solo instrumental playing, and in doing so made a profound impression on young artists like Richard Strauss, who at the age of 20 served as his assistant, and Felix Weingartner, who came to disapprove of his interpretations but was deeply impressed by his orchestral standards. Composer Gustav Mahler was also a noted conductor.
The next generation of conductors brought technical standards to new levels; perhaps most notable was the Hungarian - born Arthur Nikisch (1855 -- 1922), who succeeded Bülow as music director of the Berlin Philharmonic in 1895. He had previously served as head of the Leipzig Opera, Boston Symphony Orchestra, and Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra, and was to serve as music director of the London Symphony Orchestra. Nikisch premiered important works by Anton Bruckner and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, who greatly admired his work; Johannes Brahms, after hearing him conduct his Fourth Symphony, said it was "quite exemplary, it 's impossible to hear it any better. ''
Nikisch took the London Symphony Orchestra on tour through the United States in April 1912, the first American tour by a European orchestra. He also made one of the earliest recordings of a complete symphony: the Beethoven Fifth with the Berlin Philharmonic in November 1913. Nikisch was also the first conductor to have his art captured on film -- alas, silently. The film confirms reports that he made particularly mesmerizing use of eye contact and expression to communicate with an orchestra; such later conductors as Fritz Reiner stated that this aspect of his technique had a strong influence on their own.
Conductors of the generations after Nikisch often left extensive recorded evidence of their arts. Two particularly influential and widely recorded figures are often treated, somewhat inaccurately, as interpretive antipodes. They were the Italian conductor Arturo Toscanini (1867 -- 1957) and the German conductor Wilhelm Furtwängler (1886 -- 1954). Toscanini played in orchestras under Giuseppe Verdi and made his debut conducting Aida in 1886, filling in at the last minute for an indisposed conductor. He is to this day regarded by such authorities as James Levine as the greatest of all Verdi conductors. But Toscanini 's repertory was wide, and it was in his interpretations of the German symphonists Beethoven and Brahms that he was particularly renowned and influential, favoring stricter and faster tempi than a conductor like Bülow or, before him, Wagner. Still, his style shows more inflection than his reputation may suggest, and he was particularly gifted at revealing detail and getting orchestras to play in a singing manner.
Furtwängler, whom many regard as the greatest interpreter of Wagner (although Toscanini was also admired in this composer) and Bruckner, conducted Beethoven and Brahms with a good deal of inflection of tempo -- but generally in a manner that revealed the structure and direction of the music particularly clearly. He was an accomplished composer as well as performer, and a disciple of the theorist Heinrich Schenker, who emphasized concern for underlying long - range harmonic tensions and resolutions in a piece, a strength of Furtwängler 's conducting. Along with his interest in the large - scale, Furtwängler also shaped the details of the piece in a particularly compelling and expressive manner.
The two men had very different techniques: Toscanini 's was Italianate, with a long, large baton and clear beats (often not using his left hand); Furtwängler beat time with less apparent precision, because he wanted a more rounded sound (although it is a myth that his technique was vague; many musicians have attested that he was easy to follow in his own way). In any event, their examples illustrate a larger point about conducting technique in the first half of the 20th century: it was not standardized. Great and influential conductors of the middle 20th century like Leopold Stokowski (1882 -- 1977), Otto Klemperer (1885 -- 1973), Herbert von Karajan (1908 -- 1989) and Leonard Bernstein (1918 -- 1990) -- incidentally, the first American conductor to attain greatness and international fame -- had widely varied techniques.
Karajan and Bernstein formed another apparent antipode in the 1960s -- 80s, Karajan as music director of the Berlin Philharmonic (1955 -- 89) and Bernstein as, for part of that period, music director of the New York Philharmonic (1957 -- 69), and later frequent guest conductor in Europe. Karajan 's technique was highly controlled, and eventually he conducted with his eyes often closed; Bernstein 's technique was demonstrative, with highly expressive facial gestures and hand and body movements. Karajan could conduct for hours without moving his feet, while Bernstein was known at times to leap into the air at a great climax. As the music director of the Berlin Philharmonic, Karajan cultivated warm, blended beauty of tone, which has sometimes been criticized as too uniformly applied; by contrast, in Bernstein 's only appearance with the Berlin Philharmonic in 1979 -- performing Mahler 's Symphony No. 9 -- he tried to get the orchestra to produce an "ugly '' tone in a certain passage in which he believed it suited the expressive meaning of the music (the first horn player refused, and finally agreed to let an understudy play instead of himself).
Both Karajan and Bernstein made extensive use of advances in media to convey their art, but in tellingly different ways. Bernstein hosted major prime - time national television series to educate and reach out to children and the public at large about classical music; Karajan made a series of films late in his life, but in them, he did not talk. Both made numerous recordings, but their attitudes toward recording differed: Karajan frequently made new studio recordings to take advantage of advances in recording technique, which fascinated him -- he played a role in setting the specifications of the compact disc -- but Bernstein, in his post-New York days, came to insist on (for the most part) live concert recordings, believing that music - making did not come to life in a studio without an audience.
In the last third of the 20th century, conducting technique -- particularly with the right hand and the baton -- became increasingly standardized. Conductors like Willem Mengelberg in Amsterdam until the end of World War II had had extensive rehearsal time to mold orchestras very precisely, and thus could have idiosyncratic techniques; modern conductors, who spend less time with any given orchestra, must get results with much less rehearsal time. A more standardized technique allows communication to be much more rapid. Nonetheless, conductors ' techniques still show a great deal of variety, particularly with the use of the left hand, facial and eye expression, and body language.
Women conductors were almost unheard of in the ranks of leading orchestral conductors through most of the 19th and 20th centuries, but today, artists like Hortense von Gelmini (de), Marin Alsop and Simone Young are to be seen conducting leading orchestras. Alsop was appointed music director of the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra in 2007 -- the first woman ever appointed to head a major US orchestra -- and also of the Orquestra Sinfônica do Estado de São Paulo in 2012, and Alsop was the first woman to conduct on the last night of The Proms. Young scored similar firsts when she became head of the Hamburg State Opera and Philharmoniker Hamburg in 2005; she is also the first woman conductor to record the Ring Cycle of Richard Wagner. The Guardian called conducting "one of the last glass ceilings in the music industry ''. A 2013 article stated that in France, out of 574 concerts only 17 were conducted by women and no women conducted at the National Opéra in Paris. "Bachtrack reported that, in a list of the world 's 150 top conductors that year, only five were women. ''
While Mexico has produced several major international conductors, Alondra de la Parra has become the first Mexican - born woman to attain distinction in the profession. Similarly, Asian origin has become unremarkable, because of the international successes of conductors from the Far East such as Seiji Ozawa, who was the Boston Symphony Orchestra 's music director from 1973 until 2002 after holding similar posts in San Francisco and Toronto, and Myung - Whun Chung, who has held major posts in Germany and France and now is bringing the Seoul Philharmonic Orchestra to international attention. There is still under - representation of artists of black origin in the conducting profession, but there have been notable exceptions, such as Henry Lewis, Dean Dixon, James DePreist, Paul Freeman, and Michael Morgan. For more information on black conductors, see Black conductors. According to a 2004 article in The Guardian, "black conductors are rare in the classical music world and even in symphony orchestras it is unusual to see more than one or two black musicians. ''
Conducting is a means of communicating artistic directions to performers during a performance. Although there are many formal rules on how to conduct correctly, others are subjective, and a wide variety of different conducting styles exist depending upon the training and sophistication of the conductor. The primary responsibilities of the conductor are to unify performers, set the tempo, execute clear preparations and beats, listen critically and shape the sound of the ensemble, and to control the interpretation and pacing of the music. Communication is non-verbal during a performance, however in rehearsal frequent interruptions allow directions as to how the music should be played. During rehearsals, the conductor may stop the playing of a piece to request changes in the phrasing or request a change in the timbre of a certain section. In amateur orchestras, the rehearsals are often stopped to draw the musicians ' attentions to performance errors or transposition mistakes.
Conducting requires an understanding of the elements of musical expression (tempo, dynamics, articulation) and the ability to communicate them effectively to an ensemble. The ability to communicate nuances of phrasing and expression through gestures is also beneficial. Conducting gestures are preferably prepared beforehand by the conductor while studying the score, but may sometimes be spontaneous.
A distinction is sometimes made between orchestral conducting and choral conducting. Typically, orchestral conductors use a baton more often than choral conductors. The grip of the baton varies from conductor to conductor.
At the beginning of a piece of music, the conductor raises his hands (or hand if he only uses a single hand) to indicate that the piece is about to begin. This is a signal for the orchestra members to ready their instruments to be played or for the choristers to be ready and watching. The conductor then looks at the different sections of the orchestra (winds, strings, etc.) or choir to ensure that all the orchestra members are ready to play and choir members are ready. In some choral works, the conductor may signal to a pianist or organist to play a note or chord so that the choir members can determine their starting notes. Then the conductor gives one or more preparatory beats to commence the music. The preparatory beat before the orchestra or choir begins is the upbeat. The beat of the music is typically indicated with the conductor 's right hand, with or without a baton. The hand traces a shape in the air in every bar (measure) depending on the time signature, indicating each beat with a change from downward to upward motion. The images show the most common beat patterns, as seen from the conductor 's point of view.
The downbeat indicates the first beat of the bar, and the upbeat indicates the beat before the first note of the piece and the last beat of the bar. The instant at which the beat occurs is called the ictus (plural: ictūs or ictuses), and is usually indicated by a sudden (though not necessarily large) click of the wrist or change in baton direction. In some instances, "ictus '' is also used to refer to a horizontal plane in which all the ictuses are physically located, such as the top of a music stand where a baton is tapped at each ictus. The gesture leading up to the ictus is called the "preparation '', and the continuous flow of steady beats is called the "takt '' (the German word for bar, measure and beat).
If the tempo is slow or slowing, or if the time signature is compound, a conductor will sometimes indicate "subdivisions '' of the beats. The conductor can do this by adding a smaller movement in the same direction as the movement for the beat that it belongs to.
Changes to the tempo are indicated by changing the speed of the beat. To carry out and to control a rallentando (slowing down the pace of the music), a conductor may introduce beat subdivisions.
While some conductors use both hands to indicate the beat, with the left hand mirroring the right, formal education discourages such an approach. The second hand can be used for cueing the entrances of individual players or sections, and to aid indications of dynamics, phrasing, expression, and other elements.
During an instrumental solo section (or, in an opera orchestra during a vocalist 's unaccompanied solo), some conductors stop counting out all the subdivisions and simply tap the baton down once per bar, to aid performers who are counting bars of rests.
There is a difference between the "textbook '' definition of where the ictus of a downbeat occurs and the actual performance practice in professional orchestras. With an abrupt, loud sforzando chord, a professional orchestra will often play slightly after the striking of the ictus point of the baton stroke.
Dynamics are indicated in various ways. The dynamic may be communicated by the size of the conducting movements, larger shapes representing louder sounds. Changes in dynamic may be signalled with the hand that is not being used to indicate the beat: an upward motion (usually palm - up) indicates a crescendo; a downward motion (usually palm - down) indicates a diminuendo. Changing the size of conducting movements frequently results in changes in the character of the music depending upon the circumstances.
Dynamics can be fine - tuned using various gestures: showing one 's palm to the performers or leaning away from them may demonstrate a decrease in volume. To adjust the overall balance of the various instruments or voices, these signals can be combined or directed toward a particular section or performer.
The indication of entries, when a performer or section should begin playing (perhaps after a long period of rests), is called "cueing ''. A cue must forecast with certainty the exact moment of the coming ictus, so that all the players or singers affected by the cue can begin playing simultaneously. Cueing is most important for cases where a performer or section has not been playing for a lengthy time. Cueing is also helpful in the case of a pedal point with string players, when a section has been playing the pedal point for a lengthy period; a cue is important to indicate when they should change to a new note. Cueing is achieved by "engaging '' the players before their entry (by looking at them) and executing a clear preparation gesture, often directed toward the specific players. An inhalation, which may or may not be a semi-audible "sniff '' from the conductor, is a common element in the cueing technique of some conductors. Mere eye contact or a look in the general direction of the players may be sufficient in many instances, as when more than one section of the ensemble enters at the same time. Larger musical events may warrant the use of a larger or more emphatic cue designed to encourage emotion and energy.
Articulation may be indicated by the character of the ictus, ranging from short and sharp for staccato, to long and fluid for legato. Many conductors change the tension of the hands: strained muscles and rigid movements may correspond to marcato, while relaxed hands and soft movements may correspond to legato or espressivo. Phrasing may be indicated by wide overhead arcs or by a smooth hand motion either forwards or side - to - side. A held note is often indicated by a hand held flat with palm up. The end of a note, called a "cutoff '' or "release '', may be indicated by a circular motion, the closing of the palm, or the pinching of finger and thumb. A release is usually preceded by a preparation and concluded with a complete stillness.
Conductors aim to maintain eye contact with the ensemble as much as possible, encouraging eye contact in return and increasing the dialogue between players / singers and conductor. Facial expressions may also be important to demonstrate the character of the music or to encourage the players.
In some cases, such as where there has been little rehearsal time to prepare a piece, a conductor may discreetly indicate how the bars of music will be beat immediately before the start of the movement by holding up their fingers in front of their chest (so only the performers can see). For example, in a piece that the conductor will beat "in two '' (two ictus points or beats per bar, as if it were), the conductor would hold up two fingers in front of his chest.
In most cases, there is a short pause between movements of a symphony, concerto or dance suite. This brief pause gives orchestra or choir members time to turn the pages of their part and ready themselves for the start of the next movement. String players may apply rosin or wipe sweat off their hands with a handkerchief. Reed players may take this time to change to a new reed. In some cases, woodwind or brass players will use the pause to switch to a different instrument (e.g., from trumpet to cornet or from clarinet to E ♭ clarinet). If the conductor wishes to immediately begin one movement after another for musical reasons, this is called attacca. The conductor will instruct the orchestra members and choristers to write the term in their parts, so that they will be ready to go immediately to the next movement.
The roles of a conductor vary a great deal between different conducting positions and different ensembles. In some cases, a conductor will also be the musical director of the symphony, choosing the program for the entire season, including concerts by guest conductors, concerto soloists, pop concerts, and so on. A senior conductor may attend some or all of the auditions for new members of the orchestra, to ensure that the candidates have the playing style and tone that the conductor prefers and that candidates meet the highest performance standards. Some choral conductors are hired to prepare a choir for several weeks which will subsequently be directed by another conductor. The choral conductor is usually acknowledged for their preparatory work in the concert program.
Some conductors may have a significant public relations role, giving interviews to the local news channel and appearing on television talk shows to promote the upcoming season or particular concerts. On the other hand, a conductor hired to guest conduct a single concert may only have the responsibility of rehearsing the orchestra for several pieces and conducting one or two concerts. While a handful of conductors have become well - known celebrities, such as Leonard Bernstein, most are only known within the classical music scene.
Classical choral and instrumental conducting have established comprehensive systems of instruction and training. Aspiring conductors can study at colleges, conservatories, and universities. Conservatories, which are the standard musical training system in France and in Quebec (Canada) provide lessons and amateur conducting experience. Universities offer a range of conducting programs, including courses in conducting as part of bachelor 's degrees, a small number of Master of Music degrees in conducting, and an even smaller number of Doctor of Musical Arts degrees in conducting.
As well, there are a variety of other training programs such as classical summer camps and training festivals, which give students the opportunity to conduct a wide range of music. Aspiring conductors need to obtain a broad education about the history of music, including the major periods of classical music and regarding music theory. Many conductors learn to play a keyboard instrument such as the piano or the pipe organ, a skill that helps them to be able to analyze symphonies and try out their interpretations before they have access to an orchestra to conduct. Many conductors get experience playing in an orchestra or singing in a choir, an experience which gives them good insights into how orchestras and choirs are conducted and rehearsed.
In 2014, orchestra conductors typically hold a master 's degree in music and choir conductors in the US typically hold a bachelor 's degree in music. Bachelor 's degrees (referred to as B. Mus. or B.M) are four - year programs that include conducting lessons, amateur orchestra experience, and a sequence of courses in music history, music theory, and liberal arts courses (e.g., English literature), which give the student a more well - rounded education. Students do not usually specialize in conducting at the B. Mus. stage; instead, they usually develop general music skills such as singing, playing an orchestral instrument, performing in a choir, playing in orchestra, and playing a keyboard instrument such as the piano or the organ.
Another topic that conducting students study is the languages used in Classical music opera. Orchestral conductors are expected to be able to rehearse and lead choirs in works for orchestra and choir. As such, orchestral conductors need to know the major languages used in choral writing (including French, Italian and Latin, among others) and they must understand the correct diction of these languages in a choral singing context. The opposite is also true: a choral conductor will be expected to rehearse and lead a string orchestra or full orchestra when performing works for choir and orchestra. As such, a choral conductor needs to know how to rehearse and lead instrument sections.
Master of music degrees (M. mus.) in conducting consist of private conducting lessons, ensemble experience, coaching, and graduate courses in music history and music theory, along with one or two conducted concerts. A Master 's degree in music (referred to as an M. Mus. or M.M.) is often the required minimum credential for people who wish to become a professor of conducting.
Doctor of Musical Arts (referred to as D.M.A., DMA, D. Mus. A. or A. Mus. D) degrees in conducting provide an opportunity for advanced study at the highest artistic and pedagogical level, requiring usually an additional 54 + credit hours beyond a master 's degree (which is about 30 + credits beyond a bachelor 's degree). For this reason, admission is highly selective. Examinations in music history, music theory, ear training / dictation, and an entrance examination and conducting audition are required. Students perform a number of conducted concerts, including a combination lecture - conducted concert with an accompanying doctoral dissertation, advanced coursework. Students must typically maintain a minimum B average. A DMA in conducting is a terminal degree, and as such, it qualifies the holder to teach in colleges, universities and conservatories. In addition to academic study, another part of the training pathway for many conductors is conducting amateur orchestras, such as youth orchestras, school orchestras and community orchestras.
A small number of conductors become professionals without formal training in conducting. These individuals often have achieved renown as instrumental or vocal performers, and they have often undertaken a great deal of training in their area of expertise (instrumental performance or singing). Another way that a small number of conductors become professionals without formal training in conducting is by learning on the job by conducting amateur orchestras, school orchestras, and community orchestras (or the equivalent choral ensembles).
The average salary of conductors in the US in 2014 was $48,180. A 3 % growth rate is forecast for conducting jobs from 2014 to 2024, a slower than average growth rate.
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organizational chart of the president of the united states | Executive Office of the President of the United States - wikipedia
The Executive Office of the President of the United States (EOPOTUS or EOP) consists of the immediate staff and aides of the President of the United States and multiple levels of support staff reporting to the President. With the increase in technological and global advancement, the size of the White House staff has increased to include an array of policy experts to effectively address various fields of the modern day.
The Executive Office is overseen by the White House Chief of Staff.
In 1939, during Franklin D. Roosevelt 's second term in office, the foundations of the modern White House staff were created. Based on the recommendations of a presidentially commissioned panel of political science and public administration experts that was known as the Brownlow Committee, Roosevelt was able to get Congress to approve the Reorganization Act of 1939. The Act led to Reorganization Plan No. 1, which created the EOP, which reported directly to the president. The EOP encompassed two subunits at its outset: the White House Office (WHO) and the Bureau of the Budget, the predecessor to today 's Office of Management and Budget, which had been created in 1921 and originally located in the Treasury Department. It absorbed most of the functions of the National Emergency Council. Initially, the new staff system appeared more ambitious on paper than in practice; the increase in the size of the staff was quite modest at the start. But it laid the groundwork for the large and organizationally complex White House staff that would emerge during the presidencies of Roosevelt 's successors.
Roosevelt 's efforts are also notable in contrast to those of his predecessors in office. During the nineteenth century, presidents had few staff resources. Thomas Jefferson had one messenger and one secretary at his disposal, both of whose salaries were paid by the president personally. It was not until 1857 that Congress appropriated money ($2,500) for the hiring of one clerk. By Ulysses S. Grant 's presidency (1869 -- 1877), the staff had grown to three. By 1900, the White House staff included one "secretary to the president '' (then the title of the president 's chief aide), two assistant secretaries, two executive clerks, a stenographer, and seven other office personnel. Under Warren G. Harding, the size of the staff expanded to thirty - one, although most were clerical positions. During Herbert Hoover 's presidency, two additional secretaries to the president were added by Congress, one of whom Hoover designated as his Press Secretary. From 1933 to 1939, even as he greatly expanded the scope of the federal government 's policies and powers in response to the Great Depression, Roosevelt muddled through: his "brains trust '' of top advisers were often appointed to vacant positions in agencies and departments, whence they drew their salaries since the White House lacked statutory or budgetary authority to create new staff positions.
Today, the staff is much bigger. Estimates indicate some 3,000 to 4,000 persons serve in EOP staff positions with policy - making responsibilities, with a budget of $300 to $400 million (George W. Bush 's budget request for Fiscal Year 2005 was for $341 million in support of 1,850 personnel).
Senior staff within the Executive Office of the President have the title Assistant to the President, second - level staff have the title Deputy Assistant to the President, and third - level staff have the title Special Assistant to the President.
The core White House staff appointments, and most EOP officials generally, are not required to be confirmed by the U.S. Senate, although there are a handful of exceptions (e.g., the Director of the Office of Management and Budget, the Chair and members of the Council of Economic Advisers, and the United States Trade Representative).
The information in the following table is current as of April 4, 2018. Only principal executives are listed; for subordinate officers, see individual office pages.
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can a new york attorney notarize a document | Notary Public (New York) - wikipedia
Notaries public in New York are commissioned by the Secretary of State of New York after passing a short examination in law and procedure. A notary 's commission is received from and kept on file with the county clerk of the county in which they reside or do business, but notaries are empowered to actually perform their duties anywhere in the state.
Notaries must be residents of the state or have a work / business address in the state. Attorneys at law may automatically be appointed notaries simply by submitting the filing fee. Someone who is a commissioner or inspector of elections may also be a notary. One designated employee of the county clerk may be appointed a notary without taking the test. A state legislator may also be a notary, without any conflict of interest. Since the passage of the Married women 's property acts in the mid-19th century, a married woman can be a notary.
Certain persons can not be licensed as a notary in New York. These include a non-citizen, someone who has neither a residence nor a business in New York, a person convicted of certain felonies, a person removed from office as notary or commissioner of deeds, and a convicted draft dodger. By a New York law that bars them from holding any other office, sheriffs may not be appointed notaries. The above general conditions can however be remedied with a release from the state after a certificate of good conduct is issued or by executive pardon.
New York notaries are empowered to administer oaths and affirmations (including oaths of office), to take affidavits and depositions, to receive and certify acknowledgments or proof of deeds, mortgages and powers of attorney and other instruments in writing. Notaries may also demand acceptance or payment of foreign and inland bills of exchange, promissory notes and obligations in writing. Finally, they can witness the opening of a safe deposit box.
Notaries have no other powers: notably (as emphasized by official publications) they may not certify copies of documents (for instance, "I hereby certify that this is a true and correct copy..., '' is beyond the authority of a New York State notary). However, a notary may sign a form of affidavit on a copy where the document 's custodian signs and swears to the authenticity of the document (usually a government issued picture ID). This can suffice as a "notarized copy '' in most instances, but is not a certified copy. A notary can not prepare legal documents, offer any advice, or review documents for legality (even offering an opinion as to whether a document needs notarization is considered to be "practicing law without a license '' in New York); and they may not solemnize marriages. Further, a notary is not needed to witness a will: in New York, two witnesses, who do not need to be notaries, must attend the will signing ceremony and be able to attest to the mental competence of the testator. A notary may, however, notarize a self - proving affidavit signed by the maker of the will and the two witnesses, which will facilitate the proof of the will in probate.
New York does not require that notaries use an official seal or stamp - the embossed seal is now a decorative addition to a document rather than a requirement of law, and is itself insufficient for a notarization. New York notaries may write in black ink, or may stamp with a rubber stamp, the required information for notarization: their name; the words "Notary Public, State of New York ''; the county in which they are qualified (that is, the county in which the county clerk holds their original certificate and signature card); the county which additional signature certificates are filed (done for convenience of authenticating their notarizations); the date that the notary 's commission expires (commissions are renewed every four years); and, only if qualified in New York City (the counties of The Bronx, Richmond, Kings, Queens and New York) a registration number. This information, with the notary 's signature and the date and place of notarization are required for a legal notarization.
In New York State a Notary Public commission is a lifetime commission with no continuing education required. There is a $60.00 renewal fee required every 4 years paid to the County Clerk of the Notary Public. The renewal application is posted to the Notary approximately 3 months prior to the expiration. The license can be renewed up until 6 months after the expiration date without re-qualifying.
A typical layout for a notary 's rubber stamp, for use beneath the notary 's signature.
Notaries may charge fees (the maximum is $2), but many choose to waive them (for instance, for clients and customers of their other services; for example, many banks have notaries on duty to serve their depositors for free). Each county clerk also has a notary on duty in the clerk 's office to serve the public at no charge.
As of April, 2017, New York State had approximately 291,000 commissioned notary publics.
New York City has another official similar to a notary public called a Commissioner of Deeds, which can be applied for with the New York City Clerk office and is appointed by the City Council.
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when did they stop making the honda prelude | Honda Prelude - wikipedia
The Honda Prelude is a sports coupe which was produced by Japanese car manufacturer Honda from 1978 until 2001. The two - door coupe was loosely derived from the Honda Accord and spanned five generations. The Prelude was used by Honda to introduce the Japanese Honda retail sales chain Honda Verno, with the international release of the model following shortly after.
Prelude competitors traditionally included the Toyota Celica, the Nissan Silvia and the Mitsubishi Eclipse. Production of the Prelude concluded in 2001 upon the introduction of the Honda Integra DC5.
The Prelude name was originally trademarked by Toyota, but was amicably given to Honda for use. The Prelude complied to the series of music themed vehicle names which Honda used at the time, along with the Accord, Quintet, Concerto, Jazz and Ballade.
On November 24, 1978, the Prelude was launched to the Japanese market. It had its world premier at the 1979 AutoRAI in Amsterdam, two months later. In Japan it was only available at the newly established dealership sales channel Honda Verno. This dealership chain also introduced the Honda Quint, the Honda Ballade and the Accord - based Honda Vigor as its largest sedan and hatchback. The four - wheel independent struts, brakes, and engine were all borrowed from the first generation Accord, but the chassis was all new and developed by chief engineer Hiroshi Kizawa expressly for the sporting Prelude. At 4,090 mm (length) x 1,635 mm (width) x 1,290 mm (height), it had quite a low and wide profile. The wheelbase was 2,320 mm, and was 60 mm shorter than that of the original Accord. Honda appears to have followed the successful introduction of the Toyota Celica example by taking a small car, like the Accord, installing a more powerful engine, and giving the body a short trunk, and a long engine hood. The Prelude (and period Accord) were the first cars under two liters to receive standard power steering. The Prelude also benefited from Honda 's experience with roadsters like the Honda S800 and Coupe 1300.
The Prelude was the first Honda model to offer a power moonroof as standard equipment, which eventually became a Prelude trademark. In Japan, the Prelude was available with a sliding metal sunroof, while US versions received a glass top which freed up more headroom. Japanese buyers were liable for slightly more annual road taxes over the smaller Civic, which also had a smaller engine. While marketed as a 2 + 2, the rear seat was not usable for anyone larger than a small child.
Initial reviews for the Prelude were favorable. "It is, '' wrote Brock Yates for Motor Trend, "by any sane measurement, a splendid automobile. The machine, like all Hondas, embodies fabrication that is, in my opinion, surpassed only by the narrowest of margins by Mercedes - Benz. It is a relatively powerful little automobile by anybody 's standards. '' Motor Trend measured an early Prelude completing the quarter - mile in 18.8 seconds at 70 mph. In terms of underpinnings it was mostly a Honda Accord, although its more compact package and lower weight allowed for a marginally higher top speed and gas mileage.
The standard engine at the time of introduction was the "EL '' SOHC eight - valve 1,602 cc (non-CVCC) inline - four rated at 80 PS (59 kW) at 5,000 rpm and 12.9 kg ⋅ m (127 N ⋅ m; 93 lb ⋅ ft) at 3,500 rpm. It remained the only engine available for most markets, aside from the US and Japan. It featured a non-automatic choke with three positions and a two - barrel carburetor. In September 1978 the larger "EK '' SOHC 12 - valve 1,751 cc CVCC inline - four was introduced in Japan, rated at 90 PS (66 kW) at 5,300 rpm (SAE gross). Automatics had five less horsepower. It took until March 1979 for the Prelude to appear in the United States, then with 72 hp (54 kW) at 4,500 rpm and 94 lb ⋅ ft (127 N ⋅ m) at 3,000 rpm (SAE net) from the larger 1.8 engine. The EK engine made use of an engine oil cooler and transistor - controlled ignition system.
Transmission choices were either the standard five - speed manual or initially a two - speed "Hondamatic '' semi-automatic, which by October 1979 had been replaced by a three - speed automatic that used the final gear as the overdrive. In addition to the standard fabrics offered in most models, an ' Executive ' option was offered in some markets which added power steering and Connolly leather upholstery. Honda used a single central gauge cluster design in this car which housed the speedometer and tachometer in one combined unit where both instrument 's needles swept along the same arc. They also placed the compact AM / FM radio unit up high next to the gauge cluster. The Prelude featured intermittent wipers, tinted glass, and a remote trunk release. 1980 saw the introduction of the CVCC - II engine which employed the use of a catalytic converter and several other refinements that improved driveability, the Prelude also received a mild facelift in 1981. This facelift meant a return to a more traditional dashboard, rather than the much critiqued "Concentrated Target Meter '' used before. The 1981 Prelude also received a stainless steel trim strip along the bumpers and side moldings, as well as a new grille. There was a convertible model introduced by a Santa Ana California company named Solaire. Less than 100 were believed to be converted when new and they were sold through Honda dealerships with full factory warranty coverage.
The Prelude was launched in Europe during 1979, but was not a strong seller, its high asking price not helping its chances of sales success.
The second - generation Prelude was released in Japan on November 25, 1982 and worldwide in the spring of 1983. Riding on an all - new platform, the Prelude was initially available with an A18A or ET - 2, 1.8 L 12 - valve twin carburetor engine, producing 105 PS (77 kW). In Japan, Asia and Europe, it later became available with a 2 - liter DOHC 16 - valve PGM - FI engine (JDM = BA1, EU = BA2) although this engine was not released in Europe until 1986. The JDM B20A produced 160 PS (118 kW) at 6300 rpm, while the European B20A1 produced only 137 hp (102 kW). This was the first generation of Prelude to have pop - up headlights, which allowed for a more aerodynamic front clip, reducing drag. Opening the headlights, however, especially at higher speeds, produced significantly more drag. The design retained nothing of the first generation, being considerably more aerodynamic and with large glass surfaces. As with the predecessor, it was amply equipped, with an air of "mini-gran turismo '' rather than that of a sports car. It also offered, as an option, Honda 's new "A.L.B. '' anti-lock brakes.
In Japan, the Prelude was one of the key models sold at Japanese Honda dealership sales channels, called Honda Verno, which offered performance - oriented products. All Honda Verno products, like the Vigor, initially shared the concealed headlights introduced with this generation Prelude that would help identify "sports '' products from Honda in Japan however, the approach was short - lived. The model with the 2.0 liter engine was regarded as the top level car in Japan because Japanese buyers were liable for a higher annual road tax over the car with the 1.8 liter engine. The Japanese 1.8 had CVCC and claimed 125 PS (92 kW), considerably more than export models.
When the 2 - liter 16 - valve DOHC engine came out the hood had to be slightly modified since the larger engine could not fit under the original hood. The original 1.8 - liter engine was developed specifically for the Prelude to allow a low hoodline, even tilting the engine backward to make it lower yet. The European version also saw slight modifications to the rear lights and revised front and rear bumpers which were now color - matched. Due to the fairly low weight of the car (1,025 kg or 2,260 lb) and high power (the 16 - valve engine produced 160 PS or 118 kW in Japanese trim), the car was relatively nimble in comparison to its competitors, which most Preludes had not been up to that time.
The North American 1983 model is identifiable by its standard painted steel wheels with bright trim rings (although alloy rims were optional). The 1984 - 87 base models had Civic - style full wheel covers. In Canada, a "Special Edition '' trim was created, which is essentially the same as the USA 2.0 Si "sport injected '' model. Fuel injection was introduced in the "Si '' models in 1985. North American 1.8 's offered 100 hp (75 kW), while the later 2.0 has 110 hp (82 kW).
This version of the Prelude was far more popular in Britain than its predecessor, and sold well at a time when sports cars were declining in popularity and many manufacturers were withdrawing from this market sector; including Ford, who did not replace the Capri after its 1986 demise, even though it had been one of Britain 's 10 most popular new cars as recently as 1980. The European lineup originally consisted of the base Prelude, without power steering, and the well - equipped EX which was also available with an automatic transmission and the A.L.B. brakes.
On April 9, 1987, the third - generation Prelude was released in the Japanese domestic market and released later that year worldwide, being a 1988 model in North America. Featuring evolutionary styling from its predecessor, it shared design cues from the Honda NSX that would be introduced later in 1989. The Prelude featured innovative features for its time such as a 0.34 drag coefficient, roof pillars made of high - strength metal and its signature feature, the available option of the world 's first mechanical four wheel steering system available in a mass - production passenger car. Honda had expected 30 % of buyers to plump for four - wheel - steering, but the car was a runaway success in the home market and 80 % of buyers did in the first year.
The third - generation Prelude was exclusively powered by variants of the Honda B20A engine, a base carbureted version with a SOHC 12 - valve valvetrain, or a DOHC variant with Honda 's PGM - FI fuel injection and 16 valves. The engine was tilted backwards by 18 degrees, which made it possible to make the hood 30 mm (1.2 in) lower than on the previous generation.
It was well received by judges of the European Car of the Year accolade for 1988, finished third in a contest where the Peugeot 405 was the runaway winner and the Citroen AX came second. This was one of the best performances by a Japanese built or branded car until the Nissan Micra won the award five years later.
B20A / B20A1 - 2.0 L DOHC PGM - FI 160 / 143 PS (Japan / Europe) B20A3 - 2.0 L SOHC 12v carb 104 hp North America B20A4 - 2.0 L SOHC 12v carb 114 PS (84 kW) Global, except North America B20A5 - 2.0 L DOHC PGM - FI 135 hp (101 kW) North America B20A6 - 2.0 L DOHC PGM - FI 142 PS (104 kW) Oceania B20A7 - 2.0 L DOHC PGM - FI 150 PS (110 kW) Europe B20A8 - 2.0 L DOHC PGM - FI 133 PS (98 kW) Europe B20A9 - 2.0 L DOHC PGM - FI 140 PS (103 kW) Europe B21A - 2.1 L DOHC PGM - FI 145 PS (107 kW) Japan (SI States) B21A1 - 2.1 L DOHC PGM - FI 140 hp (104 kW) North America
In 1987, Road & Track published a test summary that shows the 1988 Honda Prelude 2.0 Si 4WS outperforming every car of that year on the slalom, with a speed of 65.5 mph (105.4 km / h), even besting exotics such as Porsche and Ferrari. For reference, the 1988 Chevrolet Corvette C4 took the same course at 64.9 mph (104.4 km / h).
The Prelude was Wheels magazine 's Car of the Year for 1987.
The facelift third - generation Prelude was revealed in Japan on November 21, 1989. The front and rear bumpers were revised on the new Prelude The rear front bumper and rear tail lights featured clear indicators and a revised parking light design. Many of the interior parts were also revised, including the dash bezel, the door handle and window switches. The Japanese version of the Si with the B20A was rated 140 PS with the JDM engine and was rated for 37 MPG.
Along with the facelift, a new Prelude model was introduced to the Japanese domestic market, the Prelude INX. It featured fixed headlights, with a front fascia very similar to the contemporary Honda Legend coupe and Honda Accord of the same time period. It also featured chrome trim on the headlights front and rear bumpers, side moldings, tail lights and both front and rear windscreens to enhance the focus on luxury rather than sportiness. The Prelude INX coincided with changes to North American lighting requirements in the United States and Canada, and a greater focus on safety was offered with available anti-lock brakes and optional driver 's side airbag exclusively offered on the Si / SR / S models.
In the US, the facelifted Prelude debuted for the 1990 model year, with the carbureted 2.0 S model being discontinued. The fuel - injected 2.0 Si became the entry - level model, being supplanted by a new Si model with the B21A1 engine, with Si 4WS or Si ALB (ABS) as optional trim models. The revised version of the B20A5, called the B21A1 was available. It was bored to 83 mm (3.3 in) with a total displacement of 2056 cc producing up to 145 hp (108 kW) and had a special cylinder liner featuring FRM (fiber reinforced metal) that is reported to be extremely tough. This causes premature piston ring wear contributing to exceptionally high oil consumption.
For the Canadian market, the S, SR and SR 4WS models were introduced for 1990. In 1991, SR ALB and SE models were introduced. The SE model was closer to the JDM and EDM models in that it was fully optioned with leather interior and was equipped with both 4WS and ALB.
Honda released two new special limited edition trim models in Japan in 1989 for the facelift Prelude, the Prelude SiStates and Prelude SiTCV. These cars were a limited production run and very few were built. SiStates catalogues indicate 3000 built. They both featured standard 4WS, ALB, Viscous LSD transmissions, TCS (SiTCV only), leather - wrapped steering wheel and gear lever, extra sound - deadening insulation on the firewall and hood, and many more features that were usually options. The SiStates also featured a Japanese version of the 2.1 liter B21A 1 engine called the B21A rated at 150 PS (110 kW). Two major distinctions of the SiStates was that it was the same width as the Prelude sold in North America, from which it took its name, due to the wider side moldings. The other being that it was over 2.0 liters, a limitation in engine displacement in Japan for insurance reasons. The extra width and the larger engine combined to place the Prelude SiStates in a considerably higher tax bracket; while this slowed sales it also targeted some status hungry buyers. The SiStates model was only available with the MY8A LSD equipped automatic transmission. The SiTCV model was available with the MY8A automatic or the D2E4 manual 5 - speed transmission.
90 - 91 Front bumper
88 - 89 Rear bumper and tail lights
90 - 91 Rear bumper and tail lights
On September 19, 1991, the fourth - generation Prelude was introduced in Japan, and in Europe from early 1992. The car had a 58 % front and 42 % rear weight distribution. The four wheel steering system was changed to an electronic version and the engine was increased in capacity from 2.1 liters to 2.2 liters for the base model "S '' (SOHC F22A1 engine, 135 PS (99 kW; 133 hp) at 5200 rpm, 203 N ⋅ m (150 ft ⋅ lbf) at 4000 rpm) and "VTEC '' model (DOHC VTEC H22A1, 190 PS (140 kW; 187 hp) at 6800 rpm, 207 N ⋅ m (153 ft ⋅ lbf) at 5500 rpm), with a 2.3 - liter for the "Si '' (DOHC H23A1, 160 PS (118 kW; 158 hp) at 5800 rpm, 212 N ⋅ m (156 ft ⋅ lbf) at 5300 rpm). The Japanese Si came with the F22B (2.2 L DOHC non-VTEC, 160 PS (118 kW; 158 hp)). The VTEC model had an upgraded brake system, going from a 10.3 '' (262 mm) front rotor to an 11.1 '' (282 mm) front rotor and utilizing larger brake caliper and pads, similar to those found in the Honda Vigor. Its styling approach is similar to the Honda Ascot Innova during the same time period.
Additionally, a 2.0 i, single overhead cam (SOHC) model was released in Europe, rated at 133 PS (98 kW; 131 hp). 1993 was the last year that the "Si - VTEC '' (BB4) name was used, and beginning in 1994 it was shortened to just "VTEC '' and stayed that way throughout the rest of the generation. In some countries, the Prelude with 2.2 VTEC engine was called the VTi - R. Later the 96 prelude SI / SR was introduced with a 2.3 Non-VTEC engine. In Canada, the Si was called the SR, and the VTEC was called the SR - V. Due to the width dimensions and the engine displacement exceeding Japanese government regulations for vehicles classified as "compact '', this generation Prelude obligated Japanese owners to yearly taxes, and the Prelude became known as a luxury car in Japan as a result.
This model also marked the end for the pop - up headlights. The 1992 Prelude incorporated other design features that had also become the "Prelude standard ''. The rear end was rounded and fairly high in comparison to the previous square trunk line. The front fascia of the car became wider with fixed headlights. The glass moonroof made way for a steel sliding sunroof which no longer retracted into the car but extended out and over it.
The light blue back lighting introduced in the third generation was continued. Later models (1994 and on) also featured translucent speedometer and tachometer needles. All VTEC & SE models received leather interior. Also featured was an 8 - speaker audio system (Gathers DSP 8 Speaker System) which included a center dash - mounted speaker and rear center subwoofer, while the U.S. version received only 7 speakers (center dash speaker not included). The Japanese version also included a digital climate control system. The Canadian version received some options which were not available in the United States. For instance, the Japanese Prelude had power folding mirrors as well as a rear windscreen wiper, while the Canadian market was the one to have heated mirrors and optional heated seats. The Japanese model came with optional Honda Access accessories such as Typus ski racks, under dash lights, headrest covers, a cabin air filter, and floor mats. Some of the Japanese domestic market fourth generation Prelude VTECs did not come with options such as a sunroof and 4 - wheel steering, as it was possible to skip these options when buying in Japan. The fourth generation Prelude also shares some suspension components with the fifth generation (1994 -- 97) Honda Accord. It also shares many suspension components with the 5th generation Prelude 's that are not equipped ATTS system.
1996 Prelude Si (Australia)
The Prelude was used in Formula One as its Safety Car during the 1994 Japanese Grand Prix.
Introduced on November 7, 1996, the fifth generation retained an FF layout with an independent front suspension and 63 / 37 weight distribution. Most fifth - generation Honda Preludes came with 16 - inch (410 mm) aluminum alloy wheels with all - season 205 / 50 R16 87V tires, featured the 11.1 '' front brakes like the ' 96 VTEC model, and most Preludes also received a five - lug hub (not the four - lug wheel hub of older models). The Prelude was only available in three models for Canada and two models for the US (the Base and Type SH). All models came with 16 - inch alloy wheels and 200HP (203 PS). The 2.0 i and JDM Si trims came with 195 / 60 R15 steel wheel, and the JDM Xi came with 14 '' steel wheels. Unlike the North American market Preludes, JDM Preludes came with rear windscreen wipers, except for the Xi.
The fifth - generation Prelude marked a return to the more square body style of the third generation (1987 -- 1991), in an attempt to curb slumping sales of the fourth - generation body style. All models and trim packages stayed within the BB - chassis code (BB5 - BB9) and housed either an H - series or F - Series engine:
For the 1999 model year, the Prelude received a mid-cycle refresh, this included a 5 hp (4 kW) bump in power for manual (200 hp (149 kW) from 195 hp (145 kW)) and automatic (195 hp (145 kW) from 190 hp (142 kW)) transmission models, a new front grille featuring a small "Prelude '' badge, a cabin air filtration system, and changes to available colors.
Canadian - market Preludes were very similar to US models, although all were equipped with heated seats as standard equipment, and received a 4.5 L washer fluid reservoir in place of the smaller 2.5 L US spec. In 2001, Canada received a replacement for the Type SH, the SE trim level. The SE was mechanically identical to base models, it came equipped with perforated, heated leather seats, Type SH Enkei rims, Type SH spoiler, a leather - wrapped shift knob, and simulated carbon fiber trim kit on the door panels and audio panel. The SE did not receive body colored side skirts as standard like the Type SH, and also did not feature the active torque transfer system (ATTS). Dealer accessories for Canadian vehicles included: carbon fiber audio panel, sunroof visor, 6 - disc - in - dash CD changer, trunk mounted CD changer, cassette player, roof rack, gold plated emblem kit, gold plated exhaust finisher, leather shift knob, full and half nose mask, security system, and a cargo mat.
One version of the fifth generation Prelude, a high - performance model called the Type S, was only available in Japan. It was equipped with the 2.2 L H22A, featuring VTEC and producing 217 hp (162 kW; 220 PS) at 7,200 rpm and 163 lbf ft (221 N m) at 6,500 rpm. With a compression ratio of 11.0: 1, 87.0 mm (3.4 in) bore x 90.7 mm (3.6 in) stroke and VTEC - valve timing, lift and duration were adjusted to 12.2 mm (0.5 in) intake and 11.2 mm (0.4 in) exhaust. Honda also overhauled the air box and replaced it with a more efficient design that is often referred to as Dynamic Chambering, along with a larger throttle body design bored to 62 mm (as opposed to the previous 60 mm). The exhaust system was also treated to a redesign, with the pipe cross sections becoming more cylindrical rather than oval. The three - way catalytic converter was also increased in size, as well as the exhaust piping from 2 to 21⁄4 in (51 to 57 mm) (tToV). In addition to a higher output engine both Type S and USDM Type SH featured an overhauled front suspension layout which offered a more effective camber curve. The fifth generation curb weight was 1,310 kg (2,890 lb), and ground clearance was 140 mm (5.5 in). Unlike the SiR S - spec that had an LSD, the Type S acquired the Honda technology known as the Active Torque Transfer System (ATTS). The gearing on the Type S matches all other fifth - generation Preludes that had a manual transmission except for the five - speed 2.2 VTi VTEC and had a final drive ratio of 4.266: 1. The Type S had an Active Control ABS system, different from the others which had the standard ABS systems. The interior featured newly developed synthentic materials called Cabron and Excene to upholster the seats which most people perceive as leather and Alcantara laced with red stitching. Manufacturer styling options included seat lettering. The exterior styling of fifth generation Preludes was standardized for most models. All had a sunroof except for the Type S model.
Honda also released a special edition fifth generation Prelude, called Motegi. The name of this special edition derives from the ' twin - ring Motegi ' motor - racing circuit, located in Haga District, Tochigi, Japan. This track was built in 1997 by Honda as part of their effort to bring the IndyCar series to Japan.
The Motegi edition Prelude featured an OEM Honda body kit, 17 '' Honda alloy wheels, lowered sports suspension and a Motegi badge on the trunk lid. All of these items, with the exception of the trunk lid badge, were optional on non-Motegi models.
Sales were not strong, particularly due to competition from Honda 's other offerings. The sixth - generation Accord coupe received an exclusive front fascia, rear tail lights, wheels and many other body panels, now being marketed as a somewhat separate model from the family - oriented sedan, yet its sedan roots gave it much more utility than the comparatively cramped Prelude. The sixth - generation Civic Si coupe has also gained a reputation in its own right and was considerably less expensive than the Prelude. The exterior dimensions of the Prelude were no longer in compliance with Japanese government regulations, and the additional costs resulting from this contributed to the popularity of smaller Honda products. US sales figures below.
In Australia, the safety performance of Honda Preludes manufactured between 1983 and 2001 was assessed in the Buyers Guide to used Car Safety Ratings 2006, which was published by the Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) (a New South Wales, Australia, government agency). This publication concluded that the level of occupant protection in Preludes from 1983 to 1996 was at an "average '' level, while in Preludes from 1997 to 2001 is "significantly better than average. ''
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in the United States has determined frontal crash test ratings of Honda Preludes of different model years.
The Prelude was on Car and Driver magazine 's annual Ten Best list ten times: three times from 1984 to 1986, and then seven times from 1992 to 1998, although the biggest complaint over much of the Prelude 's lifespan was the lack of availability of a V - 6 engine option, especially in the US.
Through the years, several German and US companies have converted Preludes into convertibles. Currently, there have been convertibles made from the first, second and fourth generation Preludes.
First generation Preludes were modified into full convertibles by several companies in both the US, Canada and Germany. The Solaire Corporation, a southern based company in Santa Ana California, owned by Jim Bruemmer, lead the idea. He brought in craftsman, Bruce Meyers (Known for the famous Meyers Manx Dune Buggy) to help design the tooling for production with the conversion. A believed 150 Preludes, between 1981 - 1982, were modified and sold to US Honda dealerships with full factory warranties. Dealer prices ranged from $14,000 - $15,000. Solaire collaborated with other companies including Classic Touch, Con - tec, Silcco, Steas and National Coach. It was marketed as "Honda 's 450 SL '', drawing aesthetic comparisons to the Mercedes 450SL.
Tropic Design, located in Crailsheim, Germany. Company owner Jürgen Weber learned this trade in the United States. In all, they modified 47 Preludes, most of which were exported to the US, where Weber had connections. Very few have remained in Europe, initially all in Germany. Some have been sold over time to nearby countries, at least one to the Netherlands, one to France and one to Belgium.
Second generation Preludes were modified by another German company; some 100 Preludes were modified. No DOHC engine - equipped models have been known to be converted into convertibles, however. Three versions were available: a basic version, one which had more luxurious options, and one which added a body kit.
There is believed to be a few third generation preludes made however it is not confirmed how many were made. There is currently one confirmed Japanese imported third generation prelude currently in Australia though not much is known of its history.
Of the fourth generation Preludes, only some 15 were modified into a convertible by German company Honda - Autohaus Manfred Ernst. No details are known about the engine types and other specifics. Since only 15 were ever made, they are assumed by many to be custom - built.
Corgi and Neo have produced 1: 43 models of the first generation. Minichamps and Neo have produced 1: 43 models of the fourth generation.
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when did they get rid of the half penny | Halfpenny (British decimal coin) - wikipedia
The British decimal halfpenny ( ⁄ p) coin was introduced in February 1971, at the time of decimalisation, and was worth one two - hundredth of a pound sterling. It was ignored in banking transactions, which were carried out in units of 1p.
The decimal halfpenny had the same value as 1.2 pre-decimal pence, and was introduced to enable the prices of some low - value items to be more accurately translated to the new decimal currency. The possibility of setting prices including an odd half penny also made it more practical to retain the pre-decimal sixpence in circulation (with a value of 2 ⁄ new pence) alongside the new decimal coinage.
The halfpenny coin 's obverse featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II; the reverse featured an image of St Edward 's Crown. It was minted in bronze (like the 1p and 2p coins). It was the smallest decimal coin in both size and value. The size was in proportion to the 1p and 2p coins. It soon became Britain 's least favourite coin. The Treasury had continued to argue that the halfpenny was important in the fight against inflation (preventing prices from being rounded up). The coin was demonetised and withdrawn from circulation in December 1984.
The reverse of the coin, designed by Christopher Ironside, was a representation of St Edward 's Crown, with the numeral "1 / 2 '' below the crown, and either NEW PENNY (1971 -- 1981) or HALF PENNY (1982 -- 1984) above the crown.
Only one design of obverse was used on the halfpenny coin. The inscription around the portrait on the obverse was ELIZABETH II D.G. REG. F.D. 19xx, where 19xx was the year of minting. Both sides of the coin are encircled by dots, a common feature on coins, known as beading.
As on all decimal coins produced before 1984, the portrait of Queen Elizabeth II by Arnold Machin appeared on the obverse; in this portrait the Queen wears the ' Girls of Great Britain and Ireland ' Tiara.
Annual number of coins released into general circulation (excludes proof sets)
A decimal quarter - penny coin (to be struck in aluminium) was also proposed (which would have allowed the pre-decimal threepence to continue to circulate with a value of 1 ⁄ new pence), but was never produced.
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who shows up to surprise esperanza and ramona at the end of the novel | Esperanza Rising - wikipedia
Esperanza Rising is a young adult historical fiction novel by Pam Muñoz Ryan
Esperanza Ortega was a very wealthy girl who could get anything she would desire, alongside a loving mother and father. One day, her father, and some of his men were suddenly killed by bandits while they were out working on the family 's ranch in Aguascalientes, Mexico. Esperanza 's father had intended to leave everything to his wife, Ramona, and Esperanza. However, the family 's lawyer informs them that a loophole in the will means that the ranch, their greatest source of income, will go to Señor Ortega 's step brother, Luis Ortega, whom Esperanza calls Tío Luis. Luis just so happens to be a suspect in Señor Ortega 's murder. He plans to delve into politics and feels that Ramona, who is a beloved local socialite, would look good by his side. Luis offers to marry Ramona but she refuses, and in response he issues a warning that Ramona and Esperanza will be in danger if she does not comply.
Their ranch later burns during fire caused by Tío Luis and he returns and re-offers his wedding proposal. Ramona disruptively wants to say no but she says yes because she wants to spare everyone 's life, under the condition that he rebuilds the mansion and sends her money and a wagon to visit her mother, Abuelita. Esperanza openly tells him she dislikes him, and he says the moment he becomes her stepfather, he will send her to a boarding school. Later on, Ramona tells Esperanza that she is not planning to marry him, and plans to escape to America. With the help of Abuelita, Alfonso, Miguel, and Hortensia (all servants for Esperanza), they trick Tío Luis to give Ramona money and necessities, and escape with the help of their loyal servants to cross the border. They leave Abuelita with her sisters because of her injured ankle. Abuelita promises to return to them after she heals. Despite what happened, Esperanza and her family must migrate to the United States. Unfortunately, they move during the Great Depression. Now, Esperanza learns to face conflicts and rise above them. Ramona and Esperanza live in a poor Mexican labor camp in Arvin, California with their former servants and their family. Ramona adjusts to a poor life, but Esperanza 's attempts to hold on to her memories are laughed upon by the poor children, especially a migrant girl named Marta who was very rude to her. Many terrible things happen, but with help from Esperanza 's family, she learns to face her challenges.
Ramona, along with their former servants, works in the fields, while Esperanza stays home with her servants ' cousins (Isabel, a young girl, and Pepe and Lupe, both babies). When a dust storm occurs, Mama gets sick (with Valley fever) and must ultimately move to a hospital. Unable to afford the hospital bills, Esperanza gets a job cutting out potato eyes. Throughout the seasons, Esperanza takes on ever - changing jobs to get a bus ticket for Abuelita, pay for the hospital bills, and take care of the household. However, upon learning that Ramona is better, and Esperanza has saved enough for Abuelita, Esperanza finds that Miguel, her servants ' son and childhood friend, has stolen her money. Days later, Miguel sends a message saying he has a surprise for the family at a bus stop. Esperanza, Alfonso, and Hortensia go to the bus stop as told. They then learn that Miguel, rather than seeking a railroad job in northern California as he claimed, has used the money to go to Mexico and get Abuelita. The story ends exactly one year after the death of Esperanza 's father, with the three families gathering together to celebrate Esperanza 's fourteenth birthday. Esperanza 's life gets turned upside down, but she goes through and learns that changes can be good and sometimes surprises happen when ever they were down. Esperanza was once again with her beloved ones and was happy.
American shops from Oklahoma (called Okies) were often hostile toward Mexicans because they felt they were taking away their jobs. Mexican migrant laborers would work for much lower pay, so employers would much tension between the migrant workers on the fields. Some felt that their conditions were unlivable, and they deserved much better, so they began to protest and fight for what they believed. Still, others refused to join the protest in fear that they would be fired. In the 1920s and 1930s (about the time story takes place) California remained about 86 % white. Most of these people were those who owned the land, while the 36,800 workers, many of whom were Mexicans, did not.
Along with its Best Books citation, Publishers Weekly gave Esperanza Rising a starred review, citing its "lyrical, fairy tale - like style ''. It praised the way "Ryan poetically conveys Esperanza 's ties to the land by crafting her story to the rhythms of the seasons '' and the fact that "Ryan fluidly juxtaposes world events... with one family 's will to survive ''. Kirkus Reviews disliked the "epic tone, characters that develop little and predictably, and... romantic patina ''. However it also found that the "style is engaging, her characters appealing '', ultimately saying that the story "bears telling to a wider audience ''.
Children 's Literature praised Esperanza Rising and suggested that it "would be a great choice for a multicultural collection ''. The book has been incorporated into school curriculum in literature, social studies, and Spanish. The University of Missouri has a detailed literature unit available online, including maps, photos and links to other resources. Berkeley High School used recordings of the book with its English as a Second Language students in an Earphone English group. They found that Esperanza Rising does n't just appeal to students who, like Esperanza, have emigrated from Mexico, but "also to those who have moved here after losing their fathers to violence in the former Yugoslavia ''.
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film is sensitive to which of the following | Photographic film - wikipedia
Photographic film is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film base coated on one side with a gelatin emulsion containing microscopically small light - sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes and other characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast and resolution of the film.
The emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and incomplete to be of any practical use. Instead, a very short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is used to produce only a very slight chemical change, proportional to the amount of light absorbed by each crystal. This creates an invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be chemically developed into a visible photograph. In addition to visible light, all films are sensitive to ultraviolet, X-rays and high - energy particles. Unmodified silver halide crystals are sensitive only to the blue part of the visible spectrum, producing unnatural - looking renditions of some colored subjects. This problem was overcome with the discovery that certain dyes, called sensitizing dyes, when adsorbed onto the silver halide crystals made them respond to other colors as well. First orthochromatic (sensitive to blue and green) and finally panchromatic (sensitive to all visible colors) films were developed. Panchromatic film renders all colors in shades of gray approximately matching their subjective brightness. By similar techniques special - purpose films can be made sensitive to the infrared (IR) region of the spectrum.
In black - and - white photographic film there is usually one layer of silver halide crystals. When the exposed silver halide grains are developed, the silver halide crystals are converted to metallic silver, which blocks light and appears as the black part of the film negative. Color film has at least three sensitive layers, incorporating different combinations of sensitizing dyes. Typically the blue - sensitive layer is on top, followed by a yellow filter layer to stop any remaining blue light from affecting the layers below. Next come a green - and - blue sensitive layer, and a red - and - blue sensitive layer, which record the green and red images respectively. During development, the exposed silver halide crystals are converted to metallic silver, just as with black - and - white film. But in a color film, the by - products of the development reaction simultaneously combine with chemicals known as color couplers that are included either in the film itself or in the developer solution to form colored dyes. Because the by - products are created in direct proportion to the amount of exposure and development, the dye clouds formed are also in proportion to the exposure and development. Following development, the silver is converted back to silver halide crystals in the bleach step. It is removed from the film during the process of fixing the image on the film with a solution of ammonium thiosulfate or sodium thiosulfate (hypo or fixer). Fixing leaves behind only the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image. Later color films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers, with upwards of 20 different chemicals in each layer.
The earliest practical photographic process, the daguerreotype, introduced in 1839, did not use film. The light - sensitive chemicals were formed on the surface of a silver - plated copper sheet. The calotype process produced paper negatives. Beginning in the 1850s, thin glass plates coated with photographic emulsion became the standard material for use in the camera. Although fragile and relatively heavy, the glass used for photographic plates was of better optical quality than early transparent plastics and was, at first, less expensive. Glass plates continued to be used long after the introduction of film, and were used for astrophotography and electron micrography until the early 2000s, when they were supplanted by digital recording methods. Ilford continues to manufacture glass plates for special scientific applications.
The first flexible photographic roll film was sold by George Eastman in 1885, but this original "film '' was actually a coating on a paper base. As part of the processing, the image - bearing layer was stripped from the paper and attached to a sheet of hardened clear gelatin. The first transparent plastic roll film followed in 1889. It was made from highly flammable nitrocellulose ("celluloid ''), now usually called "nitrate film ''.
Although cellulose acetate or "safety film '' had been introduced by Kodak in 1908, at first it found only a few special applications as an alternative to the hazardous nitrate film, which had the advantages of being considerably tougher, slightly more transparent, and cheaper. The changeover was completed for X-ray films in 1933, but although safety film was always used for 16 mm and 8 mm home movies, nitrate film remained standard for theatrical 35 mm films until it was finally discontinued in 1951.
Hurter and Driffield began pioneering work on the light sensitivity of photographic emulsions in 1876. Their work enabled the first quantitative measure of film speed to be devised. They developed H&D curves, which are specific for each film and paper. These curves plot the photographic density against the log of the exposure, to determine sensitivity or speed of the emulsion and enabling correct exposure.
Early photographic plates and films were usefully sensitive only to blue, violet and ultraviolet light. As a result, the relative tonal values in a scene registered roughly as they would appear if viewed through a piece of deep blue glass. Blue skies with interesting cloud formations photographed as a white blank. Any detail visible in masses of green foliage was due mainly to the colorless surface gloss. Bright yellows and reds appeared nearly black. Most skin tones came out unnaturally dark, and uneven or freckled complexions were exaggerated. Photographers sometimes compensated by adding in skies from separate negatives that had been exposed and processed to optimize the visibility of the clouds, by manually retouching their negatives to adjust problematic tonal values, and by heavily powdering the faces of their portrait sitters.
In 1873, Hermann Wilhelm Vogel discovered that the spectral sensitivity could be extended to green and yellow light by adding very small quantities of certain dyes to the emulsion. The instability of early sensitizing dyes and their tendency to rapidly cause fogging initially confined their use to the laboratory, but in 1883 the first commercially dye - sensitized plates appeared on the market. These early products, described as isochromatic or orthochromatic depending on the manufacturer, made possible a more accurate rendering of colored subject matter into a black - and - white image. Because they were still disproportionately sensitive to blue, the use of a yellow filter and a consequently longer exposure time were required to take full advantage of their extended sensitivity.
In 1894, the Lumière Brothers introduced their Lumière Panchromatic plate, which was made sensitive, although very unequally, to all colors including red. New and improved sensitizing dyes were developed, and in 1902 the much more evenly color - sensitive Perchromo panchromatic plate was being sold by the German manufacturer Perutz. The commercial availability of highly panchromatic black - and - white emulsions also accelerated the progress of practical color photography, which requires good sensitivity to all the colors of the spectrum for the red, green and blue channels of color information to all be captured with reasonable exposure times.
However, all of these were glass - based plate products. Panchromatic emulsions on a film base were not commercially available until the 1910s and did not come into general use until much later. Many photographers who did their own darkroom work preferred to go without the seeming luxury of sensitivity to red -- a rare color in nature and uncommon even in man - made objects -- rather than be forced to abandon the traditional red darkroom safelight and process their exposed film in complete darkness. Kodak 's popular Verichrome black - and - white snapshot film, introduced in 1931, remained a red - insensitive orthochromatic product until 1956, when it was replaced by Verichrome Pan. Amateur darkroom enthusiasts then had to handle the undeveloped film by the sense of touch alone.
Experiments with color photography began almost as early as photography itself, but the three - color principle underlying all practical processes was not set forth until 1855, not demonstrated until 1861, and not generally accepted as "real '' color photography until it had become an undeniable commercial reality in the early 20th century. Although color photographs of good quality were being made by the 1890s, they required special equipment, long exposures, complex printing or display procedures and highly specialized skills, so they were then exceedingly rare.
The first practical and commercially successful color "film '' was the Lumière Autochrome, a glass plate product introduced in 1907. It was expensive and not sensitive enough for hand - held "snapshot '' use. Film - based versions were introduced in the early 1930s and the sensitivity was later improved. These were "mosaic screen '' additive color products, which used a simple layer of black - and - white emulsion in combination with a layer of microscopically small color filter elements. The resulting transparencies or "slides '' were very dark because the color filter mosaic layer absorbed most of the light passing through. The last films of this type were discontinued in the 1950s, but Polachrome "instant '' slide film, introduced in 1983, temporarily revived the technology.
"Color film '' in the modern sense of a subtractive color product with a multi-layered emulsion was born with the introduction of Kodachrome for home movies in 1935 and as lengths of 35 mm film for still cameras in 1936. During the next several decades, color remained much more expensive than black - and - white and required much more light, factors which combined to delay its widespread adoption. Decreasing cost and increasing sensitivity gradually overcame these impediments. By the 1970s color film predominated in the consumer market, while the use of black - and - white film was increasingly confined to photojournalism and fine art photography.
Photographic lenses and equipment are designed around the film to be used. Although the earliest photographic materials were sensitive only to the blue - violet end of the spectrum, partially color - corrected achromatic lenses were normally used, so that when the photographer brought the visually brightest yellow rays to a sharp focus, the visually dimmest but photographically most active violet rays would be correctly focused, too. The introduction of orthochromatic emulsions required the whole range of colors from yellow to blue to be brought to an adequate focus. Most plates and films described as orthochromatic or isochromatic were practically insensitive to red, so the correct focus of red light was unimportant; a red window could be used to view the frame numbers on the paper backing of roll film, as any red light which leaked around the backing would not fog the film; and red lighting could be used in darkrooms. With the introduction of panchromatic film the whole visible spectrum needed to be brought to an acceptably sharp focus. In all cases a color cast in the lens glass or faint colored reflections in the image were of no consequence as they would merely change the contrast a little. This was no longer acceptable when using color film. More highly corrected lenses for newer emulsions could be used with older emulsion types, but the converse was not true.
The progression of lens design for later emulsions is of practical importance when considering the use of old lenses, still often used on large - format equipment; a lens designed for orthochromatic film may have visible defects with a color emulsion; a lens for panchromatic film will be better but not as good as later designs.
The filters used were different for the different film types.
There are several types of photographic film, including:
In order to produce a usable image, the film needs to be exposed properly. The amount of exposure variation that a given film can tolerate while still producing an acceptable level of quality is called its exposure latitude. Color print film generally has greater exposure latitude than other types of film. Additionally, because print film must be printed to be viewed, after - the - fact corrections for imperfect exposure are possible during the printing process.
The concentration of dyes or silver halide crystals remaining on the film after development is referred to as optical density, or simply density; the optical density is proportional to the logarithm of the optical transmission coefficient of the developed film. A dark image on the negative is of higher density than a more transparent image.
Most films are affected by the physics of silver grain activation (which sets a minimum amount of light required to expose a single grain) and by the statistics of random grain activation by photons. The film requires a minimum amount of light before it begins to expose, and then responds by progressive darkening over a wide dynamic range of exposure until all of the grains are exposed and the film achieves (after development) its maximum optical density.
Over the active dynamic range of most films, the density of the developed film is proportional to the logarithm of the total amount of light to which the film was exposed, so the transmission coefficient of the developed film is proportional to a power of the reciprocal of the brightness of the original exposure. The plot of the density of the film image against the log of the exposure is known as an H&D curve. This effect is due to the statistics of grain activation: as the film becomes progressively more exposed, each incident photon is less likely to impact a still - unexposed grain, yielding the logarithmic behavior. A simple, idealized statistical model yields the equation density = 1 - (1 - k), where light is proportional to the number of photons hitting a unit area of film, k is the probability of a single photon striking a grain (based on the size of the grains and how closely spaced they are), and density is the proportion of grains that have been hit by at least one photon. The relationship between density and log exposure is linear for photographic films except at the extreme ranges of maximum exposure (D - max) and minimum exposure (D - min) on an H&D curve, so the curve is characteristically S - shaped (as opposed to digital camera sensors which have a linear response through the effective exposure range. The sensitivity (i.e., the ISO speed) of a film can be affected by changing the length or temperature of development, which would move the H&D curve to the left or right (see figure).
If parts of the image are exposed heavily enough to approach the maximum density possible for a print film, then they will begin losing the ability to show tonal variations in the final print. Usually those areas will be considered overexposed and will appear as featureless white on the print. Some subject matter is tolerant of very heavy exposure; for example sources of brilliant light such as a light bulb or the sun generally appear best as a featureless white on the print.
Likewise, if part of an image receives less than the beginning threshold level of exposure, which depends upon the film 's sensitivity to light -- or speed -- the film there will have no appreciable image density, and will appear on the print as a featureless black. Some photographers use their knowledge of these limits to determine the optimum exposure for a photograph; for one example, see the Zone System. Most automatic cameras instead try to achieve a particular average density.
Film speed describes a film 's threshold sensitivity to light. The international standard for rating film speed is the ISO scale which combines both the ASA speed and the DIN speed in the format ASA / DIN. Using ISO convention film with an ASA speed of 400 would be labeled 400 / 27 °. A fourth naming standard is GOST, developed by the Russian standards authority. See the film speed article for a table of conversions between ASA, DIN, and GOST film speeds.
Common film speeds include ISO 25, 50, 64, 100, 160, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200, and 6400. Consumer print films are usually in the ISO 100 to ISO 800 range. Some films, like Kodak 's Technical Pan, are not ISO rated and therefore careful examination of the film 's properties must be made by the photographer before exposure and development. ISO 25 film is very "slow '', as it requires much more exposure to produce a usable image than "fast '' ISO 800 film. Films of ISO 800 and greater are thus better suited to low - light situations and action shots (where the short exposure time limits the total light received). The benefit of slower film is that it usually has finer grain and better color rendition than fast film. Professional photographers of static subjects such as portraits or landscapes usually seek these qualities, and therefore require a tripod to stabilize the camera for a longer exposure. Photographing subjects such as rapidly moving sports or in low - light conditions, a professional will choose a faster film.
A film with a particular ISO rating can be push - processed, or "pushed '', to behave like a film with a higher ISO, by developing for a longer amount of time or at a higher temperature than usual. More rarely, a film can be "pulled '' to behave like a "slower '' film. Pushing generally coarsens grain and increases contrast, reducing dynamic range, to the detriment of overall quality. Nevertheless, it can be a useful tradeoff in difficult shooting environments, if the alternative is no usable shot at all.
Instant photography, as popularized by Polaroid, uses a special type of camera and film that automates and integrates development, without the need of further equipment or chemicals. This process is carried out immediately after exposure, as opposed to regular film, which is developed afterwards and requires additional chemicals. See instant film.
Films can be made to record non-visible ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) radiation. These films generally require special equipment; for example, most photographic lenses are made of glass and will therefore filter out most ultraviolet light. Instead, expensive lenses made of quartz must be used. Infrared films may be shot in standard cameras using an infrared band - or long - pass filter, although the infrared focal point must be compensated for.
Exposure and focusing are difficult when using UV or IR film with a camera and lens designed for visible light. The ISO standard for film speed only applies to visible light, so visual - spectrum light meters are nearly useless. Film manufacturers can supply suggested equivalent film speeds under different conditions, and recommend heavy bracketing (e.g., with a certain filter, assume ISO 25 under daylight and ISO 64 under tungsten lighting). This allows a light meter to be used to estimate an exposure. The focal point for IR is slightly farther away from the camera than visible light, and UV slightly closer; this must be compensated for when focusing. Apochromatic lenses are sometimes recommended due to their improved focusing across the spectrum.
Film optimized for sensing X-ray radiation is commonly used for medical imaging by placing the subject between the film and a source of X-rays, without a lens, as if a translucent object were imaged by being placed between a light source and standard film. Unlike other types of film, X-ray film has a sensitive emulsion on both sides of the carrier material. This reduces the X-ray exposure for an acceptable image -- a desirable feature in medical radiography. The film is usually placed in contact with a thin layer of lead which also enhances its sensitivity.
Film optimized for sensing X-rays and for gamma rays is sometimes used for radiation dosimetry and personal monitoring.
Film has a number of disadvantages as a scientific detector: it is difficult to calibrate for photometry, it is not re-usable, it requires careful handling (including temperature and humidity control) for best calibration, and the film must physically be returned to the laboratory and processed. Against this, photographic film can be made with a higher spatial resolution than any other type of imaging detector, and, because of its logarithmic response to light, has a wider dynamic range than most digital detectors. For example, Agfa 10E56 holographic film has a resolution of over 4,000 lines / mm -- equivalent to a pixel size of 0.125 micrometers -- and an active dynamic range of over five orders of magnitude in brightness, compared to typical scientific CCDs that might have pixels of about 10 micrometers and a dynamic range of 3 -- 4 orders of magnitude.
Special films are used for the long exposures required by astrophotography.
Film remained the dominant form of photography until the early 21st century, when advances in digital photography drew consumers to digital formats. The first consumer electronic camera, the Sony Mavica was released in 1981, the first digital camera, the Fuji DS - X released in 1989, coupled with advances in software such as Adobe Photoshop which was released in 1989, improvements in consumer level digital color printers and increasingly widespread computers in households during the late 20th century facilitated uptake of digital photography by consumers. Although modern photography is dominated by digital users, film continues to be used by enthusiasts. Film remains the preference of some photographers because of its distinctive "look ''.
DX Encoding (Digital indeX), or DX coding was initially developed by Kodak in the 1980s, and eventually adapted by all camera and film manufacturers. It provides information on both the film cassette and on the film regarding the type of film, number of exposures, speed (ISO / ASA rating) of the film. It consists of three types of identification. First is a barcode near the film opening of the cassette, identifying the manufacturer, film type and processing method (see image below left). This is used by photofinishing equipment during film processing. The second part is a barcode on the edge of the film (see image below right), used also during processing, which indicates the image film type, manufacturer, frame number and synchronizes the position of the frame. The third part of DX coding, known as the DX Camera Auto Sensing (CAS) code, consists of a series of 12 metal contacts on the film cassette, which beginning with cameras manufactured after 1985 could detect the type of film, number of exposures and ISO of the film, and use that information to automatically adjust the camera settings for the speed of the film.
Source:
e.g., Kodak "Advantix '', different aspect ratios possible, data recorded on magnetic strip, processed film remains in cartridge
9.5 mm film
Mycro 17.5 mm film
Kodak Agfa 16mm film
120 film
35mm film
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who is responsible for the building of the berlin wall | Berlin Wall - Wikipedia
The Berlin Wall (German: Berliner Mauer, pronounced (bɛʁˈliːnɐ ˈmaʊ̯ɐ) (listen)) was a guarded concrete barrier that physically and ideologically divided Berlin from 1961 to 1989. Constructed by the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany), starting on 13 August 1961, the Wall cut off (by land) West Berlin from virtually all of surrounding East Germany and East Berlin until government officials opened it in November 1989. Its demolition officially began on 13 June 1990 and finished in 1992. The barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls, accompanied by a wide area (later known as the "death strip '') that contained anti-vehicle trenches, "fakir beds '' and other defenses. The Eastern Bloc portrayed the Wall as protecting its population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the "will of the people '' in building a socialist state in East Germany. In practice, the Wall served to prevent the massive emigration and defection that had marked East Germany and the communist Eastern Bloc during the post-World War II period.
GDR authorities officially referred to the Berlin Wall as the Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart (German: Antifaschistischer Schutzwall), by implication equating the NATO countries (and West Germany in particular) with fascists. The West Berlin city government sometimes referred to it as the "Wall of Shame '', a term coined by mayor Willy Brandt in reference to the Wall 's restriction on freedom of movement. Along with the separate and much longer Inner German border (IGB), which demarcated the border between East and West Germany, it came to symbolize physically the "Iron Curtain '' that separated Western Europe and the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.
Before the Wall 's erection, 3.5 million East Germans circumvented Eastern Bloc emigration restrictions and defected from the GDR, many by crossing over the border from East Berlin into West Berlin; from there they could then travel to West Germany and to other Western European countries. Between 1961 and 1989 the Wall prevented almost all such emigration. During this period over 100,000 people attempted to escape and over 5,000 people succeeded in escaping over the Wall, with an estimated death toll ranging from 136 to more than 200 in and around Berlin.
In 1989 a series of revolutions in nearby Eastern Bloc countries -- Poland and Hungary in particular -- caused a chain reaction in East Germany that ultimately resulted in the demise of the Wall. After several weeks of civil unrest, the East German government announced on 9 November 1989 that all GDR citizens could visit West Germany and West Berlin. Crowds of East Germans crossed and climbed onto the Wall, joined by West Germans on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. Over the next few weeks, euphoric people and souvenir hunters chipped away parts of the Wall; the governments later used industrial equipment to remove most of what was left.
A fact standing out from the events leading up to the night of November 9, 1989 is that this is an historical example of a dictatorial regime being overcome by a "peaceful civil resistance movement ''.
Contrary to popular belief, the Wall 's actual demolition did not begin officially until the summer of 1990 and continued until 1992. The "fall of the Berlin Wall '' paved the way for German reunification, which formally took place on 3 October 1990.
After the end of World War II in Europe, what remained of pre-war Germany west of the Oder - Neisse line was divided into four occupation zones (as per the Potsdam Agreement), each one controlled by one of the four occupying Allied powers: the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union. The capital of Berlin, as the seat of the Allied Control Council, was similarly subdivided into four sectors despite the city 's location, which was fully within the Soviet zone.
Within two years, political divisions increased between the Soviets and the other occupying powers. These included the Soviets ' refusal to agree to reconstruction plans making post-war Germany self - sufficient and to a detailed accounting of the industrial plants, goods and infrastructure already removed by the Soviets. France, the United Kingdom, the United States and the Benelux countries later met to combine the non-Soviet zones of the country into one zone for reconstruction and to approve the extension of the Marshall Plan.
Following World War II, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin headed a group of nations on his Western border, the Eastern Bloc, that then included Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, which he wished to maintain alongside a weakened Soviet - controlled Germany. As early as 1945, Stalin revealed to German communist leaders that he expected to slowly undermine the British position within the British occupation zone, that the United States would withdraw within a year or two, and that nothing would then stand in the way of a united communist Germany within the bloc.
The major task of the ruling communist party in the Soviet zone was to channel Soviet orders down to both the administrative apparatus and the other bloc parties, which in turn would be presented as internal measures. Property and industry was nationalized in the East German zone. If statements or decisions deviated from the described line, reprimands and (for persons outside public attention) punishment would ensue, such as imprisonment, torture and even death.
Indoctrination of Marxism - Leninism became a compulsory part of school curricula, sending professors and students fleeing to the West. The East Germans created an elaborate political police apparatus that kept the population under close surveillance, including Soviet SMERSH secret police.
In 1948, following disagreements regarding reconstruction and a new German currency, Stalin instituted the Berlin Blockade, preventing food, materials and supplies from arriving in West Berlin. The United States, the United Kingdom, France, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and several other countries began a massive "airlift '', supplying West Berlin with food and other supplies. The Soviets mounted a public relations campaign against the Western policy change. Communists attempted to disrupt the elections of 1948, preceding large losses therein, while 300,000 Berliners demonstrated for the international airlift to continue. In May 1949, Stalin lifted the blockade, permitting the resumption of Western shipments to Berlin.
The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) was declared on 7 October 1949. By a secret treaty, the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs accorded the East German state administrative authority, but not autonomy. The Soviets permeated East German administrative, military and secret police structures and had full control.
East Germany differed from West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany), which developed into a Western capitalist country with a social market economy ("Soziale Marktwirtschaft '' in German) and a democratic parliamentary government. Continual economic growth starting in the 1950s fuelled a 20 - year "economic miracle '' ("Wirtschaftswunder ''). As West Germany 's economy grew, and its standard of living steadily improved, many East Germans wanted to move to West Germany.
After the Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe at the end of World War II, the majority of those living in the newly acquired areas of the Eastern Bloc aspired to independence and wanted the Soviets to leave. Taking advantage of the zonal border between occupied zones in Germany, the number of GDR citizens moving to West Germany totaled 187,000 in 1950; 165,000 in 1951; 182,000 in 1952; and 331,000 in 1953. One reason for the sharp 1953 increase was fear of potential further Sovietization, given the increasingly paranoid actions of Joseph Stalin in late 1952 and early 1953. 226,000 had fled in just the first six months of 1953.
By the early 1950s, the Soviet approach to controlling national movement, restricting emigration, was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc, including East Germany. The restrictions presented a quandary for some Eastern Bloc states, which had been more economically advanced and open than the Soviet Union, such that crossing borders seemed more natural -- especially where no prior border existed between East and West Germany.
Up until 1952, the demarcation lines between East Germany and the western occupied zones could be easily crossed in most places. On 1 April 1952, East German leaders met the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in Moscow; during the discussions Stalin 's foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov proposed that the East Germans should "introduce a system of passes for visits of West Berlin residents to the territory of East Berlin (so as to stop) free movement of Western agents '' in the GDR. Stalin agreed, calling the situation "intolerable ''. He advised the East Germans to build up their border defenses, telling them that "The demarcation line between East and West Germany should be considered a border -- and not just any border, but a dangerous one... The Germans will guard the line of defence with their lives. ''
Consequently, the inner German border between the two German states was closed, and a barbed - wire fence erected. The border between the Western and Eastern sectors of Berlin, however, remained open, although traffic between the Soviet and the Western sectors was somewhat restricted. This resulted in Berlin becoming a magnet for East Germans desperate to escape life in the GDR, and also a flashpoint for tension between the United States and the Soviet Union.
In 1955, the Soviets gave East Germany authority over civilian movement in Berlin, passing control to a regime not recognized in the West. Initially, East Germany granted "visits '' to allow its residents access to West Germany. However, following the defection of large numbers of East Germans under this regime, the new East German state legally restricted virtually all travel to the West in 1956. Soviet East German ambassador Mikhail Pervukhin observed that "the presence in Berlin of an open and essentially uncontrolled border between the socialist and capitalist worlds unwittingly prompts the population to make a comparison between both parts of the city, which unfortunately does not always turn out in favour of Democratic (East) Berlin. ''
With the closing of the inner German border officially in 1952, the border in Berlin remained considerably more accessible then because it was administered by all four occupying powers. Accordingly, Berlin became the main route by which East Germans left for the West. On 11 December 1957, East Germany introduced a new passport law that reduced the overall number of refugees leaving Eastern Germany.
It had the unintended result of drastically increasing the percentage of those leaving through West Berlin from 60 % to well over 90 % by the end of 1958. Those caught trying to leave East Berlin were subjected to heavy penalties, but with no physical barrier and subway train access still available to West Berlin, such measures were ineffective. The Berlin sector border was essentially a "loophole '' through which Eastern Bloc citizens could still escape. The 3.5 million East Germans who had left by 1961 totalled approximately 20 % of the entire East German population.
An important reason that Crossing the inner German border was not stopped earlier was that doing so would cut off much of the railway traffic in East Germany. Construction of a new railway bypassing West Berlin, the Berlin outer ring, commenced in 1951. Following the completion of the railway in 1961, closing the border became a more practical proposition. (See History of rail transport in Germany.)
The emigrants tended to be young and well - educated, leading to the "brain drain '' feared by officials in East Germany. Yuri Andropov, then the CPSU Director on Relations with Communist and Workers ' Parties of Socialist Countries, wrote an urgent letter on 28 August 1958, to the Central Committee about the significant 50 % increase in the number of East German intelligentsia among the refugees. Andropov reported that, while the East German leadership stated that they were leaving for economic reasons, testimony from refugees indicated that the reasons were more political than material. He stated "the flight of the intelligentsia has reached a particularly critical phase. ''
An East German SED propaganda booklet published in 1955 dramatically described the serious nature of ' flight from the republic ':
Both from the moral standpoint as well as in terms of the interests of the whole German nation, leaving the GDR is an act of political and moral backwardness and depravity.
Those who let themselves be recruited objectively serve West German Reaction and militarism, whether they know it or not. Is it not despicable when for the sake of a few alluring job offers or other false promises about a "guaranteed future '' one leaves a country in which the seed for a new and more beautiful life is sprouting, and is already showing the first fruits, for the place that favours a new war and destruction?
Is it not an act of political depravity when citizens, whether young people, workers, or members of the intelligentsia, leave and betray what our people have created through common labour in our republic to offer themselves to the American or British secret services or work for the West German factory owners, Junkers, or militarists? Does not leaving the land of progress for the morass of an historically outdated social order demonstrate political backwardness and blindness?...
(W) orkers throughout Germany will demand punishment for those who today leave the German Democratic Republic, the strong bastion of the fight for peace, to serve the deadly enemy of the German people, the imperialists and militarists.
By 1960, the combination of World War II and the massive emigration westward left East Germany with only 61 % of its population of working age, compared to 70.5 % before the war. The loss was disproportionately heavy among professionals: engineers, technicians, physicians, teachers, lawyers and skilled workers. The direct cost of manpower losses to East Germany (and corresponding gain to the West) has been estimated at $7 billion to $9 billion, with East German party leader Walter Ulbricht later claiming that West Germany owed him $17 billion in compensation, including reparations as well as manpower losses. In addition, the drain of East Germany 's young population potentially cost it over 22.5 billion marks in lost educational investment. The brain drain of professionals had become so damaging to the political credibility and economic viability of East Germany that the re-securing of the German communist frontier was imperative.
The exodus of emigrants from East Germany presented two minor potential benefits: an easy opportunity to smuggle East German secret agents to West Germany, and a reduction in the number of citizens hostile to the communist regime. Neither of these advantages, however, proved particularly useful.
On 15 June 1961, First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party and GDR State Council chairman Walter Ulbricht stated in an international press conference, "Niemand hat die Absicht, eine Mauer zu errichten! '' (No one has the intention of erecting a wall!). "It was the first time the colloquial term Mauer (wall) had been used in this context ''.
The transcript of a telephone call between Nikita Khrushchev and Ulbricht on 1 August in the same year, suggests that the initiative for the construction of the Wall came from Khrushchev. However, other sources suggest that Khrushchev had initially been wary about building a wall, fearing negative Western reaction. What is beyond dispute, though, is that Ulbricht had pushed for a border closure for quite some time, arguing that East Germany 's very existence was at stake.
Khrushchev had become emboldened upon seeing US President John F. Kennedy 's youth and inexperience show as weakness against Khrushchev 's brutal, undiplomatic aggression. This feeling of miscalculation and failure is admitted by Kennedy in the U.S. ambassador 's residence with New York Times columnist James "Scotty '' Reston. Kennedy made the regrettable error of admitting that the US would not actively oppose this action in the Soviet sector of Berlin. On Saturday, 12 August 1961, the leaders of the GDR attended a garden party at a government guesthouse in Döllnsee, in a wooded area to the north of East Berlin. There Ulbricht signed the order to close the border and erect a wall.
At midnight, the police and units of the East German army began to close the border and, by Sunday morning, 13 August, the border with West Berlin was closed. East German troops and workers had begun to tear up streets running alongside the border to make them impassable to most vehicles and to install barbed wire entanglements and fences along the 156 kilometres (97 mi) around the three western sectors, and the 43 kilometres (27 mi) that divided West and East Berlin. The date of 13 August became commonly referred to as Barbed Wire Sunday in Germany.
The barrier was built inside East Berlin or East German territory to ensure that it did not encroach on West Berlin at any point. Generally, the Wall was only slightly inside East Berlin, but in a few places it was some distance from the legal border, most notably at Potsdamer Bahnhof and the Lenné Triangle that is now much of the Potsdamer Platz development.
Later, the initial barrier was built up into the Wall proper, the first concrete elements and large blocks being put in place on 17 August. During the construction of the Wall, National People 's Army (NVA) and Combat Groups of the Working Class (KdA) soldiers stood in front of it with orders to shoot anyone who attempted to defect. Additionally, chain fences, walls, minefields and other obstacles were installed along the length of East Germany 's western border with West Germany proper. A huge no man 's land was cleared to provide a clear line of fire at fleeing refugees.
With the closing of the East - West sector boundary in Berlin, the vast majority of East Germans could no longer travel or emigrate to West Germany. Berlin soon went from being the easiest place to make an unauthorized crossing between East and West Germany to being the most difficult. Many families were split, while East Berliners employed in the West were cut off from their jobs. West Berlin became an isolated exclave in a hostile land. West Berliners demonstrated against the Wall, led by their Mayor (Oberbürgermeister) Willy Brandt, who strongly criticized the United States for failing to respond. Allied intelligence agencies had hypothesized about a wall to stop the flood of refugees, but the main candidate for its location was around the perimeter of the city. In 1961, Secretary of State Dean Rusk proclaimed, "The Wall certainly ought not to be a permanent feature of the European landscape. I see no reason why the Soviet Union should think it is -- it is to their advantage in any way to leave there that monument to communist failure. ''
United States and UK sources had expected the Soviet sector to be sealed off from West Berlin, but were surprised by how long the East Germans took for such a move. They considered the Wall as an end to concerns about a GDR / Soviet retaking or capture of the whole of Berlin; the Wall would presumably have been an unnecessary project if such plans were afloat. Thus they concluded that the possibility of a Soviet military conflict over Berlin had decreased.
The East German government claimed that the Wall was an "anti-fascist protective rampart '' (German: "antifaschistischer Schutzwall '') intended to dissuade aggression from the West. Another official justification was the activities of Western agents in Eastern Europe. The Eastern German government also claimed that West Berliners were buying out state - subsidized goods in East Berlin. East Germans and others greeted such statements with skepticism, as most of the time, the border was only closed for citizens of East Germany traveling to the West, but not for residents of West Berlin travelling to the East. The construction of the Wall had caused considerable hardship to families divided by it. Most people believed that the Wall was mainly a means of preventing the citizens of East Germany from entering or fleeing to West Berlin.
The National Security Agency was the only American intelligence agency that was aware that East Germany was to take action to deal with the brain drain problem. On 9 August 1961, the NSA intercepted an advance warning information of the Socialist Unity Party 's plan to close the intra-Berlin border between East and West Berlin completely for foot traffic. The interagency intelligence Berlin Watch Committee assessed that this intercept "might be the first step in a plan to close the border. '' This warning did not reach U.S. President John F. Kennedy until noon on 13 August 1961, while he was vacationing in his yacht off the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts. While Kennedy was angry that he had no advance warning, he was relieved that the East Germans and the Soviets had only divided Berlin without taking any action against West Berlin 's access to the West. However, he denounced the Berlin Wall, whose erection worsened the relations between the United States and the Soviet Union.
In response to the erection of the Berlin Wall, a retired general, Lucius D. Clay, was appointed by Kennedy as his special advisor and sent to Berlin with ambassadorial rank. Clay had been the Military Governor of the US Zone of Occupation in Germany during the period of the Berlin Blockade and had ordered the first measures in what became the Berlin Airlift. He was immensely popular with the residents of West Berlin, and his appointment was an unambiguous sign that Kennedy would not compromise on the status of West Berlin. Clay and Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson arrived at Tempelhof Airport on the afternoon of Saturday, 19 August 1961.
They arrived in a city defended by three Allied brigades -- one each from the UK, the US, and France (the Forces Françaises à Berlin). On 16 August, Kennedy had given the order for them to be reinforced. Early on 19 August, the 1st Battle Group, 18th Infantry (commanded by Colonel Glover S. Johns Jr.) was alerted.
On Sunday morning, U.S. troops marched from West Germany through East Germany, bound for West Berlin. Lead elements -- arranged in a column of 491 vehicles and trailers carrying 1,500 men, divided into five march units -- left the Helmstedt - Marienborn checkpoint at 06: 34. At Marienborn, the Soviet checkpoint next to Helmstedt on the West German - East German border, US personnel were counted by guards. The column was 160 kilometres (99 mi) long, and covered 177 kilometres (110 mi) from Marienborn to Berlin in full battle gear. East German police watched from beside trees next to the autobahn all the way along.
The front of the convoy arrived at the outskirts of Berlin just before noon, to be met by Clay and Johnson, before parading through the streets of Berlin in front of a large crowd. At 04: 00 on 21 August, Lyndon Johnson left West Berlin in the hands of General Frederick O. Hartel and his brigade of 4,224 officers and men. "For the next three and a half years, American battalions would rotate into West Berlin, by autobahn, at three month intervals to demonstrate Allied rights to the city ''.
The creation of the Wall had important implications for both German states. By stemming the exodus of people from East Germany, the East German government was able to reassert its control over the country: in spite of discontent with the Wall, economic problems caused by dual currency and the black market were largely eliminated. The economy in the GDR began to grow. But, the Wall proved a public relations disaster for the communist bloc as a whole. Western powers portrayed it as a symbol of communist tyranny, particularly after East German border guards shot and killed would - be defectors. Such fatalities were later treated as acts of murder by the reunified Germany.
The Berlin Wall was more than 140 kilometres (87 mi) long. In June 1962, a second, parallel fence was built some 100 metres (110 yd) farther into East German territory. The houses contained between the fences were razed and the inhabitants relocated, thus establishing what later became known as the death strip. The death strip was covered with raked sand or gravel, rendering footprints easy to notice, easing the detection of trespassers and also enabling officers to see which guards had neglected their task; it offered no cover; and, most importantly, it offered clear fields of fire for the Wall guards. About 45.1 kilometres of the wall are at the centre strips of Berlin, and 112.7 kilometres crossing through the Berlin outer circle. 63.8 km of the frontier were in built, 32 km in wooded and 22.65 km in open terrain and 37.95 km of the boundary lay in or on rivers, lakes and canals. Most of them were dismantled beginning with the wall peckers as souvenirs from 11 November 1989, then dismantling the metal mesh fence along the death strip all the way until 22 December 1989. Observation towers began to be dismantled all the way till April 1990. Dismantling of the wall is shown at the below mentioned section (Demolition. Some of them were sold for scrap including the anti-tank wall, normal walls were sent to storage area in the southern part of Germany till it was auctioned and collected (List of Berlin Wall segments).
Through the years, the Berlin Wall evolved through four versions:
The "fourth - generation Wall '', known officially as "Stützwandelement UL 12.11 '' (retaining wall element UL 12.11), was the final and most sophisticated version of the Wall. Begun in 1975 and completed about 1980, it was constructed from 45,000 separate sections of reinforced concrete, each 3.6 metres (12 ft) high and 1.2 metres (3.9 ft) wide, and cost DDM 16,155,000 or about US $3,638,000. The concrete provisions added to this version of the Wall were done to prevent escapees from driving their cars through the barricades. At strategic points, the Wall was constructed to a somewhat weaker standard, so that East German and Soviet armored vehicles could easily break through in the event of war.
The top of the wall was lined with a smooth pipe, intended to make it more difficult to scale. The Wall was reinforced by mesh fencing, signal fencing, anti-vehicle trenches, barbed wire, dogs on long lines, "beds of nails '' (also known as "Stalin 's Carpet '') under balconies hanging over the "death strip '', over 116 watchtowers, and 20 bunkers with hundreds of guards. This version of the Wall is the one most commonly seen in photographs, and surviving fragments of the Wall in Berlin and elsewhere around the world are generally pieces of the fourth - generation Wall. The layout came to resemble the inner German border in most technical aspects, except that the Berlin Wall had no landmines nor spring - guns. Maintenance was performed on the outside of the wall by personnel who accessed the area outside it either via ladders or via hidden doors within the wall. These doors could not be opened by a single person, needing two separate keys in two separate keyholes to unlock.
As was the case with the inner German border, an unfortified strip of Eastern territory was left outside the wall. This outer strip was used by workers to paint over graffiti and perform other maintenance on the outside of the wall Unlike the inner German border, however, the outer strip was usually no more than four meters wide, and, in photos from the era, the exact location of the actual border in many places appears not even to have been marked. Also in contrast with the inner German border, little interest was shown by East German law enforcement in keeping outsiders off the outer strip; sidewalks of West Berlin streets even ran inside it.
Despite the East German government 's general policy of benign neglect, vandals were not unknown to have been pursued in the outer strip, and even arrested. In 1986, defector and political activist Wolfram Hasch and four other defectors were standing inside the outer strip defacing the wall when East German personnel emerged from one of the hidden doors to apprehend them. All but Hasch escaped back into the western sector. Hasch himself was arrested, dragged through the door into the death strip, and later convicted of illegally crossing the de jure border outside the wall. Noted graffiti artist Thierry Noir has reported having often been perused there by East German soldiers. While some graffiti artists were chased off the outer strip, others, such as Keith Haring, were seemingly tolerated.
Besides the sector - sector boundary within Berlin itself, the Wall also separated West Berlin from the present - day state of Brandenburg. The following present - day municipalities, listed in counter-clockwise direction, share a border with former West Berlin:
There were nine border crossings between East and West Berlin. These allowed visits by West Berliners, other West Germans, Western foreigners and Allied personnel into East Berlin, as well as visits by GDR citizens and citizens of other socialist countries into West Berlin, provided that they held the necessary permits. These crossings were restricted according to which nationality was allowed to use it (East Germans, West Germans, West Berliners, other countries). The most famous was the vehicle and pedestrian checkpoint at the corner of Friedrichstraße and Zimmerstraße, also known as Checkpoint Charlie, which was restricted to Allied personnel and foreigners.
Several other border crossings existed between West Berlin and surrounding East Germany. These could be used for transit between West Germany and West Berlin, for visits by West Berliners into East Germany, for transit into countries neighbouring East Germany (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Denmark), and for visits by East Germans into West Berlin carrying a permit. After the 1972 agreements, new crossings were opened to allow West Berlin waste to be transported into East German dumps, as well as some crossings for access to West Berlin 's exclaves (see Steinstücken).
Four autobahns connected West Berlin to West Germany, the most famous being the Berlin - Helmstedt autobahn, which entered East German territory between the towns of Helmstedt and Marienborn (Checkpoint Alpha), and which entered West Berlin at Dreilinden (Checkpoint Bravo for the Allied forces) in southwestern Berlin. Access to West Berlin was also possible by railway (four routes) and by boat for commercial shipping via canals and rivers.
Non-German Westerners could cross the border at Friedrichstraße station in East Berlin and at Checkpoint Charlie. When the Wall was erected, Berlin 's complex public transit networks, the S - Bahn and U-Bahn, were divided with it. Some lines were cut in half; many stations were shut down. Three western lines traveled through brief sections of East Berlin territory, passing through eastern stations (called Geisterbahnhöfe, or ghost stations) without stopping. Both the eastern and western networks converged at Friedrichstraße, which became a major crossing point for those (mostly Westerners) with permission to cross.
West Germans and citizens of other Western countries could generally visit East Germany, often after applying for a visa at an East German embassy several weeks in advance. Visas for day trips restricted to East Berlin were issued without previous application in a simplified procedure at the border crossing. However, East German authorities could refuse entry permits without stating a reason. In the 1980s, visitors from the western part of the city who wanted to visit the eastern part had to exchange at least DM 25 into East German currency at the poor exchange rate of 1: 1. It was forbidden to export East German currency from the East, but money not spent could be left at the border for possible future visits. Tourists crossing from the west had to also pay for a visa, which cost DM 5; West Berliners did not have to pay this.
West Berliners initially could not visit East Berlin or East Germany at all -- all crossing points were closed to them between 26 August 1961 and 17 December 1963. In 1963, negotiations between East and West resulted in a limited possibility for visits during the Christmas season that year (Passierscheinregelung). Similar, very limited arrangements were made in 1964, 1965 and 1966.
In 1971, with the Four Power Agreement on Berlin, agreements were reached that allowed West Berliners to apply for visas to enter East Berlin and East Germany regularly, comparable to the regulations already in force for West Germans. However, East German authorities could still refuse entry permits.
East Berliners and East Germans could not, at first, travel to West Berlin or West Germany at all. This regulation remained in force essentially until the fall of the Wall, but over the years several exceptions to these rules were introduced, the most significant being:
For each of these exceptions, GDR citizens had to apply for individual approval, which was never guaranteed. In addition, even if travel was approved, GDR travellers could exchange only a very small amount of East German Marks into Deutsche Marks (DM), thus limiting the financial resources available for them to travel to the West. This led to the West German practice of granting a small amount of DM annually (Begrüßungsgeld, or welcome money) to GDR citizens visiting West Germany and West Berlin to help alleviate this situation.
Citizens of other East European countries were in general subject to the same prohibition of visiting Western countries as East Germans, though the applicable exception (if any) varied from country to country.
Allied military personnel and civilian officials of the Allied forces could enter and exit East Berlin without submitting to East German passport controls, purchasing a visa or being required to exchange money. Likewise, Soviet military patrols could enter and exit West Berlin. This was a requirement of the post-war Four Powers Agreements. A particular area of concern for the Western Allies involved official dealings with East German authorities when crossing the border, since Allied policy did not recognize the authority of the GDR to regulate Allied military traffic to and from West Berlin, as well as the Allied presence within Greater Berlin, including entry into, exit from, and presence within East Berlin.
The Allies held that only the Soviet Union, and not the GDR, had authority to regulate Allied personnel in such cases. For this reason, elaborate procedures were established to prevent inadvertent recognition of East German authority when engaged in travel through the GDR and when in East Berlin. Special rules applied to travel by Western Allied military personnel assigned to the Military Liaison Missions accredited to the commander of Soviet forces in East Germany, located in Potsdam.
Allied personnel were restricted by policy when travelling by land to the following routes:
As with military personnel, special procedures applied to travel by diplomatic personnel of the Western Allies accredited to their respective embassies in the GDR. This was intended to prevent inadvertent recognition of East German authority when crossing between East and West Berlin, which could jeopardize the overall Allied position governing the freedom of movement by Allied forces personnel within all Berlin.
Ordinary citizens of the Western Allied powers, not formally affiliated with the Allied forces, were authorized to use all designated transit routes through East Germany to and from West Berlin. Regarding travel to East Berlin, such persons could also use the Friedrichstraße train station to enter and exit the city, in addition to Checkpoint Charlie. In these instances, such travelers, unlike Allied personnel, had to submit to East German border controls.
During the years of the Wall, around 5,000 people successfully defected to West Berlin. The number of people who died trying to cross the Wall, or as a result of the Wall 's existence, has been disputed. The most vocal claims by Alexandra Hildebrandt, Director of the Checkpoint Charlie Museum and widow of the Museum 's founder, estimated the death toll to be well above 200. A historic research group at the Center for Contemporary Historical Research (ZZF) in Potsdam has confirmed at least 140 deaths. Prior official figures listed 98 as being killed.
The East German government issued shooting orders (Schießbefehl) to border guards dealing with defectors, though such orders are not the same as "shoot to kill '' orders. GDR officials denied issuing the latter. In an October 1973 order later discovered by researchers, guards were instructed that people attempting to cross the Wall were criminals and needed to be shot: "Do not hesitate to use your firearm, not even when the border is breached in the company of women and children, which is a tactic the traitors have often used ''.
Early successful escapes involved people jumping the initial barbed wire or leaping out of apartment windows along the line, but these ended as the Wall was fortified. East German authorities no longer permitted apartments near the Wall to be occupied, and any building near the Wall had its windows boarded and later bricked up. On 15 August 1961, Conrad Schumann was the first East German border guard to escape by jumping the barbed wire to West Berlin.
On 22 August 1961, Ida Siekmann was the first casualty at the Berlin Wall: she died after she jumped out of her third floor apartment at 48 Bernauer Strasse. The first person to be shot and killed while trying to cross to West Berlin was Günter Litfin, a twenty - four - year - old tailor. He attempted to swim across the Spree Canal to West Germany on 24 August 1961, the same day that East German police had received shoot - to - kill orders to prevent anyone from escaping.
Another dramatic escape was carried out on April 1963 by Wolfgang Engels, a 19 - year - old civilian employee of the Nationale Volksarmee. Engels stole a Soviet armored personnel carrier from a base where he was deployed and drove it right into the Wall. He was fired at and seriously wounded by border guards. But a West German policeman intervened, firing his weapon at the East German border guards. The policeman removed Engels from the vehicle, which had become entangled in the barbed wire.
East Germans successfully defected by a variety of methods: digging long tunnels under the Wall, waiting for favorable winds and taking a hot air balloon, sliding along aerial wires, flying ultralights and, in one instance, simply driving a sports car at full speed through the basic, initial fortifications. When a metal beam was placed at checkpoints to prevent this kind of defection, up to four people (two in the front seats and possibly two in the boot) drove under the bar in a sports car that had been modified to allow the roof and windscreen to come away when it made contact with the beam. They lay flat and kept driving forward. The East Germans then built zig - zagging roads at checkpoints. The sewer system predated the Wall, and some people escaped through the sewers, in a number of cases with assistance from the Unternehmen Reisebüro.
An airborne escape was made by Thomas Krüger, who landed a Zlin Z 42 M light aircraft of the Gesellschaft für Sport und Technik, an East German youth military training organization, at RAF Gatow. His aircraft, registration DDR - WOH, was dismantled and returned to the East Germans by road, complete with humorous slogans painted on it by RAF airmen, such as "Wish you were here '' and "Come back soon ''. DDR - WOH is still flying today, but under the registration D - EWOH.
If an escapee was wounded in a crossing attempt and lay on the death strip, no matter how close they were to the Western wall, Westerners could not intervene for fear of triggering engaging fire from the ' Grepos ', the East Berlin border guards. The guards often let fugitives bleed to death in the middle of this ground, as in the most notorious failed attempt, that of Peter Fechter (aged 18). He was shot and bled to death, in full view of the Western media, on 17 August 1962. Fechter 's death created negative publicity worldwide that led the leaders of East Berlin to place more restrictions on shooting in public places, and provide medical care for possible "would - be escapers ''. The last person to be shot and killed while trying to cross the border was Chris Gueffroy on 6 February 1989, while the final person to die in an escape attempt was Winfried Freudenberg who was killed when his homemade natural gas - filled balloon crashed on 8 March 1989.
The Wall gave rise to a widespread sense of desperation and oppression in East Berlin, as expressed in the private thoughts of one resident, who confided to her diary "Our lives have lost their spirit... we can do nothing to stop them. ''
Every stone bears witness to the moral bankruptcy of the society it encloses
-- Margaret Thatcher commenting about the wall, West Berlin, 1982
On 6 June 1987, David Bowie, who earlier for several years lived and recorded in West Berlin, played a concert close to the Wall. This was attended by thousands of Eastern concertgoers across the Wall, followed by violent rioting in East Berlin. According to Tobias Ruther, these protests in East Berlin were the first in the sequence of riots that led to those of November 1989. Although other factors were probably more influential in the fall of the Wall, on his death, the German Foreign Office tweeted "Good - bye, David Bowie. You are now among # Heroes. Thank you for helping to bring down the # wall. ''
On 19 July 1988, 16 months before the Wall came down, Bruce Springsteen and the E-Street Band, played Rocking the Wall, a live concert in East Berlin, which was attended by 300,000 in person and broadcast delayed on television. Springsteen spoke to the crowd in German, saying: "I 'm not here for or against any government. I 've come to play rock ' n ' roll for you in the hope that one day all the barriers will be torn down ''. East Germany and its FDJ youth organization were worried they were losing an entire generation. They hoped that by letting Springsteen in, they could improve their sentiment among East Germans. However, this strategy of "one step backwards, two steps forwards '' backfired and the concert only made East Germans hungrier for more of the freedoms that Springsteen epitomized. While John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan delivered their famous speeches from the safety of West Berlin, Springsteen 's speaking out against the Wall in the middle of East Berlin added to the euphoria.
On 31 December 1989, American TV actor and pop music singer David Hasselhoff was the headlining performer for the Freedom Tour Live concert, which was attended by over 500,000 people on both sides of the Wall. The live concert footage was directed by music video director Thomas Mignone and aired on broadcast television station Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen ZDF throughout Europe. During shooting film crew personnel pulled people up from both sides to stand and celebrate on top of the wall. Hasselhoff sang his Number One hit song "Looking For Freedom '' on a platform at the end of a twenty - meter steel crane that swung above and over the Wall adjacent to the Brandenburg Gate.
On 26 June 1963, 22 months after the erection of the Berlin Wall, U.S. President John F. Kennedy visited West Berlin. Speaking from a platform erected on the steps of Rathaus Schöneberg for an audience of 450,000 he declared in his Ich bin ein Berliner speech the support of the United States for West Germany and the people of West Berlin in particular:
Two thousand years ago, the proudest boast was civis romanus sum ("I am a Roman citizen ''). Today, in the world of freedom, the proudest boast is "Ich bin ein Berliner! ''... All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin, and therefore, as a free man, I take pride in the words "Ich bin ein Berliner! ''
The message was aimed as much at the Soviets as it was at Berliners and was a clear statement of U.S. policy in the wake of the construction of the Berlin Wall. The speech is considered one of Kennedy 's best, both a notable moment of the Cold War and a high point of the New Frontier. It was a great morale boost for West Berliners, who lived in an exclave deep inside East Germany and feared a possible East German occupation.
In a speech at the Brandenburg Gate commemorating the 750th anniversary of Berlin on 12 June 1987, U.S. President Ronald Reagan challenged Mikhail Gorbachev, then the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, to tear down the Wall as a symbol of increasing freedom in the Eastern Bloc:
We welcome change and openness; for we believe that freedom and security go together, that the advance of human liberty can only strengthen the cause of world peace. There is one sign the Soviets can make that would be unmistakable, that would advance dramatically the cause of freedom and peace. General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization, come here to this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this Wall!
In June 1989 the Hungarian government began dismantling the electrified fence along its border with Austria (with Western TV crews present), and then, in September, more than 13,000 East German tourists escaped through Hungary to Austria. This set up a chain of events. The Hungarians prevented many more East Germans from crossing the border and returned them to Budapest. These East Germans flooded the West German embassy and refused to return to East Germany.
The East German government responded by disallowing any further travel to Hungary, but allowed those already there to return to East Germany. This triggered similar events in neighboring Czechoslovakia. This time, however, the East German authorities allowed people to leave, provided that they did so by train through East Germany. This was followed by mass demonstrations within East Germany itself. Protest demonstrations spread throughout East Germany in September 1989. Initially, protesters were mostly people wanting to leave to the West, chanting "Wir wollen raus! '' ("We want out! ''). Then protestors began to chant "Wir bleiben hier! '' ("We are staying here! ''). This was the start of what East Germans generally call the "Peaceful Revolution '' of late 1989. The protest demonstrations grew considerably by early November. The movement neared its height on 4 November, when half a million people gathered to demand political change, at the Alexanderplatz demonstration, East Berlin 's large public square and transportation hub.
The longtime leader of East Germany, Erich Honecker, resigned on 18 October 1989 and was replaced by Egon Krenz that day. Honecker had predicted in January of that year that the Wall would stand for 50 or 100 more years if the conditions that had caused its construction did not change.
The wave of refugees leaving East Germany for the West kept increasing. By early November refugees were finding their way to Hungary via Czechoslovakia, or via the West German Embassy in Prague. This was tolerated by the new Krenz government, because of long - standing agreements with the communist Czechoslovak government, allowing free travel across their common border. However this movement of people grew so large it caused difficulties for both countries. To ease the difficulties, the politburo led by Krenz decided on 9 November to allow refugees to exit directly through crossing points between East Germany and West Germany, including between East and West Berlin. Later the same day, the ministerial administration modified the proposal to include private, round - trip, travel. The new regulations were to take effect the next day.
Günter Schabowski, the party boss in East Berlin and the spokesman for the SED Politburo, had the task of announcing the new regulations. However, he had not been involved in the discussions about the new regulations and had not been fully updated. Shortly before a press conference on 9 November, he was handed a note announcing the changes, but given no further instructions on how to handle the information. These regulations had only been completed a few hours earlier and were to take effect the following day, so as to allow time to inform the border guards. But this starting time delay was not communicated to Schabowski.
At the end of the press conference, Schabowski read out loud the note he had been given. One of the reporters, ANSA 's Riccardo Ehrman, asked when the regulations would take effect. After a few seconds ' hesitation, Schabowski assumed it would be the same day based on the wording of the note and replied, "As far as I know, it takes effect immediately, without delay ''. After further questions from journalists, he confirmed that the regulations included the border crossings through the Wall into West Berlin, which he had not mentioned until then.
Excerpts from Schabowski 's press conference were the lead story on West Germany 's two main news programs that night -- at 7: 17 p.m. on ZDF 's heute and at 8 p.m. on ARD 's Tagesschau. This meant that the news was broadcast to nearly all of East Germany as well. Later that night, on ARD 's Tagesthemen, anchorman Hanns Joachim Friedrichs proclaimed, "This 9 November is a historic day. The GDR has announced that, starting immediately, its borders are open to everyone. The gates in the Wall stand open wide. ''
After hearing the broadcast, East Germans began gathering at the Wall, at the six checkpoints between East and West Berlin, demanding that border guards immediately open the gates. The surprised and overwhelmed guards made many hectic telephone calls to their superiors about the problem. At first, they were ordered to find the "more aggressive '' people gathered at the gates and stamp their passports with a special stamp that barred them from returning to East Germany -- in effect, revoking their citizenship. However, this still left thousands of people demanding to be let through "as Schabowski said we can ''.
It soon became clear that no one among the East German authorities would take personal responsibility for issuing orders to use lethal force, so the vastly outnumbered soldiers had no way to hold back the huge crowd of East German citizens. Finally, at 10: 45 p.m., Harald Jäger, the commander of the Bornholmer Straße border crossing yielded, allowing for the guards to open the checkpoints and allowing people through with little or no identity checking. As the Ossis swarmed through, they were greeted by Wessis waiting with flowers and champagne amid wild rejoicing. Soon afterward, a crowd of West Berliners jumped on top of the Wall, and were soon joined by East German youngsters. They danced together to celebrate their new freedom.
Walking through Checkpoint Charlie, 10 November 1989
Germans stand on top of the Wall in the days before it was torn down
At the Brandenburg Gate, 10 November 1989
Juggling on the Wall on 16 November 1989
"Mauerspecht '' (November 1989)
The Fall of the Wall (November 1989)
Another border crossing to the south may have been opened earlier. An account by Heinz Schäfer indicates that he also acted independently and ordered the opening of the gate at Waltersdorf - Rudow a couple of hours earlier. This may explain reports of East Berliners appearing in West Berlin earlier than the opening of the Bornholmer Straße border crossing.
The fall of the Berlin Wall (German: Mauerfall) began the evening of 9 November 1989 and continued over the following days and weeks, with people nicknamed Mauerspechte (wall woodpeckers) using various tools to chip off souvenirs, demolishing lengthy parts in the process, and creating several unofficial border crossings.
Television coverage of citizens demolishing sections of the Wall on 9 November was soon followed by the East German regime announcing ten new border crossings, including the historically significant locations of Potsdamer Platz, Glienicker Brücke, and Bernauer Straße. Crowds gathered on both sides of the historic crossings waiting for hours to cheer the bulldozers that tore down portions of the Wall to reconnect the divided roads. While the Wall officially remained guarded at a decreasing intensity, new border crossings continued for some time, including the Brandenburg Gate on 22 December 1989. Initially the East German military attempted repairing damage done by the "Wall peckers ''; gradually these attempts ceased, and guards became more lax, tolerating the increasing demolitions and "unauthorized '' border crossing through the holes.
West Germans and West Berliners were allowed visa - free travel starting 23 December. Until then, they could only visit East Germany and East Berlin under restrictive conditions that involved application for a visa several days or weeks in advance and obligatory exchange of at least 25 DM per day of their planned stay, all of which hindered spontaneous visits. Thus, in the weeks between 9 November and 23 December, East Germans could actually travel more freely than Westerners.
On 13 June 1990, the East German military officially began dismantling the Wall, beginning in Bernauer Straße and around the Mitte district. From there, demolition continued through Prenzlauer Berg / Gesundbrunnen, Helligensee and throughout the city of Berlin until that December 1990. According to estimates by the border troops, a total of around 1.7 million tonnes of building rubble wasfall. Unofficially, the demolition of the Bornholmer Straße began because of construction work on the railway. This involved a total of 300 GDR border guards and - after 3 October 1990 - 600 Pioneers of the Bundeswehr. These were equipped with 175 trucks, 65 cranes, 55 excavators and 13 bulldozers. Virtually every road that was severed by the Berlin Wall (that links from West Berlin to East Berlin) was reconstructed and reopened by 1 August 1990. In Berlin alone, 184 km of wall, 154 km border fence, 144 km signal systems and 87 km barrier ditches were removed. What remained were six sections that were to be preserved as a memorial. Various military units dismantled the Berlin / Brandenberg border wall, completing the job in November 1991. Painted wall segments with artistically valuable motifs were auctioned in auctions in 1990 in Berlin and Monte Carlo.
On 1 July, the day East Germany adopted the West German currency, all de jure border controls ceased, although the inter-German border had become meaningless for some time before that.
The fall of the Wall marked the first critical step towards German reunification, which formally concluded a mere 339 days later on 3 October 1990 with the dissolution of East Germany and the official reunification of the German state along the democratic lines of the West German Basic Law.
An East German guard talks to a Westerner through a broken seam in the wall in late November 1989.
A crane removes a section of the Wall near Brandenburg Gate on 21 December 1989.
Almost all of the remaining sections were rapidly chipped away. December 1990.
West Germans peer at East German border guards through a hole in the wall on 5 January 1990.
Short section of the Berlin Wall at Potsdamer Platz, March 2009
Souvenir chunk of concrete from the Wall
In some European capitals at the time, there was a deep anxiety over prospects for a reunified Germany. In September 1989, British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher pleaded with Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev not to let the Berlin Wall fall and confided that she wanted the Soviet leader to do what he could to stop it.
"We do not want a united Germany. This would lead to a change to postwar borders and we can not allow that because such a development would undermine the stability of the whole international situation and could endanger our security, '' Thatcher told Gorbachev.
After the fall of the Berlin Wall, French President François Mitterrand warned Thatcher that a unified Germany could make more ground than Adolf Hitler ever had and that Europe would have to bear the consequences.
On 21 November 1989, Crosby, Stills & Nash performed the song "Chippin ' Away '' from Graham Nash 's 1986 solo album Innocent Eyes in front of the Brandenburg Gate.
On 25 December 1989, Leonard Bernstein gave a concert in Berlin celebrating the end of the Wall, including Beethoven 's 9th symphony (Ode to Joy) with the word "Joy '' (Freude) changed to "Freedom '' (Freiheit) in the lyrics sung. The poet Schiller may have originally written "Freedom '' and changed it to "Joy '' out of fear. The orchestra and choir were drawn from both East and West Germany, as well as the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States. On New Year 's Eve 1989, David Hasselhoff performed his song "Looking for Freedom '' while standing atop the partly demolished wall.
Roger Waters performed the Pink Floyd album The Wall just north of Potsdamer Platz on 21 July 1990, with guests including Bon Jovi, Scorpions, Bryan Adams, Sinéad O'Connor, Cyndi Lauper, Thomas Dolby, Joni Mitchell, Marianne Faithfull, Levon Helm, Rick Danko and Van Morrison.
Over the years, there has been a repeated controversial debate as to whether 9 November would make a suitable German national holiday, often initiated by former members of political opposition in East Germany, such as Werner Schulz. Besides being the emotional apogee of East Germany 's peaceful revolution, 9 November is also the date of the 1918 abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II and declaration of the Weimar Republic, the first German republic. However, 9 November is also the anniversary of the execution of Robert Blum in following the 1848 Vienna revolts, the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch and the infamous Kristallnacht pogroms of the Nazis in 1938. Nobel Laureate Elie Wiesel criticized the first euphoria, noting that "they forgot that 9 November has already entered into history -- 51 years earlier it marked the Kristallnacht. '' As reunification was not official and complete until 3 October, that day was finally chosen as German Unity Day.
On 9 November 2009, Berlin celebrated the 20th Anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall with a "Festival of Freedom '' with dignitaries from around the world in attendance for an evening celebration around the Brandenburg Gate. A high point was when over 1,000 colourfully designed foam domino tiles, each over 8 feet (2.4 m) tall, that were stacked along the former route of the Wall in the city center were toppled in stages, converging in front of the Brandenburg Gate.
A Berlin Twitter Wall was set up to allow Twitter users to post messages commemorating the 20th anniversary. The Chinese government quickly shut down access to the Twitter Wall after masses of Chinese users began using it to protest the Great Firewall of China.
In the United States, the German Embassy coordinated a public diplomacy campaign with the motto "Freedom Without Walls '', to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall. The campaign was focused on promoting awareness of the fall of the Berlin Wall among current college students. Students at over 30 universities participated in "Freedom Without Walls '' events in late 2009. First place winner of the Freedom Without Walls Speaking Contest Robert Cannon received a free trip to Berlin for 2010.
An international project called Mauerreise (Journey of the Wall) took place in various countries. Twenty symbolic Wall bricks were sent from Berlin starting in May 2009, with the destinations being Korea, Cyprus, Yemen, and other places where everyday life is characterised by division and border experience. In these places, the bricks will become a blank canvas for artists, intellectuals and young people to tackle the "wall '' phenomenon.
To commemorate the 20th Anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall, Twinity reconstructed a true - to - scale section of the Wall in virtual Berlin. The MTV Europe Music Awards, on 5 November, had U2 and Tokio Hotel perform songs dedicated to, and about the Berlin Wall. U2 performed at the Brandenburg Gate, and Tokio Hotel performed "World Behind My Wall ''.
Palestinians in the town of Kalandia, West Bank pulled down parts of the Israeli West Bank barrier, in a demonstration marking the 20th Anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall.
The International Spy Museum in Washington DC hosted a Trabant car rally where 20 Trabants gathered in recognition of the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall. Rides were raffled every half - hour and a Trabant crashed through a Berlin Wall mock up. The Trabant was the East German people 's car that many used to leave DDR after the collapse.
The Allied Museum in the Dahlem district of Berlin hosted a number of events to mark the Twentieth Anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall. The museum held a Special Exhibition entitled "Wall Patrol -- The Western Powers and the Berlin Wall 1961 -- 1990 '' which focused on the daily patrols deployed by the Western powers to observe the situation along the Berlin Wall and the fortifications on the GDR border. A sheet of "Americans in Berlin '' Commemorative Cinderella stamps designed by T.H.E. Hill, the author of Voices Under Berlin, was presented to the Museum by David Guerra, Berlin veteran and webmaster of the site www.berlinbrigade.com. The stamps splendidly illustrate that even twenty years on, veterans of service in Berlin still regard their service there as one of the high points of their lives.
Remaining stretch of the Wall near Ostbahnhof in Friedrichshain called East Side Gallery, August 2006
Remains of the Wall adjacent to the Topography of Terror, August 2007
A memorial of over a thousand crosses and a segment of the Wall for those who died trying to cross. The memorial stood for ten months in 2004 and 2005 before it was removed.
A "BERLINER MAUER 1961 -- 1989 '' plaque near Checkpoint Charlie signifying where the Wall stood
Display of two sections of the Wall and a "You are leaving '' sign at Fort Gordon, Georgia
The Berlin Wall from the East Berlin side, 1967
A sign reading "Until we see each other again in the capital of the GDR ''
Czech hedgehog antitank obstacles and the Wall
An exhibition dedicated to the 25th anniversary to the Berlin Wall destruction was located at Potsdamer Platz Arkaden
Line indicating where the Wall once stood, just off Potsdamer Platz, in 2015
Little is left of the Wall at its original site, which was destroyed almost in its entirety. Three long sections are still standing: an 80 - metre - long (260 ft) piece of the first (westernmost) wall at the Topography of Terror, site of the former Gestapo headquarters, halfway between Checkpoint Charlie and Potsdamer Platz; a longer section of the second (easternmost) wall along the Spree River near the Oberbaumbrücke, nicknamed East Side Gallery; and a third section that is partly reconstructed, in the north at Bernauer Straße, which was turned into a memorial in 1999. Other isolated fragments, lampposts, other elements, and a few watchtowers also remain in various parts of the city.
Nothing still accurately represents the Wall 's original appearance better than a very short stretch at Bernauer Straße associated with the Berlin Wall Documentation Center. Other remnants are badly damaged by souvenir seekers. Fragments of the Wall were taken and some were sold around the world. Appearing both with and without certificates of authenticity, these fragments are now a staple on the online auction service eBay as well as German souvenir shops. Today, the eastern side is covered in graffiti that did not exist while the Wall was guarded by the armed soldiers of East Germany. Previously, graffiti appeared only on the western side. Along some tourist areas of the city centre, the city government has marked the location of the former Wall by a row of cobblestones in the street. In most places only the "first '' wall is marked, except near Potsdamer Platz where the stretch of both walls is marked, giving visitors an impression of the dimension of the barrier system.
After the fall of Berlin Wall, there were initiatives that they want to preserve the death strip walkways and redevelop it into a hiking and cycling area, known as Berliner Mauerweg. It is part of the initiative by Berlin Senate since 2005.
For many years after reunification, people in Germany talked about cultural differences between East and West Germans (colloquially Ossis and Wessis), sometimes described as Mauer im Kopf (The wall in the head). A September 2004 poll found that 25 percent of West Germans and 12 percent of East Germans wished that East and West should be separated again by a "Wall ''. A poll taken in October 2009 on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Wall indicated, however, that only about a tenth of the population was still unhappy with the unification (8 percent in the East; 12 percent in the West). Although differences are still perceived between East and West, Germans make similar distinctions between North and South.
A 2011 poll conducted by Russia 's VTsIOM, found that more than half of all Russians do not know who built the Berlin Wall. Ten percent of people surveyed thought Berlin residents built it themselves. Six percent said Western powers built it and four percent thought it was a "bilateral initiative '' of the Soviet Union and the West. Fifty - eight percent said they did not know who built it, with just 24 percent correctly naming the Soviet Union and its then - communist ally East Germany.
Not all segments of the Wall were ground up as the Wall was being torn down. Many segments have been given to various institutions in the world. They can be found, for instance, in presidential and historical museums, lobbies of hotels and corporations, at universities and government buildings, and in public spaces in different countries of the world.
On 13 August 2011, Germany marked the 50th anniversary of East Germany beginning the erection of the Berlin Wall. Chancellor Angela Merkel joined with President Christian Wulff and Berlin Mayor Klaus Wowereit at the Bernauer Straße memorial park to remember lives and liberty. Speeches extolled freedom and a minute of silence at noon honored those who died trying to flee to the West. "It is our shared responsibility to keep the memory alive and to pass it on to the coming generations as a reminder to stand up for freedom and democracy to ensure that such injustice may never happen again, '' entreated Mayor Wowereit. "It has been shown once again: Freedom is invincible at the end. No wall can permanently withstand the desire for freedom '', proclaimed President Wulff. ''
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
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who owns the rights to dukes of hazzard | The Dukes of Hazzard - wikipedia
The Dukes of Hazzard is an American action - comedy television series that aired on CBS from January 26, 1979, to February 8, 1985. The show aired for a total of 147 episodes spanning seven seasons. The series was inspired by the 1975 film Moonrunners, which was also created by Gy Waldron and had many identical or similar character names and concepts.
The Dukes of Hazzard had an ensemble cast, which also follows the adventures of "The Duke Boys, '' cousins Bo Duke (John Schneider) and Luke Duke (Tom Wopat) (including Coy and Vance Duke for most of season 5), who live on a family farm in fictional Hazzard County, Georgia, with their attractive female cousin Daisy (Catherine Bach) and their wise old Uncle Jesse (Denver Pyle). The Duke boys race around in their customized 1969 Dodge Charger stock car, dubbed (The) General Lee, evading crooked and corrupt county commissioner Boss Hogg (Sorrell Booke) and his bumbling and corrupt Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane (James Best) along with his deputy (s), and always managing to get caught in the middle of the various escapades and incidents that often occur in the area. Bo and Luke had previously been sentenced to probation for illegal transportation of moonshine; their Uncle Jesse made a plea bargain with the U.S. Government to refrain from distilling moonshine in exchange for Bo and Luke 's freedom. As a result, Bo and Luke are on probation and not allowed to carry firearms -- instead, they often use compound bows, sometimes with arrows tipped with dynamite -- or to leave Hazzard County unless they get probation permission from their probation officer, Boss Hogg, although the exact details of their probation terms vary from episode to episode. Sometimes it is implied that they would be jailed for merely crossing the county line; on other occasions, it is shown that they may leave Hazzard, as long as they are back within a certain time limit. Several other technicalities of their probation also came into play at various times.
Corrupt county commissioner Jefferson Davis (J.D.) "Boss '' Hogg, who either runs or has fingers in virtually everything in Hazzard County, is forever angry with the Dukes, especially Bo and Luke, for always foiling his crooked schemes. He is always looking for ways to get them out of the picture so that his plots have a chance of succeeding. Many episodes revolve around Hogg trying to engage in an illegal scheme, sometimes with aid of hired criminal help. Some of these are get - rich - quick schemes, though many others affect the financial security of the Duke farm, which Hogg has long wanted to acquire for various reasons. Other times, Hogg hires criminals from out of town to do his dirty work for him, and often tries to frame Bo and Luke for various crimes as part of these plots. Bo and Luke always seem to stumble over Hogg 's latest scheme, sometimes by curiosity, and often by sheer luck, and put it out of business. Despite the Dukes often coming to his rescue (see below), Hogg forever seems to have an irrational dislike of the clan, particularly Bo and Luke, often accusing them of spying on him, robbing or planning to rob him, and other supposedly nefarious actions, as he believes they are generally out to get him.
The role of Boss Hogg was played by Sorrell Booke, who performed frequently on radio, stage, and film prior to his role in The Dukes of Hazzard. Boss Hogg is one of only two characters to appear in every episode of the TV series, the other being Uncle Jesse Duke. His namesake is Jefferson Davis, the President of the Confederate States of America.
The other main characters of the show include local mechanic Cooter Davenport (Ben Jones), who in early episodes was portrayed as a wild, unshaven rebel, often breaking or treading on the edge of the law, before settling down to become the Duke family 's best friend (he is often referred to as an "honorary Duke '') and owns the local garage; and Enos Strate (Sonny Shroyer), an honest but naive young deputy who, despite his friendship with the Dukes (and his crush on Daisy), is reluctantly forced to take part in Hogg and Rosco 's crooked schemes. In the third and fourth seasons, when Enos leaves for his own show, he is replaced by Deputy Cletus Hogg (Rick Hurst), Boss 's cousin, who is slightly more wily than Enos but still a somewhat reluctant player in Hogg 's plots.
Owing to their fundamentally good natures, the Dukes often wind up helping Boss Hogg out of trouble, albeit grudgingly. More than once Hogg is targeted by former associates who are either seeking revenge or have double crossed him after a scheme has unraveled in one way or another. Sheriff Coltrane also finds himself targeted in some instances. On such occasions, Bo and Luke usually have to rescue their adversaries as an inevitable precursor to defeating the bad guys; in other instances, the Dukes join forces with Hogg and Coltrane to tackle bigger threats to Hazzard or one of their respective parties. These instances became more frequent as the show progressed, and later seasons saw a number of stories where the Dukes and Hogg (and Coltrane) temporarily work together.
The series was developed from the 1975 film Moonrunners. Created by Gy Waldron in collaboration with ex-moonshiner Jerry Rushing, this movie shares many identical and very similar names and concepts with the subsequent TV series. Although itself essentially a comedy, this original movie was much cruder and edgier than the family - friendly TV series that would evolve from it.
In 1977, Waldron was approached by Warner Bros. with the idea of developing Moonrunners into a television series. Waldron reworked various elements from Moonrunners, and from it was devised what would become The Dukes of Hazzard. Production began in October 1978 with the original intention of only nine episodes being produced as mid-season filler. The first five episodes were filmed in Covington and Conyers, Georgia and surrounding areas, including some location work in nearby Atlanta. After completing production on the fifth episode, "High Octane '', the cast and crew broke for Christmas break, expecting to return in several weeks ' time to complete the ordered run of episodes. In the meantime, executives at Warner Bros. were impressed by the rough preview cuts of the completed episodes and saw potential in developing the show into a full - running series; part of this plan was to move production from Georgia to the Warner Bros. lot in Burbank, California, primarily to simplify production as well as develop a larger workshop to service the large number of automobiles needed for the series.
Rushing appeared as shady used car dealer Ace Parker in the third episode produced, "Repo Men '' (the fourth to be broadcast). Rushing believed this to be the start of a recurring role, in return for which he would supply creative ideas from his experiences: many of the Dukes (and thus Moonrunners) characters and situations were derived from Rushing 's experiences as a youth, and much of the character of Bo Duke he states to be based on him. However, "Repo Men '' would turn out to be the character 's only appearance in the entire show 's run, leading to a legal dispute in the following years over the rights to characters and concepts between Rushing and Warner Bros., although he remained on good terms with cast and crew and in recent years has made appearances at several fan conventions.
By the end of the first (half) season, the family - friendly tone of The Dukes of Hazzard was mostly in place. When the show returned for a second season in Fall 1979 (its first full season), with a few further minor tweaks, the show quickly found its footing as a family - friendly comedy - adventure series. By the third season, starting in Fall 1980, the template was well set in place for that which would be widely associated with the show.
As well as its regular car chases, jumps and stunts, The Dukes of Hazzard relied on character familiarity, with each character effectively serving the same role within a typical episode, and with Deputy Cletus replacing Deputy Enos in Seasons 3 and 4, and Coy and Vance Duke temporarily replacing Bo and Luke (due to a salary dispute) for most of Season 5, being the only major cast changes through the show 's run (Ben Jones and James Best both left temporarily during the second season due to different disputes with producers, but both returned within a few episodes). Of the characters, only Uncle Jesse and Boss Hogg appeared in all 145 episodes; Daisy appears in all but one, the third season 's "To Catch a Duke ''. The General Lee also appears in all but one (the early first - season episode "Mary Kaye 's Baby '', the fourth to be produced and the third broadcast).
The pilot episode was to include a barber modeled after Floyd Lawson on The Andy Griffith Show as a regular character, but was eliminated when the final draft of the pilot 's script was written and before the show was cast.
When John Schneider auditioned for the role of Bo Duke, he came to the audition in a dilapidated pickup truck, sporting a week - long beard growth, wearing overalls and a white T - shirt with a pack of cigarettes rolled up in a sleeve collar, and carrying a can of beer, trying to look the part. At the audition, Schneider drank the beer and said he was from Snellville. The producers bought his "Good Ol ' Boy '' act and Schneider was hired on the spot.
Throughout its network television run, The Dukes of Hazzard had a consistent mix of up - and - comers and established stars make guest appearances.
NASCAR driver Terry Labonte makes a brief, uncredited appearance as a crewman in the episode Undercover Dukes Part 1. The race cars supplied for both part 1 and part 2 of Undercover Dukes were supplied by Labonte 's race owner, Billy Hagan. However, the emblems of the sponsors of the cars (at that time Labonte was sponsored by Budweiser) were covered to avoid paying royalties.
During the show 's second season, the show 's writers began flirting with the idea of incorporating a "celebrity speed trap '' into some of the episodes, as a means to feature top country stars of the day performing their hits. On its first couple of instances, the "Speed Trap '' was featured early in the story, but for most of the cases, it was featured in the last few minutes of an episode, often used when the main story was running too short to fill episode time.
The "celebrity speed trap '' feature was essentially similar: Aware that a big - name country star was passing through the area, Boss Hogg would order Rosco to lower the speed limit on a particular road to an unreasonable level (using a reversible sign, with one speed limit on one side and another, far lower, on the back), so that the targeted singer would be in violation of the posted limit. The singer would be required to give a free performance at the Boar 's Nest in exchange for having their citations forgiven; the performer would then perform one of their best - known hits or other popular country music standard, while the Dukes, Boss, Rosco, Enos, Cletus, Cooter, and other patrons whooped and hollered in enjoyment of the performance. More often than not, the performer would give a sarcastic parting shot to Boss and Rosco.
Singers who were featured in the "speed trap '' segments were:
Honorable Mentions: Mickey Gilley, Loretta Lynn
Gilley 's and Lynn 's appearances were not solely for the celebrity speed trap. After performing a concert in Hazzard, Gilley was nabbed while leaving and forced to do a second show to nullify his citation. Lynn was kidnapped by criminals wanting to break into the music business. Loretta Lynn was the very first country music guest star on the show in 1979 and had an entire show titled "Find Loretta Lynn. ''
Note: Janie Fricke was the only guest country star who did not perform a song, celebrity speed trap or otherwise. She played an accomplice to a robber in an episode who hid money in the dashboard of the car that was to become the General Lee.
The Dukes of Hazzard was consistently among the top - rated television series (at one point, ranking second only to Dallas, which immediately followed the show on CBS ' Friday night schedule). With that success came huge profits in merchandising, with a wide array of Dukes of Hazzard toys and products being licensed and becoming big sellers. However, over the course of the show 's fourth season, series stars Tom Wopat and John Schneider became increasingly concerned about a contract dispute over their salaries and merchandising royalties owed to them over the high sales of Dukes products. Neither were being paid what was owed to them and this became very frustrating to the duo. As a result, in the spring of 1982, as filming was due to begin on the fifth season, Wopat and Schneider did not report to the set in protest over the matter. Catherine Bach also considered walking out due to similar concerns, but Wopat and Schneider convinced her to stay, insisting that if she left then there may not be a show to come back to, and that settling the issue was up to them.
Production was pushed back by a few weeks as fairly similar looking replacements were subsequently, hastily hired: Byron Cherry as Coy Duke and Christopher Mayer as Vance Duke. Bo and Luke were said to have gone to race on the NASCAR circuit; how they managed to do this, bearing in mind the terms of their probation, was never explained. Cherry and Mayer were originally contracted at just ten episodes as stand - ins, still with hope that a settlement might be reached with Wopat and Schneider (in total, they made 19 episodes including 1 with Bo and Luke). Some scripts for Coy and Vance were originally written for Bo and Luke but with their names quite literally crossed out and Coy and Vance penned in.
The new Dukes -- previously - unmentioned nephews of Uncle Jesse, who were said to have left the farm in 1976, before the show had started -- were unpopular with the great majority of viewers, and the ratings immediately sank. Much of the criticism was that Coy and Vance were nothing but direct clones of Bo and Luke, with Coy a direct "carbon copy '' replacement for Bo and Vance for Luke, with little variation in character. This was something that even show creator Gy Waldron has said was wrong, and that he insisted, unsuccessfully, that audiences would not accept direct character clones and the two replacements should be taken in a different direction characterwise, but was overridden by producers. Waldron also commented that if Bach too had walked, the show would have most probably been cancelled. It was reported that prior to filming, Cherry and Mayer were given Bo and Luke episodes to watch, to study and learn to emulate them, although Cherry has said in interviews that he does n't recall this ever happening.
Hit hard by the significant drop in ratings, Warner Bros. renegotiated with Wopat and Schneider, and eventually a settlement was reached, and the original Duke boys returned to the series in early 1983, four episodes from the conclusion of the fifth season. Initially, part of the press release announcing Wopat and Schneider 's return suggested that Cherry and Mayer would remain as part of the cast (though presumably in a reduced role), but it was quickly realized that "four Duke boys '' would not work within the context of the series, and due to the huge unpopularity associated with their time on the show, they were quickly written out of the same episode in which Bo and Luke returned.
Although Coy and Vance were never popular with the majority, a few viewers were disappointed by their departure episode, "Welcome Back, Bo ' N ' Luke '', which was for the most part a standard episode, with the return of Bo and Luke and the departure of Coy and Vance tacked onto the beginning (Bo and Luke return from their NASCAR tour just as Coy and Vance leave Hazzard to tend to a sick relative). Even a few viewers commented that they were disappointed by this, and that they would have liked to have seen both pairs of Duke boys team up to tackle a particularly dastardly plot by Boss Hogg before Coy and Vance 's departure, but as it turned out, Coy and Vance had little dialogue and were gone by the first commercial break, never to be seen again.
While the return of Bo and Luke was welcomed by ardent and casual viewers alike, and as a result ratings recovered slightly, the show never completely regained its former popularity. One of Wopat and Schneider 's disputes even before they left was what they considered to be increasingly weak and formulaic scripts and episode plots. With Wopat and Schneider 's return, the producers agreed to try a wider scope of storylines. However, although it continued for two more seasons, the show never fully returned to its former glory. Many cast members decried the miniature car effects newly incorporated to depict increasingly absurd General Lee and patrol car stunts (which had previously been performed with real cars by stunt drivers). The miniature car effects were intended as a budget saving measure (to save the cost of repairing or replacing damaged vehicles) and to help compete visually with KITT from the NBC series Knight Rider. In February 1985, The Dukes of Hazzard ended its run after seven seasons.
The General Lee was based on a 1969 Dodge Charger owned by Bo and Luke (the series used mostly 1969 Chargers in the beginning; later on, they also modified 1968 Chargers to look like 1969s by installing 1969 - model taillamps, taillamp panels, and grilles). It was orange with a Confederate battle flag painted on the roof, the words "GENERAL LEE '' over each door, and the number "01 '' on each door. In the original five Georgia - filmed episodes, a Confederate flag along with a checkered racing flag in a criss - cross pattern could be seen behind the rear window; this was removed when it was felt that this extra detail did not show up enough on - screen to warrant the already very tight time constraints of preparing and repairing each example of the car. The name refers to the American Civil War Confederate General Robert E. Lee. The television show was based on the movie Moonrunners, in turn based on actual moonshine runners who used a 1958 Chrysler named Traveler, after General Lee 's horse (with a slight spelling change). Traveler was originally intended to be the name of the Duke boys ' stock car too, until producers agreed that General Lee had more punch to it.
Since it was built as a race car, the doors were welded shut. Through the history of the show, an estimated 309 Chargers were used; 17 are still known to exist in various states of repair. A replica was owned by John Schneider, known as "Bo 's General Lee. '' In 2008, Schneider sold "Bo 's General Lee '' at the Barrett - Jackson automobile auction for $230,000. An eBay auction which garnered a bid of $9,900,500 for the car was never finalized, with the purported bidder claiming his account had been hacked. The underside of the hood has the signatures of the cast from the 1997 TV movie. Schneider has also restored over 20 other General Lees to date. In 2008, a replica of the General Lee fetched a high bid of $450,000 at the Barrett - Jackson auto auction, indicating the significant interest in the car as a cultural icon. In 2012, the "General Lee 1 '', the first car used in filming the series, was purchased at auction by golfer Bubba Watson for $110,000. The car had been scrapped after being wrecked during the famous opening jump shoot, and was later discovered in a junk - yard by the president of the North American General Lee fan club. In 2015, following a wave of sentiment against confederate symbolism in the wake of shootings in Charleston, SC, (relating to photos where the attacker had posed with the Confederate flag), Bubba Watson announced that he would remove the Confederate Flag from the roof of General Lee 1 and repaint it with the US National Flag.
The show also used 1968 Chargers (which shared the same sheet metal) by changing the grille and taillight panel to the 1969 style, and removing the round side marker lights. These Chargers performed many record - breaking jumps throughout the show, almost all of them resulting in a completely destroyed car. The 1970 Chargers were modified by removing the chrome bumper and changing the taillights.
The Duke boys added a custom air horn to the General Lee that played the first twelve notes of the song Dixie. The Dixie horn was not originally planned, until a Georgia local hot rod racer drove by and sounded his car 's Dixie horn. The producers immediately rushed after him asking where he had bought the horn. Warner Bros. purchased several Chargers for stunts, as they generally destroyed at least one or two cars per episode. By the end of the show 's sixth season, the Chargers were becoming harder to find, and more expensive. In addition, the television series Knight Rider began to rival the General Lee 's stunts. As such, the producers used 1: 8 scale miniatures, filmed by Jack Sessums ' crew, or recycled stock jump footage -- the latter being a practice that had been in place to an extent since the second season, and had increased as the seasons passed.
Some of the 01 and Confederate flag motifs were initially hand painted, but as production sped up, these were replaced with vinyl decals for quick application (and removal), as needed.
During the first five episodes of the show that were filmed in Georgia, the cars involved with filming were given to the crew at H&H body shop near the filming location. At this shop, the men worked day and night to prepare the wrecked cars for the next day while still running their body shop during the day. Time was of the essence, and the men that worked at this shop worked hard hours to get the cars prepared for the show.
The third episode "Mary Kaye 's Baby '' is the only one in which the General Lee does not appear. Instead, the Dukes drove around in a blue 1975 Plymouth Fury borrowed from Cooter that Luke later destroyed by shooting an arrow at the car, whose trunk had been leaking due to the moonshine stowed in the back.
The Duke boys ' CB handle was (jointly) "Lost Sheep ''. Originally when the show was conceived, their handle was to be "General Lee '' to match their vehicle, but this was only ever used on - screen on one occasion, in the second episode, "Daisy 's Song '', when Cooter calls Bo and Luke over the CB by this handle, although they were actually driving Daisy 's Plymouth Roadrunner (see below) at the time. As it became obvious that the "General Lee '' handle would be out of place when the Duke boys were in another vehicle, the "Lost Sheep '' handle was devised (with Uncle Jesse being "Shepherd '' and Daisy being "Bo Peep '').
The 1975 AMC Matador was one of many different Hazzard County police cars used on the series, mostly in the first season; they had light bars and working radios. A 1972 Dodge Polara and a 1974 Dodge Monaco were used during the pilot episode "One Armed Bandits '', these were also seen in the show 's title sequence. From the second season, the 1977 Dodge Monaco was mostly used. From mid-season four the similar looking 1978 Plymouth Fury was used instead. The Matadors and Furies were former Los Angeles Police Department vehicles, while the Monacos were former California Highway Patrol units.
A 1974 Plymouth Road Runner (yellow with a black stripe) was Daisy Duke 's car in the first five episodes of the first season. For the last episodes of the first season a similarly painted 1971 model with a matching "Road Runner '' stripe was used. In the second season Bo and Luke send it off a cliff in "The Runaway. '' Another identical Plymouth 1971 model car appeared in the background a few more episodes along with the Jeep CJ - 7 until it was finally dropped altogether.
Dixie was the name given to Daisy Duke 's white 1980 Jeep CJ - 7 "Golden Eagle '' which had a golden eagle emblem on the hood and the name "Dixie '' on the sides. Like other vehicles in the show, there was actually more than one Jeep used throughout the series. Sometimes it would have an automatic transmission, and other times it would be a manual. The design of the roll cage also varied across the seasons. When the Jeep was introduced at the end of the second season 's "The Runaway '', it was seen to have doors and a slightly different paint job, but, bar one appearance in the next produced episode, "Arrest Jesse Duke '' (actually broadcast before "The Runaway '', causing a continuity error), thereafter the doors were removed and the paint job was made all - white, with "Dixie '' painted on the sides of the hood. These Jeeps were leased to the producers of the show by American Motors Corporation in exchange for a brief mention in the closing credits of the show.
Uncle Jesse 's truck was a white Ford pickup truck, most commonly a Sixth generation (1973 -- 1977) F100 Styleside. However, in the earliest episodes it had a Flareside bed, and varied between F100 and F250 models throughout the show 's run. Bo, Luke and Daisy also drove Jesse 's truck on occasion.
A White 1970 Cadillac De Ville convertible was used as Boss Hogg 's car, notably with large bull horns as a hood ornament. In early seasons, Hogg was almost always driven by a chauffeur, who was normally nameless and had little or no dialogue, but identified on occasion as being called "Alex ''; and played by several different uncredited actors, including stuntman Gary Baxley. This chauffeur would often be dressed in a red plaid shirt and deep brown or black Stetson hat, but on occasion would be an older man, sometimes dressed in more typical chauffeur attire.
Hogg is first seen to drive for himself in the second season opener "Days of Shine and Roses '', where he and Jesse challenge each other to one last moonshine race. From the fourth season onward, except for a couple of brief reappearances of the chauffeur (during the fourth season), Hogg drove himself around in his Cadillac (or occasionally driven by Rosco and, in the series ' finale, by Uncle Jesse) and frequently challenged others by invoking his driving expertise from his days as a ridge - runner. Unlike other vehicles in the series, Boss Hogg 's Cadillac is typically treated with kid gloves. The car is almost always seen with its convertible top down, with the top only being seen in two episodes, "Daisy 's Song '' (the chauffeur was called "Eddie '' in this episode), the second to be produced and broadcast, and briefly in the second - season episode "Witness for the Persecution '', when Cooter is returning it to the Court House after repairs.
A Green and blacked out 1971 Ford Custom 500 sedan named Black Tilly was used by Uncle Jesse to make moonshine runs.
The theme song "The Good Ol ' Boys '' was written and performed by Waylon Jennings. He was also "The Balladeer '' (as credited), and served as narrator of the show. However, the version released as a single is not the same version that was used in the show 's opening credits; the single version has a repeat of the chorus and an instrumental to pad out the length, uses a different instrumental mix that emphasizes the bass, and replaces the last verse with an inside joke about how the TV show producers "keep on showing (Jennings 's) hands and not (his) face on TV. ''
In 1980, the song reached # 1 on the American Country chart and peaked at # 21 on the Billboard Hot 100.
Soon before the series ended its original run on CBS, The Dukes of Hazzard went into off - network syndication. Although not as widely run as it was back in the 1980s and the years since, reruns of the program do continue to air in various parts of the United States.
Notably, television stations that aired the show in syndication include KCOP Los Angeles, WGN - TV Chicago, KBHK San Francisco, WKBD Detroit, WTAF / WTXF Philadelphia, KTXL Sacramento, WVTV Milwaukee, KMSP Minneapolis -- Saint Paul, among others.
Nationwide, the show also aired on ABC Family (2000 -- 2001, 2004) and CMT (2005 -- 2007, 2010 -- 2012, 2014 -- 15) and TV Land (2015); TV Land dropped the show in the wake of protests and controversy surrounding the display of the Confederate flag.
The Nashville Network bought The Dukes of Hazzard from Warner Bros. in 1997 for well over $10 million; not only did it improve the network 's ratings, the show was also popular among younger viewers, a demographic TNN had a notorious difficulty in drawing; The Dukes of Hazzard has run either on TNN or sister network CMT ever since.
The show ran for seven seasons and a total of 145 episodes. Many of the episodes followed a similar structure "out - of - town crooks pull a robbery or commit a crime or scandal, Duke boys blamed, spend the rest of the hour clearing their names, the General Lee flies and the squad cars crash ''.
There were two made - for - TV reunion movies that aired on CBS, The Dukes of Hazzard: Reunion! (1997) and The Dukes of Hazzard: Hazzard in Hollywood (2000). Also made were The Dukes of Hazzard in 2005 and a direct - to - video prequel The Dukes of Hazzard: The Beginning in 2007. In 2012, a reboot film has been announced and will be directed by Jody Hill.
Warner Home Video has released all seven seasons of The Dukes of Hazzard on DVD in Regions 1 and 2. The two TV - movies that followed the series were released on DVD in Region 1 on June 10, 2008 and in Region 4 on June 4, 2014. In Region 4, Warner has released only the first six seasons on DVD and the two TV movies. The Complete Series & 2 unrated feature films box set was released on DVD in Region 1 on November 14, 2017.
The TV series was also made available for streaming and download through a variety of services.
In 2005, Tom Wopat and John Schneider were reunited during "Exposed '', a fifth season episode of the television series Smallville. Wopat guest - starred as Kansas State Senator Jack Jennings, an old friend of Clark Kent 's adoptive father Jonathan Kent (portrayed by Schneider). In the episode, Jennings drives a 1968 Dodge Charger -- the same body style as The General Lee.
Lizard Lick Towing featured an episode with its repossession specialists Ronnie Shirley and Bobby Brantley repossess a General Lee replica.
In 2015, in the wake of renewed debate about the symbolism of the Confederate battle flag (which was prominently featured on the General Lee ' s roof and panel behind the rear window in the first five episodes), reruns of the original series were pulled from circulation. Warner Bros., which owns the property, announced it would also no longer create merchandise bearing the flag, including miniatures of the General Lee. Although this has led to people making their own custom General Lees and selling them.
Artifacts from the show are on display in Luray, Virginia, Nashville, Tennessee and in Gatlinburg, Tennessee. Cooter 's Place in Luray is overseen by Ben "Cooter '' Jones from the series. The Gatlinburg location features a gift shop, Dukes of Hazzard - themed indoor mini golf and go - cart track, with a small display of costumes, collectibles and artifacts from the show.
Covington and Conyers, Georgia; where the original five episodes were produced, have been two major tourist attractions for Dukes of Hazzard fans.
Dixie Outfitters in Branson, Missouri on Highway 76 has the General Lee and Rosco 's police car signed by Daisy, Cooter, Cletus and Enos.
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sql server management studio for sql server 2014 | SQL Server Management Studio - Wikipedia
SQL Server Management Studio (SSMS) is a software application first launched with Microsoft SQL Server 2005 that is used for configuring, managing, and administering all components within Microsoft SQL Server. The tool includes both script editors and graphical tools which work with objects and features of the server.
A central feature of SSMS is the Object Explorer, which allows the user to browse, select, and act upon any of the objects within the server. It also shipped a separate Express edition that could be freely downloaded, however recent versions of SSMS are fully capable of connecting to and manage any SQL Server Express instance. Microsoft also incorporated backwards compatibility for older versions of SQL Server thus allowing a newer version of SSMS to connect to older versions of SQL Server instances.
Starting from version 11, the application was based on the Visual Studio 2010 shell, using WPF for the user interface.
In June 2015, Microsoft announced their intention to release future versions of SSMS independently of SQL Server database engine releases.
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when did harry audition for the x factor | Harry Styles - wikipedia
Harry Edward Styles (born 1 February 1994) is an English singer, songwriter, and actor. He rose to stardom as a member of the boy band One Direction. Styles grew up in Holmes Chapel, Cheshire, where he performed as a singer with his band White Eskimo. In 2010, Styles auditioned as a solo artist for the British music competition series The X Factor, where he and four other contestants joined to form One Direction. One Direction have since released five albums, performed four worldwide tours, and won several awards. One Direction went on an extended hiatus in January 2016.
In June 2016, Styles signed a recording deal as a solo artist with Columbia Records. His first solo single, "Sign of the Times '', was released in April 2017, reaching number one in the UK and number four in the US. Its music video earned him a Brit Award. His self - titled debut album was released on 12 May 2017. It debuted atop the UK and US charts and received a generally positive critical reception. Styles made his acting debut in Christopher Nolan 's war film Dunkirk (2017).
Harry Edward Styles was born in Redditch, Worcestershire on 1 February 1994. He is the son of Anne Cox (née Selley) and Desmond "Des '' Styles, who worked in finance. Many of his ancestors were farm labourers in Norfolk. Styles was raised in Holmes Chapel, Cheshire, after his parents moved there along with his older sister, Gemma, when he was a child. He attended Holmes Chapel Comprehensive School. Styles 's parents divorced when he was seven and his mother later was remarried to Robin Twist; he passed away in 2017. He has an older stepbrother named Mike and a stepsister named Amy, children of Twist. As a sixteen - year - old, he worked part - time at the W. Mandeville Bakery in Holmes Chapel.
As a child, Styles loved singing, covering songs from Elvis Presley. While at Holmes Chapel Comprehensive, Styles was the lead singer for the band White Eskimo, which won a local Battle of the Bands competition.
Following a suggestion from his mother, on 11 April 2010, Styles auditioned as a solo candidate for the seventh series of the British televised singing competition The X Factor, singing a rendition of Stevie Wonder 's "Is n't She Lovely ''. He failed to progress to the "Boys '' category at "judges ' houses ''. Four others in his age group also failed, but at the suggestion by Nicole Scherzinger, a guest judge, they were put together as an ensemble at Wembley Arena in July 2010, during the "bootcamp '' stage of the competition, thus qualifying for the "Groups '' category. The group consisting of Styles, Niall Horan, Liam Payne, Louis Tomlinson, and Zayn Malik, got together for two weeks to get to know one another and practise. In 2017, Styles said he had suggested the name One Direction to his bandmates and they agreed to keep it.
For their qualifying song at "judges ' houses '', and their first song as a group, One Direction sang an acoustic version of "Torn ''. Simon Cowell later commented that the performance convinced him that the group "were confident, fun, like a gang of friends, and kind of fearless as well. '' Within the first four weeks of the live shows, they were Cowell 's last act in the competition. The group quickly gained popularity in the UK.
One Direction finished in third place and immediately after the final, their song "Forever Young '', which would have been released if they had won The X Factor, was leaked onto the internet. Shortly afterwards it was confirmed that One Direction had been signed by Cowell to a reported £ 2 million Syco Records record contract. Recording for their debut album began in January 2011, as they flew to Los Angeles to work with RedOne, a record producer. A book licensed by One Direction, One Direction: Forever Young (Our Official X Factor Story), was published by HarperCollins in February 2011, subsequently topping The Sunday Times Best Seller list. The same month, the group and other contestants from the series participated in the X Factor Live Tour. After the tour concluded in April 2011, the group continued working on their debut album. Recording took place in Stockholm, London and Los Angeles, as One Direction worked with producers Carl Falk, Savan Kotecha, Steve Mac, and Rami Yacoub, among others.
One Direction 's debut single "What Makes You Beautiful '' debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart in September 2011. The boy band released their first studio album, Up All Night, in November 2011. One Direction 's second album, Take Me Home, was released in 2012. Styles briefly dated American singer Taylor Swift in the year of its release, leading to fan and media speculation about them writings songs about each other after their break - up. Along with the other members of the band, Styles appeared in an episode of the teen sitcom iCarly in April 2012. For a 20 - month period, Styles lived in the attic of producer Ben Winston 's home in Hampstead Heath, London, while Styles looked for his own house.
One Direction: This Is Us, a documentary about the group directed by Morgan Spurlock, was released in August 2013. The film grossed more than $30 million worldwide its first weekend in theaters. The group 's third studio album, Midnight Memories, was released on 25 November 2013. One Direction released their fourth studio album, Four, in 2014 and Styles was one of the writers for Ariana Grande 's song "A Little Bit of Your Heart '' from her album My Everything. that year. In August 2015, it was revealed the group would be going on hiatus after the release of their fifth album, Made in the A.M., in November 2015. Styles said he first mentioned One Direction going on hiatus in 2014 while working in the studio, not wanting to "exhaust '' the fan base. The group has amassed five BRIT Awards three NME awards, two Kids ' Choice Awards, and four MTV Video Music Awards, among other awards.
In February 2016, Styles left the group 's management company Modest Management and joined Jeffrey Azoff 's Full Stop Management. Styles launched his own record label, Erskine Records, in May and he signed a recording contract with Columbia Records as a solo artist, the same label behind One Direction, in June. Styles wrote the song "Someday '' in collaboration with Meghan Trainor for Michael Bublé 's album Nobody but Me, released in October. Recording for Styles ' debut album took place throughout 2016; recording sessions locations included California, London, and the Gee Jam Hotel Recording Studio in Port Antonio, Jamaica for a two - month period in the autumn. Jeff Bhasker executive produced the album, with Alex Salibian, Tyler Johnson, and Kid Harpoon serving as producers. On 31 March 2017, Styles announced his first solo single titled "Sign of the Times '' and its accompanying cover art through social media. The song was released on 7 April, reaching number one on the UK Singles Chart. An accompanying music video for the song was released on 8 May, directed by Woodkid, featuring Styles levitating and walking on water. The song was variously described by critics as pop rock and soft rock ballad with glam rock influences. The album 's second single, the folk rock fused "Two Ghosts '', was less successful however, peaking at No. 58 on the UK Singles Chart. Styles was the musical guest on the American television program Saturday Night Live on 15 April 2017 and he made his first solo performance in his native country on The Graham Norton Show six days later.
His self - titled debut album was released on 12 May 2017, whereupon it debuted at number one in several countries, including the UK, the US and Australia. The record was heavily influenced by 1970s soft rock and was described by Variety as a "classic cocktail of psychedelia, Britpop, and balladry ''. It received generally favorable reviews from critics, and was included in several publications ' lists of the best albums of 2017. The New York Times critic Jon Caramanica felt the "sometimes great, sometimes foggy '' album is "almost bold in its resistance to contemporary pop music aesthetics '', while Rolling Stone writer Rob Sheffield felt Styles had claimed "his turf as a true rock & roll prince, '' and Alexis Petridis of The Guardian argued it "understandably finds him trying on a variety of musical costumes, with varying degrees of success. '' The documentary Harry Styles: Behind the Album, chronicling the making of the album, was released on 15 May through Apple Music. In support of the album, Styles is embarking on his first headlining concert tour, Harry Styles: Live on Tour, from September 2017 through to July 2018. While on the tour, Styles continued to perform One Direction songs, as well as frequent covers of Fleetwood Mac 's "The Chain ''.
Styles made his film debut in Christopher Nolan 's war film Dunkirk in July 2017, as a British soldier named Alex who is a part of the Dunkirk evacuation in World War II. He appeared alongside actors Fionn Whitehead, Jack Lowden, Aneurin Barnard, Tom Hardy, Mark Rylance, Cillian Murphy and Kenneth Branagh in the film. Styles auditioned against hundreds of other candidates, ultimately winning the role, with Nolan saying he was unaware of the extent of his fame and that Styles earned the role "because he fit the part wonderfully and truly earned a seat at the table. '' The Daily Telegraph film critic Robbie Collin noted Style 's "bright, convicted, and unexpectedly not - at - all - jarring performance ''. BBC One broadcast Harry Styles at the BBC in November 2017, a one - hour special presented by Nick Grimshaw, featuring Styles performing songs from his album and interviews by Grimshaw. His third single, "Kiwi '' was released in that month along with a music video and Styles performed the song on The X-Factor, marking his first solo performance on the show. Styles guest hosted The Late Late Show with James Corden in December. Along with Jack Antonoff and Ilsey Juber, Styles co-wrote "Alfie 's Song (Not So Typical Love Song) '' for the film Love, Simon (2018).
His music contain elements of soft rock, pop, folk, rock, and Britpop. Styles has cited country singer Shania Twain as his "main influence '' both musically and in fashion. He has also cited Pink Floyd, The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, Fleetwood Mac, Harry Nilsson, Freddie Mercury, and Elvis Presley as being influences. Styles praised Nilsson 's lyrics as being "honest, and so good, and I think it 's because he 's never trying to sound clever. '' Upon listening to Pink Floyd 's 1973 album The Dark Side of the Moon as a child, he said he "could n't really get it, but I just remember being like -- this is really fucking cool. ''
Regarding Styles ' time in One Direction, AllMusic writer Tim Sendra opined his "charming persona and elastic vocals had him positioned as the Timberlake of the group. '' Styles seemed "a dimpled, rakish prankster happy to wear the mantle of Class Clown... maybe because he knew that Most Likely to Succeed belonged to him too, '' as noted by Entertainment Weekly 's Leah Greenblatt. During public appearances, Styles ' fashion evolution has traded "teen - friendly '' Jack Wills tracksuits for a selection of Saint Laurent, Gucci and Burberry.
As his time in the band progressed, the singer started wearing skinny - jean - and - boots. For Billboard 's Chris Payne, "From his influences to his fashion to his onstage persona to his (formerly) flowing locks, Styles ' vibe has always screamed rock star. '' The same publication noted over the course of five - year stint with his group, Styles ' taste in fashion "has blossomed from a teen wearing purple Jack Wills hoodies to a carefully executed blend of 70s rock with a glamorous magpie feel. '' In September 2016 Styles was featured in three separate editorial shoots, and was interviewed by Paul McCartney and Chelsea Handler for Another Man magazine, prompting an editor from The Guardian to label the lack of shirtlessness and the focus on fashion for a niche publication as the death of a "heartthob '' and birth of an "artthrob ''. Promoting his solo projects during 2017, Styles opted for "candyfloss '' pink suits, printed satin flares, gradually heightening heels, a style described as "flamboyant look. '' Regarding his favouritism for pink, he quoted The Clash 's Paul Simonon in an interview: "Pink is the only true rock & roll colour. ''
In 2013, Styles along with bandmate Liam Payne partnered with Trekstock, to become ambassadors for the leading cancer charity to help raise money for cancer research. In 2015, during One Direction 's tour, Styles visited the Lalela Project in Cape Town, South Africa, where he spoke to the affected youth and offered them concert tickets. The Lalela Project "helps children who are victims of ' extreme poverty, armed conflict, displacement and deadly diseases like malaria, TB and Aids ', and gives them a chance to be creative through art. '' As a member on One Direction, Styles has also supported Comic Relief, and a new initiative titled Action 1D "to help better the future. '' In 2016, Styles shared a photo of his chopped - off braid on social media, donating his hair to the UK charity Little Princess Trust, which supplies and funds high quality wigs made of real hair to children who have hair loss as a result of cancer treatment or other illnesses.
In May 2017, after the release of his debut album, Styles played an intimate show at The Garage venue in Highbury, London, with all proceeds from the show going to the Little Princess Trust charity, to which Styles had donated his hair. He also played a secret show at the nightclub Troubadour in Los Angeles, California. All proceeds of the show went to the Los Angeles charity Safe Place for Youth. In October 2017, Styles was one of the artists who appeared at CBS Radio 's 5th Annual We Can Survive concert in Hollywood Bowl; held in honour of National Breast Cancer Awareness Month with proceeds going to Young Survival Coalition. All of Harry 's profits from Treat People With Kindness hair tie set purchases, as well as a portion of ticket sales, will be donated to various local charities from his tour stops around the world.
Styles was in a relationship with The Xtra Factor presenter Caroline Flack from November 2011 to January 2012, which caused controversy and criticism over their 14 - year age gap. Styles also dated American country music singer Taylor Swift in late 2012. During an interview in 2017, The Sun asked Styles if he has ever personally labelled his sexuality, to which he responded "No, I 've never felt the need to really. I do n't feel like it 's something I 've ever felt like I have to explain about myself. ''
In an interview with The Sunday Times, Styles was asked which candidate he would support in the 2017 British general election, with him answering, "I 'm probably going to vote for whoever is against Brexit. '' In 2018, Styles, among other artists, signed a petition demanding stricter gun control in wake of the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting and expressed his support to March for Our Lives.
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where do the chargers and rams play home games | Los Angeles Chargers - wikipedia
American Football League (1960 -- 1969)
National Football League (1970 -- present)
Navy Blue, Powder Blue, White, Gold
League championships (1)
Conference championships (1)
Division championships (15)
The Los Angeles Chargers are a professional American football team based in the Greater Los Angeles Area. The Chargers compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) West division. The team was founded on August 14, 1959, and began play on September 10, 1960, as a charter member of the American Football League (AFL), and spent its first season in Los Angeles, before moving to San Diego in 1961 to become the San Diego Chargers. The Chargers joined the NFL as result of the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970, and played their home games at SDCCU Stadium. The return of the Chargers to Los Angeles was announced for the 2017 season, just one year after the Rams had moved back to the city from St. Louis. The Chargers will play their home games at the StubHub Center until the opening in 2020 of the Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park, which they will share with the Rams.
The Chargers won one AFL title in 1963 and reached the AFL playoffs five times and the AFL Championship four times before joining the NFL (1970) as part of the AFL -- NFL merger. In the 43 years since then, the Chargers have made 13 trips to the playoffs and four appearances in the AFC Championship game. In 1994, the Chargers won their lone AFC championship and faced the San Francisco 49ers in Super Bowl XXIX, losing 49 -- 26. The Chargers have eight players and one coach enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio: wide receiver Lance Alworth (1962 -- 1970), defensive end Fred Dean (1975 -- 1981), quarterback Dan Fouts (1973 -- 1987), head coach -- general manager Sid Gillman (1960 -- 1969, 1971), wide receiver Charlie Joiner (1976 -- 1986), offensive lineman Ron Mix (1960 -- 1969), tight end Kellen Winslow (1979 -- 1987), linebacker Junior Seau (1990 -- 2002), and running back Ladanian Tomlinson (2001 -- 2009).
The Los Angeles Chargers were established with seven other American Football League teams in 1959. In 1960, the Chargers began AFL play in Los Angeles. The Chargers ' original owner was hotel heir Barron Hilton, son of Hilton Hotels founder Conrad Hilton.
According to the official website of the Pro Football Hall of Fame, Barron Hilton agreed after his general manager, Frank Leahy, picked the Chargers name when he purchased an AFL franchise for Los Angeles: "I liked it because they were yelling ' charge ' and sounding the bugle at Dodgers Stadium and at USC games. '' The Chargers initially considered playing at the Rose Bowl, but instead signed a lease to play at the Los Angeles Coliseum. There is also an alternative theory about a man named Gerald Courtney of Hollywood who won an all - expenses - paid trip to Mexico City and Acapulco for submitting "Chargers '' in a name - the - team contest. The Chargers only spent one season in Los Angeles before moving to San Diego in 1961. From 1961 to 1966 their home field was Balboa Stadium in Balboa Park. As of August 1967, they moved to the newly constructed SDCCU Stadium (then named San Diego Stadium), where they played their home games until 2016.
They played ten years in the AFL before the merging of the league into the older NFL. Their only coach for the ten - year life of the AFL was Sid Gillman, a Hall of Famer who was widely recognized as a great offensive innovator. The early AFL years of the San Diego Chargers were highlighted by the outstanding play of wide receiver Lance "Bambi '' Alworth with 543 receptions for 10,266 yards in his 11 - AFL / NFL - season career. In addition he set the pro football record of consecutive games with a reception (96) during his career. With players such as Alworth, Paul Lowe, Keith Lincoln and John Hadl, the high - scoring Chargers won divisional crowns five of the league 's first six seasons and the AFL title in 1963 with a 51 -- 10 victory over the Boston Patriots. They also played great defense, as indicated by their professional football record 49 pass interceptions in 1961, and featured AFL Rookie of the Year defensive end Earl Faison. The Chargers were the originators of the term "Fearsome Foursome '' to describe their all - star defensive line, anchored by Faison and Ernie Ladd (the latter also excelled in professional wrestling). The phrase was later appropriated by various NFL teams. Hilton sold the Chargers to a group headed by Eugene Klein and Sam Schulman in August 1966. The following year, the Chargers began "head to head '' competition with the older NFL with a preseason loss to the Detroit Lions. The Chargers defeated the defending Super Bowl III champion New York Jets 34 -- 27 before a record San Diego Stadium crowd of 54,042 on September 29, 1969. Alworth once again led the team in receptions with 64 and 1,003 yards with four touchdowns. The team also saw Gillman step down due to health and offensive backfield coach Charlie Waller promoted to head coach after the completion of the regular season. Gillman did remain with the club as the general manager.
In 1970, the Chargers were placed into the AFC West division after the NFL merger with the AFL. But by then, the Chargers fell on hard times; Gillman, who had returned as general manager, stepped down in 1971, and many of the Chargers players from the 1960s had already either retired or had been traded. The Chargers acquired veteran players like Deacon Jones and Johnny Unitas; however, it was at the later stages of their careers and the team struggled, placing third or fourth in the AFC West each year from 1970 to 1978. During the 1973 season, the Chargers were involved in the first major drug scandal in the NFL.
San Diego hired head coach Don Coryell in 1978, who would remain coaching the team unti 1986. Coryell developed an offensive scheme and philosophy known as Air Coryell, also known as the "Coryell offense '' or the "vertical offense ''. With Dan Fouts as quarterback, the San Diego Chargers ' offense was among the greatest and most exciting passing offenses in National Football League history, setting league and individual offensive records. The Chargers led the league in passing yards an NFL record six consecutive years from 1978 to 1983 and again in 1985. They also led the league in total yards in offense 1978 -- 83 and 1985. Under the tutelage of Coryell, Dan Fouts, wide receiver Charlie Joiner, and tight end Kellen Winslow blossomed on the field and would all be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. The Chargers earned four consecutive playoff appearances (1979 - 82) during the Air Coryell era, including three AFC West division championships (1979 - 81).
1978 was marked by the "Holy Roller '' game, or as Chargers fans call it, the "Immaculate Deception ''. It was a game - winning play executed by the Oakland Raiders against the Chargers on September 10, 1978, in San Diego at Jack Murphy Stadium. With 10 seconds left in the game, the Raiders had possession of the ball at the Chargers ' 14 - yard line, down 20 -- 14. Raiders quarterback Ken Stabler took the snap and found himself about to be sacked by Chargers linebacker Woodrow Lowe on the 24 - yard line. Stabler fumbled the ball forward, and it rolled forward towards the San Diego goal line. Running back Pete Banaszak tried to recover the ball on the 12 - yard line, but could not keep his footing, and the ball was pushed even closer to the end zone. Raiders tight end Dave Casper was the next player to reach the ball but he also could not get a hand on it. He batted and kicked the ball into the end zone, where he fell on it for the game - tying touchdown as time ran out. With the ensuing extra point by kicker Errol Mann, the Raiders won 21 -- 20. What many Chargers fans believed should have been called an incomplete pass (and possibly intentional grounding) was seen as a fumble and the rest of the play involved batting of the ball forward towards the end zone where the Raiders ultimately recovered it for a touchdown. As a result of this play, NFL rules were changed so that, in the last two minutes of a half or game, or on fourth down at any time in the game, the only offensive player allowed to advance a fumble is the player who originally fumbled. If any other offensive player recovers the fumble and advances the ball, after the play the line of scrimmage is the spot of the original fumble.
1979 marked a turning point for the Chargers franchise as The Sporting News named team general manager John Sanders NFL Executive of the Year after balloting of other NFL executives. Fouts set an NFL record with his fourth consecutive 300 - yard passing game, in a game in which he threw for 303 yards against the Raiders. Coached by Don Coryell and featuring Fouts throwing to tight end Kellen Winslow and wide receivers John Jefferson and Charlie Joiner, they clinched their first playoff berth in 14 years with a 35 -- 0 victory against the New Orleans Saints. On December 17, the Chargers defeated the Denver Broncos 17 -- 7 for their first AFC West division title since the AFL -- NFL merger before a national Monday Night Football television audience and their home crowd. Their time in the playoffs was short as they would lose to the Houston Oilers 17 -- 14 in the divisional round. Ron Mix became the second AFL player and second Chargers player to be named to the Pro Football Hall of Fame, during halftime of the AFC - NFC Pro Bowl.
In 1980 the team traded for running back Chuck Muncie, and Fouts set a club record with 444 yards passing in the Chargers ' 44 -- 7 victory over the New York Giants. Kellen Winslow caught 10 passes for 171 yards and Chargers clinched their second straight AFC West title by defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers 26 -- 17 and finished the regular season with an 11 -- 5 record. Jefferson (1,340), Winslow (1,290), and Joiner (1,132) became the first trio on the same team to have 1,000 yards receiving in a season. The Chargers ' defense led the NFL in sacks (60) spearheaded by the frontline of 1975 Chargers ' draftees Fred Dean, Gary "Big Hands '' Johnson and Louie Kelcher. The trio, along with Leroy Jones formed a defensive frontline that was locally nicknamed Bruise Brothers. In the playoffs, they won the divisional round 20 -- 14 over the Buffalo Bills. However, they fell one game shy of Super Bowl XV in a 34 -- 27 loss to the eventual champion Raiders.
In 1981, the Chargers won their third straight AFC West title with a 10 -- 6 season. After the division titles of the 1979 and 1980 seasons, contract disputes arose and owner Klein refused to renegotiate players ' contracts. They traded wide receiver John Jefferson to the Green Bay Packers after he held out for an increase in salary but replaced him with Wes Chandler. Defensive end Dean also became involved in a holdout and was traded to the 49ers. Dean contends he was making the same amount of money as his brother - in - law who was a truck driver. Dean won UPI NFC Defensive Player of the Year (while playing in only 11 games) that same year en route to a Super Bowl victory and helped the 49ers to another Super Bowl title two years later. Dean 's loss was particularly damaging to the Chargers ' Super Bowl chances as the defense weakened afterwards, surrendering the most passing yards in the NFL in both 1981 and 1982.
In the 1981 playoffs, the Chargers outlasted the Miami Dolphins in the divisional round, 41 -- 38, in a game that became known as The Epic in Miami. The game was voted as the best game in NFL history by a panel of ESPN journalists. The temperature was 85 ° F with high humidity (29.4 ° C) at the Miami Orange Bowl, but it did not stop either team 's offense. The Chargers were led by quarterback Dan Fouts who made the Pro Bowl for the third year in a row, setting an NFL single - season record at that time of 4,802 yards and 33 touchdowns. The Dolphins were led by head coach Don Shula and featured a defense that gave up the fifth - fewest points in the NFL in the regular season.
This game set playoff records for the most points scored in a playoff game (79), the most total yards by both teams (1,036), and most passing yards by both teams (809). Chargers placekicker Rolf Benirschke eventually kicked the winning 29 - yard field goal after 13: 52 of overtime to help San Diego beat Miami, 41 -- 38. The image of an exhausted tight end Kellen Winslow, who finished the game with 13 receptions for 166 yards and a touchdown and one blocked field goal, being helped off the field by two of his Chargers teammates has been replayed countless times. Winslow was voted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1995. The win sent the Chargers to their second straight AFC Championship game.
However, the eventual AFC Champion Cincinnati Bengals, playing in their first AFC Championship Game, defeated the Chargers 27 -- 7 in what became known as the Freezer Bowl. The temperature of − 9 ° with a wind - chill factor of − 59 ° made this the coldest weather conditions for a title game in the history of the NFL. Chargers ' owner Eugene Klein tried to get the NFL and Bengals to postpone the game but he was turned down.
During the strike - shortened 1982 season, Fouts averaged what was then a record of 320 yards passing per game. Highlights that season included back - to - back victories against the 1981 Super Bowl teams San Francisco (41 -- 37) and Cincinnati (50 -- 34) in which Fouts threw for over 400 yards in each game to lead the Chargers to shootout victories.
The Chargers made it back to the playoffs, but after beating the Steelers in the first round, they lost to the Dolphins 34 -- 13 in a rematch of their playoff game from the previous season. That loss began a slide for the Chargers, who from 1983 to 1991 failed to make the playoffs every season.
In 1984, Klein cut salary in preparation of selling the team, sending defensive linemen Johnson and Kelcher to San Francisco, where they would join Dean and offensive tackle Billy Shields for another 49ers championship in Super Bowl XIX. Alex Spanos purchased a majority interest in San Diego from Klein on August 1. Alex G. Spanos still owns 97 % of the team and George Pernicano owns the other 3 %. Benirschke was named "Miller Man of the Year '' and Joiner set an NFL record with his 650th pass reception in the fourth quarter of the game at Pittsburgh. In 1985 guard Ed White set an NFL record by playing in 241 NFL games, most all - time among offensive linemen. Lionel "Little Train '' James, a mere 5'6 '' and 171 pound running back, set NFL record of 2,535 all - purpose yards while also setting a record of 1,027 receiving yards by a running back. Al Saunders was named the seventh head coach in Chargers history in 1986 following the resignation of Coryell.
In 1987, Joiner retired from playing, and became the Chargers ' wide receivers coach. The Chargers finished with an 8 -- 7 record, their first winning record since 1982, despite winding up with six straight losses. In 1988, Fouts retired after a 15 - year career in which he set seven NFL records and 42 club records, and became the NFL 's second most prolific passer of all - time with 43,040 yards. Fouts ' jersey number (14) was retired at halftime of "Dan Fouts Day '' game in San Diego.
In 1989, Dan Henning, a former Chargers quarterback, Washington Redskins assistant, and Atlanta Falcons head coach, was named the eighth head coach in Chargers history. First - year running back Marion Butts set a club record with 39 carries and a team rookie record with 176 yards in Chargers ' 20 -- 13 win in Kansas City. After a three - year stint as Director of Football Operations, Steve Ortmayer was released after the season and replaced by Bobby Beathard.
Following Henning 's three - season stint with the Chargers, Bobby Ross was hired as the ninth head coach in 1992. Additionally, the Chargers acquired quarterback Stan Humphries in a trade with the Washington Redskins. The Chargers would lose their first four games of the season and come back to become the first 0 -- 4 team to make the playoffs as they won 11 of the last 12 games and clinched the AFC West title. Ross was named NFL Coach of the Year for the Chargers ' dramatic turnaround by Pro Football Weekly. In the first round of the playoffs, the Chargers shut out the Chiefs 17 -- 0, but the Dolphins shut out the Chargers in the divisional playoffs to eliminate the Chargers. In 1993, the Chargers finished 8 -- 8 (fourth in their division).
In the 1994 season, the Chargers made their first and, so far, only Super Bowl appearance, against the 49ers in Super Bowl XXIX. They got to the Super Bowl by winning their first six regular season games, the only NFL team to do so in 1994, and finished the season 11 -- 5. Quarterback Stan Humphries and wide receiver Tony Martin combined on a 99 - yard touchdown completion to tie an NFL record during a defeat of the Seattle Seahawks, 27 -- 10. They would become the 1994 AFC West Division champions behind a defense led by linebacker Junior Seau, defensive tackles Reuben Davis and Shawn Lee, defensive end Leslie O'Neal and an offense keyed by running back Natrone Means, Humphries and Martin. The Chargers had upset victories over the Dolphins and Steelers in the AFC playoffs. Despite those two close triumphs (22 -- 21 against the Dolphins in the Divisional Round, and 17 -- 13 against the Steelers in the AFC Championship Game), the Chargers lost Super Bowl XXIX to the San Francisco 49ers by a score of 49 -- 26, who were led by quarterback Steve Young (Super Bowl MVP) and wide receiver Jerry Rice.
Despite the lopsided loss in the Super Bowl, Beathard, who traded for or drafted the bulk of the Chargers roster, and who hired coach Ross, was named the NFL 's smartest man by Sports Illustrated, and became the only general manager to lead three different teams to the Super Bowl (Chargers, Dolphins, Redskins).
The Chargers ' follow - up year in 1995 did not bring the same success of the previous season, but the team still managed to get into the playoffs with a five - game winning streak to end the season at 9 -- 7. However, in the first round, the Chargers were eliminated by the Indianapolis Colts in a 35 -- 20 defeat.
In 1996, running back Rodney Culver and his wife, Karen, were killed in the crash of ValuJet Flight 592 in the Florida Everglades. Culver was the second player in team history to die while on the active roster after David Griggs was killed in a one - car accident in Davie, Florida, 11 months earlier. In 1997, Ross and Beathard were at odds with one another, resulting in Ross and his staff being released. The Chargers selected Kevin Gilbride to become their new head coach. Gilbride, whose coaching background with the Jacksonville Jaguars and Oilers featured a more open passing attack, would mark a major change in offensive style from the ball control ground game of Ross. Beathard drafted quarterback Ryan Leaf after the Indianapolis Colts selected Peyton Manning with the first pick in the 1998 NFL Draft. The Chargers traded several players and draft choices to the Arizona Cardinals in order to move up to the second pick and select Leaf. Leaf turned out to be arguably the biggest bust in NFL history. His poor play and attitude caused his departure after the 2000 season. In 1998, the Chargers went 5 -- 11. Said safety Rodney Harrison, "If I had to go through another year like that, I 'd probably quit playing. ''
The Chargers struggled in pass protection, resulting in Humphries suffering several concussions and his retirement from the game. Gilbride was replaced by interim head coach June Jones, who was on the Chargers ' staff before the hire. Jones left the team at the end of the season to coach at the University of Hawaii and the Chargers named former Oregon State University head coach Mike Riley as their new head coach. Leaf wound up having a disappointing career with the Chargers after a great deal of controversy with both Chargers management as well as the press and his teammates. His failure to be the player the team envisioned was seen as a black mark on the franchise and is generally considered one of the worst draft / trades in the history of pro football. Quarterback Jim Harbaugh, who was acquired in a trade with the Baltimore Ravens for a conditional draft choice in 2000, became the Chargers starting quarterback. Beathard retired in April 2000 and was replaced in January 2001 by John Butler, former general manager of the Bills. From 1996 to 2003, the Chargers had eight straight seasons where they were. 500 or worse.
In 2001, Norv Turner, the former head coach of the Redskins, was named offensive coordinator by Riley. Turner installed the offense that he coached with the Dallas Cowboys under Jimmy Johnson. Turner learned the offense from Ernie Zampese, former offensive coordinator during the Coryell era, while the two were on the Los Angeles Rams coaching staff. The Chargers signed Heisman Trophy winner free agent quarterback Doug Flutie, formerly with the Bills, and traded the team 's first overall selection in the 2001 NFL Draft to the Atlanta Falcons for their first - round selection (5th overall) and third - round selection in the same draft. In addition the Chargers obtained wide receiver - kick returner Tim Dwight and the Falcons ' second - round draft selection in the 2002 NFL Draft. The Chargers used that selection in the 2001 draft to select Texas Christian University running back LaDainian Tomlinson and their own first pick in the second round to select Purdue University quarterback Drew Brees.
Hired as a replacement to Riley, Marty Schottenheimer 's Chargers squad opened the 2002 season with four - straight victories, making him the only coach in team history to win his first four games. Butler would succumb to cancer after a nine - month struggle in April 2003. Replacing Butler was A.J. Smith, who was named Executive Vice President - General Manager, replacing his close friend. Smith and Butler had worked together with the Bills, playing key roles with Buffalo 's Super Bowl teams. In 2003, the Chargers traded Seau to the Dolphins for a draft pick in 2004 NFL Draft. Seau was selected to 2003 Pro Bowl, his 12th Pro Bowl selection of his career, and in his final season with the Chargers, he was chosen by teammates as the recipient of the Emil Karas Award as the team 's Most Inspirational Player. Also in 2003, Tomlinson accumulated 195 total yards from scrimmage in a late - season game against the Packers to raise his season total to 2,011 and became the first player in team history and the eighth player in NFL history to record consecutive 2,000 - yard seasons. Tomlinson also became the first player in NFL history to rush for 1,000 yards and catch 100 passes in the same season.
The Chargers coveted Eli Manning and wanted to select him with their first round pick, which was also the first overall pick of the draft. However, after Eli Manning indicated before the draft that he would not sign with the San Diego Chargers, they were forced to adjust their plans. Philip Rivers was their first alternative to Manning because the Chargers head coach at the time, Marty Schottenheimer, had coached Rivers at the Senior Bowl and he liked what he saw from Rivers. The Chargers agreed to a trade on draft day with the New York Giants. Manning was selected by the San Diego Chargers then later in the draft traded for Rivers, selected with the fourth pick by the Giants. The Chargers also received draft picks from the Giants that were used to select future Pro Bowlers Shawne Merriman and Nate Kaeding. Rivers was one of seventeen quarterbacks taken in the 2004 NFL Draft along with Ben Roethlisberger, Eli Manning, and Matt Schaub. Rivers, Roethlisberger, Schaub and Manning have been voted to the Pro Bowl since becoming starters, none had produced a season with a losing record until Schaub in 2010, but Roethlisberger and Manning both have won two Super Bowls. They have been compared favorably to the Quarterback class of 1983, which included Hall of Fame quarterbacks John Elway (1st pick), Jim Kelly (14th), and Dan Marino (27th).
In August 2004, Rivers signed a six - year, $40.5 million contract that included $14.5 million in signing bonuses. However, due to a protracted contract negotiation, Rivers only reported to the team during the last week of training camp, and incumbent Drew Brees retained his starting job. After the starting quarterback switch, it was almost certain Brees ' days as the Chargers ' starting QB were over. However, Rivers held out nearly all of training camp, and Brees remained the starter throughout the 2004 season, where he started 15 games and led the team to a 12 - 4 regular season record. Brees posted spectacular numbers, completing 65.5 % of his passes for 3,159 yards, with 27 touchdowns to only 7 interceptions, giving him a 104.8 passer rating. The Chargers won the AFC West and Brees was selected to the 2004 Pro Bowl. He was named 2004 NFL Comeback Player of the Year.
Marty Schottenheimer was named NFL Coach of the Year for the 2004 NFL season. He led the team to a playoff appearance, his 12th as a head coach. However, it resulted in a disappointing loss to the underdog New York Jets in overtime in 2005.
During the 2005 NFL Draft, the Chargers tried to get some key rookies that would help carry the momentum from their mostly successful 2004 -- 05 run. They used their first pick on LB Shawne "Lights Out '' Merriman from the University of Maryland. Then, they used their next pick on DT Luis Castillo from Northwestern University. Their other choices were WR Vincent Jackson from Northern Colorado, RB Darren Sproles from Kansas State, OT Wesley Britt from University of Alabama, OT Wes Sims from Oklahoma University, and Center Scott Mruczkowski from Bowling Green State.
The Chargers got off to a rough start in their 2005 campaign, losing a close one to the Dallas Cowboys in their Week 1 home - opener (28 -- 24) and then they lost on the road to their AFC West rival, the Denver Broncos (20 -- 17). It was n't until a Week 3 home game on Sunday night that they got their first win of the season, when Eli Manning and the New York Giants got "shocked to the system '' as LaDainian Tomlinson had one of the greatest games of his career. He got 220 total yards, had 3 rushing touchdowns, and threw for a touchdown as he helped the Chargers win 45 -- 23.
A week later, they were able to build off their win by not only beating the two - time defending champion New England Patriots 41 -- 17, but also ending the Pats ' 21 - game winning streak at home. In their Week 5 Monday Night home game against the Pittsburgh Steelers, the Chargers wore their throw - back uniforms during this season (they had also worn them during the 1994 season). The Steelers held on to win with a 40 - yard field goal by Jeff Reed (24 -- 22). The Chargers rebounded on the road against their division rival Oakland Raiders (27 -- 14). In their Week 7 road trip to Philadelphia, they hoped to build off their win against the Eagles. Late in the game, with the Chargers leading 17 -- 13, the Chargers tried to go for a field goal to put their lead well out of reach, but it got blocked and Eagles DB Matt Ware returned it 65 yards for the game - winning touchdown and the Chargers fourth loss of the season.
After going 3 -- 4, the Chargers turned things around as they began a five - game winning streak. They won at home against division - rival Kansas City Chiefs (28 -- 20) and on the road against the New York Jets (31 -- 26). Coming off their Week 10 bye, they went home and wore their throw - back uniforms again. This time, it was a dominating performance as the Chargers man - handled the Buffalo Bills, 48 -- 10. Then, they went on the road and won a close match against the Washington Redskins (23 -- 17 in OT) and then they swept the Oakland Raiders at home by a score of 34 -- 10.
The Chargers were 8 -- 5, coming off a 23 -- 21 loss to the Miami Dolphins. On December 18, the Chargers beat the undefeated Indianapolis Colts 26 -- 17, snapping a 13 -- 0 winning streak. However, despite a record of 9 -- 6, they were officially eliminated from AFC playoff contention in 2005 after a 20 -- 7 loss to the Kansas City Chiefs the following Saturday. The Chargers lost their final game of the season by a score of 23 -- 7 to the AFC West champion Denver Broncos to finish with a record of 9 -- 7.
The Chargers delivered an impressive performance in 2006, losing only to the Ravens and Chiefs; they finished 14 -- 2 which secured them the # 1 AFC seed in the playoffs. However, they lost 24 - 21 to the New England Patriots in the divisional round. Following the 2006 season, they replaced Schottenheimer with new head coach Norv Turner. In 2007, they went 11 - 5, beating the Tennessee Titans and the defending champion Indianapolis Colts to reach the AFC title game. However, they fell to the Patriots for the second year in a row. In 2008, the Chargers dropped to 8 -- 8, but as the AFC West was unusually weak that year, they still managed to win the division title. Defeating the Colts in the wild card round, they lost to the Pittsburgh Steelers in the divisional round.
San Diego began the 2009 season 2 -- 3. After losing to the Broncos on Monday night, they began an unbroken winning streak for the rest of the season, which included defeating the entire NFC East. In Week 11, they avenged their earlier loss against the Broncos by inflicting a 32 -- 3 rout on them. The next game saw them beat a 1 -- 11 Cleveland Browns squad 30 - 23, in which LaDainian Tomlinson broke Hall of Famer Jim Brown 's rushing record and was congratulated by him afterwards. The Chargers secured another division title, the # 2 AFC seed, and looked to be a near shoo - in for the Super Bowl. However, the team 's postseason futility continued. Hosting the New York Jets on January 17, 2010, they endured an upset defeat, where, despite an early lead, were unable to overcome the strong Jets ' defense. Kicker Nate Kaeding also missed three field goal and PAT attempts, which resulted in the Chargers losing 17 -- 14.
The 2010 season was the 1st season without LaDainian Tomlinson since 2000 (Tomlinson was let go by management due to an oversized contract relative to production and other issues; he went on to lead the Jets in rushing with 914 yards & tied for 3rd in receptions with 52). The 2010 campaign started off slowly again, this time 2 -- 5 (including losses to some of the worst teams in football at the time -- the Kansas City Chiefs, the Oakland Raiders, the Seattle Seahawks and the St. Louis Rams). The losses were due to turnovers & mental mistakes by young players on special teams allowing blocked punts & kick / punt return touchdowns. The loss to Oakland ended their 13 - game winning streak against the Raiders since their last loss on September 28, 2003. The Chargers then went on another second half run with four straight wins but this time instead of keeping the streak going the entire second half they had a big let down losing at home to the Raiders again, this time 28 -- 13 (ending their shared NFL record, with the Dolphins, of 18 straight wins in December). Despite the loss, they still had a chance to win their 5th straight AFC West title, tying the Raiders, but they had another bad loss at the Bengals 34 -- 20 ending their chances. The Chargers beat Denver to end the season with a 9 -- 7 record & out of the playoffs for the first time since 2005. They finished the season as the 8th team in NFL history to rank # 1 in overall offense (395.6 yards / game), and overall defense (271.6 yards / game), and became only the 2nd of those teams to not make the playoffs (1953 Eagles 7 -- 4 -- 1). They were second to the Colts in passing yards per game (282.4), second to the Patriots in points scored per game (27.6), 1st in passing yards allowed per game (177.8), 4th in rushing yards allowed per game (93.8), and tied for 2nd in sacks (47). On the negative stat sheet, they gave up the most punt return yards per game (18.9) & had 29 turnovers. Philip Rivers had another great season with a career - high 4,710 yards (# 1 in the NFL), 294 yards passing per game (tied for 1st with Manning), 66 % completion pct. (third to Brees & Manning), 30 TD 's, only 13 INT 's & a 101.8 passer rating (second to Brady). Mike Tolbert 11 rushing TD 's & Antonio Gates 10 receiving TD 's were among the league leaders in TD 's scored. On defense, Shaun Phillips ' 11 sacks were in the top 10.
With the special teams failure of the 2010 season campaign, the Chargers hoped to rebound with a strong performance to start the season, and a way to overcome slow starts.
The Chargers started off the 2011 season with a 4 -- 1 campaign, with their only loss to the New England Patriots. From that point on, however, the Chargers began a six - game skid with losses to the Jets, Chiefs, Packers, Raiders, Bears, and Broncos, with the first four by only a score and against Denver in overtime. Injuries to both the offensive and the defensive line hit the Chargers hard. But finally on December 5, 2011, the Chargers got their first win in over a month against the Jacksonville Jaguars, beating the also - struggling team. The Chargers then began a three - game winning streak most notably beating the Ravens by more than any team has beat them that season. However, the Chargers were beaten, 38 -- 10, by the Detroit Lions to drop their record to 7 -- 8 and eliminate the possibility of being in the playoffs. After a 38 -- 26 victory over the Raiders in week 17, the Chargers finished at 8 -- 8 and in a numerical tie for first place in the AFC West along with Oakland and Denver. However, the Chargers were beaten out by Denver for the Division Title via tie - breaker. After missing the playoffs for the third straight season in 2012, the Chargers fired general manager Smith and head coach Turner.
The Chargers made offseason changes including a new General Manager, Tom Telesco, and head coach, Mike McCoy, the former offensive coordinator for the Denver Broncos. On January 9, 2013, the Chargers announced that Tom Telesco, former Vice President of Football Operations with the Indianapolis Colts, would take over as General Manager following the firing of A.J. Smith. On January 15, 2013, Broncos offensive coordinator, Mike McCoy, was hired as the new head coach and Ken Whisenhunt as offensive coordinator.
The Chargers finished the 2013 season 9 - 7 and made the playoffs for the first time since 2009. They entered the playoffs as the sixth seed. On January 5, 2014, the Chargers defeated the Cincinnati Bengals at Paul Brown Stadium (27 - 10) to advance to the AFC Divisional Playoff Round. The Chargers then lost to the Denver Broncos at Sports Authority Field at Mile High the following Sunday, January 12, 2014 (24 - 17).
After starting the season strongly, including a five - win run in September and October, the Chargers were beset by a string of injuries to key players, and eventually finished the season at 9 - 7. In contrast to 2013, the record was not enough to make the playoffs. The Chargers began the season 5 -- 1, winning five straight after losing their season opener. It was followed by a three - game losing streak, and they finished 4 -- 4 in the second half. They won just two of their final five games, coming back from double - digit fourth quarter deficits twice to remain in playoff contention. They lost the final game of the season when a win would have secured a playoff berth. In three of their last four games, and five of their last eight, the Chargers did not score more than one touchdown. Compared to 2013, the offense dropped in points (from 12th in the league to 17th), yards (5th to 18th), first downs (3rd to 15th), net yards per pass (2nd to 8th), rushing yards (13th to 30) and yards per rush (21st to 31st). It was the second time in three years the team finished second - to - last in yards per carry. San Diego was just 2 -- 4 against teams in their division in the AFC West, and were swept by both the Denver Broncos and the Kansas City Chiefs. It was their worst intradivision record since they were 1 -- 5 in 2003. The Chargers were only 3 -- 6 against teams with winning records. They matched their 9 -- 7 record from 2013, but missed the playoffs for the fourth time in five seasons.
During the season, the Chargers, the St. Louis Rams, and the Oakland Raiders all intimated they might apply for relocation to Los Angeles at the end of the season. The Chargers announced in December 2014 that they would not be seeking to relocate for the 2015 season, followed by an announcement from the NFL that no team would relocate to L.A. until the 2016 season at the earliest.
Controversy filled the 2015 offseason, as attorney and team spokesperson Mark Fabiani continually bashed the local San Diego city government 's efforts to negotiate a replacement for Qualcomm Stadium. When then - St. Louis Rams owner Stan Kroenke announced in January 2015 his intention to build a new stadium in Inglewood, California, the Chargers felt pressured to announce their own Los Angeles plan to preserve what they claimed was "25 percent of their fan base '' in the affluent Los Angeles and Orange County areas. In February 2015, the team announced a stadium proposal in Carson, California, in partnership with the Oakland Raiders, their AFC West divisional rivals.
The 2015 season started off with a win against the Detroit Lions at home. The Chargers lost to the Cincinnati Bengals and Minnesota Vikings on the road before defeating the Cleveland Browns on a last second field goal. Following their 2 -- 2 start, the Chargers lost their next six games, dropping to 2 -- 8. In their six straight losses, they lost heartbreakers to the Pittsburgh Steelers, Green Bay Packers, Baltimore Ravens and the Chicago Bears, as well as sound defeats by both, division rivals, the Oakland Raiders and the Kansas City Chiefs. They finally broke their losing streak by defeating the Jacksonville Jaguars on the road, bringing their record to 3 -- 8, in last place in the AFC West and 3rd worst in the American Football Conference (one game ahead of both the Browns and the Tennessee Titans). They are also tied for the third worst record in the National Football League. They then proceeded to beat the Miami Dolphins in Week 14 winning 30 -- 14. They finished the season 4 -- 12.
The day following the conclusion of the 2015 regular season, the Chargers, Rams, and Raiders all filed to relocate to Los Angeles. On January 12, 2016, the NFL owners voted 30 -- 2 to allow the Rams to return to Los Angeles and approved the Inglewood stadium project over the Carson project. The Chargers were given a one - year approval to relocate, conditioned on negotiating a lease agreement with the Rams or an agreement to partner with the Rams on the new stadium construction.
On January 14, 2016, the team filed paperwork for official trademark protection of the term "Los Angeles Chargers '' for the purposes of running and marketing a professional football franchise. After two weeks of negotiation, the Chargers and Rams on January 29, 2016 reached an agreement in principle on sharing the planned Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park. The Chargers would contribute a $200 million stadium loan from the NFL and personal seat license fees to the construction costs and would pay $1 per year in rent to the Rams. The Chargers had continued preliminary work on a ballot initiative for public approval on a new facility. On November 8, 2016, Measure C was voted down (57 % opposed over 43 % in support). On December 14, 2016, at an owners ' meeting, the terms of the Chargers and Rams lease agreement, as well as the team 's debt ceiling were approved thus taking the first steps for a possible relocation to Los Angeles in 2017.
Spanos announced the relocation in a controversial letter to San Diego Chargers fans posted to the team 's official site on January 12, 2017. The team announced it would play as the Los Angeles Chargers starting in the 2017 season at StubHub Center in Carson, California, although the stadium seats well below the 50,000 the minimum that the NFL set even for temporary homes following the 1970 merger. The current seating for their temporary home stands at seating for 30,000 fans and is shared by the MLS soccer team, LA Galaxy. This will serve as the Chargers ' temporary home field until they join the Rams in Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park in Inglewood starting in the 2020 NFL season.
With the relocation announcement, the Chargers unveiled a new alternate logo incorporating the letters "LA '' with a lightning bolt. The logo was immediately widely ridiculed, in part for its resemblance to the Los Angeles Dodgers logo, by fans, the media, and even other professional sports franchises. The team tried to diffuse the controversy by changing the color scheme before scrapping it altogether after two days.
Reaction to the relocation itself has not been without controversy. Los Angeles Times columnist Bill Plaschke welcomed the team to town by writing "We. Do n't. Want. You. '' At a game at the Staples Center between the Los Angeles Clippers and Lakers, the Chargers ' regular logo was shown on a scoreboard and was "booed heartily ''. Chargers tight end Jeff Cumberland was also "jeered '' by the crowd when featured on the big screen.
One week after the move from San Diego to Los Angeles was announced, ESPN 's Adam Schefter reported that the other NFL owners were "angered '' by the decision, and that "the NFL wants the Chargers to move back, though nobody believes that possibility is realistic. ''
On January 13, the Chargers fired defensive coordinator John Pagano. It took the team only one week to find a replacement for John Pagano, as they hired Gus Bradley on January 20. Gus Bradley was formerly the head coach for the Jacksonville Jaguars, and before landing that head coaching job was the defensive coordinator for the Seattle Seahawks. The Chargers also announced they had hired Anthony Lynn to be their next head coach.
In their first game back in Los Angeles, the Chargers failed to sell out the StubHub Center. The announced attendance was just over 25,000, divided "around 50 / 50 '' between fans of the Chargers and the visiting Miami Dolphins. After the poor response, the NFL was reportedly considering ways to move the Chargers back to San Diego, although that possibility is considered unlikely. The league officially denied that such discussions were happening, as San Diego was stated not to have a usable stadium and that the Spanos family refuses to consider going back to the city; the league did acknowledge that a vote of the owners could change the situation.
Except for color changes, the Chargers have basically used the logo of an arc - shaped lightning bolt since the team debuted in 1960. During its period in the AFL, the club also used a shield logo that featured a horsehead, a lightning bolt, and the word "Chargers ''.
From 1960 to 1973, the colors consisted of various shades of Electric blue ("powder '' blue, but technically called Collegiate blue) or white jerseys, both with gold lightning bolts on the shoulders. The helmets were white and had both the arc - shaped lightning bolt logo, in gold or navy depending on the year, and the player 's number. At first, the team wore white pants before switching to gold in 1966. In 1973, the numerals on the blue jerseys changed from white to gold.
In 1974, the sky blue was changed to dark royal blue. The helmet was also changed to dark blue and the players ' numbers were removed. Additionally, the face masks became yellow, thus making them one of the first teams in the NFL (with the Kansas City Chiefs) to use a facemask color other than the then - predominant grey. From 1978 through 1983, the Chargers wore their white jerseys at home, coinciding with the hiring of coach Don Coryell -- when Joe Gibbs, a Coryell assistant in 1979 -- 80, became head coach of the Washington Redskins in 1981, he did the same, and white at home became a Redskins staple through 2007 -- but Coryell switched the Chargers to their blue jerseys at home starting in 1984. With the exception of the 1991 season and other sporadic home games since, San Diego wears its blue jerseys at home.
In 1985, the Chargers started using navy blue jerseys and returned to wearing white pants. The team 's uniform design was next revamped in 1988. It featured an even darker shade of navy blue. The lightning bolts on the jerseys and helmets were white, with navy interior trim and gold outlining. In 1990, the team started to wear navy pants with their white jerseys. From 1988 to 1991, the team displayed stripes down the pants rather than lightning bolts. The Chargers went with all - white combinations in 1997 and 2001, only to have the blue pants make a comeback. On October 27, 2003, the Chargers wore their navy pants with their navy jersey for a Monday Night Football game versus the Miami Dolphins that was played at Sun Devil Stadium, then the home of the Arizona Cardinals, due to wildfires in southern California. This remains the only game in which the Chargers have worn the all - dark combination.
From the late 1980s to 2000, the Chargers wore white at home during some preseason games and dark for regular season games. In 2001, the Chargers started wearing their dark uniforms for preseason games and white uniforms in September home games due to the heat before switching back to dark in October.
In March 2007, the Chargers unveiled their first uniform redesign since 1988, on the team 's official website. The team formally unveiled this new uniform set, which mixes old and new styles, in a private team - only event. Navy blue remains the primary color on the home jersey, but the familiar lightning bolt was reverted to gold, and now has navy outlining and powder blue interior trim. The latter color is a nod to the 1960s uniforms. The redesigned lightning bolt was moved to the sides of the shoulders from the top, and includes a new numbering font and word mark in white, with gold outlining and powder blue interior trim. The pants also have a redesigned lightning bolt in gold, with powder blue trim on a navy stripe. Additionally, the team pays tribute to other uniform features from their history by wearing a metallic white helmet, with a navy face mask, the newly revamped bolt in gold with navy and powder blue trim, and white pants. The road white jerseys with navy pants, as well as the alternate powder blue jerseys with white pants, were also redesigned with the new scheme.
From 2002 to 2006, the Chargers used the early - 1960s powder blue uniforms as alternate jerseys, which many football fans (both of the Chargers and of other teams) clamored for the team to bring back full - time.
Since 2007, the Chargers have worn the alternate powder blue jerseys twice per season. The alternate powder blue jerseys have also been worn in a playoff game against the Indianapolis Colts (2008 playoffs).
In 2009, in honor of their 50th anniversary as one of the eight original AFL teams, the Chargers wore their 1963 throwback uniforms for three games.
For the 2013 season, the Chargers made minor tweaks to their current uniforms. These include a two - tone nameplate (gold with powder blue trim on home jersey, navy with gold trim on away jersey, and white with navy trim on alternate jersey), collars matching the color of the jersey, and the addition of a gold stripe on the socks.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Restricted FAs
Roster updated March 24, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 63 Active, Inactive, 6 FAs
The Chargers currently have four retired numbers: # 14 (Dan Fouts), # 19 (Lance Alworth), # 21 (LaDainian Tomlinson) and # 55 (Junior Seau). As of 2010, the Chargers ' policy was to have the Chargers Hall of Fame committee evaluate candidates for a player 's number to retire after the player has retired from the league after five years, Seau was the only exception to this policy. The committee consists of Chargers Executive Vice President Alex Spanos, Chargers public relations director Bill Johnston, San Diego Hall of Champions founder Bob Breitbard, and the presidents of the San Diego Sports Commission and the Chargers Backers Fan Club. There are few recognized guidelines in sports regarding retiring numbers, and the NFL has no specific league policy. "You have to have enough numbers for players to wear '', said NFL spokesman Greg Aiello. The Chargers have rarely retired numbers. The San Diego Union - Tribune wrote, "The (Chargers) tend to honor their heritage haphazardly. ''
The Chargers created their Hall of Fame in 1976. The members of the Hall of Fame are honored at the Chargers Ring of Honor, founded in 2000 and viewable above the visiting team 's sideline of Qualcomm Stadium on the press level. Eligible candidates must have been retired for at least four seasons. Selections are made by a five - member committee chaired by Dean Spanos, Chargers vice-chairman. As of 1992, other committee members included Bob Breitbard, founder of the San Diego Hall of Champions; Ron Fowler, president of the Greater San Diego Sports Association; Jane Rappoport, president of the Charger Backers; and Bill Johnston, the team 's director of public relations. The Chargers in 2012 allowed fans to vote for the newest member.
The Chargers announced their 50th Anniversary Team in 2009 to honor the top players and coaches in the team 's history. The Chargers were founded in 1959. The team included 53 players and coaches selected from 103 nominees. The Chargers originally stated that only 50 members would be selected. Online voting by fans accounted for 50 % of the voting results; votes from Chargers Hall of Famers and five members of the local media made up for the other 50 %. Over 400,000 votes were cast online. Dan Fouts and LaDainian Tomlinson received the first and second most votes, respectively. The team features 7 Pro Football Hall of Fame members and 11 players that were active on the 2009 Chargers team.
Alworth, Mix, Hadl, Joiner, Coryell, Gillman, Garrison, Fouts, White, Winslow, Faison, Benirschke, Lincoln, Washington, Humphries, Ladd and Wilkerson are also members of the San Diego Hall of Champions, which is open to athletes from the San Diego area as well as those who played for San Diego - based professional and collegiate teams.
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The Chargers ' flagship station is KFI 640am in Los Angeles, commonly known as "KFI AM 640 '' with daily coverage and special programming on KLAC / 570. Play - by - play man Matt "Money '' Smith and former Chargers former offensive lineman Nick Hardwick comprise the broadcast team, with KLSD afternoon co-host Mike Costa serving as sideline reporter. Past Chargers radio broadcasters have included Josh Lewin, Ralph Lawler, Stu Nahan, Tom Kelly, Lee "Hacksaw '' Hamilton, Dan Rowe, Ted Leitner, and Hank Bauer. Bauer served seventeen seasons (1998 -- 2014) as the radio color analyst; however, the Chargers and then flagship KIOZ decided not to renew his contract, and was replaced by Conway starting with the 2015 season. As of 2014, the Chargers also stream their radio broadcasts on their official mobile application (through iOS and Android devices) as well as on their website.
Most preseason games are televised on KABC - TV and KAZA - TV in Los Angeles and KFMB - TV in San Diego. KCBS - TV, besides KFMB, carries the majority of the team 's regular season games; a few are on KCAL - TV; in 2015, Spero Dedes and Dan Fouts called the team 's preseason telecasts. Games in which the Chargers host an NFC team on Sunday afternoons are aired over KTTV or My 13 in Los Angeles and KSWB in San Diego, all Fox stations except My 13; if a Sunday night game is televised, KNBC in Los Angeles and KNSD in San Diego will air the games, through parent network NBC 's Sunday Night Football coverage. KABC, KCBS and KFMB are also the designated local simulcasters of the Chargers ' appearances on either ESPN 's Monday Night Football or NFL Network 's Thursday Night Football games.
Dennis Packer, the public address announcer of all USC football games at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, serves as the public address announcer of all Chargers home games at StubHub Center. Packer replaced legendary P.A. announcer Bruce Binkowski, who went on to become the executive director of the Holiday and Poinsettia Bowl games, which are played at their former home, SDCCU Stadium.
With the Chargers ' move to Los Angeles in 2017, the team became a beneficiary of league scheduling policies. Both the Chargers and the Los Angeles Rams share the Los Angeles market, which is on the West Coast of the United States. This means that the Chargers can not play home games, road division games against the Denver Broncos or Oakland Raiders, or interconference road games against the NFC West (in seasons that the AFC West and NFC West meet in interconference play) in the early 10: 00 a.m. Pacific time slot. In addition, they can not play interconference home games at the same time or network as the Rams. As a result, both teams generally will have more limited scheduling options, and will also benefit by receiving more prime - time games than usual (click here for further information). Thus, regardless of the previous season 's record, the Chargers will receive a disproportionate number of Sunday Night, Monday Night and / or Thursday Night games, compared to the rest of the league.
Chargers Radio Network Chargers Finalize 2017 Broadcast Team and Station Affiliates
The Chargers ' fight song, "San Diego Super Chargers '', was recorded in 1979 at the height of the team 's success with Air Coryell, and has a distinctly disco sound. The team under then - new owner Alex Spanos replaced the song in 1989 with a non-disco cover version, but the original version was revived in 2002. The team played this song at home games after Chargers scores and victories until it departed San Diego. From time to time during highlights of NFL PrimeTime, ESPN 's Chris Berman and Tom Jackson would briefly sing the first line of the song 's chorus.
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where was the movie i am number four filmed | I Am Number Four (film) - wikipedia
I Am Number Four is a 2011 American teen science fiction action thriller film directed by D.J. Caruso and starring Alex Pettyfer, Timothy Olyphant, Teresa Palmer, Dianna Agron, and Callan McAuliffe. The screenplay, by Alfred Gough, Miles Millar, and Marti Noxon, is based on novel of the same name, one of the Lorien Legacies young adult science fiction novels.
Produced by Michael Bay, I Am Number Four was the first film production from DreamWorks Pictures to be released by Touchstone Pictures, as part of the studio 's 2009 distribution deal with Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The Hollywood Reporter estimated the budget to be between $50 million and $60 million. The film was released in both conventional and IMAX theatres on February 18, 2011, received generally negative reviews, and grossed $150 million.
John Smith is an alien from the planet Lorien. He was sent to Earth as a child with eight others to escape the invading Mogadorians, who destroyed Lorien. Here, John is protected by a Guardian, Henri, and has developed powers, including enhanced strength, speed and agility, as well as seven other powers he will develop later in life, known as legacies. He is protected by a Loric charm which protects him from all Mogadorian harm as long as he is hurt out of order. He can only be hurt after the first three loriens are killed in order.
The Mogadorians, led by the Commander, learn about the nine children and come to Earth to find them. The Lorien can only be killed in sequence; Number One through Number Nine. Three of them are already dead, with John being Number Four. Knowing this, he and Henri move from a beachside bungalow in Florida to an old farm in Paradise, Ohio, where John befriends conspiracy theorist Sam Goode and a dog which he names after Bernie Kosar. He also falls for an amateur photographer, Sarah Hart. Her ex-boyfriend, football player Mark James is a bully who torments both John and Sam.
During the Halloween Festival, Mark and his friends chase Sarah and John into the woods, where they try to beat John up. However, he uses his powers to fend them off and rescue Sarah. Sam witnesses this, which forces John to reveal his true origins. The next day, Mark 's father, the local sheriff, interrogates Henri on John 's whereabouts when his son and his friends were attacked.
Henri tells John that too many people are suspicious of them so they have to leave. John refuses because of Sarah. Meanwhile, the Mogadorians continue searching for John, while being trailed by another Garde, Number Six, who is also trying to locate Number Four. Number Six 's guardian was killed, and she realizes that the remaining six of the Garde will have to team up and fight against the Mogadorians. She knows Number Three is dead and that Number Four is being hunted.
The Mogadorians eventually locate John and manipulate two conspiracy theorists into capturing Henri. When John and Sam go to rescue him, they are attacked but manage to fend the Mogadorians off. However, Henri dies after John and Sam escape with some Lorien artefacts, including a blue rock that acts as a tracking device for other Garde. Sam 's father, a conspiracy theorist who disappeared while hunting aliens in Mexico, had another of the rocks. While Sam searches for it, John tries to say goodbye to Sarah at a party, only to discover that the Mogadorians have framed him and Henri for the murders of the conspiracy theorists. Mark sees John and calls his father, who corners John and Sarah. John saves Sarah from a fall, revealing his powers in the process, and they escape to their high school.
Meanwhile, The Commander arrives in Paradise, in a convoy of trucks. He is confronted by Mark and his father, and after injuring the sheriff, he forces Mark to show him where John is hiding. Mark takes him to the school, which he knows is Sarah 's hideout.
There, John, Sarah, and Sam are attacked by the Mogadorians, who brought two Piken to hunt the trio. They are saved by Number Six and Bernie, who is actually a shapeshifting Chimera sent by John 's biological parents to protect him. John and Number Six, who can turn invisible and can block energy attacks, continue to fight the Mogadorians. They eventually defeat them all, including the Commander.
The following day, John and Number Six unite their blue rocks and discover the location of the other four surviving Garde. John decides to let Sam come with them in hopes of finding Sam 's father. They set off to find the others so they can all protect Earth from the Mogadorians, leaving Sarah and a repentant Mark, who lies to his father about John 's whereabouts, telling him to head west since he told his father he was heading east, and returns a magic box left to John by his Dad that Henri hid that was in police evidence. John thanks Mark and promises Sarah that he will come back to Paradise to find her. While they share their goodbye kiss a hurt and slightly agitated Mark is shown, before shakes his head before waving and putting a fake smile. The video ends with John, Sam, Bernie and Number 6 driving out towards the sunset smiling and vowing to protect their new home, Earth.
The film was produced by DreamWorks and Reliance Entertainment. Film producer and director Michael Bay brought the manuscript of the young adult novel I Am Number Four to Stacey Snider and Steven Spielberg at DreamWorks. A bidding war developed for the film rights between DreamWorks and J.J. Abrams, with DreamWorks winning the rights in June 2009, with the intention of having Bay produce and possibly direct the project. The rights were purchased with the hope of attracting teenage fans of The Twilight Saga films, and the potential of establishing a film franchise, with at least six more installments planned by the book 's publisher.
Al Gough and Miles Millar, the creators of the television series Smallville, were hired to write the screenplay in August 2009. Marti Noxon, writer and producer for the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, also contributed to the screenplay. D.J. Caruso was brought on to direct in early 2010, after Bay opted to focus on directing the third film of the Transformers series. Caruso had been selected by Spielberg to direct Disturbia and Eagle Eye for DreamWorks, and had success with both films. Caruso had less than a year to prepare, shoot and edit the film, due to a worldwide release date set for Presidents Day weekend.
Chris Bender, J.C. Spink, and David Valdes executive produced the film. Steven Spielberg contributed to the film 's characters, but did not take a credit on the film. It was the first DreamWorks film to be released by Disney 's Touchstone Pictures label, as part of the 30 - picture distribution deal between DreamWorks and Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The film was also the first release for DreamWorks after the studio 's financial restructuring in 2008.
In March 2010, Alex Pettyfer was in talks to play the title character in the film, Number Four. It was later confirmed that the 21 - year - old British actor would play the lead. Sharlto Copley was going to star as Henri, Number Four 's guardian and mentor, but had to drop out due to press obligations with his film The A-Team. Copley was replaced by Timothy Olyphant. Kevin Durand plays the villain of the film, Commander, the Mogadorian who leads the hunt for the Loriens on Earth.
DreamWorks went through multiple rounds of tests to find the right actress for the female romantic lead. Dianna Agron, a star in the Fox television series Glee, won the role. She plays Sarah Hart, a girl who used to date a high school football player, but falls for Number Four and keeps his secret. Jake Abel plays the football player, Mark James, an antagonist in the film. Teresa Palmer plays the other Loric, Number Six, and 16 - year - old Australian actor Callan McAuliffe plays Sam Goode, Number Four 's best friend.
Principal photography began on May 17, 2010, using 20 locations all within the Pittsburgh metropolitan area. DreamWorks selected the area primarily due to tax incentives from the Pennsylvania Film Production Tax Credit. The film studio also had a positive experience shooting She 's Out of My League in Pittsburgh in 2008. The production was scheduled to last 12 to 13 weeks.
Cinematographer Guillermo Navarro shot the film on 35 mm, using a format known as Super 1: 85. Beaver, the former Conley Inn in Homewood, and nearby Buttermilk Falls were used as locations in the film; interior and exterior scenes were shot near a boat launch in Monaca. A spring fair scene was filmed in Deer Lakes Park in West Deer; Port Vue, North Park, New Kensington and Hyde Park were also used as locations. The setting of the film 's fictional town of Paradise, Ohio is Vandergrift, Pennsylvania, where filming took place from June to July 2010. Producers chose Vandergrift as the "hero town '' of the film because of its unique look and curved streets, laid out by Frederick Law Olmsted, the designer of New York City 's Central Park.
Franklin Regional High School in Murrysville was chosen over 50 other schools in the area, due to its proximity to nearby woods, a part of the film 's plot, and its surrounding hills. The school was also selected for its one floor layout, wide hallways, and its football stadium in front. Teachers and recent graduates appear in the film, and a set that replicates the school was built in a studio in Monroeville for filming explosion scenes. In the last few weeks of production, scenes were filmed at the 200 - year - old St. John 's Lutheran Stone Church in Lancaster Township. Additional filming took place in the Florida Keys in the beginning of the film in Big Pine Key, Florida as well as the spanning of the drive over the bridge showcases the keys 7 mile bridge.
I Am Number Four was edited by Jim Page, with Industrial Light & Magic developing the visual effects for the alien Pikens. The film was scored by former Yes guitarist Trevor Rabin.
A teaser trailer for the film was issued in late September 2010, and a full - length trailer premiered on December 8. Advertisements ran in Seventeen and Teen Vogue magazines, Disney released a promotional iPhone app in January 2011. Disney also developed a lot of Internet content to target a teen audience with their marketing campaign. A cast tour, in association with American retailer Hot Topic, and cast media appearances were scheduled to lead up to the release of the film.
I Am Number Four premiered at the Village Theatre in Los Angeles on February 9, 2011. The film was released in theaters on February 18, 2011, and was also released in the IMAX format.
The film was released by Touchstone Home Entertainment on Blu - ray, DVD, and digital download on May 24, 2011. The release was produced in three different packages: a three - disc Blu - ray, DVD, and "Digital Copy '' combo pack, a single - disc Blu - ray, and a single - disc DVD. The "Digital Copy '' included with the 3 - disc version is a stand - alone disc that allows users to play the film from any location via iTunes or Windows Media Player. All releases include bloopers and the "Becoming Number 6 '' featurette, while the single - disc Blu - ray and three - disc Blu - ray, DVD, and "Digital Copy '' combo pack versions additionally include six deleted scenes with an introduction from the director. In its first three weeks of release, 316,081 Blu - ray units were sold in the US, bringing in $7,693,808. As of October 2, 2011, the standard DVD of ' I am Number Four ' has sold 767,692 copies in the United States, generating $12,571,326, and thus bringing the total gross to $166,247,931.
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 33 % approval rating and an average rating of 4.8 / 10 based on 158 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "It 's positioned as the start of a franchise, but I Am Number Four 's familiar plot and unconvincing performances add up to one noisy, derivative, and ultimately forgettable sci - fi thriller. '' Metacritic gives the film an average score of 36 out of 100 based on reviews from 30 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Empire Magazine gave the film three out of a possible five stars and said, "If you can make it through the bland schmaltz of the first half you 'll be rewarded with a spectacular blast of sustained action and the promise of even better to come. This could be the start of something great. ''
I Am Number Four grossed $55,100,437 at the North American box office and $90,778,000 overseas, for a worldwide total of $149,878,437. It topped the worldwide box office on its second weekend (February 25 -- 27, 2011) with $28,086,805.
The film opened at number two in the United States and Canada with a gross of $19,449,893. In its second weekend, it dropped 43.4 %, earning $11,016,126. The only other market where it has grossed over $10 million is China. It began in third place with $3.4 million, but had an increase of 91 % in its second week, topping the box office with $6.4 million. In its third week, it decreased by 21 % to $5.0 million. As of March 27, 2011, it has grossed $17,328,244.
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In 2011, screenwriter Noxon told Collider.com that plans for an imminent sequel were shelved due to the disappointing performance of the first installment at the box office.
In 2013, director Caruso was asked if there are any possibilities that The Power of Six will get a movie adaption, he replied: "There 's been some talk in the past couple of months about trying to do something because there is this audience appetite out there (...). Most of the people on Twitter that contact me from all over the world ask, "Where 's the next movie? '' I think DreamWorks is getting those too so it 'll be interesting. I do n't know if I 'd be involved, but I know they 're talking about it. ''
In a 2015 interview, James Frey, the co-author of the series, said that he hoped more movies would be made.
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department of public safety salt lake city utah | Utah Department of Public Safety - Wikipedia
Utah Department of Public Safety (DPS) is a law enforcement agency in the State of Utah, headquartered in Salt Lake City.
It is the parent agency of the Utah Highway Patrol, which serves as the functional equivalent of state police for Utah.
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who plays jim in season 3 of trollhunters | Trollhunters - Wikipedia
Trollhunters: Tales of Arcadia is an American computer - animated fantasy television series created for Netflix by Guillermo del Toro and produced by DreamWorks Animation and Double Dare You Productions. It follows the story of James Lake Jr., a teenage boy who finds a mysterious amulet and stumbles across a secret realm inhabited by trolls and other magical creatures. Soon afterward, he and his friends are charged with protecting our world from the dangerous monsters that lurk in the shadows of their small suburban town.
The first two episodes of the series premiered on October 8, 2016, at the New York Comic Con. The first season was released worldwide on Netflix on December 23, 2016. The second season premiered on December 15, 2017, and the third and final season premiered on May 25, 2018.
Since its release, Trollhunters has been widely praised as an ambitious and boundary - pushing animated series, with Filmink 's Travis Johnson calling it "... the best children 's animation to come along since Avatar: The Last Airbender. '' The series was nominated for nine Daytime Emmy Awards in 2017, winning more than any other animated or live - action television program that year. In its first two seasons, it has also received or been nominated for several Annie Awards, Kidscreen Awards, and a Saturn Award. The show has also spawned several original children 's books and has been adapted into a series of graphic novels by Marc Guggenheim and Richard Hamilton, released by Dark Horse.
Anton Yelchin continued to be part of the series through the first two seasons, as he had recorded enough dialogue to complete them before his sudden death. Yelchin was also able to provide a portion of dialogue for the final season, while the remaining portions of dialogue was recorded by Emile Hirsch.
Following the show 's success, Guillermo del Toro announced that Trollhunters will be the first chapter in a trilogy of television series entitled Tales of Arcadia. The story will be continued in a science fiction inspired follow - up series entitled 3Below, and the trilogy will be concluded in a third and final fantasy series entitled Wizards.
Beneath the town of Arcadia lives a secret civilization of trolls, which humans are oblivious to. The trolls ' common enemy are the Gumm - Gumms, evil trolls from the Darklands. The trolls ' chosen warrior, known as the "Trollhunter '', is supposed to protect them from the Gumm - Gumms along with other dark miscreants from the Darklands.
Fifteen - year - old James "Jim '' Lake Jr. and his friend Toby find a mystical amulet which grants him the Trollhunter mantle. He is shortly approached by his new troll mentors, Blinky and AAARRRGGHH!!!. Despite his initial reluctance to lead a double life, he eventually accepts his role after discovering that attempting to discard the amulet will cause it to return to him on its own. During his visits to Heartstone Trollmarket, the presence of the first human Trollhunter stirs resentment, but he quickly gains their acceptance. Throughout his training and missions, he befriends a gnome (who Toby dubs "Gnome Chompsky '') and discovers that goblins and Changelings (human - morphing trolls that replace humans to spy) are gathering for the completion of the Killahead Bridge, a portal through which the Gumm - Gumms from the Darklands will arrive and invade. The project is being led by Bular, Gumm - Gumm leader Gunmar 's son, and Walter Strickler, a Changeling who is Jim 's high school teacher.
While discovering more mysteries, Jim is forced to reveal the truth about his life to Claire Nuñez when she becomes a target of the goblins. Jim and his allies launch a surprise attack on Bular and his henchmen, destroying the bridge and closing the portal. Jim is forced to battle Bular. They fight and with aid from AAARRRGGHH!!!, Jim succeeds in slaying him. He returns to Trollmarket, where the citizens celebrate Bular 's defeat.
Shortly afterward, Claire proposes a quest into the Darklands to rescue her baby brother Enrique, who has been replaced by a Changeling who they dub NotEnrique. The spirits of past Trollhunters inform Jim that the only way to get out of the Darklands alive is to kill Gunmar. Blinky discovers that the only way to kill Gunmar is with the three Triumbric Stones. Meanwhile, Strickler has freed ancient troll assassin Angor Rot from his bonds. Using Angor 's ring, he forces Angor to obey him. Jim and the gang hunt for the Stones while Strickler has Angor create a binding spell that ties Strickler 's fate to Jim 's mother in order to ensure that Jim can not kill Strickler. During one particular confrontation with Angor Rot, Angor manages to take one of the Triumbric Stones, although Claire takes his Shadow Staff in the process. While trying to steal the stone from Angor, Jim indirectly causes Angor 's ring to break. Angor Rot goes on a rampage, attempting to kill Strickler and Jim. In the process, Strickler and Jim 's mother are both injured. Trollmarket 's leader, Vendel, informs Jim that the only way to save his mother is to break the binding spell that ties her and Strickler 's fates together. However, his mother 's memories of the troll world, including the fact that her son is the Trollhunter, are erased. Meanwhile, Strickler coaches Jim on cutting Angor Rot 's removable stone - like eye, which they acquired, into a Triumbric - like stone to help him defeat Angor. Strickler also reveals to Jim that he had the last Triumbric Stone all along; he gives it to Jim before leaving town.
Angor Rot invades Trollmarket after stealing a key from Claire. Jim and his allies defeat him, but not before AAARRRGGHH!!! takes a hit from his poison dagger and turns to stone. The group is in mourning. Believing that he is responsible for the death of AAARRRGGHH!!! and the ongoing endangerment of his friends, Jim sets off to the Darklands alone, not wanting to lose any more of them.
Jim returns Enrique, but ends up trapped in the Darklands. He is rescued by his friends along with former antagonist Nomura. AAARRRGGHH!!! is revived with a potion, and is welcomed back by his friends. Gunmar also escapes the Darklands with Dictatious, Blinky 's presumed - dead brother, and a couple soldiers. They meet up with the Janus Order, an organization dedicated to Gunmar 's return. Blinky finds out Dictatious is supportive of Gunmar, much to his dismay. Meanwhile, the fact that Gunmar is out from his prison makes Jim guilty in the eyes of Troll Law. Gunmar battles and enslaves Draal, as a means of torturing Jim. Jim is guided by Merlin 's spirit imbibed in the amulet he carries. Queen Usurna, who leads the Troll Tribunal, kills Vendel in secret, but is unaware that Vendel secretly records it in a special troll device. It is revealed that Usurna is faithful towards Gunmar rather than the welfare of Troll society and that she schemes with Gunmar 's counsel to bring about Gunmar 's return. Gunmar invades Trollmarket and closes off the underground city. Gunmar drains energy from the Heartstone and regains his strength. He forcibly converts many of the Trolls into his soldiers. Jim and his cohorts retreat from the city to Arcadia with as many Trolls as they can save using Claire 's magic staff. With the excessive use of dark magic, Claire comes under the spell of Morgana and secretly brings to her Angor Rot 's damaged head.
Merlin is awakened, and Morgana is released from her prison by the Staff of Avalon. Barbara Lake recovers her memories of knowing about Trolls, forcing Jim and his friends to reveal to their families the truth. Angor Rot is resurrected by Morgana. Jim is irreversibly transformed into a Half - Troll with all the physical characteristics of a Troll. Morgana brings forth the Eternal Night so that she and Gunmar can invade the world. Jim and his cohorts fight and win the battle. Jim kills Gunmar, and Morgana is trapped in the shadow realm by Claire with help from Angor Rot, who realizes his true past. Merlin leads the Trolls to a new home in New Jersey. Jim and Claire say good - bye to their families and friends (including Toby) and leave with the Trolls.
Initially, del Toro envisioned the idea as a live - action television series; however this was deemed impractical due to budgetary concerns, and as a result he instead turned the idea into a book. DreamWorks then planned to turn the book into an animated feature film. The feature film was going to be directed by Guillermo del Toro and Rodrigo Blaas. Eventually Dreamworks decided to instead turn it into a TV series with Netflix. Rodrigo Blaas became an Executive Producer and Supervising Director on the series..
Del Toro modeled the show 's sensibilities after shows he grew up with such as Johnny Quest, identifying them as "really earnest and emotionally beautiful ''. To this end, he sought to make the main character of Jim "in that ' 70s mold, '' and "really a very good boy '' with del Toro noting that this was a constant struggle for him to express to both writers and actors. Eventually he came across Anton Yelchin, who embodied those qualities although by del Toro 's estimate it still took him a few sessions to fully understand the character.
When creating the show 's narrative, del Toro noted that he wanted a "bittersweet journey '' for the main character dealing with issues that most such "power fantasies '' failed to address, telling indiewire "I wanted to say, ' Look, you can be in high school and you can have your problems. Then you get all these powers and then you have a different set of problems. There is not such a thing as a final, great outcome. ' ''
The show serves as one of Yelchin 's final projects as he died shortly after recording most of his character 's dialogue. Producer del Toro refused to replace his recordings, which del Toro noted was a challenge for the show 's recording engineers. Of his decision del Toro stated that the actor "was proud of what he did, and we were so proud of how he did it. '' Del Toro added that his experience as a father and Yelchin 's young age were also factors that led to the decision.
The two - episode pilot of the series premiered on October 8, 2016 at the New York Comic Con. The first season consisted of 26 half - hour episodes which were released worldwide on Netflix on December 23, 2016. The second season, consisting of 13 episodes, was released on December 15, 2017. The third and final season, consisting of 13 episodes, was released on May 25, 2018.
The first season of Trollhunters was released on DVD on November 7, 2017.
Trollhunters has received positive reviews from critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 94 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.81 / 10 based on 16 reviews for the first season. The website 's consensus reads, "Trollhunters manages to capture del Toro 's enthusiasm for telling monster stories, in a youthful and more colorful fashion that may well earn him a new generation of fans. '' On Metacritic, the season has a normalized score of 69 out of 100 based on 7 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
In 2017, it received six Daytime Emmys, more than any other television program, animated or live action, that year.
On January 30, 2017, Trollhunters writers Kevin and Dan Hageman stated that the series is the most successful Netflix original show to date that is targeted at a younger audience.
The second season of Trollhunters was nominated for six 2018 Annie Awards, tied for the most nominations of any television program in 2018. It was also nominated for four Daytime Emmy Awards, including Best Children 's Animated Series, and won the Emmy for Outstanding Writing in an Animated Program.
On November 6, 2017, show creator Guillermo del Toro announced that Trollhunters will be expanded into a trilogy of animated series known as Tales of Arcadia. The trilogy will be continued by a sci - fi animated series known as 3 Below, which will center on two royal aliens and their bodyguard who escape from their home planet and crash - land on Earth in Arcadia, where Trollhunters also takes place. There, the aliens adjust to human culture and try to fix their spaceship to return and take back their home planet, which is being taken over by an evil dictator. 3 Below will premiere on Netflix in 2018. The trilogy will then be concluded with the animated series Wizards, which brings together the three disparate worlds of trolls, aliens and wizards who have found themselves drawn to Arcadia, "... culminating in an apocalyptic battle for the control of magic that will ultimately determine the fate of these supernatural worlds that have now converged. '' Wizards is scheduled to premiere on Netflix in 2019.
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what is meant by the sun is over the yardarm | Yard (sailing) - wikipedia
A yard is a spar on a mast from which sails are set. It may be constructed of timber or steel or from more modern materials like aluminium or carbon fibre. Although some types of fore and aft rigs have yards, the term is usually used to describe the horizontal spars used on square rigged sails. In addition, for some decades after square sails were generally dispensed with, some yards were retained for deploying wireless (radio) aerials and signal flags.
Note that these terms refer to stretches of the same spar, not to separate component parts.
The yard can rotate around the mast to allow the direction of the vessel to be changed relative to the wind. When running directly downwind the yards are ' squared ', pointing perpendicular to the ship 's centre line. As the ship is steered closer to the wind the yards are braced round using the braces. When further rotation is obstructed by other bits of rigging (typically the shrouds), the yard is said to be braced "hard round '' or "sharp up '', as in "sharp up to port ''. This angle (normally about 60 degrees) limits how close to the wind a square rigged ship can sail.
The yards represent a considerable weight high above the vessel 's centre of gravity; to increase stability, especially in heavy weather, some means is normally provided to lower some of the yards when they are not being used to set sails. In nineteenth - century warships (where a large crew was available) this was generally by physically "sending down '' the upper yards from the masts and storing them on deck -- along with, in many cases, the upper sections of the mast itself. Merchant ships in the age of sail would also do this before sailing in the Southern Ocean. On modern tall ships the yards are not designed to be sent down on deck, but ' lifting yards ' that can be raised and lowered along a short section of mast using a halyard are often used.
As well as rotating round the mast and moving up and down along it, the yards on many ships are designed to tilt relative to the mast. This allows the sails to be set more efficiently when the ship is heeled over by raising the leeward yardarm to bring the yard closer to the horizontal. This is achieved using the lifts, which run from each yardarm to the mast some way above. On some ships only the course lifts can be adjusted (the others being fixed lifts intended only to support the yard when not hoisted), with the influence of the course yard being sufficient to tilt all the sails. Some ships have their yards mounted on mechanical swivels with no possibility of tilting them.
In order to set and stow the square sails, the crew must climb aloft and spread out along the yards. To do this, they stand in footropes suspended beneath the yard and balance themselves between that and the yard itself. The person working on the end of the yardarm has a separate footrope known as the flemish horse. Jackstays run along the top of the yard - the sail will be bent on to one of them, but a second one is often provided (particularly on larger yards) for the crew to hold on to. These are usually steel rods, but stiff cordage stretched between the yardarms was used in the past.
Almost all ships used in modern times are fitted with steel safety wires (sometimes erroneously called jackstays) along the yards to which sailors attach themselves using a harness. This is a relatively recent innovation - cargo - carrying and naval sailing ships were not so equipped and falling from the yard represented a real (though less than commonly imagined) risk.
The yard exists to allow square sails to be set to drive the ship. The top edge of the sail is ' bent on ' (attached) to the yard semi-permanently. Clewlines and buntlines are led along the yard and from there to the mast and down to the deck. These allow the bottom of the sail to be hoisted up to the yard, so the sail is effectively folded in two. In this state the sail is said to be "in its gear '', that is ready for setting or stowing. To set the sail the clewlines and buntlines are let go, and the sheets (attached to the bottom corners - clews - of the sail) are adjusted to shape the sail to best catch the wind. A device called a "tye '', a "tye chain '', or a "tye rope '' is used for lifting a given yard to the top of its travel to set the sail.
To stop using (i.e., to "hand '') the sail, the sheets are released and the clewlines and buntlines are pulled tight. The sail folds in half - back in its gear - and so no longer catches the wind. Unless the sail is to be used again very soon, the next step is to "stow '' it. To do this, the crew must go out along the yard in order to bundle the sail up tightly and tie it down with gaskets.
When coming into port, especially during the Tall Ships ' Races many modern square riggers will ' man the yards '. All the crew not required on deck to handle the ship will go aloft and spread out along the yards. This manoeuvre was originally used to display the whole crew to the harbour authorities and the other ships present, to show that the ship 's guns were not manned and hence her intentions were peaceful.
As well as the square - rig yard, the traditional lateen rig is a triangular sail rigged fore and aft from a long yard mounted at an angle (downward sloping forward) from the mast. As well, some smaller fore and aft rigs use a yard. The spar at the head of a lug sail -- a roughly square sail which is set fore - and - aft but requires different handling from a more modern gaff or Bermuda rig -- is known as a yard, and probably developed from the original square - rig yard. The spar at the head of a gunter - rigged sail serves the function of a running topmast, but is not given that name. Some would call it a ' gaff ', while others would use the name ' yard '.
This phrase is widely used, both afloat and ashore, to indicate that the time of day has been reached at which it is acceptable, variously, to have lunch or (more commonly) to have an alcoholic beverage. In modern parlance, the latter usage typically refers to early evening, but the phrase is thought originally to have referred to late morning and to the sun 's ascent past a particular yard.
The actual time that the sun would pass a particular yard would depend greatly on the ship 's latitude and heading, as well as the height of her masts, but the phrase seems to have originated in the north Atlantic, where, in summer, this would have typically been at about 11 a.m.. This was the time at which, by custom and rule, the first rum "tot '' of the day was issued to men (the senior rates had their tots neat, while the junior rates had theirs diluted with water), hence its connection with taking one 's first alcoholic drink of the day.
The earliest mention of this phrase collected by the OED is in Rudyard Kipling 's From Sea to Sea in 1899, where it is used as a metaphor referring to drinking habits. However, the phrase was in use earlier, in the same context. One example is from the first volume of Life, from the issue of May 31, 1883.
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which teams did michael jordan play for in the nba | Michael Jordan - wikipedia
Michael Jeffrey Jordan (born February 17, 1963), also known by his initials, MJ, is an American retired professional basketball player, businessman, and principal owner and chairman of the Charlotte Hornets. Jordan played 15 seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA) for the Chicago Bulls and Washington Wizards. His biography on the NBA website states: "By acclamation, Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time. '' Jordan was one of the most effectively marketed athletes of his generation and was considered instrumental in popularizing the NBA around the world in the 1980s and 1990s.
Jordan played three seasons for coach Dean Smith at the University of North Carolina. As a freshman, he was a member of the Tar Heels ' national championship team in 1982. Jordan joined the Bulls in 1984 as the third overall draft pick. He quickly emerged as a league star, entertaining crowds with his prolific scoring. His leaping ability, demonstrated by performing slam dunks from the free throw line in slam dunk contests, earned him the nicknames Air Jordan and His Airness. He also gained a reputation for being one of the best defensive players in basketball. In 1991, he won his first NBA championship with the Bulls, and followed that achievement with titles in 1992 and 1993, securing a "three - peat ''. Although Jordan abruptly retired from basketball before the beginning of the 1993 -- 94 NBA season to pursue a new venture in minor league baseball, he returned to the Bulls in March 1995 and led them to three additional championships in 1996, 1997, and 1998, as well as a then - record 72 regular - season wins in the 1995 -- 96 NBA season. Jordan retired for a second time in January 1999, but returned for two more NBA seasons from 2001 to 2003 as a member of the Wizards.
Jordan 's individual accolades and accomplishments include five Most Valuable Player (MVP) Awards, ten All - NBA First Team designations, nine All - Defensive First Team honors, fourteen NBA All - Star Game appearances, three All - Star Game MVP Awards, ten scoring titles, three steals titles, six NBA Finals MVP Awards, and the 1988 NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award. Among his numerous accomplishments, Jordan holds the NBA records for highest career regular season scoring average (30.12 points per game) and highest career playoff scoring average (33.45 points per game). In 1999, he was named the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century by ESPN, and was second to Babe Ruth on the Associated Press 's list of athletes of the century. Jordan is a two - time inductee into the Basketball Hall of Fame, having been enshrined in 2009 for his individual career, and again in 2010 as part of the group induction of the 1992 United States men 's Olympic basketball team ("The Dream Team ''). He became a member of the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2015.
Jordan is also known for his product endorsements. He fueled the success of Nike 's Air Jordan sneakers, which were introduced in 1985 and remain popular today. Jordan also starred in the 1996 feature film Space Jam as himself. In 2006, he became part - owner and head of basketball operations for the then - Charlotte Bobcats, buying a controlling interest in 2010. In 2015, Jordan became the first billionaire NBA player in history as a result of the increase in value of NBA franchises. He is the third - richest African - American, behind Oprah Winfrey and Robert F. Smith.
Jordan was born in Brooklyn, New York, to Deloris (née Peoples), who worked in banking, and James R. Jordan Sr., an equipment supervisor. His family moved to Wilmington, North Carolina, when he was a toddler.
Jordan is the fourth of five children. He has two older brothers, Larry Jordan and James R. Jordan, Jr., one older sister, Deloris, and one younger sister, Roslyn. Jordan 's brother James retired in 2006 as the Command Sergeant Major of the 35th Signal Brigade of the XVIII Airborne Corps in the U.S. Army.
Jordan attended Emsley A. Laney High School in Wilmington, where he highlighted his athletic career by playing basketball, baseball, and football. He tried out for the varsity basketball team during his sophomore year, but at 5'11 '' (1.80 m), he was deemed too short to play at that level. His taller friend, Harvest Leroy Smith, was the only sophomore to make the team.
Motivated to prove his worth, Jordan became the star of Laney 's junior varsity squad, and tallied several 40 - point games. The following summer, he grew four inches (10 cm) and trained rigorously. Upon earning a spot on the varsity roster, Jordan averaged about 20 points per game over his final two seasons of high school play. As a senior, he was selected to the McDonald 's All - American Team after averaging a triple - double: 29.2 points, 11.6 rebounds, and 10.1 assists.
Jordan was recruited by numerous college basketball programs, including Duke, North Carolina, South Carolina, Syracuse, and Virginia. In 1981, Jordan accepted a basketball scholarship to North Carolina, where he majored in cultural geography.
As a freshman in coach Dean Smith 's team - oriented system, he was named ACC Freshman of the Year after he averaged 13.4 points per game (ppg) on 53.4 % shooting (field goal percentage). He made the game - winning jump shot in the 1982 NCAA Championship game against Georgetown, which was led by future NBA rival Patrick Ewing. Jordan later described this shot as the major turning point in his basketball career. During his three seasons at North Carolina, he averaged 17.7 ppg on 54.0 % shooting, and added 5.0 rebounds per game (rpg). He was selected by consensus to the NCAA All - American First Team in both his sophomore (1983) and junior (1984) seasons. After winning the Naismith and the Wooden College Player of the Year awards in 1984, Jordan left North Carolina one year before his scheduled graduation to enter the 1984 NBA draft. The Chicago Bulls selected Jordan with the third overall pick, after Hakeem Olajuwon (Houston Rockets) and Sam Bowie (Portland Trail Blazers). One of the primary reasons why Jordan was not drafted sooner was because the first two teams were in need of a center. However, Trail Blazers general manager Stu Inman contended that it was not a matter of drafting a center, but more a matter of taking Sam Bowie over Jordan, in part because Portland already had Clyde Drexler, who was a guard with similar skills to Jordan. ESPN, citing Bowie 's injury - laden college career, named the Blazers ' choice of Bowie as the worst draft pick in North American professional sports history. Jordan returned to North Carolina to complete his degree in 1986.
During his rookie season in the NBA, Jordan averaged 28.2 ppg on 51.5 % shooting. He quickly became a fan favorite even in opposing arenas, and appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with the heading "A Star Is Born '' just over a month into his professional career. Jordan was also voted in as an All - Star starter by the fans in his rookie season. Controversy arose before the All - Star game when word surfaced that several veteran players -- led by Isiah Thomas -- were upset by the amount of attention Jordan was receiving. This led to a so - called "freeze - out '' on Jordan, where players refused to pass the ball to him throughout the game. The controversy left Jordan relatively unaffected when he returned to regular season play, and he would go on to be voted Rookie of the Year. The Bulls finished the season 38 -- 44 and lost to the Milwaukee Bucks in four games in the first round of the playoffs.
Jordan 's second season was cut short when he broke his foot in the third game of the year, causing him to miss 64 games. Despite Jordan 's injury and a 30 -- 52 record (at the time it was fifth worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history), the Bulls made the playoffs. Jordan recovered in time to participate in the playoffs and performed well upon his return. Against a 1985 -- 86 Boston Celtics team that is often considered one of the greatest in NBA history, Jordan set the still - unbroken record for points in a playoff game with 63 in Game 2. The Celtics, however, managed to sweep the series.
Jordan had completely recovered in time for the 1986 -- 87 season, and he had one of the most prolific scoring seasons in NBA history. He joined Wilt Chamberlain as the only two players to score 3,000 points in a season, averaging a league high 37.1 points on 48.2 % shooting. In addition, Jordan demonstrated his defensive prowess, as he became the first player in NBA history to record 200 steals and 100 blocked shots in a season. Despite Jordan 's success, Magic Johnson won the league 's Most Valuable Player Award. The Bulls reached 40 wins, and advanced to the playoffs for the third consecutive year. However, they were again swept by the Celtics.
Jordan again led the league in scoring during the 1987 -- 88 season, averaging 35.0 ppg on 53.5 % shooting and won his first league MVP Award. He was also named the Defensive Player of the Year, as he had averaged 1.6 blocks and a league high 3.16 steals per game. The Bulls finished 50 -- 32, and made it out of the first round of the playoffs for the first time in Jordan 's career, as they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games. However, the Bulls then lost in five games to the more experienced Detroit Pistons, who were led by Isiah Thomas and a group of physical players known as the "Bad Boys ''.
In the 1988 -- 89 season, Jordan again led the league in scoring, averaging 32.5 ppg on 53.8 % shooting from the field, along with 8 rpg and 8 assists per game (apg). The Bulls finished with a 47 -- 35 record, and advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals, defeating the Cavaliers and New York Knicks along the way. The Cavaliers series included a career highlight for Jordan when he hit The Shot over Craig Ehlo at the buzzer in the fifth and final game of the series. However, the Pistons again defeated the Bulls, this time in six games, by utilizing their "Jordan Rules '' method of guarding Jordan, which consisted of double and triple teaming him every time he touched the ball.
The Bulls entered the 1989 -- 90 season as a team on the rise, with their core group of Jordan and young improving players like Scottie Pippen and Horace Grant, and under the guidance of new coach Phil Jackson. Jordan averaged a league leading 33.6 ppg on 52.6 % shooting, to go with 6.9 rpg and 6.3 apg in leading the Bulls to a 55 -- 27 record. They again advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals after beating the Bucks and Philadelphia 76ers. However, despite pushing the series to seven games, the Bulls lost to the Pistons for the third consecutive season.
In the 1990 -- 91 season, Jordan won his second MVP award after averaging 31.5 ppg on 53.9 % shooting, 6.0 rpg, and 5.5 apg for the regular season. The Bulls finished in first place in their division for the first time in 16 years and set a franchise record with 61 wins in the regular season. With Scottie Pippen developing into an All - Star, the Bulls had elevated their play. The Bulls defeated the New York Knicks and the Philadelphia 76ers in the opening two rounds of the playoffs. They advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals where their rival, the Detroit Pistons, awaited them. However, this time the Bulls beat the Pistons in a four - game sweep.
The Bulls advanced to the NBA Finals for the first time in franchise history to face the Los Angeles Lakers, who had Magic Johnson and James Worthy, two formidable opponents. The Bulls won the series four games to one, and compiled an outstanding 15 -- 2 playoff record along the way. Perhaps the best known moment of the series came in Game 2 when, attempting a dunk, Jordan avoided a potential Sam Perkins block by switching the ball from his right hand to his left in mid-air to lay the shot into the basket. In his first Finals appearance, Jordan posted per game averages of 31.2 points on 56 % shooting from the field, 11.4 assists, 6.6 rebounds, 2.8 steals, and 1.4 blocks. Jordan won his first NBA Finals MVP award, and he cried while holding the NBA Finals trophy.
Jordan and the Bulls continued their dominance in the 1991 -- 92 season, establishing a 67 -- 15 record, topping their franchise record from 1990 to 91. Jordan won his second consecutive MVP award with averages of 30.1 points, 6.4 rebounds and 6.1 assists per game on 52 % shooting. After winning a physical 7 - game series over the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs and finishing off the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Conference Finals in 6 games, the Bulls met Clyde Drexler and the Portland Trail Blazers in the Finals. The media, hoping to recreate a Magic -- Bird rivalry, highlighted the similarities between "Air '' Jordan and Clyde "The Glide '' during the pre-Finals hype. In the first game, Jordan scored a Finals - record 35 points in the first half, including a record - setting six three - point field goals. After the sixth three - pointer, he jogged down the court shrugging as he looked courtside. Marv Albert, who broadcast the game, later stated that it was as if Jordan was saying, "I ca n't believe I 'm doing this. '' The Bulls went on to win Game 1, and defeat the Blazers in six games. Jordan was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row and finished the series averaging 35.8 ppg, 4.8 rpg, and 6.5 apg, while shooting 53 % from the floor.
In the 1992 -- 93 season, despite a 32.6 ppg, 6.7 rpg, and 5.5 apg campaign, Jordan 's streak of consecutive MVP seasons ended as he lost the award to his friend Charles Barkley. Coincidentally, Jordan and the Bulls met Barkley and his Phoenix Suns in the 1993 NBA Finals. The Bulls won their third NBA championship on a game - winning shot by John Paxson and a last - second block by Horace Grant, but Jordan was once again Chicago 's leader. He averaged a Finals - record 41.0 ppg during the six - game series, and became the first player in NBA history to win three straight Finals MVP awards. He scored more than 30 points in every game of the series, including 40 or more points in 4 consecutive games. With his third Finals triumph, Jordan capped off a seven - year run where he attained seven scoring titles and three championships, but there were signs that Jordan was tiring of his massive celebrity and all of the non-basketball hassles in his life.
During the Bulls ' playoff run in 1993, controversy arose when Jordan was seen gambling in Atlantic City, New Jersey, the night before a game against the New York Knicks. In that same year, he admitted that he had to cover $57,000 in gambling losses, and author Richard Esquinas wrote a book claiming he had won $1.25 million from Jordan on the golf course. In 2005, Jordan talked to Ed Bradley of the CBS evening show 60 Minutes about his gambling and admitted that he made some reckless decisions. Jordan stated, "Yeah, I 've gotten myself into situations where I would not walk away and I 've pushed the envelope. Is that compulsive? Yeah, it depends on how you look at it. If you 're willing to jeopardize your livelihood and your family, then yeah. '' When Bradley asked him if his gambling ever got to the level where it jeopardized his livelihood or family, Jordan replied, "No. ''
On October 6, 1993, Jordan announced his retirement, citing a loss of desire to play the game. Jordan later stated that the death of his father earlier in the year also shaped his decision. Jordan 's father was murdered on July 23, 1993, at a highway rest area in Lumberton, North Carolina, by two teenagers, Daniel Green and Larry Martin Demery, who carjacked the luxury vehicle. The assailants were traced from calls that they made on James Jordan 's cellular phone. The two criminals were caught, convicted at trial, and sentenced to life in prison. Jordan was close to his father; as a child he had imitated his father 's proclivity to stick out his tongue while absorbed in work. He later adopted it as his own signature, displaying it each time he drove to the basket. In 1996, he founded a Chicago area Boys & Girls Club and dedicated it to his father.
In his 1998 autobiography For the Love of the Game, Jordan wrote that he had been preparing for retirement as early as the summer of 1992. The added exhaustion due to the Dream Team run in the 1992 Olympics solidified Jordan 's feelings about the game and his ever - growing celebrity status. Jordan 's announcement sent shock waves throughout the NBA and appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world.
Jordan then further surprised the sports world by signing a minor league baseball contract with the Chicago White Sox on February 7, 1994. He reported to spring training in Sarasota, Florida, and was assigned to the team 's minor league system on March 31, 1994. Jordan has stated this decision was made to pursue the dream of his late father, who had always envisioned his son as a Major League Baseball player. The White Sox were another team owned by Bulls owner Jerry Reinsdorf, who continued to honor Jordan 's basketball contract during the years he played baseball.
In 1994, Jordan played for the Birmingham Barons, a Double - A minor league affiliate of the Chicago White Sox, batting. 202 with three home runs, 51 runs batted in, 30 stolen bases, 114 strikeouts, 51 base on balls, and 11 errors. He also appeared for the Scottsdale Scorpions in the 1994 Arizona Fall League, batting. 252 against the top prospects in baseball. On November 1, 1994, his number 23 was retired by the Bulls in a ceremony that included the erection of a permanent sculpture known as The Spirit outside the new United Center.
In the 1993 -- 94 season, the Bulls, without Jordan, achieved a 55 -- 27 record, and lost to the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs. But the 1994 -- 95 Bulls were a shell of the championship team of just two years earlier. Struggling at mid-season to ensure a spot in the playoffs, Chicago was 31 -- 31 at one point in mid-March. The team received help, however, when Jordan decided to return to the NBA for the Bulls.
In March 1995, Jordan decided to quit baseball due to the ongoing Major League Baseball strike, as he wanted to avoid becoming a potential replacement player. On March 18, 1995, Jordan announced his return to the NBA through a two - word press release: "I 'm back. '' The next day, Jordan took to the court with the Bulls to face the Indiana Pacers in Indianapolis, scoring 19 points. The game had the highest Nielsen rating of a regular season NBA game since 1975. Although he could have opted to wear his normal number in spite of the Bulls having retired it, Jordan instead wore number 45, as he had while playing baseball.
Although he had not played an NBA game in a year and a half, Jordan played well upon his return, making a game - winning jump shot against Atlanta in his fourth game back. He then scored 55 points in the next game against the Knicks at Madison Square Garden on March 28, 1995. Boosted by Jordan 's comeback, the Bulls went 13 -- 4 to make the playoffs and advanced to the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Orlando Magic. At the end of Game 1, Orlando 's Nick Anderson stripped Jordan from behind, leading to the game - winning basket for the Magic; he would later comment that Jordan "did n't look like the old Michael Jordan '' and that "No. 45 does n't explode like No. 23 used to. ''
Jordan responded by scoring 38 points in the next game, which Chicago won. Before the game, Jordan decided that he would resume wearing his former number, 23, immediately. The Bulls were fined $25,000 for failing to report the impromptu number change to the NBA. Jordan was fined an additional $5,000 for opting to wear white shoes as the rest of the Bulls wore black. He averaged 31 points per game in the series, but Orlando won the series in 6 games.
Freshly motivated by the playoff defeat, Jordan trained aggressively for the 1995 -- 96 season. Strengthened by the addition of rebound specialist Dennis Rodman, the Bulls dominated the league, starting the season 41 -- 3, and eventually finishing with the then - best regular season record in NBA history (later surpassed by the 2015 -- 16 Golden State Warriors): 72 -- 10. Jordan led the league in scoring with 30.4 ppg, and won the league 's regular season and All - Star Game MVP awards.
In the playoffs, the Bulls lost only three games in four series (Miami Heat 3 -- 0, New York Knicks 4 -- 1, Orlando Magic 4 -- 0). They defeated the Seattle SuperSonics 4 -- 2 in the NBA Finals to win their fourth championship. Jordan was named Finals MVP for a record fourth time, surpassing Magic Johnson 's three Finals MVP awards. He also achieved only the second sweep of the MVP Awards in the All - Star Game, regular season and NBA Finals, Willis Reed having achieved the first, during the 1969 -- 70 season. Because this was Jordan 's first championship since his father 's murder, and it was won on Father 's Day, Jordan reacted very emotionally upon winning the title, including a memorable scene of him crying on the locker room floor with the game ball.
In the 1996 -- 97 season, the Bulls started out 69 -- 11, but missed out on a second consecutive 70 - win season by losing their final two games to finish 69 -- 13. However, this year Jordan was beaten for the NBA MVP Award by Karl Malone. The Bulls again advanced to the Finals, where they faced Malone and the Utah Jazz. The series against the Jazz featured two of the more memorable clutch moments of Jordan 's career. He won Game 1 for the Bulls with a buzzer - beating jump shot. In Game 5, with the series tied at 2, Jordan played despite being feverish and dehydrated from a stomach virus. In what is known as the "Flu Game '', Jordan scored 38 points, including the game - deciding 3 - pointer with 25 seconds remaining. The Bulls won 90 -- 88 and went on to win the series in six games. For the fifth time in as many Finals appearances, Jordan received the Finals MVP award. During the 1997 NBA All - Star Game, Jordan posted the first triple double in All - Star Game history in a victorious effort; however, he did not receive the MVP award.
Jordan and the Bulls compiled a 62 -- 20 record in the 1997 -- 98 season. Jordan led the league with 28.7 points per game, securing his fifth regular - season MVP award, plus honors for All - NBA First Team, First Defensive Team and the All - Star Game MVP. The Bulls won the Eastern Conference Championship for a third straight season, including surviving a seven - game series with the Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference Finals; it was the first time Jordan had played in a Game 7 since the 1992 Eastern Conference Semifinals with the Knicks. After winning, they moved on for a rematch with the Jazz in the Finals.
The Bulls returned to the Delta Center for Game 6 on June 14, 1998, leading the series 3 -- 2. Jordan executed a series of plays, considered to be one of the greatest clutch performances in NBA Finals history. With the Bulls trailing 86 -- 83 with 41.9 seconds remaining in the fourth quarter, Phil Jackson called a timeout. When play resumed, Jordan received the inbound pass, drove to the basket, and hit a shot over several Jazz defenders, cutting the Utah lead to 86 -- 85. The Jazz brought the ball upcourt and passed the ball to forward Karl Malone, who was set up in the low post and was being guarded by Rodman. Malone jostled with Rodman and caught the pass, but Jordan cut behind him and took the ball out of his hands for a steal. Jordan then dribbled down the court and paused, eyeing his defender, Jazz guard Bryon Russell. With 10 seconds remaining, Jordan started to dribble right, then crossed over to his left, possibly pushing off Russell, although the officials did not call a foul. With 5.2 seconds left, Jordan gave Chicago an 87 -- 86 lead with a game - winning jumper, the climactic shot of his Bulls career. Afterwards, John Stockton missed a game - winning three - pointer. Jordan and the Bulls won their sixth NBA championship and second three - peat. Once again, Jordan was voted the Finals MVP, having led all scorers averaging 33.5 points per game, including 45 in the deciding Game 6. Jordan 's six Finals MVPs is a record; Shaquille O'Neal, Magic Johnson, LeBron James and Tim Duncan are tied for second place with three apiece. The 1998 Finals holds the highest television rating of any Finals series in history. Game 6 also holds the highest television rating of any game in NBA history.
With Phil Jackson 's contract expiring, the pending departures of Scottie Pippen and Dennis Rodman looming, and being in the latter stages of an owner - induced lockout of NBA players, Jordan retired for the second time on January 13, 1999. On January 19, 2000, Jordan returned to the NBA not as a player, but as part owner and President of Basketball Operations for the Washington Wizards. Jordan 's responsibilities with the Wizards were comprehensive. He controlled all aspects of the Wizards ' basketball operations, and had the final say in all personnel matters. Opinions of Jordan as a basketball executive were mixed. He managed to purge the team of several highly paid, unpopular players (such as forward Juwan Howard and point guard Rod Strickland), but used the first pick in the 2001 NBA draft to select high schooler Kwame Brown, who did not live up to expectations and was traded away after four seasons.
Despite his January 1999 claim that he was "99.9 % certain '' that he would never play another NBA game, in the summer of 2001 Jordan expressed interest in making another comeback, this time with his new team. Inspired by the NHL comeback of his friend Mario Lemieux the previous winter, Jordan spent much of the spring and summer of 2001 in training, holding several invitation - only camps for NBA players in Chicago. In addition, Jordan hired his old Chicago Bulls head coach, Doug Collins, as Washington 's coach for the upcoming season, a decision that many saw as foreshadowing another Jordan return.
On September 25, 2001, Jordan announced his return to the NBA to play for the Washington Wizards, indicating his intention to donate his salary as a player to a relief effort for the victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks. In an injury - plagued 2001 -- 02 season, he led the team in scoring (22.9 ppg), assists (5.2 apg), and steals (1.42 spg). However, torn cartilage in his right knee ended Jordan 's season after only 60 games, the fewest he had played in a regular season since playing 17 games after returning from his first retirement during the 1994 -- 95 season. Jordan started 53 of his 60 games for the season, averaging 24.3 points, 5.4 assists, and 6.0 rebounds, and shooting 41.9 % from the field in his 53 starts. His last seven appearances were in a reserve role, in which he averaged just over 20 minutes per game.
Playing in his 14th and final NBA All - Star Game in 2003, Jordan passed Kareem Abdul - Jabbar as the all - time leading scorer in All - Star Game history (a record since broken by Kobe Bryant). That year, Jordan was the only Washington player to play in all 82 games, starting in 67 of them. He averaged 20.0 points, 6.1 rebounds, 3.8 assists, and 1.5 steals per game. He also shot 45 % from the field, and 82 % from the free throw line. Even though he turned 40 during the season, he scored 20 or more points 42 times, 30 or more points nine times, and 40 or more points three times. On February 21, 2003, Jordan became the first 40 - year - old to tally 43 points in an NBA game. During his stint with the Wizards, all of Jordan 's home games at the MCI Center were sold out, and the Wizards were the second most - watched team in the NBA, averaging 20,172 fans a game at home and 19,311 on the road. However, neither of Jordan 's final two seasons resulted in a playoff appearance for the Wizards, and Jordan was often unsatisfied with the play of those around him. At several points he openly criticized his teammates to the media, citing their lack of focus and intensity, notably that of the number one draft pick in the 2001 NBA draft, Kwame Brown.
With the recognition that 2002 -- 03 would be Jordan 's final season, tributes were paid to him throughout the NBA. In his final game at his old home court, the United Center in Chicago, Jordan received a four - minute standing ovation. The Miami Heat retired the number 23 jersey on April 11, 2003, even though Jordan never played for the team. At the 2003 All - Star Game, Jordan was offered a starting spot from Tracy McGrady and Allen Iverson, but refused both. In the end, he accepted the spot of Vince Carter, who decided to give it up under great public pressure.
Jordan played in his final NBA game on April 16, 2003 in Philadelphia. After scoring only 13 points in the game, Jordan went to the bench with 4 minutes and 13 seconds remaining in the third quarter and with his team trailing the Philadelphia 76ers, 75 -- 56. Just after the start of the fourth quarter, the First Union Center crowd began chanting "We want Mike! '' After much encouragement from coach Doug Collins, Jordan finally rose from the bench and re-entered the game, replacing Larry Hughes with 2: 35 remaining. At 1: 45, Jordan was intentionally fouled by the 76ers ' Eric Snow, and stepped to the line to make both free throws. After the second foul shot, the 76ers in - bounded the ball to rookie John Salmons, who in turn was intentionally fouled by Bobby Simmons one second later, stopping time so that Jordan could return to the bench. Jordan received a three - minute standing ovation from his teammates, his opponents, the officials and the crowd of 21,257 fans.
Jordan played on two Olympic gold medal - winning American basketball teams. He won a gold medal as a college player in the 1984 Summer Olympics. The team was coached by Bob Knight and featured players such as Patrick Ewing, Sam Perkins, Chris Mullin, Steve Alford, and Wayman Tisdale. Jordan led the team in scoring, averaging 17.1 ppg for the tournament.
In the 1992 Summer Olympics, he was a member of the star - studded squad that included Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, and David Robinson and was dubbed the "Dream Team ''. Jordan was the only player to start all 8 games in the Olympics. Playing limited minutes due to the frequent blowouts, Jordan averaged 14.9 ppg, finishing second on the team in scoring. Jordan and fellow Dream Team members Patrick Ewing and Chris Mullin are the only American men 's basketball players to win Olympic gold medals as amateurs and professionals.
After his third retirement, Jordan assumed that he would be able to return to his front office position as Director of Basketball Operations with the Wizards. However, his previous tenure in the Wizards ' front office had produced the aforementioned mixed results and may have also influenced the trade of Richard "Rip '' Hamilton for Jerry Stackhouse (although Jordan was not technically Director of Basketball Operations in 2002). On May 7, 2003, Wizards owner Abe Pollin fired Jordan as Washington 's President of Basketball Operations. Jordan later stated that he felt betrayed, and that if he knew he would be fired upon retiring he never would have come back to play for the Wizards.
Jordan kept busy over the next few years. He stayed in shape, played golf in celebrity charity tournaments, and spent time with his family in Chicago. He also promoted his Jordan Brand clothing line and rode motorcycles. Since 2004, Jordan has owned Michael Jordan Motorsports, a professional closed - course motorcycle road racing team that competed with two Suzukis in the premier Superbike championship sanctioned by the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) until the end of the 2013 season. In 2006, Jordan and his wife Juanita pledged $5 million to Chicago 's Hales Franciscan High School. The Jordan Brand has made donations to Habitat for Humanity and a Louisiana branch of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America.
On June 15, 2006, Jordan bought a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats, becoming the team 's second - largest shareholder behind majority owner Robert L. Johnson. As part of the deal, Jordan took full control over the basketball side of the operation, with the title "Managing Member of Basketball Operations. '' Despite Jordan 's previous success as an endorser, he has made an effort not to be included in Charlotte 's marketing campaigns. A decade earlier, Jordan had made a bid to become part - owner of Charlotte 's original NBA team, the Charlotte Hornets, but talks collapsed when owner George Shinn refused to give Jordan complete control of basketball operations.
In February 2010, it was reported that Jordan was seeking majority ownership of the Bobcats. As February wore on, it became apparent that Jordan and former Houston Rockets president George Postolos were the leading contenders for ownership of the team. On February 27, the Bobcats announced that Johnson had reached an agreement with Jordan and his group, MJ Basketball Holdings, to buy the team pending NBA approval. On March 17, the NBA Board of Governors unanimously approved Jordan 's purchase, making him the first former player to become the majority owner of an NBA team. It also made him the league 's only African - American majority owner of an NBA team.
During the 2011 NBA lockout, The New York Times wrote that Jordan led a group of 10 to 14 hardline owners who wanted to cap the players ' share of basketball - related income at 50 percent and as low as 47. Journalists observed that, during the labor dispute in 1998, Jordan had told Washington Wizards then - owner Abe Pollin, "If you ca n't make a profit, you should sell your team. '' Jason Whitlock of FoxSports.com called Jordan a "sellout '' wanting "current players to pay for his incompetence. '' He cited Jordan 's executive decisions to draft disappointing players Kwame Brown and Adam Morrison.
During the 2011 -- 12 NBA season that was shortened to 66 games by the lockout, the Bobcats posted a 7 -- 59 record. Their. 106 winning percentage was the worst in NBA history. "I 'm not real happy about the record book scenario last year. It 's very, very frustrating '', Jordan said later that year.
Jordan was a shooting guard who was also capable of playing as a small forward (the position he would primarily play during his second return to professional basketball with the Washington Wizards), and as a point guard. Jordan was known throughout his career for being a strong clutch performer. With the Bulls, he decided 25 games with field goals or free throws in the last 30 seconds, including two NBA Finals games and five other playoff contests. His competitiveness was visible in his prolific trash - talk and well - known work ethic. As the Bulls organization built the franchise around Jordan, management had to trade away players who were not "tough enough '' to compete with him in practice. To help improve his defense, he spent extra hours studying film of opponents. On offense, he relied more upon instinct and improvisation at game time. Noted as a durable player, Jordan did not miss four or more games while active for a full season from 1986 -- 87 to 2001 -- 02, when he injured his right knee. He played all 82 games nine times. Jordan has frequently cited David Thompson, Walter Davis, and Jerry West as influences. Confirmed at the start of his career, and possibly later on, Jordan had a special "Love of the Game Clause '' written into his contract (unusual at the time) which allowed him to play basketball against anyone at any time, anywhere.
Jordan had a versatile offensive game. He was capable of aggressively driving to the basket, as well as drawing fouls from his opponents at a high rate; his 8,772 free throw attempts are the ninth - highest total of all time. As his career progressed, Jordan also developed the ability to post up his opponents and score with his trademark fadeaway jump shot, using his leaping ability to "fade away '' from block attempts. According to Hubie Brown, this move alone made him nearly unstoppable. Despite media criticism as a "selfish '' player early in his career, Jordan 's 5.3 assists per game also indicate his willingness to defer to his teammates. After shooting under 30 % from three - point range in his first five seasons in the NBA, including a career - low 13 % in the 1987 -- 88 season, Jordan improved to a career - high 50 % in the 1994 -- 95 season. The three - point shot became more of a focus of his game from 1994 -- 95 to 1996 -- 97, when the NBA shortened its three - point line to 22 ft (6.7 m) (from 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m)). His three - point field - goal percentages ranged from 35 % to 43 % in seasons in which he attempted at least 230 three - pointers between 1989 -- 90 and 1996 -- 97. For a guard, Jordan was also a good rebounder (6.2 per game).
In 1988, Jordan was honored with the NBA 's Defensive Player of the Year Award and became the first NBA player to win both the Defensive Player of the Year and MVP awards in a career (since equaled by Hakeem Olajuwon, David Robinson, and Kevin Garnett; Olajuwon is the only player other than Jordan to win both during the same season). In addition, he set both seasonal and career records for blocked shots by a guard, and combined this with his ball - thieving ability to become a standout defensive player. He ranks third in NBA history in total steals with 2,514, trailing John Stockton and Jason Kidd. Jerry West often stated that he was more impressed with Jordan 's defensive contributions than his offensive ones. He was also known to have strong eyesight; broadcaster Al Michaels said that he was able to read baseball box scores on a 27 - inch television clearly from about 50 feet away.
Jordan 's marked talent was clear from his rookie season. In his first game in Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks, Jordan received a prolonged standing ovation, a rarity for an opposing player. After Jordan scored a playoff record 63 points against the Boston Celtics on April 20, 1986, Celtics star Larry Bird described him as "God disguised as Michael Jordan. ''
Jordan led the NBA in scoring in 10 seasons (NBA record) and tied Wilt Chamberlain 's record of seven consecutive scoring titles. He was also a fixture on the NBA All - Defensive First Team, making the roster nine times (NBA record shared with Gary Payton, Kevin Garnett and Kobe Bryant). Jordan also holds the top career regular season and playoff scoring averages of 30.1 and 33.4 points per game, respectively. By 1998, the season of his Finals - winning shot against the Jazz, he was well known throughout the league as a clutch performer. In the regular season, Jordan was the Bulls ' primary threat in the final seconds of a close game and in the playoffs, Jordan would always demand the ball at crunch time. Jordan 's total of 5,987 points in the playoffs is the second - highest in NBA history. He retired with 32,292 points in regular season play, placing him fourth on the NBA 's all - time scoring list behind Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Karl Malone, and Kobe Bryant.
With five regular - season MVPs (tied for second place with Bill Russell -- only Kareem Abdul - Jabbar has won more, with six), six Finals MVPs (NBA record), and three All - Star MVPs, Jordan is the most decorated NBA player. Jordan finished among the top three in regular - season MVP voting a record 10 times, and was named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996. He is one of only seven players in history to win an NCAA championship, an NBA championship, and an Olympic gold medal (doing so twice with the 1984 and 1992 U.S. men 's basketball teams). Since 1976, the year of the NBA 's merger with the American Basketball Association, Jordan and Pippen are the only two players to win six NBA Finals playing for one team. In the All - Star Game fan ballot, Jordan received the most votes nine times, more than any other player.
Many of Jordan 's contemporaries say that Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time. In 1999, an ESPN survey of journalists, athletes and other sports figures ranked Jordan the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century, above such luminaries as Babe Ruth and Muhammad Ali. Jordan placed second to Babe Ruth in the Associated Press 's December 1999 list of 20th century athletes. In addition, the Associated Press voted him as the greatest basketball player of the 20th century. Jordan has also appeared on the front cover of Sports Illustrated a record 50 times. In the September 1996 issue of Sport, which was the publication 's 50th anniversary issue, Jordan was named the greatest athlete of the past 50 years.
Jordan 's athletic leaping ability, highlighted in his back - to - back slam dunk contest championships in 1987 and 1988, is credited by many with having influenced a generation of young players. Several current NBA All - Stars have stated that they considered Jordan their role model while growing up, including LeBron James and Dwyane Wade. In addition, commentators have dubbed a number of next - generation players "the next Michael Jordan '' upon their entry to the NBA, including Anfernee "Penny '' Hardaway, Grant Hill, Allen Iverson, Kobe Bryant, LeBron James, Vince Carter, and Dwyane Wade. Although Jordan was a well - rounded player, his "Air Jordan '' image is also often credited with inadvertently decreasing the jump shooting skills, defense, and fundamentals of young players, a fact Jordan himself has lamented.
I think it was the exposure of Michael Jordan; the marketing of Michael Jordan. Everything was marketed towards the things that people wanted to see, which was scoring and dunking. That Michael Jordan still played defense and an all - around game, but it was never really publicized.
Although Jordan has done much to increase the status of the game, some of his impact on the game 's popularity in America appears to be fleeting. Television ratings in particular increased only during his time in the league, and Finals ratings have not returned to the level reached during his last championship - winning season.
In August 2009, the Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Massachusetts, opened a Michael Jordan exhibit that contained items from his college and NBA careers, as well as from the 1992 "Dream Team ''. The exhibit also has a batting glove to signify Jordan 's short career in minor league baseball. After Jordan received word of his acceptance into the Hall of Fame, he selected Class of 1996 member David Thompson to present him. As Jordan would later explain during his induction speech in September 2009, growing up in North Carolina, he was not a fan of the Tar Heels, and greatly admired Thompson, who played at rival North Carolina State. He was inducted into the Hall in September, with several former Bulls teammates in attendance, including Scottie Pippen, Dennis Rodman, Charles Oakley, Ron Harper, Steve Kerr, and Toni Kukoč. Two of Jordan 's former coaches, Dean Smith and Doug Collins, were also among those present. His emotional reaction during his speech -- when he began to cry -- was captured by Associated Press photographer Stephan Savoia and would later become widely shared on social media as the Crying Jordan Internet meme. In 2016, President Barack Obama honored Jordan with a Presidential Medal of Freedom.
Jordan married Juanita Vanoy in September 1989, and they had two sons, Jeffrey Michael and Marcus James, and a daughter, Jasmine. Jordan and Vanoy filed for divorce on January 4, 2002, citing irreconcilable differences, but reconciled shortly thereafter. They again filed for divorce and were granted a final decree of dissolution of marriage on December 29, 2006, commenting that the decision was made "mutually and amicably ''. It is reported that Juanita received a $168 million settlement (equivalent to $200 million in 2016), making it the largest celebrity divorce settlement on public record at the time.
In 1991, Jordan purchased a lot in Highland Park, Illinois, to build a 56,000 square foot mansion, which was completed four years later. Jordan listed his Highland Park mansion for sale in 2012. Both of his sons attended Loyola Academy, a private Roman Catholic high school located in Wilmette, Illinois. Jeffrey graduated as a member of the 2007 graduating class and played his first collegiate basketball game on November 11, 2007, for the University of Illinois. After two seasons, Jeffrey left the Illinois basketball team in 2009. He later rejoined the team for a third season, then received a release to transfer to the University of Central Florida, where Marcus was attending. Marcus transferred to Whitney Young High School after his sophomore year at Loyola Academy and graduated in 2009. He began attending UCF in the fall of 2009, and played three seasons of basketball for the school.
On July 21, 2006, a judge in Cook County, Illinois, determined that Jordan did not owe his alleged former lover Karla Knafel $5 million in a breach of contract claim. Jordan had allegedly paid Knafel $250,000 to keep their relationship a secret. Knafel claimed Jordan promised her $5 million for remaining silent and agreeing not to file a paternity suit after Knafel learned she was pregnant in 1991. A DNA test showed Jordan was not the father of the child.
He proposed to his longtime girlfriend, Cuban - American model Yvette Prieto, on Christmas 2011, and they were married on April 27, 2013, at Bethesda - by - the - Sea Episcopal Church. It was announced on November 30, 2013, that the two were expecting their first child together. On February 11, 2014, Prieto gave birth to identical twin daughters named Victoria and Ysabel.
Jordan is one of the most marketed sports figures in history. He has been a major spokesman for such brands as Nike, Coca - Cola, Chevrolet, Gatorade, McDonald 's, Ball Park Franks, Rayovac, Wheaties, Hanes, and MCI. Jordan has had a long relationship with Gatorade, appearing in over 20 commercials for the company since 1991, including the "Be Like Mike '' commercials in which a song was sung by children wishing to be like Jordan.
Nike created a signature shoe for him, called the Air Jordan. One of Jordan 's more popular commercials for the shoe involved Spike Lee playing the part of Mars Blackmon. In the commercials Lee, as Blackmon, attempted to find the source of Jordan 's abilities and became convinced that "it 's got ta be the shoes ''. The hype and demand for the shoes even brought on a spate of "shoe - jackings '' where people were robbed of their sneakers at gunpoint. Subsequently, Nike spun off the Jordan line into its own division named the "Jordan Brand ''. The company features an impressive list of athletes and celebrities as endorsers. The brand has also sponsored college sports programs such as those of North Carolina, Cal, Georgetown, and Marquette.
Jordan also has been associated with the Looney Tunes cartoon characters. A Nike commercial shown during 1992 's Super Bowl XXVI featured Jordan and Bugs Bunny playing basketball. The Super Bowl commercial inspired the 1996 live action / animated film Space Jam, which starred Jordan and Bugs in a fictional story set during the former 's first retirement from basketball. They have subsequently appeared together in several commercials for MCI. Jordan also made an appearance in the music video of Michael Jackson 's "Jam '' (1992).
Jordan 's yearly income from the endorsements is estimated to be over forty million dollars. In addition, when Jordan 's power at the ticket gates was at its highest point, the Bulls regularly sold out both their home and road games. Due to this, Jordan set records in player salary by signing annual contracts worth in excess of US $30 million per season. An academic study found that Jordan 's first NBA comeback resulted in an increase in the market capitalization of his client firms of more than $1 billion.
Most of Jordan 's endorsement deals, including his first deal with Nike, were engineered by his agent, David Falk. Jordan has described Falk as "the best at what he does '' and that "marketing-wise, he 's great. He 's the one who came up with the concept of ' Air Jordan. ' ''
In June 2010, Jordan was ranked by Forbes magazine as the 20th-most powerful celebrity in the world with $55 million earned between June 2009 and June 2010. According to the Forbes article, Jordan Brand generates $1 billion in sales for Nike. In June 2014, Jordan was named the first NBA player to become a billionaire, after he increased his stake in the Charlotte Hornets from 80 % to 89.5 %. On January 20, 2015, Jordan was honored with the Charlotte Business Journal 's Business Person of the Year for 2014. As of April 2017, his current net worth is estimated at $1.31 billion by Forbes. Jordan is the third - richest African - American as of 2017, behind Oprah Winfrey and Robert F. Smith.
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when was the last time the chiefs won a superbowl | Kansas City Chiefs - wikipedia
American Football League (1960 -- 1969)
National Football League (1970 -- present)
Red, Gold, White
League championships (2) †
Division championships (10)
The Kansas City Chiefs are a professional American football team based in Kansas City, Missouri. The Chiefs compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) West division. The team was founded in 1960 as the Dallas Texans by businessman Lamar Hunt and was a charter member of the American Football League (AFL) (they are not associated with an earlier Dallas Texans NFL team that only played for one season in 1952). In 1963, the team relocated to Kansas City and assumed their current name. The Chiefs joined the NFL as a result of the merger in 1970. The team is valued at over $2 billion. Hunt 's son, Clark, serves as chairman and CEO. While Hunt 's ownership stakes passed collectively to his widow and children after his death in 2006, Clark represents the Chiefs at all league meetings and has ultimate authority on personnel changes.
The Chiefs have won three AFL championships, in 1962, 1966, and 1969 and became the second AFL team (after the New York Jets) to defeat an NFL team in an AFL -- NFL World Championship Game, when they defeated the Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl IV. The team 's victory on January 11, 1970, remains the club 's last championship game victory and appearance to date, and occurred in the final such competition prior to the leagues ' merger coming into full effect. The Chiefs were also the second team, after the Green Bay Packers, to appear in more than one Super Bowl (and the first AFL team to do so) and the first to appear in the championship game in two different decades.
In 1959, Lamar Hunt began discussions with other businessmen to establish a professional football league that would rival the National Football League. Hunt 's desire to secure a football team was heightened after watching the 1958 NFL Championship Game between the New York Giants and Baltimore Colts. After unsuccessful attempts to purchase and relocate the NFL 's Chicago Cardinals to his hometown of Dallas, Texas, Hunt went to the NFL and asked to create an expansion franchise in Dallas. The NFL turned him down, so Hunt then established the American Football League and started his own team, the Dallas Texans, to begin play in 1960. Hunt hired a little - known assistant coach from the University of Miami football team, Hank Stram, to be the team 's head coach after the job offer was declined by Bud Wilkinson and Tom Landry.
After Stram was hired, Don Klosterman was hired as head scout, credited by many for bringing a wealth of talent to the Texans after luring it away from the NFL, often hiding players and using creative means to land them.
The Texans shared the Cotton Bowl with the NFL 's cross-town competition Dallas Cowboys for three seasons. The Texans were to have exclusive access to the stadium until the NFL put an expansion team, the Dallas Cowboys, there. While the team averaged a league - best 24,500 at the Cotton Bowl, the Texans gained less attention due to the AFL 's relatively lower profile compared to the NFL. In the franchise 's first two seasons, the team managed only a 8 -- 6 and 6 -- 8 record, respectively. In their third season, the Texans strolled to an 11 -- 3 record and a berth in the team 's first American Football League Championship Game, against the Houston Oilers. The game was broadcast nationally on ABC and the Texans defeated the Oilers 20 -- 17 in double overtime. The game lasted 77 minutes and 54 seconds, which still stands as the longest championship game in professional football history.
It turned out to be the last game the team would play as the Dallas Texans. Despite competing against a Cowboys team that managed only a 9 -- 28 -- 3 record in their first three seasons, Hunt decided that the Dallas -- Fort Worth media market could not sustain two professional football franchises. He considered moving the Texans to either Atlanta or Miami for the 1963 season. However, he was ultimately swayed by an offer from Kansas City Mayor Harold Roe Bartle. Bartle promised to triple the franchise 's season ticket sales and expand the seating capacity of Municipal Stadium to accommodate the team.
Hunt agreed to relocate the franchise to Kansas City on May 22, 1963, and on May 26 the team was renamed the Kansas City Chiefs. Hunt and head coach Hank Stram initially planned to retain the Texans name, but a fan contest determined the new "Chiefs '' name in honor of Mayor Bartle 's nickname that he acquired in his professional role as Scout Executive of the St. Joseph and Kansas City Boy Scout Councils and founder of the Scouting Society, the Tribe of Mic - O - Say. A total of 4,866 entries were received with 1,020 different names being suggested, including a total of 42 entrants who selected "Chiefs. '' The two names that received the most popular votes were "Mules '' and "Royals '' (which, 6 years later, would be the name of the city 's Major League Baseball expansion franchise in 1969, after the Athletics left Kansas City for Oakland following the 1967 season).
The franchise became one of the strongest teams in the now thriving American Football League, with the most playoff appearances for an AFL team (tied with the Oakland Raiders), and the most AFL Championships (3). The team 's dominance helped Lamar Hunt become a central figure in negotiations with NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle to agree on an AFL -- NFL merger. In the meetings between the two leagues, a merged league championship game was agreed to be played in January 1967 following the conclusion of the leagues ' respective 1966 seasons. Hunt insisted on calling the game the "Super Bowl '' after seeing his children playing with a popular toy at the time, a Super Ball. While the first few games were designated the "AFL -- NFL World Championship Game '', the Super Bowl name became its officially licensed title in years to come.
The Chiefs cruised to an 11 -- 2 -- 1 record in 1966, and defeated the defending AFL Champion Buffalo Bills in the AFL Championship Game. The Chiefs were invited to play the NFL 's league champion Green Bay Packers in the first AFL -- NFL World Championship Game. Kansas City and Green Bay played a close game for the first half, but Green Bay took control in the final two quarters, winning the game by a score of 35 -- 10. The Chiefs lost the game but gained the respect of several Packers opponents following the game. The Chiefs ' interleague match - up with the Packers was not the last time that they would face an NFL opponent, especially on the championship stage. The following August, Kansas City hosted the NFL 's Chicago Bears in the 1967 preseason and won the game 66 -- 24.
Despite losing to the division rival Oakland Raiders twice in the regular season in 1969, the two teams met for a third time in the AFL Championship Game where Kansas City won 17 -- 7. Backup quarterback Mike Livingston led the team in a six - game winning streak after Len Dawson suffered a leg injury which kept him out of most of the season 's games. While getting plenty of help from the club 's defense, Dawson returned from the injury and led the Chiefs to Super Bowl IV. Against the NFL champion Minnesota Vikings, who were favored by 121⁄2, the Chiefs dominated the game 23 -- 7 to claim the team 's first Super Bowl championship. Dawson was named the game 's Most Valuable Player after completing 12 - of - 17 passes for 142 yards and one touchdown, with 1 interception. The following season, the Chiefs and the rest of the American Football League merged with the National Football League after the AFL -- NFL merger became official. The Chiefs were placed in the American Football Conference 's West Division.
From 1960 to 1969, the Chiefs / Texans won 87 games, which is the most in the 10 - year history of the AFL.
In 1970, the Chiefs won only seven games in their first season in the NFL and missed the playoffs. The following season, the Chiefs tallied a 10 -- 3 -- 1 record and won the AFC West Division. Head coach Hank Stram considered his 1971 Chiefs team as his best, but they failed to capture their championship dominance from 1969. Most of the pieces of the team which won Super Bowl IV two years earlier were still in place for the 1971 season. The Chiefs tied with the Miami Dolphins for the best record in the AFC, and both teams met in a Christmas Day playoff game which the Chiefs lost 27 -- 24 in double overtime. The Dolphins outlasted the Chiefs with a 37 - yard field goal. The game surpassed the 1962 AFL Championship Game as the longest ever at 82 minutes and 40 seconds. The game was also the final football game at Kansas City 's Municipal Stadium.
In 1972, the Chiefs moved into the newly constructed Arrowhead Stadium at the Truman Sports Complex outside of Downtown Kansas City. The team 's first game at Arrowhead was against the St. Louis Cardinals, a preseason game which the Chiefs won 24 -- 14. Linebacker Willie Lanier and quarterback Len Dawson won the NFL Man of the Year Award in 1972 and 1973, respectively. The Chiefs would not return to the post-season for the remainder of the 1970s, and the 1973 season was the team 's last winning effort for seven years. Hank Stram was fired following a 5 -- 9 season in 1974, and many of the Chiefs ' future Hall of Fame players would depart by the middle of the decade. From 1975 to 1988, the Chiefs had become a laughing stock of the NFL and provided Chiefs fans with nothing but futility. Five head coaches struggled to achieve the same success as Stram, compiling an 81 -- 121 -- 1 record.
In 1980, Coach Marv Levy cut future Hall of Fame Kicker Jan Stenerud for little known Nick Lowery, who would become the most accurate kicker in NFL History over the next 14 years. In 1981, running back Joe Delaney rushed for 1,121 yards and was named the AFC Rookie of the Year. The Chiefs finished the season with a 9 -- 7 record and entered the 1982 season with optimism. However, the NFL Players Association strike curbed the Chiefs ' chances of returning to the postseason for the first time in over a decade. The Chiefs tallied a 3 -- 6 record and in the off - season, Joe Delaney died while trying to save several children from drowning in a pond near his home in Louisiana.
The Chiefs made a mistake in drafting quarterback Todd Blackledge over future greats such as Jim Kelly and Dan Marino in the 1983 NFL Draft. Blackledge never started a full season for Kansas City while Kelly and Marino played Hall of Fame careers. While the Chiefs struggled on offense in the 1980s, the Chiefs had a strong defensive unit consisting of Pro Bowlers such as Bill Maas, Albert Lewis, Art Still and Deron Cherry.
John Mackovic took over head coaching duties for the 1983 season after Marv Levy was fired. Over the next four seasons, Mackovic coached the Chiefs to a 30 -- 34 record, but took the team to its first post-season appearance in 15 years in the 1986 NFL playoffs. They lost to the New York Jets in the wild - card round. Despite leading the Chiefs to only their third winning season and second playoff appearance since the merger, Mackovic was fired for what Hunt described as a lack of chemistry. Frank Gansz served as head coach for the next two seasons, but won only eight of 31 games.
On December 19, 1988, owner Lamar Hunt hired Carl Peterson as the team 's new president, general manager, and chief executive officer. Peterson fired head coach Frank Gansz two weeks after taking over and hired Marty Schottenheimer as the club 's seventh head coach. In the 1988 and 1989 NFL Drafts, the Chiefs selected both defensive end Neil Smith and linebacker Derrick Thomas, respectively. The defense that Thomas and Smith anchored in their seven seasons together was a big reason why the Chiefs reached the postseason in six straight years.
In Schottenheimer 's tenure as head coach, (1989 -- 1998), the Chiefs became a perennial playoff contender, featuring offensive players including Steve DeBerg, Christian Okoye, Stephone Paige and Barry Word, a strong defense, anchored by Thomas, Smith, Albert Lewis and Deron Cherry, and on special teams, Nick Lowery, most accurate kicker in NFL History. The team recorded a 101 -- 58 -- 1 record, and clinched seven playoff berths. The Chiefs ' 1993 season was the franchise 's most successful in 22 years. With newly acquired quarterback Joe Montana and running back Marcus Allen, two former Super Bowl champions and MVPs, the Chiefs further strengthened their position in the NFL. The 11 -- 5 Chiefs defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers and Houston Oilers on their way to the franchise 's first and to date only AFC Championship Game appearance against the Buffalo Bills. The Chiefs were overwhelmed by the Bills and lost the game by a score of 30 -- 13. The Chiefs ' victory on January 16, 1994, against the Oilers remained the franchise 's last post-season victory for 21 years until their 30 -- 0 victory over the Houston Texans on January 9, 2016.
In the 1995 NFL playoffs, the 13 -- 3 Chiefs hosted the Indianapolis Colts in a cold, damp late afternoon game at Arrowhead Stadium. Kansas City lost the game 10 -- 7 against the underdog Colts, after kicker Lin Elliot missed three field goal attempts and quarterback Steve Bono threw three interceptions. The Chiefs selected tight end Tony Gonzalez with the 13th overall selection in the 1997 NFL Draft, a move which some considered to be a gamble being that Gonzalez was primarily a basketball player at California. During a 1997 season full of injuries to starting quarterback Elvis Grbac, backup quarterback Rich Gannon took the reins of the Chiefs ' offense as the team headed to another 13 -- 3 season. Head coach Marty Schottenheimer chose Grbac to start the playoff game against the Denver Broncos despite Gannon 's successes in previous weeks. Grbac 's production in the game was lacking, and the Chiefs lost to the Broncos 14 -- 10. Denver went on to capture their fifth AFC Championship by defeating Pittsburgh, and then defeated the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XXXII.
Coach Schottenheimer announced his resignation from the Chiefs following the 1998 season, and defensive coordinator Gunther Cunningham took over coaching duties for the next two seasons, compiling a 16 -- 16 record. By the end of the Chiefs ' decade of regular - season dominance, Gannon had signed with the Oakland Raiders, Neil Smith signed with the Denver Broncos, and Derrick Thomas was paralyzed from a car accident on January 23, 2000. Thomas died from complications of his injury weeks later. After allegedly reading online that he would be relieved of duties, head coach Gunther Cunningham was fired.
Looking to change the Chiefs ' game plan which relied on a tough defensive strategy for the past decade, Carl Peterson contacted Dick Vermeil about the Chiefs ' head coaching vacancy for the 2001 season. Vermeil previously led the St. Louis Rams to a victory in Super Bowl XXXIV. Vermeil was hired on January 12. The Chiefs then traded a first round draft pick in the 2001 NFL Draft to St. Louis for quarterback Trent Green and signed free agent running back Priest Holmes to be the team 's cornerstones on offense.
In 2003, Kansas City began the season with nine consecutive victories, a franchise record. They finished the season with a 13 -- 3 record and the team 's offense led the NFL in several categories under the direction of USA Today 's Offensive Coach of the Year honoree, Al Saunders. Running back Priest Holmes surpassed Marshall Faulk 's single - season touchdown record by scoring his 27th rushing touchdown against the Chicago Bears in the team 's regular season finale. The team clinched the second seed in the 2004 NFL playoffs and hosted the Indianapolis Colts in the AFC Divisional Playoffs. In a game where neither team punted, the Chiefs lost the shoot - out 38 -- 31. It was the third time in nine seasons that the Chiefs went 8 -- 0 at home in the regular season, only to lose their post-season opener at Arrowhead.
After a disappointing 7 -- 9 record in 2004, the 2005 Chiefs finished with a 10 -- 6 record but no playoff berth. They were the fourth team since 1990 to miss the playoffs with a 10 -- 6 record. Running back Larry Johnson started in place of the injured Priest Holmes and rushed for 1,750 yards in only nine starts. Prior to the Chiefs ' final game of the season, head coach Dick Vermeil announced his retirement. The Chiefs won the game 37 -- 3 over the playoff - bound Cincinnati Bengals.
Within two weeks of Vermeil 's resignation, the Chiefs returned to their defensive roots with the selection of its next head coach. The team introduced Herman Edwards, a former Chiefs scout and head coach of the New York Jets, as the team 's tenth head coach after trading a fourth - round selection in the 2006 NFL Draft to the Jets. Quarterback Trent Green suffered a severe concussion in the team 's season opener to the Cincinnati Bengals which left him out of play for eight weeks. Backup quarterback Damon Huard took over in Green 's absence and led the Chiefs to a 5 -- 3 record.
Kansas City was awarded a Thanksgiving Day game against the Denver Broncos in response to owner Lamar Hunt 's lobbying for a third Thanksgiving Day game. The Chiefs defeated the Broncos 19 -- 10 in the first Thanksgiving Day game in Kansas City since 1969. Hunt was hospitalized at the time of the game and died weeks later on December 13 due to complications with prostate cancer. The Chiefs honored their owner for the remainder of the season, as did the rest of the league.
Trent Green returned in the middle of the season, but struggled in the final stretch, and running back Larry Johnson set an NFL record with 416 carries in a season. Kansas City managed to clinch their first playoff berth in three seasons with a 9 -- 7 record and a bizarre sequence of six losses from other AFC teams on New Year 's Eve, culminating with a Broncos loss to the 49ers. The Indianapolis Colts hosted the Chiefs in the Wild Card playoffs and defeated Kansas City 23 -- 8.
In 2007, Trent Green was traded to the Miami Dolphins leaving the door open for either Damon Huard or Brodie Croyle to become the new starting quarterback. After starting the season with a 4 -- 3 record, the Chiefs lost the remaining nine games when running back Larry Johnson suffered a season - ending foot injury and the quarterback position lacked stability with Huard and Croyle. Despite the team 's 4 -- 12 record, tight end Tony Gonzalez broke Shannon Sharpe 's NFL record for touchdowns at the position (63) and defensive end Jared Allen led the NFL in quarterback sacks with 15.5.
The Chiefs began their 2008 season with the youngest team in the NFL. The starting lineup had an average of 25.5 years of age. By releasing several veteran players such as cornerback Ty Law and wide receiver Eddie Kennison and trading defensive end Jared Allen, the Chiefs began a youth movement. The Chiefs had a league - high thirteen selections in the 2008 NFL Draft and chose defensive tackle Glenn Dorsey and offensive lineman Branden Albert in the first round. Analysts quickly called Kansas City 's selections as the best of the entire draft. Entering the season, the Chiefs were unsure if injury - prone quarterback Brodie Croyle, who was the incumbent starter, could be their quarterback in the long - term. Croyle was injured in the team 's first game of the season and Damon Huard started in Croyle 's absence. Tyler Thigpen become the third Chiefs starting quarterback in as many games for a start against the Atlanta Falcons. After a poor performance by Thigpen, in which he threw three interceptions against the Falcons defense, Huard was retained as the starting quarterback. The Chiefs struggled off the field as much as on as tight end Tony Gonzalez demanded a trade and running back Larry Johnson was involved in legal trouble.
Croyle returned for the Chiefs ' game against the Tennessee Titans, but both he and Damon Huard suffered season - ending injuries in the game. The Chiefs reorganized their offense to a new spread offense game plan focused around Tyler Thigpen. The Chiefs ' new offense was implemented to help Thigpen play to the best of his abilities and also following the absence of Larry Johnson, who was suspended for his off - field conduct. The Chiefs made a huge gamble by using the spread offense, as most in the NFL believe that it can not work in professional football, and also head coach Herman Edwards was traditionally in favor of more conservative, run - oriented game plans.
The 2008 season ended with a franchise worst 2 -- 14 record, where the team suffered historic blowout defeats nearly week - in and week - out. a 34 -- 0 shut - out to the Carolina Panthers, and allowed a franchise - high 54 points against the Buffalo Bills. The team 's general manager, chief executive officer, and team president Carl Peterson resigned at the end of the season, and former New England Patriots vice president of player personnel Scott Pioli was hired as his replacement for 2009. Upon his arrival, Pioli made an effort to bring in coaches and administrators from his successful past with the New England Patriots, where he won three Super Bowl titles.
On January 23, 2009, Herman Edwards was fired as head coach, and two weeks later Todd Haley signed a four - year contract to become Edwards ' successor. Haley had a background with Pioli, which made him an attractive hire for Pioli 's first coach in Kansas City.
In April 2009 Tony Gonzalez was traded to the Atlanta Falcons after failed trade attempts over the previous two seasons. Notably, head coach Todd Haley fired offensive coordinator Chan Gailey just weeks before the start of the 2009 season and chose to take on the coordinator duties himself. Throughout 2009 the Chiefs acquired veterans to supplement the Chiefs ' young talent including Matt Cassel, Mike Vrabel, Bobby Engram, Mike Brown, Chris Chambers, and Andy Alleman. The team finished with a 4 -- 12 record, just a two - game improvement upon their record from the 2008 season.
For the 2010 season, the Chiefs made significant hires for their coaching staff, bringing on former Patriots assistant coaches Charlie Weis and Romeo Crennel to coach the offense and defense, respectively. The coaching additions proved to be very successful, as the Chiefs would go on to secure their first AFC West title since 2003. Their ten victories in the 2010 season combined for as many as the team had won in their previous three seasons combined.
On January 9, 2011, the Chiefs lost their home Wild Card playoff game to the Baltimore Ravens 30 -- 7. Six players were chosen for the Pro Bowl: Dwayne Bowe, Jamaal Charles, Brian Waters, Tamba Hali, Matt Cassel and rookie safety Eric Berry. Jamaal Charles won the FEDEX ground player of the year award and Dwayne Bowe led the NFL in Touchdown Receptions.
For their first pick in the 2011 NFL draft, and 26th overall, the team selected Jonathan Baldwin, Wide Receiver from Pitt. After a poor start, Haley was relieved of duties as Head Coach on December 12. Clark Hunt made note of "bright spots at different points this season '', but felt that overall the Chiefs were not progressing. The highest point of the 2011 season was an upset win against the Packers, who at that time, were undefeated with a 13 -- 0 record.
The Chiefs became the first team since the 1929 Buffalo Bisons to not lead in regulation through any of their first nine games. The Chiefs tied their franchise worst record of 2 -- 14 and clinched the No. 1 overall pick in the 2013 NFL Draft. It is the first time in since the merger they have held the first overall pick.
Following the 2012 season, the Chiefs fired head coach Romeo Crennel and general manager Scott Pioli. Former Philadelphia Eagles head coach Andy Reid was brought in as head coach to work with new general manager John Dorsey, a former Green Bay Packers head scout.
The Chiefs acquired quarterback Alex Smith from the San Francisco 49ers for the Chiefs ' second - round pick, 34th overall, in the 2013 draft and a conditional pick in 2014 draft. Matt Cassel was released shortly after. The Chiefs selected Eric Fisher with the first overall pick of the 2013 NFL Draft.
The Chiefs started 9 -- 0 for the second time in team history. They would lead their wildcard game against the Indianapolis Colts 38 -- 10 shortly after halftime, but they would collapse late and lose, 45 -- 44.
In 2014, the Chiefs attempted to make the playoffs for the second straight season for the first time since 1995, however they finished 9 -- 7 and were eliminated in Week 17.
After a promising win for the Chiefs against Houston in Week 1, Kansas City went on a five - game losing streak culminating in a 16 -- 10 loss to Minnesota and the loss of Jamaal Charles to a torn ACL. However, they managed one of the most improbable season comebacks in the NFL and won ten straight to improve their record from 1 -- 5 to 11 -- 5. The team clinched a playoff berth after a 17 -- 13 win over Cleveland in Week 16 to become only the second NFL team to do so after the merger.
The streak achieved by the Chiefs broke a franchise record for 9 straight (2003, 2013) and second 9 plus game win streak under Reid. After a Week 17 win over Oakland 23 -- 17, the Chiefs achieved their longest winning streak in franchise history at ten games. They qualified for the playoffs, playing in the 2015 AFC Wild - Card playoff game, held at NRG Stadium in Houston, Texas on January 9, 2016. The Chiefs defeated the Houston Texans 30 -- 0 to earn their first NFL playoff win in 23 seasons, dating back to the 1993 -- 94 NFL playoffs, a win that also came in Houston. The Chiefs ' Wild - Card playoff victory ended what was at the time the third - longest drought in the NFL, and it also ended a then NFL record eight - game playoff losing streak. Riddled with injuries, they were defeated by the New England Patriots 27 -- 20 in the AFC Divisional Round.
After facing a 24 -- 3 deficit with 6 minutes left in the 3rd quarter, the Chiefs engineered a 33 -- 27 comeback win against the San Diego Chargers ending with a 2 - yard touchdown run by Alex Smith in overtime to give the Chiefs their largest regular season comeback to start the season at 1 -- 0.
On Christmas Day, the Chiefs defeated the Denver Broncos 33 -- 10 to give Kansas City their tenth straight win against divisional opponents.
On January 1, 2017, the Chiefs clinched the AFC West and the second seed going into the playoffs that year. They clinched the 2nd seed in the AFC but fell to the Pittsburgh Steelers 18 - 16 as Chris Boswell hit 6 field goals.
The Chiefs finished the year with a 10 - 6 record, and ended 1st place in the AFC West.
In the Wild Card round the Chiefs lost a tight game to the Tennessee Titans 22 - 21, allowing Derrick Henry to rush for 156 yards. The loss extended their NFL record for most consecutive home playoff losses to six.
When the Texans began playing in 1960, the team 's logo consisted of the state of Texas in white with a yellow star marking the location of the city of Dallas. Originally, Hunt chose Columbia blue and orange for the Texans ' uniforms, but Bud Adams chose Columbia blue and scarlet for his Houston Oilers franchise. Hunt reverted to red and gold for the Texans ' uniforms, which even after the team relocated to Kansas City, remain as the franchise 's colors to this day.
The state of Texas on the team 's helmet was replaced by an arrowhead design originally sketched by Lamar Hunt on a napkin. Hunt 's inspiration for the interlocking "KC '' design was the "SF '' inside of an oval on the San Francisco 49ers helmets. Unlike the 49ers ' logo, Kansas City 's overlapping initials appear inside a white arrowhead instead of an oval and are surrounded by a thin black outline. From 1960 to 1973, the Chiefs had grey facemask bars on their helmets, but changed to white bars in 1974, making them one of the first teams in the NFL to use a non-gray facemask.
The Chiefs ' uniform design has essentially remained the same throughout the club 's history. It consists of a red helmet, and either red or white jerseys with the opposite color numbers and names. White pants were used with both jerseys from 1960 to 1967 and 1989 to 1999. Beginning in 2009, during the Pioli / Haley era, the team has alternated between white and red pants for road games during the season. Prior to September 15, 2013, the Chiefs always wore white pants with their red jerseys. The Chiefs have never worn an alternate jersey in a game, although custom jerseys are sold for retail.
The Chiefs wore their white jerseys with white pants at home for the 2006 season opener against the Cincinnati Bengals. The logic behind the uniform selection that day was that the Bengals would be forced to wear their black uniforms on a day that forecasted for steamy temperatures. The only other time the Chiefs wore white at home was throughout the 1980 season under Marv Levy.
In 2007, the Kansas City Chiefs honored Lamar Hunt and the AFL with a special patch. It features the AFL 's logo from the 1960s with Hunt 's "LH '' initials inside the football. In 2008, the patch became permanently affixed to the left chest of both Kansas City 's home and away jerseys.
In select games for the 2009 season, the Chiefs, as well as the other founding teams of the American Football League, wore "throwback '' uniforms to celebrate the AFL 's 50th anniversary.
For the first time in team history, the Chiefs wore their red jersey with red pants forming an all red combo in their home opener against the Dallas Cowboys on September 15, 2013.
Arrowhead Stadium has been the Chiefs ' home field since 1972 and has a capacity of 76,416, which makes it the sixth - largest stadium in the NFL. The stadium underwent a $375 million renovation, completed in mid-2010, which included new luxury boxes, wider concourses and enhanced amenities. The stadium renovation was paid for by $250 million in taxpayer money and $125 million from the Hunt Family. The stadium cost $53 million to build in 1972, and an average ticket in 2009 costs $81. Centerplate serves as the stadium 's concession provider and Sprint, Anheuser - Busch and Coca - Cola are major corporate sponsors.
Dating back to the Chiefs ' home opener in 1991 to mid-2009, the Chiefs had 155 consecutive sellout games. The streak ended with the final home game of the 2009 season against the Cleveland Browns, resulting in the first local TV blackout in over 19 years. Arrowhead has been called one of the world 's finest stadiums and has long held a reputation for being one of the toughest and loudest outdoor stadiums for opposing players to play in. All noise is directly attributed to its fans and was once measured at 116 decibels by the Acoustical Design Group of Mission, Kansas. By way of comparison, take - off of aircraft may lead to a sound level of 106 decibels at the ground. Sports Illustrated named Arrowhead Stadium the "toughest place to play '' for opposing teams in 2005. The tailgate party environment outside the stadium on gameday has been compared to a "college football '' atmosphere. Arrowhead Stadium features frequent fly - overs from a B - 2 Spirit stealth bomber from nearby Whiteman Air Force Base. Since the 1994 NFL season, the stadium has had a natural grass playing surface. From 1972 to 1993, the stadium had an artificial AstroTurf surface.
During the game against the Oakland Raiders on October 13, 2013, Arrowhead Stadium once again became the loudest stadium in the world when the fans set the Guinness Book of World Records record for loudest crowd in an outdoor stadium (137.5 dB), breaking the record set by the Seattle Seahawks just four weeks prior. A few weeks after, Seattle re-gained the record by reaching a noise level of 137.6 decibels. Chiefs fans have reclaimed the record once again; on September 29, 2014, on Monday Night Football against the New England Patriots, the fans recorded a sound reading of 142.2 decibels.
When the franchise was based in Dallas, the team conducted their inaugural training camp at the New Mexico Military Institute in Roswell, New Mexico. They moved camp to Southern Methodist University, owner Lamar Hunt 's alma mater, for 1961 and continued to practice there until 1965. From 1966 to 1971, the Chiefs practiced in Swope Park in Kansas City, and from 1972 to 1991 held camp at William Jewell College in Clay County, Missouri -- where Lamar Hunt had extensive business dealings including Worlds of Fun, Oceans of Fun and SubTropolis.
From 1992 to 2009 the Chiefs conducted summer training camp at the University of Wisconsin -- River Falls in River Falls, Wisconsin. The Chiefs ' 2007 training camp was documented in the HBO / NFL Films documentary reality television series, Hard Knocks. Following the passage of a $25 million state tax credit proposal, the Chiefs moved their training camp to Missouri Western State University in St. Joseph, Missouri, in 2010. The bulk of the tax credits went for improvements to Arrowhead Stadium with $10 million applied to the move to Missouri Western. A climate - controlled, 120 - yard NFL regulation grass indoor field, and office space for the Chiefs was constructed at Missouri Western adjacent to the school 's Spratt Stadium before the 2010 season.
Outside of training camp and during the regular season, the Chiefs conduct practices at their own training facility nearby Arrowhead Stadium. The facility is located near the Raytown Road entrance to the Truman Sports Complex just east of Interstate 435 and features three outdoor fields (two grass and one artificial turf) as well as an indoor facility with its own full - size field.
The Chiefs ' first mascot was Warpaint, a nickname given to several different breeds of pinto horse. Warpaint served as the team 's mascot from 1963 to 1988. The first Warpaint (born in 1955, died in 1992) was ridden bareback by rider Bob Johnson who wore a full Native American headdress. Warpaint circled the field at the beginning of each Chiefs home game and performed victory laps following each Chiefs touchdown. On September 20, 2009, a new Warpaint horse was unveiled at the Chiefs ' home opener which was won by Oakland Raiders. Warpaint is now ridden by a cheerleader, Susie.
In the mid-1980s, the Chiefs featured a short - lived unnamed "Indian man '' mascot which was later scrapped in 1988. Since 1989 the cartoon - like K.C. Wolf, portrayed by Dan Meers in a wolf costume, has served as the team 's mascot. The mascot was named after the Chiefs ' "Wolfpack '', a group of rabid fans from the team 's days at Municipal Stadium. K.C. Wolf is one of the most popular NFL mascots and was the league 's first mascot inducted into the Mascot Hall of Fame in 2006.
The Chiefs have employed a cheerleading squad since the team 's inception in 1960. In the team 's early days, the all - female squad was referred to as the Chiefettes. In addition to the Cheerleaders, in the early 1970s, there was also a dance / drill team that performed for pre-game and halftime. From 1986 to 1992, the cheerleader squad featured a mix of men and women. Since 1993, the all - female squad has been known as the Chiefs Cheerleaders.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Unrestricted FAs
Restricted FAs
Exclusive - Rights FAs
Roster updated February 16, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 46 Active, 17 Inactive, 20 FAs
Twenty members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame spent at least some portion of their career with the Chiefs. Eleven spent the majority of the career with the Chiefs. Nine of the Chiefs in the Hall of Fame were involved with the Chiefs during their Super Bowl Championship season of 1969. The Chiefs have 3 contributors, 2 coaches, and 15 players in the Hall of Fame. In addition, Hall of Fame safety Ronnie Lott had a contract with the Chiefs during the 1995 season, but only played for the Chiefs in the preseason and spent the regular season on injured reserve and is not recognized by the Hall of Fame as having played for the Chiefs.
Posthumously inducted Names in bold spent entire career with the Dallas Texans / Kansas City Chiefs.
The Chiefs are one of 16 organizations that honor their players, coaches and contributors with a team Hall of Fame or Ring of Honor. Established in 1970, the Chiefs Hall of Fame has inducted a new member in an annual ceremony with the exception of the 1983 season. Several of the names were featured at Arrowhead Stadium in the stadium 's architecture prior to renovations in 2009. The requirements for induction are that a player, coach, or contributor must have been with the Chiefs for four seasons and been out of the NFL for four seasons at the time of induction. There are some exceptions, such as Joe Delaney and Derrick Thomas, Delaney was with the team for only two seasons before his death, Thomas was inducted 1 year after his death in January 2000 (2 years after his final season). The Chiefs have the second-most enshrinees of any NFL team in their team Hall of Fame behind the Green Bay Packers, who have enshrined over 100 players and team contributors over the years in the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame. Nineteen players and the coach of the Super Bowl IV championship team have been inducted into the ring of honor.
Thirteen head coaches have served the Texans / Chiefs franchise since their first season in 1960. Hank Stram, the team 's first head coach, led the Chiefs to three AFL championship victories and two appearances in the Super Bowl. Stram was the team 's longest - tenured head coach, holding the position from 1960 to 1974. Marty Schottenheimer was hired in 1989 and led Kansas City to seven playoff appearances in his 10 seasons as head coach. Schottenheimer had the best winning percentage (. 634) of all Chiefs coaches. Gunther Cunningham was on the Chiefs ' coaching staff in various positions from 1995 to 2008, serving as the team 's head coach in between stints as the team 's defensive coordinator. Dick Vermeil coached the team to a franchise - best 9 -- 0 start in the 2003 season. Of the ten Chiefs coaches, Hank Stram and Marv Levy have been elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Herman Edwards served as the team 's head coach from 2006 to 2008, compiling a 15 -- 33 record and a franchise worst 6 -- 26 record over a two - year span. Todd Haley compiled a 19 -- 26 record with the team from 2009 -- 2011, including an AFC West division title in 2010. Haley was fired with three games left in the 2011 season. Romeo Crennel was named interim coach, and was promoted to full - time coach in January 2012. Crennel was fired on Monday, December 31, 2012, after finishing the 2012 season with a 2 -- 14 record. On January 5, 2013, the Chiefs hired Andy Reid to be their next head coach. In Reid 's tenure, the Chiefs have been consistent contenders, making the playoffs in 4 of his first 5 seasons.
The franchise was founded in 1959 by Lamar Hunt after a failed attempt by Hunt to purchase an NFL franchise and relocate them to Texas. remained the team 's owner until his death in 2006. The Hunt family kept ownership of the team following Lamar 's death and Clark Hunt, Lamar 's son, represents the family 's interests. While Hunt 's official title is CEO and Chairman of the Board, he represents the team at all owner meetings. In 2010, Hunt assumed role as CEO alongside his role as Chairman of the Board. According to Forbes, the team is valued at $2.4 billion and ranks 24th among NFL teams in 2017.
Owner Lamar Hunt served as the team 's president from 1960 to 1976. Because of Lamar Hunt 's contributions to the NFL, the AFC Championship trophy is named after him. He promoted general manager Jack Steadman to become the team 's president in 1977. Steadman held the job until Carl Peterson was hired by Hunt in 1988 to replace him. Peterson resigned the title as team president in 2008. Denny Thum became the team 's interim president following Peterson 's departure and was officially given the full position in May 2009. Thum resigned from his position on September 14, 2010.
Don Rossi served as the team 's general manager for half of the 1960 season, resigning in November 1960. Jack Steadman assumed duties from Rossi and served in the position until 1976. Steadman was promoted to team president in 1976 and despite being relieved of those duties in 1988, he remained with the franchise until 2006 in various positions. Jim Schaaf took over for Steadman as general manager until being fired in December 1988. Carl Peterson was hired in 1988 to serve as the team 's general manager, chief executive officer and team president. Peterson remained in the position for 19 years until he announced his resignation from the team in 2008. Denny Thum served as interim general manager until January 13, 2009, when the Chiefs named New England Patriots executive Scott Pioli the team 's new general manager. Pioli was released in early January after the hiring of Andy Reid, and was replaced by John Dorsey. Pioli 's record as the Chief 's general manager was 23 -- 41.
On June 22, 2017, it was announced that the Chiefs had fired Dorsey. They hired Brett Veach on July 10, 2017.
→ Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs
Since 1989, KCFX, a.k.a. "101 The Fox '', has broadcast all Chiefs games on FM radio under the moniker of The Chiefs Fox Football Radio Network. Since 1994, Mitch Holthus has served as play - by - play announcer and former Chiefs quarterback Len Dawson serves as color commentator. Former Chiefs longsnapper Kendall Gammon serves as the field reporter. Former Chiefs broadcaster Bob Gretz also contributes to the broadcasts. KCFX holds broadcast rights to Chiefs games through the 2009 season. Starting in the 2016 season, Dawson will only serve as color commentator during home games, and Gammon will be color commentator during road games, with Dani Welniak assuming Gammon 's sideline reporting role for away games. The Chiefs and KCFX hold the distinction of being the longest FM radio broadcast partnering tenure in the NFL. The Chiefs Radio Network extends throughout the six - state region of Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, with 61 affiliate stations.
KCTV Channel 5 (CBS) broadcasts most Chiefs regular season games, with exceptions as following. KCTV also broadcasts all Chiefs pre-season games. WDAF Channel 4 (Fox) broadcasts games in which the Chiefs host an NFC opponent. KSHB Channel 41 (NBC) broadcasts all games in which the Chiefs play on NBC Sunday Night Football or NBC 's NFL playoffs coverage. KMBC Channel 9 (ABC) has aired Monday Night Football games locally since 1970.
Prior to the 1994 season, WDAF was the primary station for the Chiefs as an NBC affiliate (they aired on KMBC when ABC had the AFL package through 1964), since NBC had the AFC package. The inter-conference home games aired on KCTV starting in 1973 (when the NFL allowed local telecasts of home games). After week one of the 1994 season, WDAF switched to Fox (which got the NFC package), and has aired the Chiefs ' inter-conference home games since. The bulk of the team 's games moved to KSHB through the end of the 1997 season. Since that time, they have aired on KCTV, save for the 2015 Week 17 game vs. the Oakland Raiders, which aired on WDAF when the NFL cross-flexed the game from CBS to FOX.
As of the 2015 preseason, the Chiefs preseason broadcasters were Paul Burmeister who serves as the play - by - play announcer, former Chiefs quarterback Trent Green serves as the color commentator, and KCChiefs.com insider B.J. Kissel is the sideline reporter.
Chiefs games are broadcast in Missouri and Kansas as well as parts of Iowa, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Arkansas, and South Dakota. Stations in major cities are listed below.
The Chiefs boast one of the most loyal fan bases in the NFL. Kansas City is the sixth - smallest media market with an NFL team, but they have had the second - highest attendance average over the last decade. Studies by Bizjournals in 2006 gave the Chiefs high marks for consistently drawing capacity crowds in both good seasons and bad. The Chiefs averaged 77,300 fans per game from 1996 to 2006, second in the NFL behind the Washington Redskins. The franchise has an official fan club called Chiefs Kingdom which gives members opportunities to ticket priority benefits and VIP treatment.
At the end of "The Star - Spangled Banner '' before home games, many Chiefs fans intentionally yell out "CHIEFS! '' rather than singing "brave '' as the final word. In 1996, general manager Carl Peterson said "We all look forward, not only at Arrowhead, but on the road, too, to when we get to that stanza of the National Anthem... Our players love it. '' After the September 11, 2001 attacks, Chiefs fans refrained from doing so in honor of those who lost their lives in the tragedy and continued to do so for the remainder of the 2001 season. At the Chiefs ' September 23, 2001, home game against the New York Giants, fans gave the opposing Giants a standing ovation.
After every Chiefs touchdown at home games, fans chant while pointing in the direction of the visiting team and fans, "We 're gon na beat the hell outta you... you... you, you, you, you! '' over the song "Rock and Roll Part 2. '' The chant starts after the third "hey! '' in the song. The original version of the song by Gary Glitter was previously used until the NFL banned his music from its facilities in 2006 following the British rocker 's conviction on sexual abuse charges in Vietnam. A cover version of the song played by Tube Tops 2000 has been played since 2006 at every home game.
Chiefs fans also carry on a tradition that began at Florida State University in the mid 1980s by using the Seminole WarChant as a rallying cry during key moments in their football games. Prior to each home game, a former Chiefs player, called the honorary drum leader, bangs on a drum with a large drum stick to start the Tomahawk chop.
The Chiefs ' fan base has expanded across the world like many other NFL teams. However, there is a Twitter account dedicated to Chiefs fans in the UK and has been recognized by the Kansas City Chiefs and is their official UK fan page. They have many dedicated fans writing articles and interviewing players of the team such as Tamba Hali.
Arrowhead Stadium is also recognized by Guinness World Records as having the loudest outdoor stadium in the world. This was achieved on September 29, 2014 in a Monday Night Football game against the New England Patriots when the crowd achieved a roar of 142.2 decibels which is comparable to standing 100 feet from a jet engine, which even with short term exposure, can cause permanent damage.
From various periods between 1963 and the 2008 season, trumpeter Tony DiPardo and The T.D. Pack Band played live music at every Chiefs home game. The band was known as The Zing Band when the team was located at Municipal Stadium. DiPardo was honored by head coach Hank Stram in 1969 with a Super Bowl ring for the team 's victory in Super Bowl IV. When his health was declining, DiPardo took a leave of absence from the band from 1983 to 1988. DiPardo 's daughter took over as bandleader in 1989, by which time DiPardo returned to the band by popular demand. For the 2009 season, due to renovations at Arrowhead Stadium, the band did not return to perform at the stadium.
DiPardo died on January 27, 2011, at age 98. He had been hospitalized since December 2010 after suffering a brain aneurysm.
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what do the uniform colors on star trek mean | Star Trek uniforms - wikipedia
Star Trek uniforms are worn by crew members in the Star Trek science fiction franchise. While the Star Trek television series and motion pictures feature various costumes, those worn by actors portraying enlisted personnel and officers from the fictitious organization Starfleet are the ones most closely associated with Star Trek costuming. Though design varied among the successive costume designers, the uniforms ' costumes and insignia remained consistent within any one series or film. Costumes were re-designed to improve appearance when filmed and to improve the comfort for actors. Deliberately mixing styles of uniforms from the various series was occasionally used to enhance the sense of time travel or alternative universes.
The rank system of the Star Trek universe resembles that of the United States Navy in contrast to other science fiction franchises that use an army ranking system. In Star Trek: The Original Series (TOS) and Star Trek: The Motion Picture, ranks are indicated by sleeve stripes; in later movies based on The Original Series, ranks are indicated by pins on a shoulder strap and the left sleeve. In later television series, ranks are indicated by varying numbers of pips or bars on the individuals ' uniform collars.
The insignia are worn on the left breast by all personnel. Originally they were metallic gold, with a black border. However, the specific shape differed based on the ship or base to which the person was assigned, as seen in such TOS episodes as "Court - Martial '' or "The Doomsday Machine. '' In the case of the Enterprise, the insignia was an arrowhead shape. A black symbol within the insignia also indicated the wearer 's division -- a star with an elongated top point indicated command, a circle crossed by an oval (as a ringed planet) science and medical, and an angular spiral (a galaxy shape) operations and engineering. These same symbols were used on most of the different insignia. In the second pilot, the science / medical and engineering / operations symbols were reversed ("Where No Man Has Gone Before ''), and there were other slight variations between the insignia as used in the pilots and in the regular series.
The original uniform designs were the product of designer William Ware Theiss. The original series uniforms consisted of a colored top and dark pants, with significant variations between the designs used in the pilot episodes and the rest of the series.
The first uniforms, as seen in the unaired pilot "The Cage '' (footage was re-used in a later episode, "The Menagerie '') and again in the second pilot "Where No Man Has Gone Before '', are somewhat different from the Starfleet uniform seen in the rest of the original series. The original concept used a heavy, ribbed turtle neck collar of the same color as the tunic for the men, with a cowl neck variation for the women, each in three colors: gold, beige ("sand ''), and light blue.
Officers in the first Star Trek pilot, "The Cage, '' wore a single gold sleeve stripe, and only the officer grades of "lieutenant '' and "captain '' were used in dialog. A "chief '' was also visible, but wearing a different sleeve stripe. Characters addressed as "crewman '' wore no sleeve insignia. In the first pilot, the uniforms also included gray coats with silver rank stripes on the sleeves, worn on away missions and identical for men and women, and an optional gray cap. In the second pilot episode, "Where No Man Has Gone Before, '' most officers again wore a single stripe; Captain James T. Kirk wore two stripes.
These differences between the rank indicators used in the pilots and those used in the main series could be explained by the fact that creator Gene Roddenberry and wardrobe designer William Ware Theiss had not yet worked out a consistent system for officer - grade indicator markings on the uniforms. This they would work out after the second pilot, "Where No Man Has Gone Before, '' succeeded in selling the series.
The original uniform material was velour. This was used in the first and second seasons because it was cheap and easy to care for, but it shrank after it was dry - cleaned, and it tore easily. Thus, it was replaced, in the third season, by a nylon fabric used in professional baseball uniforms. Differently colored tunics were worn with dark gray trousers -- which appeared black on camera -- for the men. Miniskirt length dresses (of the same materials and colors as the tunics) with dark tights were worn by the women. Black boots were worn by both sexes. Nichelle Nichols did not believe that the miniskirts were unusually short or revealing:
I was wearing them on the street. What 's wrong with wearing them on the air? I wore ' em on airplanes. It was the era of the miniskirt. Everybody wore miniskirts.
On certain occasions, the characters wear dress uniforms (TOS: first shown in "Court - Martial '' and later used in "Space Seed, '' "Journey to Babel, '' and "The Savage Curtain '') that are made of a shinier fabric, presumably a polyester satin, and are decorated with gold piping and colored badges that vary depending on rank. Montgomery Scott 's dress uniform, especially as seen in "The Savage Curtain, '' includes a Scottish tartan. Specifically, it is the tartan of the Clan Scott, one of Scotland 's oldest clans. Jumpsuits in the same colors with black undershirts were also worn, mostly by background characters.
Beginning with the first regular series episode "The Man Trap '', the department colors were slightly altered from the pilot versions: command and helm personnel wear gold shirts; operations, engineering and security personnel wear red; and science and medical personnel wear blue, all with black collars and undershirts. The most commonly used Command Section shirts ("tunics '') were actually olive - green in color, but they appeared to be a golden - yellow color called "tenne '' both under the lights used on the set and in the post-development film stock. In later series, the gold color was "canonized '' in dialog. However, some uniforms -- the alternate tunics worn by Captain Kirk, and the Command Section dress uniforms -- were made of a different material which, while the same color, showed up as olive - green even under the lights and when photographed. The "green '' tunics (seen in TOS: "The Trouble with Tribbles '', "Charlie X '' and "The Immunity Syndrome '') may have the rank stripes on the sleeves or on the collar (TOS: "The Enemy Within ''), and always feature the Enterprise assignment patch near the waist as a belt fastener. The frequent death of red - uniformed security officers led to the coining of the popular term "redshirt ''.
Based on the success and increasing popularity of Star Trek in syndication, an animated version of the series was produced from 1973 to 1974. The uniforms depicted in this series matched the general parameters and appearance of those used in the live action series. The perception by fans of the command uniforms being yellow / gold instead of green, thanks to set lighting and other factors, resulted in the producers committing to a definitive gold - color for animation purposes. The command dress uniforms remained green to match the perceived colors represented by the live action series. However, the uniform pants were colored gray to match the actual fabric used in the live action series as opposed to the black they had appeared to be when filmed.
The original plans for the aborted Star Trek: Phase II television series involved retaining TOS uniforms but when the project became Star Trek: The Motion Picture, they were replaced by a new design. Robert Fletcher continued this system when he designed the uniforms for Star Trek: The Motion Picture.
The film has multiple uniform styles, including one - piece jumpsuits, matching shirt and pants, and tunics either with buttons or a sash around the waist. All uniform variants include shoes ("foot coverings '') built into the legs of the trousers. Some uniforms have short sleeves, while others are long - sleeved, with either standing, v - neck, or turnover collars. Uniforms come in gray, white, gray and white, blue, brown, and beige.
On the Enterprise, the arrowhead still remains the symbol for all staff members, but the elongated star replaces the science department 's circle and oval crossover and the ops department 's 6 - sided spiral. With the uniform colors no longer representing departmental affiliation ("Section assignment ''), division is indicated by a colored circle set behind the arrowhead: red is for engineering, pale green for medical, orange for science, white for command, pale gold for operations and gray for security.
Most of the uniforms in the first movie also included a noticeable "perscan '' (short for personal scanner) medical monitoring device, mentioned in the Gene Roddenberry novelization of The Motion Picture, which appears on the uniforms in the position where one would expect to see a belt buckle.
Rank is indicated by braids on long sleeves or on shoulder boards, identical to TOS. However, in a departure from the TV series, a new ensign rank is indicated, as a dotted braid around the sleeves and on the shoulder boards, as opposed to TOS, where there were no ensign rank indicators of any kind; a rank for non-commissioned officers is a hollow gold square, on the shoulder boards but not at the sleeves, as, again, the show had no rank indicators for NCO 's; and a new rank for admirals is shown, in the shape of three solid braids side - by - side, followed by another solid braid, on its own, with an 8 - pointed star on the shoulder boards. There are fewer stripes than on U.S. Navy uniforms, because four stripes for a captain would have looked "too militaristic, '' reflecting Roddenberry 's insistence (often disputed) that the role of Starfleet was expressly not supposed to be military.
Security guards wear white uniforms with brown helmets and breastplates. Engineers wear thick white spacesuits with large, black, ribbed collars.
In The Making of Star Trek: The Motion Picture, Susan Sackett and Gene Roddenberry wrote that the uniforms were redesigned because the bright colors of the 1960s original, so vibrant on television, would distract viewer attention on the big screen. But the designs proved unpopular with their wearers, and when he took over as producer of the motion pictures, Harve Bennett ordered the uniforms redesigned because he did not want "an all - gray crew on an all - gray ship. ''
Fletcher redesigned the costumes for Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan. This design is used in the following movies, up to Star Trek Generations, and variations appear in some flashback scenes of Star Trek: The Next Generation and Star Trek: Voyager. In this costume / uniform, Starfleet officers wear rank insignia on the uniform shoulder strap and left sleeve just above the armband. A service bar is worn just below the sleeve rank pin, denoting how many years of service the officer has devoted to Starfleet in five - year and ten - year increments.
The second movie - era uniform consists of a burgundy ("blood '') single - breasted jacket with a black stripe along a sealing mechanism (admirals also had smaller gold stripes below, the number depending on rank), with a colored strip, used to close the tunic, over the right shoulder designating division, attached to which is a rank pin. All uniforms include the arrowhead insignia from TOS, now adopted as the Starfleet emblem, on the left chest. Characters also wear a black belt with a buckle shaped like the Starfleet arrowhead. In these films, insignia representing departments are not worn; it is instead indicated by the color of the shoulder strap, arm band, and undershirt. The colors include white, gold, gray, dark green, light green, dark blue, light blue and red. All officer uniforms have a division colored stripe on the outside of the legs on the trousers or skirt that matches the shoulder strap and service bar, except for command branch, whose leg stripes are red, rather than white. Instead of the foot coverings built into the legs of the trousers, the footgear used with this uniform design consisted of black boots whose uppers had heights of eight or ten inches. This costume was nicknamed "The Monster Maroon '' uniform because of the difficulty fans often encountered duplicating it.
An alternate "bomber '' jacket was worn by Kirk and Scott, as well as Admiral Morrow (Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, Star Trek V: The Final Frontier). In later years Scotty would often remove the jacket all together, simply wearing a black vest, with numerous pockets useful for an engineer, with his undershirt. Scotty 's undershirt itself was inconsistent - wearing a white shirt (consistent with his rank of Captain) with the vest or bomber, but a gold one (used by Engineering crew) with his formal duty tunic.
Security and engineering personnel wear armor and radiation suits, respectively, similar to those worn in The Motion Picture, although security guards wear a red, turtle - necked uniform underneath (Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country). The engineering radiation suits have a colored collar (Star Trek II): black indicates officer, red indicates cadet. There is also a field jacket for away missions with several large pockets, arm patches, white ribbing and a large white turnover collar. Starfleet cadets in The Wrath of Khan wear the same uniforms as officers, but with bright red undershirts and a red shoulder strap instead of one indicating department.
Enlisted personnel wear a one - piece red jumpsuit (similar color to the officer uniform) with tan shoulders and upper chest and black undershirts. Enlisted trainees wore the same uniform, substituting a red undershirt for the black one. (Star Trek II).
Uniforms similar to this style are shown in the "Next Generation '' television series, although without the turtle - neck or belt (TNG: "Yesterday 's Enterprise '', "Dark Page '', "Family, "Violations '').
The Starfleet officers and crewmembers seen in The Next Generation wear a jumpsuit with a Starfleet communicator badge (or ' combadge ' as it was sometimes called) on the left chest and rank insignia on the right side of the collar. The black areas are seen on the shoulders and the pants and the uniforms 's sleeves and abdominal area are colored to indicate the individual 's branch, with red indicating command and helm; gold for engineering, security, and operations; and blue for science and medical (TNG: "Encounter at Farpoint ''). The division colors for command and operations switched from those used in Enterprise and TOS. In early episodes, some crew members can be seen wearing a tunic version of the uniform with bare legs and boots.
Beverly Crusher often wears a blue laboratory coat over her standard uniform, beginning in TNG: "The Naked Now. '' The lab coat was primarily developed to hide the pregnancy of Gates McFadden. The blue tended to appear teal under certain lighting conditions in the later seasons and subsequent spinoffs. In some episodes of the later seasons, Jean - Luc Picard would sometimes wear a different uniform that consisted of a gray shirt with ribbed black shoulders and collar with a "bomber jacket '' that was red overall with black ribbed shoulders, often worn open or very loosely fastened. The uniforms could be fitted with pouches for carrying tricorders and Type 2 phasers on the waist, and the early versions had a small pocket built in on the left side of the waist for carrying a smaller Type 1 phaser when appearing openly armed was not desired. The removable gear pouches were also incorporated into the uniforms used in DS9 and the TNG - era films from First Contact onward.
LeVar Burton, on the first two seasons ' uniforms
In the show 's early seasons, the uniforms were one - piece jumpsuits made of Spandex, and sized slightly too small so that they would be stretched when worn and provide a smooth appearance. But the cast members hated the uniforms 's painfully tight fit and lack of pockets, and after Patrick Stewart 's chiropractor warned that they risked permanent injury, the actors persuaded the costumers to gradually replace them with wool uniforms. The wool uniforms, which most main cast members wear from the third season onward, are two - piece (shirt and pants) designs that lack colored piping on the shoulders and edges of the pant leg cuffs and have a raised collar. The collar of the shirt has a colored edge of a width similar to that of the original diamond - shaped shoulder piping. The spandex uniforms continued to make appearances throughout TNG, usually worn by extras in various scenes. These were later altered to lack the piping on the shoulders and trouser hems and include a raised collar as a cost - cutting measure.
Admirals wore numerous different uniform variations in the early years of TNG - beginning in the sixth season, a final design was settled on, featuring an untucked jacket with gold piping along a centered enclosure on the front, and rank pips (indicating the number of "stars ''), encased in a gold square, on both sides of the collar.
The TNG dress uniform, which continued to be used in Deep Space Nine and Voyager, is a colored wraparound robe - like coat of a solid division color, save for black shoulders. The edges of the robe - like coats are piped in silver for field officers and in gold for flag officers.
Other uniform designs appeared briefly in individual episodes - always following the theme of a colored or differentiated shoulder yoke. Examples include cadet uniforms in several episodes (including "The First Duty ''). Wesley Crusher 's ' Acting Ensign ' gray costume was never specifically identified as a uniform, but it also exhibited a shoulder yoke design.
Theiss, the costume designer from the original series, returned to design the initial TNG uniforms; they marked his last contribution to Star Trek wardrobe before he died. The costumes adopted from season 3 onwards and later series ' costumes were designed by Robert Blackman.
During all the shows set in the 24th century, a consistent insignia scheme is used for officers: a series of gold pips, either a solid color or an outline, worn on each officer 's right collar. After the first season of Star Trek: The Next Generation, a consistent scheme is also used for admiral insignia: a series of gold circles inside a black rectangle with a gold border worn on both collars.
For the first season of TNG, admirals wear a different insignia, consisting of a triangle or stripe resembling gold weave along the right collar; one or two gold pips are sometimes underneath the weave. Three variants are visible in "Conspiracy '': Admiral Quinn 's insignia has no pips, Admiral Savar 's has one, and Admiral Aaron 's has two.
A Starfleet insignia is worn on the left breast: this also functions as a communicator badge. This combadge insignia was redesigned for the movie Star Trek Generations (the only surviving part of a planned redesign of the uniforms), replacing the oval with a trapezoid with a cutout oval in the center. This new combadge is also used in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine from season three onward, and in Star Trek: Voyager.
Cadet ranks are rarely ever seen, with the exception of the various visits from Wesley Crusher to the Enterprise in TNG. As it appears in those instances, it can be surmised that the insignia of a Cadet consists of 1, 2, 3, or 4 copper and black bars, similar to those of a modern Lieutenant in the United States Army. It can also be surmised that if a cadet has 1 bar, he has 1 year at the academy. 2 for 2 years, and so on.
Enlisted ranks are seen even less; their insignia are unclear.
Deep Space Nine introduced a new style of uniform that appeared to run in parallel to the one seen on TNG. The new uniform comprised a single two - piece open - necked jumpsuit with the colored and black areas of the TNG uniform reversed (black torso and colored shoulders) and the science division is now blue - green with the upper - part being a removable jacket along with a visible zipper. A grayish - indigo mock turtleneck undershirt was added, to which rank pips are affixed. The characters of Major Kira and Odo did not wear Starfleet uniforms, as they were part of the Bajoran forces. Throughout the run of DS9, ship - based Starfleet personnel continue to wear the older uniform design. Sisko also wore the TNG uniform on certain formal occasions, during his first arrival at DS9 (in the series pilot episode, "Emissary ''), and when he was temporarily given the duties of "Head of Security '' for Starfleet Headquarters on Earth (in the Season 4 episode, "Paradise Lost ''). Admirals also retained the TNG style. A uniform similar to that appearing in the DS9 series can be seen in the TNG Season 3 episode "Allegiance '', worn by the alien masquerading as a Starfleet cadet. The uniforms were first used in the premiere episode, "Emissary '' and would continued to be used up to the Season 5 episode, "The Ascent ''.
Following the release of Star Trek: First Contact, the new gray movie uniform design also appeared in DS9 's fifth season and for the remainder of the series. However, the old DS9 uniform appears four more times following the introduction of the movie gray uniform design in the Season 5 episodes, "In Purgatory 's Shadow '' and "By Inferno 's Light '' as well as the Season 7 episode, "Field of Fire '' in a photograph and in the flashback scenes of the series finale, "What You Leave Behind ''.
New uniforms were designed and made for the movie Star Trek Generations, but were abandoned at the last minute. These included a fastening on the right side of the chest and a slightly more militaristic approach with rank bandings on the sleeves and a colored collar. The costumes for the female crew - members were different - instead of the additional fastening, there was a higher than previously seen black band around the waist. Nonetheless, Playmates released a number of action figures wearing these planned uniforms. Generations instead has the crew wearing both TNG and DS9 / VOY uniforms, sometimes in the same scene (for instance, Worf and Riker in the battle against the Duras Sisters ' Bird of Prey or Data and Geordi scanning the Amargosa Observatory for trilithium) as Jonathan Frakes and Levar Burton had to borrow Avery Brooks and Colm Meaney 's costumes respectively since the time was so short while there was enough time to make DS9 / VOY - style costumes to fit on Patrick Stewart and Brent Spiner.
As the movie progresses, some characters can alternate between the TNG and DS9 / VOY uniforms and sometimes switch back to the old TNG uniforms (for instance, Picard switched back to the TNG uniform in the film 's last scene). This would act as an introduction of the new design as standard shipboard wear for Star Trek: Voyager.
The new style combadge (with the previous gold oval background replaced by a rectangular gold background with a cutout in the center) was also introduced for all uniform types. This combadge was subsequently adopted for DS9 (at the beginning of its third season) and Star Trek: Voyager.
The crew in Star Trek: Voyager use the same uniforms seen in the early episodes of Deep Space Nine throughout the show 's run. Stuck in the Delta Quadrant and out of contact with Starfleet, unlike the TNG crew and the DS9 crew, the Voyager crew never makes the switch to the updated uniform seen in later DS9 episodes and the rest of the TNG films as they continued to use the old DS9 uniforms, although in the episode "Message in a Bottle '' in season 4 of the series the EMH mark II is wearing the updated "DS9 '' / movie gray TNG uniform. Starfleet personnel back in the Alpha Quadrant are seen wearing this uniform in later seasons of the show as well, when Voyager manages to reestablish contact with home. The crew also wears the TNG - style dress uniforms (VOY: "Course: Oblivion '', "Someone to Watch Over Me '', "One Small Step '', "Ashes to Ashes '').
B'Elanna Torres is sometimes seen wearing an overcoat over her normal uniform which matches the colors of her normal uniform, but has a pocket on the right breast for carrying small tools. The jacket was used in an attempt to hide actress Roxann Dawson 's pregnancy. She wore it again when her character became pregnant, beginning in the episode "Q2 ''.
Voyager used the new - style combadge and introduced ' provisional ' rank insignia which consisted of a solid strip with varying markings to signify rank instead of the traditional pips. Provisional ranks were worn by the Maquis members of Voyager 's crew, as they were ineligible to wear official Starfleet ranks. All ranks up to Captain appeared on screen; The Star Trek Encyclopedia showed them all to be analogous to the normal rank system.
The crew aboard the USS Equinox also wear the same uniforms seen in the early episodes of Deep Space Nine (VOY: "Equinox (Parts I and II) '').
The 29th - century officers in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Relativity '' wear chevron - like collar insignia.
In "Living Witness '', the crew was shown to be wearing black undershirts with a high collar (turtleneck style) instead of the usual grayish - indigo undershirts with a low collar, no combadges or rank insignia, while some were wearing black gloves including Captain Kathryn Janeway. This was in the context of historical records that wrongly asserted that Voyager 's crew had acted in a malign manner, until corrected by The Doctor, who was brought back to life 700 years in the future after a "relic '' (containing a backup copy of his program) was discovered among wreckage and his program was recovered.
Star Trek: First Contact introduces a new uniform style later adopted in DS9 (DS9: "Rapture ''). This uniform features a colored turtleneck undertunic (with the same departmental color scheme as in earlier shows) covered by a black jacket with colored bands on the lower sleeves near the cuffs showing the wearer 's division, the shoulders and upper chest of which are ribbed and made of thick, violet - gray material. Like the last two uniforms, the communicator badge is worn on the jacket, while rank pins are worn on the undertunic 's collar. The pants are black. Star Trek: Insurrection also introduced a new dress uniform, consisting of a white jacket and black pants both with gold trim, a gray ribbed tunic (white tunic for flag officers and captains), and rank insignia on the collar of the tunic with the combadge worn in the customary location on the jacket. Unlike the previous uniform, it was the same color regardless of the wearer 's division, save for colored bands on the lower sleeves like the standard uniform. It also appeared in the DS9 episode "Inter Arma Enim Silent Leges ''. Captains also had the option of a more casual uniform vest of the same basic design, though the violet - gray extended much lower.
Starfleet personnel fighting in ground battles appear in the DS9 episodes "... Nor the Battle to the Strong '' and "The Siege of AR - 558 ''. They wear one - piece black uniforms with divisional stripes across the chest.
In the TNG episode "All Good Things... '', an alternate timeline showed a uniform with the full color shirt (including shoulders). The same colors were used and the rank insignia would be shown above the right breast over a black line which cut off the shoulder area. These uniforms would also make an appearance in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "The Visitor '' and the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Endgame ''. These episodes also included a new combadge design where the starfleet arrow was just an outline. This badge was also worn by Geordi La Forge in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Timeless '' but on the gray shoulder uniform used in the last three TNG movies and later DS9.
The Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Parallels '' used an alternate combadge design where rank was denoted by the number of bars behind the arrowhead.
Variations in uniforms and insignia are occasionally used as plot devices in the various series. In the episode "Future Imperfect '', the insignia are slightly altered so as to convince a character that 16 years have passed. In the episode, "Parallels '', variations in uniforms and insignia suggest a meeting of characters from different parallel universes.
In Enterprise, field officers and crewmembers wear duty uniforms consisting of a dark long - sleeved undershirt and blue jumpsuit with colored piping around the shoulders and, occasionally, baseball caps. There is also a desert uniform with khaki pants and white shirt. Both uniforms have a United Earth Starfleet patch (featuring the stylized arrowhead emblem) on the right upper arm, and a patch left upper arm denoting the ship one is serving on. Enterprise, set before all other incarnations, did not include characters who hold the ranks of lieutenant commander or lieutenant, junior grade. The highest - ranking admiral seen wears two sets of three - pip insignia.
Division colors follow the original TOS scheme, with command and flight control officers wearing gold piping, engineering, communications, and security officers wearing red piping, and medical and science officers (including linguists) wearing blue piping. Throughout the series, men and women wear the same type of uniform. Unlike the other series ' uniforms, standard uniforms on Enterprise include zip - up pockets, and the undershirt is buttoned at the neck - while Gene Roddenberry had explicitly forbidden such devices as buttons and zippers on Starfleet uniforms, believing they would be obsolete in the future, designer Bob Blackman consciously used them as a way of dating the series, implying that closures Roddenberry envisioned had not been invented yet. Blackman described the jumpsuits as "more like a NASA flight suit '' than the previous Starfleet costumes, and actors from other Star Trek shows envied the Enterprise actors ' much more comfortable and conventional outfits.
On certain occasions, Enterprise characters wear dress uniforms similar to the blue jumpsuit, decorated with the same pattern of colored piping, but lacking the zip - up pockets and combined with a white long - sleeved undershirt and, sometimes depending on rank, a white tie.
Rank insignia on duty uniforms are worn on right side of shoulders only, but rank insignia on dress uniforms are worn on both sides.
Also, there are two different kinds of field jackets worn on away missions. They have zippered pockets and the same colored pipings as the jumpsuits, as well as cold weather gear, pressure suits, spacesuits, an EV undersuit, and a royal blue undergarment with slight differences on male and female garments.
During the series, T'Pol is almost never seen wearing the standard uniform although she is a commissioned officer in Starfleet, and often considered to be the first officer. The only times she wears the uniform is in the episode "Twilight '' (featuring an alternate timeline) and briefly (as a disguise) in "Hatchery ''.
In 2017 's Star Trek: Discovery, set ten years prior to Star Trek: The Original Series, the uniform underwent another redesign. Like its Enterprise predecessor, a blue uniform was worn, with a shirt - trouser combination with a single collar on the left side. A large zipper fastens the front of the shirt, and pants pockets have zippers as well. Repeating patterns of tiny delta insignias ran down the sides of the uniforms, its colors denoting the wearer 's division. The classic yellow, blue, red combination was eschewed in favor of gold, silver and copper for command, sciences and operations respectively. Ranks were embedded onto the Starfleet Delta, along with gold shoulder stripes for captains and shoulder stripes plus gold shoulder markings for admirals, and following the same standard as Star Trek: The Next Generation style rank insignias.
The 2009 Star Trek film features uniforms reminiscent of the original television series but with some cosmetic changes. The badge (already the logo of the full Starfleet instead of specific to the Enterprise) is now a pin rather than sewn on, and is also silver instead of gold. The tops are now in two layers: a wide - collared colored over-shirt (gold, blue, or red just as in the original series) with a quilted pattern and a colored hem - line from the neck to the armpit, and a black undershirt, visually imitating the black collar of the original TOS design. The over-shirt has the division delta badge shape printed onto the fabric providing a textured appearance. As in the original series, female officers wear skirts, some with short sleeves (seen on Lt. Uhura), others with long sleeves (as seen on some of the background extras). In an unexplained change from previous series, many female crew members wear nail polish (Uhura wears black polish, while many extras wear red). Also, a number of females onboard can be seen wearing the long sleeve top and pants uniform similar to those worn in "The Cage ''. Unlike other Trek, this uniform is worn only aboard starships - other personnel wear black one - piece uniforms of a much more "military '' appearance. Dress uniforms are red, and admirals use a design similar to that in The Motion Picture, stated by designer Michael Kaplan in the book Star Trek: The Art of the Film to be a deliberate homage.
The uniforms in the second J.J. Abrams Star Trek film are developed further. The formal uniform for Starfleet officers on the ground is shown to be a mid-gray in color and a similar style to the red uniforms worn by the Academy cadets in the first film. A more informal uniform jumpsuit is worn at various points by several characters (including Kirk and Scotty). These jumpsuits have high collars and are made of a dark gray fabric, with triangles of transparent plastic at the collarbones which show the color of the officer 's regular uniform shirt beneath. The personnel on the USS Vengeance wear a different uniform from the norm, consisting of black trousers and undershirt, with either a blue chest section on the shirt itself or a blue waistcoat - like garment worn over the shirt.
Some licensed Star Trek publications present some insignia that contradict the ones shown on screen or in other publications. For example, the second and third editions of The Star Trek Encyclopedia offer differing insignia for various Starfleet ranks. Additionally, some Star Trek publications, including officially licensed ones, posit additional ranks that are not seen or mentioned in live - action productions.
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describe the influence of the ottoman empire on the greater world | Ottoman Empire - Wikipedia
The Ottoman Empire (/ ˈɒtəmən /; Devlet - i ʿAlīye - i ʿOsmānīye), also historically known in Western Europe as the Turkish Empire or simply Turkey, was a state that controlled much of southeastern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa between the 14th and early 20th centuries. It was founded at the end of the 13th century in northwestern Anatolia in the town of Söğüt (modern - day Bilecik Province) by the Oghuz Turkish tribal leader Osman. After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans, the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire was a multinational, multilingual empire controlling most of Southeast Europe, parts of Central Europe, Western Asia, parts of Eastern Europe and the Caucasus, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa. At the beginning of the 17th century, the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries.
With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, the Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for six centuries. While the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, and military throughout the seventeenth and much of the eighteenth century. However, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. The Ottomans consequently suffered severe military defeats in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, which prompted them to initiate a comprehensive process of reform and modernisation known as the Tanzimat. Thus over the course of the nineteenth century the Ottoman state became vastly more powerful and organised, despite suffering further territorial losses, especially in the Balkans, where a number of new states emerged. The empire allied with Germany in the early 20th century, hoping to escape from the diplomatic isolation which had contributed to its recent territorial losses, and thus joined World War I on the side of the Central Powers. While the Empire was able to largely hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent, especially with the Arab Revolt in its Arabian holdings. During this time, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks.
The Empire 's defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by the Allied Powers in the aftermath of World War I resulted in its partitioning and the loss of its Middle Eastern territories, which were divided between the United Kingdom and France. The successful Turkish War of Independence against the occupying Allies led to the emergence of the Republic of Turkey in the Anatolian heartland and the abolition of the Ottoman monarchy.
The word Ottoman is a historical anglicisation of the name of Osman I, the founder of the Empire and of the ruling House of Osman (also known as the Ottoman dynasty). Osman 's name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān (عثمان ). In Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet - i ʿAlīye - yi ʿOsmānīye (دولت عليه عثمانیه ), (literally "The Supreme Ottoman State '') or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti (عثمانلى دولتى ). In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ("The Ottoman Empire '') or Osmanlı Devleti ("The Ottoman State '').
The Turkish word for "Ottoman '' (Osmanlı) originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empire 's military - administrative elite. In contrast, the term "Turk '' (Türk) was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, and was seen as a disparaging term when applied to urban, educated individuals. As a sophisticated ruling class, the Ottomans looked down upon the Turkish peasantry, calling them Eşek Turk (the donkey Turk) and Kaba Turk (stupid Turk). Expressions like "Turk - head '' and "Turk - person '' were contemptuously used by Ottomans when they wanted to denigrate each other. In the early modern period, an educated urban - dwelling Turkish - speaker who was not a member of the military - administrative class would refer to himself neither as an Osmanlı nor as a Türk, but rather as a Rūmī (رومى ), or "Roman '', meaning an inhabitant of the territory of the former Byzantine Empire in the Balkans and Anatolia. The term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish - speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond.
In Western Europe, the two names "Ottoman Empire '' and "Turkey '' were often used interchangeably, with "Turkey '' being increasingly favoured both in formal and informal situations. This dichotomy was officially ended in 1920 -- 23, when the newly established Ankara - based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms "Turkey '', "Turks '', and "Turkish '' when referring to the Ottomans, due to the empire 's multinational character.
As the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman (d. 1323 / 4), a figure of obscure origins from whom the name Ottoman is derived. Osman 's early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River. It is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam. This theory, known as the Gaza Thesis, is now highly criticised and no longer generally accepted by historians, but no consensus on the nature of the early Ottoman state has yet emerged to replace it.
In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osman 's son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326, and made it the new capital of the Ottoman state. This conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387. The Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. The Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, widely regarded as the last large - scale crusade of the Middle Ages, failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottoman Turks.
With the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective. The empire had managed to control nearly all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but in 1402 the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when the Turco - Mongol leader Timur, founder of the Timurid Empire, invaded Anatolia from the east. In the Battle of Ankara in 1402, Timur defeated the Ottoman forces and took Sultan Bayezid I as a prisoner, throwing the empire into disorder. The ensuing civil war lasted from 1402 to 1413 as Bayezid 's sons fought over succession. It ended when Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power, bringing an end to the Interregnum, also known as the Fetret Devri.
Part of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans (such as Thessaloniki, Macedonia and Kosovo) were temporarily lost after 1402 but were later recovered by Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad II defeated the Hungarian, Polish, and Wallachian armies under Władysław III of Poland (also King of Hungary) and John Hunyadi at the Battle of Varna, the final battle of the Crusade of Varna, although Albanians under Skanderbeg continued to resist. Four years later, John Hunyadi prepared another army (of Hungarian and Wallachian forces) to attack the Turks but was again defeated by Murad II at the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448.
The son of Murad II, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized the state and the military, and conquered Constantinople on 29 May 1453. Mehmed allowed the Orthodox Church to maintain its autonomy and land in exchange for accepting Ottoman authority. Because of bad relations between the states of western Europe and the later Byzantine Empire, the majority of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule as preferable to Venetian rule. Albanian resistance was a major obstacle to Ottoman expansion on the Italian peninsula.
In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a period of expansion. The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective Sultans. It also flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.
Sultan Selim I (1512 -- 1520) dramatically expanded the Empire 's eastern and southern frontiers by defeating Shah Ismail of Safavid Persia, in the Battle of Chaldiran. Selim I established Ottoman rule in Egypt, and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. After this Ottoman expansion, a competition started between the Portuguese Empire and the Ottoman Empire to become the dominant power in the region.
Suleiman the Magnificent (1520 -- 1566) captured Belgrade in 1521, conquered the southern and central parts of the Kingdom of Hungary as part of the Ottoman -- Hungarian Wars, and, after his historic victory in the Battle of Mohács in 1526, he established Turkish rule in the territory of present - day Hungary (except the western part) and other Central European territories. He then laid siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city. In 1532, he made another attack on Vienna, but was repulsed in the Siege of Güns. Transylvania, Wallachia and, intermittently, Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf. In 1555, the Caucasus became officially partitioned for the first time between the Safavids and the Ottomans, a status quo that would remain until the end of the Russo - Turkish War (1768 -- 74). By this partitioning of the Caucasus as signed in the Peace of Amasya, Western Armenia, western Kurdistan, and Western Georgia (incl. western Samtskhe) fell into Ottoman hands, while southern Dagestan, Eastern Armenia, Eastern Georgia, and Azerbaijan remained Persian.
France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule, became strong allies. The French conquests of Nice (1543) and Corsica (1553) occurred as a joint venture between the forces of the French king Francis I and Suleiman, and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha and Turgut Reis. A month before the siege of Nice, France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the 1543 Ottoman conquest of Esztergom in northern Hungary. After further advances by the Turks, the Habsburg ruler Ferdinand officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547.
In 1559, after the first Ajuran - Portuguese war, the Ottoman Empire would later absorb the weakened east African Adal Sultanate into its domain. This expansion furthered Ottoman rule in Somalia and the Horn of Africa. This also increased its influence in the Indian Ocean to compete against the Portuguese with its close ally the Ajuran Empire.
By the end of Suleiman 's reign, the Empire spanned approximately 877,888 sq mi (2,273,720 km), extending over three continents. In addition, the Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the Mediterranean Sea. By this time, the Ottoman Empire was a major part of the European political sphere. The success of its political and military establishment was compared to the Roman Empire, by the likes of Italian scholar Francesco Sansovino and the French political philosopher Jean Bodin.
In the second half of the sixteenth century the Ottoman Empire came under increasing strain from inflation and the rapidly rising costs of warfare that were impacting both Europe and the Middle East. These pressures led to a series of crises around the year 1600, placing great strain upon the Ottoman system of government. The empire underwent a series of transformations of its political and military institutions in response to these challenges, enabling it to successfully adapt to the new conditions of the seventeenth century and remain powerful, militarily and economically. Historians of the mid-twentieth century once characterized this period as one of stagnation and decline, but this view is now rejected by the majority of academics.
The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 initiated a series of Ottoman - Portuguese naval wars in the Indian Ocean throughout the 16th century. Despite the growing European presence in the Indian Ocean, Ottoman trade with the east continued to flourish. Cairo in particular benefitted from the rise of Yemeni coffee as a popular consumer commodity. As coffeehouses appeared in cities and towns across the empire, Cairo developed into a major center for its trade, contributing to its continued prosperity throughout the seventeenth and much of the eighteenth century.
Under Ivan IV (1533 -- 1584), the Tsardom of Russia expanded into the Volga and Caspian region at the expense of the Tatar khanates. In 1571, the Crimean khan Devlet I Giray, supported by the Ottomans, burned Moscow. The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the Battle of Molodi. The Crimean Khanate continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of slave raids, and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.
In southern Europe, a Catholic coalition led by Philip II of Spain won a victory over the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto (1571). It was a startling, if mostly symbolic, blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility, an image which the victory of the Knights of Malta against the Ottoman invaders in the 1565 Siege of Malta had recently set about eroding. The battle was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced. The Ottoman navy recovered quickly, persuading Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, allowing the Ottomans to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.
By contrast, the Habsburg frontier had settled somewhat, a stalemate caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defences. The Long War against Habsburg Austria (1593 -- 1606) created the need for greater numbers of Ottoman infantry equipped with firearms, resulting in a relaxation of recruitment policy. This contributed to problems of indiscipline and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which were never fully solved. Irregular sharpshooters (Sekban) were also recruited, and on demobilization turned to brigandage in the Jelali revolts (1590 -- 1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. With the Empire 's population reaching 30 million people by 1600, the shortage of land placed further pressure on the government. In spite of these problems, the Ottoman state remained strong, and its army did not collapse or suffer crushing defeats. The only exceptions were campaigns against the Safavid dynasty of Persia, where many of the Ottoman eastern provinces were lost, some permanently. This 1603 -- 1618 war eventually resulted in the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha, which ceded the entire Caucasus, except westernmost Georgia, back into Iranian Safavid possession.
During his brief majority reign, Murad IV (1623 -- 1640) reasserted central authority and recaptured Iraq (1639) from the Safavids. The resulting Treaty of Zuhab of that same year decisively parted the Caucasus and adjacent regions between the two neighbouring empires as it had already been defined in the 1555 Peace of Amasya. The Sultanate of women (1623 -- 1656) was a period in which the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. The most prominent women of this period were Kösem Sultan and her daughter - in - law Turhan Hatice, whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem 's murder in 1651. During the Köprülü Era (1656 -- 1703), effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of Grand Viziers from the Köprülü family. The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of Crete completed in 1669, and expansion into Polish southern Ukraine, with the strongholds of Khotyn and Kamianets - Podilskyi and the territory of Podolia ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.
This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end in 1683 when Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of Vienna in the Great Turkish War of 1683 -- 1699. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king John III Sobieski at the Battle of Vienna. The alliance of the Holy League pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna, culminating in the Treaty of Karlowitz (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War. The Ottomans surrendered control of significant territories, many permanently. Mustafa II (1695 -- 1703) led the counterattack of 1695 -- 96 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at Zenta (in modern Serbia), 11 September 1697.
Aside from the loss of the Banat and the temporary loss of Belgrade (1717 -- 39), the Ottoman border on the Danube and Sava remained stable during the eighteenth century. Russian expansion, however, presented a large and growing threat. Accordingly, King Charles XII of Sweden was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the Battle of Poltava of 1709 in central Ukraine (part of the Great Northern War of 1700 -- 1721). Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III to declare war on Russia, which resulted in an Ottoman victory in the Pruth River Campaign of 1710 -- 1711, in Moldavia.
After the Austro - Turkish War of 1716 -- 1718 the Treaty of Passarowitz confirmed the loss of the Banat, Serbia and "Little Walachia '' (Oltenia) to Austria. The Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe. The Austro - Russian -- Turkish War (1735 -- 1739), which was ended by the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739, resulted in the recovery of Serbia and Oltenia, but the Empire lost the port of Azov, north of the Crimean Peninsula, to the Russians. After this treaty the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace, as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of Prussia.
Educational and technological reforms came about, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the Istanbul Technical University. In 1734 an artillery school was established to impart Western - style artillery methods, but the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of theodicy. In 1754 the artillery school was reopened on a semi-secret basis. In 1726, Ibrahim Muteferrika convinced the Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha, the Grand Mufti, and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and Muteferrika was later granted by Sultan Ahmed III permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some calligraphers and religious leaders). Muteferrika 's press published its first book in 1729 and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes, each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.
In 1768 Russian - backed Ukrainian Haidamakas, pursuing Polish confederates, entered Balta, an Ottoman - controlled town on the border of Bessarabia in Ukraine, and massacred its citizens and burned the town to the ground. This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the Russo - Turkish War of 1768 -- 1774. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1774 ended the war and provided freedom to worship for the Christian citizens of the Ottoman - controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia. By the late 18th century, after a number of defeats in the wars with Russia, some people in the Ottoman Empire began to conclude that the reforms of Peter the Great had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.
Selim III (1789 -- 1807) made the first major attempts to modernize the army, but his reforms were hampered by the religious leadership and the Janissary corps. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, the Janissary revolted. Selim 's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who eliminated the Janissary corps in 1826.
The Serbian revolution (1804 -- 1815) marked the beginning of an era of national awakening in the Balkans during the Eastern Question. In 1811, the fundamentalist Wahhabis of Arabia, led by the al - Saud family revolted against the Ottomans. Unable to defeat the Wahhabi rebels, the Sublime Porte had Mohammad Ali the Great, the vali (governor) of Egypt tasked with retaking Arabia which ended with the destruction of the Emirate of Diriyah in 1818. The Suzerainty of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own dynasty was acknowledged de jure in 1830. In 1821, the Greeks declared war on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the Peloponnese, which, along with the northern part of the Gulf of Corinth, became the first parts of the Ottoman Empire to achieve independence (in 1829). In 1830, the French invaded Algeria, which was lost to the empire. In 1831, Mohammad Ali revolted with the aim of making himself sultan and founding a new dynasty, and his French - trained army under his son Ibrahim Pasha defeated the Ottoman Army as it marched on Constantinople, coming within 200 miles of the capital. In desperation, the Sultan Mahmud II appealed to the empire 's traditional archenemy Russia for help, asking the Emperor Nicholas I to send an expeditionary force to save him. In return for signing the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi, the Russians sent the expeditionary force, which deterred Ibrahim from taking Constantinople. Under the terms of Peace of Kutahia, signed on 5 May 1833 Mohammad Ali agreed to abandon his claim to the throne, in exchange for which he was made the vali of the vilayets (provinces) of Crete, Aleppo, Tripoli, Damascus and Sidon (the latter four comprising modern Syria and Lebanon), and given the right to collect taxes in Adana. Had it not been for the Russian intervention, it is almost certain Mahumd II would have been overthrown and Mohammad Ali would have become the new sultan, marking the beginning of a recurring pattern where the Sublime Porte needed the help of outsiders to save itself.
In 1839, the Sublime Porte attempted to take back what it lost to the de facto independent vilayet of Egypt, and suffered a crushing defeat, leading to the Oriental Crisis as Mohammad Ali was very close to France, and the prospect of him as Sultan was widely viewed as putting the entire empire into the French sphere of influence. As the Sublime Porte had proved itself incapable of defeating the Egyptians, Britain and Austria intervened to defeat Egypt. By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "sick man '' by Europeans. The suzerain states -- the Principality of Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia and Montenegro -- moved towards de jure independence during the 1860s and 1870s.
During the Tanzimat period (1839 -- 1876), the government 's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalization of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law and guilds with modern factories. The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul on 23 October 1840.
Samuel Morse received a Turkish patent for the telegraph in 1847, which was issued by Sultan Abdülmecid who personally tested the new invention. Following this successful test, work on the first Turkish telegraph line (Istanbul - Edirne - Şumnu) began on 9 August 1847. The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the Kanûn - u Esâsî. The empire 's First Constitutional era was short - lived. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it.
The Christian population of the empire, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment on the part of the latter. In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the same time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology. Stone further suggested that the Arabic alphabet, which Turkish was written in until 1928, was very ill - suited to reflect the sounds of the Turkish language (which is a Turkic as opposed to Semitic language), which imposed a further difficulty on Turkish children. In turn, the higher educational levels of the Christians allowed them to play a larger role in the economy, with the rise in prominence of groups such as the Sursock family indicative of this shift in influence. In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks. In many cases, Christians and also Jews were able to gain protection from European consuls and citizenship, meaning they were protected from Ottoman law and not subject to the same economic regulations as their Muslim comrades.
The Crimean War (1853 -- 1856) was part of a long - running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. The financial burden of the war led the Ottoman state to issue foreign loans amounting to 5 million pounds sterling on 4 August 1854. The war caused an exodus of the Crimean Tatars, about 200,000 of whom moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration. Toward the end of the Caucasian Wars, 90 % of the Circassians were ethnically cleansed and exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus and fled to the Ottoman Empire, resulting in the settlement of 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians in Turkey. Some Circassian organisations give much higher numbers, totaling 1 -- 1.5 million deported or killed. Crimean Tartar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernize Ottoman education and in first promoting both Pan-Turkicism and a sense of Turkish nationalism.
In this period, the Ottoman Empire spent only small amounts of public funds on education; for example in 1860 -- 61 only 0.2 per cent of the total budget was invested in education. As the Ottoman state attempted to modernize its infrastructure and army in response to threats from the outside, it also opened itself up to a different kind of threat: that of creditors. Indeed, as the historian Eugene Rogan has written, "the single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East '' in the nineteenth century "was not the armies of Europe but its banks. '' The Ottoman state, which had begun taking on debt with the Crimean War, was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1875. By 1881, the Ottoman Empire agreed to have its debt controlled by an institution known as the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, a council of European men with presidency alternating between France and Britain. The body controlled swaths of the Ottoman economy, and used its position to ensure that European capital continued to penetrate the empire, often to the detriment of local Ottoman interests.
The Ottoman bashi - bazouks brutally suppressed the Bulgarian uprising of 1876, massacring up to 100,000 people in the process. The Russo - Turkish War (1877 -- 78) ended with a decisive victory for Russia. As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply; Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire, Romania achieved full independence. Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories. In 1878, Austria - Hungary unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia - Herzegovina and Novi Pazar.
In return for British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli 's advocacy for restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the Congress of Berlin, Britain assumed the administration of Cyprus in 1878, and later sent troops to Egypt in 1882 to put down the Urabi Revolt as the Sultan Abdul Hamid II was too paranoid to mobilize his own army, fearing this would result in a coup d'état, effectively gaining control in both territories. Abdul Hamid II, popularly known as "Abdul Hamid the Damned '' on the account of his cruelty and paranoia was so fearful of the threat of a coup that he did not allow his army to conduct war games, lest this serve as the cover for a coup, but he did see the need for military mobilization. In 1883, a German military mission under General Baron Colmar von der Goltz arrived to train the Ottoman Army, leading to the so - called "Goltz generation '' of German - trained officers who were to play a notable role in the politics of the last years of the empire.
From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres.
As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank in size, some 7 -- 9 million Muslims from its former territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace. After the Empire lost the First Balkan War (1912 -- 13), it lost all its Balkan territories except East Thrace (European Turkey). This resulted in around 400,000 Muslims fleeing with the retreating Ottoman armies (with many dying from cholera brought by the soldiers), and with some 400,000 non-Muslims fleeing territory still under Ottoman rule. Justin McCarthy estimates that during the period 1821 to 1922 several million Muslims died in the Balkans, with the expulsion of a similar number.
Sultan Abdul Hamid II going to the Friday Prayer (Friday Procession)
Opening ceremony of the First Ottoman Parliament at the Dolmabahçe Palace in 1876. The First Constitutional Era lasted for only two years until 1878. The Ottoman Constitution and Parliament were restored 30 years later with the Young Turk Revolution in 1908.
Turkish troops storming Fort Shefketil during the Crimean War of 1853 -- 1856
Belgrade, c. 1865. In 1867, Britain and France forced the Ottoman military to retreat from northern Serbia, securing its de facto independence (formalized after the Russo - Turkish War of 1877 -- 78 and the Congress of Berlin in 1878.)
The defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908 -- 1922) began with the Second Constitutional Era, a moment of hope and promise established with the Young Turk Revolution. It restored the Ottoman constitution of 1876 and brought in multi-party politics with a two - stage electoral system (electoral law) under the Ottoman parliament. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire 's citizens to modernize the state 's institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own against outside powers. Its guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and transform the empire into a more harmonious place. Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire. Young Turks movement members once underground established their parties. Among them "Committee of Union and Progress, '' and "Freedom and Accord Party '' were major parties. On the other end of the spectrum were ethnic parties which included Poale Zion, Al - Fatat, and Armenian national movement organized under Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Profiting from the civil strife, Austria - Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The last of the Ottoman censuses was performed in 1914. Despite military reforms which reconstituted the Ottoman Modern Army, the Empire lost its North African territories and the Dodecanese in the Italo - Turkish War (1911) and almost all of its European territories in the Balkan Wars (1912 -- 1913). The Empire faced continuous unrest in the years leading up to World War I, including the Ottoman countercoup of 1909, the 31 March Incident and two further coups in 1912 and 1913.
The history of the Ottoman Empire during World War I began with the Ottoman surprise attack on the Russian Black Sea coast on 29 October 1914. Following the attack, Russia and its allies, France and Britain, declared war on the Ottomans. There were several important Ottoman victories in the early years of the war, such as the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut.
In 1915 the Ottoman government started the extermination of its ethnic Armenian population, resulting in the death of approximately 1.5 million Armenians in the Armenian Genocide. The genocide was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able - bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on death marches leading to the Syrian desert. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and systematic massacre. Large - scale massacres were also committed against the Empire 's Greek and Assyrian minorities as part of the same campaign of ethnic cleansing.
The Arab Revolt which began in 1916 turned the tide against the Ottomans on the Middle Eastern front, where they initially seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. The Armistice of Mudros was signed on 30 October 1918, and set the partition of the Ottoman Empire under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. This treaty, as designed in the conference of London, allowed the Sultan to retain his position and title. The occupation of Constantinople and İzmir led to the establishment of a Turkish national movement, which won the Turkish War of Independence (1919 -- 22) under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (later given the surname "Atatürk ''). The sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, Mehmed VI (reigned 1918 -- 22), left the country on 17 November 1922. The caliphate was abolished on 3 March 1924.
Several historians such as British historian Edward Gibbon and the Greek historian Dimitri Kitzikis have argued that after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman state took over the machinery of the Roman state, and that in essence the Ottoman Empire was a continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire under a thin Turkish Islamic guise. Kitzikis called the Ottoman state "a Greek - Turkish condominium ''. The American historian Speros Vryonis wrote that the Ottoman state was centered on "a Byzantine - Balkan base with a veneer of the Turkish language and the Islamic religion ''. Other historians have followed the lead of the Austrian historian Paul Wittek who emphasized the Islamic character of the Ottoman state, seeing the Ottoman state as a "Jihad state '' dedicated to expanding the world of Islam. Another group of historians led by the Turkish historian M. Fuat Koprulu championed the "gazi thesis '' that saw the Ottoman state as a continuation of the way of life of the nomadic Turkic tribes who had come from East Asia to Anatolia via Central Asia and the Middle East on a much larger scale, and argued that the most important cultural influences on the Ottoman state came from Persia. More recently, the American historian Heath Lowry called the Ottoman state a "predatory confederacy '' led in equal parts by Turks and Greeks converted to Islam.
The British historian Norman Stone suggested many continuities between the Eastern Roman and Ottoman empires such as the zeugarion tax of Byzantium becoming the Ottoman Resm - i çift tax, the pronoia land - holding system that linked the amount of land one owned with one 's ability to raise cavalry becoming the Ottoman timar system, and the Ottoman measurement for land the donum was the same as the Byzantine stremma. Stone also pointed out that despite the fact that Sunni Islam was the state religion, the Eastern Orthodox Church was supported and controlled by the Ottoman state, and in return to accepting that control became the largest land - holder in the Ottoman Empire. Despite the similarities, Stone argued that a crucial difference was that the land grants under the timar system were not hereditary at first. Even after land grants under the timar system became inheritable, land ownings in the Ottoman Empire remained highly insecure, and the sultan could and did revoke land grants whenever he wished. Stone argued this insecurity in land tenure strongly discouraged Timariots from seeking long - term development of their land, and instead led the timariots to adopt a strategy of short term exploitation, which ultimately had deleterious effects on the Ottoman economy.
Before the reforms of the 19th and 20th centuries, the state organisation of the Ottoman Empire was a system with two main dimensions, the military administration and the civil administration. The Sultan was the highest position in the system. The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region 's characteristics. The state had control over the clergy. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran remained important in Ottoman administrative circles. According to Ottoman understanding, the state 's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders in the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.
The Ottoman Empire, or as a dynastic institution, the House of Osman, was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration. In Europe, only the House of Habsburg had a similarly unbroken line of sovereigns (kings / emperors) from the same family who ruled for so long, and during the same period, between the late 13th and early 20th centuries. The Ottoman dynasty was Turkish in origin. On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed (replaced by another sultan of the Ottoman dynasty, who were either the former sultan 's brother, son or nephew) because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. There were only two attempts in Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Ottoman dynasty, both failures, which suggests a political system that for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability. As such, the last Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI (r. 1918 -- 1922) was a direct patrilineal (male - line) descendant of the first Ottoman sultan Osman I (d. 1323 / 4), which was unparallelled in both Europe (e.g. the male line of the House of Habsburg became extinct in 1740) and in the Islamic world. The primary purpose of the Imperial Harem was to ensure the birth of male heirs to the Ottoman throne and secure the continuation of the direct patrilineal (male - line) descendance of the Ottoman sultans.
The highest position in Islam, caliphate, was claimed by the sultans starting with Murad I, which was established as Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman sultan, pâdişâh or "lord of kings '', served as the Empire 's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the Valide Sultan. On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics. For a time, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "Sultanate of Women ''. New sultans were always chosen from the sons of the previous sultan. The strong educational system of the palace school was geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs, and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor. The palace schools, which would also educate the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, the Madrasa (Ottoman Turkish: Medrese ) was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials according to Islamic tradition. The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by vakifs, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income. The second track was a free boarding school for the Christians, the Enderûn, which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in Rumelia or the Balkans, a process known as Devshirme (Devşirme).
Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan 's political and executive authority was delegated. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as Divan. The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a Beylik, was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). Later still, beginning in 1320, a Grand Vizier was appointed to assume certain of the sultan 's responsibilities. The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal and supervision. Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became the de facto head of state.
Throughout Ottoman history, there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy. The sultan no longer had executive powers. A parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces. The representatives formed the Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire.
This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in the Greek language to the west.
The Tughra were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan 's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The statement and prayer, "ever victorious, '' was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylized Tughra spawned a branch of Ottoman - Turkish calligraphy.
The Ottoman legal system accepted the religious law over its subjects. At the same time the Qanun (or Kanun), a secular legal system, co-existed with religious law or Sharia. The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of local jurisprudence. Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority. Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority to develop the needs of the local millet. The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups. The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court ''. The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative Qanun, i.e. laws, a system based upon the Turkic Yassa and Töre, which were developed in the pre-Islamic era.
These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive: for instance, the Islamic courts, which were the Empire 's primary courts, could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic Sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the Qur'an; the Hadīth, or words of the prophet Muhammad; ijmā ', or consensus of the members of the Muslim community; qiyas, a system of analogical reasoning from earlier precedents; and local customs. Both systems were taught at the Empire 's law schools, which were in Istanbul and Bursa.
The Ottoman Islamic legal system was set up differently from traditional European courts. Presiding over Islamic courts would be a Qadi, or judge. Since the closing of the ijtihad, or Gate of Interpretation, Qadis throughout the Ottoman Empire focused less on legal precedent, and more with local customs and traditions in the areas that they administered. However, the Ottoman court system lacked an appellate structure, leading to jurisdictional case strategies where plaintiffs could take their disputes from one court system to another until they achieved a ruling that was in their favor.
In the late 19th century, the Ottoman legal system saw substantial reform. This process of legal modernization began with the Edict of Gülhane of 1839. These reforms included the "fair and public trial (s) of all accused regardless of religion, '' the creation of a system of "separate competences, religious and civil, '' and the validation of testimony on non-Muslims. Specific land codes (1858), civil codes (1869 -- 1876), and a code of civil procedure also were enacted.
These reforms were based heavily on French models, as indicated by the adoption of a three - tiered court system. Referred to as Nizamiye, this system was extended to the local magistrate level with the final promulgation of the Mecelle, a civil code that regulated marriage, divorce, alimony, will, and other matters of personal status. In an attempt to clarify the division of judicial competences, an administrative council laid down that religious matters were to be handled by religious courts, and statute matters were to be handled by the Nizamiye courts.
The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting the hills of western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire. The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief - holding. The main corps of the Ottoman Army included Janissary, Sipahi, Akıncı and Mehterân. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to use muskets and cannons. The Ottoman Turks began using falconets, which were short but wide cannons, during the Siege of Constantinople. The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed and mobility rather than heavy armour, using bows and short swords on fast Turkoman and Arabian horses (progenitors of the Thoroughbred racing horse), and often applied tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire, such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent - shaped formation and then making the real attack. The Ottoman army continued to be an effective fighting force throughout the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, falling behind the empire 's European rivals only during a long period of peace from 1740 -- 1768.
The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps and established the modern Ottoman army. He named them as the Nizam - ı Cedid (New Order). The Ottoman army was also the first institution to hire foreign experts and send its officers for training in western European countries. Consequently, the Young Turks movement began when these relatively young and newly trained men returned with their education.
The Ottoman Navy vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire 's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of Algeria and Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Starting with the loss of Greece in 1821 and Algeria in 1830, Ottoman naval power and control over the Empire 's distant overseas territories began to decline. Sultan Abdülaziz (reigned 1861 -- 1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, England, built its first submarine in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire.
However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet 's strength for too long. Sultan Abdülhamid II distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist Midhat Pasha, and claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the Russo - Turkish War. He locked most of the fleet inside the Golden Horn, where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The Ottoman Navy Foundation was established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations.
The establishment of Ottoman military aviation dates back to between June 1909 and July 1911. The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the Aviation School (Tayyare Mektebi) in Yeşilköy on 3 July 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. The founding of the Aviation School quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the Ottoman Army and Navy. In May 1913 the world 's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started by the Aviation School and the first separate reconnaissance division was established. In June 1914 a new military academy, the Naval Aviation School (Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi) was founded. With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly. The Ottoman aviation squadrons fought on many fronts during World War I, from Galicia in the west to the Caucasus in the east and Yemen in the south.
The Ottoman Empire was first subdivided into provinces, in the sense of fixed territorial units with governors appointed by the sultan, in the late 14th century.
The Eyalet (also Pashalik or Beylerbeylik) was the territory of office of a Beylerbey, and was further subdivided in Sanjaks.
The Vilayets were introduced with the promulgation of the "Vilayet Law '' (Turkish: Teskil - i Vilayet Nizamnamesi) in 1864, as part of the Tanzimat reforms. Unlike the previous eyalet system, the 1864 law established a hierarchy of administrative units: the vilayet, liva / sanjak, kaza and village council, to which the 1871 Vilayet Law added the nabiye.
Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centres, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis. To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Istanbul and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts, such as in Spain after the conclusion of Reconquista. The tolerance displayed by the Turks was welcomed by the immigrants.
The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler 's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous. The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact. The Ottoman economy greatly expanded during the Early Modern Period, with particularly high growth rates during first half of the eighteenth century. The empire 's annual income quadrupled between 1523 and 1748, adjusted for inflation.
The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries. This organization developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen '') as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulama, which developed into a professional body. The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.
Modern Ottoman studies indicate that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself. The Anglo - Ottoman Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Balta Liman that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, would be seen as one of the staging posts along this development.
By developing commercial centres and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in, Ottoman administrators could not have seen the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.
In the early 19th century, Ottoman Egypt had an advanced economy, with a per - capita income comparable to that of leading Western European countries such as France, and higher than the overall average income of Europe and Japan. Economic historian Jean Barou estimated that, in terms of 1960 dollars, Egypt in 1800 had a per - capita income of $232 ($1,025 in 1990 dollars). In comparison, per - capita income in terms of 1960 dollars for France in 1800 was $240 ($1,060 in 1990 dollars), for Eastern Europe in 1800 was $177 ($782 in 1990 dollars), and for Japan in 1800 was $180 ($795 in 1990 dollars).
Economic historian Paul Bairoch argues that free trade contributed to deindustrialization in the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to the protectionism of China, Japan, and Spain, the Ottoman Empire had a liberal trade policy, open to foreign imports. This has origins in capitulations of the Ottoman Empire, dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with capitulations in 1673 and 1740, which lowered duties to 3 % for imports and exports. The liberal Ottoman policies were praised by British economists such as J.R. McCulloch in his Dictionary of Commerce (1834), but later criticized by British politicians such as Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who cited the Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition '' in the 1846 Corn Laws debate.
There has been free trade in Turkey, and what has it produced? It has destroyed some of the finest manufactures of the world. As late as 1812 these manufactures existed; but they have been destroyed. That was the consequences of competition in Turkey, and its effects have been as pernicious as the effects of the contrary principle in Spain.
A population estimate for the empire of 11,692,480 for the 1520 -- 1535 period was obtained by counting the households in Ottoman tithe registers, and multiplying this number by 5. For unclear reasons, the population in the 18th century was lower than that in the 16th century. An estimate of 7,230,660 for the first census held in 1831 is considered a serious undercount, as this census was meant only to register possible conscripts.
Censuses of Ottoman territories only began in the early 19th century. Figures from 1831 onwards are available as official census results, but the censuses did not cover the whole population. For example, the 1831 census only counted men and did not cover the whole empire. For earlier periods estimates of size and distribution of the population are based on observed demographic patterns.
However, it began to rise to reach 25 -- 32 million by 1800, with around 10 million in the European provinces (primarily the Balkans), 11 million in the Asiatic provinces and around 3 million in the African provinces. Population densities were higher in the European provinces, double those in Anatolia, which in turn were triple the population densities of Iraq and Syria and five times the population density of Arabia.
Towards the end of the empire 's existence life expectancy was 49 years, compared to the mid-twenties in Serbia at the beginning of the 19th century. Epidemic diseases and famine caused major disruption and demographic changes. In 1785 around one sixth of the Egyptian population died from plague and Aleppo saw its population reduced by twenty percent in the 18th century. Six famines hit Egypt alone between 1687 and 1731 and the last famine to hit Anatolia was four decades later.
The rise of port cities saw the clustering of populations caused by the development of steamships and railroads. Urbanization increased from 1700 to 1922, with towns and cities growing. Improvements in health and sanitation made them more attractive to live and work in. Port cities like Salonica, in Greece, saw its population rise from 55,000 in 1800 to 160,000 in 1912 and İzmir which had a population of 150,000 in 1800 grew to 300,000 by 1914. Some regions conversely had population falls -- Belgrade saw its population drop from 25,000 to 8,000 mainly due to political strife.
Economic and political migrations made an impact across the empire. For example, the Russian and Austria - Habsburg annexation of the Crimean and Balkan regions respectively saw large influxes of Muslim refugees -- 200,000 Crimean Tartars fleeing to Dobruja. Between 1783 and 1913, approximately 5 -- 7 million refugees flooded into the Ottoman Empire, at least 3.8 million of whom were from Russia. Some migrations left indelible marks such as political tension between parts of the empire (e.g. Turkey and Bulgaria) whereas centrifugal effects were noticed in other territories, simpler demographics emerging from diverse populations. Economies were also impacted with the loss of artisans, merchants, manufacturers and agriculturists. Since the 19th century, a large proportion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans emigrated to present - day Turkey. These people are called Muhacir. By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.
Ottoman Turkish was the official language of the Empire. It was an Oghuz Turkic language highly influenced by Persian and Arabic. The Ottomans had several influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in Anatolia and by the majority of Muslims of the Balkans except in Albania and Bosnia; Persian, only spoken by the educated; Arabic, spoken mainly in Arabia, North Africa, Iraq, Kuwait, the Levant and parts of the Horn of Africa; and Somali throughout the Horn of Africa. In the last two centuries, usage of these became limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language for the educated, while Arabic was used for religious rites.
Turkish, in its Ottoman variation, was a language of military and administration since the nascent days of the Ottomans. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 did officially cement the official imperial status of Turkish.
Because of a low literacy rate among the public (about 2 -- 3 % until the early 19th century and just about 15 % at the end of the 19th century), ordinary people had to hire scribes as "special request - writers '' (arzuhâlcis) to be able to communicate with the government. The ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (mahalles) with their own languages (e.g., Jews, Greeks, Armenians, etc.). In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants would often speak each other 's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages; many of those who were not ethnic Turks spoke Turkish as a second language.
In the Ottoman imperial system, even though there existed an hegemonic power of Muslim control over the non-Muslim populations, non-Muslim communities had been granted state recognition and protection in the Islamic tradition. The officially accepted state Dīn (Madh'hab) of the Ottomans was Sunni (Hanafi jurisprudence).
Until the second half of the 15th century the empire had a Christian majority, under the rule of a Muslim minority. In the late 19th century, the non-Muslim population of the empire began to fall considerably, not only due to secession, but also because of migratory movements. The proportion of Muslims amounted to 60 % in the 1820s, gradually increasing to 69 % in the 1870s and then to 76 % in the 1890s. By 1914, only 19.1 % of the empire 's population was non-Muslim, mostly made up of Jews and Christian Greeks, Assyrians, and Armenians.
Turkic peoples practiced a variety of shamanism before adopting Islam. Abbasid influence in Central Asia was ensured through a process that was greatly facilitated by the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana. Many of the various Turkic tribes -- including the Oghuz Turks, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans -- gradually converted to Islam, and brought the religion with them to Anatolia beginning in the 11th century.
Muslim sects regarded as heretical, such as the Druze, Ismailis, Alevis, and Alawites, ranked below Jews and Christians. In 1514, Sultan Selim I ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevis (Qizilbash), whom he considered a fifth column for the rival Safavid empire. Selim was also responsible for an unprecedented and rapid expansion of the Ottoman Empire into the Middle East, especially through his conquest of the entire Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. With these conquests, Selim further solidified the Ottoman claim for being an Islamic caliphate, although Ottoman sultans had been claiming the title of caliph since the 14th century starting with Murad I (reigned 1362 to 1389). The caliphate would remain held by Ottoman sultans for the rest of the office 's duration, which ended with its abolition on 3 March 1924 by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and the exile of the last caliph, Abdülmecid II, to France.
In the Ottoman Empire, in accordance with the Muslim dhimmi system, Christians were guaranteed limited freedoms (such as the right to worship). They were forbidden to carry weapons or ride on horseback, their houses could not overlook those of Muslims, in addition to various other legal limitations. Many Christians and Jews voluntarily converted to secure full status in the society. Most, however, continued to practice their old religions without restriction.
Under the millet system, non-Muslim people were considered subjects of the Empire, but were not subject to the Muslim faith or Muslim law. The Orthodox millet, for instance, was still officially legally subject to Justinian 's Code, which had been in effect in the Byzantine Empire for 900 years. Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (or zimmi) of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox millet was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce, and had to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects.
Similar millets were established for the Ottoman Jewish community, who were under the authority of the Haham Başı or Ottoman Chief rabbi; the Armenian Orthodox community, who were under the authority of a head bishop; and a number of other religious communities as well. The millet system has been called an example of pre-modern religious pluralism.
The Ottomans absorbed some of the traditions, art and institutions of cultures in the regions they conquered, and added new dimensions to them. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of previous empires (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure and government) were adopted by the Ottoman Turks, who elaborated them into new forms, resulting in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity. Despite newer added amalgamations, the Ottoman dynasty, like their predecessors in the Sultanate of Rum and the Seljuk Empire, were thoroughly Persianised in their culture, language, habits and customs, and therefore the empire has been described as a Persianate empire. Intercultural marriages also played a part in creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. When compared to the Turkish folk culture, the influence of these new cultures in creating the culture of the Ottoman elite was clear.
Slavery was a part of Ottoman society, with most slaves employed as domestic servants. Agricultural slavery, such as that which was widespread in the Americas, was relatively rare. Unlike systems of chattel slavery, slaves under Islamic law were not regarded as movable property, but maintained basic, though limited, rights. This gave them a degree of protection against abuse. Female slaves were still sold in the Empire as late as 1908. During the 19th century the Empire came under pressure from Western European countries to outlaw the practice. Policies developed by various Sultans throughout the 19th century attempted to curtail the slave trade but, since slavery did have centuries of religious backing and sanction, they never directly abolished the institution outright.
Plague remained a major scourge in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. "Between 1701 and 1750, 37 larger and smaller plague epidemics were recorded in Istanbul, and 31 between 1751 and 1801. ''
The two primary streams of Ottoman written literature are poetry and prose. Poetry was by far the dominant stream. Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not contain any examples of fiction: there were no counterparts to, for instance, the European romance, short story, or novel. Analogue genres did exist, though, in both Turkish folk literature and in Divan poetry.
Ottoman Divan poetry was a highly ritualized and symbolic art form. From the Persian poetry that largely inspired it, it inherited a wealth of symbols whose meanings and interrelationships -- both of similitude (مراعات نظير mura'ât - i nazîr / تناسب tenâsüb) and opposition (تضاد tezâd) were more or less prescribed. Divan poetry was composed through the constant juxtaposition of many such images within a strict metrical framework, thus allowing numerous potential meanings to emerge. The vast majority of Divan poetry was lyric in nature: either gazels (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes. There were, however, other common genres, most particularly the mesnevî, a kind of verse romance and thus a variety of narrative poetry; the two most notable examples of this form are the Leyli and Majnun of Fuzûlî and the Hüsn ü Aşk of Şeyh Gâlib.
Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason for this was that much prose was expected to adhere to the rules of sec (سجع, also transliterated as seci), or rhymed prose, a type of writing descended from the Arabic saj ' and which prescribed that between each adjective and noun in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a rhyme. Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time, though exclusively non-fictional in nature. One apparent exception was Muhayyelât ("Fancies '') by Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi, a collection of stories of the fantastic written in 1796, though not published until 1867. The first novel published in the Ottoman Empire was by an Armenian named Vartan Pasha. Published in 1851, the novel was entitled The Story of Akabi (Turkish: Akabi Hikyayesi) and was written in Turkish but with Armenian script.
Due to historically close ties with France, French literature came to constitute the major Western influence on Ottoman literature throughout the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period also had their Ottoman equivalents: in the developing Ottoman prose tradition, for instance, the influence of Romanticism can be seen during the Tanzimat period, and that of the Realist and Naturalist movements in subsequent periods; in the poetic tradition, on the other hand, it was the influence of the Symbolist and Parnassian movements that became paramount.
Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet Namık Kemal also wrote the important 1876 novel İntibâh ("Awakening ''), while the journalist İbrahim Şinasi is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the one - act comedy "Şair Evlenmesi '' ("The Poet 's Marriage ''). An earlier play, a farce entitled "Vakâyi ' - i ' Acibe ve Havâdis - i Garibe - yi Kefşger Ahmed '' ("The Strange Events and Bizarre Occurrences of the Cobbler Ahmed ''), dates from the beginning of the 19th century, but there remains some doubt about its authenticity. In a similar vein, the novelist Ahmed Midhat Efendi wrote important novels in each of the major movements: Romanticism (Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr, 1873; "Hasan the Sailor, or The Mystery Within the Mystery ''), Realism (Henüz On Yedi Yaşında, 1881; "Just Seventeen Years Old ''), and Naturalism (Müşâhedât, 1891; "Observations ''). This diversity was, in part, due to the Tanzimat writers ' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman social structures.
Ottoman architecture was influenced by Persian, Byzantine Greek and Islamic architectures. During the Rise period the early or first Ottoman architecture period, Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. The growth period of the Empire become the classical period of architecture, when Ottoman art was at its most confident. During the years of the Stagnation period, Ottoman architecture moved away from this style, however.
During the Tulip Era, it was under the influence of the highly ornamented styles of Western Europe; Baroque, Rococo, Empire and other styles intermingled. Concepts of Ottoman architecture concentrate mainly on the mosque. The mosque was integral to society, city planning and communal life. Besides the mosque, it is also possible to find good examples of Ottoman architecture in soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths and tombs.
Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, besides Istanbul and Edirne, can also be seen in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Romania, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built. The art of Ottoman decoration developed with a multitude of influences due to the wide ethnic range of the Ottoman Empire. The greatest of the court artists enriched the Ottoman Empire with many pluralistic artistic influences, such as mixing traditional Byzantine art with elements of Chinese art.
The tradition of Ottoman miniatures, painted to illustrate manuscripts or used in dedicated albums, was heavily influenced by the Persian art form, though it also included elements of the Byzantine tradition of illumination and painting. A Greek academy of painters, the Nakkashane - i - Rum, was established in the Topkapi Palace in the 15th century, while early in the following century a similar Persian academy, the Nakkashane - i - Irani, was added.
Ottoman illumination covers non-figurative painted or drawn decorative art in books or on sheets in muraqqa or albums, as opposed to the figurative images of the Ottoman miniature. It was a part of the Ottoman Book Arts together with the Ottoman miniature (taswir), calligraphy (hat), Islamic calligraphy, bookbinding (cilt) and paper marbling (ebru). In the Ottoman Empire, illuminated and illustrated manuscripts were commissioned by the Sultan or the administrators of the court. In Topkapi Palace, these manuscripts were created by the artists working in Nakkashane, the atelier of the miniature and illumination artists. Both religious and non-religious books could be illuminated. Also sheets for albums levha consisted of illuminated calligraphy (hat) of tughra, religious texts, verses from poems or proverbs, and purely decorative drawings.
The art of carpet weaving was particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism, and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one 's shoes in living quarters. The weaving of such carpets originated in the nomadic cultures of central Asia (carpets being an easily transportable form of furnishing), and eventually spread to the settled societies of Anatolia. Turks used carpets, rugs and kilims not just on the floors of a room, but also as a hanging on walls and doorways, where they provided additional insulation. They were also commonly donated to mosques, which often amassed large collections of them.
Ottoman classical music was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite. A number of the Ottoman sultans were accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as Selim III, whose compositions are often still performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of Byzantine music, Armenian music, Arabic music, and Persian music. Compositionally, it is organised around rhythmic units called usul, which are somewhat similar to meter in Western music, and melodic units called makam, which bear some resemblance to Western musical modes.
The instruments used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the saz, the bağlama, the kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney), and -- later in the tradition -- Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music, and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of folk music were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are: Balkan - Thracian Türküs, North - Eastern (Laz) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: Janissary Music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music.
The traditional shadow play called Karagöz and Hacivat was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire and featured characters representing all of the major ethnic and social groups in that culture. It was performed by a single puppet master, who voiced all of the characters, and accompanied by tambourine (def). Its origins are obscure, deriving perhaps from an older Egyptian tradition, or possibly from an Asian source.
Sultan Abdülaziz was also a music composer.
Miniature from Surname - i Vehbi showing the Mehteran, the music band of the Janissaries
The shadow play Karagöz and Hacivat was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire.
Ottoman cuisine refers to the cuisine of the capital, Istanbul, and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that most of the population regardless of ethnicity shared. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace 's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace 's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through Ramadan events, and through the cooking at the Yalıs of the Pashas, and from there on spread to the rest of the population.
Much of the cuisine of former Ottoman territories today is descended from a shared Ottoman cuisine, especially Turkish, and including Greek, Balkan, Armenian, and Middle Eastern cuisines. Many common dishes in the region, descendants of the once - common Ottoman cuisine, include yogurt, döner kebab / gyro / shawarma, cacık / tzatziki, ayran, pita bread, feta cheese, baklava, lahmacun, moussaka, yuvarlak, köfte / keftés / kofta, börek / boureki, rakı / rakia / tsipouro / tsikoudia, meze, dolma, sarma, rice pilaf, Turkish coffee, sujuk, kashk, keşkek, manti, lavash, kanafeh, and more.
Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts. A great part of this desire for local and foreign manuscripts arose in the 15th Century. Sultan Mehmet II ordered Georgios Amiroutzes, a Greek scholar from Trabzon, to translate and make available to Ottoman educational institutions the geography book of Ptolemy. Another example is Ali Qushji -- an astronomer, mathematician and physicist originally from Samarkand -- who became a professor in two madrasas and influenced Ottoman circles as a result of his writings and the activities of his students, even though he only spent two or three years in Istanbul before his death.
Taqi al - Din built the Istanbul observatory of Taqi al - Din in 1577, where he carried out observations until 1580. He calculated the eccentricity of the Sun 's orbit and the annual motion of the apogee. However, the observatory 's primary purpose was almost certainly astrological rather than astronomical, leading to its destruction in 1580 due to the rise of a clerical faction that opposed its use for that purpose. He also experimented with steam power in Ottoman Egypt in 1551, when he invented a steam jack driven by a rudimentary steam turbine.
In 1660 the Ottoman scholar Ibrahim Efendi al - Zigetvari Tezkireci translated Noël Duret 's French astronomical work (written in 1637) into Arabic.
Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu was the author of the first surgical atlas and the last major medical encyclopedia from the Islamic world. Though his work was largely based on Abu al - Qasim al - Zahrawi 's Al - Tasrif, Sabuncuoğlu introduced many innovations of his own. Female surgeons were also illustrated for the first time.
An example of a watch that measured time in minutes was created by an Ottoman watchmaker, Meshur Sheyh Dede, in 1702.
In the early 19th century, Egypt under Muhammad Ali began using steam engines for industrial manufacturing, with industries such as ironworks, textile manufacturing, paper mills and hulling mills moving towards steam power. Economic historian Jean Batou argues that the necessary economic conditions existed in Egypt for the adoption of oil as a potential energy source for its steam engines later in the 19th century.
In the 19th century, Ishak Efendi is credited with introducing the then current Western scientific ideas and developments to the Ottoman and wider Muslim world, as well as the invention of a suitable Turkish and Arabic scientific terminology, through his translations of Western works.
The main sports Ottomans were engaged in were Turkish wrestling, hunting, Turkish archery, horseback riding, equestrian javelin throw, arm wrestling, and swimming. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity of football matches in 19th century Constantinople. The leading clubs, according to timeline, were Beşiktaş Gymnastics Club (1903), Galatasaray Sports Club (1905), Fenerbahçe Sports Club (1907), MKE Ankaragücü (formerly Turan Sanatkaragücü) (1910) in Istanbul. Football clubs were formed in other provinces too, such as Karşıyaka Sports Club (1912), Altay Sports Club (1914) and Turkish Fatherland Football Club (later Ülküspor) (1914) of İzmir.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "article name needed ''. Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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china one child policy what is the punishment | One - child policy - wikipedia
The one - child policy, a part of the family planning policy, was a population planning policy of China. It was introduced in 1979 and began to be formally phased out in 2015. The policy allowed exceptions for many groups, including ethnic minorities. In 2007, 36 % of China 's population was subject to a strict one - child restriction, with an additional 53 % being allowed to have a second child if the first child was a girl. Provincial governments imposed fines for violations, and the local and national governments created commissions to raise awareness and carry out registration and inspection work.
According to the Chinese government, 400 million births were prevented. This claim has been called "false '' by scholars, because "three - quarters of the decline in fertility since 1970 occurred before the launching of the one - child policy; and most of the further decline in fertility since 1980 can be attributed to economic development. '' Thailand and Iran, along with the Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, have had similar declines of fertility without a one - child policy. Although 76 % of Chinese people supported the policy in a 2008 survey, it was controversial outside of China.
On October 29, 2015, it was reported that the existing law would be changed to a two - child policy, citing a statement from the Communist Party of China. The new law became effective on January 1, 2016, following its passage in the standing committee of the National People 's Congress on December 27, 2015.
During the period of Mao Zedong 's leadership in China, the birth rate fell from 37 per thousand to 20 per thousand. Infant mortality declined from 227 per thousand births in 1949 to 53 per thousand in 1981, and life expectancy dramatically increased from around 35 years in 1948 to 66 years in 1976. Until the 1960s, the government encouraged families to have as many children as possible because of Mao 's belief that population growth empowered the country, preventing the emergence of family planning programs earlier in China 's development. The population grew from around 540 million in 1949 to 940 million in 1976. Beginning in 1970, citizens were encouraged to marry at later ages and have only two children.
Although the fertility rate began to decline, the Chinese government observed the global debate over a possible overpopulation catastrophe suggested by organizations such as Club of Rome and Sierra Club. While visiting Europe in 1979, one of the top Chinese officials, Song Jian, read two influential books of the movement, The Limits to Growth and A Blueprint for Survival. With a group of mathematicians, Song determined the correct population of China to be 700 million. A plan was prepared to reduce China 's population to the desired level by 2080, with the one - child policy as one of the main instruments of social engineering. In spite of some criticism inside the party, the plan (also referred to as the Family Planning Policy) was officially adopted in 1979. The plan called for families to have one child each in order to curb a then - surging population and limit the demands for water and other resources, as well as to alleviate social, economic and environmental problems in China. The policy was formally implemented as a temporary measure on September 18, 1980.
The one - child policy was originally designed to be a One - Generation Policy. It was enforced at the provincial level and enforcement varied; some provinces had more relaxed restrictions. The one - child limit was most strictly enforced in densely populated urban areas.
Beginning in 1980, official policy granted local officials the flexibility to make exceptions and allow second children in the case of "practical difficulties '' (such as cases in which the father is a disabled serviceman) or when both parents are single children, and some provinces had other exemptions worked into their policies as well. In most areas, families were allowed to apply to have a second child if their first - born is a daughter. Furthermore, families with children with disabilities have different policies and families whose first child suffers from physical disability, mental illness, or intellectual disability were allowed to have more children. However, second children were sometimes subject to birth spacing (usually 3 or 4 years). Children born in overseas countries were not counted under the policy if they do not obtain Chinese citizenship. Chinese citizens returning from abroad were allowed to have a second child. Sichuan province allowed exemptions for couples of certain backgrounds. By one estimate there were at least 22 ways in which parents could qualify for exceptions to the law towards the end of the one - child policy 's existence. As of 2007, only 35.9 % of the population were subject to a strict one - child limit. 52.9 % were permitted to have a second child if their first was a daughter; 9.6 % of Chinese couples were permitted two children regardless of their gender; and 1.6 % -- mainly Tibetans -- had no limit at all.
Following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, a new exception to the regulations was announced in Sichuan province for parents who had lost children in the earthquake. Similar exceptions had previously been made for parents of severely disabled or deceased children. People have also tried to evade the policy by giving birth to a second child in Hong Kong, but at least for Guangdong residents, the one - child policy was also enforced if the birth was given in Hong Kong or abroad.
In accordance with China 's affirmative action policies towards ethnic minorities, all non-Han ethnic groups are subjected to different laws and were usually allowed to have two children in urban areas, and three or four in rural areas. Han Chinese living in rural towns were also permitted to have two children. Because of couples such as these, as well as who simply pay a fine (or "social maintenance fee '') to have more children, the overall fertility rate of mainland China was close to 1.4 children per woman as of 2011.
The Family Planning Policy was enforced through a financial penalty in the form of the "social child - raising fee '', sometimes called a "family planning fine '' in the West, which was collected as a fraction of either the annual disposable income of city dwellers or of the annual cash income of peasants, in the year of the child 's birth. For instance, in Guangdong, the fee is between 3 and 6 annual incomes for incomes below the per capita income of the district, plus 1 to 2 times the annual income exceeding the average. Both members of the couple need to pay the fine.
As part of the policy, women were required to have a contraceptive intrauterine device (IUD) surgically installed after having a first child, and to be sterilized by tubal ligation after having a second child. From 1980 to 2014, 324 million Chinese women were fitted with IUDs in this way and 107 million were sterilized. Women who refused these procedures -- which many resented -- could lose their government employment and their children could lose access to education or health services. The IUDs installed in this way were modified such that they could not be removed manually, but only through surgery. In 2016, following the abolition of the one - child policy, the Chinese government announced that IUD removals would now be paid for by the government.
In 2013, Deputy Director Wang Peian of the National Health and Family Planning Commission said that "China 's population will not grow substantially in the short term ''. A survey by the commission found that only about half of eligible couples wish to have two children, mostly because of the cost of living impact of a second child.
In November 2013, following the Third Plenum of the 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, China announced the decision to relax the one - child policy. Under the new policy, families could have two children if one parent, rather than both parents, was an only child. This mainly applied to urban couples, since there were very few rural only children due to long - standing exceptions to the policy for rural couples. The coastal province of Zhejiang, one of China 's most affluent, became the first area to implement this "relaxed policy '' in January 2014. The relaxed policy has been implemented in 29 out of the 31 provinces, with the exceptions of Xinjiang and Tibet. Under this policy, approximately 11 million couples in China are allowed to have a second child; however, only "nearly one million '' couples applied to have a second child in 2014, less than half the expected number of 2 million per year. By May 2014, 241,000 out of 271,000 applications had been approved. Officials of China 's National Health and Family Planning Commission claimed that this outcome was expected, and that "second - child policy '' would continue progressing with a good start.
In October 2015, the Chinese news agency Xinhua announced plans of the government to abolish the one - child policy, now allowing all families to have two children, citing from a communiqué issued by the Communist Party "to improve the balanced development of population '' -- an apparent reference to the country 's female - to - male sex ratio -- and to deal with an aging population according to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. The new law took effect 1 January 2016 after it was passed in the standing committee of the National People 's Congress on 27 December 2015.
The rationale for the abolition is summarized by former Wall Street Journal reporter Mei Fong: "The reason China is doing this right now is because they have too many men, too many old people, and too few young people. They have this huge crushing demographic crisis as a result of the one - child policy. And if people do n't start having more children, they 're going to have a vastly diminished workforce to support a huge aging population. '' China 's ratio is about five working adults to one retiree; the huge retiree community must be supported, and that will dampen future growth, according to Fong.
Since the citizens of China are living longer and having fewer children, the growth of the population imbalance is expected to continue, as reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation which referred to a United Nations projections forecast that "China will lose 67 million working - age people by 2030, while simultaneously doubling the number of elderly. That could put immense pressure on the economy and government resources. '' The longer term outlook is also pessimistic, based on an estimate by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, revealed by Cai Fang, deputy director. "By 2050, one - third of the country will be aged 60 years or older, and there will be fewer workers supporting each retired person. ''
Although many critics of China 's reproductive restrictions approve of the policy 's abolition, an Amnesty International spokesperson said that the move to the two - child policy would not end forced sterilizations, forced abortions, or government control over birth permits. Others also state that the abolition is not a sign of the relaxation of authoritarian control in China. A reporter for CNN said, "It was not a sign that the party will suddenly start respecting personal freedoms more than it has in the past. No, this is a case of the party adjusting policy to conditions... The new policy, raising the limit to two children per couple, preserves the state 's role. '' The abolition may not achieve a significant benefit, as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation analysis indicates: "Repealing the one - child policy may not spur a huge baby boom, however, in part because fertility rates are believed to be declining even without the policy 's enforcement. Previous easings of the one - child policy have spurred fewer births than expected, and many people among China 's younger generations see smaller family sizes as ideal. '' The CNN reporter adds that China 's new prosperity is also a factor in the declining birth rate, saying, "Couples naturally decide to have fewer children as they move from the fields into the cities, become more educated, and when women establish careers outside the home. ''
The one - child policy was managed by the National Population and Family Planning Commission under the central government since 1981. The Ministry of Health of the People 's Republic of China and the National Health and Family Planning Commission were made defunct and a new single agency National Health and Family Planning Commission took over national health and family planning policies in 2013. The agency reports to the State Council.
The policy was enforced at the provincial level through fines that were imposed based on the income of the family and other factors. "Population and Family Planning Commissions '' existed at every level of government to raise awareness and carry out registration and inspection work.
According to a 2017 study in the Journal of Economic Perspectives, it is complicated to evaluate the effects of the one - child policy on family outcomes because the Chinese government had already enacted aggressive family planning policy before the introduction of the one - child policy; seen a sharp drop in fertility rates before the enactment of the one - child policy; the one - child policy coincided with Chinese economic reform which would have contributed to reduced fertility rates; and other developing East Asian countries also experienced sharp declines in fertility rates. According to the study, "In general, very different views exist on how the one - child policy affected fertility: one group of studies argued that the one - child policy had a significant or decisive effect on fertility in China, while another group argued that socioeconomic development played a key role in China 's fertility decline. A plausible reconciliation of these views is that the one - child policy accelerated the already - occurring drop in fertility for a few years, but in the longer term, economic development played a more fundamental role in leading to and maintaining China 's low fertility level. To put it more bluntly, China 's fertility might well have dropped to the current low level with rapid economic development, even without the one - child policy, although the timeline of the decline would not appear quite the same. ''
The fertility rate in China continued its fall from 2.8 births per woman in 1979 (already a sharp reduction from more than five births per woman in the early 1970s) to 1.5 in 2010. This is similar to demographic transition seen in Thailand, Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu which have undergone similar changes in fertility rates without a one child policy.
The sex ratio of a newborn infant (between male and female births) in mainland China reached 117: 100, and stabilized between 2000 and 2013, substantially higher than the natural baseline, which ranges between 103: 100 and 107: 100. It had risen from 108: 100 in 1981 -- at the boundary of the natural baseline -- to 111: 100 in 1990. According to a report by the National Population and Family Planning Commission, there will be 30 million more men than women in 2020, potentially leading to social instability, and courtship - motivated emigration.
The disparity in the gender ratio at birth increases dramatically after the first birth, for which the ratios remained steadily within the natural baseline over the 20 year interval between 1980 and 1999. Thus, a large majority of couples appear to accept the outcome of the first pregnancy, whether it is a boy or a girl. If the first child is a girl, and they are able to have a second child, then a couple may take extraordinary steps to assure that the second child is a boy. If a couple already has two or more boys, the sex ratio of higher parity births swings decidedly in a feminine direction. This demographic evidence indicates that while families highly value having male offspring, a secondary norm of having a girl or having some balance in the sexes of children often comes into play. Zeng 1993 reported a study based on the 1990 census in which they found sex ratios of just 65 or 70 boys per 100 girls for births in families that already had two or more boys. A study by Anderson & Silver (1995) found a similar pattern among both Han and non-Han nationalities in Xinjiang Province: a strong preference for girls in high parity births in families that had already borne two or more boys. This tendency to favour girls in high parity births to couples who had already borne sons was later also noted by Coalenad, who suggested as well that once a couple had achieved its goal for the number of males, it was also much more likely to engage in "stopping behavior '', i.e., to stop having more children.
The long - term disparity has led to a significant gender imbalance or skewing of the sex ratio. As reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, China has between 32 million and 36 million more males than would be expected naturally, and this has led to social problems. "Because of a traditional preference for baby boys over girls, the one - child policy is often cited as the cause of China 's skewed sex ratio... Even the government acknowledges the problem and has expressed concern about the tens of millions of young men who wo n't be able to find brides and may turn to kidnapping women, sex trafficking, other forms of crime or social unrest. '' The situation will not improve in the near future. According to the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, there will be 24 million more men than women of marriageable age by 2020.
According to a 2017 study in the Journal of Economic Perspectives, "existing studies indicate either a modest or minimal effect of the fertility change induced by the one - child policy on children education ''.
The one - child policy of China made it more expensive for parents with children to adopt, which may have had an effect upon the numbers of children living in state - sponsored orphanages. However, in the 1980s and early 1990s, poor care and high mortality rates in some state institutions generated intense international pressure for reform.
In the 1980s, adoptions accounted for half of the so - called "missing girls ''. Through the 1980s, as the one - child policy came into force, parents who desired a son but had a daughter often failed to report or delayed reporting female births to the authorities. Some parents may have offered up their daughters for formal or informal adoption. A majority of children who went through formal adoption in China in the later 1980s were girls, and the proportion who were girls increased over time.
In an interview with National Public Radio on October 30, 2015, Adam Pertman, president and CEO of the National Center on Adoption and Permanency, indicated that many young girls were adopted by citizens of other countries, particularly the United States, a trend which has been declining for some years. "The infant girls of yesteryear have not been available, if you will, for five, seven years. China has been... trying to keep the girls within the country... And the consequence is that, today, rather than those young girls who used to be available -- primarily girls -- today, it 's older children, children with special needs, children in sibling groups. It 's very, very different. ''
Since there are no penalties for multiple births, it is believed that an increasing number of couples are turning to fertility medicines to induce the conception of twins. According to a 2006 China Daily report, the number of twins born per year was estimated to have doubled.
The one - child policy has played a major role in improving the quality of life for women in China. For thousands of years, girls have held a lower status in Chinese households. However, the one - child policy 's limit on the number of children has prompted parents of women to start investing money in their well - being. As a result of being an only child, women have increased opportunity to receive an education, and support to get better jobs.
It is reported that the focus of China on population planning helps provide a better health service for women and a reduction in the risks of death and injury associated with pregnancy. At family planning offices, women receive free contraception and pre-natal classes that contributed to the policy 's success in two respects. First, the average Chinese household expends fewer resources, both in terms of time and money, on children, which gives many Chinese people more money with which to invest. Second, since Chinese adults can no longer rely on children to care for them in their old age, there is an impetus to save money for the future.
As the first generation of law - enforced only - children came of age for becoming parents themselves, one adult child was left with having to provide support for his or her two parents and four grandparents. Called the "4 - 2 - 1 Problem '', this leaves the older generations with increased chances of dependency on retirement funds or charity in order to receive support. If personal savings, pensions, or state welfare fail, most senior citizens would be left entirely dependent upon their very small family or neighbours for assistance. If, for any reason, the single child is unable to care for their older adult relatives, the oldest generations would face a lack of resources and necessities. In response to such an issue, all provinces have decided that couples are allowed to have two children if both parents were only children themselves: By 2007, all provinces in the nation except Henan had adopted this new policy; Henan followed in 2011.
Heihaizi (Chinese: 黑 孩子; pinyin: hēiháizi) or "black child '' is a term denoting children born outside the one - child policy, or generally children who are not registered in the Chinese national household registration system.
Being excluded from the family register (in effect, a birth certificate), they do not legally exist and as a result can not access most public services, such as education and health care, and do not receive protection under the law.
Some parents may over-indulge their only child. The media referred to the indulged children in one - child families as "little emperors ''. Since the 1990s, some people have worried that this will result in a higher tendency toward poor social communication and cooperation skills amongst the new generation, as they have no siblings at home. No social studies have investigated the ratio of these over-indulged children and to what extent they are indulged. With the first generation of children born under the policy (which initially became a requirement for most couples with first children born starting in 1979 and extending into the 1980s) reaching adulthood, such worries were reduced.
However, the "little emperor syndrome '' and additional expressions, describing the generation of Chinese singletons are very abundant in the Chinese media, Chinese academia and popular discussions. Being over-indulged, lacking self - discipline and having no adaptive capabilities are traits that are highly associated with Chinese singletons.
Some 30 delegates called on the government in the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference in March 2007 to abolish the one - child rule, citing "social problems and personality disorders in young people ''. One statement read, "It is not healthy for children to play only with their parents and be spoiled by them: it is not right to limit the number to two children per family, either. '' The proposal was prepared by Ye Tingfang, a professor at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, who suggested that the government at least restore the previous rule that allowed couples to have up to two children. According to a scholar, "The one - child limit is too extreme. It violates nature 's law. And in the long run, this will lead to mother nature 's revenge. ''
Reports surfaced of Chinese women giving birth to their second child overseas, a practice known as birth tourism. Many went to Hong Kong, which is exempt from the one - child policy. Likewise, a Hong Kong passport differs from China mainland passport by providing additional advantages. Recently though, the Hong Kong government has drastically reduced the quota of births set for non-local women in public hospitals. As a result, fees for delivering babies there have surged. As further admission cuts or a total ban on non-local births in Hong Kong are being considered, mainland agencies that arrange for expectant mothers to give birth overseas are predicting a surge in those going to North America.
As the United States practises birthright citizenship, most children born in the US will automatically have US citizenship. The closest US location from China is Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands, a US dependency in the western Pacific Ocean that allows Chinese visitors without visa restrictions. The island is currently experiencing an upswing in Chinese births. This option is used by relatively affluent Chinese who often have secondary motives as well, wishing their children to be able to leave mainland China when they grow older or bring their parents to the US. Canada is less achievable as their government denies many visa requests.
The policy is controversial outside China for many reasons, including accusations of human rights abuses in the implementation of the policy, as well as concerns about negative social consequences.
The Chinese government, quoting Zhai Zhenwu, director of Renmin University 's School of Sociology and Population in Beijing, estimates that 400 million births were prevented by the one - child policy as of 2011, while some demographers challenge that number, putting the figure at perhaps half that level, according to CNN. Zhai clarified that the 400 million estimate referred not just to the one - child policy, but includes births prevented by predecessor policies implemented one decade before, stating that "there are many different numbers out there but it does n't change the basic fact that the policy prevented a really large number of births ''.
This claim is disputed by Wang Feng, director of the Brookings - Tsinghua Center for Public Policy, and Cai Yong from the Carolina Population Center at University of North Carolina Chapel Hill Wang claims that "Thailand and China have had almost identical fertility trajectories since the mid 1980s '', and "Thailand does not have a one - child policy. '' China 's Health Ministry has also disclosed that at least 336 million abortions were performed on account of the policy.
According to a report by the US Embassy, scholarship published by Chinese scholars and their presentations at the October 1997 Beijing conference of the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population seemed to suggest that market - based incentives or increasing voluntariness is not morally better but that it is in the end more effective. In 1988, Zeng Yi and Professor T. Paul Schultz of Yale University discussed the effect of the transformation to the market on Chinese fertility, arguing that the introduction of the contract responsibility system in agriculture during the early 1980s weakened family planning controls during that period. Zeng contended that the "big cooking pot '' system of the People 's Communes had insulated people from the costs of having many children. By the late 1980s, economic costs and incentives created by the contract system were already reducing the number of children farmers wanted.
A long - term experiment in a county in Shanxi Province, in which the family planning law was suspended, suggested that families would not have many more children even if the law were abolished. A 2003 review of the policy - making process behind the adoption of the one - child policy shows that less intrusive options, including those that emphasized delay and spacing of births, were known but not fully considered by China 's political leaders.
Corrupted government officials and especially wealthy individuals have often been able to violate the policy in spite of fines. Filmmaker Zhang Yimou had three children and was subsequently fined 7.48 million yuan ($1.2 million). For example, between 2000 and 2005, as many as 1,968 officials in central China 's Hunan province were found to be violating the policy, according to the provincial family planning commission; also exposed by the commission were 21 national and local lawmakers, 24 political advisors, 112 entrepreneurs and 6 senior intellectuals.
Some of the offending officials did not face penalties, although the government did respond by raising fines and calling on local officials to "expose the celebrities and high - income people who violate the family planning policy and have more than one child ''. Also, people who lived in the rural areas of China were allowed to have two children without punishment, although the family is required to wait a couple of years before having another child.
The one - child policy has been challenged for violating a human right to determine the size of one 's own proper family. According to a 1968 proclamation of the International Conference on Human Rights, "Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children. ''
According to the UK newspaper The Daily Telegraph, a quota of 20,000 abortions and sterilizations was set for Huaiji County in Guangdong Province in one year due to reported disregard of the one - child policy. According to the article local officials were being pressured into purchasing portable ultrasound devices to identify abortion candidates in remote villages. The article also reported that women as far along as 8.5 months pregnant were forced to abort, usually by an injection of saline solution. A 1993 book by social scientist Steven W. Mosher reported that women in their ninth month of pregnancy, or already in labour, were having their children killed whilst in the birth canal or immediately after birth.
According to a 2005 news report by Australian Broadcasting Corporation correspondent John Taylor, China outlawed the use of physical force to make a woman submit to an abortion or sterilization in 2002 but ineffectively enforces the measure. In 2012, Feng Jianmei, a villager from central China 's Shaanxi province was forced into an abortion by local officials after her family refused to pay the fine for having a second child. Chinese authorities have since apologized and two officials were fired, while five others were sanctioned.
In the past China promoted eugenics as part of its population planning policies, but the government has backed away from such policies, as evidenced by China 's ratification of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which compels the nation to significantly reform its genetic testing laws. Recent research has also emphasized the necessity of understanding a myriad of complex social relations that affect the meaning of informed consent in China. Furthermore, in 2003, China revised its marriage registration regulations and couples no longer have to submit to a pre-marital physical or genetic examination before being granted a marriage license.
The United Nations Population Fund 's (UNFPA) support for family planning in China, which has been associated with the One - Child policy in the United States, led the United States Congress to pull out of the UNFPA during the Reagan administration, and again under George W. Bush 's presidency, citing human rights abuses and stating that the right to "found a family '' was protected under the Preamble in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. President Obama resumed U.S. government financial support for the UNFPA shortly after taking office in 2009, intending to "work collaboratively to reduce poverty, improve the health of women and children, prevent HIV / AIDS and provide family planning assistance to women in 154 countries ''.
Sex - selected abortion, abandonment, and infanticide are illegal in China. Nevertheless, the United States Department of State, the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and the human rights organization Amnesty International have all declared that infanticide still exists. A writer for the Georgetown Journal of International Affairs wrote, "The ' one - child ' policy has also led to what Amartya Sen first called ' Missing Women ', or the 100 million girls ' missing ' from the populations of China (and other developing countries) as a result of female infanticide, abandonment, and neglect ''.
The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation offered the following summary as to the long term effects of sex - selective abortion and abandonment of female infants: "Multiple research studies have also found that sex - selective abortion -- where a woman undergoes an ultrasound to determine the sex of her baby, and then aborts it if it 's a girl -- was widespread for years, particularly for second or subsequent children. Millions of female fetuses have been aborted since the 1970s. China outlawed sex selective abortions in 2005, but the law is tough to enforce because of the difficulty of proving why a couple decided to have an abortion. The abandonment, and killing, of baby girls has also been reported, though recent research studies say it has become rare, in part due to strict criminal prohibitions. ''
Anthropologist G. William Skinner at the University of California, Davis and Chinese researcher Yuan Jianhua have claimed that infanticide was fairly common in China before the 1990s.
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information about generation of current by using faradays law | Faraday 's law of induction - wikipedia
Faraday 's law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF) -- a phenomenon called electromagnetic induction. It is the fundamental operating principle of transformers, inductors, and many types of electrical motors, generators and solenoids.
The Maxwell -- Faraday equation is a generalization of Faraday 's law, and is listed as one of Maxwell 's equations.
Electromagnetic induction was discovered independently by Michael Faraday in 1831 and Joseph Henry in 1832. Faraday was the first to publish the results of his experiments. In Faraday 's first experimental demonstration of electromagnetic induction (August 29, 1831), he wrapped two wires around opposite sides of an iron ring (torus) (an arrangement similar to a modern toroidal transformer). Based on his assessment of recently discovered properties of electromagnets, he expected that when current started to flow in one wire, a sort of wave would travel through the ring and cause some electrical effect on the opposite side. He plugged one wire into a galvanometer, and watched it as he connected the other wire to a battery. Indeed, he saw a transient current (which he called a "wave of electricity '') when he connected the wire to the battery, and another when he disconnected it. This induction was due to the change in magnetic flux that occurred when the battery was connected and disconnected. Within two months, Faraday had found several other manifestations of electromagnetic induction. For example, he saw transient currents when he quickly slid a bar magnet in and out of a coil of wires, and he generated a steady (DC) current by rotating a copper disk near the bar magnet with a sliding electrical lead ("Faraday 's disk '').
Michael Faraday explained electromagnetic induction using a concept he called lines of force. However, scientists at the time widely rejected his theoretical ideas, mainly because they were not formulated mathematically. An exception was James Clerk Maxwell, who in 1861 - 2 used Faraday 's ideas as the basis of his quantitative electromagnetic theory. In Maxwell 's papers, the time - varying aspect of electromagnetic induction is expressed as a differential equation which Oliver Heaviside referred to as Faraday 's law even though it is different from the original version of Faraday 's law, and does not describe motional EMF. Heaviside 's version (see Maxwell -- Faraday equation below) is the form recognized today in the group of equations known as Maxwell 's equations.
Lenz 's law, formulated by Emil Lenz in 1834, describes "flux through the circuit '', and gives the direction of the induced EMF and current resulting from electromagnetic induction (elaborated upon in the examples below).
The most widespread version of Faraday 's law states:
The induced electromotive force in any closed circuit is equal to the negative of the time rate of change of the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit.
This version of Faraday 's law strictly holds only when the closed circuit is a loop of infinitely thin wire, and is invalid in other circumstances as discussed below. A different version, the Maxwell -- Faraday equation (discussed below), is valid in all circumstances.
Faraday 's law of induction makes use of the magnetic flux Φ through a hypothetical surface Σ whose boundary is a wire loop. Since the wire loop may be moving, we write Σ (t) for the surface. The magnetic flux is defined by a surface integral:
where dA is an element of surface area of the moving surface Σ (t), B is the magnetic field (also called "magnetic flux density ''), and B dA is a vector dot product (the infinitesimal amount of magnetic flux through the infinitesimal area element dA). In more visual terms, the magnetic flux through the wire loop is proportional to the number of magnetic flux lines that pass through the loop.
When the flux changes -- because B changes, or because the wire loop is moved or deformed, or both -- Faraday 's law of induction says that the wire loop acquires an EMF, E, defined as the energy available from a unit charge that has travelled once around the wire loop. Equivalently, it is the voltage that would be measured by cutting the wire to create an open circuit, and attaching a voltmeter to the leads.
Faraday 's law states that the EMF is also given by the rate of change of the magnetic flux:
where E (\ displaystyle (\ mathcal (E))) is the electromotive force (EMF) and Φ is the magnetic flux.
The direction of the electromotive force is given by Lenz 's law.
The laws of induction of electric currents in mathematical form was established by Franz Ernst Neumann in 1845.
Faraday 's law contains the information about the relationships between both the magnitudes and the directions of its variables. However, the relationships between the directions are not explicit; they are hidden in the mathematical formula.
It is possible to find out the direction of the electromotive force (EMF) directly from Faraday 's law, without invoking Lenz 's law. A left hand rule helps doing that, as follows:
For a tightly wound coil of wire, composed of N identical turns, each with the same Φ, Faraday 's law of induction states that
where N is the number of turns of wire and Φ is the magnetic flux through a single loop.
The Maxwell -- Faraday equation is a modification and generalisation of Faraday 's law that states that a time - varying magnetic field will always accompany a spatially varying, non-conservative electric field, and vice versa. The Maxwell -- Faraday equation is
∇ × E = − ∂ B ∂ t (\ displaystyle \ nabla \ times \ mathbf (E) = - (\ frac (\ partial \ mathbf (B)) (\ partial t)))
(in SI units) where ∇ × is the curl operator and again E (r, t) is the electric field and B (r, t) is the magnetic field. These fields can generally be functions of position r and time t.
The Maxwell -- Faraday equation is one of the four Maxwell 's equations, and therefore plays a fundamental role in the theory of classical electromagnetism. It can also be written in an integral form by the Kelvin -- Stokes theorem:
∮ ∂ Σ E ⋅ d l = − ∫ Σ ∂ B ∂ t ⋅ d A (\ displaystyle \ oint _ (\ partial \ Sigma) \ mathbf (E) \ cdot d \ mathbf (l) = - \ int _ (\ Sigma) (\ frac (\ partial \ mathbf (B)) (\ partial t)) \ cdot d \ mathbf (A))
where, as indicated in the figure:
Both dl and dA have a sign ambiguity; to get the correct sign, the right - hand rule is used, as explained in the article Kelvin -- Stokes theorem. For a planar surface Σ, a positive path element dl of curve ∂ Σ is defined by the right - hand rule as one that points with the fingers of the right hand when the thumb points in the direction of the normal n to the surface Σ.
The integral around ∂ Σ is called a path integral or line integral.
Notice that a nonzero path integral for E is different from the behavior of the electric field generated by charges. A charge - generated E-field can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar field that is a solution to Poisson 's equation, and has a zero path integral. See gradient theorem.
The integral equation is true for any path ∂ Σ through space, and any surface Σ for which that path is a boundary.
If the path Σ is not changing in time, the equation can be rewritten:
The surface integral at the right - hand side is the explicit expression for the magnetic flux Φ through Σ.
The four Maxwell 's equations (including the Maxwell -- Faraday equation), along with the Lorentz force law, are a sufficient foundation to derive everything in classical electromagnetism. Therefore, it is possible to "prove '' Faraday 's law starting with these equations.
The starting point is the time - derivative of flux through an arbitrary, possibly moving surface in space Σ:
(by definition). This total time derivative can be evaluated and simplified with the help of the Maxwell -- Faraday equation, Gauss 's law for magnetism, and some vector calculus; the details are in the box below:
The integral can change over time for two reasons: The integrand can change, or the integration region can change. These add linearly, therefore:
where t is any given fixed time. We will show that the first term on the right - hand side corresponds to transformer EMF, the second to motional EMF (see above). The first term on the right - hand side can be rewritten using the integral form of the Maxwell -- Faraday equation:
Next, we analyze the second term on the right - hand side:
This is the most difficult part of the proof; more details and alternate approaches can be found in references. As the loop moves and / or deforms, it sweeps out a surface (see figure on right). The magnetic flux through this swept - out surface corresponds to the magnetic flux that is either entering or exiting the loop, and therefore this is the magnetic flux that contributes to the time - derivative. (This step implicitly uses Gauss 's law for magnetism: Since the flux lines have no beginning or end, they can only get into the loop by getting cut through by the wire.) As a small part of the loop dl moves with velocity v for a short time dt, it sweeps out a vector area vector dA = v dt × dl. Therefore, the change in magnetic flux through the loop here is
Therefore:
where v is the velocity of the curve ∂ Σ.
Putting these together,
the result is:
where ∂ Σ is the boundary of the surface Σ, and v is the velocity of that boundary.
While this equation is true for any arbitrary moving surface Σ in space, it can be simplified further in the special case that ∂ Σ is a loop of wire. In this case, we can relate the right - hand - side to EMF. Specifically, EMF is defined as the energy available per unit charge that travels once around the loop. Therefore, by the Lorentz force law,
where E (\ displaystyle (\ mathcal (E))) is EMF and v is the material velocity, i.e. the velocity of the atoms that makes up the circuit. If ∂ Σ is a loop of wire, then v = v, and hence:
It is tempting to generalize Faraday 's law to state that If ∂ Σ is any arbitrary closed loop in space whatsoever, then the total time derivative of magnetic flux through Σ equals the EMF around ∂ Σ. This statement, however, is not always true -- and not just for the obvious reason that EMF is undefined in empty space when no conductor is present. As noted in the previous section, Faraday 's law is not guaranteed to work unless the velocity of the abstract curve ∂ Σ matches the actual velocity of the material conducting the electricity. The two examples illustrated below show that one often obtains incorrect results when the motion of ∂ Σ is divorced from the motion of the material.
Faraday 's homopolar generator. The disc rotates with angular rate ω, sweeping the conducting radius circularly in the static magnetic field B. The magnetic Lorentz force v × B drives the current along the conducting radius to the conducting rim, and from there the circuit completes through the lower brush and the axle supporting the disc. This device generates an EMF and a current, although the shape of the "circuit '' is constant and thus the flux through the circuit does not change with time.
A wire (solid red lines) connects to two touching metal plates (silver) to form a circuit. The whole system sits in a uniform magnetic field, normal to the page. If the abstract path ∂ Σ follows the primary path of current flow (marked in red), then the magnetic flux through this path changes dramatically as the plates are rotated, yet the EMF is almost zero. After Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. II page 17 - 3.
One can analyze examples like these by taking care that the path ∂ Σ moves with the same velocity as the material. Alternatively, one can always correctly calculate the EMF by combining the Lorentz force law with the Maxwell -- Faraday equation:
where "it is very important to notice that (1) (v) is the velocity of the conductor... not the velocity of the path element dl and (2) in general, the partial derivative with respect to time can not be moved outside the integral since the area is a function of time ''.
Faraday 's law is a single equation describing two different phenomena: the motional EMF generated by a magnetic force on a moving wire (see Lorentz force), and the transformer EMF generated by an electric force due to a changing magnetic field (due to the Maxwell -- Faraday equation).
James Clerk Maxwell drew attention to this fact in his 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force. In the latter half of Part II of that paper, Maxwell gives a separate physical explanation for each of the two phenomena.
A reference to these two aspects of electromagnetic induction is made in some modern textbooks. As Richard Feynman states:
So the "flux rule '' that the emf in a circuit is equal to the rate of change of the magnetic flux through the circuit applies whether the flux changes because the field changes or because the circuit moves (or both)...
Yet in our explanation of the rule we have used two completely distinct laws for the two cases -- v × B for "circuit moves '' and ∇ × E = − ∂ B for "field changes ''.
Reflection on this apparent dichotomy was one of the principal paths that led Einstein to develop special relativity:
It is known that Maxwell 's electrodynamics -- as usually understood at the present time -- when applied to moving bodies, leads to asymmetries which do not appear to be inherent in the phenomena. Take, for example, the reciprocal electrodynamic action of a magnet and a conductor.
The observable phenomenon here depends only on the relative motion of the conductor and the magnet, whereas the customary view draws a sharp distinction between the two cases in which either the one or the other of these bodies is in motion. For if the magnet is in motion and the conductor at rest, there arises in the neighbourhood of the magnet an electric field with a certain definite energy, producing a current at the places where parts of the conductor are situated.
But if the magnet is stationary and the conductor in motion, no electric field arises in the neighbourhood of the magnet. In the conductor, however, we find an electromotive force, to which in itself there is no corresponding energy, but which gives rise -- assuming equality of relative motion in the two cases discussed -- to electric currents of the same path and intensity as those produced by the electric forces in the former case.
Examples of this sort, together with unsuccessful attempts to discover any motion of the earth relative to the "light medium, '' suggest that the phenomena of electrodynamics as well as of mechanics possess no properties corresponding to the idea of absolute rest.
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who was the first cheif justice of the supreme court | List of Chief Justices of India - wikipedia
The Federal Court came into being on 1 September 1937. The seat of the court was the Chamber of Princes in the Parliament building in Delhi. It began with a Chief Justice and two puisne judges. The first Chief Justice was Sir Maurice Gwyer and the other two judges were Sir Shah Muhammad Sulaiman and M.R. Jayakar. It functioned until the establishment of the Supreme Court of India on 28 January 1950.
‡ -- Date of Resignation
Since the birth of the Republic of India on 26 January 1950, 45 people have served as the Chief Justice of India (CJI). While H.J. Kania is the inaugural CJI, the current incumbent is Dipak Misra who was appointed as Chief Justice of India on 28 August 2017. Justice Y.V. Chandrachud is the longest serving Chief Justice (000000001978 - 02 - 01 - 0000 February 1978 - 000000001985 - 07 - 01 - 0000 July 1985).
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are the columbus blue jackets in the stanley cup playoffs | Columbus Blue Jackets - Wikipedia
The Columbus Blue Jackets are a professional ice hockey team based in Columbus, Ohio. They are members of the Metropolitan Division of the Eastern Conference of the National Hockey League (NHL).
The Blue Jackets were founded as an expansion team in 2000. The team qualified for the Stanley Cup playoffs for the first time in 2009.
The Blue Jackets ' name and logos are inspired by Ohio 's Civil War history. The Blue Jackets play their home games at Nationwide Arena in downtown Columbus, which opened in 2000. They are affiliated with the Cleveland Monsters of the AHL.
Prior to the establishment of the Blue Jackets, the last NHL team in the state of Ohio was the Cleveland Barons, who played from 1976 to 1978. In Columbus, the Blue Jackets replaced the Columbus Chill of the ECHL, who played in the city from 1991 to 1999. The Chill played at the Ohio Expo Center Coliseum where they had an 83 - game sellout streak, which was a minor league hockey record at the time.
In November 1996, five investors formed a partnership called Columbus Hockey Limited, who then submitted an application and a $100,000 fee to the NHL office. The voters of Columbus were considering a referendum to build a publicly financed arena, a major step toward approval of their NHL bid. When League Commissioner Gary Bettman visited Columbus to meet with the community 's leaders about the franchise proposal, there was concern that the voters might not pass the needed referendum. The civic leaders told Bettman that they would not be willing to foot the bill for the team if the referendum failed. However, just after the meeting adjourned, John H. McConnell (one of those who entered the bid) privately guaranteed Bettman that an arena would be built, referendum or not.
Columbus ' hopes for the bid dimmed when the May referendum failed. However, Nationwide announced on May 31, 1997, that it would finance the $150 - million arena. Subsequently, on June 25, 1997, the NHL announced that Columbus would receive a new franchise. Afterwards a "Name the Team '' contest was held with the help from Wendy 's throughout central Ohio during the month of August 1997. Out of 14,000 submitted entries, the franchise with help from the NHL narrowed the 14,000 entries down to 10 names. Then with the information received from owner McConnell regarding Columbus ' history, the League and the franchise narrowed the list of potential names down to two -- Blue Jackets and Justice. The former, which referenced Ohio 's contributions to the American Civil War, was eventually announced as the team name in November.
On June 23, 2000, the NHL 's two newest teams, the Blue Jackets and the Minnesota Wild, took part in the 2000 NHL Expansion Draft in Calgary, Alberta. Under the draft 's rules, 26 of the NHL 's active 28 teams were allowed to protect one goaltender, five defensemen, and nine forwards, or two goaltenders, three defensemen, and seven forwards. The Atlanta Thrashers and Nashville Predators both had their full rosters protected because they were the two newest teams, only being in existence for one and two years, respectively. Both the Blue Jackets and Wild had to use their first 24 selections on three goaltenders, eight defensemen, and thirteen forwards. Their final two picks could be players of any position.
With the first - overall choice, the Blue Jackets selected goaltender Rick Tabaracci from the Colorado Avalanche. Over the course of the draft, Columbus picked up goalie Dwayne Roloson, defensemen Lyle Odelein and Mathieu Schneider, and forwards Geoff Sanderson, Turner Stevenson and Dallas Drake, among others. Instead of joining Columbus, Roloson signed with the American Hockey League 's Worcester IceCats, Schneider left for the Los Angeles Kings, and the St. Louis Blues signed Drake. Columbus also traded Stevenson to the New Jersey Devils to complete an earlier transaction.
The Blue Jackets and Wild were granted concessions by some franchises who could not protect their full rosters. The San Jose Sharks traded Jan Caloun, a ninth - round pick in the 2000 NHL Entry Draft, and a 2001 conditional pick to Columbus; in return, the Blue Jackets agreed not to select the Sharks ' unprotected goaltender Evgeni Nabokov. On June 24, at the 2000 NHL Entry Draft, Columbus selected Rostislav Klesla fourth overall.
The Blue Jackets played their first regular - season game on October 7, 2000, a 5 -- 3 loss to the Chicago Blackhawks. Bruce Gardiner scored the franchise 's first goal. Columbus finished with a 28 -- 39 -- 9 -- 6 record for 71 points, last in the Central Division, and failed to qualify for the playoffs. Geoff Sanderson became the first player in team history to score 30 goals. Ron Tugnutt, who was signed in the summer of 2000, supplied solid goaltending with 22 wins, which tied the 74 - year - old League record for wins by an expansion - team goalie (New York Rangers ' Lorne Chabot also had 22 wins in 1926 -- 27).
The Blue Jackets finished next - to - last in the NHL in the following season, with only 57 points. Ray Whitney, acquired from the Florida Panthers the previous season, led the team in scoring with 61 points, setting a franchise record. Tragedy struck the Blue Jackets organization in March 2002 when 13 - year - old Brittanie Cecil was killed after a deflected puck shot by Espen Knutsen struck her in the head while she was in the stands at Nationwide Arena. As a result of her death, large nylon mesh nets were installed behind the goals in all NHL arenas to shield spectators from pucks going over the glass. The team also wore small red hearts with the initials "BNC '' on their helmets.
During the off - season, the Blue Jackets traded a second - round pick (32nd overall) and Ron Tugnutt to the Dallas Stars. In return, Columbus received Dallas ' first - round pick (20th overall) in the 2002 Entry Draft. On the morning of the draft, Columbus traded the third - overall pick and the option to flip draft spots in 2003 to the Florida Panthers; in return, Columbus received the first - overall pick, which they used to select Rick Nash.
The 2002 -- 03 season started with Columbus putting up a 7 -- 5 -- 1 -- 1 record after the first 14 games. However, as expectations from their fans grew higher, the team came back to mediocrity, finishing last in the Central Division for the third consecutive season with 69 points and missing the playoffs once again. Dave King, who had been the team 's head coach since their debut in 2000, was fired mid-season and replaced by General Manager Doug MacLean. Marc Denis was named starting goalie; he played a franchise - record 77 games that season and set a League record with 4,511 minutes played in 2002 -- 03. He tied for second all - time for games played in a season by a goaltender, just two shy of the League record held by St. Louis Blues ' Grant Fuhr in the 1995 -- 96 season.
The 2003 -- 04 season was another losing season for the Blue Jackets despite key additions in the off - season. Checking center Todd Marchant was signed to a five - year contract in July from the Edmonton Oilers. Defenseman Darryl Sydor, known to play strong offense as well, was acquired from the Dallas Stars for Mike Sillinger and a draft pick. MacLean stepped aside as head coach midway through the season, giving way to Gerard Gallant. The Blue Jackets finished with just 62 points (the second - lowest total in their short history), but it was enough to help them break out of last place in the Central Division for the first time, finishing ahead of the Chicago Blackhawks. Nash was one of the few bright spots for the team; his 41 goals tied Jarome Iginla and Ilya Kovalchuk for the Maurice "Rocket '' Richard Trophy (as League leader in goals scored).
In the 2004 off - season, the NHL Players ' Association (NHLPA) and NHL administration failed to renew their collective bargaining agreement. September 14, 2004, marked the beginning of the lockout of the 2004 -- 05 season. No games were played and the Stanley Cup was not awarded for the first time since the flu epidemic of 1919. An agreement was made on July 13, 2005, and the lockout officially ended nine days later on July 22, 2005.
In the summer of 2005, rugged Colorado Avalanche defenseman Adam Foote agreed to a three - year deal with the team. Heading into the 2005 -- 06 season, it appeared the Blue Jackets would finally take the next step and make the playoffs. Instead, injuries to Rick Nash, Rostislav Klesla and Gilbert Brule, the team 's 2005 first - round pick, led to the team putting up a dismal 9 -- 25 -- 1 record through its first 35 games. Superstar Sergei Fedorov was acquired from the Anaheim Mighty Ducks; Anaheim received Tyler Wright and François Beauchemin, and later claimed Todd Marchant off waivers. While again failing to make the playoffs, Columbus did manage to improve. They had the best overtime record in the NHL (14 -- 4) and finished the season with franchise records for wins (35) and points (74). For the first time ever, they earned a third - place finish in the Central Division, behind Detroit and Nashville.
The 2006 -- 07 season saw several changes made to the team. In the off - season, Marc Denis was dealt to the Tampa Bay Lightning for forward Fredrik Modin and goaltending prospect Fredrik Norrena, making way for Pascal Leclaire to take the starting job. The Blue Jackets also signed Anson Carter when it looked as if Nikolay Zherdev would be playing the season in Russia; in late September, however, Zherdev and General Manager Doug MacLean were able to reach a compromise. Partway through the season, on November 13, 2006, Gerard Gallant was relieved of his duties as head coach. The next day, Gary Agnew was named his interim replacement. On November 22, Ken Hitchcock, former coach of the Dallas Stars and Philadelphia Flyers, was named the new head coach, effective the following day. Under Hitchcock 's first year, two milestones were set: on December 10, 2006, the Blue Jackets scored a team - record five power - play goals in a 6 -- 2 win over the Ottawa Senators, and on April 3, 2007, the Blue Jackets broke the modern - day record for most times being shut - out in a season (16) with a 3 -- 0 loss to the Detroit Red Wings.
On April 18, 2007, Doug MacLean, the team 's first general manager and president, was fired after nine years and six seasons at the helm without a playoff berth. Mike Priest, President of Blue Jackets parent company JMAC, Inc., was named President of the club, while Assistant General Manager Jim Clark served as general manager until the Blue Jackets named Edmonton Oilers Assistant General Manager Scott Howson as the new general manager on June 15, 2007. On October 4, 2007, the Blue Jackets announced their affiliation with the Elmira Jackals, which replaced their former affiliation with the Dayton Bombers as the club 's ECHL affiliate.
The 2007 -- 08 season, the club 's first full season under Hitchcock, started off well as the Jackets got off to their best start in franchise history, starting with a 4 -- 0 shutout of the defending Stanley Cup champion Anaheim Ducks. At the trade deadline on February 26, 2008, however, apparently unable to agree on a new contract and amid some controversy, Blue Jackets captain Adam Foote requested a trade to the Colorado Avalanche, which was granted. The Blue Jackets received a pair of conditional picks in return. A few weeks later, on March 12, 2008, former Blue Jackets number - one draft pick Rick Nash was named the new team captain. Despite this, Columbus managed its best season record to date, staying above a. 500 game wins average until the very last game of the season and finishing fourth in the Central Division with 80 points. After the season, Nash was announced as the cover player for the NHL 2K9 video game by Take - Two Interactive.
At the 2008 NHL Entry Draft, the Blue Jackets selected Nikita Filatov with the sixth overall pick. They also traded away the 19th overall pick (acquired from the Colorado Avalanche in exchange for Adam Foote) for R.J. Umberger. The Blue Jackets made many trades in the 2008 off - season. Gilbert Brule was traded to the Edmonton Oilers for Raffi Torres. Enigmatic forward Nikolay Zherdev and Dan Fritsche were traded to the New York Rangers in exchange for defensemen Fedor Tyutin and Christian Backman. The Blue Jackets also signed free agents Kristian Huselius and Mike Commodore to multi-year contracts. On July 9, 2008, the Blue Jackets announced they signed Hitchcock to a three - year extension to remain as head coach.
During the 2008 -- 09 season, the Blue Jackets made two trades which greatly played to their benefit. Forward Jason Williams was acquired from the Atlanta Thrashers in exchange for defenseman Clay Wilson and a sixth - round draft pick. The Blue Jackets were also involved with the first major deal of the 2009 NHL trade deadline, by trading goaltender Pascal Leclaire and a second - round draft pick to the Ottawa Senators for skilled center Antoine Vermette. The changes in scenery benefited both players and the Jackets; Williams scored 28 points in his first 36 games as a Jacket, while Vermette scored 11 points in his first 14 games with the team. Rick Nash scored 79 points throughout the season, setting a franchise record.
On April 8, 2009, the Columbus Blue Jackets secured the first Stanley Cup playoff berth in the franchise 's eight - year history with a 4 -- 3 shootout win over the Chicago Blackhawks. However, they were swept in the first round by the Detroit Red Wings in four games, and would not qualify for the playoffs for the next four seasons. With 21 games remaining and sitting four points out of eighth in the Western Conference, the Blue Jackets dealt long time defenseman Rostislav Klesla and Dane Byers to the Phoenix Coyotes in exchange for Scottie Upshall and Sami Lepisto at the trade deadline on February 28, 2011.
In the 2011 off - season, in an attempt to make a serious playoff run, the Blue Jackets traded Jakub Voracek, their 2011 first round pick (Sean Couturier) and a third round pick (Nick Cousins) to the Philadelphia Flyers for All - Star center Jeff Carter. They also signed several free agents: James Wisniewski, Vaclav Prospal and Radek Martinek. However, after a disastrous start to the 2011 -- 12 season that saw the firing of head coach Scott Arniel, Carter was traded to the Los Angeles Kings for Jack Johnson and a conditional first round pick after playing just 39 games with the Blue Jackets. The Blue Jackets also traded veteran centers Antoine Vermette and Samuel Pahlsson for goaltender Curtis McElhinney and several draft picks at the trade deadline. There was also heavy speculation that captain Rick Nash would be traded at the deadline. Although Nash was n't traded, General Manager Scott Howson publicly announced that he had privately requested a trade, a move that has stirred up much controversy. Nash was eventually traded to the New York Rangers on July 23, 2012, for Brandon Dubinsky, Artem Anisimov, prospect Tim Erixon and a 2013 first - round draft pick. At the 2012 NHL Entry Draft, the Blue Jackets traded their second and fourth round picks to the Philadelphia Flyers for the eventual winner of the 2013 Vezina Trophy, goaltender Sergei Bobrovsky.
The 2012 -- 13 lockout and season saw changes to the executive and front office of the organization. John Davidson was named as president of hockey operations for the Blue Jackets on October 24. On February 12, Scott Howson was relieved of his duties as general manager. Jarmo Kekalainen, who had previously worked with Davidson in St. Louis, was hired away from Jokerit of the Finnish SM - liiga to be the new general manager becoming the first European born general manager in the NHL. The Blue Jackets then traded for All - Star forward Marián Gáborík. The Blue Jackets just missed the playoffs via a tiebreaker against the Minnesota Wild, who had more regulation and overtime wins (ROW).
The Blue Jackets moved into the Metropolitan Division of the Eastern Conference in the 2013 -- 14 season after spending its first 13 seasons in the Central Division of the Western Conference. The other teams in the Metropolitan Division consist of the Carolina Hurricanes, New Jersey Devils, New York Islanders, New York Rangers, Philadelphia Flyers, Pittsburgh Penguins and Washington Capitals, the latter six of which once composed the old Patrick Division. On April 9, 2014, the Blue Jackets clinched their second playoff spot in franchise history by winning a 3 -- 1 game against the Dallas Stars. This game was also noted for being a game resumed after being postponed on March 10, 2014, due to Rich Peverley 's cardiac event in which the Blue Jackets led 1 -- 0. The NHL decided to keep the goal scored by Nathan Horton and resumed the game with a full 60 minutes. Nathan Horton made history by being credited for scoring a goal while not suiting up for the game.
The Blue Jackets faced the Pittsburgh Penguins in the first round (Eastern Conference Quarter - finals) of the 2014 Stanley Cup playoffs. This series had a trend that was noted for making 3 -- 1 leads end up as 4 -- 3 loss. Game 1 and 2 were at the Consol Energy Center in downtown Pittsburgh. The Blue Jackets made a large jump in history when Jack Johnson scored the first goal of the game. This was the first time in franchise history that Columbus ever lead a post-season game. The Jackets lead the game 3 -- 1 at one point from goals by Mark Letestu and Derek MacKenzie. However, the Penguins rallied to win it 4 -- 3. Game 2 was the opposite. Pittsburgh led 3 -- 1 at one point, but Columbus rallied to win Game 2 4 -- 3 by an overtime goal from Matt Calvert. This was the first playoff victory in franchise history. Pittsburgh won Game 3 by a score of 4 -- 3. Game 4 was a memorable night at Nationwide Arena. Columbus was down 3 -- 0, and 3 -- 1 by the end of the first period. Boone Jenner and Ryan Johansen scored to make it 3 -- 2 by the end of the second period. Brandon Dubinsky scored the game tying goal with 22.5 seconds left in regulation, after a miss - play with the puck by Marc - Andre Fleury. Nick Foligno went on to score the game - winning goal in overtime. In the locker room during intermission, he supposedly told the team that he will score the game winner. Pittsburgh, however, went on to win the next two games and took the best - of - seven series in six games.
The 2014 -- 15 season was most notable for the amount of injuries the Jackets incurred. The Jackets lead the league in man games lost with 502. At one point, the injured reserve list consisted of 15 players, including stars Sergei Bobrovsky, Brandon Dubinsky, Jack Johnson, and Ryan Murray. When the team 's injured players began to return in late February, they were able to accumulate wins the way they had the previous two seasons and in the process, set a franchise record earning nine consecutive wins. However, the Blue Jackets still finished fifth in the Metropolitan Division and missed the playoffs by nine points despite a 42 - 35 - 5 record. On May 20, 2015, Nick Foligno was named the sixth captain in team history. The position had been vacant since Rick Nash was traded to the New York Rangers in July 2012. On June 30, 2015, the Jackets traded centers Marko Dano and Artem Anisimov, along with wingers Jeremy Morin and Corey Tropp, to the Chicago Blackhawks for Brandon Saad. This move was the subject of much controversy in Chicago since Blackhawks General Manager Stan Bowman had publicly said that Saad was going to be a part of the organization for many years to come. The Jackets also acquired Michael Paliotta and Alex Broadhurst in the trade. The Jackets signed center Gregory Campbell from the Boston Bruins a few days later.
The Blue Jackets initially went into the 2015 -- 16 season with high expectations. However, the team got off to an inauspicious start by losing their first eight regular season games in regulation. This prompted the Jackets to fire head coach Todd Richards and hire John Tortorella in his place. On January 6, 2016, the Blue Jackets traded Ryan Johansen to the Nashville Predators in exchange for defenseman Seth Jones. The Blue Jackets record at the end of the season was 34 -- 40 -- 8, and were ranked 27th overall in the NHL. They closed out the season on a high note, however, as they won the season finale against the defending Stanley Cup champion Blackhawks, overcoming a 3 -- 0 deficit after the 1st period to win 5 -- 4 in overtime.
The Blue Jackets set three franchise records during the 2016 -- 17 season. On November 4, 2016, the Blue Jackets scored a franchise - record ten goals in a 10 -- 0 shutout win against the Montreal Canadiens, becoming the first team to do so since 2011 (when the St. Louis Blues beat the Detroit Red Wings 10 -- 3). In mid-November, the Blue Jackets got a franchise record seventh consecutive win at home. During a franchise - record 16 - game win streak that started in late November, Tortorella recorded his 500th career win in a 4 -- 3 Blue Jackets overtime win on the road against the Vancouver Canucks, becoming the first American - born head coach to reach 500 wins. The team had a record of 14 -- 0 -- 0 in December. The team 's win streak ended in early January when they lost 5 -- 0 to the Washington Capitals. The win streak was the second longest in NHL history behind the 1992 -- 93 Pittsburgh Penguins ' 17 consecutive games. The team finished with a record of 50 -- 24 -- 8 and 108 points, setting a franchise record.
During the first round of the 2017 playoffs, the Blue Jackets were placed in a matchup against the Pittsburgh Penguins. The team lost three straight games to begin the series, but won the fourth game to save themselves from elimination. This game in which they won 5 - 4 marked the Blue Jackets first regulation win in the Stanley Cup Playoffs. Despite this, they would ultimately lose the series in five games. In the following off - season, on June 23, 2017, the Jackets made another deal with the Blackhawks sending Brandon Saad back to Chicago for Artemi Panarin and Tyler Motte.
The Blue Jackets returned to the playoffs in 2018 as a wild card qualifier, going in back - to - back years for the first time. There they faced the Metropolitan Division champion Washington Capitals in the first round, winning the first two games in overtime and their first series lead. However, they lost the next four games and the series in six games.
The name "Blue Jackets '' was chosen to celebrate "patriotism, pride, and the rich Civil War history in the state of Ohio and city of Columbus. '' When President Abraham Lincoln requested that Ohio raise ten regiments at the outbreak of the Civil War, the state responded by raising a total of 23 volunteer infantry regiments for three months of service. Ohio also produced a number of great Civil War figures, including William Tecumseh Sherman, Ulysses S. Grant, Philip Sheridan and George Custer. Columbus itself was host to large military bases, Camp Chase and Camp Thomas, which saw hundreds of thousands of Union soldiers and thousands of Confederate prisoners during the Civil War.
The team logo is a stylized version of the flag of Ohio, which is a burgee (i.e. swallowtail pennant), in the form of a "C '' wrapped around a star, representing both patriotism and Columbus ' status as state capital. Previously used as an alternate logo starting in 2003, it became the primary logo as part of a Reebok - sponsored redesign for the 2007 -- 08 season. The original logo had a red ribbon with 13 stars representing the 13 Colonies, unfurled in the shape of the team 's initials, CBJ, with an electric gold hockey stick cutting through the center to represent the "J. '' An additional star atop the stick represented Columbus ' status as state capital. From 2003 to 2015, the team 's jerseys featured an alternate logo, a Civil War cap with crossed hockey sticks, on the shoulders.
The Blue Jackets unveiled a new third jersey in the 2010 -- 11 season, using a vintage hockey jersey design. In the spirit of its Civil War theme, it sports a union blue base with white stripes on the sleeves and on the shoulder padding. The crest features the team 's Civil War - era cannon. It honors the team 's founder, John H. McConnell, with his initials on the neckline, as well as its slogan "We fight, we march! '' on the inside of the collar. During the 2015 NHL Draft, it was revealed that the cannon crest had replaced the hat logo on the shoulders of the home and away jerseys, with a color change to match the jerseys ' color scheme.
Prior to the start of the 2007 -- 08 season, the Blue Jackets organization brought a hand - made replica 1857 Napoleon cannon into Nationwide Arena. The cannon is "fired '' at home games whenever:
It was fired 164 times in its inaugural season (41 home games, 20 home victories, 103 goals scored at home). When the Blue Jackets score a goal, the title line of "For Those About to Rock (We Salute You) '' by AC / DC is played when the cannon is fired followed by the chorus of "The Whip '' by Locksley.
On Fox Sports Ohio, Jeff Rimer serves as the television play - by - play announcer alongside former Blue Jacket Jody Shelley providing color analysis. Rimer started calling games on television in 2005 with Shelley joining Rimer in 2014 -- 15 replacing previous analyst Bill Davidge. Blue Jackets Live, the televised pre-game, intermission and post-game shows are hosted by Davidge and Brian Giesenschlag. In - game reporting is provided by Dave Maetzold.
On radio stations WBNS - FM (flagship), WBNS, WWCD, and 34 other affiliates in Ohio and West Virginia, Bob McElligott provides play - by - play coverage. McElligott joined the Blue Jackets radio broadcast in July 2009 as a color analyst and became the play - by - play analyst for the 2013 -- 14 season, taking over for George Matthews who had been calling Blue Jackets games since the team 's inception in 2000. McElligott, along with Ryan Mitchell, hosts the pre-game and post-game radio shows. Fans can interact by e-mail and Twitter with the McElligott and Mitchell during and after the game.
Stinger is the official mascot of the Blue Jackets. Stinger is a 6 - foot 9 inch bright green bug that walks amongst the crowd during the games and skates on the ice between periods while wearing a Blue Jackets ' jersey. Stinger was originally yellow, but was changed to green, eventually mixing with the team 's blue. The image of Stinger was on the original Blue Jackets ' jerseys, eventually being removed in 2003. The team also had another mascot, an anthropomorphic cannon named Boomer, for half of the 2010 -- 11 season.
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Blue Jackets. For the full season - by - season history, see List of Columbus Blue Jackets seasons
Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime Losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against
Updated April 23, 2018
Maurice "Rocket '' Richard Trophy
Vezina Trophy
Calder Memorial Trophy
King Clancy Memorial Trophy
Jack Adams Award
Mark Messier Leadership Award
NHL Foundation Player Award
NHL First All - Star Team
NHL Second All - Star Team
NHL All - Rookie Team
These are the top ten point - scorers in franchise history as of the 2017 -- 18 season.
See also: "Columbus Blue Jackets ' Record Book '' (PDF). (533 KB)
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who is performing at the olympic closing ceremony | 2018 Winter Olympics closing ceremony - wikipedia
The closing ceremony of the 2018 Winter Olympics took place at Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium in Pyeongchang County, South Korea, on 25 February 2018 at 20: 00 KST (UTC + 9).
The flag bearers of 92 National Olympic Committees arrived into the Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium. The flag bearers from each participating country entered the stadium informally in single file, ordered by ganada order of the Korean alphabet, and behind them marched all the athletes, without any distinction or grouping by nationality. Marching alongside the athletes were Soohorang, the Pyeongchang 2018 Olympic mascot, and Hodori, mascot of the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul.
First, the Greek flag was raised while its anthem played. The Olympic flag was then lowered and passed, by the mayor of Pyeongchang County, Shim Jae - kook, to IOC President, Thomas Bach, who then handed it over to the mayor of Beijing, Chen Jining. This was then followed by the raising of the flag of China, and the playing of its anthem. The flag will be raised again in Tokyo, Japan, for the opening ceremony of the 2020 Summer Olympics on 24 July 2020.
Beijing, the host city of the 2022 Winter Olympic Games, presented a special performance See you in Beijing in 2022 directed by Chinese film director Zhang Yimou, who also presented the 2008 Summer Olympics opening and closing ceremonies. The presentation featured two pandas skating and people forming red lines that became a dragon, as pandas and dragons are national icons for China. The skaters also trail lines to form the emblem of the games. China 's Paramount leader Xi Jinping made a cameo appearance by video expressing the welcome message on behalf of the Chinese people.
IOC President Thomas Bach formally closed the games, calling them ' The Games of New Horizons. ' Soon after, the cauldron was extinguished.
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what type of music do they listen to in mexico | Music of Mexico - wikipedia
The music of Mexico is very diverse and features a wide range of musical genres and performance styles. It has been influenced by a variety of cultures, most notably the culture of the indigenous peoples of Mexico and Europe.
Many traditional Mexican songs are well - known worldwide, including María Grever 's first international hit "Júrame '' ("Swear to me ''), and her song "Te quiero dijiste '' (English version "Magic Is the Moonlight ''), written for the 1944 Esther Williams film. "La Noche de los Mayas, '' Huapango de Moncayo, "Sinfonía India (Second Symphony), '' "Sobre las Olas, '' "La Sandunga, '' "Cielito Lindo '' ("Beautiful Sweetheart ''), "Bésame Mucho '' ("Kiss Me a Lot ''), "Perfidia '', "Solamente una vez '' (English version "You Belong to My Heart ''), "Esta Tarde Vi Llover '' (English version "Yesterday I Heard the Rain ''), "Somos Novios '' (English version "It 's Impossible ''), "¡ Ay, Jalisco, no te rajes! '', and "Jesusita en Chihuahua, ''
Other famous songs include "México Lindo y Querido '' ("Beautiful, Beloved Mexico ''), "Jarabe Tapatío ' (known internationally as "The Mexican Hat Dance ''), "El Rey '' ("The King ''), "El Triste '' ("The sad one ''), "Pelea de gallos '', "Enamorada '' ("Enamoured ''), "Échame a mi la culpa '' ("Blame me ''), "La ley del monte '' ("The law of the land ''), "La Bikina '' ("The Bikina ''), "Por Debajo de la Mesa, '' "La Media Vuelta, '' "La Bamba, '' ("The Bamba ''), "Lilongo, '' and "Jarabe Pateño ''. "La Cucaracha '' ("The Cockroach ''), although popularized during the Mexican Revolution, is a Mexican corrido.
Mexican traditional folk music can be classified in two aspects:
Its formal structure is based on the alternation of instrumental sections and the singing of short poetic units called coplas. The mode is usually major, with harmonic vocabulary mostly limited to progressions drawing from I, IV, II7, V and V5. Triple meter (6 / 8, 3 / 4, or a combination of both) predominates, with many exceptions in duple meter.
Son is performed most often by giant ensembles in which string instruments predominate, with notable region - specific exceptions like marimba ensembles and wind ensembles.
Mexican Son music developed from the mixing of Spanish music with indigenous music of different regions, hence the music exhibited much variation across the country, in rhythm, melody, and instrumentation. Mariachi can be considered one type of Mexican son. Mexican son also includes various miscellaneous styles. The guitar is universally present in nearly all Mexican son subgenres. Other instruments may include trumpets, violins, and accordions.
Corrido music is a popular narrative song of poetry form, a ballad. Various themes are featured in Mexican corridos, and corrido lyrics are often old legends (stories) and ballads about a famed criminal or hero in the rural frontier areas of Mexico. Some corridos may also be love stories there are also corridos about women (La Venganza de Maria, Laurita Garza, La tragedia de Rosita and la adelita) and couples, not just about men. Some even talk about fiction or a made - up story by the composer. Contemporary corridos written within the past few decades feature more modern themes such as drug trafficking (narcocorridos) and immigration.
A common example is la Cucaracha, which derives from an Arabic sailors ' song from the Moors from before the Reconquista. The corrido has a rhythm similar to that of the European waltz; corridos, like rancheras, have introductory instrumental music and adornos interrupting the stanzas of the lyrics. However, unlike rancheras, the rhythm of a corrido remains fairly consistent, rancheras can be played at a variety of rhythms. Corridos often tell stories, while rancheras are for dancing.
Ensemble specialized in Son Jarocho. It consists of jarana jarocha, requinto jarocho, arpa, pandero.
Ensemble specialized in Son Huasteco. It consists of guitarra huapanguera, jarana huasteca, violin.
Ensemble specialized in folk music of traditional marimba. It consists of marimba, double bass and drums.
Mariachi is an ensemble that consists of guitarrón, vihuela, guitar, violins and trumpets.
This folk ensemble performs ranchera, son de mariachi, huapango de mariachi, polka, corrido, and other musical forms. It originated in the southern part of the state of Jalisco during the 19th century. The city of Guadalajara in Jalisco is known as the "Capital of Mariachi ''. The style is now popular throughout Mexico and the Southwestern United States, and is considered representative of Mexican music and culture.
This style of music is played by a group consisting of five or more musicians who wear charro suits. The golden age of mariachi was in the 1950s, when the ranchera style was common in movies. Mariachi Vargas played for many of these soundtracks, and the long - lived band 's long career and popular acclaim has made it one of the best - known mariachi. These movies became very popular in Latin America and mariachi 's became very popular in places such as Colombia and Peru until this date.
There are different theories as to the provenance of the word mariachi. Some say it comes from the French word mariage because it was the type of music often played at weddings and by most folk people by the name of Evan Strout. However, mariachi originates from a part of Mexico that the French never visited and, even it they had, it began before their arrival in 1864. Another theory is that the word comes from the indigenous name of the Pilla or Cirimo tree, whose wood is used to make guitars. It has also been said that the name comes from a festival in honor of a virgin known as Maria H. that musicians played for and that over time they were given this name.
The traditional mariachi band consists of the violin, the vihuela, guitar, a guitarrón (large bass guitar) and a trumpet. Other instruments may also be seen in a mariachi band, such as the flute, French horn, accordion, or organ are used. These instruments are used for specific arrangements.
Mexican music was popularized in the United States in the late 1970s as part of a revival of mariachi music led by performers like Linda Ronstadt. Other famous mariachi performers include Pedro Infante, Vicente Fernández, Pepe Aguilar, Pedro Fernández, Alejandro Fernández, Antonio Aguilar, and Miguel Aceves Mejía. Some of the best - known examples of Mexican music in the United States is "La Cucaracha '' and the Jarabe Tapatío (called the Mexican Hat Dance in the United States).
In Mexico City, the center of mariachi music remains Garibaldi Plaza. The plaza fills with mariachi musicians to solicit gigs from individual songs for passers - by to being hired for events such as weddings and baptisms. They even stand on Eje Central in front of the plaza to flag down passing cars. In 2010, the government renovated the plaza to make it more tourist - friendly, adding new paving, gardens, police, security cameras, painted facades, and a museum dedicated to mariachi and tequila. Although mariachis can be hired in Mexico City over the phone or on the internet, many people still prefer to come to the plaza, hear the musicians and haggle over the price. About 2,500 mariachis hold union cards to work in the plaza, but as many as 4,000 may circulate through on a busy weekend.
In 2011 UNESCO recognized the music as an Intangible Cultural Heritage, joining six others of this list from Mexico.
Ensemble specialized in norteño music. It consists of diatonic accordion, bajo sexto, double bass and drums. Another important music style is musica norteña, from northern Mexico, which has been the basis for such subgenres as musica de banda. Musica Norteña, like musica Tejana, arose in the 1830s and 40s in the Rio Grande region, in the southern Texas. Influenced by both Bohemian music and immigrant miners, its rhythm was derived from European polkas, which were popular during the 1800s. This type of Mexican music has derived from singers like Los Relámpagos del Norte, Ramon Ayala, Los Tigres del Norte, Los Huracanes del Norte and many more.
Banda music was made with the imitation of military bands that were imported during the Second Mexican Empire, headed by emperor Maximilian I of Mexico in the 1860s. Banda sounds very similar to polka music. Polish immigrants established themselves in the state of Sinaloa. It was further popularized during the Mexican Revolution when local authorities and states formed their own bands to play in the town squares.
Revolutionary leaders like Pancho Villa, also took wind bands with them wherever they went. Banda has to this day remained popular throughout the central and northern states. It has, however, diversified into different styles due to regions, instruments and modernization. Today people associate banda with Sinaloense. This originated in the 1940s when the media distributed Banda el Recodo repertoire as exclusively from Sinaloa when it was actually regional music from all over Mexico.
Although banda music is played by many bands from different parts of Mexico, its original roots are in Sinaloa, made popular by bands such as Banda el Recodo from Sinaloa.
Banda Sinaloense experienced international popularity in the 1990s. The most prominent band was Banda el Recodo. Unlike tamborazo Zacatecano, Sinaloense 's essential instrument is the tuba. Sometimes an accordion is also included. Some well - known artists are Banda el Recodo, La Arrolladora Banda El Limón de René Camacho, Banda Los Recoditos, Banda Cuisillos, Joan Sebastian, Chalino Sánchez, El Chapo de Sinaloa, Banda Machos and although the Regional Mexican genre is dominated by men Jenni Rivera has a more important place than many men in this genre
Tamborazo Zacatecano ("drum - beat from Zacatecas '') is a banda style traditionally played by two trumpets, two saxophones, and the al bass drum. An outstanding example is La Marcha de Zacatecas (The March of Zacatecas) by Genaro Codina Fernández, the anthem of the State of Zacatecas and considered the second national anthem of Mexico.
Duranguense (also known as pasito duranguense) is a genre of Mexican music. It is popular among the Mexican - American community in the United States. Duranguense is closely related to the Mexican styles of banda and norteño. The main instruments, which are held over from banda, are the saxophone, trombone, and bass drum. However, what sets the duranguense ensemble apart from banda is the addition of synthesizers to play both melodies and the tuba bassline. The tempo is also noticeably faster than banda or norteño. Among the duranguense elements carried over from other genres is el tamborazo; a heavy percussion line consisting of the bass drum and varied snare drum rolls.
Grupera (or onda grupera) is a genre of Mexican popular music. It is influenced by the styles of cumbia, norteño, and ranchera, and reached the height of its popularity in the 1980s, especially in rural areas.
The music has roots in the rock groups of the 1960s but today generally consists of five or fewer musicians using electric guitars, keyboards and drums. Artists in this genre include Yonics, Los Humildes, La Migra, Los Caminantes, Limite, Ana Bárbara, Joan Sebastian, Selena, Marco Antonio Solís, Myriam, and Jenni Rivera. The music increased in popularity in the 1990s and became commercially viable, and is now recognized in some Latin music awards ceremonies such as Lo Nuestro and The Latin Grammy Awards.
The original wave of Mexican rock bands got their start mostly with Spanish covers of popular English rock songs. After this initial stage they moved on to include in their repertoire traditional ranchera songs, in addition to cumbia, and ballads. Thus the 1970s saw the rise of a number of grupera bands that specialized in slow ballads and songs that up to that point had only been sung with mariachi. Among these we can include Los Muecas, Los Freddys, Los Babys, La Migra, etc.
During the 1960s and 1970s most of the pop music produced in Mexico consisted of Spanish - language versions of English - language rock - and - roll hits. Singers and musical groups like Sin Bandera, Angélica María, Johnny Laboriel, Alberto Vázquez, Enrique Guzmán or Los Teen Tops performed cover versions of songs by Elvis Presley, Paul Anka, Nancy Sinatra and others.
The Mexican music market serves as a launching pad to stardom for many non-Mexican artists who are interested extending the market - range of their music. For the last thirty years, Mexican pop music has been led by teen pop bands and their former members. Specially teen pop bands of the last decades have been Timbiriche, OV7 and RBD. Unlike teen pop bands elsewhere, the Mexican audience tends to prefer mixed - gender combos over boys or girls bands.
In 2000, the century saw the crossover of some of Mexican recording artist like Paulina Rubio and Thalía into the English music industry, with bilingual albums, compilation album, that included hit songs in English and Spanish language, and the firsts solo English - language albums by this Mexican pop artist. The best recording crossover artist has been Paulina Rubio with her first English - language album being Border Girl released on June 18, 2002. Thalia has collaborated with American singer of traditional pop standards Tony Bennett in a duet for the song "The Way You Look Tonight ''. Viva Duets is the studio album by Tony Bennett, released in October 2012. It consists of electronically assembled duets between Bennett and younger singers from various genres like Frank Sinatras "Duets II ''. In Duets II, Sinatra personally invited Luis Miguel to participate on a duet in the album for the song "Come Fly with Me ''. Luis Miguel has been dubbed several times by the press and the media as the "Latin Frank Sinatra ''.
The best - known Mexican pop singers are Lynda Thomas, Thalía, Paulina Rubio, Luis Miguel, Belinda Peregrín, Alejandro Fernández, Natalia Lafourcade, Alejandra Guzmán, Ana Gabriel, Gloria Trevi, Fey and Marco Antonio Solís.
The Mexican rock movement started in the late 1940s and early 1960s, rapidly becoming popular, and peaking in the 1969 and 1990s with real authentic sounds and styles. One of the early Mexican rock bands came out of the predominantly Mexican barrio community of East Los Angeles, "Los Nómadas '' (The Nomads). They were the first racially integrated Rock and Roll band of the 1950s, consisting of 3 Mestizo boys, Chico Vasquez, Jose ' J.D. ' Moreno, Abel Padilla, and a Caucasian boy Bill Aken (Billy Mayorga Aken).
The adopted son of classical guitarist Francisco Mayorga and Mexican movie actress Lupe Mayorga, Aken was mentored by family friend, jazz guitarist Ray Pohlman and would later become rocker Zane Ashton, arranging music and playing lead guitar for everybody from Elvis to Nina Simone. His association with the other three boys would be a lifelong one and they stayed together as a band for more than thirty years. Mexican Rock combined the traditional instruments and stories of Mexico in its songs. Mexican and Latin American rock en español remain very popular in Mexico, surpassing other cultural interpretations of rock and roll, including British rock.
In the 1960s and ' 70s, during the PRI government, most rock bands were forced to appear underground, that was the time after Avándaro (a Woodstock - style Mexican festival) in which groups like El Tri, Enigma, The Dugs Dugs, Javier Batiz and many others arose. During that time Mexican Carlos Santana became famous after performing at Woodstock. During the 80s Nar Mattaru formed in 1995 in Monterrey. N.L. and 90s many Mexican bands went to the surface and popular rock bands like Santa Sabina, Café Tacuba, Caifanes, Control Machete, Fobia, Los de Abajo, Molotov, Maná, Ely Guerra, Julieta Venegas and Maldita Vecindad achieved a large international following.
The latter are "grandfathers '' to the Latin ska movement. Mexico City has also a considerable movement of bands playing surf rock inspired in their outfits by local show - sport lucha libre. In the late 1990s, Mexico had a new wave "resurgence '' of rock music with bands like Jumbo, Zoé, Porter, etc., as well as instrumentalists Rodrigo y Gabriela and Los Jaigüey the band of Santa Sabina 's bass player, Poncho Figueroa, along with brothers Gustavo Jacob & Ricardo Jacob in the late 2000s.
Extreme metal has been popular for a long time in Mexico, with bands such as Dilemma, Exanime formed in 1985 in Monterrey. N.L. The Chasm, Xiuhtecuhtli, Disgorge, Brujeria, Transmetal, Hacavitz, Sargatanas, Mictlayotl, Yaoyotl, Ereshkigal, Xibalba, and Calvarium Funestus. The Mexican metal fanbase is credited with being amongst one of the most lively and intense, and favorites for European metal bands to perform for.
Alejandra Guzmán 's 26 years of artistic career, with more than 10 million albums sold, 16 released albums and 30 singles in radio 's Top 10 hits, has earned her the title of La Reina del Rock (The Queen of Rock). She is the daughter of two Latin entertainment legends: movie icon Silvia Pinal and rock and roll legend Enrique Guzmán, from whom she inherits her talent and passion for arts, music, dance and constant spiritual growth.
An eclectic range of influences is at the heart of Latin alternative, a music created by young players who have been raised not only on their parents ' music but also on rock, hip - hop and electronica. It represents a sonic shift away from regionalism and points to a new global Latin identity.
The name "Latin alternative '' was coined in the late 1990s by American record company executives as a way to sell music that was - literally -- all over the map. It was marketed as an alternative to the slick, highly produced Latin pop that dominated commercial Spanish - language radio, such as Ricky Martin or Paulina Rubio.
Artists within the genre, such as Maldita Vecindad y los Hijos del Quinto Patio, Nortec Collective and Café Tacuba, have set out to defy traditional expectations of Latin music.
Ska entered Mexico in the 1960s, when both small bands like Los Matemáticos and big orchestras like Orquestra de Pablo Beltrán Ruíz recorded both original ska tunes and covers of Jaimacan hits. After early new wave bands of the early eighties like Dangerous Rhythm and Kenny and the Electrics incorporated ska into their post-punk sound, a more punk - influenced brand of Ska started being produced in Mexico City in the late eighties, and the genre enjoyed its highest popularity during the early 2000s, even though it is still very popular today. Mexican Ska groups include Panteón Rococó (Mexico City), La Maldita Vecindad (Mexico City), Mama Pulpa (Mexico City) and Tijuana No! (Tijuana, Baja California; originally named Radio Chantaje).
Some of the best Mexican composers for electronic and electroacoustic media are Javier Torres Maldonado, Murcof and Manuel Rocha Iturbide, the later conducting festivals and workshops of experimental music and art, in Mexico City and Paris. Some exponents are Nortec Collective, Wakal, Kobol (band), Murcof, Hocico & Deorro and Mexican Institute of Sound.
Other popular forms of music found in various parts of Mexico -- mostly with origins in other parts of the Caribbean and Latin America include rumba, mambo, bolero, and cumbia. Rumba came from the black Mexican slaves in Veracruz, Mexico City, and Yucatán. The style began in Cuba and later became famous in the black community of Mexico. From the beginning of the 20th century, bolero arrived to Yucatán, and Danzón to Veracruz. Both styles became very popular all over the country, and a Mexican style of both rhythms was developed.
In the 1940s, the Cubans Pérez Prado, Benny Moré emigrated to Mexico, they brought with them the mambo, which became extremely popular especially in Mexico City, later on mambo developed into Cha cha chá, which was also popular.
The Cuban bolero has traveled to Mexico and the rest of Latin America after its conception, where it became part of their repertoires. Some of the bolero 's leading composers have come from nearby countries, most especially the prolific Puerto Rican composer Rafael Hernández; another example is Mexico 's Agustín Lara. Some Cuban composers of the bolero are listed under Trova. Some successful Mexican bolero composers are María Grever, Gonzalo Curiel Barba, Gabriel Ruiz, and Consuelo Velázquez.
Another composer Armando Manzanero widely considered the premier Mexican romantic composer of the postwar era and one of the most successful composers of Latin America has composed more than four hundred songs, fifty of which have given him international fame. His most famous songs include Voy a apagar la luz (I 'm Going to Turn Off the Lights), Contigo Aprendí (With you I Learnt...), Adoro (Adore), No sé tú (I do n't know if you...), Por Debajo de la Mesa (Under the Table) Esta Tarde Vi Llover (English version "Yesterday I Heard the Rain ''), Somos Novios (English version "It 's Impossible ''), Felicidad (Happiness) and Nada Personal (Nothing Personal).
Some renowned trios románticos were Trio Los Panchos, Los Tres Ases, Los Tres Diamantes and Los Dandys. Trio Bolero, a unique ensemble of two guitars and one cello.
The Latin or romantic ballad has its origin in the Latin American bolero in 50 years (Lucho Kitten, Leo Marini), but also in the romantic song in Italian (Nicola Di Bari) and French (Charles Aznavour) in years 60 and 70.
The ethnomusicologist Daniel Party defines the romantic ballad as "a love song of slow tempo, played by a solo singer accompanied by an orchestra usually ''.
The ballad and bolero are often confused and songs can fall in one or the other category without too much presicion. The distinction between them is referring primarily to a more sophisticated and more metaphorical language and subtle bolero, compared with a more direct expression of the ballad.
In Mexico, the first ballad that is registered as such is "Sonata de Amor '' (Sonata of Love) of Mario Alvarez in 1961. In 1965 the famous bolero singer - songwriter Armando Manzanero, recorded his first ballad, "Pobres besos míos '' (My Poor Kisses).
The heyday of the ballad was reached in the mid-1970s, where artists such as José José, Camilo Sesto, Raphael, Roberto Carlos, Rocío Dúrcal and others released many hits. The main hist of José José were "El triste '' (The Sad One), "La nave del olvido '' (The Ship of Oblivion), "Te extraño '' (I Miss You), "Amar y querer '' (Love and Love), or "Gavilán o paloma '' (Pigeon or Hawk), "Lo pasado pasado '' (The Past is past), "Volcán '' (Volcano) or "Lo que no fue no será '' (What Never Was Will Never Be). In the course of their existence the genre merged with diverse rhythms to form several variants, such as romantic salsa and cumbia aside others.
From the 1990s on, globalization and media internationalization contributed to the ballad 's international spread and homogenization.
The history of Cumbia in Mexico is almost as old as Cumbia in Colombia. In the 1940s Colombian singers emigrated to Mexico, where they worked with the Mexican orquestra director Rafael de Paz. In the 1950s they recorded what many people consider to be the first cumbia recorded outside of Colombia, La Cumbia Cienaguera. He recorded other hits like Mi gallo tuerto, Caprichito, and Nochebuena. This is when Cumbia began to become popular Mexico, with Tony Camargo as one of the first exponents of Mexican Cumbia. In Mexico D.F., most people who dance to it are called "Chilangos '' -- which means people born in the main district.
In the 1970s Aniceto Molina emigrated to Mexico, where he joined the group from Guerrero, La Luz Roja de San Marcos, and recorded many popular tropical cumbias like El Gallo Mojado, El Peluquero, and La Mariscada. Also in the 70s Rigo Tovar became very popular with his fusion of Cumbia with ballad and Rock.
Today Cumbia is played in many different ways, and has slight variations depending on the geographical area like Cumbia sonidera, Cumbia andina mexicana, Cumbia Norteña, Tecno - cumbia. Popular Mexican Cumbia composers and interpreters include Rigo Tovar y su Costa Azul, Celso Piña, Los Caminantes, Grupo Bronco, and Selena.
The first opera by a Mexican - born composer was Manuel de Zumaya 's La Parténope, performed in 1711 before a private audience in the Viceroy 's Palace in Mexico City. However, the first Mexican composer to have his operas publicly staged was Manuel Arenzana, the maestro de capilla at Puebla Cathedral from 1792 to 1821. He is known to have written at least two works performed during the 1805 / 1806 season at the Teatro Coliseo in Mexico City -- El extrangero and Los dos ribales en amore. Both were short comic pieces. The first Mexican opera seria was Paniagua 's Catalina de Guisa (composed in 1845 and premiered in 1859). With its story about the Huguenots in France and an Italian libretto by Felice Romani, contemporary critics noted that the only thing Mexican about it was the composer.
Although the traditions of European opera and especially Italian opera had initially dominated the Mexican music conservatories and strongly influenced native opera composers (in both style and subject matter), elements of Mexican nationalism had already appeared by the latter part of the 19th century with operas such as Aniceto Ortega del Villar 's 1871 Guatimotzin, a romanticised account of the defense of Mexico by its last Aztec ruler, Cuauhtémoc. Later works such as Miguel Bernal Jiménez 's 1941 Tata Vasco (based on the life of Vasco de Quiroga, the first bishop of Michoacán) incorporated native melodies into the score. Ángela Peralta, known in Europe as "The Mexican Nightingale '', who sang in the premieres of operas by Paniagua, Morales, and Ortega del Villar.
Mexico has a long tradition of classical music, as far back as the 16th century, when it was a Spanish colony. Music of New Spain, especially that of Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla and Hernando Franco, is increasingly recognized as a significant contribution to New World culture.
Puebla was a significant center of music composition in the 17th century, as the city had considerable wealth and for a time was presided over by Bishop Juan de Palafox y Mendoza, who was an enthusiastic patron of music. Composers during this period included Bernardo de Peralta Escudero (mostly active around 1640), and also Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla, who was the most famous composer of the 17th century in Mexico. The construction of the cathedral in Puebla made the composition and performance of polychoral music possible, especially compositions in the Venetian polychoral style. Late in the century, Miguel Matheo de Dallo y Lana set the verse of poet Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz.
In the 18th century, Manuel de Sumaya, maestro de capilla at the cathedral in Mexico City, wrote many cantadas and villancicos, and he was the first Mexican to compose an opera, La Partenope (1711). After him, Ignacio Jerusalem, an Italian - born composer, brought some of the latest operatic styles as well as early classical (galant) styles to Mexico. His best - known composition is probably the Matins for the Virgin of Guadalupe (1764). Jerusalem was maestro de capilla at the cathedral in Mexico City after Sumaya, from 1749 until his death in 1769.
In the 19th century the waltzes of Juventino Rosas achieved world recognition. Manuel M. Ponce is recognized as an important composer for the Spanish classical guitar, responsible for widening the repertoire for this instrument. Ponce also wrote a rich repertoire for solo piano, piano and ensembles, and piano and orchestra, developing the first period of modernistic nationalism, using Native American and European resources, but merging them into a new, original style.
In the 20th century, Carlos Chávez, is a notable composer who wrote symphonies, ballets, and a wide catalog of chamber music, within varied esthetic orientations. Another recognized composer is Silvestre Revueltas who wrote such pieces as The night of the mayas, Homenaje a García Lorca, Sensemayá based on a poem by Nicolás Guillén, and orchestral suites like Janitzio and Redes originally written for motion pictures. José Pablo Moncayo with compositions such as Huapango, and Blas Galindo with Sones de Mariachi, are also recognized as adapters of Mexican sons into symphonic music. A later contributor to this tradition, Arturo Márquez is also internationally known by his orchestral mastery and melodic vivacity.
In 1922, Julián Carrillo (violinist, composer, conductor, theoretician and inventor), created the first microtonal system in the history of classical music. During subsequent years, he also developed and constructed harps and pianos able to play music in fragments of tone, like fourths, sixths, eighths and sixteenths. His pianos are still manufactured in Germany and are used to play Carrillo 's music, mainly in Europe and Mexico.
Another contemporary Mexican composer was Conlon Nancarrow (of American birth), who created a system to play pianola music, using and developing theories of politempo and polimetrics.
Some avant - garde composers leading Mexican music during the second half of the 20th century were Alicia Urreta, Manuel Enríquez, Mario Lavista Juan Antonio Rosado Rodriguez, Julio Estrada and Lucia Alvarez. Some of them also contributed to the academic development of music teaching in American universities, a work also enriched by Daniel Catán, Carlos Sanchez - Gutierrez, Guillermo Galindo, Carlos Sandoval, Ignacio Baca - Lobera, Hebert Vázquez, Ricardo Zohn - Muldoon and Samuel Zyman. In the other side of the Atlantic the composers of a new generation, * * Javier Álvarez, Ana Lara, Víctor Rasgado, Juan Trigos, Hilda Paredes, Javier Torres Maldonado, Gabriel Pareyon, and Georgina Derbez, also have contributed to the academic and artistic life.
Some major exponents are Richard Lemus, Leo Acosta, Tino Contreras, Juan García Esquivel, Luis Ocadiz, J.J. Calatayud, Arturo Castro, Chilo Morán, Popo Sánchez, and Eugenio Toussaint. Antonio Sánchez is also a very well known jazz drummer and composer from Mexico City who has been performing with some of the best known American musicians since he moved to the US in the early 90 's including Pat Metheny, Chick Corea, Michael Brecker and Gary Burton besides leading his own bands and ensembles.
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who plays chuck's wife on last man standing | Last Man Standing (U.S. TV series) - Wikipedia
Last Man Standing is an American television sitcom starring Tim Allen. The series aired on ABC from October 11, 2011 to March 31, 2017 with 130 episodes.
The series follows Mike Baxter, a senior executive and director of marketing for an outdoor sporting goods store chain based in Denver, Colorado, whose world is filled with his wife, three daughters, and grandson.
Several notable guest stars have appeared throughout the series, including appearances made from cast members of Tim Allen 's previous series, Home Improvement.
Last Man Standing first appeared on ABC 's development slate in late 2010 when writer Jack Burditt received a put pilot commitment from the network under the original title Man Up. In January 2011, ABC green - lighted production of a pilot episode under the title Last Days of Man. On February 18, Tim Allen, who had been attached to the potential series from the beginning, officially joined the project in the lead role. At the end of March, Nancy Travis joined the cast in the leading female role as Allen 's "smart and loving wife who does n't miss much ''. Soon thereafter, Héctor Elizondo came on board in a supporting role as the boss to Allen 's character.
On May 13, 2011, ABC picked up the pilot for the 2011 -- 2012 television season under the new title Last Man Standing. On May 17, 2011, ABC announced that the series would air on Tuesday nights at 8 Eastern / 7 Central. It debuted on October 11, 2011, with the first two episodes airing in a one - hour premiere.
On November 3, 2011, the series was picked up for a full season of twenty - two episodes. On January 12, 2012, the order was increased to twenty - four episodes.
On May 11, 2012, ABC renewed the series for a second season set to air in the 2012 -- 2013 season in November.
On June 11, 2012, Tim Doyle was hired as the new showrunner of the series. Doyle was the third showrunner that the series had had since it entered production. Doyle replaced Kevin Abbott, who joined the staff as the showrunner mid-way in the first season. Abbott replaced series creator Jack Burditt, who was the showrunner for the first thirteen episodes. Unlike Burditt, who is no longer credited as an executive producer, Abbott continued to serve as an executive producer while showrunning the fellow ABC sitcom Malibu Country starring Reba McEntire. Both Last Man Standing and Malibu Country aired as a part of ABC 's Friday night lineup for the 2012 -- 2013 primetime television season. On November 8, 2012, Abbott re-joined the Last Man Standing crew full - time, after a stint in rehab, and gave Nastaran Dibai full showrunning duties of Malibu Country.
On June 11, 2012, it was announced that Alexandra Krosney (Kristin) was let go from the show for creative reasons. Krosney was replaced by Amanda Fuller in season 2. On June 19, 2012, it was also announced that twins Luke and Evan Kruntchev, who played the role of Boyd in season 1, would not be returning; they were replaced by Flynn Morrison in season 2. The character of Boyd was also age - advanced from two years old to five years old. Jordan Masterson plays Ryan, Boyd 's father, in a recurring role beginning in season 2. The role was previously played by Nick Jonas, who guest - starred in one episode in season 1.
The second season initially received a 13 - episode order. ABC announced on November 12, 2012, that an additional three scripts had been ordered. On November 27, five more episodes were ordered to bring the second - season episode total to 18.
On May 10, 2013, the series was renewed for a third season, which premiered on September 20, 2013, and ended on April 25, 2014, after 22 episodes.
On May 10, 2014, ABC renewed Last Man Standing for a fourth season, which premiered on October 3, 2014. Allen and Elizondo guest - starred as their Last Man Standing characters in a crossover episode with the fellow ABC Friday sitcom Cristela.
On May 10, 2015, ABC announced the show had been renewed for a fifth season. Last Man Standing had become a solid performer for the Friday night lineup at ABC, which with the help of Shark Tank and 20 / 20 has become the top network among adults 18 -- 49 for the night. Leading off Friday night for ABC, the sitcom averaged a 1.8 rating in adults 18 -- 49 and 8.2 million viewers overall, according to Nielsen 's Live + 7 estimates.
On May 13, 2016, ABC renewed the series for a sixth and final season, which premiered on September 23, 2016.
On May 10, 2017, ABC canceled Last Man Standing after six seasons, despite the series being the second most - watched ABC sitcom during the 2016 -- 17 season (based on Live + 7 figures), with ratings remaining mostly steady during its sixth season. A rep for 20th Century Fox TV said cancellation decisions are made by ABC. "This was a scheduling decision, '' wrote Jori Arancio, senior vice president of ABC Entertainment and ABC Studios. ABC and its production partner for the show, 20th Century Fox TV, typically negotiate licensing fees prior to each season; however, the network decided to cancel the show without doing so. Also, the contract between 20th Century Fox Television and ABC for the show, in which 20th Century Fox Television covered the cost of production, had expired after six seasons. Had the series been renewed for a seventh season, ABC would have been required to pick up Last Man Standing 's production costs, which the network was unwilling to do.
The cancellation was met with outrage from the show 's fans, many of whom took to social media to voice their displeasure and petition for another network to pick up the show. It also happened some months after lead actor Tim Allen (who is also a real - life Republican) said in an interview on Jimmy Kimmel Live!, that being a Republican in Hollywood is "like 1930s Germany. You got ta be real careful around here, you know. You 'll get beat up if you do n't believe what everybody believes. '' His comment was widely criticized, especially his comparing the treatment of Republicans in Hollywood with Nazi Germany.
A viewer petition on the website Change.org calling for ABC to reinstate Last Man Standing surpassed 380,000 signatures as of May 23, 2017. In a conference call with reporters earlier in May, ABC president Channing Dungey stated, "Last Man Standing was a challenging one for me, because it was a steady performer. Once we made the decision not to continue with comedy on Friday, it was just kind of that 's where we landed. '' Dungey cited studio ownership, future creative direction, ratings and viewer engagement as all factors in her decision.
Tim Allen voiced his displeasure with the cancellation, tweeting on May 16: "Stunned and blindsided by the network I called home for the last six years. ''
On May 20, 2017, Howard Kurtzman, president of 20th Century Fox Television, reportedly showed some interest in his studio continuing to produce the show. "We 're starting to explore that, '' Kurtzman said. "... (Fox Co-President) Jonnie (Davis) and I are hopeful that we can find another home for it. '' Variety also confirmed in an exclusive report that 20th Century Fox Television would shop the series to other networks and streaming services in hopes it would be picked up for a seventh season; another home was not found, however.
While popular among viewers (receiving an 82 % "Fresh '' rating on Rotten Tomatoes and 7.5 / 10 stars on IMDb), Last Man Standing received generally negative reviews from critics. Season one has an approval rating of 16 % on Rotten Tomatoes and a score of 33 out of 100 on Metacritic. The Hollywood Reporter commented: "A predictable sitcom with a stupid premise and bad acting. '' Los Angeles Times: "The jokes and plots have been efficiently constructed, but most have no traction; they slide right off you, and the characters themselves seem disconnected from one another. '' Entertainment Weekly offered a slightly more favorable review of the show: "When I look at the now - rounded softness of Tim Allen, and note once again how his sandpaper voice contrasts winningly with his hopeful eyes, it 's impossible to plunge a shiv into this series. ''
Season two scored 40 % at Rotten Tomatoes. Entertainment Weekly commented: "I think it 's time the folks involved with Last take a closer look at All in the Family, in which the prejudice was built around real jokes. '' The A.V. Club: "The problem with Last Man Standing 's attempts to go political is exemplified by the first scene of the season première, which remains one of the most uncomfortable scenes of television I 've ever watched... doing its best to push buttons in the audience that do n't need to be pushed, as if it thinks what made (Norman) Lear 's sitcoms a success was the yelling or the mentions of social issues that people sometimes argued about. '' Philly.com wrote about season three: "The unlikely comeback vehicle for Tim Allen, Last Man Standing on ABC, is a thoroughly traditional, absolutely charming sitcom. (...) Last Man is both economical and efficient, getting excellent comic mileage out of the most marginal bit players. ''
The series was particularly popular among conservatives, many of whom viewed the show as a counterpoint to Modern Family, another 20th Century Fox sitcom that aired on ABC at the same time and featured more liberal ideologies. A study conducted during the 2016 U.S. presidential election found that it was the tenth most popular show on television with Republicans.
ABC 's series premiere of Last Man Standing drew a 3.5 adults 18 -- 49 rating. That was 9 % better than the 3.2 adults 18 -- 49 rating for the series premiere of No Ordinary Family in the same time - slot the previous year (which was two weeks earlier in the season). Season 2 of Last Man Standing premiered with a 2.0, down about 38 % from its first - season premiere, but up about 18 % from the previous season 's finale.
Last Man Standing was nominated for a 2012 People 's Choice Award for "Favorite New TV Comedy '', but lost to CBS 's 2 Broke Girls.
On September 4, 2015, the series joined the CMT Network with a mini-marathon of episodes. On September 3, 2015, it was announced that ABC Family (now Freeform) had obtained syndication rights to the series, which began airing episodes on September 28, 2015. Additionally, on May 15, 2015, it was announced that Hallmark Channel has obtained the rights to the sitcom and began airing the series in January 2016. Five seasons are available for streaming on Netflix and the sixth and final season is also available on Hulu. The syndication of Last Man Standing is a major success in a time when few off - network reruns were becoming hits.
Last Man Standing aired on ABC in the U.S., on Fox8, Network Ten and Eleven (previously aired on One) in Australia, City in Canada, and TV3 in New Zealand. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it premiered on October 9, 2012. The second season premiered on January 30, 2014.
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it’s the most wonderful time of the year – andy williams | It 's the Most Wonderful Time of the Year - wikipedia
"It 's the Most Wonderful Time of the Year '' is a popular Christmas song written in triple time in 1963 by Edward Pola and George Wyle. It was recorded and released that year by pop singer Andy Williams for his first Christmas album, The Andy Williams Christmas Album. However, the song was not released as a promotional single by Williams ' record label (Columbia Records) that year, as they instead opted to promote his cover of "White Christmas '' as the official promo single from the album.
The song is a celebration and description of activities associated with the Christmas season, focusing primarily on get - togethers between friends and families. Among the activities included in the song is the telling of "scary ghost stories, '' a Victorian Christmas tradition that has mostly fallen into disuse, but survives in the seasonal popularity of numerous adaptations of Charles Dickens ' A Christmas Carol. Other activities mentioned include hosting parties, spontaneous visits from friends, universal social gaiety, spending time with loved ones, sledding for children, roasting marshmallows, sharing stories about previous Christmases, and singing Christmas carols in winter weather.
In a 2005 interview, Williams discusses how The Andy Williams Show figured into his recording of "It 's the Most Wonderful Time of the Year '': "George Wyle, who is a vocal director, who wrote all of the choir stuff and all of the duets and trios and things that I did with all the guests, he wrote a song just for the show -- I think the second Christmas show we did -- called ' Most Wonderful Time of the Year '. So I did that, you know, every Christmas, and then other people started doing it. And then suddenly it 's become -- not suddenly but over 30 years -- it 's become a big standard. I think it 's one of the top 10 Christmas songs of all time now. ''
In the issue of Billboard magazine dated November 28, 2009, the list of the "Top 10 Holiday Songs (Since 2001) '' places the Williams recording of "It 's the Most Wonderful Time of the Year '' at No. 5. 2001 also marked the first year in which the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) started compiling data regarding the radio airplay of holiday songs, and although the Williams classic started out at No. 25 of twenty - five songs that were ranked that year, it gained steam over the next ten years, reaching No. 18 in 2002, No. 13 in 2003, and eventually getting to No. 4 in 2010.
In December 2017, Williams ' version of the song entered the top 40 of the Billboard Hot 100 for the first time, and peaked at number 32.
The song was selected as the theme song for Christmas Seals in both 2009 and 2012.
For years, the song was used humorously in the Staples office supply retail chain 's annual back to school advertising campaign. In the commercials, the parents joyously shop for school supplies to this song in anticipation of the upcoming school year while their children sullenly follow.
The Johnny Mathis rendition of the song is used to comic effect in the 1996 film, Jingle All the Way.
Williams returned to the UK singles charts with his 1963 recording in December 2007, thanks to an advertisement for Marks & Spencer, reaching No. 21 in its first appearance in the British charts, also reaching No. 108 on the EU Top 200. It was also used for a Marks & Spencer Christmas advert in 2002.
BarlowGirl 's cover of the song was used to promote Christmas at the White House: An Oprah Winfrey Special.
In the Autumn and early winter of 2011, Nissan Motors advertising for their annual sale included a production number featuring an Andy Williams - like voice actor, with lyrics modified to promote the sale event.
A 2013 YouTube video promoting the Disneyland Resort 's Halloween celebrations humorously used the song over shots of various Disney villains spreading mischief throughout resort 's theme parks.
The song also played by Ellen DeGeneres during the segment of "12 Days of Giveaways ''.
The song was spoofed again by The Coca - Cola Company in a Sprite Cranberry commercial in 2017. The spoof 's title was called "It 's the Thirstiest Time of the Year. ''
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what describes the three impacts of a crash | Crumple zone - wikipedia
The crumple zone is a structural feature mainly used in automobiles and recently incorporated into railcars.
Crumple zones are designed to absorb the energy from the impact during a traffic collision by controlled deformation through Crumpling. This energy is much greater than is commonly realized. A 2,000 kg (4,409 lb) car travelling at 60 km / h (37 mph) (16.7 m / s), before crashing into a thick concrete wall, is subject to the same impact force as a front - down drop from a height of 14.2 m (47 ft) crashing on to a solid concrete surface. Increasing that speed by 50 % to 90 km / h (56 mph) (25 m / s) compares to a fall from 32 m (105 ft) - an increase of 125 %. This is because the stored kinetic energy (E) is given by E = (1 / 2) mass × speed squared. It increases by the square of the impact velocity.
Typically, crumple zones are located in the front part of the vehicle, in order to absorb the impact of a head - on collision, though they may be found on other parts of the vehicle as well. According to a British Motor Insurance Repair Research Centre study of where on the vehicle impact damage occurs: 65 % were front impacts, 25 % rear impacts, 5 % left side, and 5 % right side. Some racing cars use aluminium, composite / carbon fibre honeycomb, or energy absorbing foam to form an impact attenuator that dissipates crash energy using a much smaller volume and lower weight than road car crumple zones. Impact attenuators have also been introduced on highway maintenance vehicles in some countries.
On September 10, 2009, the ABC News programs Good Morning America and World News showed a U.S. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety crash test of a 2009 Chevrolet Malibu in an offset head - on collision with a 1959 Chevrolet Bel Air sedan. It dramatically demonstrated the effectiveness of modern car safety design over 1950s design, particularly of rigid passenger safety cells and crumple zones.
The crumple zone concept was invented and patented by the Austrian Mercedes - Benz engineer Béla Barényi originally in 1937 before he worked for Mercedes - Benz and in a more developed form in 1952. The 1953 Mercedes - Benz "Ponton '' was a partial implementation of his ideas by having a strong deep platform to form a partial safety cell - patented in 1941. The Mercedes - Benz patent number 854157, granted in 1952, describes the decisive feature of passive safety. Barényi questioned the opinion prevailing until then, that a safe car had to be rigid. He divided the car body into three sections: the rigid non-deforming passenger compartment and the crumple zones in the front and the rear. They are designed to absorb the energy of an impact (kinetic energy) by deformation during collision. The first Mercedes - Benz carbody developed using this patent was the 1959 Mercedes W111 "Tail Fin '' Saloon. The safety cell and crumple zones were achieved primarily by the design of the longitudinal members: these were straight in the centre of the vehicle and formed a rigid safety cage with the body panels, the front and rear supports were curved so they deformed in the event of an accident, absorbing part of the collision energy and preventing the full force of the impact from reaching the occupants.
A more recent development was for these curved longitudinal members is to be weakened by vertical and lateral ribs to form telescoping ' crash can ' crush structures.
Crumple zones work by managing crash energy, absorbing it within the outer parts of the vehicle, rather than being directly transferred to the occupants, while also preventing intrusion into or deformation of the passenger cabin. This better protects car occupants against injury. This is achieved by controlled weakening of sacrificial outer parts of the car, while strengthening and increasing the rigidity of the inner part of the body of the car, making the passenger cabin into a ' safety cell ', by using more reinforcing beams and higher strength steels. Impact energy that does reach the ' safety cell ' is spread over as wide an area as possible to reduce its deformation. Volvo introduced the side crumple zone with the introduction of the SIPS (Side Impact Protection System) in the early 1990s.
When a vehicle and all its contents, including passengers and luggage are travelling at speed, they have inertia / momentum, which means that they will continue forward with that direction and speed (Newton 's first law of motion). In the event of a sudden deceleration of a rigid framed vehicle due to impact, unrestrained vehicle contents will continue forwards at their previous speed due to inertia, and impact the vehicle interior, with a force equivalent to many times their normal weight due to gravity. The purpose of crumple zones is to slow down the collision and to absorb energy to reduce the difference in speeds between the vehicle and its occupants.
Seatbelts restrain the passengers so they do n't fly through the windshield, and are in the correct position for the airbag and also spread the loading of impact on the body. Seat belts also absorb passenger inertial energy by being designed to stretch during an impact, again to reduce the speed differential between the passenger 's body and their vehicle interior. In short: a passenger whose body is decelerated more slowly due to the crumple zone (and other devices) over a longer time survives much more often than a passenger whose body indirectly impacts a hard, undamaged metal car body which has come to a halt nearly instantaneously. It is like the difference between slamming someone into a wall headfirst (fracturing their skull) and shoulder - first (bruising their flesh slightly) is that the arm, being softer, has tens of times longer to slow its speed, yielding a little at a time, than the hard skull, which is n't in contact with the wall until it has to deal with extremely high pressures. The stretching of seatbelts while restraining occupants during an impact, means that it is necessary to replace them if a vehicle is repaired and put back on the road after a collision. They should also be replaced if their condition has deteriorated e.g. through fraying or mechanical or belt mounting faults. In New Zealand it is officially mandatory to replace worn inertia reel type seatbelts only with ' webbing grabber ' type belts that have less play and are more effective on older cars. Newer cars have electronically fired pre-tension seatbelts that are timed to work with the airbag firing. Buying used seatbelts is not a good idea even in countries where it is legal to do so, because they may have already been stretched in an impact event and may not protect their new users as they should.
The final impact after a passenger 's body hits the car interior, airbag or seat belts is that of the internal organs hitting the ribcage or skull due to their inertia. The force of this impact is the way by which many car crashes cause disabling or life - threatening injury. Other ways are skeletal damage and blood loss, because of torn blood vessels, or damage caused by sharp fractured bone to organs and / or blood vessels. The sequence of energy - dissipating and speed - reducing technologies -- crumple zone -- seat belt -- airbags -- padded interior -- are designed to work together as a system to reduce the force of the impact on the outside of the passenger (s) 's body and the final impact of organs inside the body. In a collision, slowing down the deceleration of the human body by even a few tenths of a second drastically reduces the force involved. Force is a simple equation: Force = mass X acceleration. Cutting the deceleration in half also cuts the force in half. Therefore, changing the deceleration time from. 2 seconds to. 8 seconds will result in a 75 percent reduction in total force.
A misconception about crumple zones sometimes voiced is that they reduce safety for the occupants of the vehicle by allowing the body to collapse, therefore risking crushing the occupants. In fact, crumple zones are typically located in front of and behind the main body of the car (which forms a rigid ' safety cell '), compacting within the space of the engine compartment or boot / trunk. Modern vehicles using what are commonly termed ' crumple zones ' provide far superior protection for their occupants in severe tests against other vehicles with crumple zones and solid static objects than older models or SUVs that use a separate chassis frame and have no crumple zones.
They do tend to come off worse when involved in accidents with SUVs without crumple zones because most of the energy of the impact is absorbed by the vehicle with the crumple zone -- however, even for the occupants of the ' worse off ' car, this will still often be an improvement -- as the result of two vehicles without crumple zones colliding will usually be more hazardous to both vehicle 's occupants than a collision that is at least partly buffered.
Another problem is ' impact incompatibility ' where the ' hard points ' of the ends of chassis rails of SUVs are higher than the ' hard points ' of cars, causing the SUV to ' override ' the engine compartment of the car. In order to tackle this problem, more recent SUV / off - roaders incorporate structures below the front bumper designed to engage lower - height car crumple zones. Volvo XC70 low level front safety cross members shown here Volvo 's press release about this feature: ' Lower cross-member that helps protects lower cars: The front suspension subframe in the new Volvo XC60 is supplemented with a lower cross-member positioned at the height of the beam in a conventional car. The lower cross-member strikes the oncoming car 's protective structure, activating its crumple zone as intended so the occupants can be given the maximum level of protection. '
In the early 1980s, using technology developed for the aerospace and nuclear industries, German car makers started complex computer crash simulation studies, using finite element methods simulating the crash behaviour of individual car body components, component assemblies, and quarter and half cars at the body in white (BIW) stage. These experiments culminated in a joint project by the Forschungsgemeinschaft Automobil - Technik (FAT), a conglomeration of all seven German car makers (Audi, BMW, Ford, Mercedes - Benz, Opel (GM), Porsche, and Volkswagen), which tested the applicability of two emerging commercial crash simulation codes. These simulation codes recreated a frontal impact of a full passenger car structure (Haug 1986) and they ran to completion on a computer overnight. Now that turn - around time between two consecutive job - submissions (computer runs) did not exceed one day, engineers were able to make efficient and progressive improvements of the crash behaviour of the analyzed car body structure. The drive for improved crash worthiness in Europe has accelerated from the 1990s onwards, with the 1997 advent of Euro NCAP, with the involvement of Formula One motor racing safety expertise.
The 2004 Pininfarina Nido Experimental Safety Vehicle locates crumple zones inside the survival cell. Those interior crumple zones decelerate a sled - mounted survival cell. Volvo has also been developing this idea for use in small cars. Their driver 's seat is mounted to what is basically a ' sled ' on a rail, with shock absorbers in front of it. In an impact, the whole "sled '' of driving seat and belted in driver, slides forward up to 8 inches, and the shock absorbers dissipate the peak shock energy of the impact, lengthening the deceleration time for the driver. Simultaneously, the steering wheel and the driver 's side dashboard slide forward to make room for the driver, as he is thrown forwards stretching the seatbelt. Combined with a front crumple zone and airbag, this system could greatly reduce the forces acting on the driver in a frontal impact.
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when was worship changed from saturday to sunday | Sabbath in Christianity - wikipedia
Sabbath in Christianity is the inclusion or adoption in Christianity of a Sabbath day. Established within Judaism through Mosaic Law, Christians inherited a Sabbath practice that reflected two great precepts: the commandment to "remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy '' and God 's blessing of the seventh day (Saturday) as a day of rest in the Genesis creation narrative and declared as made for man by Jesus. The first of these provisions was associated in Judaism with the assembly of the people to worship in the Temple in Jerusalem or in synagogues.
The position now dominant in Western Christianity is that observance of the Lord 's Day, Sunday, supplanted or superseded the Sabbath commandment in that the former "celebrated the Christian community 's deliverance from captivity to sin, Satan, and worldly passions, made possible by the resurrection on the first day of the week. '' Early Christians observed the seventh day with prayer and rest, but they also gathered on the first day. By the 4th century, Christians were officially observing the first day, Sunday, as their day of rest, not the seventh.
A Sabbatarian movement within Oriental Orthodoxy began in the 12th century in Ethiopia and gained momentum in the 13th, eventually establishing itself as the norm in that region. The modern Orthodox Tewahedo churches observe a two - day Sabbath, including both Saturday and Sunday. Influenced by Puritan ideas, the Presbyterian and Congregationalist, as well as Methodist and Baptist Churches, enshrined first - day Sabbatarian views in their confessions of faith, observing the Lord 's Day as the Christian Sabbath.
Beginning about the 17th century, a few groups of Restorationist Christians took issue with some of the practice of the churches around them, sometimes also questioning the theology that had been so widely accepted throughout 16 centuries. Mostly Seventh - day Sabbatarians, they broke away from their former churches to form communities that followed Seventh - day Sabbath - based practices that differed from the rest of Christianity, often also adopting a more literal interpretation of law, either Christian or Mosaic.
The Hebrew Sabbath, the seventh day of the week, is often spoken of loosely as "Saturday ''. In fact, in the Hebrew calendar, a day begins at sunset, and not at midnight. The Sabbath therefore coincides with what the Gregorian calendar identifies as Friday sunset to Saturday sunset. Similarly, the first day of the week ("Sunday '') coincides with Gregorian Saturday sunset to Sunday sunset. The Sabbath continued to be observed on the seventh day in the early Christian church. To this day, the Sabbath continues to be observed in line with the Hebrew Sabbath timing in the church calendars in Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy.
On the other hand, the current canons of the Roman Catholic Church (Canon 202 § 1) define a day as beginning at midnight.
Early Christians continued to pray and rest on the seventh day. By the 2nd century AD some Christians also observed Sunday, the day of the week on which Jesus had risen from the dead and on which the Holy Spirit had come to the apostles. Paul and the Christians of Troas, for example, gathered on Sunday "to break bread, '' Soon Christians were observing only Sunday and not the Sabbath. Patristic writings attest that by the second century, it had become commonplace to celebrate the Eucharist in a corporate day of worship on the first day. A Church Father, Eusebius, stated that for Christians, "the sabbath had been transferred to Sunday ''.
In his noteworthy book From Sabbath to Sunday, Adventist theologian Samuele Bacchiocchi contended that the transition from the Saturday Sabbath to Sunday in the early Christian church was due to pagan and political factors, and the decline of standards for the Sabbath day.
While the Lord 's Day observance of the Eucharist was established separately from the Jewish Sabbath, the centrality of the Eucharist itself made it the commonest early observance whenever Christians gathered for worship. In many places and times as late as the 4th century, they did continue to gather weekly on the Sabbath, often in addition to the Lord 's Day, celebrating the Eucharist on both days. No disapproval of Sabbath observance of the Christian festival was expressed at the early church councils that dealt with Judaizing. The Council of Laodicea (363 - 364), for example, mandated only that Sabbath Eucharists must be observed in the same manner as those on the first day. Neander has suggested that Sabbath Eucharists in many places were kept "as a feast in commemoration of the Creation ''.
The issues about Hebrew practices that continued into the 2nd century tended to relate mostly to the Sabbath. Justin Martyr, who attended worship on the first day, wrote about the cessation of Hebrew Sabbath observance and stated that the Sabbath was enjoined as a temporary sign to Israel to teach it of human sinfulness (Gal. 3: 24 - 25), no longer needed after Christ came without sin. He rejected the need to keep literal seventh - day Sabbath, arguing instead that "the new law requires you to keep the sabbath constantly. '' With Christian corporate worship so clearly aligned with the Eucharist and allowed on the seventh day, Hebrew Sabbath practices primarily involved the observance of a day of rest.
A common theme in criticism of Hebrew Sabbath rest was idleness, found not to be in the Christian spirit of rest. Irenaeus (late 2nd c.), also citing continuous Sabbath observance, wrote that the Christian "will not be commanded to leave idle one day of rest, who is constantly keeping sabbath '', and Tertullian (early 3rd century) argued "that we still more ought to observe a sabbath from all servile work always, and not only every seventh - day, but through all time ''. This early metaphorical interpretation of Sabbath applied it to the entire Christian life.
Ignatius, cautioning against "Judaizing '' in his letter to the Magnesians, contrasts the Jewish Sabbath practices with the Christian life which includes the Lord 's Day: "Let us therefore no longer keep the Sabbath after the Jewish manner, and rejoice in days of idleness... But let every one of you keep the Sabbath after a spiritual manner, rejoicing in meditation on the law, not in relaxation of the body, admiring the workmanship of God, and not eating things prepared the day before, nor using lukewarm drinks, and walking within a prescribed space, nor finding delight in dancing and plaudits which have no sense in them. And after the observance of the Sabbath, let every friend of Christ keep the Lord 's (Day, Dominicam) as a festival, the resurrection - day, the queen and chief of all the days. ''
The 2nd and 3rd centuries solidified the early church 's emphasis upon Sunday worship and its rejection of a Jewish (Mosaic Law - based) observation of the Sabbath and manner of rest. Christian practice of following Sabbath after the manner of the Hebrews declined, prompting Tertullian to note "to (us) Sabbaths are strange '' and unobserved. Even as late as the 4th century, Judaizing was still sometimes a problem within the Church, but by this time it was repudiated strongly as heresy.
Sunday was another work day in the Roman Empire. On March 7, 321, however, Roman Emperor Constantine I issued a civil decree making Sunday a day of rest from labor, stating:
All judges and city people and the craftsmen shall rest upon the venerable day of the sun. Country people, however, may freely attend to the cultivation of the fields, because it frequently happens that no other days are better adapted for planting the grain in the furrows or the vines in trenches. So that the advantage given by heavenly providence may not for the occasion of a short time perish.
While established only in civil law rather than religious principle, the Church welcomed the development as a means by which Christians could the more easily attend Sunday worship and observe Christian rest. At Laodicea also, the Church encouraged Christians to make use of the day for Christian rest where possible, without ascribing to it any of the regulation of Mosaic Law, and indeed, anathematizing Hebrew observance on the Sabbath. The civil law and its effects made possible a pattern in Church life that has been imitated throughout the centuries in many places and cultures, wherever possible.
Augustine of Hippo followed the early patristic writers in spiritualizing the meaning of the Sabbath commandment, referring it to eschatological rest rather than observance of a literal day. Such writing, however, did serve to deepen the idea of Christian rest on Sunday, and its practice increased in prominence throughout the early Middle Ages.
Thomas Aquinas taught that the Decalogue is an expression of natural law which binds all men, and therefore the Sabbath commandment is a moral requirement along with the other nine. Thus in the west, Sunday rest became more closely associated with a Christian application of the Sabbath, a development towards the idea of a "Christian Sabbath '' rather than a Hebrew one. While Sunday worship and Sunday rest combined powerfully to relate to Sabbath commandment precepts, the application of the commandment to Christian life was nevertheless a response within the law of liberty, not restricted to a single day but continuous, and not a displacement of the Sabbath in time.
Seventh - day Sabbath was observed at least sporadically by a minority of groups during the Middle Ages.
In the early church in Ireland, there is evidence that a sabbath - rest on Saturday may have been kept along with mass on Sunday as the ' Lord 's day '. It appears that many of the canon laws in Ireland from that period were derived from parts of the laws of Moses. In Adomnan of Iona 's biography of St Columba it describes Columba 's death by having Columba say on a Saturday ' Today is truly my sabbath, for it is my last day in this wearisome life, when I shall keep the Sabbath after my troublesome labours. At midnight this Sunday, as Scripture saith, "I shall go the way of my fathers '' ' and he then dies that night. The identification of this sabbath day as a Saturday in the narrative is clear in the context, because Columba is recorded as seeing an angel at the mass on the previous Sunday and the narrative claims he dies in the same week, on the sabbath day at the end of the week, during the ' Lord 's night ' (referring to Saturday night - Sunday morning).
An Eastern body of Christian Sabbath - keepers mentioned from the 8th century to the 12th is called Athenians ("touch - not '') because they abstained from uncleanness and intoxicating drinks, called Athinginians in Neander: "This sect, which had its principal seat in the city of Armorion, in upper Phrygia, where many Jews resided, sprung out of a mixture of Judaism and Christianity. They united baptism with the observance of all the rites of Judaism, circumcision excepted. We may perhaps recognize a branch of the older Judaizing sects.
Cardinal Hergenrother says that they stood in intimate relation with Emperor Michael II (AD 821 - 829), and testifies that they observed Sabbath. As late as the 11th century Cardinal Humbert still referred to the Nazarenes as a Sabbath - keeping Christian body existing at that time. But in the 10th and 11th centuries, there was a great extension of sects from the East to the West. Neander states that the corruption of the clergy furnished a most important vantage - ground on which to attack the dominant church. The abstemious life of these Christians, the simplicity and earnestness of their preaching and teaching, had their effect. "Thus we find them emerging at once in the 11th century, in countries the most diverse, and the most remote from each other, in Italy, France, and even in the Harz districts in Germany. '' Likewise, also, "traces of Sabbath - keepers are found in the times of Gregory I, Gregory VII, and in the 12th century in Lombardy. ''
The Orthodox Tewahedo churches celebrate the Sabbath, a practice proselytised in the Oriental Orthodox church in Ethiopia in the 1300s by Ewostatewos (Ge'ez: ዮስጣቴዎስ, Ancient Greek: Ευστάθιος. In response to colonial pressure by missionaries of the Catholic Church in the 1500s, the emperor Saint Gelawdewos wrote his Confession, an apologia of traditional beliefs and practices including observation of the Sabbath and a theological defense of the Miaphysitism of Oriental Orthodoxy.
Protestant reformers, beginning in the 16th century, brought new interpretations of Christian law to the west. According to Bauckham, while Martin Luther and John Calvin repudiated the idea that Christians are bound to obey the Mosaic law, including the fourth of the Ten Commandments concerning Sabbath, they did follow Aquinas 's concept of natural law. They viewed Sunday rest as a civic institution established by human authority, which provided an occasion for bodily rest and public worship. In his work against the Antinomians, Luther rejected the idea that he had taught the abolition of the Ten Commandments. Another Protestant, John Wesley, stated "This ' handwriting of ordinances ' our Lord did blot out, take away, and nail to His cross (Col. 2: 14). But the moral law contained in the Ten Commandments, and enforced by the prophets, He did not take away... The moral law stands on an entirely different foundation from the ceremonial or ritual law... Every part of this law must remain in force upon all mankind and in all ages. ''
Sabbatarianism arose and spread among both the continental and English Protestants during the 17th and 18th centuries. The Puritans of England and Scotland brought a new rigorism into the observance of the Christian Lord 's Day, in reaction to the customary Sunday observance of the time, which they regarded as lax. They appealed to Sabbath ordinances with the idea that only the Bible can bind men 's consciences in whether or how they will take a break from work, or to impose an obligation to meet at a particular time. Their influential reasoning spread to other denominations also, and it is primarily through their influence that "Sabbath '' has become the colloquial equivalent of "Lord 's Day '' or "Sunday ''. Sunday Sabbatarianism is enshrined in its most mature expression, the Westminster Confession of Faith (1646), in the Calvinist theological tradition. Chapter 21, Of Religious Worship, and the Sabbath Day, sections 7 - 8 read:
7. As it is the law of nature, that, in general, a due proportion of time be set apart for the worship of God; so, in his Word, by a positive, moral, and perpetual commandment binding all men in all ages, he hath particularly appointed one day in seven, for a Sabbath, to be kept holy unto him: which, from the beginning of the world to the resurrection of Christ, was the last day of the week; and, from the resurrection of Christ, was changed into the first day of the week, which, in Scripture, is called the Lord 's day, and is to be continued to the end of the world, as the Christian Sabbath. 8. This Sabbath is then kept holy unto the Lord, when men, after a due preparing of their hearts, and ordering of their common affairs beforehand, do not only observe a holy rest, all the day, from their own works, words, and thoughts about their worldly employments and recreations, but also are taken up, the whole time, in the public and private exercises of his worship, and in the duties of necessity and mercy.
The confession holds that not only is work forbidden in Sunday, but also "works, words, and thoughts '' about "worldly employments and recreations. '' Instead, the whole day should be taken up with "public and private exercises of (one 's) worship, and in the duties of necessity and mercy. ''
Strict Sunday Sabbatarianism is sometimes called "Puritan Sabbath '', which may be contrasted with "Continental Sabbath ''. The latter follows the reformed confessions of faith of Continental Europe such as the Heidelberg Catechism, which emphasize rest and worship on the Lord 's Day, but do not explicitly forbid recreational activities. However, in practice, many continental Reformed Christians also abstain from recreation on the Sabbath, following the admonition by the Heidelberg Catechism 's author Zacharaias Ursinus that "To keep holy the Sabbath, is not to spend the day in slothfulness and idleness ''.
Though first - day Sabbatarian practice declined in the 18th century, the First Great Awakening in the 19th century led to a greater concern for strict Sunday observance. The founding of the Day One Christian Ministries in 1831 was influenced by the teaching of Daniel Wilson.
Many Christian theologians believe that Sabbath observance is not binding for Christians today, citing for instance Col. 2: 16 - 17.
Some Christian non-Sabbatarians advocate physical Sabbath rest on any chosen day of the week, and some advocate Sabbath as a symbolic metaphor for rest in Christ; the concept of "Lord 's Day '' is usually treated as synonymous with "Sabbath ''. This non-Sabbatarian interpretation usually states that Jesus 's obedience and the New Covenant fulfilled the laws of Sabbath, the Ten Commandments, and the Law of Moses, which are thus considered not to be binding moral laws, and sometimes considered abolished or abrogated. While Sunday is often observed as the day of Christian assembly and worship, in accordance with church tradition, Sabbath commandments are dissociated from this practice.
Non-Sabbatarian Christians also cite 2 Cor. 3: 2 - 3, in which believers are compared to "a letter from Christ, the result of our ministry, written... not on tablets of stone but on tablets of human hearts ''; this interpretation states that Christians accordingly no longer follow the Ten Commandments with dead orthodoxy ("tablets of stone ''), but follow a new law written upon "tablets of human hearts ''. 3: 7 - 11 adds that "if the ministry that brought death, which was engraved in letters on stone, came with glory..., will not the ministry of the Spirit be even more glorious?... And if what was fading away came with glory, how much greater is the glory of that which lasts! '' This is interpreted as teaching that New Covenant Christians are not bound by the Mosaic Law, and that Sabbath - keeping is not required. Further, because "love is the fulfillment of the law '' (Rom. 13: 10), the new - covenant "law '' is considered to be based entirely upon love and to rescind Sabbath requirements.
Non-Sabbatarians who affirm that Sabbath - keeping remains for God 's people (as in Heb. 3: 7 - 4: 11) frequently regard this as present weeklong spiritual rest or future heavenly rest rather than as physical weekly rest. For instance, Irenaeus saw Sabbath rest from secular affairs for one day each week as a sign of the way that Christians were called to permanently devote themselves to God and an eschatological symbol. One such interpretation of Hebrews states that seventh - day Sabbath is no longer relevant as a regular, literal day of rest, but instead is a symbolic metaphor for the eternal salvation "rest '' that Christians enjoy in Christ, which was in turn prefigured by the promised land of Canaan.
"The NT indicates that the sabbath followed its own channel and found its goal in Christ 's redemptive work (John 5: 17, cf. 7: 23, Colossians 2: 16, Matthew 11: 28 -- 12: 14, Hebrews 3: 7 -- 4: 11). It is true to the NT to say that the Mosaic sabbath as a legal and weekly matter was a temporary symbol of a more fundamental and comprehensive salvation, epitomized by and grounded in God 's own creation sabbath, and brought to fulfillment (in already -- not yet fashion) in Christ 's redemptive work. Believers are indeed to ' keep sabbath, ' no longer by observance of a day of the week but now by the upholding of that to which it pointed: the gospel of the (Kingdom of God). ''
Lutheran writer Marva Dawn keeps a whole day as Sabbath, advocating for rest during any weekly complete 24 - hour period and favoring rest from Saturday sunset to Sunday sunset, but regarding corporate worship as "an essential part of God 's Sabbath reclamation. ''
Much of Western Christianity came to view Sunday as a transference of Sabbath observance to the first day, identifying Sunday with a first - day "Christian Sabbath ''. While first - day Sabbatarian practice declined during the 18th century, leaving few modern followers, its concern for stricter Sunday observances did have influence in the west, shaping the origin of the Christian Sabbath. The term no longer applies to a specific set of practices, but tends to be used to describe the general establishment of Sunday worship and rest observances within Christianity. It does not necessarily imply the displacement of the Sabbath itself, which is often recognized as remaining on Saturday. As such, the Christian Sabbath generally represents a reinterpretation of the meaning of the Sabbath in the light of Christian law, emphases of practice, and values.
In 1998 Pope John Paul II wrote an apostolic letter Dies Domini, "on keeping the Lord 's day holy ''. He encourages Catholics to remember the importance of keeping Sunday holy, urging that it not lose its meaning by being blended with a frivolous "weekend '' mentality.
Going beyond the traditional Catholic position and seeing to uphold the Lord 's Day Act in French Quebec, the Catholic Sunday League was formed in 1923 to promote first - day sabbatarian restrictions in the province, especially against movie theaters.
In the Latin Church, Sunday is kept in commemoration of the resurrection of Jesus and celebrated with the Eucharist (Catholic Catechism 2177). It is also the day of leisure. The Lord 's Day is considered both the first day and the ' eighth day ' of the week, symbolizing both first creation and new creation (2174). Roman Catholics view the first day as a day for assembly for worship (2178, Heb. 10: 25), but consider a day of rigorous rest not obligatory on Christians (Rom. 14: 5, Col. 2: 16). Catholic recommendations to rest on Sunday do not hinder participation in "ordinary and innocent occupations ''. In the spirit of the Sabbath, Catholics ought to observe a day of rest from servile work, which also becomes "a day of protest against the servitude of work and the worship of money '' (Catholic Catechism 2172). This day is often (traditionally) observed on Sunday in conjunction with the Lord 's Day (Catholic Catechism 2176).
Cardinal James Gibbons affirmed Sunday observances as one of the examples of the Roman Catholic Church 's sufficiency as guide:
Now the Scriptures alone do not contain all the truths which a Christian is bound to believe, nor do they explicitly enjoin all the duties which he is obliged to practice. Not to mention other examples, is not every Christian obliged to sanctify Sunday and to abstain on that day from unnecessary servile work? Is not the observance of this law among the most prominent of our sacred duties? But you may read the Bible from Genesis to Revelation, and you will not find a single line authorizing the sanctification of Sunday. The Scriptures enforce the religious observance of Saturday, a day which we never sanctify.
Orthodox Sunday worship is not a direct Sabbath observance. The Eastern Orthodox Church observes the first day (liturgical Sunday, beginning Saturday evening) as a weekly feast, the remembrance of Christ 's resurrection, and a mini-Pascha. As such, it tends to hold the first place within a week 's observances, sharing that place only with other major feasts which occur from time to time. The Divine Liturgy is always celebrated, joining the participants on earth with those who offer the worship in God 's kingdom, and hence joining the first day to the eighth day, wherein the communion of the whole Church with Christ is fully realized. As such, it is never surpassed as a time for the Orthodox to assemble in worship.
The Church affirms its authority to appoint the time of this feast (and all observances) as deriving from the authority given to the apostles and passed to the bishops through the laying - on of hands, for the sake of the governance of the Church on earth, and under the guidance of the Holy Spirit (John 20: 22, John 14: 26, Rom. 6: 14 - 18, Rom. 7: 6). It does not treat Sunday worship as a transference of Sabbath worship, but identifies the Sabbath, still on Saturday, as a Biblical "type '', a precursor, realized fully only after Christ 's fulfillment of the Mosaic Law (Mat. 5: 17 - 18). Thus, the Sabbath and the Mosaic Law both remain as a teacher, reminding Christians to worship in holiness, but now according to grace, in Christian observations and Sunday worship.
The grace received in baptism binds the Church to Christ, Who has given his people the freedom to seek him directly in relationship, not to pursue whatever suits one 's fancy. The goal of that freedom is always union with Christ in theosis, and the maintenance of that union all the time, throughout this life and into the next, which is sometimes described as the "sanctification of time ''. Grace therefore never permits of whatever is sinful or unhelpful to salvation, such as laziness or hedonistic revelry. Rather, it becomes a stricter guide for behavior than any legal code, even the Mosaic, and disciplines the believer in some degree of ascetic endeavor (Rom. 6: 14 - 18).
Orthodoxy recognizes no mandated time for rest, a day or any other span, but the Church leads the individual to holiness in different ways, and recognizes the need for economy and for rest. Activities such as sleep, relaxation, and recreation become a matter of balance and proper handling, and acceptance of God 's mercy. St. Basil the Great expresses thanks for this in a prayer often said by Orthodox Christians in the morning, after rising: "You do we bless, O Most High God and Lord of mercy,... Who has given unto us sleep for rest from our infirmity, and for repose of our much - toiling flesh. '' In recognition of God 's gifts, therefore, the Church welcomes and supports civil laws that provide a day away from labor, which then become opportunities for Christians to pray, rest, and engage in acts of mercy. In grace do Christians respond, remembering both the example of the Sabbath rest, and Christ 's lordship (Mk. 2: 21 - 28).
Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches distinguish between the "Sabbath '' (Saturday) and the "Lord 's Day '' (Sunday), and both continue to play a special role for the faithful. Many parishes and monasteries will serve the Divine Liturgy on both Saturday morning and Sunday morning. The church never allows strict fasting on any Saturday (except Holy Saturday) or Sunday, and the fasting rules on those Saturdays and Sundays which fall during one of the fasting seasons (such as Great Lent, Apostles ' Fast, etc.) are always relaxed to some degree. During Great Lent, when the celebration of the Liturgy is forbidden on weekdays, there is always Liturgy on Saturday as well as Sunday. The church also has a special cycle of Bible readings (Epistle and Gospel) for Saturdays and Sundays which is different from the cycle of readings allotted to weekdays. However, the Lord 's Day, being a celebration of the Resurrection, is clearly given more emphasis. For instance, in the Russian Orthodox Church Sunday is always observed with an all - night vigil on Saturday night, and in all of the Eastern Churches it is amplified with special hymns which are chanted only on Sunday. If a feast day falls on a Sunday it is always combined with the hymns for Sunday (unless it is a Lord 's Great Feast). Saturday is celebrated as a sort of afterfeast for the previous Sunday, on which several of the hymns from the previous Sunday are repeated.
In part, Eastern Christians continue to celebrate Saturday as Sabbath because of its role in the history of salvation: it was on a Saturday that Jesus "rested '' in the cave tomb after the Passion. For this reason also, Saturday is a day for general commemoration of the departed, and special requiem hymns are often chanted on this day. Orthodox Christians make time to help the poor and needy as well on this day.
Lutheran founder Martin Luther stated "I wonder exceedingly how it came to be imputed to me that I should reject the law of Ten Commandments... Whosoever abrogates the law must of necessity abrogate sin also. '' The Lutheran Augsburg Confession, speaking of changes made by Roman Catholic pontiffs, states: "They refer to the Sabbath - day as having been changed into the Lord 's Day, contrary to the Decalog, as it seems. Neither is there any example whereof they make more than concerning the changing of the Sabbath - day. Great, say they, is the power of the Church, since it has dispensed with one of the Ten Commandments! '' Lutheran church historian Augustus Neander states "The festival of Sunday, like all other festivals, was always only a human ordinance ''.
Lutheran writer Marva Dawn keeps a whole day as Sabbath, advocating for rest during any weekly complete 24 - hour period and favoring rest from Saturday sunset to Sunday sunset, but regarding corporate worship as "an essential part of God 's Sabbath reclamation. ''
In 1831, Joseph Smith published a revelation commanding his related movement, the formative Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints, to go to the house of prayer, offer up their sacraments, rest from their labors, and pay their devotions on the Lord 's day (D&C 59: 9 -- 12). Mormons believe this means performing no labor that would keep them from giving their full attention to spiritual matters (Ex. 20: 10). LDS prophets have described this as meaning they should not shop, hunt, fish, attend sports events, or participate in similar activities on that day. Elder Spencer W. Kimball wrote in his The Miracle of Forgiveness that mere idle lounging on the Sabbath does not keep the day holy, and that it calls for constructive thoughts and acts.
Mormons are encouraged to prepare their meals with "singleness of heart '' on the Sabbath (D&C 59: 13) and believe the day is only for righteous activities (Is. 58: 13.) In most areas of the world, Mormons worship on Sunday.
The observance of the Lord 's Day (Sunday) as the Christian Sabbath is known as first - day Sabbatarianism and this view was historically heralded by nonconformist denominations, such as Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Methodists, and Baptists, as well as many Episcopalians. First - day sabbatarianism impacted popular Western Christian culture, with influences remaining to the present day, e.g. Sunday laws.
For example, The Westminster Confession, historically upheld by Presbyterians, commands the belief of first - day Sabbatarian doctrine:
As it is the law of nature, that, in general, a due proportion of time be set apart for the worship of God; so, in his Word, by a positive, moral, and perpetual commandment binding all men in all ages, he hath particularly appointed one day in seven, for a Sabbath, to be kept holy unto him: which, from the beginning of the world to the resurrection of Christ, was the last day of the week; and, from the resurrection of Christ, was changed into the first day of the week, which, in Scripture, is called the Lord 's day, and is to be continued to the end of the world, as the Christian Sabbath. This Sabbath is then kept holy unto the Lord, when men, after a due preparing of their hearts, and ordering of their common affairs beforehand, do not only observe a holy rest, all the day, from their own works, words, and thoughts about their worldly employments and recreations, but also are taken up, the whole time, in the public and private exercises of his worship, and in the duties of necessity and mercy.
The Savoy Declaration, upheld by Puritan Congregationalists, as well as the Second London Baptist Confession, upheld by Reformed Baptists, advanced first - day Sabbatarian views identical to those expressed in the Westminster Confession. General Baptists also advocate first - day Sabbatarian doctrine in their confessions of faith; for example, the Treatise on the Faith and Practice of the Free Will Baptists states:
This is one day in seven, which from the creation of the world God has set apart for sacred rest and holy service. Under the former dispensation, the seventh day of the week, as commemorative of the work of creation, was set apart for the Lord 's Day. Under the gospel, the first day of the week, in commemoration of the resurrection of Christ, and by authority of Christ and the apostles, is observed as the Christian Sabbath. On this day all men are required to refrain from secular labor and devote themselves to the worship and service of God.
In keeping with historic Methodism, the Discipline of the Bible Methodist Connection of Churches enshrines first - day Sabbatarianism:
We believe that the Lord 's Day, celebrated on Sunday, the first day of the week, throughout the Christian church, is the Christian sabbath, which we reverently observe as a day of rest and worship and as the continuing memorial of our Savior 's resurrection. For this reason, we abstain from secular work and from all merchandising on this holy day, except that required by mercy or necessity.
Organizations that promote Sunday Sabbatarianism include Day One Christian Ministries (formerly known as the Lord 's Day Observance Society) in the UK. With unwavering support by mainstream Christian denominations, Sabbatarian organizations were formed, such as the American Sabbath Union (also known as the Lord 's Day Alliance) and the Sunday League of America, following the American Civil War, to preserve the importance of Sunday as the Christian Sabbath. Founded in 1888, the Lord 's Day Alliance continues to "encourage all people to recognize and observe a day of Sabbath rest and to worship the risen Lord Jesus Christ, on the Lord 's Day, Sunday ''. The Board of Managers of the Lord 's Day Alliance is composed of clergy and laity from Christian churches, including Baptist, Catholic, Episcopalian, Friends, Lutheran, Methodist, Non-Denominationalist, Orthodox, Presbyterian, and Reformed traditions. The Woman 's Christian Temperance Union also supports Sabbatarian views and worked to reflect these in the public sphere. In Canada, the Lord 's Day Alliance (renamed the People for Sunday Association of Canada) was founded there and it lobbied successfully to pass in 1906 the Lord 's Day Act, which was not repealed until 1985. Throughout their history, Sabbatarian organizations, such as the Lord 's Day Alliance, have mounted campaigns, with support in both Canada and Britain from labour unions with the goals of preventing secular and commercial interests from hampering freedom of worship and preventing them from exploiting workers.
The founder of the Moody Bible Institute declares, "Sabbath was binding in Eden, and it has been in force ever since. This fourth commandment begins with the word ' remember, ' showing that the Sabbath already existed when God wrote the law on the tables of stone at Sinai. How can men claim that this one commandment has been done away with when they will admit that the other nine are still binding? ''
Seventh - day Protestants regard Sabbath as a day of rest for all mankind and not Israel alone, based on Jesus 's statement, "the Sabbath was made for man '' (i.e., purposed for humankind at the time of its creation, Mark 2: 27, cf. Heb. 4), and on early - church Sabbath meetings. Seventh - day Sabbatarianism has been criticized as an effort to combine Old Testament laws, practiced in Judaism, with Christianity, or to revive the Judaizers of the Epistles or the Ebionites.
Seventh - day Sabbatarians practice a strict seventh - day Sabbath observance, similar to Shabbat in Judaism. John Traske (1586 -- 1636) and Thomas Brabourne first advocated seventh - day Sabbatarianism in England. Their ideas gave rise to the Seventh Day Baptists, formed in early 17th - century in England. Samuel and Tacy Hubbard began the first American congregation on Rhode Island in 1671.
Grace Communion International (Armstrongism) taught seventh - day Sabbath observance. The United Church of God teaches seventh - day Sabbath observance.
The Seventh - day Adventist Church arose in the mid-19th century in America after Rachel Oakes, a Seventh Day Baptist, gave a tract about the Sabbath to an Adventist Millerite, who passed it on to Ellen G. White.
Fundamental Belief # 20 of the Seventh - day Adventist Church states:
The beneficent Creator, after the six days of Creation, rested on the seventh day and instituted the Sabbath for all people as a memorial of Creation. The fourth commandment of God 's unchangeable law requires the observance of this seventh - day Sabbath as the day of rest, worship, and ministry in harmony with the teaching and practice of Jesus, the Lord of the Sabbath. The Sabbath is a day of delightful communion with God and one another. It is a symbol of our redemption in Christ, a sign of our sanctification, a token of our allegiance, and a foretaste of our eternal future in God 's kingdom. The Sabbath is God 's perpetual sign of His eternal covenant between Him and His people. Joyful observance of this holy time from evening to evening, sunset to sunset, is a celebration of God 's creative and redemptive acts. (Gen. 2: 1 - 3; Ex. 20: 8 - 11; Luke 4: 16; Isa. 56: 5, Isa. 6; Isa. 58: 13, Isa. 14; Matt. 12: 1 - 12; Ex. 31: 13 - 17; Eze. 20: 12, Eze. 20; Deut. 5: 12 - 15; Heb. 4: 1 - 11; Lev. 23: 32; Mark 1: 32.)
By synecdoche the term "Sabbath '' in the New Testament may also mean simply a "se'nnight '' or seven - day week, namely, the interval between two Sabbaths. Jesus 's parable of the Pharisee and the Publican describes the Pharisee as fasting "twice a week '' (Greek dis tou sabbatou, literally, "twice of the Sabbath '').
Seven annual Biblical festivals, called by the name miqra ("called assembly '') in Hebrew and "High Sabbath '' in English, serve as supplemental testimonies to Sabbath. These are recorded in the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy and do not necessarily occur on the Sabbath. They are observed by Jews and a minority of Christians. Three of them occur in spring: the first and seventh days of Passover, and Pentecost. Four occur in fall, in the seventh month, and are also called Shabbaton: the Feast of Trumpets; Yom Kippur, "Sabbath of Sabbaths ''; and the first and eighth days of Tabernacles.
The year of Shmita (Hebrew שמיטה, literally, "release ''), also called Sabbatical Year, is the seventh year of the seven - year agricultural cycle mandated by the Torah for the Land of Israel. During Shmita, the land is to be left to lie fallow. A second aspect of Shmita concerns debts and loans: when the year ends, personal debts are considered nullified and forgiven.
Jewish Shabbat is a weekly day of rest cognate to Christian Sabbath, observed from sundown on Friday until the appearance of three stars in the sky on Saturday night; it is also observed by a minority of Christians. Customarily, Shabbat is ushered in by lighting candles shortly before sunset, at halakhicallly calculated times that change from week to week and from place to place.
The new moon, occurring every 29 or 30 days, is an important separately sanctioned occasion in Judaism and some other faiths. It is not widely regarded as Sabbath, but some Hebrew Roots and Pentecostal churches, such as the native New Israelites of Peru and the Creation Seventh Day Adventist Church, do keep the day of the new moon as Sabbath or rest day, from evening to evening. New - moon services can last all day.
In South Africa, Christian Boers have celebrated December 16, now called the Day of Reconciliation, as annual Sabbath (holy day of thanksgiving) since 1838, commemorating a famous Boer victory over the Zulu Kingdom.
Many early Christian writers from the 2nd century, such as pseudo-Barnabas, Irenaeus, Justin Martyr and Hippolytus of Rome followed rabbinic Judaism (the Mishna) in interpreting Sabbath not as a literal day of rest, but as a thousand - year reign of Jesus Christ, which would follow six millennia of world history.
Secular use of "Sabbath '' for "rest day '', while it usually refers to Sunday, is often stated in North America to refer to different purposes for the rest day than those of Christendom. In McGowan v. Maryland (1961), the Supreme Court of the United States held that contemporary Maryland blue laws (typically, Sunday rest laws) were intended to promote the secular values of "health, safety, recreation, and general well - being '' through a common day of rest, and that this day coinciding with majority Christian Sabbath neither reduces its effectiveness for secular purposes nor prevents adherents of other religions from observing their own holy days.
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by applying continuous line to create shading light effect is called | Shading - wikipedia
Shading refers to depicting depth perception in 3D models or illustrations by varying levels of darkness.
Shading is used in drawing for depicting levels of darkness on paper by applying media more densely or with a darker shade for darker areas, and less densely or with a lighter shade for lighter areas. There are various techniques of shading including cross hatching where perpendicular lines of varying closeness are drawn in a grid pattern to shade an area. The closer the lines are together, the darker the area appears. Likewise, the farther apart the lines are, the lighter the area appears.
Light patterns, such as objects having light and shaded areas, help when creating the illusion of depth on paper.
Powder shading is a sketching shading method. In this style, the stumping powder and paper stumps are used to draw a picture. This can be in color. The stumping powder is smooth and does n't have any shiny particles. The paper to be used should have small grains on it so that the powder remains on the paper.
In computer graphics, shading refers to the process of altering the color of an object / surface / polygon in the 3D scene, based on things like (but not limited to) the surface 's angle to lights, its distance from lights, its angle to the camera and material properties (e.g. bidirectional reflectance distribution function) to create a photorealistic effect. Shading is performed during the rendering process by a program called a shader.
Shading alters the colors of faces in a 3D model based on the angle of the surface to a light source or light sources.
The first image below has the faces of the box rendered, but all in the same color. Edge lines have been rendered here as well which makes the image easier to see.
The second image is the same model rendered without edge lines. It is difficult to tell where one face of the box ends and the next begins.
The third image has shading enabled, which makes the image more realistic and makes it easier to see which face is which.
Shading is also dependent on the lighting used. Usually, upon rendering a scene a number of different lighting techniques will be used to make the rendering look more realistic. Different types of light sources are used to give different effects.
An ambient light source represents an omni - directional, fixed - intensity and fixed - color light source that affects all objects in the scene equally. Upon rendering, all objects in the scene are brightened with the specified intensity and color. This type of light source is mainly used to provide the scene with a basic view of the different objects in it. This is the simplest type of lighting to implement and models how light can be scattered or reflected many times producing a uniform effect.
Ambient lighting can be combined with ambient occlusion to represent how exposed each point of the scene is, affecting the amount of ambient light it can reflect. This produces diffuse, non-directional lighting throughout the scene, casting no clear shadows, but with enclosed and sheltered areas darkened. The result is usually visually similar to an overcast day.
A directional light source illuminates all objects equally from a given direction, like an area light of infinite size and infinite distance from the scene; there is shading, but can not be any distance falloff.
Light originates from a single point, and spreads outward in all directions.
Models a Spotlight. Light originates from a single point, and spreads outward in a cone.
Light originates from a small area on a single plane. A more realistic model than a point light source.
Light originating from a small volume, an enclosed space lighting objects within that space.
Shading is interpolated based on how the angle of these light sources reach the objects within a scene. Of course, these light sources can be and often are combined in a scene. The renderer then interpolates how these lights must be combined, and produces a 2d image to be displayed on the screen accordingly.
Theoretically, two surfaces which are parallel are illuminated the same amount from a distant light source, such as the sun. Even though one surface is further away, your eye sees more of it in the same space, so the illumination appears the same.
The left image does n't use distance falloff. Notice that the colors on the front faces of the two boxes are exactly the same. It appears that there is a slight difference where the two faces meet, but this is an optical illusion caused by the vertical edge below where the two faces meet.
The right image uses distance falloff. Notice that the front face of the front box is brighter than the front face of the back box. Also, the floor goes from light to dark as it gets farther away.
This distance falloff effect produces images which appear more realistic.
Distance falloff can be calculated in a number of ways:
When calculating the brightness of a surface during rendering, our illumination model requires that we know the surface normal. However, a 3D model is usually described by a polygon mesh, which may only store the surface normal at a limited number of points, usually either in the vertices, in the polygon faces, or in both. To get around this problem, one of a number of interpolation techniques can be used.
Here, a color is calculated for one point on each polygon (usually for the first vertex in the polygon, but sometimes for the centroid for triangle meshes), based on the polygon 's surface normal and on the assumption that all polygons are flat. The color everywhere else is then interpolated by coloring all points on a polygon the same as the point for which the color was calculated, giving each polygon a uniform color (similar to in nearest - neighbor interpolation). It is usually used for high speed rendering where more advanced shading techniques are too computationally expensive. As a result of flat shading all of the polygon 's vertices are colored with one color, allowing differentiation between adjacent polygons. Specular highlights are rendered poorly with flat shading: If there happens to be a large specular component at the representative vertex, that brightness is drawn uniformly over the entire face. If a specular highlight does n't fall on the representative point, it is missed entirely. Consequently, the specular reflection component is usually not included in flat shading computation.
In contrast to flat shading where the colors change discontinuously at polygon borders, with smooth shading the color changes from pixel to pixel, resulting in a smooth color transition between two adjacent polygons. Usually, values are first calculated in the vertices and bilinear interpolation is then used to calculate the values of pixels between the vertices of the polygons.
Types of smooth shading include:
Phong shading is similar to Gouraud shading, except that instead of interpolating the light intensities, the normals are interpolated between the vertices. Thus, the specular highlights are computed much more precisely than in the Gouraud shading model:
Both Gouraud shading and Phong shading can be implemented using bilinear interpolation. Bishop and Weimer proposed to use a Taylor series expansion of the resulting expression from applying an illumination model and bilinear interpolation of the normals. Hence, second degree polynomial interpolation was used. This type of biquadratic interpolation was further elaborated by Barrera et al., where one second order polynomial was used to interpolate the diffuse light of the Phong reflection model and another second order polynomial was used for the specular light.
Spherical Linear Interpolation (Slerp) was used by Kuij and Blake for computing both the normal over the polygon as well as the vector in the direction to the light source. A similar approach was proposed by Hast, which uses Quaternion interpolation of the normals with the advantage that the normal will always have unit length and the computationally heavy normalization is avoided.
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when did coventry become part of west midlands | Coventry - wikipedia
Coventry (/ ˈkɒvəntri / (listen)) is a city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands, England.
Historically part of Warwickshire, Coventry is the 9th largest city in England and the 12th largest in the United Kingdom. It is the second largest city in the West Midlands region, after Birmingham, with a population of 345,385 in 2015.
Coventry is 19 miles (31 km) east - southeast of Birmingham, 24 miles (39 km) southwest of Leicester, 11 miles (18 km) north of Warwick and 95 miles (153 km) northwest of central London.
Coventry Cathedral was built after the destruction of the 14th century cathedral church of Saint Michael by the Luftwaffe in the Coventry Blitz of 14 November 1940. Coventry motor companies have contributed significantly to the British motor industry. The city has two universities, Coventry University in the city centre and the University of Warwick on the southern outskirts.
The Romans founded a settlement in Baginton, next to the River Sowe, and another formed around a Saxon nunnery, founded c. AD 700 by St Osburga, that was later left in ruins by King Canute 's invading Danish army in 1016. Earl Leofric of Mercia and his wife Lady Godiva built on the remains of the nunnery and founded a Benedictine monastery in 1043 dedicated to St Mary. In time, a market was established at the abbey gates and the settlement expanded.
Coventry Castle was a motte and bailey castle in the city. It was built in the early 12th century by Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester. Its first known use was during The Anarchy when Robert Marmion, a supporter of King Stephen, expelled the monks from the adjacent priory of Saint Mary and converted it into a fortress from which he waged a battle against the Earl. Marmion perished in the battle. It was demolished in the late 12th century and St Mary 's Guildhall was built on part of the site. It is assumed the name "Broadgate '' comes from the area around the castle gates.
By the 14th century, Coventry was an important centre of the cloth trade, and throughout the Middle Ages was one of the largest and most important cities in England. The bishops of Lichfield were often referred to as bishops of Coventry and Lichfield, or Lichfield and Coventry (from 1102 to 1541). Coventry claimed the status of a city by ancient prescriptive usage, was granted a charter of incorporation in 1345, and in 1451 became a county in its own right. The plays that William Shakespeare witnessed in Coventry during his boyhood or ' teens ' may have influenced how his plays, such as Hamlet, came about.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, Coventry became one of the three main British centres of watch and clock manufacture and ranked alongside Prescot, in Lancashire and Clerkenwell in London. As the industry declined, due mainly to competition from Swiss Made clock and watch manufacturers, the skilled pool of workers proved crucial to the setting up of bicycle manufacture and eventually the motorbike, car, machine tool and aircraft industries.
In the late 19th century, Coventry became a major centre of bicycle manufacture. The industry energised by the invention by James Starley and his nephew John Kemp Starley of the Rover safety bicycle, which was safer and more popular than the pioneering penny - farthing. The company became Rover. By the early 20th century, bicycle manufacture had evolved into motor manufacture, and Coventry became a major centre of the British motor industry. The design headquarters of Jaguar Cars is in the city at their Whitley plant and although vehicle assembly ceased at the Browns Lane plant in 2004, Jaguar 's head office returned to the city in 2011, and is also sited in Whitley. Jaguar is owned by the Indian company, Tata Motors.
With many of the city 's older properties becoming increasingly unfit for habitation, the first council houses were let to their tenants in 1917. With Coventry 's industrial base continuing to soar after the end of the Great War a year later, numerous private and council housing developments took place across the city in the 1920s and 1930s. The development of a southern by - pass around the city, starting in the 1930s and being completed in 1940, helped deliver more urban areas to the city on previously rural land.
Coventry suffered severe bomb damage during the Second World War. There was a massive Luftwaffe air raid that the Germans called operation moonlight sonata that was part of the "Coventry Blitz '', on 14 November 1940. Firebombing on this date led to severe damage to large areas of the city centre and to Coventry 's historic cathedral, leaving only a shell and the spire. More than 4,000 houses were damaged or destroyed, along with around three quarters of the city 's industrial plants. More than 800 people were killed, with thousands injured and homeless.
Aside from London, Hull and Plymouth, Coventry suffered more damage than any other British city during the Luftwaffe attacks, with huge firestorms devastating most of the city centre. The city was probably targeted due to its high concentration of armaments, munitions, aircraft and aero - engine plants which contributed greatly to the British war effort, although there have been claims that Hitler launched the attack as revenge for the bombing of Munich by the RAF six days before the Coventry Blitz and chose the Midlands city because its medieval heart was regarded as one of the finest in Britain. Following the raids, the majority of Coventry 's historic buildings could not be saved as they were in ruinous states or were deemed unsafe for any future use. Several structures were demolished simply to make way for modern developments which saw the city centre 's buildings and road infrastructure altered almost beyond recognition by 1970.
Further housing developments in the private and public sector took place after the Second World War, partly to accommodate the growing population of the city and also to replace condemned and bomb damaged properties, including a major prefabricated housing district in south Canley which exists to this day.
In the post-war years Coventry was largely rebuilt under the general direction of the Gibson Plan, gaining a new pedestrianised shopping precinct (the first of its kind in Europe on such a scale) and in 1962 Sir Basil Spence 's much - celebrated new St Michael 's Cathedral (incorporating one of the world 's largest tapestries) was consecrated. Its prefabricated steel spire (flèche) was lowered into place by helicopter.
Major expansion to Coventry had taken place previously, in the 1920s and 1930s, to provide housing for the large influx of workers who came to work in the city 's booming factories. The areas which were expanded or created in this development included Radford, Coundon, Canley, Cheylesmore and Stoke Heath.
Coventry 's motor industry boomed during the 1950s and 1960s and Coventry enjoyed a ' golden age '. During this period the disposable income of Coventrians was amongst the highest in the country and both the sports and the arts benefited. A new sports centre, with one of the few Olympic standard swimming pools in the UK, was constructed and Coventry City Football Club reached the First Division of English Football. The Belgrade Theatre was also constructed along with the Herbert Art Gallery. Coventry 's pedestrianised Precinct shopping area came into its own and was considered one of the finest retail experiences outside London. In 1965 the new University of Warwick campus was opened to students, and rapidly became one of the country 's leading higher - education institutions.
Coventry 's large industrial base made it attractive to the wave of Asian and Caribbean immigrants who arrived from Commonwealth colonies after 1948. In 1960, one of Britain 's first mosques -- and the very first in Coventry -- was opened on Eagle Street to serve the city 's growing Islamic community. The 1970s, however, saw a decline in the British motor industry and Coventry suffered particularly badly, especially towards the end of that decade. By the early 1980s, Coventry had one of the highest unemployment rates in the country and crime rates rose well above the national average. Some 30 years later, Coventry is now considered as one of the UK 's safer major cities and has gradually recovered economically with newer industries locating there, although the motor industry continues to decline. By 2008, only one motor manufacturing plant was operational, that of LTI Ltd, producing the popular TX4 taxi cabs. On 17 March 2010 LTI announced they would no longer be producing bodies and chassis in Coventry, instead producing them in China and shipping them in for final assembly in Coventry.
On the sporting scene, Coventry Rugby Football Club was consistently among the nation 's leading rugby football sides from the early 20th century, peaking in the 1970s and 1980s with a host of major honours and international players. Association football, on the other hand, was scarcely a claim to fame until 1967, when Coventry City F.C. finally won promotion to the top flight of English football as champions of the Football League Second Division. They would stay among the elite for the next 34 years, reaching their pinnacle with FA Cup glory in 1987 -- the first and to date only major trophy in the club 's history. Their long stay in the top flight of English football ended in relegation in 2001, and in 2012 they were relegated again to the third tier of English football. Highfield Road, to the east of the city centre, was Coventry City 's home for 106 years from 1899. They finally departed from the stadium in 2005 on their relocation to the 32,600 - seat Ricoh Arena some three miles (4.8 kilometres) to the north of the city centre, in the Rowleys Green district. Since 2000, the city has also been home to one of the most successful Ice Hockey teams in the country, the Coventry Blaze who are four time Elite League champions.
Coventry forms the largest part of the Coventry and Bedworth Urban Area.
The protected West Midlands Green Belt, which surrounds the city on all sides, has prevented the expansion of the city into both the administrative county of Warwickshire and the metropolitan borough of Solihull (the Meriden Gap), and has helped to prevent the coalescence of the city with surrounding towns such as Kenilworth, Nuneaton, Leamington Spa, Warwick, Rugby and Balsall Common.
Panoramic views of Coventry City Centre from the Cathedral Tower
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St. Michael 's Cathedral is Coventry 's best - known landmark and visitor attraction. The 14th century church was largely destroyed by German bombing during the Second World War, leaving only the outer walls and spire. At 300 feet (91 metres) high, the spire of St. Michael 's is claimed to be the third tallest cathedral spire in England, after Salisbury and Norwich. Due to the architectural design (in 1940 the tower had no internal wooden floors and a stone vault below the belfry) it survived the destruction of the rest of the cathedral. The new Coventry Cathedral was opened in 1962 next to the ruins of the old. It was designed by Sir Basil Spence. The cathedral contains the tapestry Christ in Glory by Graham Sutherland. The bronze statue St Michael 's Victory over the Devil by Jacob Epstein is mounted on the exterior of the new cathedral near the entrance. Benjamin Britten 's War Requiem, regarded by some as his masterpiece, was written for the opening of the new cathedral. The cathedral was featured in the 2009 film Nativity!.
The spire of the ruined cathedral forms one of the "three spires '' which have dominated the city skyline since the 14th century, the others being those of Christ Church (of which only the spire survives) and Holy Trinity Church (which is still in use).
The Herbert Art Gallery and Museum is one of the largest cultural institutions in Coventry. Another visitor attraction in the city centre is the free - to - enter Coventry Transport Museum, which has the largest collection of British - made road vehicles in the world. The most notable exhibits are the world speed record - breaking cars, Thrust2 and ThrustSSC The museum received a refurbishment in 2004 which included the creation of a new entrance as part of the city 's Phoenix Initiative project. It was a finalist for the 2005 Gulbenkian Prize.
About four miles (6.4 kilometres) from the city centre and just outside Coventry in Baginton is the Lunt Fort, a reconstructed Roman fort on its original site. The Midland Air Museum is situated just within the perimeter of Coventry on land adjacent to Coventry Airport and near Baginton.
Coventry was one of the main centres of watchmaking during the 18th and 19th centuries and as the industry declined, the skilled workers were key to setting up the cycle trade. A group of local enthusiasts founded a museum in Spon Street.
The city 's main police station in Little Park Street also hosts a museum of Coventry 's police force. The museum, based underground, is split into two sections -- one representing the history of the city 's police force, and the other compiling some of the more unusual, interesting and grisly cases from the force 's history. The museum is funded from charity donations -- viewings can be made by appointment.
Coventry City Farm was a small farm in an urban setting. It was mainly to educate city children who might not get out to the countryside very often. The farm closed in 2008 due to funding problems.
Major improvements continue to regenerate the city centre. The Phoenix Initiative, which was designed by MJP Architects, reached the final shortlist for the 2004 RIBA Stirling Prize and has now won a total of 16 separate awards. It was published in the book ' Phoenix: Architecture / Art / Regeneration ' in 2004. Further major developments are potentially afoot, particularly the Swanswell Project, which is intended to deepen Swanswell Pool and link it to Coventry Canal Basin, coupled with the creation of an urban marina and a wide Parisian - style boulevard. A possible second phase of the Phoenix Initiative is also in the offing, although both of these plans are still on the drawing - board. On 16 December 2007, IKEA 's first city centre store in the UK was opened, in Coventry.
The River Sherbourne runs under Coventry 's city centre; the river was paved over during the rebuilding after the Second World War and is not commonly known. When the new rebuild of Coventry city centre takes place from 2017 onwards, it is planned that river will be re-opened, and a river walk way will be placed alongside it in parts of the city centre. In April 2012, the pedestrianisation of Broadgate was completed.
Coventry and Stalingrad (now Volgograd) were the world 's first ' twin ' cities when they established a twinning relationship during the Second World War. The relationship developed through ordinary people in Coventry who wanted to show their support for the Soviet Red Army during the Battle of Stalingrad. The city was also subsequently twinned with Dresden, as a gesture of peace and reconciliation following the Second World War. Each twin city country is represented in a specific ward of the city and in each ward has a peace garden dedicated to that twin city. Coventry is now twinned with 26 places across the world:
Coventry Cathedral is notable for being one of the newest cathedrals in the world, having been built following the Second World War bombing of the ancient cathedral by the Luftwaffe. Coventry has since developed an international reputation as one of Europe 's major cities of peace and reconciliation, centred on its cathedral, and holds an annual Peace Month. John Lennon and Yoko Ono planted two acorns outside the cathedral in June 1968 to thank the city for making friends with others.
As with the rest of the British Isles and the Midlands, Coventry experiences a maritime climate with cool summers and mild winters. The nearest Met Office weather station is Coundon / Coventry Bablake. Temperature extremes recorded in Coventry range from − 18.2 ° C (− 0.8 ° F) in February 1947, to 35.1 ° C (95.2 ° F) in August 1990. The lowest temperature reading of recent years was − 10.8 ° C (12.6 ° F) during December 2010.
Coventry has two universities; Coventry University is situated on a modern city centre campus while the University of Warwick lies 3 ⁄ miles (5.6 kilometres) to the south of the city centre, mostly within Coventry and straddling the border with Warwickshire. The University of Warwick is one of only five universities never to have been rated outside the top ten in terms of teaching excellence and research and is a member of the prestigious Russell Group. A team from the university won the BBC TV University Challenge trophy in April 2007. Coventry University is one of only a handful of universities to run a degree course in automotive design in the Coventry School of Art and Design
Coventry also has three further education colleges within city boundaries, City College, Henley College and Hereward College.
Many of the secondary schools in and around Coventry are specialist colleges, such as Finham Park School, which is a mathematics and IT college, a teacher training school and the only school in Coventry to offer studying the International Baccalaureate, and Coventry Blue Coat Church of England School which has recently become a specialist college of music, one of only a few in the country. Cardinal Wiseman Catholic School and Language College specialises in languages. Bishop Ullathorne RC School became a specialist college in humanities in 2006. Woodlands School in Coventry is now also a sports college, which has a newly built sport centre. Ernesford Grange Community Academy, in the south east, is a specialist science college. Coundon Court School is a Technology College. Pattison College, a private school opened in 1949, specialises in the performing arts. There is also Caludon Castle School, a business and enterprise school, which has been rebuilt over 2005 -- 07. Exhall Grange School and Science College is in the north of the city, although, its catchment area is north Warwickshire. There is also Cardinal Newman Catholic School and Community College.
Coventry has a variety of schools: Two of the oldest secondary schools being President Kennedy School and Community College founded in 1966 and located in the north - west of Coventry (currently undergoing rebuilding work) and Sidney Stringer Academy which is located in the centre of the city. It is a co-educational school and has moved into a larger building costing £ 28 million.
The Coventry School Foundation comprises the independent schools King Henry VIII School and Bablake School together with King Henry VIII Preparatory School.
The Woodlands School, which is an all - boys ' school, and Tile Hill Wood School are the only single - sex schools left in Coventry. However, their sixth forms have merged to form the "West Coventry 6th Form ''. The Westwood Academy joined in 2013 and lessons take place in mixed classes on all three sites.
The Westwood Academy, which is a Technology College, is close to the University of Warwick. It is the only school in Coventry that is a CISCO Academy and has links with other educational establishments, industry and the local community.
Sherbourne Fields School is an educational special needs school for young people with physical disabilities and is located in the Coundon area. It opened in the 1960s and there are now discussions as to whether to close this school.
During the late - 1970s and early 80s, Coventry was the centre of the Two Tone musical phenomenon, with bands such as the Specials and the Selecter coming from the city, spawning several major hit singles and albums. The Specials achieved two UK number 1 hit singles between 1979 -- 81, namely "Too Much Too Young '' and "Ghost Town ''.
Coventry has a range of music events including an international jazz programme, the Coventry Jazz Festival, and the Godiva Festival. On the Saturday of the Godiva Festival, a carnival parade starts in the city centre and makes its way to War Memorial Park where the festival is held.
In the film The Italian Job, the famous scene of Mini Coopers being driven at speed through Turin 's sewers was actually filmed in Coventry, using what were then the country 's biggest sewer pipes, that were accessible because they were being installed. More recently various locations in Coventry have been used in the BAFTA nominated film The Bouncer starring Ray Winstone, All in the Game, also starring Ray Winstone (Ricoh Arena), the medical TV series Angels (Walsgrave Hospital), the BBC sitcom Keeping Up Appearances (Stoke Aldermoor and Binley Woods districts) and in August 2006 scenes from "The Shakespeare Code '', an episode of the third series of Doctor Who, were filmed in the grounds of Ford 's Hospital. The 2013 ITV comedy - drama Love and Marriage was also set in the city. Coventry is home to three major feature films the Nativity! franchise which are all shot and set in the city. These Christmas films have all reached top box office spots on their release in UK cinemas. Their writer and director the Bafta award - winning Debbie Isitt is resident in the city.
Coventry Godcakes are a regional delicacy, originating from the 14th century and still baked today.
Theatre, art and music venues in Coventry include:
The local radio stations include:
The main local newspapers are:
The city is covered on regional TV News by:
The only professional football team representing the city are Coventry City F.C., formed in 1883 as "Singers F.C. ''. Nicknamed the Sky Blues, the club competes in Football League Two (fourth tier of English football), but spent 34 years from 1967 to 2001 in the top tier of English football, winning the FA Cup in 1987. They were founder members of the Premier League in 1992. Their stadium is the 32,600 capacity Ricoh Arena, which opened in the Foleshill district of the city in 2005. The 2013 -- 14 season saw the football club begin a ground share with Northampton Town F.C. at Sixfields Stadium, Northampton, which lasted until their return to the Ricoh Arena in September 2014.
Aside from Coventry City F.C. there are several other clubs in the city playing non-league football. Coventry Sphinx, Alvis Sporting Club, Coventry Copsewood and Coventry United all play in the Midland Football League.
Both Coventry University and the University of Warwick compete in the British Universities and Colleges Sport (BUCS) football competitions. For the 2014 -- 15 season, the Coventry University men 's 1st team compete in BUCS Midlands 1a, while the University of Warwick men 's 1st team compete in BUCS Midlands 2a. Both institutions ' women 's 1st teams both play in BUCS Midlands 2a.
At the beginning of the 2014 -- 15 season, there were 13 clubs based in Coventry, playing at various levels of the English rugby union system. However, on 21 December 2014, this rose to 14, when Aviva Premiership club Wasps played their first home game at the Ricoh Arena, completing their relocation to the city. This followed Wasps ' purchase of Arena Coventry Limited (the company which runs the Ricoh Arena). The club announced that they will build a new ' state of the art ' training complex in the area by 2016.
Coventry Rugby Football Club play in National League 1, the third tier of the English rugby union system. The club enjoyed national success during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, with many of its players playing for their countries, notable players include Ivor Preece, Peter Jackson, David Duckham, Fran Cotton and Danny Grewcock. From 1921 to 2004 the club played at Coundon Road Stadium. Their current home ground is the Butts Park Arena, which was opened in 2004.
Broadstreet R.F.C are the only other club to play in a ' National league ', currently playing in National Division 2 North.
There are a further 11 clubs playing in the Midland divisions of the English Rugby Union system. As of April 2015, they will include Barkers Butts RFC, Dunlop RFC, Earlsdon RFC, Pinley, Old Coventrians, Coventrians, Coventry Welsh, Stoke Old Boys RFC, Copsewood RFC, Keresley RFC, and Trinity Guild RFC.
Both Coventry University and the University of Warwick compete in the British Universities and Colleges Sport (BUCS) Rugby competitions.
Coventry Bears are the major rugby league team in the city. As of the 2015 season, the Bears will compete in the Kingstone Press League 1, as a fully professional team in the third tier of Rugby League. They play their matches at the Butts Park Arena
In 2002, the Bears won the Rugby League Conference, and took the step up to the national leagues. In 2004, they won the National Division 3 title and have appeared in the Challenge Cup. In 2015 the Bears entered their reserve team into the Conference League South league, a level below the first team under the name Coventry Bears Reserves playing home games at the Xcel Leisure Centre
Both Coventry University and the University of Warwick compete in the British Universities and Colleges Sport (BUCS) Midlands 1a competition.
The Coventry Bees are based at Brandon Stadium (also known as Coventry Stadium). The stadium is located just outside the city in the village of Brandon, Warwickshire (6 miles (9.7 kilometres) to the east of the city). The stadium has operated both sides of the Second World War. Before the Second World War speedway also operated for a short time at Foleshill Stadium, off Lythalls Lane in the city. Between 1998 and 2000, Coventry Stadium hosted the Speedway Grand Prix of Great Britain. The Bees started in 1948 and have operated continuously ever since. They started out in the National League Division Three before moving up to the Second Division and, later to the top flight. They have operated at this level ever since (currently known as the SGB Premiership). The Bees have been crowned League Champions on 9 occasions (1953, 1968, 1978, 1979, 1987, 1988, 2005, 2007 and 2010).
Amongst the top speedway riders who have represented Coventry teams are Tom Farndon, Jack Parker, Arthur Forrest, Nigel Boocock, Kelvin Tatum, Chris Harris, Emil Sayfutdinov and World Champions Ole Olsen, Hans Nielsen, Greg Hancock, Billy Hamill and Jack Young.
In 2007, the Bees won the domestic speedway treble of Elite League, Knock - out Cup and Craven Shield, while Chris Harris won both the Speedway Grand Prix of Great Britain and the British Championship. The Bees retained the Craven Shield in 2008, and Chris Harris added further British Championship victories in both 2009 and 2010. The Elite League Championship Trophy returned to Brandon in 2010 when the Bees convincingly beat Poole Pirates in the play - off finals.
The Coventry Storm, an offshoot of the senior team, currently compete in the National League.
The Coventry Blaze (currently known as the Genting Casino Coventry Blaze, for sponsorship reasons) are one of the founding team of the Elite Ice Hockey League. They compete in the Erhardt Conference and play their matches at the SkyDome Arena. In 2002 -- 2003, they won the British National League and Playoffs. They have won the Elite League Championship four times (2005, 2007, 2008 and 2010). The team has twice won the British Challenge Cup, in 2005 & 2007. The 2004 -- 05 EIHL season saw the club win the Grandslam (namely the Championship, the Challenge Cup and the Playoffs). To date, they remain the only team since the formation of the Elite League to achieve this feat. The club remains the most successful club in the Elite League era. The club also run a successful academy system, developing the young players of Coventry, Warwickshire and beyond.
The NIHL Coventry Blaze, an offshoot of the senior team and official affiliate of the Blaze, currently compete in the National Ice Hockey League.
The Coventry Phoenix are the city 's only women 's team; currently competing in Division One (North) of the British Women 's Leagues. There are also several recreational ice hockey teams (male and female) that play in the city.
The Coventry and Warwick Panthers are members of the British Universities Ice Hockey Association. The ' A ' team compete in "Checking 1 South '', ' B ' in "Non-Checking 1 South '' and ' C ' in "Non-Checking 2 South ''.
Coventry Stadium has held BriSCA Formula 1 Stock Cars since 1954, the longest serving track in the UK to race continuously. The first meeting was held on 30 June 1954, the first heat being won by Percy ' Hellcat ' Brine, he also won the meeting Final. Up to the end of 2013 the stadium had held 483 BriSCA F1 meetings. It has held the BriSCA Formula 1 Stock Cars World Championship many times since 1960.
The city 's current leading cricket club is Coventry and North Warwickshire Cricket Club. Its 1st and 2nd cricket XIs were, as of 2014, in the Birmingham and District Premier League 2nd and 1st Divisions respectively. The cricket teams play their home games at the club 's ground in Binley Road, Coventry.
Historically, First class county games were played by Warwickshire at the Courtaulds Ground from 1949 up to 1982. After Courtaulds ground was closed, Warwickshire played several games at Coventry and North Warwickshire Cricket Club at Binley Road.
The Coventry Godiva Harriers, established in 1879 are the leading athletics club in the area. The club has numerous athletes competing for championships both nationally and internationally. Notable members (past and present) include:
A field hockey club in the city is Coventry & North Warwickshire Hockey Club, which was established in 1895. Based at the Coventry University Sports Ground, the club runs 4 men 's and two ladies ' sides, as well as a junior section.
The men 's first XI currently compete in Midlands Division 1 of the Midland Regional Hockey Association (MHRA), while the ladies ' first XI compete in Warwickshire Women 's Hockey League Division 1.
Other teams in the city include:
The University of Warwick field men 's teams both in the MHRA and the British Universities and Colleges Sport (BUCS) hockey competitions. They compete in MHRA Midlands 2 and in BUCS Midlands 2b. The women 's first XI compete in BUCS Midlands 3a. Coventry University men 's first XI play in BUCS Midlands 3b, while the women 's first XI compete in BUCS Midlands 2a.
In 2005, Coventry became the first city in the UK to host the International Children 's Games and three of the city sports teams won significant honours. The Blaze won the treble consisting of Elite League, playoff and Challenge Cup; the Jets won the BAFL Division 2 championship and were undefeated all season; and the Bees won the Elite League playoffs.
Coventry is well known for the legendary 11th century exploits of Lady Godiva who rode through the city naked on horseback in protest at high taxes being levied on the cityfolk by her husband Leofric, Earl of Mercia. The residents of the city were commanded to look away as she rode, but one man did not and was allegedly struck blind. He became known as Peeping Tom thus originating a new idiom, or metonym, in English. There is a Grade II * listed statue of her in the city centre, which for 18 years had been underneath a Cathedral Lanes shopping centre canopy, removed in October 2008. There is also a bust of Peeping Tom looking out across Hertford Street shopping precinct, and overlooking Broadgate and the statue of Godiva is a clock where, at every hour, Lady Godiva appears on her horse while being watched by Peeping Tom.
The Labour politician Mo Mowlam was educated in Coventry; trade union organiser Tom Mann and National Socialist Movement leader Colin Jordan also came from the city. The statesman and founder of modern Australia, Sir Henry Parkes, was born in Canley in 1815.
Coventry has been the home to several pioneers in science and engineering. Samuel Courtauld and Co Ltd 's director H.G. Tetley chose Foleshill in Coventry in 1904 as the site of the world 's first man - made fibre factory which produced an "artificial silk '' later known as viscose rayon. In 1987, also in Foleshill, Courtaulds Research produced the world 's first solvent - spun cellulose fibres Tencel.
Sir Frank Whittle, the inventor of the jet engine, was from the city, as was the inventor James Starley, instrumental in the development of the bicycle and his nephew J.K. Starley, who worked alongside his uncle and went on to found car company Rover. Cyborg scientist Kevin Warwick is also a Coventrian, as is Sir John Egan, industrialist and former Chief Executive of Jaguar Cars. Sir Frederick Gibberd, architect and designer, was born in Coventry, and amongst the buildings for which he is best known are Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral and Didcot Power Station. Donald Trelford, journalist and academic, was born in Coventry and attended Bablake School. He was editor of The Observer newspaper from 1975 to 1993. Born in Coventry, former King Henry VIII Grammar School pupil Paul Connew became editor of the Sunday Mirror and deputy editor of the Daily Mirror and News of The World -- he is now Director of Communications at the children 's charity Sparks.
Dame Ellen Terry, one of the greatest Shakespearian actors, was born in Coventry in 1847. Other Coventrians in the arts include the poet Philip Larkin, actors Charles Kay, Billie Whitelaw, Nigel Hawthorne, Brendan Price and Clive Owen, authors Cyril Connolly, Graham Joyce, Lee Child and Mark Barrowcliffe, and playwrights Chris O'Connell and Alan Pollock and The Inbetweeners actress Tamla Kari
Notable musicians originated in Coventry, including Frank Ifield, Vince Hill, Delia Derbyshire, Jerry Dammers, Terry Hall, Neville Staple, Hazel O'Connor, Clint Mansell, Julianne Regan, Lee Dorrian, Jen Ledger of Skillet, VJ Paul King, Taz (lead singer of the band Stereo Nation), and Panjabi MC. 2 Tone music developed in and around Coventry in the 1970s and two of the genre 's most notable bands, The Specials and The Selecter are both from the city. Other Coventry bands include Bolt Thrower, Coventry Automatics, The Primitives, Adorable, Fun Boy Three, The Colourfield, King, Jigsaw, The Sorrows, and The Enemy.
Record producer Pete Waterman is from the city and is president of Coventry Bears. Broadcaster Brian Matthew, theatre producer Dominic Madden, comedian and writer Emma Fryer and adult model Debee Ashby are Coventrians, as were comedian Reg Dixon and ventriloquist Dennis Spicer. Former Sky Sports broadcaster Richard Keys is a Coventrian, a product of Whitley Abbey School.
The fashion model Neelam Gill is also from Coventry.
Notable Coventrian in sports include speedway rider Tom Farndon; Davis Cup tennis player Tony Mottram; footballers Kenneth Hegan, Reg Matthews, Bobby Gould, Graham Alexander, Gary McSheffrey and Callum Wilson; cricketers Tom Cartwright and Ian Bell MBE; rugby union players Ivor Preece, Keith Fairbrother, David Duckham MBE, Neil Back MBE, Danny Grewcock MBE, Geoff Evans, Andy Goode, Shane Geraghty and Tom Wood; motor - cyclist Cal Crutchlow; golfer Dame Laura Davies DBE; sprinter Marlon Devonish MBE; distance runners Brian Kilby and David Moorcroft OBE; darts player Steve Beaton; Boxer Errol Christie grew up in Coventry.
Historically Coventry was the most important seat of ribbon - making in the UK. In this industry it competed locally with Norwich and Leicester and internationally with St Etienne in France.
Coventry has been a centre of motor and cycle manufacturing from 1896. Starting with Coventry Motette, The Great Horseless Carriage Company, Swift Motor Company, Humber, Hillman, Riley, Francis - Barnett and Daimler and the Triumph motorcycle having its origins in 1902 in a Coventry factory. The Massey - Ferguson tractor factory was situated on Banner Lane, Tile Hill, until it closed in the late 1990s. Although the motor industry has declined almost to the point of extinction, the Jaguar company has retained its corporate headquarters in the city (at Whitley) and an Advanced R&D team at the University of Warwick, and Peugeot still have a large parts centre in Humber Road. The famous London black cab taxis are produced in Coventry by LTI and these are now the only vehicles still wholly built in Coventry.
The manufacture of machine tools was once a major industry in Coventry. Alfred Herbert Ltd became one of the largest machine tool companies in the world. In later years the company faced competition from foreign machine tool builders and ceased trading in 1983. Other Coventry machine tool manufacturers included A.C. Wickman, and Webster & Bennett. The last Coventry machine tool manufacturer was Matrix Churchill which was forced to close in the wake of the Iraqi Supergun (Project Babylon) scandal.
Coventry 's main industries include: cars, electronic equipment, machine tools, agricultural machinery, man - made fibres, aerospace components and telecommunications equipment. In recent years, the city has moved away from manufacturing industries towards business services, finance, research, design and development, creative industries as well as logistics and leisure.
This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Coventry at current basic prices by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling:
Notes:
Coventry is near the M6, M69, M45 and M40 motorways.
The M45, which is situated a few miles to the south - east of the city, was opened in 1959 as a spur to the original section of the M1 motorway, which linked London with the midlands. This was in effect the first motorway to serve Coventry, as the section of the M6 north of the city did not open until 1971, and the M69 between Coventry and Leicester opened five years after that. The M40 is more than 10 miles (16 kilometres) south of the city centre, south of Warwick, and gives the city 's residents an alternate dual carriageway and motorway route to London.
It is served by the A45 and A46 dual carriageways. The A45 originally passed through the centre of the city, but was re-routed in the 1930s on the completion of the Coventry Southern Bypass, with west - bound traffic heading in the direction of Birmingham and east - bound traffic in the direction of Northampton. The A46 was re-routed to the east of the city in 1989 on the completion of the Coventry Eastern Bypass, which directly leads to the M6 / M69 interchange. To the south, it gives a direct link to the M40, making use of the existing Warwick and Kenilworth Bypasses.
Coventry has an inner ring road which was completed in the early 1970s and Phoenix Way, a dual - carriageway running north -- south completed in 1995, linking the city centre with the M6 motorway.
Coventry railway station is served by the West Coast Main Line, with services provide by Virgin Trains, London Midland and CrossCountry. It has rail services between London and Birmingham (and stations beyond). It is also served by railway lines to Nuneaton via Bedworth. There is a line linking it to Leamington Spa and onwards to the south coast. Coventry has two suburban railway stations in Canley and in Tile Hill. A new rail station serving the north of city on the Coventry to Nuneaton Line) opened in January 2016.
Bus operators in Coventry include National Express Coventry, Travel de Courcey and Stagecoach in Warwickshire. Pool Meadow Bus Station is the main bus and coach interchange in the city centre. Coventry has a single Park and Ride service from War Memorial Park served by Stagecoach in Warwickshire.
The nearest major airports are Birmingham International Airport, some 11 miles (18 km) to the west of the city and Coventry Airport in Baginton, located 5 miles (8 km) south of the city centre.
The Coventry Canal terminates near the city centre at Coventry Canal Basin and is navigable for 38 miles (61 km) to Fradley Junction in Staffordshire.
Coventry has an energy from waste incinerator which burns rubbish from both Coventry and Solihull, producing electricity for the National Grid and some hot water that is used locally through the Heatline project. Rubbish is still put into landfill.
In October 2006, Coventry City Council signed the Nottingham Declaration, joining 130 other UK councils in committing to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions of the council and to help the local community do the same.
Traditionally a part of Warwickshire (although it was a county in its own right for 400 years), Coventry became an independent county borough in 1889. It later became a metropolitan district of the West Midlands county under the Local Government Act (1974), even though it was entirely separate to the Birmingham conurbation area (this is why Coventry appears to unnaturally "jut out '' into Warwickshire on political maps of the UK). In 1986, the West Midlands County Council was abolished and Coventry became administered as an effective unitary authority in its own right.
Coventry is administered by Coventry City Council, controlled since 2010 by the Labour Party, led since May 2016 by George Duggins. The city is divided up into 18 Wards each with three councillors. The chairman of the council is the Lord Mayor, who has a casting vote.
Certain local services are provided by West Midlands wide agencies including the West Midlands Police, the West Midlands Fire Service and Transport for West Midlands (Centro) which is responsible for public transport.
In 2006, Coventry and Warwickshire Ambulance Service was merged with the West Midlands Ambulance Service. The Warwickshire and Northamptonshire Air Ambulance service is based at Coventry Airport in Baginton.
Coventry is represented in Parliament by three MPs all of whom are Labour. These are:
Up until 1997, Coventry was represented by four Members of Parliament, whereupon the Coventry South West and Coventry South East constituencies were merged to form Coventry South.
On Thursday 19 May 2016, Councillor Lindsley Harvard was inaugurated Lord Mayor of Coventry for 2016 - 2017 as Coventry 's 65th Lord Mayor. Councillor Lindsley Harvard has been a Labour Councillor serving on the Council for 14 years, for Earlsdon Ward (1996 - 2000) and for Longford Ward since 2006. On Thursday 19 May 2016, Councillor Tony Skipper was inaugurated as the Deputy Lord Mayor of Coventry for 2016 - 2017. He has been a Labour councillor since 1995; representing Earlsdon Ward between 1995 - 2001 and then Radford Ward since 2001.
The Bishop of Coventry is Christopher John Cocksworth, who was consecrated on 3 July 2008.
In May 2016, it was as follows
Racial structure, according to the 2011 census
Coventry has an ethnic minority population which represented 33.4 % of the population at the 2011 census. The ethnic minority population is concentrated in the Foleshill and the St. Michael 's wards. Islam is the largest non-Christian religion, but the composition of the ethnic minority population is not typical of the UK with significant numbers of other South Asians. Both Sikh and Hindu religions are represented significantly higher than in the rest of the West Midlands in general.
The non-White British population identifies as follows:
Coventry has a large student population (approximately 15,000 are non-UK) who are in the UK for 12 months or longer that are included in these figures. Figures from the Coventry Inspires Image Group state ' Ethnic Minorities ' at 13 per cent.
According to the 2011 Census, 53.7 % (170,090) of residents identified themselves as Christian making Christianity the largest followed religion in the city.
Islam was the second most followed religion with 7.5 % (23,665) of residents identifying with the religion.
5.0 % (15,912) of Coventry 's population were Sikh, disproportionately larger than the national average in England of 0.8 %.
Hindus made up 3.5 % (11,152) of the resident population followed by Buddhists at 0.3 % (1,067) and Jews at 0.1 % (210) respectively. The adherents of other religions made up 0.5 % (1,641) of the city 's population.
Almost a quarter of Coventry residents, 23.0 % (72,896), identified themselves as having no religion and 6.4 % did not declare any religion.
Coventry in a linguistic sense looks both ways, towards both the ' West ' and ' East ' Midlands. One thousand years ago, the extreme west of Warwickshire, what today we would designate Birmingham and the Black Country was then separated from Coventry and east Warwickshire by the forest of Arden, with resulting inferior means of communication. The west Warwickshire settlements too were smaller in comparison to Coventry which, by the 14th century, was England 's third city. Even as far back as Anglo - Saxon times Coventry -- situated as it was, close to Watling Street -- was a trading and market post between King Alfred 's Saxon Mercia and Danelaw England with a consequent merging of dialects.
Phonetically the accent of Coventry is similar to Northern English in that it does not have the trap - bath split, so cast is pronounced / kæst / rather than / kɑːst /. Yet the clipped, flatter vowels in the accent also contain traces of Estuary English (T - glottaling), increasingly so amongst the young since 1950. One notable feature which television producers have been apt to overlook is the distinction between Coventry and Birmingham accents. In Birmingham and the Black Country ' Old ' and ' cold ' may be pronounced as "owd '' and "cowd '', this linguistic feature stops starkly as one moves beyond Solihull in the general direction of Coventry, a possible approximation of the ' Arden Forest ' divide perhaps. Yet accents alter briskly in this particular part of the Midlands, North Warwickshire (Bedworth & Nuneaton) displays increased East Midlands dialect features. Then again, just to the south, the general Southern English feature of the longer ' a ' in words such as "bath '' and "path '' (becoming like the nonce words "barth '' and "parth '' as pronounced in a non-rhotic accent) starts to occur regardless of class or geodemographic grouping across an east to west band of settlements somewhere between Southam and Banbury, positioning Coventry right at the edge of England 's phonetic crossroads.
Dramatic representations on film have been very uneven down the years, ranging from Yorkshire sounding builders visiting the Queen Vic in EastEnders (1987) to Black Country sounding factory workers in the Jeffrey Archer adaptation ' First Among Equals ' (1984). The BBC 's 2009 documentary The Bombing of Coventry contained useful phonetic data on the ' Coventry Accent ' in the form of interviews with Coventrians. A recent performance from the actress Becci Gemmell, playing Coventry character Joyce in the BBC drama Land Girls, also gave a more accurate phonetic representation of the accent.
A minor planet, 3009 Coventry, discovered by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh in 1973, is named after the city.
The city was bombed many times during the Second World War by the Luftwaffe. These bombs were often abandoned if they fell in areas of little significant importance to the war effort, and continue to be found during construction work to this day. Many old bombs were found to still be viable explosive devices. On 12 March 2008, an unexploded Second World War Luftwaffe bomb was discovered in Coventry 's city centre. Police said the device seemed genuine but it was not clear if it was live. A cordon of 500 metres (1,600 feet) was enforced. In an ironic coincidence the finding of the bomb led to a performance of "One Night in November '', a play about the Blitz, being cancelled. A Royal Engineers bomb disposal team conducted a controlled explosion early on the morning of 13 March 2008.
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where does the dead sea salt come from | Dead Sea - wikipedia
The Dead Sea (Hebrew: יָם הַמֶּלַח Yam ha - Melah lit. Sea of Salt; Arabic: البحر الميت Al - Bahr al - Mayyit) is a salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east and Israel and the West Bank to the west. Its surface and shores are 430.5 metres (1,412 ft) below sea level, Earth 's lowest elevation on land. The Dead Sea is 304 m (997 ft) deep, the deepest hypersaline lake in the world. With a salinity of 342 g / kg, or 34.2 %, (in 2011), it is 9.6 times as salty as the ocean and one of the world 's saltiest bodies of water. This salinity makes for a harsh environment in which plants and animals can not flourish, hence its name. The Dead Sea 's main, northern basin is 50 kilometres (31 mi) long and 15 kilometres (9 mi) wide at its widest point. It lies in the Jordan Rift Valley, and its main tributary is the Jordan River.
The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around the Mediterranean basin for thousands of years. It was one of the world 's first health resorts (for Herod the Great), and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products, from asphalt for Egyptian mummification to potash for fertilisers. People also use the salt and the minerals from the Dead Sea to create cosmetics and herbal sachets.
The Dead Seawater has a density of 1.24 kg / litre, which makes swimming similar to floating.
The Dead Sea is receding at an alarming rate. Multiple canals and pipelines were proposed to reduce its recession, which had begun causing many problems. The Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance project, carried out by Jordan, will provide water to neighbouring countries, while the brine will be carried to the Dead Sea to help stabilise its levels. The first phase of the project is scheduled to begin in 2018 and be completed in 2021.
In Hebrew, the Dead Sea is Yām ha - Melaḥ (help info) (ים המלח ), meaning "sea of salt '' (Genesis 14: 3). The Bible uses this term alongside two others: the Sea of the Arabah (Yām ha - ' Ărāvâ ים הערבה ), and the Eastern Sea (Yām ha - Mizraḥî ים המזרחי ). The designation "Dead Sea '' never appears in the Bible.
In prose sometimes the term Yām ha - Māvet (ים המוות , "sea of death '') is used, due to the scarcity of aquatic life there. In Arabic the Dead Sea is called al - Bahr al - Mayyit (help info) ("the Dead Sea ''), or less commonly baḥru lūṭa (بحر لوط, "the Sea of Lot ''). Another historic name in Arabic was the "Sea of Zoʼar '', after a nearby town in biblical times. The Greeks called it Lake Asphaltites (Attic Greek ἡ Θάλαττα ἀσφαλτῖτης, hē Thálatta asphaltĩtēs, "the Asphaltite sea '').
The Dead Sea is an endorheic lake located in the Jordan Rift Valley, a geographic feature formed by the Dead Sea Transform (DST). This left lateral - moving transform fault lies along the tectonic plate boundary between the African Plate and the Arabian Plate. It runs between the East Anatolian Fault zone in Turkey and the northern end of the Red Sea Rift offshore of the southern tip of Sinai. It is here that the Upper Jordan River / Sea of Galilee / Lower Jordan River water system comes to an end.
The Jordan River is the only major water source flowing into the Dead Sea, although there are small perennial springs under and around the Dead Sea, forming pools and quicksand pits along the edges. There are no outlet streams.
The Mujib River, biblical Arnon, is one the larger water sources of the Dead Sea other than the Jordan. The Wadi Mujib valley, 420 m below the sea level in the southern of Jordan valley, is a biosphere reserve, with an area of 212 km (82 sq mi). Other more substantial sources are Wadi Darajeh (Arabic) / Nahal Dragot (Hebrew), and Nahal Arugot. Wadi Hasa (biblical Zered) is another wadi flowing into the Dead Sea.
Rainfall is scarcely 100 mm (4 in) per year in the northern part of the Dead Sea and barely 50 mm (2 in) in the southern part. The Dead Sea zone 's aridity is due to the rainshadow effect of the Judaean Mountains. The highlands east of the Dead Sea receive more rainfall than the Dead Sea itself.
To the west of the Dead Sea, the Judaean mountains rise less steeply and are much lower than the mountains to the east. Along the southwestern side of the lake is a 210 m (700 ft) tall halite formation called "Mount Sodom ''.
There are two contending hypotheses about the origin of the low elevation of the Dead Sea. The older hypothesis is that the Dead Sea lies in a true rift zone, an extension of the Red Sea Rift, or even of the Great Rift Valley of eastern Africa. A more recent hypothesis is that the Dead Sea basin is a consequence of a "step - over '' discontinuity along the Dead Sea Transform, creating an extension of the crust with consequent subsidence.
Around 3.7 million years ago, what is now the valley of the Jordan River, Dead Sea, and the northern Wadi Arabah was repeatedly inundated by waters from the Mediterranean Sea. The waters formed in a narrow, crooked bay that is called by geologists the Sedom Lagoon, which was connected to the sea through what is now the Jezreel Valley. The floods of the valley came and went depending on long - scale climate change. The Sedom Lagoon deposited beds of salt that eventually became 2.5 km (1.55 mi) thick.
Approximately two million years ago, the land between the Rift Valley and the Mediterranean Sea rose to such an extent that the ocean could no longer flood the area. Thus, the long lagoon became a landlocked lake. The Sedom Lagoon extended at its maximum from the Sea of Galilee in the north to somewhere around 50 km (30 mi) south of the current southern end of the Dead Sea, and the subsequent lakes obviously never surpassed this expanse. The Hula Depression was never part of any of these water bodies due to its higher elevation and the high threshold of the Korazim block separating it from the Sea of Galilee basin.
The first prehistoric lake to follow the Sedom Lagoon is named Lake Amora, followed by Lake Lisan and finally by the Dead Sea. The water levels and salinity of these lakes have either risen or fallen as an effect of the tectonic dropping of the valley bottom, and due to climate variation. As the climate became more arid, Lake Lisan finally shrank and became saltier, leaving the Dead Sea as its last remainder.
In prehistoric times, great amounts of sediment collected on the floor of Lake Amora. The sediment was heavier than the salt deposits and squeezed the salt deposits upwards into what are now the Lisan Peninsula and Mount Sodom (on the southwest side of the lake). Geologists explain the effect in terms of a bucket of mud into which a large flat stone is placed, forcing the mud to creep up the sides of the bucket. When the floor of the Dead Sea dropped further due to tectonic forces, the salt mounts of Lisan and Mount Sodom stayed in place as high cliffs (see salt dome).
From 70,000 to 12,000 years ago, the lake 's level was 100 m (330 ft) to 250 m (820 ft) higher than its current level. This lake, Lake Lisan, fluctuated dramatically, rising to its highest level around 26,000 years ago, indicating a very wet climate in the Near East. Around 10,000 years ago, the lake 's level dropped dramatically, probably to even lower than today 's. During the last several thousand years, the lake has fluctuated approximately 400 m (1,300 ft), with some significant drops and rises. Current theories as to the cause of this dramatic drop in levels rule out volcanic activity; therefore, it may have been a seismic event.
The Dead Sea 's climate offers year - round sunny skies and dry air. It has less than 50 millimetres (2 in) mean annual rainfall and a summer average temperature between 32 and 39 ° C (90 and 102 ° F). Winter average temperatures range between 20 and 23 ° C (68 and 73 ° F). The region has weaker ultraviolet radiation, particularly the UVB (erythrogenic rays). Given the higher atmospheric pressure, the air has a slightly higher oxygen content (3.3 % in summer to 4.8 % in winter) as compared to oxygen concentration at sea level. Barometric pressures at the Dead Sea were measured between 1061 and 1065 hPa and clinically compared with health effects at higher altitude. (This barometric measure is about 5 % higher than sea level standard atmospheric pressure of 1013.25 hPa, which is the global ocean mean or ATM.) The Dead Sea affects temperatures nearby because of the moderating effect a large body of water has on climate. During the winter, sea temperatures tend to be higher than land temperatures, and vice versa during the summer months. This is the result of the water 's mass and specific heat capacity. On average, there are 192 days above 30C (86F) annually.
With 34.2 % salinity (in 2011), it is one of the world 's saltiest bodies of water, though Lake Vanda in Antarctica (35 %), Lake Assal in Djibouti (34.8 %), Lagoon Garabogazköl in the Caspian Sea (up to 35 %) and some hypersaline ponds and lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica (such as Don Juan Pond (44 %)) have reported higher salinities.
Until the winter of 1978 -- 79, when a major mixing event took place, the Dead Sea was composed of two stratified layers of water that differed in temperature, density, age, and salinity. The topmost 35 meters (115 ft) or so of the Dead Sea had an average salinity of 342 parts per thousand (in 2002), and a temperature that swung between 19 ° C (66 ° F) and 37 ° C (99 ° F). Underneath a zone of transition, the lowest level of the Dead Sea had waters of a consistent 22 ° C (72 ° F) temperature and complete saturation of sodium chloride (NaCl). Since the water near the bottom is saturated, the salt precipitates out of solution onto the sea floor.
Beginning in the 1960s, water inflow to the Dead Sea from the Jordan River was reduced as a result of large - scale irrigation and generally low rainfall. By 1975, the upper water layer was saltier than the lower layer. Nevertheless, the upper layer remained suspended above the lower layer because its waters were warmer and thus less dense. When the upper layer cooled so its density was greater than the lower layer, the waters mixed (1978 -- 79). For the first time in centuries, the lake was a homogeneous body of water. Since then, stratification has begun to redevelop.
The mineral content of the Dead Sea is very different from that of ocean water. The exact composition of the Dead Sea water varies mainly with season, depth and temperature. In the early 1980s, the concentration of ionic species (in g / kg) of Dead Sea surface water was Cl (181.4), Br (4.2), SO (0.4), HCO (0.2), Ca (14.1), Na (32.5), K (6.2) and Mg (35.2). The total salinity was 276 g / kg. These results show that the composition of the salt, as anhydrous chlorides on a weight percentage basis, was calcium chloride (CaCl) 14.4 %, potassium chloride (KCl) 4.4 %, magnesium chloride (MgCl) 50.8 % and sodium chloride (NaCl) 30.4 %. In comparison, the salt in the water of most oceans and seas is approximately 85 % sodium chloride. The concentration of sulfate ions (SO) is very low, and the concentration of bromide ions (Br) is the highest of all waters on Earth.
The salt concentration of the Dead Sea fluctuates around 31.5 %. This is unusually high and results in a nominal density of 1.24 kg / l. Anyone can easily float in the Dead Sea because of natural buoyancy. In this respect the Dead Sea is similar to the Great Salt Lake in Utah in the United States.
An unusual feature of the Dead Sea is its discharge of asphalt. From deep seeps, the Dead Sea constantly spits up small pebbles and blocks of the black substance. Asphalt - coated figurines and bitumen - coated Neolithic skulls from archaeological sites have been found. Egyptian mummification processes used asphalt imported from the Dead Sea region.
The Dead Sea area has become a location for health research and potential treatment for several reasons. The mineral content of the water, the low content of pollens and other allergens in the atmosphere, the reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation, and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each may have specific health effects. For example, persons experiencing reduced respiratory function from diseases such as cystic fibrosis seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure.
The region 's climate and low elevation have made it a popular center for assessment of putative therapies:
Climatotherapy at the Dead Sea may be a therapy for psoriasis by sunbathing for long periods in the area due to its position below sea level and subsequent result that UV rays are partially blocked by the increased cloud cover over the Dead Sea.
Rhinosinusitis patients receiving Dead Sea saline nasal irrigation exhibited improved symptom relief compared to standard hypertonic saline spray in one study.
Dead Sea mud pack therapy has been suggested to temporarily relieve pain in patients with osteoarthritis of the knees. According to researchers of the Ben Gurion University of the Negev, treatment with mineral - rich mud compresses can be used to augment conventional medical therapy.
The sea is called "dead '' because its high salinity prevents macroscopic aquatic organisms, such as fish and aquatic plants, from living in it, though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present.
In times of flood, the salt content of the Dead Sea can drop from its usual 35 % to 30 % or lower. The Dead Sea temporarily comes to life in the wake of rainy winters. In 1980, after one such rainy winter, the normally dark blue Dead Sea turned red. Researchers from Hebrew University of Jerusalem found the Dead Sea to be teeming with a type of alga called Dunaliella. Dunaliella in turn nourished carotenoid - containing (red - pigmented) halobacteria, whose presence caused the color change. Since 1980, the Dead Sea basin has been dry and the algae and the bacteria have not returned in measurable numbers.
In 2011 a group of scientists from Be'er Sheva, Israel and Germany discovered fissures in the floor of the Dead Sea by scuba diving and observing the surface. These fissures allow fresh and brackish water to enter the Dead Sea. They sampled biofilms surrounding the fissures and discovered numerous species of bacteria and archaea.
Many animal species live in the mountains surrounding the Dead Sea. Hikers can see ibex, hares, hyraxes, jackals, foxes, and even leopards. Hundreds of bird species inhabit the zone as well. Both Jordan and Israel have established nature reserves around the Dead Sea.
The delta of the Jordan River was formerly a jungle of papyrus and palm trees. The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus described Jericho as "the most fertile spot in Judea ''. In Roman and Byzantine times, sugarcane, henna, and sycamore fig all made the lower Jordan valley wealthy. One of the most valuable products produced by Jericho was the sap of the balsam tree, which could be made into perfume. By the 19th century, Jericho 's fertility had disappeared.
There are several small communities near the Dead Sea. These include Ein Gedi, Neve Zohar and the Israeli settlements in the Megilot Regional Council: Kalya, Mitzpe Shalem and Avnat. There is a nature preserve at Ein Gedi, and several Dead Sea hotels are located on the southwest end at Ein Bokek near Neve Zohar. Highway 90 runs north - south on the Israeli side for a total distance of 565 km (351 mi) from Metula on the Lebanese border in the north to its southern terminus at the Egyptian border near the Red Sea port of Eilat.
Potash City is a small community on the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, and others including Suweima. Highway 65 runs north - south on the Jordanian side from near Jordan 's northern tip down past the Dead Sea to the port of Aqaba.
Dwelling in caves near the Dead Sea is recorded in the Hebrew Bible as having taken place before the Israelites came to Canaan, and extensively at the time of King David.
Just northwest of the Dead Sea is Jericho. Somewhere, perhaps on the southeastern shore, would be the cities mentioned in the Book of Genesis which were said to have been destroyed in the time of Abraham: Sodom and Gomorra (Genesis 18) and the three other "Cities of the Plain '', Admah, Zeboim and Zoar (Deuteronomy 29: 23). Zoar escaped destruction when Abraham 's nephew Lot escaped to Zoar from Sodom (Genesis 19: 21 -- 22). Before the destruction, the Dead Sea was a valley full of natural tar pits, which was called the vale of Siddim. King David was said to have hidden from Saul at Ein Gedi nearby.
In Ezekiel 47: 8 -- 9 there is a specific prophecy that the sea will "be healed and made fresh '', becoming a normal lake capable of supporting marine life. A similar prophecy is stated in Zechariah 14: 8, which says that "living waters will go out from Jerusalem, half of them to the eastern sea (likely the Dead Sea) and half to the western sea (the Mediterranean). ''
Aristotle wrote about the remarkable waters. The Nabateans and others discovered the value of the globs of natural asphalt that constantly floated to the surface where they could be harvested with nets. The Egyptians were steady customers, as they used asphalt in the embalming process that created mummies. The Ancient Romans knew the Dead Sea as "Palus Asphaltites '' (Asphalt Lake).
King Herod the Great built or rebuilt several fortresses and palaces on the western bank of the Dead Sea. The most famous was Masada, where in 70 CE a small group of Jewish zealots fled after the fall of the destruction of the Second Temple. The zealots survived until 73 CE, when a siege by the X Legion ended in the deaths by suicide of its 960 inhabitants. Another historically important fortress was Machaerus (מכוור), on the eastern bank, where, according to Josephus, John the Baptist was imprisoned by Herod Antipas and died.
Also in Roman times, some Essenes settled on the Dead Sea 's western shore; Pliny the Elder identifies their location with the words, "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast... (above) the town of Engeda '' (Natural History, Bk 5.73); and it is therefore a hugely popular but contested hypothesis today, that same Essenes are identical with the settlers at Qumran and that "the Dead Sea Scrolls '' discovered during the 20th century in the nearby caves had been their own library.
Josephus identified the Dead Sea in geographic proximity to the ancient Biblical city of Sodom. However, he referred to the lake by its Greek name, Asphaltites.
Various sects of Jews settled in caves overlooking the Dead Sea. The best known of these are the Essenes of Qumran, who left an extensive library known as the Dead Sea Scrolls. The town of Ein Gedi, mentioned many times in the Mishna, produced persimmon for the temple 's fragrance and for export, using a secret recipe. "Sodomite salt '' was an essential mineral for the temple 's holy incense, but was said to be dangerous for home use and could cause blindness. The Roman camps surrounding Masada were built by Jewish slaves receiving water from the towns around the lake. These towns had drinking water from the Ein Feshcha springs and other sweetwater springs in the vicinity.
Intimately connected with the Judean wilderness to its northwest and west, the Dead Sea was a place of escape and refuge. The remoteness of the region attracted Greek Orthodox monks since the Byzantine era. Their monasteries, such as Saint George in Wadi Kelt and Mar Saba in the Judaean Desert, are places of pilgrimage.
In the 19th century the River Jordan and the Dead Sea were explored by boat primarily by Christopher Costigan in 1835, Thomas Howard Molyneux in 1847, William Francis Lynch in 1848, and John MacGregor in 1869. The full text of W.F. Lynch 's 1949 book Narrative of the United States ' Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea is available online. Charles Leonard Irby and James Mangles travelled along the shores of the Dead Sea already in 1817 -- 18, but did n't navigate on its waters.
Explorers and scientists arrived in the area to analyze the minerals and research the unique climate.
After the find of the "Moabite Stone '' in 1868 on the plateau east of the Dead Sea, Moses Wilhelm Shapira and his partner Salim al - Khouri forged and sold a whole range of presumed "Moabite '' antiquities, and in 1883 Shapira presented what is now known as the "Shapira Strips '', a supposedly ancient scroll written on leather strips which he claimed had been found near the Dead Sea. The strips were declared to be forgeries and Shapira took his own life in disgrace.
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, hundreds of religious documents dated between 150 BCE and 70 CE were found in caves near the ancient settlement of Qumran, about one mile (1.6 kilometres) inland from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea (presently in the West Bank). They became known and famous as the Dead Sea Scrolls.
The world 's lowest roads, Highway 90, run along the Israeli and West Bank shores of the Dead Sea, along with Highway 65 on the Jordanian side, at 393 m (1,289 ft) below sea level.
A golf course named for Sodom and Gomorrah was built by the British at Kalia on the northern shore.
The first major Israeli hotels were built in nearby Arad, and since the 1960s at the Ein Bokek resort complex.
Israel has 15 hotels along the Dead Sea shore, generating total revenues of $291 million in 2012. Most Israeli hotels and resorts on the Dead Sea are on a six - kilometre (3.7 - mile) stretch of the southern shore.
On the Jordanian side, nine international franchises have opened seaside resort hotels near the King Hussein Bin Talal Convention Center, along with resort apartments, on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. The 9 hotels have boosted the Jordanian side 's capacity to 2,800 rooms.
On November 22, 2015, the Dead Sea panorama road was included along with 40 archaeological locations in Jordan, to become live on Google Street View.
The Palestinian Dead Sea Coast is about 40 kilometres (25 miles) long. The World Bank estimates that a Palestinian Dead Sea tourism industry could generate $290 million of revenues per year and 2,900 jobs. However, Palestinians have been unable to obtain construction permits for tourism - related investments on the Dead Sea. According to the World Bank, Officials in the Palestinian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities state that the only way to apply for such permits is through the Joint Committees established under the Oslo Agreement, but the relevant committee has not met with any degree of regularity since 2000.
In the early part of the 20th century, the Dead Sea began to attract interest from chemists who deduced the sea was a natural deposit of potash (potassium chloride) and bromine. The Palestine Potash Company was chartered in 1929, after its founder, Siberian Jewish engineer and pioneer of Lake Baikal exploitation, Moses Novomeysky, worked for the charter for over ten years. The first plant was on the north shore of the Dead Sea at Kalya and produced potash by solar evaporation of the brine. Employing Arabs and Jews, it was an island of peace in turbulent times. The company quickly grew into the largest industrial site in the Middle East, and in 1934 built a second plant on the southwest shore, in the Mount Sodom area, south of the ' Lashon ' region of the Dead Sea. Palestine Potash Company supplied half of Britain 's potash during World War II. Both plants were destroyed by the Jordanians in the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War.
The Dead Sea Works was founded in 1952 as a state - owned enterprise based on the remnants of the Palestine Potash Company. In 1995, the company was privatized and it is now owned by Israel Chemicals. From the Dead Sea brine, Israel produces (2001) 1.77 million tons potash, 206,000 tons elemental bromine, 44,900 tons caustic soda, 25,000 tons magnesium metal, and sodium chloride. Israeli companies generate around US $3 billion annually from the sale of Dead Sea minerals (primarily potash and bromine), and from other products that are derived from Dead Sea Minerals.
On the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, Arab Potash (APC), formed in 1956, produces 2.0 million tons of potash annually, as well as sodium chloride and bromine. The plant is located at Safi, South Aghwar Department, in the Karak Governorate.
Jordanian Dead Sea mineral industries generate about $1.2 billion in sales (equivalent to 4 percent of Jordan 's GDP).
The Palestinian Dead Sea Coast is about 40 kilometres (25 miles) long. The Palestinian economy is unable to benefit from Dead Sea chemicals due to restricted access, permit issues and the uncertainties of the investment climate. The World Bank estimates that a Palestinian Dead Sea chemicals industry could generate $918 m incremental value added per year, "almost equivalent to the contribution of the entire manufacturing sector of Palestinian territories today ''.
Both companies, Dead Sea Works Ltd. and Arab Potash, use extensive salt evaporation pans that have essentially diked the entire southern end of the Dead Sea for the purpose of producing carnallite, potassium magnesium chloride, which is then processed further to produce potassium chloride. The ponds are separated by a central dike that runs roughly north - south along the international border. The power plant on the Israeli side allows production of magnesium metal (by a subsidiary, Dead Sea Magnesium Ltd.).
Due to the popularity of the sea 's therapeutic and healing properties, several companies have also shown interest in the manufacturing and supplying of Dead Sea salts as raw materials for body and skin care products.
Since 1930, when its surface was 1,050 km (410 sq mi) and its level was 390 m (1,280 ft) below sea level, the Dead Sea has been monitored continuously. In recent decades, the Dead Sea has been rapidly shrinking because of diversion of incoming water from the Jordan River to the north. The southern end is fed by a canal maintained by the Dead Sea Works, a company that converts the sea 's raw materials. From a water surface of 395 m (1,296 ft) below sea level in 1970 it fell 22 m (72 ft) to 418 m (1,371 ft) below sea level in 2006, reaching a drop rate of 1 m (3 ft) per year. As the water level decreases, the characteristics of the Sea and surrounding region may substantially change.
The Dead Sea level drop has been followed by a groundwater level drop, causing brines that used to occupy underground layers near the shoreline to be flushed out by freshwater. This is believed to be the cause of the recent appearance of large sinkholes along the western shore -- incoming freshwater dissolves salt layers, rapidly creating subsurface cavities that subsequently collapse to form these sinkholes.
In May 2009 at the World Economic Forum, Jordan announced its plans to construct the "Jordan National Red Sea Development Project '' (JRSP). This is a plan to convey seawater from the Red Sea near Aqaba to the Dead Sea. Water would be desalinated along the route to provide fresh water to Jordan, with the brine discharge sent to the Dead Sea for replenishment. The early planning called for developer and financier selection to be completed by year 's end, with detailed design to begin in early 2010, and water delivery by 2017. Israel expressed its support and will likely benefit from some of the water delivery to its Negev region. Some hydro - power will be collected near the Dead Sea from the dramatic change in elevation on the downhill side of the project.
At a regional conference in July 2009, officials expressed concern about the declining water levels. Some suggested industrial activities around the Dead Sea might need to be reduced. Others advised environmental measures to restore conditions such as increasing the volume of flow from the Jordan River to replenish the Dead Sea. Currently, only sewage and effluent from fish ponds run in the river 's channel. Experts also stressed the need for strict conservation efforts. They said agriculture should not be expanded, sustainable support capabilities should be incorporated into the area and pollution sources should be reduced.
Sources: Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, Haaretz, Jewish Virtual Library, Jordan Valley Authority.
In October 2009, the Jordanians announced accelerated plans to extract around 300 million cubic metres (11 billion cubic feet) of water per year from the Red Sea, desalinate it for use as fresh water and send the waste water to the Dead Sea by tunnel, despite concerns about inadequate time to assess the potential environmental impact. According to Jordan 's minister for water, General Maysoun Zu'bi, this project could be considered as the first phase of the Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance.
In December 2013, Israel, Jordan and the Palestinian Authority signed an agreement for laying a water pipeline to link the Red Sea with the Dead Sea. The pipeline will be 180 km (110 mi) long and is estimated to take up to five years to complete. In January 2015 it was reported that the level of water is now dropping by 1 m (3 ft) a year.
On 27 November 2016, it was announced that the Jordanian government is shortlisting five consortiums to implement the project. Jordan 's ministry of Water and Irrigation said that the $100 million first phase of the project will begin construction in the first quarter of 2018, and will be completed by 2021.
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what is the axe description of the chlorine pentafluoride clf5 molecule | Chlorine pentafluoride - wikipedia
Chlorine pentafluoride is an interhalogen compound with formula ClF. This colourless gas is a strong oxidant that was once a candidate oxidizer for rockets. The molecule adopts a square pyramidal structure with C symmetry, as confirmed by its high resolution F NMR spectrum.
Some of the earliest research on the preparation was classified. It was first prepared by fluorination of chlorine trifluoride at high temperatures and high pressures:
NiF catalyzes this reaction.
Certain metal fluorides, MClF (i.e. KClF, RbClF, CsClF) react with F to produce ClF and the corresponding alkali metal fluoride.
In a highly exothermic reaction, ClF reacts with water to produce chloryl fluoride and hydrogen fluoride:
It is also a strong fluorinating agent. At room temperature it reacts readily with all elements (including otherwise "inert '' elements like platinum and gold) except noble gases, nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine.
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according to the ninth amendment who retains certain rights not mentioned in the constitution | Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution - wikipedia
The Ninth Amendment (Amendment IX) to the United States Constitution addresses rights, retained by the people, that are not specifically enumerated in the Constitution. It is part of the Bill of Rights.
The amendment as proposed by Congress in 1789 reads as follows:
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
When the U.S. Constitution was put to the states for ratification after being signed on September 17, 1787, the Anti-Federalists argued that a Bill of Rights should be added. One of the arguments the Federalists gave against the addition of a Bill of Rights, during the debates about ratification of the Constitution, was that a listing of rights could problematically enlarge the powers specified in Article One, Section 8 of the new Constitution by implication. For example, in Federalist 84, Alexander Hamilton asked, "Why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do? '' Likewise, James Madison explained to Thomas Jefferson, "I conceive that in a certain degree... the rights in question are reserved by the manner in which the federal powers are granted '' by Article One, Section 8 of the Constitution.
The Anti-Federalists persisted in favor of a Bill of Rights during the ratification debates, but also were against ratification, and consequently several of the state ratification conventions gave their assent with accompanying resolutions proposing amendments to be added. In 1788, the Virginia Ratifying Convention attempted to solve the problem that Hamilton and the Federalists had identified by proposing a constitutional amendment specifying:
That those clauses which declare that Congress shall not exercise certain powers be not interpreted in any manner whatsoever to extend the powers of Congress. But that they may be construed either as making exceptions to the specified powers where this shall be the case, or otherwise as inserted merely for greater caution.
This proposal ultimately led to the Ninth Amendment. In 1789, while introducing to the House of Representatives nineteen draft Amendments, James Madison addressed what would become the Ninth Amendment as follows:
It has been objected also against a Bill of Rights, that, by enumerating particular exceptions to the grant of power, it would disparage those rights which were not placed in that enumeration; and it might follow by implication, that those rights which were not singled out, were intended to be assigned into the hands of the General Government, and were consequently insecure. This is one of the most plausible arguments I have ever heard against the admission of a bill of rights into this system; but, I conceive, that it may be guarded against. I have attempted it, as gentlemen may see by turning to the last clause of the fourth resolution.
Like Alexander Hamilton, Madison was concerned that enumerating various rights could "enlarge the powers delegated by the constitution. '' To attempt to solve this problem, Madison submitted this draft to Congress:
The exceptions here or elsewhere in the constitution, made in favor of particular rights, shall not be so construed as to diminish the just importance of other rights retained by the people; or as to enlarge the powers delegated by the constitution; but either as actual limitations of such powers, or as inserted merely for greater caution.
This was an intermediate form of the Ninth Amendment that borrowed language from the Virginia proposal, while foreshadowing the final version.
The final text of the Ninth Amendment, like Madison 's draft, speaks of other rights than those enumerated in the Constitution. The character of those other rights was indicated by Madison in his speech introducing the Bill of Rights (emphasis added):
It has been said, by way of objection to a bill of rights... that in the Federal Government they are unnecessary, because the powers are enumerated, and it follows, that all that are not granted by the constitution are retained; that the constitution is a bill of powers, the great residuum being the rights of the people; and, therefore, a bill of rights can not be so necessary as if the residuum was thrown into the hands of the Government. I admit that these arguments are not entirely without foundation, but they are not as conclusive to the extent it has been proposed. It is true the powers of the general government are circumscribed; they are directed to particular objects; but even if government keeps within those limits, it has certain discretionary powers with respect to the means, which may admit of abuse.
The First through Eighth Amendments address the means by which the federal government exercises its enumerated powers, while the Ninth Amendment addresses a "great residuum '' of rights that have not been "thrown into the hands of the government, '' as Madison put it. The Ninth Amendment became part of the Constitution on December 15, 1791 upon ratification by three - fourths of the states.
The final form of the amendment ratified by the states is as follows:
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
The Ninth Amendment has generally been regarded by the courts as negating any expansion of governmental power on account of the enumeration of rights in the Constitution, but the Amendment has not been regarded as further limiting governmental power. The U.S. Supreme Court explained this, in U.S. Public Workers v. Mitchell 330 U.S. 75 (1947): "If granted power is found, necessarily the objection of invasion of those rights, reserved by the Ninth and Tenth Amendments, must fail. ''
The Supreme Court held in Barron v. Baltimore (1833) that the Bill of Rights was enforceable by the federal courts only against the federal government, and not against the states. Thus, the Ninth Amendment originally applied only to the federal government, which is a government of enumerated powers.
Some jurists have asserted that the Ninth Amendment is relevant to interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment. Justice Arthur Goldberg (joined by Chief Justice Earl Warren and Justice William Brennan) expressed this view in a concurring opinion in the case of Griswold v. Connecticut (1965):
The Framers did not intend that the first eight amendments be construed to exhaust the basic and fundamental rights... I do not mean to imply that the... Ninth Amendment constitutes an independent source of rights protected from infringement by either the States or the Federal Government... While the Ninth Amendment -- and indeed the entire Bill of Rights -- originally concerned restrictions upon federal power, the subsequently enacted Fourteenth Amendment prohibits the States as well from abridging fundamental personal liberties. And, the Ninth Amendment, in indicating that not all such liberties are specifically mentioned in the first eight amendments, is surely relevant in showing the existence of other fundamental personal rights, now protected from state, as well as federal, infringement. In sum, the Ninth Amendment simply lends strong support to the view that the "liberty '' protected by the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments from infringement by the Federal Government or the States is not restricted to rights specifically mentioned in the first eight amendments. Cf. United Public Workers v. Mitchell, 330 U.S. 75, 94 -- 95.
In support of his interpretation of the Ninth, Goldberg quoted from Madison 's speech in the House of Representatives as well as from Alexander Hamilton 's Federalist Paper No. 84:
I go further, and affirm that bills of rights, in the sense and in the extent in which they are contended for, are not only unnecessary in the proposed constitution, but would even be dangerous. They would contain various exceptions to powers which are not granted, and, on this very account, would afford a colourable pretext to claim more than were granted. For why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do? Why, for instance, should it be said that the liberty of the press shall not be restrained when no power is given by which restrictions may be imposed? I will not contend that such a provision would confer a regulating power; but it is evident that it would furnish, to men disposed to usurp, a plausible pretence for claiming that power.
But the two Justices who dissented in Griswold replied that Goldberg was mistaken to invoke the Ninth as authority. Hugo Black 's dissent said:
My Brother GOLDBERG has adopted the recent discovery that the Ninth Amendment as well as the Due Process Clause can be used by this Court as authority to strike down all state legislation which this Court thinks violates "fundamental principles of liberty and justice, '' or is contrary to the "traditions and (collective) conscience of our people. ''... (O) ne would certainly have to look far beyond the language of the Ninth Amendment to find that the Framers vested in this Court any such awesome veto powers over lawmaking, either by the States or by the Congress. Nor does anything in the history of the Amendment offer any support for such a shocking doctrine. The whole history of the adoption of the Constitution and Bill of Rights points the other way, and the very material quoted by my Brother GOLDBERG shows that the Ninth Amendment was intended to protect against the idea that, "by enumerating particular exceptions to the grant of power '' to the Federal Government, "those rights which were not singled out were intended to be assigned into the hands of the General Government (the United States), and were consequently insecure. '' That Amendment was passed not to broaden the powers of this Court or any other department of "the General Government, '' but, as every student of history knows, to assure the people that the Constitution in all its provisions was intended to limit the Federal Government to the powers granted expressly or by necessary implication... (F) or a period of a century and a half, no serious suggestion was ever made that the Ninth Amendment, enacted to protect state powers against federal invasion, could be used as a weapon of federal power to prevent state legislatures from passing laws they consider appropriate to govern local affairs.
And Potter Stewart 's dissent said:
(T) o say that the Ninth Amendment has anything to do with this case is to turn somersaults with history. The Ninth Amendment, like its companion, the Tenth, which this Court held "states but a truism that all is retained which has not been surrendered, '' United States v. Darby, 312 U.S. 100, 312 U.S. 124, was framed by James Madison and adopted by the States simply to make clear that the adoption of the Bill of Rights did not alter the plan that the Federal Government was to be a government of express and limited powers, and that all rights and powers not delegated to it were retained by the people and the individual States. Until today, no member of this Court has ever suggested that the Ninth Amendment meant anything else, and the idea that a federal court could ever use the Ninth Amendment to annul a law passed by the elected representatives of the people of the State of Connecticut would have caused James Madison no little wonder.
Since Griswold, some judges have tried to use the Ninth Amendment to justify judicially enforcing rights that are not enumerated. For example, the District Court that heard the case of Roe v. Wade ruled in favor of a "Ninth Amendment right to choose to have an abortion, '' although it stressed that the right was "not unqualified or unfettered. '' However, Justice William O. Douglas rejected that view; Douglas wrote that, "The Ninth Amendment obviously does not create federally enforceable rights. '' See Doe v. Bolton (1973). Douglas joined the majority opinion of the U.S. Supreme Court in Roe, which stated that a federally enforceable right to privacy, "whether it be founded in the Fourteenth Amendment 's concept of personal liberty and restrictions upon state action, as we feel it is, or, as the District Court determined, in the Ninth Amendment 's reservation of rights to the people, is broad enough to encompass a woman 's decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy. ''
The Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals stated in Gibson v. Matthews, 926 F. 2d 532, 537 (6th Cir. 1991) that the Ninth Amendment was intended to vitiate the maxim of expressio unius est exclusio alterius according to which the express mention of one thing excludes all others:
(T) he ninth amendment does not confer substantive rights in addition to those conferred by other portions of our governing law. The ninth amendment was added to the Bill of Rights to ensure that the maxim expressio unius est exclusio alterius would not be used at a later time to deny fundamental rights merely because they were not specifically enumerated in the Constitution.
Justice Antonin Scalia expressed the view, in the dissenting opinion of Troxel v. Granville 530 U.S. 57 (2000), that:
The Declaration of Independence... is not a legal prescription conferring powers upon the courts; and the Constitution 's refusal to ' deny or disparage ' other rights is far removed from affirming any one of them, and even farther removed from authorizing judges to identify what they might be, and to enforce the judges ' list against laws duly enacted by the people.
Professor Laurence Tribe shares the view that this amendment does not confer substantive rights: "It is a common error, but an error nonetheless, to talk of ' ninth amendment rights. ' The ninth amendment is not a source of rights as such; it is simply a rule about how to read the Constitution. ''
In 2000, Harvard historian Bernard Bailyn gave a speech at the White House on the subject of the Ninth Amendment. He said that the Ninth Amendment refers to "a universe of rights, possessed by the people -- latent rights, still to be evoked and enacted into law... a reservoir of other, unenumerated rights that the people retain, which in time may be enacted into law. '' Similarly, journalist Brian Doherty has argued that the Ninth Amendment "specifically roots the Constitution in a natural rights tradition that says we are born with more rights than any constitution could ever list or specify. ''
Robert Bork, often considered an originalist, stated during his Supreme Court confirmation hearing that a judge should not apply a constitutional provision like this one if he does not know what it means; the example Bork then gave was a clause covered by an inkblot. Upon further study, Bork later ascribed a meaning to the Ninth Amendment in his book The Tempting of America. In that book, Bork subscribed to the interpretation of constitutional historian Russell Caplan, who asserted that this Amendment was meant to ensure that the federal Bill of Rights would not affect provisions in state law that restrain state governments.
A libertarian originalist, Randy Barnett has argued that the Ninth Amendment requires what he calls a presumption of liberty. Barnett also argues that the Ninth Amendment prevents the government from invalidating a ruling by either a jury or lower court through strict interpretation of the Bill of Rights. According to Barnett, "The purpose of the Ninth Amendment was to ensure that all individual natural rights had the same stature and force after some of them were enumerated as they had before. ''
According to professor and former Circuit Judge Michael W. McConnell, "(T) he rights retained by the people are indeed individual natural rights, but those rights enjoy precisely the same status, and are protected in the same way, as before the Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution. They are not relinquished, denied, or disparaged. Nor do natural rights become ' ' constitutional rights. ' ' They are simply what all retained rights were before the enactment of the Bill of Rights: a guide to equitable interpretation and a rationale for narrow construction of statutes that might be thought to infringe them, but not superior to explicit positive law. This understanding of the relation of unenumerated natural rights to positive law closely resembles the relation between common law and legislation: the common law governs in the absence of contrary legislation, and sometimes even guides or limits the interpretation of ambiguous or over broad statutes, but does not prevail in the teeth of specific statutory overrides.
"This mode of interpretation offers a middle way between the two usual poles of unenumerated rights jurisprudence. One pole maintains that if a claimed right can not be found in the Constitution, even applying a liberal construction to its terms, it is entitled to no protection at all... The other pole maintains that there are unwritten natural rights whose content must inevitably be determined, finally and without possibility of legislative override, by judges. These rights then receive full constitutional protection even when the representatives of the people have reached the contrary conclusion... If I am correct about the meaning of the Ninth Amendment, neither of these approaches is entirely correct. Rather, an assertion of natural right (generally founded on common law or other long - standing practice) will be judicially enforceable unless there is specific and explicit positive law to the contrary. This allows the representatives of the people, rather than members of the judiciary, to make the ultimate determination of when natural rights should yield to the peace, safety, and happiness of society ''.
Still others, such as Thomas B. McAffee, have argued that the Ninth Amendment protects the unenumerated "residuum '' of rights which the federal government was never empowered to violate.
According to lawyer and diplomat Frederic Jesup Stimson, the framers of the Constitution and the Ninth Amendment intended that no rights that they already held would be lost through omission. Law professor Charles Lund Black took a similar position, though Stimson and Black respectively acknowledged that their views differed from the modern view, and differed from the prevalent view in academic writing.
Gun rights activists in recent decades have sometimes argued for a fundamental natural right to keep and bear arms in the United States that both predates the U.S. Constitution and is covered by the Constitution 's Ninth Amendment; according to this viewpoint, the Second Amendment only enumerates a pre-existing right to keep and bear arms.
The Ninth Amendment explicitly bars denial of unenumerated rights if the denial is based on the enumeration of certain rights in the Constitution, but this amendment does not explicitly bar denial of unenumerated rights if the denial is based on the enumeration of certain powers in the Constitution. It is to that enumeration of powers that the courts have pointed, in order to determine the extent of the unenumerated rights mentioned in the Ninth Amendment.
It was at first believed by our greatest judges and jurists that the whole English Constitution was implied in the Federal Constitution; that there is, as it were, an unwritten Constitution which we inherited in America and which consisted, not only of the English Constitution where not expressly altered by our own, but of all matters of natural right and justice. Doubtless this is the intended meaning of the Ninth Amendment.... Such is not, perhaps, the modern view; but the question has become, in fact, academic, for the reason that in 120 years of interpretation our Supreme Court has ever found some clause in the Federal Constitution into which to read any English constitutional principle not therein expressly altered.
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12th century warthill castle in scotland's old rayne | Rose Leslie - wikipedia
Rose Eleanor Arbuthnot - Leslie (born 9 February 1987), known professionally as Rose Leslie, is a Scottish actress. After winning a Scottish BAFTA for Best Acting Performance for her role in New Town, she rose to fame as Gwen Dawson in the ITV drama series Downton Abbey and as Ygritte in the HBO fantasy series Game of Thrones. She currently stars as Maia Rindell in the CBS All Access legal and political drama The Good Fight.
Leslie was born to a noble family in Aberdeen, Scotland. She was raised at Lickleyhead Castle in Aberdeenshire, her family 's 15th century ancestral seat. Her father, Sebastian Arbuthnot - Leslie, is the Aberdeenshire Chieftain of Clan Leslie. Her mother is Candida Mary Sibyl "Candy '' Leslie (née Weld) of Clan Fraser, maternal great - granddaughter of Simon Fraser, 13th Lord Lovat, and descendant of Charles II of Scotland and England. Her family presently resides at the 12th century Warthill Castle in Scotland 's Old Rayne. Her great - great grandfather was Don Guillermo de Landa y Escandon, who served as Mayor of Mexico City, and she is also cousin - in - law to the British historian, William Dalrymple (FRAS). Leslie 's ancestors include French Huguenot Ambrose Lisle March Phillipps De Lisle, politician Charles March - Phillipps and MP James Grimston, 3rd Earl of Verulam.
She is the third of five children and describes growing up together as "important. We are a big, close family ''. Jokingly, she recalls having middle child syndrome and being the family 's only redhead and "the sole ' ginger ' in a 40 - mile radius at school '' as the predispositions in her desire to become an actress where "different was O.K. '' She was educated at Rayne North School in Aberdeenshire and then the private school Millfield in Street, Somerset, before spending three years at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art.
Leslie was heavily involved in plays at LAMDA, starring in stage productions such as Uncle Vanya, The Caucasian Chalk Circle, A Midsummer Night 's Dream and The Country Wife, as well as a stint on BBC Radio narrating The British Slave Trade: Abolition, Parliament and People. Her experiences allowed her to receive a BASSC certificate in stage combat and master diction in various dialects, which would prove useful in later roles. She graduated with a Bachelor of Arts hons in 2008.
Her leading on screen debut came at age 21 in the television film New Town (2009), for which she won the Scottish BAFTA for Best Acting Performance -- New Talent Award.
In September and October 2010, she became the lead in Nell Leyshon 's infamous play Bedlam held at Globe Theatre. Based on the Bethlem Royal Hospital, representative of the worst excesses of asylums in the era of lunacy reform, Leslie portrayed May, a beautiful country girl driven mad by lost love. The Daily Telegraph 's Charles Spencer praised her performance, commenting, "Leslie proves genuinely poignant. '' Her break - through role came as Gwen Dawson, a housemaid, in the first series (2010 -- 11) of the ITV television drama Downton Abbey. In 2011, while on Downton Abbey, Leslie briefly appeared in two episodes of the British drama series Case Histories.
In 2012, she was cast in the popular HBO fantasy series Game of Thrones. For her role as wildling Ygritte in seasons two, three and four, Leslie was met with major acclaim. The A.V. Club 's Rowan Kaiser stated: "As Ygritte, (Rose) is both dangerous and flirtatious, and it 's fun to watch. '' Den of Geek 's David Crow exclaimed, "A complicated character (...) Rose Leslie devours the screen. '' In 2013, Vox.com 's Todd VanDerWerff (under The A.V. Club) review for "The Climb '' episode, "(In the books) Ygritte is a means to an end... (but) on screen, as embodied by Rose Leslie, she becomes something more, '' whilst The Atlantic 's Christopher Orr summed her portrayal in 2014 's episode "The Watchers of the Wall '' by concluding: "Rose Leslie has been one of a handful of performers on the show who 've really elevated their characters above what they were in the books. ''
While on Game of Thrones, Leslie appeared in the 2012 drama film Now Is Good alongside Dakota Fanning and in episodes of ITV detective television series Vera, Channel 4 conspiracy drama Utopia and BBC One 's comedy series Blandings.
From October to November 2014, she top - billed in the four - part mini-series The Great Fire. She then starred in the horror film Honeymoon with Harry Treadaway. She has since played DS Emma Lane in the BBC detective drama Luther with Idris Elba with positive response and starred alongside Vin Diesel and Elijah Wood in the 2015 action adventure / fantasy film The Last Witch Hunter. In 2016, she portrayed the character of Athena in Sticky Notes with Ray Liotta.
In 2016, Leslie was cast in The Good Fight, a CBS All Access legal drama and spin off of The Good Wife. She plays Maia Rindell, a new lawyer who just passed the bar and whose family is involved in a financial scam, destroying her reputation. The first episode aired in February 2017.
In 2017 Leslie provided the voice for the female protagonist "En '' in the video game Echo, a game by Copenhagen - based game developer Ultra Ultra.
Leslie is fluent in French, having lived in France for three years. While working as an actress, she resided in Battersea, London, until relocating to North London. She often professes to miss her hometown, saying: "Aberdeen... in the middle of the countryside, all trees and nature. (...) My parents would send us out for the day, we had lots of freedom. Going back is still an escape! (...) I feel very much at peace in Scotland ''.
Leslie began dating Game of Thrones co-star Kit Harington in 2012. They announced their engagement through The Times on September 27, 2017.
Rose Leslie declared her support in favour of Scotland remaining a devolved part of the United Kingdom during the 2014 Scottish independence referendum campaign. At the 2015 UK general election, Leslie campaigned with the Conservatives in her local constituency of Gordon, Aberdeenshire. Her father, Sebastian Leslie, was elected to serve as a Conservative Councillor on Aberdeenshire Council as part of the 2017 Council elections, representing the West Garioch ward on the Council.
She is an avid runner and enjoys rock climbing, cooking, skiing, archery and tennis.
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who played lucy in father brown last tuesday | List of home and Away characters (2017) - wikipedia
Home and Away is an Australian television soap opera. It was first broadcast on the Seven Network on 17 January 1988. The following is a list of characters that appeared in 2017, by order of first appearance. All characters are introduced by the soap 's executive producer, Lucy Addario. The 30th season of Home and Away began airing from 30 January 2017. Riley Hawkins was introduced during the following episode. Scarlett Snow made her debut in May, while June saw the arrival of the four - strong Astoni family consisting of parents Ben and Maggie Astoni, and their daughters Coco and Ziggy Astoni. Robbo and Jennifer Dutton made their first appearances in July, and Beth Ellis was introduced in August. Ryder Jackson make his debut in October. November saw the first appearance of Willow Harris, and Jasmine Delaney arrived in December.
Riley Hawkins, played by Ryan O'Kane, made his first appearance on 31 January 2017. O'Kane's housemate Rob Mills also auditioned for the role. He was waiting for his agent to let him know the outcome when O'Kane revealed that he had won the part. Riley is introduced as Tori Morgan 's (Penny McNamee) former boyfriend and a surgeon at the local hospital, who steps in to perform surgery on Justin Morgan (James Stewart). McNamee said the moment Tori is reunited with Riley is "shocking '' for her because she has not seen him in seven years. While Riley is surprised to learn that Tori and her siblings have been in witness protection. Fellow doctor Nate Cooper (Kyle Pryor), who broke up with Tori, is jealous of her history with Riley.
On his first day at Northern Districts Hospital, Riley is asked to operate on Justin Morgan, the brother of his former partner Tessa Lee, now known as Tori. Tori explains to Riley that she and her brothers had to go into witness protection after their parents were shot. Riley tells Nate Cooper that he and Tori used to be a couple, and that he wants her back. He also apologises to Tori for cheating on her. When Justin learns Riley is in town, he warns him to stay away from Tori. Riley later treats Justin when he is admitted with an infection. He also tells Tori that Nate tried to make a bet with him about her, but she soon realises that he lied. Riley performs a bronchoscopy on Billie Ashford (Tessa de Josselin) and finds a mass in her airway. Tori and Riley go on a lunch date, where he asks her for another chance, but she is cautious due to his history. Brody Morgan (Jackson Heywood) sees Riley flirting with Evelyn MacGuire (Philippa Northeast) at Billie 's wake, and tells him not to mess Tori around again. Shortly after they get back together, Riley asks Tori to move to the city with him. She turns him down for the sake of her family. Riley then sees her and Nate talking and hugging. He amends Billie 's notes and then makes a formal complaint in an attempt to get Nate fired for medical negligence. Tori proves the notes were doctored and when Riley admits that he did it, she breaks up with him. When he shows up at her house, Tori tells him to get out of her life. Justin overhears them arguing and fights with Riley, before Tori orders him to leave. Riley quits his job at the hospital and leaves town.
Scarlett Snow, played by Tania Nolan, made her first appearance on 8 May 2017. Nolan was living in Los Angeles when she learned the role was available. She flew to Sydney, where the show is filmed, for a screen test. She returned to Los Angeles the following day, but soon learned she had won the role and had to fly back to Sydney two days later. Nolan was contracted for six months and she finished filming in May. Nolan described her character as "a bit of a mystery '', and explained that no one knows why she is in the Bay, but she has suffered a tragedy in her past that she is dealing with. Nolan accepted the part and relocated to Sydney because of the character 's "unique '' storyline. The actress added, "I could relate to certain things Scarlett has been through. Not specifically, but unfortunately I know what it 's like to go through what she went through. ''.
Brody Morgan (Jackson Heywood) jumps into Scarlett 's car and orders her to drive, as he is avoiding the police. Scarlett pulls the car over and offers Brody her handbag, which he takes. Brody goes to Scarlett 's house to return the handbag, but Scarlett hits him over the head with a vase and ties him up. She threatens to call the police, and Brody opens up to her about his drug addiction. She makes him call his family and then frees him. Brody leaves with William Zannis (Caleb Alloway), who he says is his brother, and Scarlett thinks he is going to get help. The police track down Scarlett and ask her about the carjacking. She tells them she did not get a good look at the carjacker. Scarlett finds Brody sleeping on the beach, and he blames her for his arrest. She buys him a coffee and takes him back to her house. She then visits his family and brings them to him. Mason Morgan (Orpheus Pledger) suggests that Brody stays with Scarlett and she agrees. Scarlett disapproves of the way Justin Morgan (James Stewart) handles Brody 's addiction. Alf Stewart (Ray Meagher) tells Scarlett off for spear fishing in the wrong place. When she enquires about hiring a boat, Alf tells her she can borrow one for free if she can get it mended. Scarlett reluctantly hires Justin to help her.
Brody relapses and flees shortly before Scarlett finds he has ransacked the house, and stolen $10,000 and a bracelet. Her landlord asks her to leave, and Alf gives her a caravan at the Summer Bay Caravan Park, as well as a job at his bait shop. Bruno Addlen (Johnny Nasser) turns up in the Bay looking for Scarlett, having been hired by her husband. Bruno asks for $8000 to leave and keep her whereabouts a secret. Alf offers to lend Scarlett the money, but she turns him down. Tori later thanks Scarlett for helping Brody secure a lawyer and tells her the family will repay the money Brody stole, which allows Scarlett to pay Bruno. Scarlett bonds with Justin 's daughter Ava Gilbert (Grace Thomas) when she visits him. Scarlett later listens to a voicemail message from her son, Max (Addison Price). While working on the boat together, Justin accidentally causes Scarlett 's phone to fall into the sea. He retrieves it and gets it working again. He also notices that she has a son and questions her about it, causing Scarlett to slap him. She later apologises and decides to leave town, until Justin asks her to stay. Scarlett 's estranged husband sends another private investigator after her, as he wants her to come home. Justin helps her to get out of the Bay and Scarlett tells him that her son died a year ago. Justin admits that he care for her and allows Scarlett to take his car. Scarlett returns a week later and gets drunk on the anniversary of Max 's death. She wakes up in Justin 's bed and assumes they had sex, but he explains that she took a shower and fell asleep, while he slept on the couch. Scarlett apologises for over-reacting and tells Justin how her marriage broke down because of Max 's death. Alf and Justin take Scarlett out in the boat for some fishing. When they attempt to leave, their boat fails to start and they have to spend the night on the beach. Alf is attacked by Robbo (Jake Ryan), who also scares Scarlett. Justin fixes the boat and they return home.
Scarlett attempts to kiss Justin, but he rejects her advances, later explaining that he still loves his former fiancée, Phoebe Nicholson (Isabella Giovinazzo). He later changes his mind and they go back to Scarlett 's caravan, but Justin calls out Phoebe 's name and they stop. After avoiding each other, Scarlett and Justin decide to give their relationship a chance. They go swimming, but Justin hits his head and does not resurface. Scarlett pulls him out and gets him breathing again, but she suffers a flashback to her son 's death. Scarlett and Kat move in together, and Scarlett offers to be Brody 's lawyer at his court case. After Brody is accused of stabbing someone, Scarlett looks at Kat 's police files and then goes to a drugs den to find the weapon. She and Kat briefly fall out. While Scarlett and Justin are celebrating Brody 's suspended sentence, they are interrupted by the arrival of her estranged husband Caleb Snow (Josh McConville). Scarlett spends time with Caleb and they later meet over dinner, where Caleb brings her Max 's stuffed toy, causing Scarlett to leave. Caleb reveals that he has been seeing a counsellor. Scarlett, Justin, Kat and Robbo go away to a cabin in the bush, where a bomb explodes and causes a piece of wood to pierce Scarlett 's shoulder. While Justin looks after her, she calls out Caleb 's name. Justin later breaks up with Scarlett, telling her that he cares for her, but their relationship will not work because of Caleb. Scarlett tells Caleb that she has feelings for Justin, but Caleb kisses her and tells her he wants her to move back home. Scarlett realises that Justin is right and she decides to leave the Bay with Caleb.
Ziggy Astoni played by Sophie Dillman, made her first appearance on 20 June 2017. Details about Ziggy were released in June. Ziggy is the eldest daughter of Ben (Rohan Nichol) and Maggie Astoni (Kestie Morassi). The Astonis are the first nuclear family to join the soap opera in 17 years, since the arrival of the Sutherlands in 2000. Karlie Rutherford of The Daily Telegraph described Ziggy as a "wild child '' and a "rebel teenager ''. Ziggy is a potential love interest for Brody Morgan (Jackson Heywood).
After running away from her father, Ben, Ziggy enters a bathroom and asks Brody Morgan to hide her. He allows her to hide in his car and she thanks him, after Ben leaves. Ziggy goes back home, where Ben confronts her about stealing a car. He and his wife Maggie take Ziggy and her younger sister, Coco, on a road trip and they end up in Summer Bay. Ziggy meets Brody again in the Surf Club. Ziggy steals money from Kat Chapman 's (Pia Miller) purse and soon learns Kat is a police officer. Ben and Maggie collect her from the police station. After her parents decide to move to the Bay, Ziggy refuses to stay and Brody drives her back to the city. There she finds her boyfriend, Jarrod (Joel Davies) has been cheating on her. She returns to the Bay and decides to give it a chance. She spends more time with Brody and they kiss, but she and her parents soon learn he is a drug addict, and Ziggy rejects him. Ziggy is given a job at Summer Bay Auto. After learning Brody and his brother Mason Morgan (Orpheus Pledger) have been involved in a car accident, Ziggy comes to see him at the hospital, but he tells her to leave. Ziggy befriends Olivia Fraser Richards (Raechelle Banno) when she helps Olivia unlock her car, after the keys get locked inside.
Ziggy is approached by William Zannis (Caleb Alloway), who asks her if she has seen Brody and whether she is his girlfriend, which she denies. Zannis later has Ziggy kidnapped and he uses her phone to lure Brody to a motel room, where he plans to ply them with alcohol and drugs. Kat and Robbo (Jake Ryan) rescue them. Ziggy tells Brody to stay away from her. She later suffers a panic attack at the beach and Brody sends his sister, Tori Morgan (Penny McNamee) to check on Ziggy. Tori convinces Ziggy to see a counsellor. Ziggy thanks Brody and after they talk, they have sex. The meet up the following day, but Brody tells Ziggy that they can not be together as he is still in recovery. However, they decide to date in secret. Brody convinces Ziggy to tell her parents about their relationship. When she does eventually tell Ben and Maggie, they voice their disapproval and Ziggy leaves the house. Ben apologises to Ziggy and asks her to come home, but when Ziggy asks him to accept her relationship with Brody, Ben tells her he can not and she refuses to come back. During the launch party for Olivia 's fashion line, Brody breaks up with Ziggy, but they remain friends. Ziggy 's ex, Jarrod came to Summer Bay and tries to win her back, and she hid him in a motel room from her parents and Brody. Brody however saw him and told Ben and Maggie, who confronts her. Brody admits to her that he is jealous, as he is still in love with her. When Ziggy goes on a car ride with Jarrod, he kisses her, but she pushes him away. When Brody host a relaunch party at Salt, Ziggy goes to the party with her family and Jarrod. However, Ziggy realise she is in love with Brody and end things with Jarrod for good. Ben gives her and Brody his blessing and Ziggy and Brody gets back together.
Ben Astoni, played by Rohan Nichol, made his first appearance on 20 June 2017. Nichol previously appeared in the show in 2004 as Stafford McRae. Nichol relocated from Melbourne to Manly, so he would be closer to Palm Beach for the role. Ben moves to Summer Bay along with his wife Maggie (Kestie Morassi) and their two daughters Coco (Anna Cocquerel) and Ziggy Astoni (Sophie Dillman). The Astonis are the first nuclear family to join the soap opera in 17 years, since the arrival of the Sutherlands in 2000.
After his daughter, Ziggy, runs away from him, Ben asks Brody Morgan (Jackson Heywood) if he has seen her. At home, Ben confronts Ziggy about stealing a car and then learns that his youngest daughter, Coco, has been suspended from school. His wife Maggie suggests that they get away from the city and visit her mother, but after Ben leaves the main road, they end up in Summer Bay. When they go to leave, the car does not start. Alf Stewart (Ray Meagher) offers them a caravan, while the car is fixed overnight. After Ziggy gets into trouble for stealing, Ben asks Martin Ashford (George Mason) if the car is ready, and Ash admits the clutch is not stable. The family try to leave, but Ben accidentally reverses the car into a water tank, causing a pipe to burst. He tells Alf that he will fix it, leading the family to stay in the Bay for a week. Ben befriends Justin Morgan (James Stewart). Maggie falls in love with the Farmhouse and she and Ben decide to buy it and the Pier, which leads them to clash with business owners Leah Patterson (Ada Nicodemou), Irene Roberts (Lynne McGranger) and Alf Stewart (Ray Meagher). Ben and Maggie learn Ziggy has befriended Brody, who is a recovering drug addict, and ask her to stay away from him. Ben 's renovation plans cause tension between Maggie and Leah, and Maggie asks him to reconsider the plans, but later changes her mind.
Ben and Maggie learn that Ziggy has been dating Brody in secret and they disapprove of the relationship. Ziggy leaves the house and Ben tells her not to come back. He apologises to her the next day, but does not accept her relationship with Brody, so Ziggy refuses to come home. Brody later breaks up with her. Ben begins making surf boards to sell at the pier. Ben finds Coco convulsing in the garden and he and Maggie learn she has bulimia. Ziggy later leaves home. Days later, Ben sees her with Brody, who is attempting to bring her home, and punches him in the face. Olivia Fraser Richards (Raechelle Banno) tells Sergeant Phillip McCarthy (Nicholas Cassim) and Ben is arrested. McCarthy and Kat Chapman (Pia Miller) learns he has a criminal record for assaulting his brother. Ben insults Kat, which leads to him being charged. Maggie secures a loan to get him out on bail. Maggie 's mother, Diana (Sarah Chadwick) came to Summer Bay to visit the family and Diana told Ben and Maggie that she is the one who bailed Ben out of jail.
Maggie Astoni, played by Kestie Morassi, made her first appearance on 21 June 2017. Morassi 's casting was revealed in early 2017 when she was pictured filming on set, while her character details were announced on 4 June. Morassi told Luke Dennehy of Herald Sun that it took some time for her to get used to the fast - paced filming schedule of the show. She commented, "It was definitely a shock to the system. I 'm mostly used to working on film, where you have a lot more time for rehearsals. With film you are shooting maybe three minutes a day, whereas here, you are shooting almost an episode a day. '' Maggie moves to Summer Bay with her husband Ben Astoni (Rohan Nichol) and their two daughters Coco (Anna Cocquerel) and Ziggy Astoni (Sophie Dillman). The Astonis are the first nuclear family to join the soap opera in 17 years, since the arrival of the Sutherlands in 2000.
Maggie brings her youngest daughter Coco home, after she is suspended from school for cyber bullying. Maggie suggests to her husband, Ben, that they go on a trip and they decide to visit her mother, but they end up in Summer Bay when Ben leaves the main road. After their car breaks down, the family stay at the Caravan Park. Ben and Maggie go to the Pier Diner for dinner and Maggie falls out with Leah Patterson - Baker (Ada Nicodemou), after jokingly implying that Leah was checking Ben out. Maggie, Coco and Ziggy take a bus tour around the Bay and Maggie falls in love with the Farmhouse, which is for sale. She later learns that the principal job at the local high school is available. She has an interview and is offered the position. She and Ben decide to purchase the Farmhouse and the pier, which includes the leases for the diner and bait shop. Maggie and Ben are invited to lunch with Leah, Irene Roberts (Lynne McGranger), Alf Stewart (Ray Meagher) and Roo Stewart (Georgie Parker), where they try and discuss their plans for adding another business to the pier, which would mean taking space from the diner. Leah and Irene object to their plans. Maggie later apologises to everyone. She embarrasses Coco on her first day at Summer Bay High, by calling her by her nickname "Coco Pops ''.
Coco Astoni, played by Anna Cocquerel, made her first appearance on 21 June 2017. Coco is the youngest daughter of Ben (Rohan Nichol) and Maggie Astoni (Kestie Morassi). The Astonis are the first nuclear family to join the soap opera in 17 years, since the arrival of the Sutherlands in 2000. Imogen Groome of the Metro reported that Coco could be a new love interest for VJ.
Coco is suspended from school for cyber-bullying another student. When Ziggy and Coco fight, their father, Ben, puts Coco 's phone in the blender and turns it on. Ben and his wife, Maggie, decide to get away from the city and the family ends up in Summer Bay. Coco befriends Raffy Morrison (Olivia Deeble). Ben and Maggie decide to move the family to the Bay. Coco meets VJ Patterson and Raffy tells him that she is her French tutor. Coco plays along and VJ asks her out on a date. His mother, Leah Patterson - Baker (Ada Nicodemou) interrupts their date and reveals that Coco is only 16. She leaves the restaurant and later apologises to VJ. On her first day at Summer Bay High, Coco is embarrassed when her mother calls her by her nickname "Coco Pops ''. Jennifer Dutton (Brittany Santariga) then teases her about it and Raffy attempts to stand up for Coco, who tells her to get lost. Coco and Raffy make up when Coco offers to cover for Raffy, while she leaves the school. Jennifer continues bullying Coco and Raffy stands up for her. As Coco is teased for her appearance, she begins binge eating and making herself sick. She and Jennifer are suspended when they get into a fight at the beach.
Jennifer later realises that Coco has an eating disorder. She says that she will not tell anyone, if Coco can set her up on a date with VJ. Coco agrees and Jennifer 's negative attitude towards her changes, causing strain on Coco and Raffy 's friendship. During a surf lesson with VJ and Jennifer, Coco faints. She faints again while out jogging, causing her to fall down some stairs and fracture her wrist. She almost passes out again, but is caught by Robbo (Jake Ryan), who takes her to the hospital. Raffy and Coco mend their friendship. Coco continues to binge and make herself sick, and Leah later catches her doing. Leah tries to convince Coco to tell Ben and Maggie, but she refuses and begs Leah to keep it quiet. Leah offers her support and tells her to call if she is attempted to binge again. Coco discovers that Ziggy was involved in an incident at their old school in which Maggie was injured. Coco asks Ziggy to come clean, but Ziggy tells her that it will tear their family apart. While working outside, Coco collapses and suffers a seizure. At the hospital, Coco finally admits that she has bulimia. Coco blames Ziggy for putting their mother under stress. While Coco is at the Surf Club, she meets Ryder Jackson (Lukas Radovich) and he buys her a drink. Coco and Ryder later meet up at the Diner, where he asks her for her phone number. When he calls, Coco gets Ben to scare him off. Coco and Raffy soon befriend Ryder. When he overhears them organising a girls movie night, he invites himself along. Coco asks Raffy if she likes Ryder and Raffy replies that he is cool and asks Coco if she likes Ryder too, but Coco denies it. But after seeing Raffy and Ryder getting closer, Coco become jealous and leaves early. At home, Maggie catches Coco about to binge eat. Coco tells Raffy about her bulimia and that she also likes Ryder. Coco hosts a Glow Day event to raise money for charity. Raffy informs Coco that she told Ryder that she is not interested in dating him, so Coco can pursue Ryder.
Robbo (also John Doe), played by Jake Ryan, made his first appearance on 25 July 2017. Ryan admitted that he was not prepared for the fame that will come from appearing on the show, saying "Sometimes these bad boy characters can work in your favour and maybe no one will like me. '' He also told Karlie Rutherford of news.com.au that he lost 13 kg ahead of his debut, after gaining weight following an injury that ended his taekwondo career. Producers introduced Robbo in a bid to fill "the heart - throb void '' left by Darryl Braxton (Stephen Peacocke). Ryan previously auditioned for the role of Brax, and he said, "Both characters have been painted with the bad boy brush... but they 're very different. '' Robbo will also be Kat 's new love interest.
John Doe watches on as Alf Stewart (Ray Meagher), Scarlett Snow (Tania Nolan) and Justin Morgan (James Stewart) approach the cove, where he is hiding out, in a boat. While they are fishing, John Doe attempts to hot - wire the boat, but gives up when he sees Justin approaching. The boat fails to start and Alf, Scarlett and Justin camp out on the island. When Alf goes in search of firewood the following morning, John Doe hits him with a tree branch and takes his knife. He hides on the boat and emerges once it is docked in Summer Bay. John Doe breaks into the Pier Diner to steal some food, and Alf later finds him hiding on the boat. He pushes past Alf and Justin and later follows Alf to his house, where he produces the knife. John Doe tells Alf that he can not recall who he is and needs answers. Alf 's daughter Roo Stewart (Georgie Parker) and Constable Kat Chapman (Pia Miller) approach the scene and Kat talks him into giving her the knife. She calls Tori Morgan (Penny McNamee) to treat John Doe 's head injury, and Tori takes him to the hospital to get a CT scan, as he is suffering from post-traumatic amnesia. He later leaves the hospital, but Kat convinces him to return. Kat runs his finger prints and DNA against the police database, but there are no hits. The nurses name him "Robbo '' after Robinson Crusoe and he is discharged. Alf allows Robbo to stay at the Caravan Park.
Robbo decides to leave the Bay, but after saving Raffy Morrison (Olivia Deeble) from Mackenzie (Luke Davis), he decides to stay and wait to see if any information comes back about his tattoos. Kat and Scarlett take Robbo back to the cove and search his campsite. Kat finds a picture of herself, but Robbo does not know why he has it. John Palmer (Shane Withington) and Marilyn Chambers (Emily Symons) try to help Robbo figure out who he is, but when John attempts to teach him how to drive, Robbo backs the car into Kat 's police cruiser. While taking him to the station, Kat stops off at a motel to find Brody Morgan (Jackson Heywood). Robbo notices Faz (Jesse Rowles) leave the room, and when he and Bob (Neal Horton) emerge with Brody and Ziggy Astoni (Sophie Dillman), Robbo attacks them. William Zannis (Caleb Alloway) pulls a gun, but Robbo disarms him, leading Kat to think Robbo might have been a police officer. Alf offers Robbo a job doing maintenance work around the Caravan Park. After Kat breaks up with her boyfriend Martin Ashford (George Mason), Robbo comes to her caravan and offers her a bottle of whiskey. They kiss, but Kat tells him it was a mistake. Scarlett offers to help Robbo and later gets a hit on one of his tattoos, which is connected to a woman called Rose. She gives him a list of addresses and Kat helps him out. At the second address, Robbo finds a burnt photo that shows his arm around a woman. He and Kat then find her body inside. Robbo decides to give up searching for information about his past and asks Kat to close the investigation. Robbo helps Coco Astoni (Anna Cocquerel) to the hospital when she faints at the beach.
During an overnight trip in the bush with Kat, Scarlett, and Justin, their cabin is set fire to by a stranger who Robbo chases down. He tells him his real name is Beckett Reid, and escapes before he can ask more. The man, whose name is revealed to be Dennis Novak, returns and targets Kat. After confronting him, he tells Robbo they were partners in crime, and urges him to come back. After he kidnaps and attempts to murder Kat, Robbo saves her and kills Novak, burying him in the bush. As the police uncover Novak 's death, they close in on Robbo as the prime suspect. After Kat and Ash discover proof of his guilt, he tries to convince her to flee the Bay with him, but she refuses. After kidnapping and releasing Tori with an address for Kat, he escapes, but returns to confront Kat and asks her to come with him. She again refuses and he hands himself into the police; however, Kat frees him and they drive off together. As they are leaving the Bay, they are involved in a major car accident, which leaves them both injured. Kat begs Robbo to leave her, so he will not be arrested. He reaches the house where he and Kat were going to start a new life and waits for her. He later contacts the hospital and Tori informs him that Kat and her baby have died. Robbo mourns them, while Ash swears to find Robbo and exact his revenge. Robbo returns to the Bay and collapses in Tori 's garden due to an infection. Tori hides him in the garage and treats his injuries. Justin plans to get him out of town in the boot of a car with help from Willow Harris (Sarah Roberts). As Robbo is about to take the car and leave, he finds a photo of himself with a women and two children. He becomes unresponsive and Willow decides to hide him in a motel in the Bay. Robbo eventually tells Tori that the people in the photo are his wife and children. After learning that Ash is searching the local area for him, Tori and Willow take Robbo back to the Morgan 's house. Robbo is finally able to recall that his real name is Ryan Shaw and that his family are dead. As he goes to hand himself in to the police, he is spotted by Ash, who chases him up to the headland. Robbo gives in and prepares for Ash to beat him, but the police arrive and arrest them both. However Robbo is later released on bail until his trial.
Jennifer Dutton, played by Brittany Santariga, made her first appearance on 27 July 2017. Santariga 's casting was confirmed in June 2017 when she was photographed filming alongside actors Matt Little and Anna Cocquerel at Palm Beach, the show 's outdoor location. Jennifer was introduced as a high school student, who bullies Cocquerel 's character Coco Astoni. Carely Duffy of 2Day FM reported Jennifer would later become a love interest for Hunter King (Scott Lee). She also added that Santariga "already caused quite a stir at Summer Bay High playing the role of bully Jennifer. ''
Jennifer teases Coco Astoni after her mother and school principal, Maggie Astoni (Kestie Morassi), calls her by her embarrassing nickname, "Coco Pops '' on her first day. Jennifer tells Coco that she has been given a detention from Maggie and Coco pushes her books to the floor, before VJ Patterson (Little) breaks up the confrontation. Jennifer puts rubbish in Coco 's locker and teases her about her social media photos. Raffy Morrison (Olivia Deeble) stands up to Jennifer on Coco 's behalf, calling her "Jenny '' as she knows Jennifer hates it. Jennifer insults Coco 's appearance and weight. Coco starts a fight with Jennifer, which is broken up by Maggie. She suspends them both and Jennifer 's father Nick (Jacob Allan) collects her from school. Jennifer realises Coco has an eating disorder and threatens to reveal it, unless Coco gets her a date with VJ. Coco agrees and she begins to spend time with Jennifer, which causes a strain on her friendship with Raffy. Jennifer has a surfing lesson with VJ and Coco, and she helps Coco after she faints on the beach. During Olivia Fraser Richards ' (Raechelle Banno) fashion line launch party at Salt, Jennifer encourages Raffy to drink alcohol, causing her to get drunk. The next day, Raffy confronts Jennifer and pushes her, which Maggie witnesses. Jennifer attends Summer Bay 's Glow Day, hosted by Coco. She is paired with Ryder Jackson (Lukas Radovich) for the obstacle course, and he causes her to fall and sprain her wrist. Jennifer flirts with Raffy 's brother Mason Morgan (Orpheus Pledger) when he treats her. Jennifer then trains with Mason at the gym, where she kisses him. Mason pushes her away, as he is still grieving for his late girlfriend and Jennifer apologises. Jennifer comforts Hunter King after Olivia rejects his marriage proposal. Jennifer and Mason support Hunter in the wake of his break up, and Hunter helps Jennifer with her studies. While they are at the beach together, Jennifer kisses Hunter and asks him to come to Diner to help her with an assignment. Hunter mistakenly assumes it is a date, so Jennifer invites him to go on a real date and he accepts.
Elizabeth "Beth '' Ellis, played by Anneliese Apps, made her first appearance on 31 August 2017. The actress secured the role five months after graduating from Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts. She initially thought she had performed badly in the audition, but received a callback, which she felt had gone well. She learned she had won the role a week later.
Apps was excited for the audience to meet Beth and said her storyline was "moving ''. Describing her character, Apps stated "Beth is cheeky, layered and she wants to make the people around her feel good. She is mysterious, perhaps even a bit quirky, like me -- I 'm not that mysterious, but I 'm definitely a bit quirky. '' Beth was also introduced as a love interest for Mason Morgan (Pledger). Apps told a columnist for New Idea that Beth wants to help Mason, as she sees part of herself in him.
While she is at the hospital, Beth overhears Mason Morgan shouting at his siblings about his paralysis. She later changes into some nursing scrubs and attempts to cheer Mason up. Beth convinces him to get in the wheelchair and they race around the corridors. Mason meets Beth again and they spend some more time together. It emerges Beth is a patient when she returns to her room to continue her treatment. Beth and Mason spend more time together, and he introduces her to his sister Tori Morgan (Penny McNamee). Beth keeps up the pretence that she is a nurse, but Mason later finds her in her room undergoing a procedure. He attempts to look at her file and Beth catches him. She tells Mason that she has cardiomyopathy and is waiting for a heart transplant. Beth explains that she liked pretending to be someone else, as she did not want Mason to pity her. They agree to start their friendship over. Beth encourages Mason to forgive his brother Brody Morgan (Jackson Heywood) for causing the crash that paralysed him. Mason finds Beth 's bucket list and arranges for them to get tattoos together. Beth kisses him during their dinner date, and they later go skinny dipping. When Beth asks Mason what he would put on his bucket list, Mason arranges for them to get dressed up and go to a casino. Beth cancels a hospital appointment for the trip, but during the drive she becomes short of breath and faints. Mason helps Beth into the back seat of the car and he is forced to drive them to Tori, who helps transfer Beth to an ambulance. Beth later visits Mason to let him know she is okay. Mason introduces her to his siblings as his girlfriend.
When Mason sees Beth and her father, Alan Ellis (Blair McDonough) together, he introduces himself and realises that Beth has not told her parents about their relationship. Beth tells Mason that she knew they would want her to focus on her health. Alan invites Mason to lunch and Beth 's mother Jackie (Rachael Coopes) joins them. Mason later tells Beth that Alan asked him to stay away from her, so she confronts her father and tells him that she is not breaking up with Mason. Beth collapses and is admitted to the hospital, where Tori informs her that she needs a stent. Beth 's condition worsens and she is moved up the transplant list. When Beth is feeling better, Mason is given permission to take her out for the afternoon. Mason arranges for them to have lunch on the beach, where he gives Beth a promise ring. Beth suddenly becomes short of breath and Mason gets her back to the hospital, where she suffers a sudden fatal arrhythmia and dies. After her funeral, Mason sees a vision of Beth in his room, she tells him to move on in his life.
Ryder Jackson, played by Lukas Radovich, made his first appearance on 25 October 2017. The character and Radovich 's casting details were announced on 23 October. Radovich secured the part shortly after graduating from the Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts and it marks his first acting role. Ryder is the son of Quinn Jackson (Lara Cox) and grandson of Alf Stewart (Ray Meagher). His first scenes see him break into the Surf Club. When he is later caught for trying to steal from Hunter King (Scott Lee) and VJ Patterson (Matt Little), Ryder explains that he is Alf 's grandson. Ryder refuses to give out Quinn 's phone number, leading his aunt Roo Stewart (Georgie Parker) to suspect he has run away.
Ryder steals some sandwiches from the Summer Bay Surf Club. Later he steals money from VJ Patterson and Hunter King, who give chase and catch him. They bring him to Alf Stewart and Ryder tells him that he is his grandson. Alf does not believe Ryder, until he tells him and Roo Stewart that his mother is Quinn Jackson. Ryder tells them he has lost his phone and can not give them Quinn 's contact details. Ryder takes money from Alf 's wallet and leaves. He returns to the Surf Club where he meets Coco Astoni (Anna Cocquerel), who he is attracted to, and he offers to buy her a drink. Roo finds Ryder and he tells her he does not want to go back to his mother 's, so she takes him back to Summer Bay House. Ryder meets Coco at the Diner and he asked her for her number, but unaware that Coco actually gave him her father, Ben Astoni 's (Rohan Nichol) number instead. Ryder kept calling for Coco and Ben threatens Ryder for harassing Coco. Quinn later calls Alf and states that Ryder 's is his grandson. He is then asked to go back to camp, but Roo decides he should stay in Summer Bay. Ryder meets and become attracted to Raffy Morrison (Olivia Deeble) at the Surf Club and they play pool together.
Willow Harris (also Ranger), played by Sarah Roberts, made her first appearance on 14 November 2017. Prior to securing the role of Willow, Roberts auditioned for both Kat Chapman and Scarlett Snow. She flew up from Melbourne to Sydney for the audition and had a chemistry reading with James Stewart, who plays Justin Morgan. Roberts did not think she had won the part, as it took a while for the producers to contact her.
Roberts described Willow as a "strong, female character '', who is also independent, loyal and fierce. The actress said Willow would bring "mischief and a bit of trouble '' to Summer Bay. Willow 's introductory scenes see her attack Justin Morgan at the local garage, as she tries to find a large amount of money that has been stolen from her. A writer for New Idea observed that Justin 's reluctance to report her to the police, could be because he is developing a crush on her. Roberts added that Willow was "definitely a bad girl. But for all the right reasons. She has taken wrong turns and made decisions that some people would consider ' bad ', but only to help the people that she loves. ''
Willow pulls up to Summer Bay Auto, attracting the attention of Justin Morgan. She hits him in the stomach with her motorcycle helmet and demands to know where her $15,000 is. She ties Justin to a table and he explains that he gave the money to the police, after it fell out of the bumper of a customer 's car. Willow takes Justin 's wallet and leaves him locked up in the garage overnight. She returns in the morning, after finding Justin 's bank account empty, and reveals that the money does not belong to her, before fleeing as Justin 's partner and assistant arrive. Willow takes Justin 's dog Buddy and demands a ransom.
Jasmine Delaney (also Delany), played by Sam Frost, made her first appearance on 18 December 2017. Frost 's casting was announced on 17 July 2017. She was asked to audition for the show while she was appearing on Hell 's Kitchen Australia. Frost did not think she would win the role, after going up against several actresses, but she was told that she had secured the part after a second audition. Frost commented "I grew up watching Home and Away and never in my wildest dreams did I think I would be on set and part of the cast. '' The role marks Frost 's acting debut. Frost 's casting attracted criticism from some actors, who dubbed it a publicity stunt. The artistic director of the Australian Acting Academy, Brendan Glanville admitted that he was "disappointed '' by the casting, saying "To me it demonstrates that Home and Away has lost faith in its writers if directors are resorting to this kind of stunt, rather than using their storylines to pull viewers. I ca n't comment on Sam Frost 's acting because some people have a natural ability, but this is a non-artistic choice that is disappointing. ''
Details of Frost 's character were not immediately released, but press photographs showed Frost would be involved in a car crash that would result in the death of Kat Chapman, played by Pia Miller. Frost later described Jasmine as "quite guarded '', with "an anxious energy. '' She is hiding secrets and has "a dark past ''.
Jasmine crashes into a car containing Kat Chapman and Robbo (Jake Ryan). She is knocked unconscious and taken to the local hospital. Shortly after she wakes up, Jasmine leaves the hospital and Leah Patterson (Ada Nicodemou) finds her walking alongside the road. Leah tells her that she sat with her while she was in a coma, and invites Jasmine to her diner for something to eat. Jasmine learns that the diner is closed for Kat 's funeral, who died after the accident. Leah notices that Jasmine is jumpy, and Jasmine explains that she met a man while internet dating who started stalking her. On the night of the accident, she was trying to get away from him.
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when was the new colossus added to the statue of liberty | The New Colossus - wikipedia
"The New Colossus '' is a sonnet that American poet Emma Lazarus (1849 -- 1887) wrote in 1883 to raise money for the construction of the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty. In 1903, the poem was engraved on a bronze plaque and mounted inside the pedestal 's lower level.
This poem was written as a donation to an auction of art and literary works conducted by the "Art Loan Fund Exhibition in Aid of the Bartholdi Pedestal Fund for the Statue of Liberty '' to raise money for the pedestal 's construction. Lazarus 's contribution was solicited by fundraiser William Maxwell Evarts. Initially she refused but writer Constance Cary Harrison convinced her that the statue would be of great significance to immigrants sailing into the harbor.
"The New Colossus '' was the first entry read at the exhibit 's opening on November 2, 1883, and remained associated with the exhibit through a published catalog until the exhibit closed after the pedestal was fully funded in August 1885, but was forgotten and played no role at the opening of the statue in 1886. It was, however, published in Joseph Pulitzer 's New York World as well as The New York Times during this time period. In 1901, Lazarus 's friend Georgina Schuyler began an effort to memorialize Lazarus and her poem, which succeeded in 1903 when a plaque bearing the text of the poem was put on the inner wall of the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty.
The line "Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp! '' is missing a comma, and reads "Keep ancient lands, your storied pomp! '' on the plaque hanging inside the Statue of Liberty since its unveiling in 1903.
The original manuscript is held by the American Jewish Historical Society.
Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame, With conquering limbs astride from land to land; Here at our sea - washed, sunset gates shall stand A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name MOTHER OF EXILES. From her beacon - hand Glows world - wide welcome; her mild eyes command The air - bridged harbor that twin cities frame. "Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp! '' cries she With silent lips. "Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. Send these, the homeless, tempest - tost to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden door! ''
The title of the poem and the first two lines refer to the Colossus of Rhodes, which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, sometimes described as standing astride the harbor.
The "sea - washed, sunset gates '' are the mouths of the Hudson and East Rivers, to the west of Brooklyn. The "imprisoned lightning '' refers to the electric light in the torch, then a novelty.
The "air - bridged harbor that twin cities frame '' refers to New York Harbor between New York City and Brooklyn, which were consolidated into one unit in 1898, 15 years after the poem was written.
The "huddled masses '' are the many immigrants coming to the United States (many of them through Ellis Island at the port of New York).
Paul Auster wrote that "Bartholdi 's gigantic effigy was originally intended as a monument to the principles of international republicanism, but ' The New Colossus ' reinvented the statue 's purpose, turning Liberty into a welcoming mother, a symbol of hope to the outcasts and downtrodden of the world. ''
John T. Cunningham wrote that "The Statue of Liberty was not conceived and sculpted as a symbol of immigration, but it quickly became so as immigrant ships passed under the torch and the shining face, heading toward Ellis Island. However, it was (Lazarus 's poem) that permanently stamped on Miss Liberty the role of unofficial greeter of incoming immigrants. ''
The poem has entered the political realm. It was quoted in John F. Kennedy 's book A Nation of Immigrants (1958) as well as a 2010 political speech by President Obama advocating immigration policy reform. On August 2nd, 2017, the poem and its importance to the Statue of Liberty 's symbolism and thus the effect on American immigration policy, was debated in a White House briefing.
Classical composer David Ludwig has set the poem to music, which was performed at the worship service of President Obama 's 2013 inauguration ceremony.
Author and scholar Julia Gordon - Bramer theorizes that Sylvia Plath 's poem, "Lady Lazarus, '' is about the Statue of Liberty and Jewish immigrant poet Emma Lazarus in her book, Fixed Stars Govern a Life: Decoding Sylvia Plath, volume one (2014, Stephen F. Austin State University Press).
Parts of the poem also appear in popular culture. The Broadway musical Miss Liberty, with music and lyrics by Irving Berlin, an immigrant himself, used the final stanza beginning "Give me your tired, your poor '' as the basis for a song. It was also read in the 1941 film Hold Back the Dawn as well as being recited by the heroine in Alfred Hitchcock 's wartime film Saboteur. Harpist and singer Joanna Newsom indirectly references the poem in her 2015 song "Sapokanikan, '' in contrast to the forbidding colossus of Percy Bysshe Shelley 's "Ozymandias. '' The poem is read aloud in the eponymous episode entitled ' New Colossus ' in the 2016 Netflix web series The OA.
See Also Walt Kelly, The Pogo Papers, 1953, p. 152, for reference to right - wing (McCarran act) policy & the Goldman quote.
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who dies in season 6 episode 23 grey's anatomy | Death and All His Friends (Grey 's Anatomy) - wikipedia
"Death and All His Friends '' is the season finale of the sixth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, and the show 's 126th episode overall. It was written by Shonda Rhimes and directed by Rob Corn. The episode was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States on May 20, 2010. The episode was the second part of the two - hour season six finale, the first being Sanctuary, and took place at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital. The original episode broadcast in the United States had an audience of 16.13 million viewers and opened up to universal acclaim. The episode centers a shooting spree at the hospital by a former patient 's husband Gary Clark (Michael O'Neill). The episode marked the last appearances for Nora Zehetner and Robert Baker as Dr. Reed Adamson and Dr. Charles Percy respectively as both the characters were killed in the shooting.
In the episode Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) and Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) try to save the life of Chief Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) who was shot by Gary Clark in front of Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) as she waits outside the OR with April Kepner (Sarah Drew). Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) tries to save Charles along with her patient Mary Portman (Mandy Moore), while Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.) tries to get into the hospital. Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) and Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) are stuck on a floor with all the younger patients of the hospital, Mark Sloan (Eric Dane) and Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) try to save the life of Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) who was shot as well and Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) and Teddy Altman (Kim Raver) try to get their patient to safety.
The hospital is hit with an unprecedented crisis: a shooter is in the hospital, and there is a lockdown. Meanwhile, Dr. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) discovers that she is pregnant, and Dr. Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) must choose between Teddy and Cristina (Sandra Oh). The shooter kills Reed Adamson and wounds Dr. Alex Karev (Justin Chambers). Lexie (Chyler Leigh) and Mark (Eric Dane) find the latter and try to save him. Soon, it is revealed that the shooter, Gary Clark (whose wife was a patient at the hospital and later died), is looking for Dr. Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey). At the end, he shoots Derek, which is witnessed by Meredith, Cristina, and April. With the crisis unfolding, each character is put through extreme trials and tribulations. Cristina is put under pressure to save Derek, who is seriously injured.
Meanwhile, Dr. Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) and her patient Mary drag resident Charles Percy, who has been shot, through the hallway but when they get to the elevators, they are off. Bailey freaks out for a moment, then gathers herself and sits with Charles. When he asks if he was dying, she said yes. She tells him she and Mary are going to stay with him and that he is n't alone, with Charles dying soon thereafter. The shooter walks into the OR where Cristina and Jackson are trying to save Derek. Hunt shows up and Meredith tells him what was going on. He looks through the window and says she is doing fine but he 'd go in to see what he could do to help. When Hunt goes inside, the audience is shown that Mr. Clark is in the room with a gun to Cristina 's head, shouting at her to stop fixing Derek. Cristina and Avery refuse to stop working.
Mr. Clark tells Hunt that he 'd shoot him first and then Cristina but he really only wanted to kill Derek. He believes this is retribution for his wife 's death, which he believes is on Derek 's hands. Meredith then comes into the room and tells Mr. Clark to shoot her. She explains that she is Lexie 's sister, she is the closest thing Webber has to a daughter, and she is Derek 's wife. He turns the gun toward Meredith, but Cristina says Meredith is pregnant. Hunt makes a move toward Mr. Clark and is shot, knocking him unconscious. Cristina and Avery then raise their hands and Avery tells Mr. Clark that Derek will die and he can watch it happen on the monitor. Derek flatlines and Meredith cries almost hysterically. Mr. Clark walks out.
Clark later comes across Lexie, who is bringing supplies to help Alex, and when he attempts to shoot her, the recently arrived SWAT team wounds Clark. This gives time for Lexie to escape. Soon after, Webber walks through the halls of the hospital and finds several bodies. In a room, he finds Mr. Clark, who tells him he 'd bought the gun at a superstore and bought extra ammo because it was on sale. Mr. Clark tells Webber he has one bullet left. He reveals that he planned on shooting Webber, then himself. Eventually, after Webber convinces Clark that his wife would n't want the shooting and would rather be reunited with him, Clark commits suicide as the SWAT team is directly out the door.
Meanwhile, in the operating room, Derek 's heartbeat returns to normal, and everyone is relieved. Outside the hospital, Arizona and Callie reinstate their relationship when Callie says she does n't want to have a baby if it means she ca n't be with Arizona. Arizona agrees to have a baby because she says that she does n't want to stop Callie from being an excellent mother. Mark and Lexie show up at the other hospital. Alex is out of surgery. Lexie goes to Alex. Mark watches Lexie take Alex 's hand. Meredith takes another look at her positive pregnancy test, and throws it out.
The episode was written by showrunner Shonda Rhimes and directed by Rob Corn. In an interview Rhimes told that the writing of the two - part season six finale, caused her struggle. She elaborated on this:
TV Guide reported that Mandy Moore will check into Grey 's Anatomy 's two - hour season finale, adding, "She 'll play a patient named Mary as part of an explosive -- and, of course, top secret -- cliffhanger. Bailey -- who 's having one hell of a season as a newly single gal -- will be her doctor, but beyond that, details are being kept under heavily guarded wraps. '' The news was later confirmed by Entertainment Weekly which further reported, "Bailey -- who 's having one hell of a season as a newly single gal -- will be her doctor, but beyond that, details are being kept under heavily guarded wraps. She comes as part of a grand tradition of recognizable names as patients, usually quick, juicy roles like Sara Gilbert 's euthanized patient two weeks ago and Demi Lovato 's upcoming stretch as a schizophrenic. Moore did that other hospital show, Scrubs ''
It was also reported as veteran actor Michael O'Neill would reprise his role as the grief - stricken widower Gary Clark. O'Neill later in an interview said, "That role changed my career. It was probably the hardest job I 've ever done, hardest work I 've ever done. I had a tremendous resistance to it, and I almost turned the role down. I was so afraid of that being sensationalized, and I did n't want that in the world. I had n't worked with Shonda Rhimes, and so I did n't know. I certainly knew she was a brilliant writer, but I did n't know what the intent was. We had a conversation about it. I said, ' You know what? Can I think about this and call you back tomorrow? ' I called her back, and I said, ' Shonda, I just have to say it frightens me. It really frightens me. ' She said, ' Michael, it frightens me too. ' I thought, OK, we 're at least starting at the same place. Her writing was so good... We saw the wound. We got to see the wound that drove him mad, and I think that was terribly important. It was important to show the fracture that brought this man to that desperate action. ''
Death And All His Friends was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States on May 20, 2010. The episode was the second half of the two - hour season six finale, the other half being Sanctuary It had an audience in The United States of 16.13 million viewers (5.9 / 17 Nielsen rating in its 9: 00 Eastern time - slot.
The episode opened up to universal acclaim with the television critics lauding the writing and performance of the entire cast as well. The performances of guest stars Mandy Moore and Michael O'Neill along with Ellen Pompeo, Sandra Oh, Chandra Wilson, Kevin McKidd, James Pickens, Jr. and Sarah Drew garnered most praise. Marsi from TVFanatic highly praised the episode and gave it five stars, and expressed that it may have been the best episode of the series, adding, "The writing and acting were absolutely stellar, and may lead to many Emmy nominations, but even more impressively, despite a killing spree, it remained distinctly Grey 's. Some of the back - and - forths between the characters were truly memorable, and some of the developments so heartbreaking that we do n't even know where to begin now. Seriously, the Season 6 finale left us laying awake afterward thinking about everything, a feeling we have n't had from Grey 's in years and rarely achieved by any program. ''
John Kubicek of BuddyTV also noted that the finale was the best episode, adding, "(It was) two of the best hours of television all year. It was certainly the best Grey 's Anatomy has ever been, which is saying a lot since I 'd written the show off for the past few years. No show does a big traumatic event like Grey 's, and the shooter gave the show license for heightened drama with five major characters being shot over the two hours. It was emotional, expertly paced and had me in tears for most of the finale. '' PopSugar called it "most intense episodes of Grey 's I have ever seen '' adding, "What a whopper of an episode! Can we talk about how gripping the scene is where Bailey and Percy are hiding from Mr. Clark. Then he turns around and gets Karev right in the chest. Seriously, I have n't been so shocked by a one - two shooting spree since Michael shot Ana Lucia and Libby in rapid succession on Lost. Another review from BuddyTV called the finale "Game changing! '' stating, "The finale that changes everything! You do n't want to miss it! To her credit GA creator and writer - of - this - episode Shonda Rhimes pretty much delivered on her promise. I found myself with my heart in my mouth for the entire evening before finally being able to exhale as the credits rolled. '' The review lauded Ellen Pompeo and Sandra Oh adding, "The Twisted Sisters really were the showcase of the entire finale. Meredith, side - lined for much of the season, took center stage '' even calling Oh 's Cristina Yang a "rockstar ''.
Entertainment Weekly wrote, "You 're still pondering how Grey 's can still be so damn good sometimes, '' further hugely praising the episode, "They did a bang - up job, it felt real in every way, thanks to some stellar performances and writing. And yet it maintained its Grey'sness thanks to some quieter moments, and plenty of witty exchanges to boot. '' Regarding the Bailey - Mary - Charles sequence the site wrote, "the action felt so real '', but added, "But the most intense action was culminating in the OR with Cristina, April and Meredith had a nice moment sitting on the ground together, April sniffling and Meredith stonefaced. Kevin McKidd did some stellar acting as he interacted with them. '' Talking about Meredith 's miscarriage the site added, "She saved Owen, though she did it while having a miscarriage -- again, leave it to Grey 's to make this the least dramatic, most underplayed storyline of the night. (Brilliantly so.) ''
Spoiler Junkie wrote highly of the episode Meredith Grey in particular saying, "In the most heart - wrenching moment of the entire two - hour season finale, Meredith bursts into the room, asking Clark to kill her. Eye for an eye, she says. She 's Lexie 's sister. She 's like a daughter to Dr. Weber. She 's the Chief 's wife. '' and noted that, "This was an amazing season finale, one of the best in the six seasons of Grey 's Anatomy. The second hour of the Grey 's Anatomy Season 6 season finale, Death and All His Friends, is even more intense than the first. '' HitFix also lauded the episode and wrote, "In every sense, these two episodes where Shonda Rhimes, directors Stephen Cragg and Rob Corn, and the entire cast and crew of the show "Going For It ''. There was no opportunity for suspense, or tears, or anger, or horror, or some good old - fashioned monologuing left unexplored. Huge stakes, huge emotions, great performances from everybody Chandra Wilson and Sandra Oh were particularly great, as was Michael O'Neill as shooter Gary Clark. This was about as good as I 've ever seen "Grey 's. '' Episodes like these are what I point to when anyone asks me why I 'm still watching
The site also lauded Ellen Pompeo 's character stating, "Meredith would suffer a miscarriage in the middle of patching up Owen Hunt 's bullet wound - and be so hard - core, just as her best friend was next door in risking death to save Meredith 's man, that she would just keep working even as blood dripped down her legs. A moment like that works only if everyone involved is 100 % committed to the insanity of it, and here everyone was. They all went for it and came up with a riveting two hours of TV. At the completion of the eleventh season Wired named the episode in its must watch list adding, "The show reaches its dramatic apex in a multi-episode arc about a deadly spree shooter who visits the hospital with a vendetta. The repercussions of this incident will echo through most of Season 7, and well into the future. '' The site also called Pompeo 's ' Shoot Me. I 'm Your Eye for an Eye. ' the best scene from the entire series.
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who was the lead singer of jefferson airplane | Jefferson Airplane - wikipedia
Jefferson Airplane was a rock band based in San Francisco, California, who pioneered psychedelic rock. Formed in 1965, the group defined the San Francisco Sound and was the first from the Bay Area to achieve international commercial success. They were headliners at the three most famous American rock festivals of the 1960s -- Monterey (1967), Woodstock (1969) and Altamont (1969) -- and the first Isle of Wight Festival (1968) in England. Their 1967 break - out album Surrealistic Pillow ranks on the short list of the most significant recordings of the "Summer of Love ''. Two songs from that album, "Somebody to Love '' and "White Rabbit '', are among Rolling Stone 's "500 Greatest Songs of All Time. ''
The "classic '' lineup of Jefferson Airplane, from October 1966 to February 1970, was Marty Balin (vocals), Paul Kantner (guitar, vocals), Grace Slick (vocals), Jorma Kaukonen (lead guitar, vocals), Jack Casady (bass), and Spencer Dryden (drums). Marty Balin left the band in 1971. After 1972, Jefferson Airplane effectively split into two groups. Kaukonen and Casady moved on full time to their own band, Hot Tuna. Slick, Kantner, and the remaining members of Jefferson Airplane recruited new members and regrouped as Jefferson Starship in 1974, with Marty Balin eventually joining them. Jefferson Airplane was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 and was presented with the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2016.
In 1962, 20 - year - old Marty Balin recorded two singles for Challenge Records, neither of which were successful. Balin then joined a folk group called the Town Criers from 1963 to 1964. After the Beatles - led British invasion of 1964, Balin was inspired by the success of the Byrds and Simon & Garfunkel in merging folk with rock to form a group in 1965 that would follow that lead. With a group of investors, Balin purchased a former pizza parlor on Fillmore Street, which he converted to a music club, the Matrix, and began searching for members for his group.
Balin met folk musician Paul Kantner at another local club, the Drinking Gourd. Kantner, a native San Franciscan, had started out performing on the Bay Area folk circuit in the early 1960s, alongside fellow folkies Jerry Garcia, David Crosby and Janis Joplin. Kantner has cited folk groups like the Kingston Trio and the Weavers as strong early influences. He briefly moved to Los Angeles, California, in 1964 to work in a folk duo with future Airplane / Starship member David Freiberg (who subsequently joined Quicksilver Messenger Service).
Balin and Kantner then recruited other musicians to form the house band at the Matrix. After hearing female vocalist Signe Toly Anderson at the Drinking Gourd, Balin invited her to be the group 's co-lead singer. Anderson sang with the band for a year and performed on their first album before departing in October 1966 after the birth of her first child.
Kantner next recruited an old friend, blues guitarist Jorma Kaukonen. Originally from Washington, D.C., Kaukonen had moved to California in the early 1960s and met Kantner while at Santa Clara University in 1962. Kaukonen was invited to jam with the new band and although initially reluctant to join he was won over after playing his guitar through a tape delay device that was part of the sound system used by Ken Kesey for his Acid Test parties. Kaukonen came up with the band 's name, based on the name of a friend 's dog. A 2007 press release quoted Kaukonen as saying:
I had this friend (Steve Talbot) in Berkeley who came up with funny names for people, '' explains Kaukonen. "His name for me was Blind Thomas Jefferson Airplane (for blues pioneer Blind Lemon Jefferson). When the guys were looking for band names and nobody could come up with something, I remember saying, ' You want a silly band name? I got a silly band name for you! '
Drummer Jerry Peloquin and acoustic bassist Bob Harvey completed the original lineup. The group made its first public appearance as Jefferson Airplane at the opening night of The Matrix on August 13, 1965. The band expanded from its folk roots, drawing inspiration from the Beatles, the Byrds and the Lovin ' Spoonful, and gradually developed a more pop - oriented electric sound.
A few weeks after the group was formed, Jerry Peloquin departed, in part because of his disdain for the others ' drug use. Although he was not a drummer, singer - guitarist Skip Spence (who later founded Moby Grape) was then invited to replace Peloquin. In October 1965, after the other members decided that Bob Harvey 's bass playing was not up to par, he was replaced by guitarist - bassist Jack Casady, an old friend of Kaukonen from Washington, D.C., Casady played his first gig with the Airplane at a college concert in Berkeley, California, two weeks after he arrived in San Francisco.
The group 's performing skills improved rapidly and they soon gained a strong following in and around San Francisco, aided by reviews from veteran music journalist Ralph J. Gleason, the jazz critic of the San Francisco Chronicle who, after seeing them at the Matrix in late 1965, proclaimed them "one of the best bands ever ''. Gleason 's support raised the band 's profile considerably, and within three months their manager Matthew Katz was fielding offers from recording companies, although they had yet to perform outside the Bay Area.
Two significant early concerts featuring the Airplane were held in late 1965. The first was the historic dance at the Longshoremen 's Hall in San Francisco on October 16, 1965, the first of many "happenings '' in the Bay Area, where Gleason first saw them perform. At this concert they were supported by a local folk - rock group, the Great Society, which featured Grace Slick as lead singer and it was here that Kantner met Slick for the first time. A few weeks later, on November 6, they headlined a benefit concert for the San Francisco Mime Troupe, the first of many promotions by rising Bay Area entrepreneur Bill Graham, who later became the band 's manager. In November 1965, Jefferson Airplane signed a recording contract with RCA Victor, which included an unheard - of advance of US $25,000. Prior to this, they had recorded a demo for Columbia Records of "The Other Side Of This Life '' with Bob Harvey on bass, which was immediately rejected by the label. On December 10, 1965, the Airplane played at the first Bill Graham - promoted show at the Fillmore Auditorium, supported by the Great Society and others. The Airplane also appeared at numerous Family Dog shows promoted by Chet Helms at the Avalon Ballroom.
The group 's first single was Balin 's "It 's No Secret '' (a tune he wrote with Otis Redding in mind); the B - side was "Runnin ' Round The World '', the song that led to the band 's first clash with RCA Victor, over the lyric "The nights I 've spent with you have been fantastic trips ''. After their debut LP was completed in March 1966, Skip Spence quit the band and he was eventually replaced by Spencer Dryden, who played his first show with the Airplane at the Berkeley Folk Festival on July 4, 1966. Dryden had previously played with a Los Angeles group called the Ashes, who later became the Peanut Butter Conspiracy.
Original manager Matthew Katz was fired in August, sparking a long - running legal battle that continued until 1987, and Balin 's friend and roommate Bill Thompson was installed as road manager and temporary band manager. It was Thompson, a friend and staunch supporter of the band and a former Chronicle staffer, who had convinced reviewers Ralph Gleason and John Wasserman to see the band at the Longshoreman 's Hall. Thanks to Gleason 's influence, Thompson was able to book the group for appearances at the Berkeley Folk Festival and at the Monterey Jazz Festival.
The group 's debut LP Jefferson Airplane Takes Off was released in September 1966. The folk - music - influenced album included John D. Loudermilk 's "Tobacco Road '' and Dino Valente 's "Let 's Get Together '', as well as original ballads "It 's No Secret '' and "Come Up the Years ''. Despite the fact that the group had neither performed outside the Bay Area nor appeared on TV, the album garnered considerable attention in the United States and sold well enough to earn a gold record award. RCA initially pressed only 15,000 copies, but it sold more than 10,000 in San Francisco alone, prompting the label to reprint it. For the re-pressing, the company deleted "Runnin ' Round This World '' (which had appeared on early mono pressings), because executives objected to the word "trip '' in the lyrics. For similar reasons, RCA Victor substituted altered versions for two other tracks: "Let Me In '', changing the line "I got ta get in / you know where '' to "you shut your door / now it ai n't fair. '' In the same song, they also switched the lyric "Do n't tell me you want money '' to "Do n't tell me it ai n't funny ''. "Run Around '' was also edited, changing the line "flowers that sway as you lay under me '' to "flowers that sway as you stay here by me ''. The original pressings of the LP featuring "Runnin ' ' Round This World '' and the uncensored versions of "Let Me In '' and "Run Around '' are now worth thousands of dollars on the collectors ' market.
Signe Anderson gave birth to her daughter in May 1966, and in October she announced her departure from the band. Her final gig with the Airplane took place at the Fillmore on October 15, 1966.
The following night, Anderson 's replacement Grace Slick made her first appearance. Slick was already well known to the band -- she had attended the Airplane 's debut gig at the Matrix in 1965 and her previous group, the Great Society, had often supported the Airplane in concert.
Slick 's recruitment proved pivotal to the Airplane 's commercial breakthrough -- she possessed a powerful and supple contralto voice that complemented Balin 's and was well - suited to the group 's amplified psychedelic music, and, a former model, her good looks and stage presence greatly enhanced the group 's live impact. "White Rabbit '' was written by Grace Slick while she was still with The Great Society. The first album Slick recorded with Jefferson Airplane was Surrealistic Pillow, and Slick provided two songs from her previous group: her own "White Rabbit '' and "Somebody to Love '', written by her brother - in - law Darby Slick. Both songs became breakout successes for Jefferson Airplane and have ever since been associated with that band.
The Great Society had recorded an early version of "Somebody to Love '' (under the title "Someone to Love '') as the B - side of their only single, "Free Advice '', produced by Sylvester Stewart (soon to become famous as Sly Stone). It reportedly took more than 50 takes to achieve a satisfactory rendition. The Great Society decided to split up in late 1966 and played its last show on September 11. Soon after, Slick was asked to join Jefferson Airplane by Jack Casady (whose musicianship was a major influence on her decision) and her Great Society contract was bought out for $750.
In December 1966, Jefferson Airplane was featured in a Newsweek article about the booming San Francisco music scene, one of the first in a welter of similar media reports that prompted a massive influx of young people to the city and contributed to the commercialization of the hippie culture.
Around the beginning of 1967 Bill Graham took over from Bill Thompson as manager. In January the group made their first visit to the East Coast. On January 14, alongside the Grateful Dead and Quicksilver Messenger Service, Jefferson Airplane headlined the "Human Be-In '', the famous all - day "happening '' in Golden Gate Park, one of the key events leading up to the "Summer of Love ''.
During this period the band gained their first international recognition when rising British pop star Donovan, who saw them during his stint on the U.S. West Coast in early 1966, mentioned the Airplane in his song "The Fat Angel '', which subsequently appeared on his Sunshine Superman LP.
The group 's second LP, Surrealistic Pillow, recorded in Los Angeles with producer Rick Jarrard in only thirteen days at a cost of $8,000, launched the Airplane to international fame. Released in February 1967, the LP entered the Billboard 200 album chart on March 25 and remained there for over a year, peaking at No. 3. It sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. The name "Surrealistic Pillow '' was suggested by the album 's "shadow producer, '' Jerry Garcia, when he mentioned that, as a whole, the album sounded "as surrealistic as a pillow is soft. '' Although RCA Victor would not acknowledge Garcia 's considerable contributions to the album with a production credit, he is listed in the album 's credits as "spiritual advisor. ''
In addition to the group 's two best - known tracks, "White Rabbit '' and "Somebody to Love '', the album featured "My Best Friend '' by former drummer Skip Spence, Balin 's driving blues - rock songs "Plastic Fantastic Lover '' and "3 / 5 of a Mile in 10 Seconds '', and the atmospheric Balin - Kantner ballad "Today ''. A reminder of their earlier folk incarnation was Kaukonen 's solo acoustic guitar tour de force, "Embryonic Journey '' (his first composition), which referenced contemporary acoustic guitar masters such as John Fahey and helped to establish the popular genre exemplified by acoustic guitarist Leo Kottke.
The first single from the album, Spence 's "My Best Friend '', failed to chart, but the next two singles rocketed the group to prominence. Both "Somebody to Love '' and "White Rabbit '' became major U.S. hits, the former reaching No. 5 and the latter No. 8 on the Billboard singles chart. By late 1967 the Airplane were national and international stars and had become one of the hottest groups in America. Grace Slick biographer Barbara Rowes called the album "a declaration of independence from the establishment (-) What Airplane originated was a romanticism for the electronic age. Unlike the highly homogenized harmonies of the Beach Boys, Airplane never strived for a synthesis of its divergent sensibilities. Through (-) each song, there remain strains of the individual styles of the musicians (creating) unusual breadth and original interplay within each structure ''.
This phase of the Airplane 's career peaked with their famous performance at the Monterey International Pop Festival in June 1967. Monterey showcased leading bands from several major music "scenes '' including New York, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and the United Kingdom, and the resulting TV and film coverage gave national (and international) exposure to groups that had previously had only regional fame. Two songs from the Airplane 's set were subsequently included in the D.A. Pennebaker film documentary of the event.
In August 1967, the Airplane performed in Montreal, Quebec, Canada at two free outdoor concerts, along with fellow San Francisco Bay Area band The Grateful Dead. The first concert was held in downtown Montreal at Place Ville Marie, and the second was at the Youth Pavilion of Expo 67.
The Airplane also benefited greatly from appearances on national network TV shows such as The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson on NBC and The Ed Sullivan Show on CBS. The Airplane 's famous appearance on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour performing "White Rabbit '' and "Somebody to Love '' was videotaped in color and augmented by developments in video techniques. It has been frequently re-screened and is notable for its pioneering use of the Chroma key process to simulate the Airplane 's psychedelic light show.
After Surrealistic Pillow, the group 's music underwent a significant transformation. Key influences on the group 's new direction were the popularity and success of Jimi Hendrix and the British supergroup Cream, which prompted the Airplane (like many other groups) to adopt a "heavier '' sound and to place a greater emphasis on improvisation. The band 's third LP, After Bathing at Baxter 's, was released on November 27, 1967, and eventually peaked in the charts at No. 17. Its famous cover, drawn by renowned artist and cartoonist Ron Cobb, depicts a Heath Robinson - inspired flying machine (constructed around an idealised version of a typical Haight - Ashbury district house) soaring above the chaos of American commercial culture.
Recorded over a period of more than four months, with little input from nominal producer Al Schmitt, the new album demonstrated the group 's growing engagement with psychedelic rock. Where the previous LP had consisted entirely of "standard - length '' pop songs, Baxter 's was dominated by long multi-part suites, while "A Small Package of Value Will Come To You Shortly '' was a musique concrete - style audio collage inspired by Frank Zappa 's contemporaneous work.
Baxter 's also marked the ascendency of Kantner and Slick as the band 's chief composers and the concurrent decline in the influence and involvement of founder Marty Balin. The other members, gravitating toward a harder - edged style, openly criticized Balin for his ballad - oriented compositions. Balin was also reportedly becoming increasingly disenchanted with the "star trips '' and inflated egos generated by the band 's runaway commercial success.
Baxter 's also marked the end of the Airplane 's brief run of success on the singles chart. In contrast to "White Rabbit '' and "Somebody To Love '', "The Ballad of You and Me and Pooneil '' only peaked at No. 43 and "Watch Her Ride '' stalled at No. 61. (Both singles reached the Top 40 in Cash Box.) None of the band 's subsequent singles reached the Billboard Top 40 and several failed to chart at all. AM Top 40 radio became wary of a group that had scored a hit with a song that contained thinly - veiled drug references and whose singles were often deemed too controversial, so Jefferson Airplane never again enjoyed the kind of widespread AM radio support that served as a prerequisite for Top Ten hits.
In February 1968, manager Bill Graham was fired after Grace Slick delivered an "either he goes or I go '' ultimatum. Bill Thompson took over as permanent manager and set about consolidating the group 's financial security, establishing Icebag Corp. to oversee the band 's publishing interests and purchasing a 20 - room mansion at 2400 Fulton Street across from Golden Gate Park near the Haight - Ashbury, which became the band 's office and communal residence. Bill Laudner was hired as road manager.
In mid-1968, the group was photographed for a Life magazine story on "The New Rock '', appearing on the cover of the June 28, 1968 edition. They undertook their first major tour of Europe in August -- September 1968, playing alongside the Doors in the Netherlands, England, Germany, and Sweden. In a notorious incident at a concert in Amsterdam, while the Airplane was performing "Plastic Fantastic Lover '', Doors singer Jim Morrison, under the influence of a combination of drugs fans had given him, appeared on stage and began dancing "like a pinwheel ''. As the group played faster and faster, Morrison spun around wildly until he finally fell senseless on the stage at Marty Balin 's feet. Morrison was unable to perform his set with the Doors and was hospitalized while keyboardist Ray Manzarek was forced to sing all the vocals. It was also during this tour that Slick and Morrison allegedly engaged in a brief sexual relationship, described in Somebody To Love?, Slick 's 1998 autobiography.
Jefferson Airplane 's fourth LP, Crown of Creation (released in September 1968), was a commercial success, peaking at No. 6 on the album chart. Grace Slick 's "Lather '', which opens the album, is said to be about her affair with drummer Spencer Dryden and his 30th birthday. "Triad '', a David Crosby composition, had been rejected by The Byrds because they deemed its subject matter (a ménage à trois) to be too "hot. '' Slick 's searing sexual and social - commentary anthem "Greasy Heart '' was released as a single in March 1968. A few tracks recorded for the LP were left off the album but later included as bonus tracks, including the Grace Slick / Frank Zappa collaboration "Would You Like A Snack? ''
The Airplane 's appearance on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour in the fall of that year caused a minor stir when Grace Slick appeared in blackface (she claimed she simply wanted to wear all the makeup she saw in her dressing room) and raised her fist in the Black Panther Party 's salute after singing "Crown of Creation ''.
In November 1968, the band played "House at Pooneil Corners '' on a New York City rooftop. It was filmed for D.A. Pennebaker movie 1 PM. The concert was stopped by the police just like the Beatles ' famous rooftop concert about two months later, as depicted in the 1970 documentary Let It Be.
In February 1969, RCA released the live album Bless Its Pointed Little Head, which was culled from 1968 performances at the Fillmore West on October 24 -- 26 and the Fillmore East on November 28 -- 30. It became the Airplane 's fourth Top 20 album, peaking at No. 17.
Hot Tuna began during a break in Jefferson Airplane 's touring schedule in early 1969 while Grace Slick recovered from throat node surgery that left her unable to perform. Kaukonen, Casady, Kantner and drummer Joey Covington played several shows around San Francisco, including the Airplane 's original club, The Matrix, before Jefferson Airplane resumed performing. Their early repertoire derived mainly from Airplane material that Kaukonen (the band 's frontman) sang and covers of American country blues artists such as Reverend Gary Davis, Jelly Roll Morton, Bo Carter and Blind Blake. In addition, Casady and Kaukonen played as a duo under the moniker with Kaukonen on acoustic guitar and Casady on electric bass. From October 1969 to November 1970, Hot Tuna (also including Balin and, following Kantner 's departure, a dedicated rhythm guitarist in their electric performances until November 1970) performed as the opening act to Jefferson Airplane with a combination of both electric and acoustic sets.
In April 1969, sessions began for their next album, Volunteers, using new 16 - track facilities at the Wally Heider Studio in San Francisco. This proved to be the last album by the "classic '' lineup of the group. The album 's release was delayed when the band ran into conflict with their label over the content of songs such as "We Can Be Together '' and the planned title of the album, Volunteers of Amerika. "Volunteers of Amerika '' is a corruption of the Volunteers of America charity, the term being in vogue in 1969 as an ironic expression of dissatisfaction with America; after the charity objected, the name was shortened to Volunteers.
A few days after the band headlined at a free concert in New York 's Central Park in August 1969, they performed in what Grace Slick characterized as the "morning maniac music '' slot at the Woodstock Festival, for which the group was joined by noted British session keyboard player Nicky Hopkins. When interviewed about Woodstock by Jeff Tamarkin in 1992, Paul Kantner still recalled it with fondness, whereas Grace Slick and Spencer Dryden had less than rosy memories.
Immediately after their Woodstock performance, the band appeared on The Dick Cavett Show and played a few songs. Other guests on that same episode were David Crosby, Stephen Stills, and Joni Mitchell. The new album was finally released in the United States in November 1969 with the title shortened to Volunteers. The album continued the Airplane 's run of Top 20 LPs, peaking at No. 13 and attaining a RIAA gold certification early in 1970. It was their most political venture, showcasing the group 's vocal opposition to the Vietnam War and documenting their reaction to the changing political atmosphere in the United States. The best - known tracks include "Volunteers, '' "We Can Be Together, '' "Good Shepherd, '' and the post-apocalyptic "Wooden Ships, '' which Paul Kantner co-wrote with David Crosby and Stephen Stills, and which Crosby, Stills & Nash also recorded on their debut album.
RCA raised objections to the phrase "up against the wall, motherfucker '' in the lyrics of Kantner 's "We Can Be Together '', but the group managed to prevent it from being censored on the album, pointing out that RCA had already allowed the offending word to be included on the cast album of the rock musical Hair. In addition, the song had the line "in order to survive, we steal, cheat, lie, forge, fuck, hide, and deal '', which was also kept on the album (and which they sang on broadcast TV during their Dick Cavett appearance). For the single versions of "We Can Be Together, '' "motherfucker '' was changed to a long, drawn out "Ma, '' and "fuck '' was changed to "fred. '' These edits were reflected in the printed lyrics that accompanied the album.
In September 1969, Kaukonen and Casady played a week of acoustic - based concerts at the New Orleans House in Berkeley, California as Hot Tuna; recordings culled from this engagement were released as the band 's eponymous debut album in 1970. This initial Hot Tuna album was remarkably successful, reaching No. 30 on the U.S. album chart. Over the next two years, the various configurations of Hot Tuna began to occupy more and more of Casady 's and Kaukonen 's time, contributing to the growing divisions within Jefferson Airplane that came to a head in 1972.
In December 1969, the Airplane played at the Altamont Free Concert at Altamont Speedway in California. Following the Grateful Dead 's withdrawal from the program, they became the only band to perform at all three of the iconic rock festivals of the 1960s -- Altamont, Monterey Pop, and Woodstock. Headlined by The Rolling Stones, the concert was marred by violence. Marty Balin was knocked out during a scuffle with Hells Angels members who had been hired to act as "security. '' The event became notorious for the fatal stabbing of black teenager Meredith Hunter in front of the stage by Hells Angels "guards '' after he pulled out a revolver during the Stones ' performance. This incident was the centerpiece of the documentary film Gimme Shelter.
Spencer Dryden was dismissed from the band in February 1970 by a unanimous vote of the other members. He felt burned out by four years on the "acid merry - go - round '' and was deeply disillusioned by the events of Altamont, which, he later recalled, "did not look like a bunch of happy hippies in streaming colors. It looked more like sepia - toned Hieronymus Bosch. '' He took time off before returning to music the following year as Mickey Hart 's replacement in the New Riders of the Purple Sage. Dryden was replaced by Hot Tuna drummer Joey Covington, who had already contributed additional percussion to Volunteers and performed select engagements with the Airplane as a touring second drummer in 1969. Later that year, the band was further augmented by the addition of veteran jazz violinist Papa John Creach, a friend of Covington who officially joined Hot Tuna and Jefferson Airplane for their fall tour in October 1970.
Touring continued throughout 1970, but the group 's only new recording that year was the single "Mexico '' b / w "Have You Seen the Saucers? ''. Slick 's "Mexico '' was an attack on President Richard Nixon 's Operation Intercept, which had been implemented to curtail the flow of marijuana into the United States. "Have You Seen the Saucers '' marked the beginning of the science fiction themes that Kantner explored in much of his subsequent work, including Blows Against the Empire, his first solo album. Released in November 1970 and credited to "Paul Kantner / Jefferson Starship, '' this prototypical iteration of Jefferson Starship (alternatively known as the Planet Earth Rock and Roll Orchestra) included David Crosby and Graham Nash; Grateful Dead members Jerry Garcia, Bill Kreutzmann, and Mickey Hart; session luminary Harvey Brooks; David Freiberg; and Slick, Covington and Casady. Blows Against the Empire peaked at No. 20 in the United States and was the first rock album nominated for the Hugo Award.
Jefferson Airplane ended 1970 with their traditional Thanksgiving Day engagement at the Fillmore East (the final performance of the short - lived Creach - era septet) and the release of their first compilation album, The Worst of Jefferson Airplane, which continued their unbroken run of post-1967 chart success, reaching No. 12 on the Billboard album chart.
1971 was a year of major upheaval for Jefferson Airplane. Grace Slick and Paul Kantner had begun a relationship during 1970, and on January 25, 1971, their daughter China Wing Kantner ("Wing '' was Slick 's maiden name) was born. Slick 's divorce from her first husband had come through shortly before this, but she and Kantner agreed that they did not wish to marry.
In April 1971, Marty Balin officially left Jefferson Airplane after disassociating himself from the group following the fall 1970 tour. Although he had remained a key part of live performances after the band 's creative direction shifted from the brooding love songs that he specialized in, the evolution of the polarized Kantner / Slick and Kaukonen / Casady cliques -- compounded by an emerging drinking problem -- had finally left him the odd man out. Following the traumatic death of Janis Joplin, he began to pursue a healthier lifestyle; Balin 's study of yoga and abstention from drugs and alcohol further distanced him from the other members of the group, whose drug intake continued unabated. This further complicated the recording of their long - overdue follow - up to Volunteers; Balin had recently completed several new songs, including "Emergency '' and the elongated R&B - infused "You Wear Your Dresses Too Short, '' both of which later appeared on archival releases.
On May 13, 1971, Grace Slick was injured in a near - fatal automobile crash when her car slammed into a wall in a tunnel near the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco. The accident happened while she was drag racing with Jorma Kaukonen; both were driving at over 100 miles per hour, and Kaukonen claims that he "saved her life '' by pulling her from the car. Slick 's recuperation took a few months, forcing the Airplane to curtail their touring commitments. In the meantime, Slick recorded a comic song ("Never Argue with a German If You 're Tired or European Song '') about the incident for the new album.
In September 1971, Bark was released. With cover art depicting a dead fish wrapped in an A&P - style grocery bag, it was both the final album owed to RCA under the band 's existing contract and the inaugural release on the band 's Grunt Records vanity label. Manager Bill Thompson had struck a deal with RCA to allow Jefferson Airplane to run Grunt Records as they saw fit while retaining RCA 's distribution. The single "Pretty As You Feel '', excerpted from a longer jam with members of Santana and featuring lead vocals by Joey Covington, its principal composer, was the last Jefferson Airplane chart hit, peaking at No. 60 in Billboard and No. 35 in Cashbox. The album rose to No. 11 in Billboard, higher than Volunteers, Blows Against the Empire and Hot Tuna 's second album, First Pull Up, Then Pull Down, released three months before Bark in June.
In spite of the band 's continued success, major creative and personal divisions persisted between the Slick / Kantner and Kaukonen / Casady factions. (Kaukonen 's "Third Week In The Chelsea, '' from Bark, chronicles the thoughts he was having about leaving the band.) These problems continued to be exacerbated by the band 's escalating cocaine use and Slick 's alcohol use disorder. Consequently, while the band played several dates in August in support of Bark (including two concerts in the New York metropolitan area and a show apiece in Detroit and Philadelphia), no tour was planned. Following a private concert / party commemorating the formation of Grunt Records at San Francisco 's Friends and Relations Hall in September, the band would not reconvene until several Midwestern engagements in January 1972.
Jefferson Airplane held together long enough to record one more album, entitled Long John Silver, begun in April 1972 and released in July. By this time the various members were thoroughly engaged with their various solo projects. Following the release of Kantner and Slick 's Sunfighter in November 1971 and Creach 's eponymous solo debut in December 1971, Hot Tuna released their first studio album and third opus (Burgers) in February 1972; meanwhile, Joey Covington immersed himself in various Grunt Records projects, including his own solo album (Fat Fandango, released in 1973) and the sessions for Black Kangaroo 's debut album (led by Peter Kaukonen, Jorma 's younger brother). However, Covington was either dismissed from the band or left of his own volition shortly after the sessions commenced.
With Hot Tuna drummer Sammy Piazza deputizing on one track, Covington (who had already recorded two drum parts) was soon replaced by former Turtles / CSNY drummer John Barbata, who ultimately played on most of the album. Long John Silver is notable for its cover, which folded out into a humidor, which the inner photo depicted as storing cigars (which may have been filled with marijuana). Despite middling reviews, the album rose to No. 20 in the United States, a significantly higher placement than Burgers (No. 68) or Sunfighter (No. 89).
The band began a proper national tour to promote Long John Silver in the summer of 1972, their first in nearly two years. Shortly before the tour commenced, David Freiberg (who had recently completed a prison sentence for marijuana possession after leaving Quicksilver Messenger Service) joined as a belated replacement for Balin. The East Coast leg of the tour included a major free concert in Central Park that drew over 50,000 attendees. They returned to the West Coast in September, playing concerts in San Diego, Hollywood, Phoenix and Albuquerque. The tour culminated in two shows at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco (September 21 -- 22), both of which were recorded. At the end of the second show, the group was joined on stage by Marty Balin, who sang lead vocals on "Volunteers '' and the final song, "You Wear Your Dresses Too Short. ''
The Winterland shows were the last live performances by Jefferson Airplane until their reunion in 1989. A new live album, Thirty Seconds Over Winterland, was culled from the tour and released in April 1973. Later that year, Kaukonen and Casady decided to focus on Hot Tuna as a full - time endeavor, effectively leaving the band; however, no official announcement was ever released. By December 1973, RCA had terminated the band 's salaries, resulting in Freiberg being forced to draw unemployment to maintain his house payments.
Following the commercially unsuccessful Baron von Tollbooth & the Chrome Nun (1973; credited to Kantner, Slick and Freiberg) and Manhole (1974; credited to Slick), Jefferson Airplane evolved into Jefferson Starship in January 1974. The initial lineup consisted of the remaining members of Jefferson Airplane (Kantner, Slick, Freiberg, Barbata, Creach); bassist Peter Kaukonen (soon replaced by British multi-instrumentalist Pete Sears, a veteran of Creach 's solo oeuvre and Manhole); and lead guitarist Craig Chaquico, a member of Grunt Records band Jack Traylor and Steelwind who contributed to the Kantner / Slick solo albums beginning with Sunfighter. They appropriated the name from Kantner 's Blows Against the Empire, with Bill Thompson convincing the group that maintaining the connection was prudent from a business standpoint. Reflecting the transition, their first album (Dragon Fly, released in September 1974) was credited to Slick, Kantner and Jefferson Starship.
After the acrimonious events that resulted in Jefferson Starship 's 1984 evolution into Starship, Kantner reunited with Balin (who joined Jefferson Starship in January 1975 following a guest appearance on Dragon Fly before leaving once more in 1978) and Jack Casady in 1985 to form the KBC Band. They released their only album, KBC Band, in 1987 on Arista Records. On March 4, 1988, Grace Slick made a cameo appearance during a Hot Tuna San Francisco performance at the Fillmore (with Kantner and Creach joining in), facilitating a potential reunion of Jefferson Airplane.
In 1989, the classic 1966 - 1970 lineup of Jefferson Airplane reunited (with the exception of drummer Spencer Dryden) for a tour and album. The self - titled album was released by Epic to modest sales but the accompanying tour was considered a success.
In 1996, the 1966 - 1970 lineup of Jefferson Airplane was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, with Balin, Casady, Dryden, Kantner and Kaukonen attending as well as performing. Grace Slick was absent, as she was unable to travel for medical reasons.
1998 saw the production and broadcast of a very popular episode of the hit VH1 documentary television series Behind The Music about Jefferson Airplane, directed by Bob Sarles. Band members Grace Slick, Marty Balin, Paul Kantner, Jorma Kaukonen, Jack Casady and Spencer Dryden were all interviewed for the episode, along with David Crosby, longtime Airplane manager Bill Thompson and China Kantner, daughter of Paul Kantner and Grace Slick.
In 2004, the film Fly Jefferson Airplane (directed by Bob Sarles) was released on DVD. It covers the years 1965 -- 1972 and includes then - recent interviews with band members and thirteen complete songs.
Spencer Dryden died of colon cancer on January 11, 2005.
Jorma Kaukonen and Jack Casady performed a set at the 2015 Lockn ' Festival to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Jefferson Airplane. They were joined by G.E. Smith, Rachael Price, Larry Campbell and Teresa Williams. In 2016, Jefferson Airplane was given the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.
Both Signe Anderson and Paul Kantner died on January 28, 2016.
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what does the name logan mean in the bible | Logan (given name) - wikipedia
The given name Logan is derived from the Scottish surname Logan, which is in turn derived from a place name. The likely origin of this surname is a place located near Auchinleck, in Ayrshire. The place name is derived from the Scottish Gaelic lagan, which is a diminutive of lag, which in turn means "hollow ''. The given name is borne by males and females.
The given name was the 17th most popular name for baby boys born in the United States in 2007 and was the 455th most popular name for baby girls born there in 2007. It was the 54th most popular name for baby boys born in England and Wales in 2007 and was the 12th most popular name for boys born in Scotland in 2007 and the fourth most popular in 2009. It was also among the top 100 most popular names for boys in Canada, Australia, France and Belgium in the last five years.
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pictures of amy from the big bang theory | Mayim Bialik - wikipedia
Mayim Chaya Bialik (/ ˈmaɪəm biˈɑːlɪk / MY - əm bee - AH - lik; born December 12, 1975) is an American actress, author and neuroscientist. From 1991 to 1995, she played the title character of the NBC sitcom Blossom. Since 2010, she has played Amy Farrah Fowler - Cooper -- like the actress, a neuroscientist -- on the CBS sitcom The Big Bang Theory, a role for which she has been nominated four times for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, and won a Critic 's Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series.
Mayim Chaya Bialik was born on December 12, 1975, in San Diego, California, to Barry and Beverly (née Winkleman) Bialik. Her family were Jewish immigrants, and three of her four grandparents migrated from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary. Bialik was raised as a Reform Jew, but now considers herself to be Orthodox Jewish. Her personal name, Mayim, originates in a mispronunciation of Miriam, her great - grandmother 's name. It also means "water '' in Hebrew. Hayim Nahman Bialik is her great - great - grandfather 's uncle.
Bialik attended Walter Reed Junior High School (now Walter Reed Middle School) and graduated in 1993 from North Hollywood High School in North Hollywood, California. While completing filming on Blossom she received acceptance offers from UCLA, Yale, and Harvard. In acknowledgment of her acting commitments, she was granted a deferred acceptance and attended UCLA. She stated that she wanted to stay close to her parents and did not want to move to the East Coast.
Bialik earned a B.S. degree in neuroscience, with minors in Hebrew and Jewish studies, and went on to study for a doctorate in neuroscience. She took a break from studies in 2005 to return to acting. Bialik returned to earn her Ph. D. in neuroscience from UCLA, in 2007. Her dissertation was an investigation of hypothalamic activity in patients with Prader -- Willi syndrome, entitled "Hypothalamic regulation in relation to maladaptive, obsessive - compulsive, affiliative and satiety behaviors in Prader -- Willi syndrome. ''
Bialik started her career as a child actress in the late 1980s. Her early roles included the horror film Pumpkinhead (1988), her first acting job, and guest appearances on The Facts of Life and Beauty and the Beast. In 1988 - 1989, she had a recurring role on the TV comedy Webster playing Frieda, Webster 's classmate, in 8 episodes. It was for her Beauty and the Beast work, in which she played a sewer - dwelling girl named Ellie who had about 10 lines of dialogue, that Bialik obtained her Screen Actors Guild (SAG) card. She appeared in three episodes of MacGyver as Lisa Woodman. She appeared in Beaches (1988), playing Bette Midler 's character as a young girl. She also appeared in the video for the song "Liberian Girl '' by Michael Jackson. In 1990, Bialik was tied to two television pilots, Fox 's Molloy and NBC 's Blossom. Molloy at first produced six episodes for a tryout run, followed by the shooting of the pilot special for Blossom. The latter actually aired two weeks before Bialik 's Fox series and ultimately garnered higher ratings than the former. When Molloy folded after its six episodes, Blossom premiered as a mid-season replacement on January 3, 1991, and aired until May 22, 1995.
Bialik had a major part in the Woody Allen comedy film Do n't Drink the Water in 1994. On September 8, 1992, Bialik was a celebrity contestant guest in the episode "Disturbing The Heavenly Peace '', the first episode of the second season of the game show Where In The World Is Carmen Sandiego?. Between 1995 and 2005, Bialik mostly did voice - over work for cartoons, such as The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest, Disney 's Recess and Kim Possible, Cartoon Network 's Johnny Bravo, and Nickelodeon 's Hey Arnold!. She appeared in the feature film Kalamazoo? (2005) and appeared in three episodes of the HBO comedy series Curb Your Enthusiasm as Jodi Funkhouser, the lesbian daughter of a friend of Larry David. Bialik also made guest appearances as a fictionalized version of herself in the series Fat Actress and made a guest appearance in an episode of Saving Grace.
She had a recurring role as the high school guidance counselor in ABC Family 's The Secret Life of the American Teenager. In 2009, Bialik was nominated by Clinton Kelly for a makeover on TLC 's What Not To Wear. She joined the cast of The Big Bang Theory as Dr. Amy Farrah Fowler. Her first appearance was in the season 3 finale as a potential love interest for the character of Sheldon Cooper (Jim Parsons). In Season 4, she began as a recurring character playing Sheldon 's "friend that 's a girl, but not a girlfriend. '' Beginning with Season 4, Episode 8, she became part of the main cast. Amy is a neurobiologist, which is a field related to Bialik 's real - life academic career in neuroscience. Bialik 's performance in The Big Bang Theory earned her Emmy Award nominations in 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2015 for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. Bialik was one of seven actresses who had a "quirky '' personality to audition for the role. Prior to her joining the cast, in the episode "The Bat Jar Conjecture '', Raj suggests recruiting the real - life Bialik to their Physics Bowl team, saying "You know who 's apparently very smart is the girl who played TV 's Blossom. She got a Ph. D. in neuroscience or something. '' She is cast as one of the guest stars on the Steve Carell 2014 improvisational sketch show Riot.
In August 2014, Bialik began hosting a revival of Candid Camera on TV Land alongside Peter Funt. On March 6, 2012, her book, Beyond the Sling: A Real - Life Guide to Raising Confident, Loving Children the Attachment Parenting Way, was released. Her most recent movie appearance was in a Lifetime Christmas movie, The Flight Before Christmas in 2015.
Bialik founded Grok Nation in August 2015 for people of different ages and backgrounds to have conversations on contemporary issues. It aims to engage readers in online conversations that lead to offline action, mobilizing individuals toward changing the world as a community. To grok means to understand in a profound manner. The term comes from the 1961 science fiction novel Stranger in a Strange Land by Robert A. Heinlein. Bialik had been writing on a similar area for JTA - affiliated Jewish parenting site Kveller for five years. She announced and described her new creation on the site.
Bialik has written two books with pediatrician Jay Gordon and one by herself. Beyond the Sling is about attachment parenting, while Mayim 's Vegan Table contains over one hundred vegan recipes written by Bialik. Her third book, called Girling Up, is about the struggles and ways in which girls grow up while showing the scientific ways in which their bodies change. The predecessor for "Girling Up '', "Boying Up '', was released on May 8, 2018. The book analyzes the science, anatomy and mentality of growing up as a male as well as discussing the physical and mental changes and challenges boys face with while transitioning from adolescence and adulthood.
After the Harvey Weinstein sexual misconduct allegations surfaced, Bialik penned an op - ed in The New York Times, in which she described the entertainment industry as one "that profits on the exploitation of women... (and) the objectification of women ''. With regard to protecting herself from sexual harassment, Bialik wrote that she dressed modestly and did not act flirtatiously with men, adding, "In a perfect world, women should be free to act however they want. But our world is n't perfect. Nothing -- absolutely nothing -- excuses men for assaulting or abusing women. But we ca n't be naïve about the culture we live in. '' Bialik 's article drew immediate backlash from critics who said Bialik was insinuating that modesty and a conservative wardrobe can guard one against sexual assault, with Patricia Arquette tweeting, "I have to say I was dressed non provocatively at 12 walking home from school when men masturbated at me. It 's not the clothes. '' In response, Bialik stated she regretted that the piece "became what it became '' and participated in a Facebook Live hosted by The New York Times to answer questions about the piece.
Bialik married Michael Stone on August 31, 2003, in a Victorian - themed ceremony that included traditional Jewish wedding customs. Stone was born into a Mormon family and converted to Judaism. Bialik and Stone have two sons, Miles (b. 2005) and Frederick (b. 2008). The couple divorced in November 2012.
In 2010, Bialik returned to television so that she could spend more time with her children; "I 'm glad that I completed my PhD and I 'm very proud of it, but the life of a research professor would not have suited my needs in terms of what kind of parenting I wanted to do. '' In addition, Bialik had explained that her "health insurance was running out '', via the COBRA program. She had sought out SAG (Screen Actor Guild) health insurance for herself, and her two sons.
In a 2012 interview, Bialik said she sees herself as an "aspiring Modern Orthodox ''. Bialik has also described herself as a "staunch Zionist ''. She is a self - professed fan of The Maccabeats, an American Orthodox Jewish a cappella group based at Yeshiva University, and appeared with her two sons lighting the menorah in the group 's 2011 Hanukkah music video. During the 2014 Gaza Conflict, she donated money to the IDF for armored vests. She has also appeared in several YouTube cameos as Blossom and Amy Farrah Fowler asking questions about Jewish beliefs. The videos are produced by Allison Josephs, Bialik 's Judaism study partner, whom she encountered with the help of Partners in Torah. Bialik is a celebrity spokesperson for the Holistic Moms Network.
In 2014, Bialik was awarded an honorary D.H.L. degree from Boston University.
Bialik is a vegan and a founding member of the Shamayim V'Aretz Institute, a Jewish organization that advocates for the ethical treatment of animals.
She said on The Late Late Show with James Corden that she identified herself as a feminist.
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who was the leader of the french in the french and indian war | George Washington in the French and Indian War - wikipedia
George Washington (February 22, 1732 -- December 14, 1799) commanded the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 1783), and was the first President of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. Because of his central role in the founding of the United States, Washington is often called the "Father of his Country ''. His devotion to republicanism and civic virtue made him an exemplary figure among early American politicians.
Washington 's military experience began in the French and Indian War with a commission as a major in the militia of the British Province of Virginia. In 1753 Washington was sent as an ambassador from the British crown to the French officials and Indians as far north as present - day Erie, Pennsylvania. The following year he led another expedition to the area to assist in the construction of a fort at present - day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Before reaching that point, he and some of his men, accompanied by Indian allies, ambushed a French scouting party. Its leader was killed, although the exact circumstances of his death were disputed. This peacetime act of aggression is seen as one of the first military steps leading to the global Seven Years ' War. The French responded by attacking fortifications Washington erected following the ambush, forcing his surrender. Released on parole, Washington and his troops returned to Virginia.
In 1755 he participated as a volunteer aide in the ill - fated expedition of General Edward Braddock, where he distinguished himself in the retreat following the climactic Battle of Monongahela. He served from 1755 until 1758 as colonel and commander of the Virginia Regiment, directing the provincial defenses against French and Indian raids and building the regiment into one of the best - trained provincial militias of the time. He led the regiment as part of the 1758 expedition of General John Forbes that successfully drove the French from Fort Duquesne, during which he and some of his companies were involved in a friendly fire incident. Unable to get a commission in the British Army, Washington then resigned from the provincial militia, married, and took up the life of a Virginia plantation owner.
Washington gained valuable military skills during the war, acquiring tactical, strategic, and logistical military experience. He also acquired important political skills in his dealings with the British military establishment and the provincial government. His military exploits, although they included some notable failures, made his military reputation in the colonies such that he became a natural selection as the commander in chief of the Continental Army following the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775. His successes in military and political spheres during that conflict led to his election as the first President of the United States of America.
Born into a well - to - do Virginia family in Bridges Creek near Fredericksburg in 1732 (O.S. 1731), Washington was schooled locally until the age of 15. His father 's sudden death occurred when Washington was just a mere eleven years old. This completely eliminated the possibility of schooling in England, and his mother rejected attempts to place him in the Royal Navy. Thanks to the connection by marriage of his half - brother Lawrence to the wealthy Fairfax family, Washington was appointed surveyor of Culpeper County in 1749; he was just 17 years old. Washington 's brother had purchased an interest in the Ohio Company, a land acquisition and settlement company whose objective was the settlement of Virginia 's frontier areas, including the Ohio Country, territory north and west of the Ohio River. Its investors also included Virginia 's Royal Governor, Robert Dinwiddie, who appointed Washington a major in the provincial militia in February 1753.
The Ohio Country was occupied by a variety of Indian tribes that were nominally under the suzerainty of the Iroquois Confederacy based in what is now northwestern New York. The area was also the subject of several conflicting claims by British and French colonies. The British provinces of Virginia and Pennsylvania both claimed the area, and traders from Pennsylvania had been trading with the Indians at least since the early 1740s. In 1752, representatives of the Ohio Company reached an agreement with the local Indian leaders allowing the construction of a fort and a small settlement at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers (present - day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania), and for the establishment of some settlements south of the Ohio River. The French were alarmed by these developments, and in 1753 began the construction of a series of fortifications in the uppermost headwaters of the Ohio River (near present - day Erie, Pennsylvania), intending to extend the line of forts downriver and deny British traders and settlers access to the territory. When news of this reached Virginia, Governor Dinwiddie sought advice from the British government in London. He received orders to send a messenger to the French, reiterating British claims and demanding that they stop construction of their forts and quit the territory.
Governor Dinwiddie chose Major Washington, then 21 years old, for the trek into the Ohio Country to assess the French military situation, and to deliver the British demands. He was a good choice despite his youth because he was familiar with the frontier from survey work, had good health, and both government and Ohio Company leaders trusted Washington. Although he had no frontier warfare experience, neither did most other Virginians. Washington departed from Williamsburg at the end of October 1753. In Fredericksburg he picked up Jacob Van Braam, a family friend who spoke French, before heading into the Virginia highlands. There he was joined by Christopher Gist, an Ohio Company agent who was familiar with the territory, and a few backwoodsmen to assist with expedition logistics. When the expedition arrived at the site of the proposed fort, Washington noted that the site was well chosen, having "the entire Command of the Monongahela ''.
The expedition then proceeded on to Logstown, a large Indian settlement a short way down the Ohio River. After parleying with the Indians, the Mingo "Half King '' Tanacharison and three of his men agreed to accompany the British expedition to meet with the French. Washington also learned that many of the Ohio tribes were as unhappy about the British plans for settling the area as they were of the French plans to fortify it. Leaving Logstown on November 30, they arrived at Fort Machault on December 4. The commander there, Captain Philippe - Thomas de Joncaire, directed Washington to his superior officer, stationed at Fort LeBoeuf, further north. While dining with Joncaire, Washington learned of French intentions to "take possession of the Ohio ''.
Washington 's party reached Fort LeBoeuf on December 11, in the middle of a raging snowstorm. The French commander, Captain Jacques Legardeur de Saint - Pierre, received them with hospitality; however, in response to Dinwiddie 's demands, he pointed out that the letter was more properly addressed to his superior, New France 's governor the Marquis Duquesne. The letter Legardeur drafted in response to Dinwiddie 's was clear and to the point: "as to the summons you send me to retire, I do not think myself obliged to obey it. '' Washington took careful notes of the military arrangements at both forts before departing on December 16. He was somewhat concerned by the fact that Tanacharison and his men remained behind for further discussions with the French; he wrote, "I saw that every strategem which the most fruitful brain could invent, was practiced to win Half King to their interest ''. He returned to Williamsburg after a month of difficult travel. Dinwiddie had Washington 's account of the expedition widely distributed to emphasize the French threat. It was printed on both sides of the Atlantic, giving Washington an international reputation.
While Washington was returning from this expedition, Dinwiddie sent men from the Ohio Company (who were also commissioned into the provincial militia) under William Trent to begin construction of the company 's fort. In February, with Tanacharison 's blessing, Trent and his men began construction of the fort at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. Legardeur 's successor at Venango, Claude - Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur, led a force of about 500 men Canadiens and Indians (rumors reaching Trent 's men put its size at 1,000) to dislodge them. On April 16, they arrived at the forks; the next day, Trent 's force of 36 men, led by Ensign Edward Ward in Trent 's absence, agreed to leave the site, over the vociferous objections of Tanacharison. The French then began construction of Fort Duquesne.
Washington, upon his return to Williamsburg, was commissioned a Lieutenant Colonel in the newly created Virginia Regiment, and ordered by Dinwiddie to raise a force to assist in the completion of Trent 's fort. Dinwiddie 's orders were to "act on the (defensive), but in Case any Attempts are made to obstruct the Works or interrupt our (settlements) by any Persons whatsoever, You are to restrain all such Offenders, & in Case of resistance to make Prisoners of or kill and destroy them. '' Historian Fred Anderson describes Dinwiddie 's instructions, which were issued without the knowledge or direction of the British government, as "an invitation to start a war. '' Washington was ordered to gather up as many supplies and paid volunteers as he could along the way. By the time he left for the frontier on April 2, he had recruited fewer than 160 men. Moving quickly and without artillery, his force marched north and west, picking up additional militia companies along the way. On April 19, outside Winchester, Virginia, Washington received word that a large French force was descending the Allegheny. On reaching Wills Creek he met part of Trent 's company, who, in addition to confirming the arrival of the French, brought a supportive message from Tanacharison. To keep Tanacharison 's support, Washington decided to advance rather than turning back. However, road - building went slowly, and by the end of May Washington 's company had reached a place known as the Great Meadows (now in Fayette County, Pennsylvania), about 37 miles (60 km) south of the forks. There he began construction of a small fort and awaited further news or instructions.
On May 23, Contrecœur, now in command at Fort Duquesne, sent Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville with 35 Canadiens to see if Washington had entered French territory, and with a summons to order Washington 's troops out; this summons was similar in nature to the one Washington had delivered to them in 1753. On May 27, Washington was told by Christopher Gist that a French party numbering about 50 was in the area. In response, Washington sent 75 men with Gist to find them. That evening, Washington received a message from Tanacharison, informing him that he had found the Canadien camp, and that the two of them should meet. Despite the fact that he had just sent another group in pursuit of the French, Washington went with a detachment of 40 men to meet with Tanacharison. The Mingo leader had with him 12 warriors, two of whom were boys. After discussing the matter, the two leaders agreed to make an attack on the Canadiens.
Washington and Tanacharison then ambushed Jumonville 's party, sneaking up and surrounding the French camp. Some were still asleep, others preparing breakfast, when without warning, Washington gave the order to fire. Those who escaped the volley scrambled for their weapons, but were swiftly overwhelmed. Ten of the French, including Jumonville, were killed, one was wounded, and all but one (who escaped to warn the French commander at Fort Duquesne) of the rest were taken prisoner.
The exact circumstances of Jumonville 's death are disputed. Contrecœur claimed that Jumonville and most of the other wounded French were massacred in cold blood by British musket fire after having surrendered; Washington claimed in his account that Jumonville was killed, but did not give any details. Other accounts claimed that Tanacharison tomahawked Jumonville while he (Jumonville) was reading the summons. When the British left the battlefield to return to their camp at Great Meadows, they did not bury any of the French dead.
Washington then finished building Fort Necessity at the Great Meadows, anticipating a French counterattack. The fort, completed June 2, was not much more than a wooden stockade 7 feet (2.1 m) high and about 50 feet (15 m) in diameter surrounded by a ditch. It was so poorly sited (surrounded by higher hills and woods providing cover to the enemy) that Tanacharison tried to point out its defects. Washington dismissed these concerns, convinced the fort could withstand "the attack of 500 Indians. '' Over the next month, his force grew by 200 men from Virginia and an independent company of 100 British regulars that had marched up from South Carolina, while he continued to build the road toward the forks. The arriving Virginians brought congratulations from Governor Dinwiddie on his success at Jumonville Glen, and word that Washington had been promoted to colonel, owing to the death of Colonel Joshua Fry in a fall from his horse.
While the road building went on, Washington pressed Tanacharison for more Indian support. However, the Half King seemed to have lost confidence in the British cause, and he and his followers soon abandoned the British camp. This complete loss of Indian support prompted Washington to withdraw his work crews back to Fort Necessity. Not long afterward, a force of 700 French and Indians surrounded the fort, and Washington was soon compelled to surrender. The surrender document that Washington signed prevented his men from returning to the Ohio Country for one year, and included an admission that Jumonville had been "assassinated ''. (The document was written in French, which Washington could not read, and may have been poorly translated for him.) Because the French claimed that Jumonville 's party had been on a diplomatic (rather than military) mission, the "Jumonville affair '' became an international incident, and the military escalation that followed blossomed into the global Seven Years ' War. Although most Virginians were not particularly critical, there was rumbling about Washington 's actions in other quarters. One New Yorker wrote that Washington acted rashly and that he was "too ambitious of acquiring all the honor '', while London commentators dismissed the failure casually, citing a lack of colonial military experience. Governor Dinwiddie was publicly supportive of Washington, but criticized him privately, noting that some of the Virginia Regiment 's problems originated in a "want of proper Command ''. Dinwiddie assigned command of a follow - up expedition (that never actually reached the Ohio Country) to North Carolina militia colonel James Innes. In another step that may have been calculated to clip the young colonel 's wings, Dinwiddie reorganized the Virginia Regiment into separate companies, with no ranks above captain; Washington resigned rather than accept a demotion.
In 1755, as part of the British military escalation, Major General Edward Braddock arrived in North America with a force of British Army regulars to head a major effort against the French in the Ohio Country. Washington wanted to serve on the expedition, but refused to do so as a provincial officer, since he would be outranked by even junior officers in the regular army establishment. (Washington was said to "(bubble) with fury when British regular officers expressed their disdain of provincial officers and soldiers '', and at the realization that British officers were always senior to colonials regardless of rank.) Through negotiations mediated by Governor Dinwiddie, Washington was offered an unpaid volunteer position as one of Braddock 's aides. Washington accepted, writing to Braddock 's principal aide, Captain Robert Orme, "I wish for nothing more earnestly, than to attain a small degree of knowledge in the Military Art '', and that the position would provide him "a good opportunity... of forming an acquaintance which may be serviceable hereafter, if I can find it worth while pushing my Fortune in the Military way. ''
When Braddock 's regulars arrived in Alexandria, Washington spent much time there, observing infantry drills and other internal workings of the army, and even copied Braddock 's orders to absorb the style in which they were written. The expedition finally marched off in April 1755, and made extremely slow progress along the road Washington had cut in 1754, owing to the heavy artillery and long baggage train. Braddock and his entourage arrived at Fort Cumberland on May 10. From there the progress slowed even further as the army made its way to the Monongahela River. Washington fell ill with dysentery en route, and only rejoined the column on July 8, when it was nearing the Monongahela.
The next day, after Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gage 's light infantry had crossed the Monongahela about 10 miles (16 km) from Fort Duquesne, they stumbled into a French and Indian force that had been sent to locate them. Both sides were surprised, but the French and Indians quickly organized themselves and made a vicious onslaught against the British. Gage 's men, and the work crews they were guarding, turned and fled in a panic, right into the arriving column of regulars, which included Braddock and his entourage. The discipline of the British regulars broke down, and a panicked retreat began, with the French and Indians firing at them from the cover of the surrounding woods. Braddock lost several horses, and eventually went down with a mortal wound. Washington was one of the few of Braddock 's aides to emerge relatively unscathed, despite being significantly involved in the fighting. He had two horses shot out from under him, and four bullets pierced his coat. He sustained no injuries and showed coolness under fire. Braddock, who had been loaded onto a wagon in a makeshift litter, ordered Washington to ride back to fetch the remainder of the army that was working its way up from the Great Meadows. The battered remnants of Braddock 's force eventually returned to Fort Cumberland, where Washington wrote letters harshly critical of the event. To Governor Dinwiddie he reported that, although the British officers fought well, their "cowardly Dogs of soldiers '' did not. The Virginians, he said, acquitted themselves well: they "behaved like Men, and died like Soldiers. '' His reports burnished the reputation of the Virginia Regiment, and Washington was lauded as the "hero of Monongahela '' for his work organizing the retreat. Dinwiddie was also forced to acknowledge Washington 's "gallant Behav (io) r '', and the Virginia House of Burgesses reorganized the colony 's defenses with Washington as colonel of a 1,200 strong regiment.
Governor Dinwiddie had designated Fort Cumberland the regimental headquarters, even though it was located in Maryland. Washington learned that it was commanded by Captain John Dagworthy, who led a company of Maryland militia but also held a royal commission and would thus outrank him. After a brief visit to Fort Cumberland in September 1755, Washington left, and chose to base himself at Winchester instead. He then embarked on recruiting expeditions to fill out the regiment, traveling often to Williamsburg. There, he complained bitterly to Dinwiddie about serving under Dagworthy. When Dagworthy refused to let the Virginians draw supplies from Fort Cumberland (which, despite its location, had been paid for and provisioned by Virginia), Dinwiddie came to agree with Washington. He wrote to Massachusetts Governor William Shirley, who was acting as commander in chief after Braddock 's death, requesting royal commissions for Washington and other Virginia officers. When Shirley did not respond in a timely manner, Dinwiddie authorized Washington to travel to Boston to renew the request in person. Washington spent some time visiting in all of the major towns on the way, but his mission was ultimately only partially successful. After receiving Washington, Shirley issued a decree that Virginia 's officers outranked Dagworthy and other British officers of lower rank.
In his first year in command of the Virginia Regiment, Washington shaped the unit into one of the best provincial military units in the colonies. He rigorously enforced military discipline, often punishing transgressions with the lash, but also sometimes hanging those convicted of serious offenses like desertion. The latter was a particular problem: many of the recruits were either foreigners or from Virginia 's lower classes, and had little at stake in the conflict. He developed detailed guidelines for frontier warfare, was personally responsible for organizing the supply and equipment of the regiment, and even designed the regimental uniforms. He was also a voracious reader of military treatises of all sorts, from Julius Caesar 's Commentaries to recent British training manuals. Despite all of his work, Virginia 's frontier was ravaged by raiding parties, and he lost one third of his men in eighteen months. Washington 's relationship with Dinwiddie deteriorated again over these difficulties and ongoing complaints about pay that was inadequate compared to British regimental standards.
In 1757 Washington renewed attempts to cultivate relations in the army in the hopes of getting a commission. He wrote flattering letters to the new commander in chief, the Earl of Loudoun, and even named one of Virginia 's frontier forts after him. However, Loudoun was only in command for one year, and was recalled after a failed expedition against Fortress Louisbourg. Later in the year, Washington again suffered a serious bout of dysentery; he was bedridden for much of the winter of 1757 -- 58, and even suggested to the Virginia Burgesses that he be replaced since he could not properly do his duty as colonel of the regiment.
The failures of British military policy in 1757 led to a change of government in London, with William Pitt coming firmly into control of Britain 's global war effort. Pitt decided to focus a large number of resources on the war in North America, and three major expeditions were planned. One of these, under the command of Brigadier General John Forbes, was assigned to move against the French in the Ohio Country, with its first major goal the capture of Fort Duquesne. Forbes was to lead an army of 2,000 regulars augmented by 5,000 provincials raised from Pennsylvania southward.
The Virginia Burgesses voted to raise a second regiment of 1,000 men in addition to Washington 's, both of which would participate in the Forbes expedition under Washington 's overall command. Forbes was apparently already aware of Washington 's reputation, writing that he was "a good and knowing Officer in the Back Country. '' Washington, as he had with other army commanders, hoped for notice and sponsorship, and asked General John Stanwix to "(m) ention me in favorable terms to General Forbes. '' Forbes ordered the Virginia troops to gather at Winchester while the army began cutting a new road from Carlisle, Pennsylvania toward Fort Duquesne. Based in part on advice from Washington, Forbes spent much of the spring and summer negotiating with the Ohio Indians for their support. A preliminary agreement was reached in August in which many of those Indians, led by chief Teedyuscung, agreed to abandon their alliance with the French. Washington and his troops were first given the task of improving the road between Fort Frederick and Fort Cumberland, and did not join with the main army at Fort Bedford until late summer.
At this point Forbes was faced with a choice of routes. He could cut a new road directly across western Pennsylvania, or he could go south and pick up Braddock 's route. Washington extensively lobbied Forbes and other British officers to use Braddock 's route, which would have been more advantageous to Virginia interests. Forbes and others took a dim view of this activity, suspecting personal and provincial financial motivation. In response to a letter in which Washington bemoaned "our Enterprize (is) Ruind '', and blamed Colonel Henry Bouquet for his advocacy of the Pennsylvania route, Forbes angrily wrote, "I am now at the bottom, of their Scheme against this new road '' and chastized Washington, writing that his heavy - handed advocacy "was a shame for any officer to be Concerned in. '' Forbes ultimately chose the Pennsylvania route for pragmatic military reasons: the army, was expected to occupy and hold Fort Duquesne, and would require a reliable supply route, and the Pennsylvania route was superior for this purpose. However, as the expedition pushed west and Forbes learned that the last ridge to cross would prove particularly difficult, he granted that Washington and other advocates of the Virginia route may have been correct in their assessment of the chosen route 's problems.
In early September, troops under Henry Bouquet 's command began construction of a fort near present - day Loyalhanna Township that eventually came to be known as Fort Ligonier. Bouquet was handling the forward activities of the expedition because Forbes was sick with dysentery. On September 11, Bouquet authorized Major James Grant to lead a reconnaissance in force to investigate the strength of Fort Duquesne 's defenses. Grant took this opportunity to launch an assault on the fort, and was decisively beaten and taken prisoner along with one third of his 800 - strong detachment. Although Washington was not involved, men from his regiment acquitted themselves well in the debacle; 62 of them died in the battle, and others were among the prisoners. The French at Fort Duquesne, whose supply line had been cut by the British victory in the August Battle of Fort Frontenac, made an unsuccessful attack against Fort Ligonier in the hopes of either stopping the expedition or at least acquiring some of its supplies.
On November 12, in response to rumors that the French had sent out a raiding force, Forbes sent out a detachment of the Virginia regiment to investigate reports of a French raiding expedition. When sounds of gunfire reached the British camp, Forbes sent a second detachment. Primary sources are unclear on which detachment Washington led; the other was led by Lieutenant Colonel George Mercer. In the dimming light of early evening and the haze of musket smoke the two detachments mistook each other for the enemy; the friendly fire incident resulted in 40 casualties. Washington claimed to have interceded, "knocking up with his sword the presented pieces '', but Captain Thomas Bullitt, the only other officer to leave an account, held Washington responsible for the incident, noting that his opinion was shared by "several of the officers. '' The incident appeared to leave an emotional scar on Washington, who did not speak or write of it for many years.
A beneficial result of the incident was that several prisoners were taken; Forbes learned from them that Fort Duquesne was about to be abandoned. This prompted Forbes to accelerate the expedition 's advance, and it was soon in a position of strength about 10 miles (16 km) from Fort Duquesne. On November 23 they heard a large explosion from the direction of the fort; its commander, François - Marie Le Marchand de Lignery, had blown it up. Forbes assigned Washington command of one of the brigades that advanced to find the smoking remains of the French fort the next day. General Forbes, still weak from illness, only briefly visited the site. He completed the return trip to Philadelphia in a litter, and died in March 1759. Washington was back home in Virginia by the end of December; the expedition was his last military activity of the war.
Upon his return to Williamsburg, Washington, to the surprise of many, tendered his resignation from the Virginia militia. Many of his officers showered him with praise, including the critical Captain Thomas Bullitt. Washington was lauded for his "punctual Obervance '' of his duties, the "Frankness, Sincerity, and a certain Openness of Soul '', and the "mutual Regard that has always subsisted between you and your Officers. '' Biographer James Ferling characterizes as their highest tribute the statements that Washington "heightened our natural Emulation, and our Desire to excel '' and "In you we place the most implicit confidence. ''
Although Washington never gained the commission in the British army he yearned for, in these years the young man gained valuable military, political, and leadership skills, and received significant public exposure in the colonies and abroad. He closely observed British military tactics, gaining a keen insight into their strengths and weaknesses that proved invaluable during the Revolution. He demonstrated his toughness and courage in the most difficult situations, including disasters and retreats. He developed a command presence -- given his size, strength, stamina, and bravery in battle, he appeared to soldiers to be a natural leader and they followed him without question. Washington gained connections because of his popularity, which would serve him well later in the Revolution. His involvement in the war, given the circumstances, was just enough for him to be able to craft his own idea of what a leader looked like. Washington learned to organize, train, and drill, and discipline his companies and regiments. From his observations, readings and conversations with professional officers, he learned the basics of battlefield tactics, as well as a good understanding of problems of organization and logistics. Historian Ron Chernow is of the opinion that his frustrations in dealing with government officials during this conflict led him to advocate the advantages of a strong national government and a vigorous executive agency that could get results; other historians tend to ascribe Washington 's position on government to his later American Revolutionary War service. His dealings also gave him the diplomatic skills necessary to negotiate with officials at the local and provincial levels. He developed a very negative idea of the value of militia, who seemed too unreliable, too undisciplined, and too short - term compared to regulars. On the other hand, his experience was limited to command of about 1,000 men, and came only in remote frontier conditions that were far removed from the urban situations he faced during the revolution at Boston, New York, Trenton and Philadelphia.
On January 6, 1759, Washington married Martha Dandridge Custis, a wealthy Virginia widow. He had already won election to the Virginia House of Burgesses during the summer of 1758. For the next 16 years he lived the life of a Virginia plantation owner and politician. As tensions rose between the British parliament and the colonies, he gradually adopted positions in opposition to the parliament 's policies. When the American Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775, Washington arrived at the Second Continental Congress in a military uniform, and was chosen as Commander - in - chief of the Continental Army. After leading American forces to victory, he chaired the Constitutional Convention that drafted the United States Constitution, and was then elected the first President of the United States, serving two terms. He briefly saw additional military service during a threatened war with France in 1798, and died in December 1799. He is widely recognized as the "Father of his country ''.
See George Washington bibliography for a listing of general works about Washington. See French and Indian War and Seven Years ' War for general bibliographies about the war. Works specifically about Washington and Virginia in this time period include:
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last time houston were in the world series | Houston Astros - wikipedia
The Houston Astros are an American professional baseball team based in Houston, Texas. The Astros compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) West division, having moved to the division in 2013 after spending their first 51 seasons in the National League (NL). The Astros have played their home games at Minute Maid Park since 2000.
The Astros were established as the Houston Colt. 45s and entered the National League as an expansion team in 1962 along with the New York Mets. The current name -- reflecting Houston 's role as the control center of the U.S. space program -- was adopted three years later, when they moved into the Astrodome, the world 's first domed sports stadium.
The Astros played in the NL from 1962 to 2012. They played in the West Division from 1969 to 1993, and the Central Division from 1994 to 2012. While a member of the NL, the Astros played in one World Series, in 2005, against the Chicago White Sox, in which they were swept in four games. In 2017, they became the first franchise in MLB history to have won a pennant in both the NL and the AL, when they defeated the New York Yankees in the ALCS. They subsequently won the 2017 World Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers, winning four games to three, earning the team, and Texas, its first World Series title.
From 1888 until 1961, Houston 's professional baseball club was the minor league Houston Buffaloes. Although expansion from the National League eventually brought an MLB team to Texas in 1962, Houston officials had been making efforts to do so for years prior. There were four men chiefly responsible for bringing Major League Baseball to Houston: George Kirksey and Craig Cullinan, who had led a futile attempt to purchase the St. Louis Cardinals in 1952; R.E. "Bob '' Smith, a prominent oilman and real estate magnate in Houston who was brought in for his financial resources; and Judge Roy Hofheinz, a former Mayor of Houston and Harris County Judge who was recruited for his salesmanship and political style. They formed the Houston Sports Association as their vehicle for attaining a big league franchise for the city of Houston.
Given MLB 's refusal to consider expansion, Kirksey, Cullinan, Smith, and Hofheinz joined forces with would - be owners from other cities and announced the formation of a new league to compete with the established National and American Leagues. They called the new league the Continental League. Wanting to protect potential new markets, both existing leagues chose to expand from eight teams to ten. However, plans eventually fell through for the Houston franchise after the Houston Buffaloes owner, Marty Marion, could not come to an agreement with the HSA to sell the team. To make matters worse, the Continental League as a whole folded in August 1960.
However, on October 17, 1960, the National League granted an expansion franchise to the Houston Sports Association in which their team could begin play in the 1962 season. According to the Major League Baseball Constitution, the Houston Sports Association was required to obtain territorial rights from the Houston Buffaloes in order to play in the Houston area, and again negotiations began to purchase the team. Eventually, the Houston Sports Association succeeded in purchasing the Houston Buffaloes, at this point majority - owned by William Hopkins, on January 17, 1961. The Buffs played one last minor league season as the top farm team of the Chicago Cubs in 1961 before being succeeded by the city 's NL club.
The new Houston team was named the Colt. 45s after a "Name The Team '' contest was won by William Irving Neder. The Colt. 45 was well known as "the gun that won the west. '' The colors selected were navy blue and orange. The first team was formed mostly through an expansion draft after the 1961 season. The Colt. 45s and their expansion cousins, the New York Mets, took turns choosing players left unprotected by the other National League franchises.
Many of those associated with the Houston Buffaloes organization were allowed by the ownership to continue in the major league. Manager Harry Craft, who had joined Houston in 1961, remained in the same position for the team until the end of the 1964 season. General manager Spec Richardson also continued with the organization as business manager, but was later promoted again to the same position with the Astros from 1967 until 1975. Although most players for the major league franchise were obtained through the 1961 Major League Baseball expansion draft, Buffs players J.C. Hartman, Pidge Browne, Jim Campbell, Ron Davis, Dave Giusti, and Dave Roberts were chosen to continue as major league ball players.
Similarly, the radio broadcasting team remained with the new Houston major league franchise. Loel Passe worked alongside Gene Elston as a color commentator until he retired from broadcasting in 1976. Elston continued with the Astros until 1986.
The Colt. 45s began their existence playing at Colt Stadium, a temporary venue built just north of the construction site of the indoor stadium.
The Colt. 45s started their inaugural season on April 10, 1962, against the Chicago Cubs with Harry Craft as the Colt. 45s ' manager. Bob Aspromonte scored the first run for the Colt. 45s on an Al Spangler triple in the first inning. They started the season with a three - game sweep of the Cubs but eventually finished eighth among the National League 's ten teams. The team 's best pitcher, Richard "Turk '' Farrell, lost 20 games despite an ERA of 3.02. A starter for the Colt. 45s, Farrell was primarily a relief pitcher prior to playing for Houston. He was selected to both All - Star Games in 1962.
The 1963 season saw more young talent mixed with seasoned veterans. Jimmy Wynn, Rusty Staub, and Joe Morgan all made their major league debuts in the 1963 season. However, Houston 's position in the standings did not improve. In fact, the Colt. 45s finished in ninth place with a 66 -- 96 record. The team was still building, trying to find that perfect mix to compete. The 1964 campaign began on a sad note, as relief pitcher Jim Umbricht died of cancer at the age of 33 on April 8, just before Opening Day. Umbricht was the only Colt. 45s pitcher to post a winning record in Houston 's first two seasons. He was so well liked by players and fans that the team retired his jersey number, 32, in 1965.
Just on the horizon, the structure of the new domed stadium was more prevalent and it would soon change the way that baseball was watched in Houston and around the league. On December 1, 1964, the team announced the name change from Colt. 45s to "Astros. ''
With Judge Roy Hofheinz now the sole owner of the franchise and the new venue complete, the renamed "Astros '' moved into their new domed stadium, the Astrodome, in 1965. The name honored Houston 's position as the center of the nation 's space program; NASA 's new Manned Spacecraft Center had recently opened southeast of the city. The Astrodome, coined the "Eighth Wonder of the World '', did little to improve the home team 's results on the field. While several "indoor '' firsts were accomplished, the team still finished ninth in the standings. The attendance was high not because of the team accomplishments, but because people came from miles around to see the Astrodome.
Just as the excitement was settling down over the Astrodome, the 1966 season found something new to put the domed stadium in the spotlight once again -- the field. Grass would not grow in the new park, since the roof panels had been painted to reduce the glare that was causing players on both the Astros and the visiting teams to miss routine pop flies. A new artificial turf was created called "AstroTurf '' and Houston would be involved in yet another change in the way the game was played.
With new manager Grady Hatton the Astros started the 1966 season strong. By May they were in second place in the National League and looked like a team that could contend. Joe Morgan was named as a starter on the All - Star Team. The success did not last as they lost Jimmy Wynn for the season after he crashed into an outfield fence in Philadelphia and Morgan had broken his knee cap. 1967 saw first baseman Eddie Mathews join the Astros. The slugger hit his 500th home run while in Houston. He would be traded late in the season and Doug Rader would be promoted to the big leagues. Rookie Don Wilson pitched a no - hitter on June 18. Wynn also provided some enthusiasm in 1967. The 5 ft 9 in Wynn was becoming known not only for how often he hit home runs, but also for how far he hit them. Wynn set club records with 37 home runs, and 107 RBIs. It was also in 1967 that Wynn hit his famous home run onto Interstate 75 in Cincinnati. As the season came to a close, the Astros found themselves again in ninth place and with a winning percentage below. 500. The team looked good on paper, but could not make it work on the field.
April 15, 1968 saw a pitching duel for the ages. The Astros ' Don Wilson and the Mets ' Tom Seaver faced each other in a pitching duel that lasted six hours. Seaver went ten innings, allowing no walks and just two hits. Wilson went nine innings, allowing five hits and three walks. After the starters exited, eleven relievers (seven for the Mets and four for the Astros) tried to end the game. The game finally ended in the 24th inning when Aspromonte hit a shot toward Mets shortstop Al Weis. Weis had been perfect all night at short, but he was not quick enough to make the play. The ball zipped into left field, allowing Norm Miller to score.
With baseball expansion and trades, the Astros had dramatically changed in 1969. Aspromonte was sent to the Braves and Staub was traded to the expansion Montreal Expos, in exchange for outfielder Jesús Alou and first baseman Donn Clendenon. However, Clendenon refused to report to Houston, electing to retire and take job with a pen manufacturing company. The Astros asked Commissioner Bowie Kuhn to void the trade, but he refused. Instead, he awarded Jack Billingham and a left - handed relief pitcher to the Astros to complete the trade. Cuellar was traded to the Baltimore Orioles for Curt Blefary. Other new players included catcher Johnny Edwards, infielder Denis Menke, and pitcher Denny Lemaster. Wilson continued to pitch brilliantly and on May 1 threw the second no - hitter of his career. In that game, he struck out 18 batters, tying what was then the all - time single - game mark. He was just 24 years of age and was second to only Sandy Koufax for career no - hit wins. Wilson 's no - hitter lit the Astros ' fire after a miserable month of April, and six days later the team tied a major league record by turning seven double plays in a game. By May 's end the Astros had put together a ten - game winning streak. The Houston infield tandem of Menke and Joe Morgan continued to improve, providing power at the plate and great defense. Morgan had 15 homers and stole 49 bases while Menke led the Astros with 90 RBIs. The Menke / Morgan punch was beginning to come alive, and the team was responding to Walker 's management style. The Astros dominated the season series against their expansion twins, the New York Mets, that season. In one game at New York, Denis Menke and Jimmy Wynn hit grand slams in the same inning, against a Mets team that would go on to win the World Series that same year. The Astros finished the 1969 season with a record of 81 wins, 81 losses, marking their first season of. 500 ball.
In 1970, the Astros were expected to be a serious threat in the National League West. In June, 19 - year - old César Cedeño was called up and immediately showed signs of being a superstar. The Dominican outfielder batted. 310 after being called up. Not to be outdone, Denis Menke batted. 304 and Jesús Alou batted. 306. The Astros ' batting average was up by 19 points compared to the season before. The team looked good, but the Astros ' ERA was up. Larry Dierker and Don Wilson had winning records, but the pitching staff as a whole had an off season. Houston finished in fourth place in 1970.
The fashion trends of the 1970s had started taking root in baseball. Long hair and loud colors were starting to appear on team uniforms, including the Astros '. In 1971 the Astros made some changes to their uniform: they kept the same style they had in previous seasons, but inverted the colors. What was navy blue was now orange and what was orange was now a lighter shade of blue. The players ' last names were added to the back of the jerseys. In 1972, the uniform fabric was also changed to what was at the time revolutionizing the industry -- polyester. Belts were replaced by elastic waistbands, and jerseys zipped up instead of having buttons. The uniforms became popular with fans, but would last only until 1975, when the Astros would shock baseball and the fashion world.
The uniforms were about the only thing that did change in 1971. The acquisition of Roger Metzger from the Chicago Cubs in the off - season moved Menke to first base and Bob Watson to the outfield. The Astros got off to a slow start and the pitching and hitting averages were down. Larry Dierker was selected to the All - Star game in 1971, but due to an arm injury he could not make it. César Cedeño led the club with 81 RBIs and the league with 40 doubles, but batted just. 264 and had 102 strikeouts in his second season with the Astros. Pitcher J.R. Richard made his debut in September of the 1971 season against the Giants.
In November 1971 the Astros and Cincinnati Reds made one of the biggest blockbuster trades in the history of the sport, and helped create The Big Red Machine of the 1970s, with the Reds getting the better end of the deal. Houston sent second baseman Joe Morgan, infielder Denis Menke, pitcher Jack Billingham, outfielder César Gerónimo and prospect Ed Armbrister to Cincinnati for first baseman Lee May, second baseman Tommy Helms and infielder Jimmy Stewart. The trade left Astros fans and the baseball world scratching their heads as to why General Manager Spec Richardson would give up so much for so little. The Reds, on the other hand, would shore up many problems. They had an off year in 1971, but were the National League Pennant winner in 1972.
The Astros ' acquisition of Lee May added more power to the lineup in 1972. May, Wynn, Rader and Cedeño all had 20 or more home runs and Watson hit 16. Cedeño also led the Astros with a. 320 batting average, 55 stolen bases and made spectacular plays on the field. Cedeño made his first All - Star game in 1972 and became the first Astros player in team history to hit for the cycle in August versus the Reds. The Astros finished the strike - shortened season at 84 - 69, their first winning season.
Astros fans had hoped for more of the same in 1973, but it was not to be. The Astros run production was down, even though the same five sluggers the year before were still punching the ball out of the park. Lee May led the Astros with 28 home runs and Cesar Cedeño batted. 320 with 25 home runs. Bob Watson hit the. 312 mark and drove in 94 runs. Doug Rader and Jimmy Wynn both had 20 or more home runs. However, injuries to their pitching staff limited the Astros to an 82 -- 80 fourth - place finish. The Astros again finished in fourth place the next year under new manager Preston Gómez.
With the $38 million deficit of the Astrodome, control of the Astrodomain was passed from Judge Roy Hofheinz to GE Credit and Ford Motor Credit. This included the Astros. The creditors were just interested in preserving asset value of the team, so any money spent had to be found or saved somewhere else. Tal Smith returned to the Astros from the New York Yankees to find a team that needed a lot of work and did not have a lot of money. However, there would be some bright spots that would prove to be good investments in the near future.
The year started on a sad note. Pitcher Don Wilson was found dead in the passenger seat of his car on January 5, 1975. Cause of death was asphyxiation by carbon monoxide. Wilson was 29 years old. Wilson 's number 40 was retired on April 13, 1975.
The 1975 season saw the introduction of the Astros ' new uniforms. Many teams were going away from the traditional uniform and the Astros were no exception. The uniforms had multishade stripes of orange, red and yellow in front and in back behind a large dark blue star over the midsection. The same stripes ran down the pant legs. Players numbers not only appeared on the back of the jersey, but also on the pant leg. The bright stripes were meant to appear as a fiery trail like a rocket sweeping across the heavens. The uniforms were panned by critics, but the public liked them and versions started appearing at the high school and little league level. The uniform was so different from what other teams wore that the Astros wore it both at home and on the road until 1980.
Besides the bright new uniforms there were some other changes. Lee May was traded to Baltimore for much talked about rookie second baseman Rob Andrews and utility player Enos Cabell. In Baltimore, Cabell was stuck behind third baseman Brooks Robinson, but he took advantage of his opportunity in Houston and became their everyday third baseman. Cabell would go on to become a big part of the team 's success in later years. With May gone, Bob Watson was able to move to first base and was a bright spot in the line up, batting. 324 with 85 RBI.
The two biggest moves the Astros made in the offseason were the acquisitions of Joe Niekro and José Cruz. The Astros bought Niekro from the Braves for almost nothing. Niekro had bounced around the big leagues with minimal success. His older brother Phil Niekro had started teaching Joe how to throw his knuckleball and Joe was just starting to use it when he came to the Astros. Niekro won six games, saved four games and had an ERA of 3.07. José Cruz was also a steal, in retrospect, from the Cardinals. Cruz became a fixture in the Astros ' outfield for several years and would eventually have his number 25 retired.
Despite high expectations, 1975 was among the Astros ' worst in franchise history. Their record of 64 -- 97 was far worse than even the expansion Colt. 45 's and would remain the worst record in franchise history until 2011. It was the worst record in baseball and manager Preston Gómez was fired late in the season and replaced by Bill Virdon. The Astros played. 500 ball under Virdon in the last 34 games of the season. With Virdon as the manager the Astros improved greatly in 1976 finishing in third place with an 80 -- 82 record. A healthy César Cedeño was a key reason for the Astros ' success in 1976. Bob Watson continued to show consistency and led the club with a. 313 average and 102 RBI. José Cruz became Houston 's everyday left fielder and hit. 303 with 28 stolen bases. 1976 saw the end of Larry Dierker 's playing career as an Astro, but before it was all over he would throw a no - hitter and win the 1,000 th game in the Astrodome. The Astros finished in third place again in 1977 with a record of 81 -- 81.
One of the big problems the Astros had in the late 1970s was that they were unable to compete in the free agent market. Ford Motor Credit Company was still in control of the team and was looking to sell the Astros, but they were not going to spend money on better players. Most of the talent was either farm grown or bought on the cheap.
The 1979 season would prove to be a big turnaround in Astros history. During the offseason, the Astros made an effort to fix some of their problem areas. They traded Floyd Bannister to Seattle for shortstop Craig Reynolds and acquired catcher Alan Ashby from Toronto for pitcher Mark Lemongello. Reynolds and Ashby were both solid in their positions and gave Houston some much needed consistency. The season started with a boost from pitcher Ken Forsch, who threw a no - hitter the Braves the second game of the season. In May 1979, New Jersey shipping tycoon Dr. John McMullen had agreed to buy the Astros. Now with an investor in charge, the Astros would be more likely to compete in the free agent market.
The Astros were playing great baseball throughout the season. José Cruz and Enos Cabell both stole 30 bases. Joe Niekro had a great year with 21 wins and 3.00 ERA. J.R. Richard won 18 games and set a new personal strikeout record at 313. Joe Sambito came into his own with 22 saves as the Astros closer. Things were going as they should for a team that could win the west. The Astros and Reds battled the final month of the season. The Reds pulled ahead of the Astros by a game and a half. Later that month they split a pair and the Reds kept the lead. That would be how it would end. The Astros finished with their best record to that point at 89 -- 73 and 11⁄2 games behind the NL winner Reds.
With Dr. McMullen as sole owner of the Astros, the team would now benefit in ways a corporation could not give them. The rumors of the Astros moving out of Houston started to crumble and the Astros were now able to compete in the free - agent market. McMullen showed the city of Houston that he too wanted a winning team, signing nearby Alvin, Texas native Nolan Ryan to the first million - dollar - a-year deal. Ryan had four career no - hitters already and had struck out 383 in one season.
Joe Morgan returned in 1980. Now back in Houston with two MVP awards and two World Series rings, Morgan wanted to help make the Astros a pennant winner.
The 1980 pitching staff was one of the best Houston ever had, with the fastball of Ryan, the knuckleball of Joe Niekro and the terrifying 6 ft 8 in frame of J.R. Richard. Teams felt lucky to face Ken Forsch, who was a double - digit winner in the previous two seasons. Richard became the first Astros pitcher to start an All - Star game. After a medical examination three days later, Richard was told to rest his arm and he collapsed during a July 30 workout. He had suffered a stroke after a blood clot in the arm apparently moved to his neck and cut off blood flow to the brain. Surgery was done to save his life, but the Astros had lost their ace pitcher after a 10 -- 4 start with a stingy 1.89 ERA. Richard attempted a comeback, but would never again pitch a big league game.
After the loss of Richard and some offensive struggles, the Astros slipped to third place in the division behind the Dodgers and the Reds. They bounced back to first with a ten - game winning streak, but the Dodgers had regained a two - game lead when they arrived in Houston on September 9. The Astros won the first two games of that series and the two teams were tied for the division lead. The Astros held a three - game lead over the Dodgers with three games left in the season against the Dodgers. The Dodgers swept the series games, forcing a one - game playoff the next day. The Astros would however win the one - game playoff 7 - 1, and advance to their first post-season.
The team would face the Philadelphia Phillies in the 1980 National League Championship Series. The Phillies sent out Steve Carlton in game one of the NLCS after a six - hour flight the night before. The Phillies would win the opener after the Astros got out to a 1 - 0 third - inning lead. Ken Forsch pitched particularly strong fourth and fifth innings, but Greg Luzinski hit a sixth - inning two - run bomb to the 300 level seats of Veterans Stadium. The Phillies added an insurance run on the way to a 3 -- 1 win. Houston bounced back to win games two and three. Game four went into extra innings, with the Phillies taking the lead and the win in the tenth inning. Pete Rose started a rally with a one - out single, then Luzinski doubled off the left field wall and Rose bowled over catcher Bruce Bochy to score the go - ahead run. The Phillies got an insurance run on the way to tying the series.
Rookie Phillies pitcher Marty Bystrom was sent out by Philadelphia manager Dallas Green to face veteran Nolan Ryan in Game Five. The rookie gave up a run in the first inning, then held the Astros at bay until the sixth inning. An Astros lead was lost when Bob Boone hit a two - out single in the second, but the Astros tied the game in the sixth with an Alan Ashby single scoring Denny Walling. Houston took a 5 -- 2 lead in the seventh, however the Phillies came back with five runs in the inning. The Astros came back against Tug McGraw with four singles and two two - out runs. Now in extra innings, Garry Maddox doubled in Del Unser with one out to give the Phillies an 8 -- 7 lead. The Astros failed to score in the bottom of the tenth.
A 1981 player strike ran between June 12 and August 10. Ultimately, the strike would help the Astros get into the playoffs. Nolan Ryan and Bob Knepper picked up steam in the second half of the season. Ryan threw his fifth no - hitter on September 26 and finished the season with a 1.69 ERA. Knepper finished with an ERA of 2.18. In the wake of the strike, Major League Baseball took the winners of each "half '' season and set up a best - of - five divisional playoff. The Reds won more games than any other team in the National League, but they won neither half of the strike - divided season. The Astros finished 61 -- 49 overall, which would have been third in the division behind the Reds and the Dodgers. Advancing to the playoffs as winners of the second half, Houston beat Los Angeles in their first two playoff games at home, but the Dodgers took the next three in Los Angeles to advance to the NLCS.
By 1982, only four players and three starting pitchers remained from the 1980 squad. The Astros were out of pennant contention by August and began rebuilding for the near future. Bill Virdon was fired as manager and replaced by original Colt. 45 Bob Lillis. Don Sutton asked to be traded and was sent to the Milwaukee Brewers for cash and the team gained three new prospects, including Kevin Bass. Minor league player Bill Doran was called up in September. Bass also got a look in the outfield. The Astros finished fourth in the west, but new talent was starting to appear.
Before the 1983 season, the Astros traded Danny Heep to the Mets for pitcher Mike Scott, a 28 - year - old who had struggled with New York. Art Howe sat out the 1983 season with an injury, forcing Phil Garner to third and Ray Knight to first. Doran took over at second, becoming the everyday second baseman for the next seven seasons. The Astros finished third in the National League West. The 1984 season started off badly when shortstop Dickie Thon was hit in the head by a pitch and was lost for the season. In September, the Astros called up rookie Glenn Davis after he posted impressive numbers in AAA. The Astros finished in second place. In 1985, Mike Scott learned a new pitch, the split - finger fastball. Scott, who was coming off of a 5 -- 11 season, had found his new pitch and would become one of Houston 's most celebrated hurlers. In June, Davis made the starting lineup at first base, adding power to the team. In September, Joe Niekro was traded to the Yankees for two minor league pitchers and lefty Jim Deshaies. The Astros finished in fourth place in 1985.
After finishing fourth in 1985, the Astros fired general manager Al Rosen and manager Bob Lillis. The former was supplanted by Dick Wagner, the man whose Reds defeated the Astros to win the 1979 NL West title. The latter was replaced by Hal Lanier who, like his manager mentor in St. Louis, Whitey Herzog, had a hard - nosed approach to managing and espoused a playing style that focused on pitching, defense, and speed rather than home runs to win games. This style of baseball, known as Whiteyball, took advantage of stadiums with deep fences and artificial turf, both of which were characteristics of the Astrodome. Lanier 's style of baseball took Houston by storm. Before Lanier took over, fans were accustomed to Houston 's occasional slow starts, but with Lanier leading the way, Houston got off to a hot start, winning 13 of their first 19 contests.
Prior to the start of the season the Astros acquired outfielder Billy Hatcher from the Cubs for Jerry Mumphrey. Lainer also made a change in the pitching staff, going with a three - man rotation to start the season. This allowed Lanier to keep his three starters (Nolan Ryan, Bob Knepper, and Mike Scott) sharp and to slowly work in rookie hurler Jim Deshaies. Bill Doran and Glenn Davis held down the right side of the field but Lainer rotated the left side. Denny Walling and Craig Reynolds faced the right - handed pitchers while Phil Garner and Dickie Thon batted against left - handers. Lainer knew the Astros had talent and he put it to work.
The Astrodome was host to the 1986 All - Star Game in which Astros Mike Scott, Kevin Bass, Glenn Davis, and Dave Smith represented the host field. The Astros kept pace with the NL West after the All - Star break. They went on a streak of five straight come - from - behind wins. Houston swept a key 3 - game series over the San Francisco Giants in late September to clinch the division title. Mike Scott took the mound in the final game of the series and pitched a no - hitter -- the only time in MLB history that any division was clinched via a no - hitter. Scott would finish the season with an 18 -- 10 record and a Cy Young Award.
The 1986 National League Championship Series against the New York Mets was noted for great drama and is considered one of the best postseason series ever. In Game 3, the Astros were ahead at Shea Stadium, 5 -- 4, in the bottom of the 9th when closer Dave Smith gave up a two - run home run to Lenny Dykstra, giving the Mets a dramatic 6 -- 5 win.
However, the signature game of the series was Game 6. Needing a win to get to Mike Scott (who had been dominant in the series) in Game 7, the Astros jumped off to a 3 -- 0 lead in the first inning but neither team would score again until the 9th inning. In the 9th, starting pitcher Bob Knepper would give up two runs, and once again the Astros would look to Dave Smith to close it out. However, Smith would walk Gary Carter and Darryl Strawberry, giving up a sacrifice fly to Ray Knight, tying the game. Despite having the go - ahead runs on base, Smith was able to escape the inning without any further damage.
There was no scoring until the 14th inning when the Mets would take the lead on a Wally Backman single and an error by left fielder Billy Hatcher. The Astros would get the run back in the bottom of the 14th when Hatcher (in a classic goat - to - hero - conversion - moment) hit one of the most dramatic home runs in NLCS history, off the left field foul pole. In the 16th inning, Darryl Strawberry doubled to lead off the inning and Ray Knight drove him home in the next at - bat. The Mets would score a total of three runs in the inning to take what appeared an insurmountable 7 -- 4 lead. With their season on the line, the Astros would nonetheless rally for two runs to come to within 7 -- 6. Kevin Bass came up with the tying and winning runs on base; however Jesse Orosco would strike him out, ending the game. At the time the 16 - inning game held the record for the longest in MLB postseason history. The Mets won the series, 4 - 2.
After the 1986 season, the team had difficulty finding success again. Several changes occurred. The "rainbow '' uniforms were phased out, the team electing to keep a five - stripe "rainbow '' design on the sleeves. From 1987 to 1993, the Astros wore the same uniform for both home and away games; the only team in Major League Baseball to do so during that period. Its favorites Nolan Ryan and José Cruz moved on and the team entered a rebuilding phase. Craig Biggio debuted in June 1988, joining new prospects Ken Caminiti and Gerald Young. Biggio would become the everyday catcher by 1990. A trade acquiring Jeff Bagwell in exchange for Larry Andersen would become one of the biggest deals in Astros history. Glenn Davis was traded to Baltimore for Curt Schilling, Pete Harnisch and Steve Finley in 1990.1990 -- 1999: Fine tuning
The early 1990s were marked by the Astros ' growing discontent with their home, the Astrodome. After the Astrodome was renovated for the primary benefit of the NFL 's Houston Oilers (who shared the Astrodome with the Astros since the 1960s), the Astros began to grow increasingly disenchanted with the facility. Faced with declining attendance at the Astrodome and the inability of management to obtain a new stadium, in the 1991 off - season Astros management announced its intention to sell the team and move the franchise to the Washington, D.C. area. However, the move was not approved by other National League owners, thus compelling the Astros to remain in Houston. Shortly thereafter, McMullen (who also owned the NHL 's New Jersey Devils) sold the team to Texas businessman Drayton McLane in 1993, who committed to keeping the team in Houston.
Shortly after McLane 's arrival, which coincided with the maturation of Bagwell and Biggio, the Astros began to show signs of consistent success. After finishing second in their division in 1994 (in a strike year), 1995, and 1996, the Astros won consecutive division titles in 1997, 1998, and 1999. In the 1998 season, the Astros set a team record with 102 victories. However, each of these titles was followed by a first - round playoff elimination, in 1998 by the San Diego Padres and in 1997 and 1999 against the Atlanta Braves. The manager of these title teams was Larry Dierker, who had previously been a broadcaster and pitcher for the Astros. During this period, Bagwell, Biggio, Derek Bell, and Sean Berry earned the collective nickname "The Killer Bs ''. In later seasons, the name came to include other Astros, especially Lance Berkman.
Coinciding with the change in ownership, the team switched uniforms and team colors after the 1993 season in order to go for a new, more serious image. The team 's trademark rainbow uniforms were retired, and the team 's colors changed to midnight blue and metallic gold. The "Astros '' font on the team logo was changed to a more aggressive one, and the team 's traditional star logo was changed to a stylized, "flying '' star with an open left end. It marked the first time since the team 's inception that orange was not part of the team 's colors. Despite general agreement that the rainbow uniforms identified with the team had become tired (and looked too much like a minor league team according to the new owners), the new uniforms and caps were never especially popular with many Astros fans.
Off the field, in 1994, the Astros hired one of the first African American general managers, former franchise player Bob Watson. Watson would leave the Astros after the 1995 season to become general manager of the New York Yankees and helped to lead the Yankees to a World Championship in 1996. He would be replaced by Gerry Hunsicker, who until 2004 would continue to oversee the building of the Astros into one of the better and most consistent organizations in the Major Leagues.
However, in 1996, the Astros again nearly left Houston. By the mid-1990s, McLane (like McMullen before him) wanted his team out of the Astrodome and was asking the city to build the Astros a new stadium. When things did not progress quickly toward that end, he put the team up for sale. He had nearly finalized a deal to sell the team to businessman William Collins, who planned to move them to Northern Virginia. However, Collins was having difficulty finding a site for a stadium himself, so Major League owners stepped in and forced McLane to give Houston another chance to grant his stadium wish. Houston voters, having already lost the Houston Oilers in a similar situation, responded positively via a stadium referendum and the Astros stayed put.
The 2000 season saw a move to a new stadium. Originally to be named The Ballpark at Union Station due to being located on the site of Union Station (Houston), it was renamed Enron Field by the season opening after the naming rights were sold to energy corporation Enron. The stadium was to feature a retractable roof, a particularly useful feature with unpredictable Houston weather. The ballpark also featured more intimate surroundings than the Astrodome. In 2002, naming rights were purchased by Houston - based Minute Maid, after Enron went bankrupt. The park was built on the grounds of the old Union Station. A locomotive moves across the outfield and whistles after home runs, paying homage to a Houston history which had eleven railroad company lines running through the city by 1860. The ballpark previously contained quirks such as "Tal 's Hill '', which was a hill in deep center field on which a flagpole stood, all in fair territory. Tal 's Hill was replaced in the 2016 -- 2017 offseason. The wall was moved in to 409 feet, which the team hoped would generate more home runs. A similar feature was located in Crosley Field. Over the years, many highlight reel catches have been made by center fielders running up the hill to make catches. With the change in location also came a change in attire. Gone were the blue and gold uniforms of the 1990s in favor a more "retro '' look with pinstripes, a traditional baseball font, and the colors of brick red, sand and black. These colors were chosen because ownership originally wanted to rename the team the Houston Diesels. The "shooting star '' logo was modified but still retained its definitive look.
After two fairly successful seasons without a playoff appearance, the Astros were early favorites to win the 2004 NL pennant. They added star pitcher Andy Pettitte to a roster that already included standouts like Lance Berkman and Jeff Kent as well as veterans Bagwell and Biggio. Roger Clemens, who had retired after the 2003 season with the New York Yankees, agreed to join former teammate Pettitte on the Astros for 2004. The one - year deal included unique conditions, such as the option for Clemens to stay home in Houston on select road trips when he was n't scheduled to pitch. Despite the early predictions for success, the Astros had a mediocre 44 -- 44 record at the All - Star break. A lack of run production and a poor record in close games were major issues. After being booed at the 2004 All - Star Game held in Houston, manager Jimy Williams was fired and replaced by Phil Garner, a star on the division - winning 1986 Astros. The Astros enjoyed a 46 -- 26 record in the second half of the season under Garner and earned the NL wild card spot. The Astros defeated the Braves 3 -- 2 in the Division Series, but would lose the National League Championship Series to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games. Clemens earned a record seventh Cy Young Award in 2004. Additionally, the mid-season addition of Carlos Beltrán in a trade with the Kansas City Royals helped the Astros tremendously in their playoff run. Despite midseason trade rumors, Beltrán would prove instrumental to the team 's hopes, hitting eight home runs in the postseason. Though he had asserted a desire to remain with the Astros, Beltrán signed a long - term contract with the New York Mets on January 9, 2005.
In 2005, the Astros started poorly and found themselves with a 15 - 30 record in late May. The Houston Chronicle had written them off with a tombstone emblazoned with "RIP 2005 Astros ''. However, from that low point until the end of July, Houston went 42 -- 17 and found themselves in the lead for an NL wild card spot. July saw the best single month record in the club 's history at 22 - 7. Offensive production had increased greatly after a slow start in the first two months. The Astros had also developed an excellent pitching staff, anchored by Roy Oswalt (20 -- 12, 2.94), Andy Pettitte (17 -- 9, 2.39), and Roger Clemens (13 -- 8 with a league - low ERA of only 1.87). The contributions of the other starters -- Brandon Backe (10 -- 8, 4.76) and rookie starters Ezequiel Astacio (3 -- 6, 5.67) and Wandy Rodríguez (10 -- 10, 5.53) -- were less remarkable, but enough to push the Astros into position for a playoff run. The Astros won a wild card berth on the final day of the regular season, becoming the first team since the world champion 1914 Boston Braves to qualify for the postseason after being 15 games under. 500.
The Astros won the National League Division Series against the Atlanta Braves, 3 - 1, with a game four that set postseason records for most innings (18), most players used by a single team (23), and longest game time (5 hours and 50 minutes). Trailing by a score of 6 - 1, Lance Berkman hit an eighth inning grand slam to narrow the score to 6 -- 5. In the bottom of the ninth, catcher Brad Ausmus, hit a game tying home run that allowed the game to continue in extra innings. In the bottom of the tenth inning, Luke Scott hit a blast to left field that had home run distance, but was inches foul. This game remained scoreless for the next eight innings. In the top of the fifteenth inning, Roger Clemens made only his second career relief appearance, pitching three shutout innings, notably striking out Julio Franco, at the time the oldest player in the MLB at 47 years old; Clemens was himself 43. In the bottom of the eighteenth inning, Clemens came to bat again, indicating that he would be pitching in the nineteenth inning, if it came to that. Clemens struck out, but the next batter, Chris Burke, hit a home run to left field for the Astros win, 7 -- 6. Oddly enough, a fan in the "Crawford Boxes '' in left field had previously caught Berkman 's grand slam and this same fan caught Burke 's home run. The National League Championship Series featured a rematch of the 2004 NLCS. The Astros lost the first game in St. Louis, but would win the next three games, with Roy Oswalt getting the win. Though the Astros were poised to close out the series in Game Five in Houston, Brad Lidge gave up a monstrous two - out three - run home run to Albert Pujols, forcing the series to a sixth game in St. Louis, where the Astros clinched a World Series appearance. Roy Oswalt was named NLCS MVP, having gone 2 -- 0 with a 1.29 ERA in the series. Current honorary NL President William Y. Giles presented the league champion Astros with the Warren C. Giles Trophy. Warren Giles, William 's father and President of the National League from 1951 to 1969, had awarded an MLB franchise to the city of Houston in 1960.
The Astros faced the Chicago White Sox in the World Series. Chicago had been considered the slight favorite but would win all four games, the first two at U.S. Cellular Field in Chicago and the final two in Houston. Game 3 marked the first World Series game held in the state of Texas, and was the longest game in World Series history, lasting 5 hours and 41 minutes.
This World Series was marked by a controversy involving the Minute Maid Park roof. MLB & Commissioner Bud Selig insisted that the Astros must play with the roof open which mitigated the intensity and enthusiasm of the cheering Astros fans.
In the 2006 offseason, the team signed Preston Wilson and moved Berkman to first base, ending the long tenure of Jeff Bagwell. The Astros renewed the contract with Clemens and traded two minor league prospects to the Tampa Bay Devil Rays for left - handed hitter Aubrey Huff. By August, Preston Wilson complained about his playing time after the return of Luke Scott from AAA Round Rock. The Astros released Wilson and he was signed by St. Louis. A dramatic season end included wins in 10 of their last 12 games, but the Astros missed a playoff appearance when they lost the final game of the season to the Atlanta Braves.
On October 31, the Astros declined a contract option on Jeff Bagwell for 2007, ending his 15 - year Astros career and leading to his retirement. Roger Clemens and Andy Pettitte filed for free agency. On December 12, the Astros traded Willy Taveras, Taylor Buchholz, and Jason Hirsh to the Colorado Rockies for Rockies pitchers Jason Jennings and Miguel Asencio. A trade with the White Sox, involving the same three Astros in exchange for Jon Garland, had been nixed a few days earlier when Buchholz reportedly failed a physical. In the end, Taveras continued to develop and Hirsh had a strong 2007 rookie campaign, while Jennings was often injured and generally ineffective.
On April 28, 2007, the Astros purchased the contract of top minor league prospect Hunter Pence. He debuted that night, getting a hit and scoring a run. By May 2007, the Astros had suffered one of their worst recent losing streaks (10 games). On June 28, second baseman Craig Biggio became the 27th MLB player to accrue 3,000 career hits. Biggio needed three hits to reach 3,000 and on that night he had five hits. That night, Carlos Lee hit a towering walk - off grand slam in the eleventh inning. Lee later quipped to the newsmedia that "he had hit a walk - off grand slam and he got second billing '', considering Biggio 's achievement. On July 24, Biggio announced that he would retire at the end of the season. He hit a grand slam in that night 's game which broke a 3 -- 3 tie and led to an Astros win. In Biggio 's last at bat, he grounded out to Chipper Jones of the Atlanta Braves.
On September 20, Ed Wade was named General Manager. In his first move, he traded Jason Lane to the Padres on September 24. On September 30, Craig Biggio retired after twenty years with the team. In November, the Astros traded RHP Brad Lidge and SS Eric Bruntlett to the Philadelphia Phillies for OF Michael Bourn, RHP Geoff Geary, and minor leaguer Mike Costanzo. Utility player Mark Loretta accepted Houston 's salary arbitration and Kazuo Matsui finalized a $16.5 million, three - year contract with the team. In December the Astros traded OF Luke Scott, RHP Matt Albers, RHP Dennis Sarfate, LHP Troy Patton, and minor - league 3B Mike Costanzo, to the Baltimore Orioles for SS Miguel Tejada. On December 14, they sent infielder Chris Burke, RHP Juan Gutiérrez, and RHP Chad Qualls to the Arizona Diamondbacks for RHP José Valverde. On December 27, the Astros came to terms on a deal with All - star, Gold Glove winner Darin Erstad.
In January and February 2008, the Astros signed Brandon Backe, Ty Wigginton, Dave Borkowski and Shawn Chacón to one - year deals. The starting rotation would feature Roy Oswalt and Brandon Backe as numbers one and two. Wandy Rodríguez, Chacón and Chris Sampson rounded out the bottom three slots in the rotation. Woody Williams had retired after a 0 -- 4 spring training and Jason Jennings was now with Texas. On the other side of the roster, the Astros would start without Kazuo Matsui, who was on a minor league rehab assignment after a spring training injury.
The Astros regressed in 2008 and 2009, finishing with records of 86 -- 75 and 74 -- 88, respectively. Manager Cecil Cooper was fired after the 2009 season.
The 2010 season was the first season as Astros manager for Brad Mills, who was previously the bench coach of the Boston Red Sox. The Astros struggled throughout a season that was marked by trade - deadline deals that sent longtime Astros to other teams. On July 29, the Astros ' ace starting pitcher, Roy Oswalt, was dealt to the Philadelphia Phillies for J.A. Happ and two minor league players. On July 31, outfielder Lance Berkman was traded to the New York Yankees for minor leaguers Jimmy Paredes and Mark Melancon. The Astros finished with a record of 76 - 86.
On July 30, 2011, the Astros traded OF Hunter Pence, the team 's 2010 leader in home runs, to the Philadelphia Phillies. On July 31, they traded OF Michael Bourn to the Atlanta Braves. On September 17, the Astros clinched their first 100 - loss season in franchise history, On September 28, the Astros ended the season with an 8 -- 0 home loss to the St. Louis Cardinals. Cardinals pitcher Chris Carpenter pitched a complete game, two - hit shutout in the game, enabling the Cardinals to win the National League Wild Card, where they went on to beat the Texas Rangers in the World Series, with Lance Berkman being a key player in their championship victory. The Astros finished with a record of 56 -- 106, the worst single - season record in franchise history (a record which would be broken the following season).
In November 2010, Drayton McLane announced that the Astros were being put up for sale. McLane stated that because the Astros were one of the few franchises in Major League Baseball with only one family as the owners, he was planning his estate. McLane was 75 years old as of November 2011. In March 2011, local Houston businessman Jim Crane emerged as the front - runner to purchase the franchise. In the 1980s, Crane founded an air freight business which later merged with CEVA Logistics, and later founded Crane Capital Group. McLane and Crane had a previous handshake agreement for the franchise in 2008, but Crane abruptly changed his mind and broke off discussions. Crane also attempted to buy the Chicago Cubs in 2008 and the Texas Rangers during their 2010 bankruptcy auction. Crane came under scrutiny because of previous allegations of discriminatory hiring practices regarding women and minorities, among other issues. This delayed MLB 's approval process. During the summer of 2011, a frustrated Crane hinted that the delays might threaten the deal. In October 2011, Crane met personally with MLB Commissioner Bud Selig, in a meeting that was described as "constructive ''.
On November 15, 2011, it was announced that Crane had agreed to move the franchise to the American League for the 2013 season. The move was part of an overall divisional realignment of MLB, with the National and American leagues each having 15 teams in three geographically balanced divisions. Crane was given a $70 million concession by MLB for agreeing to the switch; the move was a condition for the sale to the new ownership group. Two days later, the Astros were officially sold to Crane after the other owners unanimously voted in favor of the sale. It was also announced that 2012 would be the last season for the Astros in the NL. After over fifty years of the Astros being a part of the National League, this move was unpopular with many Astros fans.
In 2012, the Astros were eliminated from the playoffs before September 5. On September 27, the Astros named Bo Porter to be the manager for the 2013 season.
On October 3, the Astros ended over 50 years of NL play with a 5 -- 4 loss to the Chicago Cubs and began to look ahead to join the American League. Winning only 20 road games during the entire season, the Astros finished with a 55 -- 107 record, the worst record in all of Major League Baseball for the 2012 season, and surpassing the 2011 season for the worst record in Astros history.
On November 2, 2012, the Astros unveiled their new look in preparation for their move to the American League for the 2013 season. The uniform is navy blue and orange, going back to the original 1960s team colors, as well as debuting a new version of the classic navy blue hat with a white "H '' over an orange star.
On November 6, 2012, the Astros hired former Cleveland Indians director of baseball operations David Stearns as the team 's new assistant general manager. The Astros would also go on to hire former St. Louis Cardinals front office executive Jeff Luhnow as their general manager.
The Houston Astros played their first game as an American League team on March 31, 2013, where they were victorious over their in - state division competitor, the Texas Rangers, with a score of 8 -- 2.
On September 29, the Astros completed their first year in the American League, losing 5 -- 1 in a 14 inning game to the New York Yankees. The Astros finished the season with a 51 -- 111 record (a franchise worst) with a season ending 15 game losing streak, again surpassing their worst record from last season. The team finished 45 games back out of the division winner Oakland Athletics, further adding to their futility. This marked three consecutive years that the Astros had lost more than 100 games in a single season. They also became the first team to have the first overall pick in the draft three years in a row. They improved on their season in 2014, going 70 -- 92, finishing 28 games back over the division winner Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, and placing fourth in the AL West over the Texas Rangers.
After a slow start, the Astros took over first place in the AL West on April 19 and stayed there until shortly before the All - Star Break in mid-July. The Astros retook first place on July 29, but fell from first on September 15.
In September 2015, four men died who had been closely associated with the team: Yogi Berra, Gene Elston, Milo Hamilton, and John McMullen. McMullen and Hamilton passed on the same Thursday, September 17, 2015, Elston on September 5th, and Berra on September 22. McMullen, after being a co-owner of the New York Yankees, purchased the Astros in 1979. He also brought Nolan Ryan to the Astros. In 1980, the Astros played the Philadelphia Phillies for the NL pennant with Gene Elston on the radio. In 1985, McMullen brought Yogi Berra in to be a bench coach for the new Astros manager Hal Lanier for the 1986 season, with Milo Hamilton on the radio.
Dallas Keuchel led the AL with 20 victories, going 15 -- 0 at home, an MLB record. Key additions to the team included Scott Kazmir and SS Carlos Correa who hit 22 home runs, being called up in June 2015. 2B José Altuve picked up where he left off as the star of the Astros ' offense. On July 30, the Astros picked up Mike Fiers and Carlos Gómez from the Milwaukee Brewers. Fiers threw the 11th no - hitter in Astros history on August 21 against the LA Dodgers. Houston got the final AL playoff spot and faced the Yankees in the Wild Card Game on October 6 at New York. They defeated the Yankees 3 -- 0, but lost to the Kansas City Royals in the American League Division Series.
The Astros split the first two games of the ALDS best - of - five series in Kansas City. The Astros won the first game at Minute Maid to take a 2 -- 1 lead in the ALDS. In game 4, after 7 innings, the Astros had a 6 -- 2 lead. In the top half of the eighth inning, which took about 45 minutes to end, the Royals had taken 7 -- 6 lead with a series of consecutive base hits. The Astros suffered a 9 -- 6 loss and the ALDS was tied at 2 -- 2. Then the series went back to Kansas City, where the Royals clinched the series in the fifth game, 7 - 2.
The Astros entered the 2016 season as the favorites to win the AL West after a promising 2015 season. After a bad start to their season, with Houston going just 7 -- 17 in April, the Astros bounced back and went on to have a winning record in their next four months, including an 18 -- 8 record in June. But after going 12 -- 15 in September, the Astros were eliminated from playoff contention. They finished in third place in the American League West Division with a final record of 84 -- 78.
On August 10, 2016 Gómez was designated for assignment by the Astros after a dreadful campaign with the team. He was released on August 18, 2016. Gomez finished his Astros career batting a career low average of. 210 and only hitting 5 HR through 85 games with the club. Gómez later signed with division rival Texas.
The season was marked by the Astros 4 -- 15 record against their in - state division rival (and eventual division winner) Texas Rangers. The Astros finished the 2016 season eleven games behind the Rangers.
In 2014, Sports Illustrated predicted the Astros would win the 2017 World Series through their strategic rebuilding process. As of June 9, the Astros were 41 -- 16, which gave them a 13.5 - game lead over the rest of their division, and they had comfortable possession of the best record in the entire league. This was the best start in the Astros ' 55 - year history. As the games of June 23 concluded, the Astros had an 11.5 - game lead over the rest of the division. The Astros entered the All - Star Break with an American League best 60 -- 29 record and a 16 - game lead in the division, although the overall best record in MLB had just barely slipped to the Dodgers shortly before the All - Star Break by just one game.
With Hurricane Harvey causing massive flooding throughout Houston and southeast Texas, the Astros ' three - game series against the Texas Rangers for August 29 -- 31, was relocated to Tropicana Field (home of the Tampa Bay Rays), in St. Petersburg, Florida. The Astros greatly improved against the Rangers in 2017, going 12 -- 7 against them and winning the season series.
At the August 31 waiver - trade deadline GM Jeff Luhnow acquired veteran starting pitcher and Cy Young Award winner Justin Verlander to bolster the starting rotation. Verlander won each of his 5 regular season starts with the Astros, yielding only 4 runs over this stretch. He carried his success into the playoffs, posting a record of 4 - 1 in his 6 starts, and throwing a complete game shutout in Game 2 of the ALCS. Verlander was named the 2017 ALCS MVP.
The Astros clinched their first division title as a member of the American League West division, and first division title overall since 2001. They also became the first team in Major League history to win three different divisions: National League West in 1980 and 1986, National League Central from 1997 -- 1999 and 2001, and American League West in 2017. On September 29, the Astros won their 100th game of the season, the second time the Astros finished a season with over 100 wins, the first being in 1998. They finished 101 -- 61, with a 21 - game lead in the division, and faced the Red Sox in the first round of the AL playoffs. The Astros defeated the Red Sox three games to one, and advanced to the American League Championship Series against the New York Yankees. The Astros won the ALCS four games to three, and advanced to the World Series to play against the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Astros defeated the Dodgers in the deciding seventh game of the World Series, winning the first championship in franchise history.
The city of Houston celebrated the team 's accomplishment with a parade on the afternoon of November 3, 2017. Houston 's Independent School District gave the students and teachers the day off to watch the parade.
On November 16, 2017 Jose Altuve was named the American League Most Valuable Player, capping off a historic season in which he accumulated 200 hits for the fourth consecutive season, led the majors with a. 346 BA, and was the unquestioned clubhouse leader of the World Series Champions.
Source:
Two awards are presented each year, one to a Houston Astro and one to a St. Louis Cardinal, each of whom exemplifies Kile 's virtues of being "a good teammate, a great friend, a fine father and a humble man. '' The winner is selected by each local chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America.
The number 42 is retired by Major League Baseball in honor of Jackie Robinson.
Source:
57: Has not been reissued since former Astros pitcher Darryl Kile died as an active player with the St. Louis Cardinals in 2002.
17: Has not been reissued since Lance Berkman was traded in 2010.
Nellie Fox
Jeff Bagwell Craig Biggio
Leo Durocher Randy Johnson
Eddie Mathews Joe Morgan
Robin Roberts Iván Rodríguez
Nolan Ryan Don Sutton
Gene Elston
Milo Hamilton
Harry Kalas
Pitchers
Catchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Catchers
Manager
Coaches
40 active, 0 inactive, 1 non-roster invitees
7 - or 10 - day disabled list * Not on active roster Suspended list Roster, coaches, and NRIs updated December 15, 2017 Transactions Depth Chart → All MLB rosters
* In December 2016, the Astros agreed to a 30 - year deal to field a Class - A Advanced team in Fayetteville, North Carolina, beginning in 2019. The team will play the 2017 and 2018 seasons in Buies Creek while a new stadium is built in Fayetteville.
As of 2013, the Astros ' new flagship radio station is KBME, Sportstalk 790AM (a Fox Sports Radio affiliate), leaving KTRH, 740AM after a partnership with them since 1999 (both stations are owned by iHeartMedia). This change suddenly made it difficult for listeners outside of Houston itself to hear the Astros, as KTRH runs 50 kilowatts of power day and night, and KBME runs only five kilowatts. As a result, KTRH is audible across much of Central, East, and South Texas, whereas KBME can only be heard in Houston, especially after dark. Milo Hamilton, a veteran voice who was on the call for Hank Aaron 's 715th career home run in 1974, retired at the end of the 2012 season, after broadcasting play - by - play for the Astros since 1985. Dave Raymond and Brett Dolan shared play - by play duty for road games, while Raymond additionally worked as Hamilton 's color analyst (while Hamilton called home games only for the past few seasons before his retirement); they were not retained and instead brought in Robert Ford and Steve Sparks to begin broadcasting for the 2013 season.
Spanish language radio play - by - play is handled by Francisco Romero, and his play - by - play partner is Alex Treviño, a former backup catcher for the club.
During the 2012 season Astros games on television were announced by Bill Brown and Jim Deshaies. In the seven seasons before then, Astros games were broadcast on television by Fox Sports Houston, with select games shown on broadcast TV by KTXH. As part of a ten - year, $1 billion deal with Comcast that includes a majority stake jointly held by the Astros and the Houston Rockets, Houston Astros games moved to the new Comcast SportsNet Houston at the beginning of the 2013 season. On September 27, 2013 CSN Houston filed for Chapter 11 Bankruptcy and surprising the Astros who own the largest stake. After being brought out of bankruptcy by DirecTV Sports Networks and AT&T, the channel 's name was changed to Root Sports Southwest then later AT&T SportsNet Southwest.
The current television team consists of Todd Kalas and Geoff Blum.
Orbit is the name given to MLB 's Houston Astros mascot, a lime - green outer - space creature wearing an Astros jersey with antennae extending into baseballs. Orbit was the team 's official mascot from the 1990 through the 1999 seasons until the 2000 season, where Junction Jack was introduced as the team 's mascot with the move from the Astrodome to then Enron Field. Orbit returned on November 2, 2012 at the unveiling of the Astros new look for their 2013 debut in the American League. The name Orbit pays homage to Houston 's association with NASA and nickname Space City.
The Astros had been represented by a trio of rabbit mascots named Junction Jack, Jesse and Julie from 2000 through 2012.
In April 1977 the Houston Astros introduced their very first mascot, Chester Charge. Created by Ed Henderson, Chester Charge was a Texas cavalry soldier on a horse. Chester appeared on the field at the beginning of each home game, during the seventh inning stretch and then ran around the bases at the conclusion of each win. At the blast of a bugle, the scoreboard would light up and the audience would yell, "Charge! ''
General
In - line citations
See also: List of companies in Houston
See: List of colleges and universities in Houston
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how many episodes are in my hero academia season 3 so far | List of My Hero Academia episodes - wikipedia
My Hero Academia is a Japanese superhero manga series written and illustrated by Kōhei Horikoshi. It has been serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump since July 2014, and 12 volumes have been collected in tankōbon format. The series has been licensed for English - language release by Viz Media, and began serialization in their weekly digital manga anthology Weekly Shonen Jump on February 9, 2015. The story follows Izuku Midoriya, a boy born without superpowers in a world where they are the norm, but who still dreams of becoming a superhero himself, and is scouted by the world 's greatest hero who shares his powers with Izuku after recognizing his value and enrolls him in a high school for heroes in training.
The manga was adapted into an anime television series produced by Bones.
The first season aired from April 3 to June 26, 2016, on TBS, MBS and other JNN stations in ' Nichigo ' timeslot at 5pm on Sundays in Japan. The opening theme is "The Day '', performed by Porno Graffitti and the ending theme is "Heroes '', performed by Brian the Sun.
The second season aired from April 1 to September 30, 2017 on NTV and YTV, with the staff and cast from the first season returning to reprise their roles. The second season 's first opening theme is "Peace Sign '' (ピース サイン) performed by Kenshi Yonezu and the first ending theme is "Dakara, Hitori ja nai '' (だから 、 ひとり じゃ ない, lit. Therefore, I am not Alone), performed by Little Glee Monster. The second opening theme is "Sora ni Utaeba '' (空 に 歌 えば, lit. If I Sing to the Sky) performed by amazarashi and the ending theme is "Datte Atashi no Hero '' (だって アタシ の ヒーロー, lit. Still My Hero) by LiSA.
The third season premiered on April 7, 2018. The third season 's first opening theme is "Odd Future '' by Uverworld and the first ending theme is "Update '' (アップデート) by miwa. The third season 's second opening theme is "Make my Story '' by Lenny Code Fiction and the second ending theme is "Long Hope Philia '' (ロング ホープ ・ フィリア) by Masaki Suda.
Adult Swim 's Toonami block premiered the series on May 5, 2018.
In a world where most of the population is gifted with special powers known as "Quirks '', Izuku Midoriya is a young boy who always dreamed of becoming a hero, despite not having a Quirk himself, until one day he is attacked by a villain and is rescued by none other than All Might, the most famous hero ever and his idol since childhood.
Izuku discovers that All Might 's true form is that of a frail, emaciated man, who suffered a massive injury years ago. All Might tells Izuku that he should give up on being a hero and focus on a more realistic dream. Disheartened, Izuku makes his way home, only to see his classmate and bully Katsuki Bakugō attacked by a villain. With no heroes around able to fight the villain, Izuku, without any thought given, rushes in.
All Might tells Izuku of his Quirk, "One For All '', a special Quirk that transfers its strength from person to person. While All Might believes Izuku to be worthy of his Quirk, bestowing it to him right away would ruin his untrained body. All Might then designs a ten - month training regimen to ensure that Izuku can become a vessel that can carry it.
After receiving All Might 's Quirk, the time has come for Izuku to attend the exams for the prestigious U.A. High School for heroes in training. During the practical exam, Izuku gets himself in a pinch and is about to fail until one of his fellow examinees finds herself in serious danger and he runs to her rescue.
It 's Izuku 's first day as a student of U.A. High School. However, his homeroom teacher Shōta Aizawa decides to hold a physical test to evaluate how the students use their Quirks. Mr. Aizawa threatens the worst ranked student with expulsion, and Izuku finds himself in another predicament as he still has not learned to control his Quirk properly.
Now donning their own hero costumes, the students are assigned to a mock battle between teams of two to test their combat abilities. Izuku is paired with Ochako Uraraka, the girl he helped during the entrance exams who also becomes his friend much to his joy. However, also to his dismay, one of his opponents is Bakugō, who always mocked him for his Quirklessness, and is now furious at him.
The mock battle continues with Izuku barely holding against Bakugō 's devastating attacks, leaving Ochako to face the other opponent Tenya Iida by herself. As the time limit approaches, Izuku seems to have no option but to use his Quirk against Bakugō in an attempt to defeat him, until he comes up with a better idea.
After losing against Izuku in the mock battle, Bakugō watches the rest of his classmates in action and realizes that he still has a long way to stand above his peers. After recovering from his injuries, Izuku attempts to cheer him up, to the point of sharing with him parts of his secret. Meanwhile, news that All Might is teaching at U.A. are received by some individuals with contempt.
Izuku is chosen as the class president, much to his surprise, but he ends up relinquishing the position to Iida when he and his friends find him more suitable for the position. The students are then assigned to another field exercise, but before it begins, a horde of villains suddenly appear before them.
The villains use their powers to scatter and ambush the students in order to attract All Might for a trap. Izuku ends up stranded and surrounded on a boat along with his classmates Tsuyu Asui and Minoru Mineta, but after learning more about their powers, he comes up with a plan to turn the tides. Elsewhere, Iida is chosen by the others to break through the enemy trap and call for help.
The students fight for their lives against the Villains while Iida manages to escape with his friends ' help. Once it 's clear that Iida will warn the other teachers who will come to stop them, the Villains ' leader Tomura Shigaraki decides to kill Izuku and his friends just to hurt All Might 's pride before they leave, when All Might himself appears.
A recap of the first season.
Still recovering from the previous incident, the school is about to hold the Sports Festival, which will serve as an opportunity for the students to show off their Quirks for professional heroes looking for sidekicks. In the occasion, All Might confesses to Izuku that his powers are diminishing, and that the festival is an opportunity for Izuku to show his true value to the world.
Todoroki expresses to Izuku that he will defeat him and show his true power. As the Sports Festival begins, the students from the four branches of the school - Hero, General Studies, Business and Support Courses - participate in an obstacle - course race.
The 16 remaining students advance to the final stage, with battles one on one to decide the winner. Before the fights begin, Todoroki has a private talk with Izuku, revealing the reasons for his hatred toward his father, the world 's second - best hero Endeavor.
In the first round, Izuku is struck by Hitoshi Shinso 's brainwashing ability, but breaks free in the last moment and obtains victory, while Todoroki displays his overwhelming power and easily wins his match against Hanta Sero, becoming Izuku 's opponent in the following round.
The U.A. Sports Festival continues with the completion of the other six bracket matches. Shiozaki swiftly overcomes Kaminari. Mei manipulates Iida in order to show off her tech to support companies, giving him the win by stepping out. Mina beats Aoyama by exploiting his weakness. Yaoyorozu is overwhelmed by the speed of Tokoyami 's Dark Shadow and is pushed out of the ring. Tetsutetsu and Kirishima have a homestyle brawl ending in a tie. Throughout all of this, Ochako is trying to prepare herself for the daunting task of battling Bakugo.
Izuku and Todoroki begin their match. Izuku, while still trying to win, is attempting to get Todoroki to use his left side so they can both battle at their full power. As Todoroki fights on, more of his past is revealed through flashbacks. He remembers his mother saying it was okay to use his left side because he wanted to be a hero. So Izuku fights Todoroki who is using both sides. Cementoss and Midnight attempt to stop the match before the two deal their final attacks but to no avail. Izuku is thrown out of bounds and Todoroki moves on.
Now that Izuku knows how to control some of his powers he starts to train more and more with Gran Torino to perfect that power. All Might learns more about the captured Nomu. After Stain refuses to join the League of Villains, he returns to Hosu City to hunt down more heroes. Shigaraki also goes to Hosu, releasing several Nomus into the city. On the way to respond to the Nomu attacks, Tenya discovers Stain just as he is about to kill another hero. Meanwhile, Gran Torino decides to take Izuku to Shibuya city, and their train is attacked by a Nomu as they pass Hosu.
Hosu City is under attack by Stain and by three Nomus released by the League of Villains. As Gran Torino battles the Nomu that attacked their train, Izuku searches the city for Tenya and arrives just in time to prevent Stain from killing him. Having received a cryptic message from Izuku before he attacked Stain, Shoto arrives just as Stain has used his Quirk to paralyze Izuku. As Izuku figures out the secret of Stain 's Quirk, Shoto struggles to evade Stain 's many blades and Tenya struggles with his own rage and quest for vengeance.
Tenya fights off Stain 's Quirk and joins the battle with Shoto and Izuku. Endeavor and Gran Torino defeat a Nomu while the three UA students defeat Stain - at the cost of serious injuries to Tenya and Izuku. Endeavor defeats the remaining Nomu and controls the situation.
Anime - original episode showing what some of the other characters did during their internships, particularly Tsuyu / Froppy.
Following their internships, everyone has returned to school, and All Might decides to tell Izuku the truth behind his Quirk, One for All.
Final exams are approaching, and the class prepares for their written and practical exams. Momo hosts a study party at her mansion, and Itsuka tells Izuku and his friends that the practical exam will be against robot enemies. After making it through three days of written exams, everyone is shocked to learn that the practical exam will not involve robots this year - instead, they will be fighting in predetermined pairs against one of their teachers. To pass, they must either defeat the teacher or escape the arena before time runs out.
Tsuyu and Fumikage work together to evade Ectoplasm 's army of clones. Tenya and Mashirao face off against the burrowing Power Loader. Todoroki and Momo, whose confidence was shattered after being easily defeated by Fumikage in the Sports Festival, attempt to evade Aizawa 's Quirk. Ochaco and Yuga try to avoid being sucked into Thirteen 's black hole.
Yuga asks Ochaco if she likes Izuku, prompting an unexpected resolution to their match with Thirteen. Denki and Mina attempt to evade the buildings being toppled by Principal Nezu as he strategically cuts off their escape routes. Kyoka and Koji, who both have sound - dependent Quirks, struggle to come up with a strategy against Present Mic 's overpowering noise. Mezo creates a distraction to allow Toru an opening against Snipe. Midnight takes out Hanta quickly, leaving Mineta alone against her somnambulist Quirk.
The final match of the final exams pits Izuku and Katsuki against All Might. Izuku struggles to convince Katsuki to work with him, especially since Izuku believes they have no choice but to escape and Katsuki seems determined to fight All Might head - on. Even with All Might 's diminishing strength and handicap weights, both students face serious injuries as they put everything they have into the fight.
The students of 1 - A have a PE class at the pool, while reminiscing about the main events of the previous seasons.
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when was the commission for sc st stablished | Kalelkar commission - Wikipedia
Adhering to Article 340 of the Constitution of India, the First Backward Classes Commission was set up by a presidential order on 29 January 1953 under the chairmanship of Kaka Kalelkar. It is also known as the First Backward Classes Commission, 1955 or the Kaka Kalelkar Commission.
Its terms of references were to:
For identifying socially and educationally backward classes, the commission adopted the following criteria:
Following descriptions was used for classification of various communities as educationally and socially backward:
The commission submitted its report on 30 March 1955. It had prepared a list of 2,399 backward castes or communities for the entire country and of which 837 (* starred communities) had been classified as the ' most backward ' Some of the most noteworthy recommendations of the commission were:
Kaka Kalelkar, the Chairman, took a rather equivocal stand on the issue, though he did not record a formal minutes of dissent, in his forwarding letter to the President he opposed some recommendations made by the commission
The commission 's observations:
This commission also examined the existing list of Schedule Caste and Schedule Tribes and recommended certain additions to, and deletions from, these lists. These recommendations were duly examined in consultation with the State Governments, the Commissioner of the Schedule Tribes and the Deputy Registrar General, and the Government accepted these recommendations by passing The Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes Orders (Amendment) Act, 1956. (Act LXIII of 1956).
This report was rejected by the Central government on the ground that it had not applied any objective tests for identifying the Backward Class. Thus there was a need of second backward classes Commission.
(Category: Other Backward Classes)
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who used factor analysis technique for classification of personality | Factor analysis - wikipedia
Factor analysis is a statistical method used to describe variability among observed, correlated variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved variables called factors. For example, it is possible that variations in six observed variables mainly reflect the variations in two unobserved (underlying) variables. Factor analysis searches for such joint variations in response to unobserved latent variables. The observed variables are modelled as linear combinations of the potential factors, plus "error '' terms. Factor analysis aims to find independent latent variables. Followers of factor analytic methods believe that the information gained about the interdependencies between observed variables can be used later to reduce the set of variables in a dataset. Factor analysis is commonly used in biology, psychometrics personality theories, marketing, product management, operations research and finance. Users of factor analysis believe that it helps to deal with data sets where there are large numbers of observed variables that are thought to reflect a smaller number of underlying / latent variables. It is one of the most commonly used inter-dependency techniques and is used when the relevant set of variables shows a systematic inter-dependence and the objective is to find out the latent factors that create a commonality.
Factor analysis is related to principal component analysis (PCA), but the two are not identical. There has been significant controversy in the field over differences between the two techniques (see section on exploratory factor analysis versus principal components analysis below). PCA is a more basic version of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) that was developed in the early days prior to the advent of high - speed computers. From the point of view of exploratory analysis, the eigenvalues of PCA are inflated component loadings, i.e., contaminated with error variance.
Suppose we have a set of p (\ displaystyle p) observable random variables, x 1,..., x p (\ displaystyle x_ (1), \ dots, x_ (p)) with means μ 1,..., μ p (\ displaystyle \ mu _ (1), \ dots, \ mu _ (p)).
Suppose for some unknown constants l i j (\ displaystyle l_ (ij)) and k (\ displaystyle k) unobserved random variables F j (\ displaystyle F_ (j)) (called "common factors, '' because they influence all the observed random variables), where i ∈ 1,..., p (\ displaystyle i \ in (1, \ dots, p)) and j ∈ 1,..., k (\ displaystyle j \ in (1, \ dots, k)), where k < p (\ displaystyle k < p), we have
Here, the ε i (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon _ (i)) are unobserved stochastic error terms with zero mean and finite variance, which may not be the same for all i (\ displaystyle i).
In matrix terms, we have
If we have n (\ displaystyle n) observations, then we will have the dimensions x p × n (\ displaystyle x_ (p \ times n)), L p × k (\ displaystyle L_ (p \ times k)), and F k × n (\ displaystyle F_ (k \ times n)). Each column of x (\ displaystyle x) and F (\ displaystyle F) denotes values for one particular observation, and matrix L (\ displaystyle L) does not vary across observations.
Also we will impose the following assumptions on F (\ displaystyle F):
Any solution of the above set of equations following the constraints for F (\ displaystyle F) is defined as the factors, and L (\ displaystyle L) as the loading matrix.
Suppose C o v (x − μ) = Σ (\ displaystyle \ mathrm (Cov) (x - \ mu) = \ Sigma). Then note that from the conditions just imposed on F (\ displaystyle F), we have
or
or
Note that for any orthogonal matrix Q (\ displaystyle Q), if we set L = L Q (\ displaystyle L = LQ) and F = Q T F (\ displaystyle F = Q ^ (T) F), the criteria for being factors and factor loadings still hold. Hence a set of factors and factor loadings is unique only up to an orthogonal transformation.
Suppose a psychologist has the hypothesis that there are two kinds of intelligence, "verbal intelligence '' and "mathematical intelligence '', neither of which is directly observed. Evidence for the hypothesis is sought in the examination scores from each of 10 different academic fields of 1000 students. If each student is chosen randomly from a large population, then each student 's 10 scores are random variables. The psychologist 's hypothesis may say that for each of the 10 academic fields, the score averaged over the group of all students who share some common pair of values for verbal and mathematical "intelligences '' is some constant times their level of verbal intelligence plus another constant times their level of mathematical intelligence, i.e., it is a combination of those two "factors ''. The numbers for a particular subject, by which the two kinds of intelligence are multiplied to obtain the expected score, are posited by the hypothesis to be the same for all intelligence level pairs, and are called "factor loading '' for this subject. For example, the hypothesis may hold that the average student 's aptitude in the field of astronomy is
The numbers 10 and 6 are the factor loadings associated with astronomy. Other academic subjects may have different factor loadings.
Two students having identical degrees of verbal intelligence and identical degrees of mathematical intelligence may have different aptitudes in astronomy because individual aptitudes differ from average aptitudes. That difference is called the "error '' -- a statistical term that means the amount by which an individual differs from what is average for his or her levels of intelligence (see errors and residuals in statistics).
The observable data that go into factor analysis would be 10 scores of each of the 1000 students, a total of 10,000 numbers. The factor loadings and levels of the two kinds of intelligence of each student must be inferred from the data.
In the following, matrices will be indicated by indexed variables. "Subject '' indices will be indicated using letters a, b and c, with values running from 1 to N a (\ displaystyle N_ (a)) which is equal to 10 in the above example. "Factor '' indices will be indicated using letters p, q and r, with values running from 1 to N p (\ displaystyle N_ (p)) which is equal to 2 in the above example. "Instance '' or "sample '' indices will be indicated using letters i, j and k, with values running from 1 to N i (\ displaystyle N_ (i)). In the example above, if a sample of N i = 1000 (\ displaystyle N_ (i) = 1000) students responded to the N a = 10 (\ displaystyle N_ (a) = 10) questions, the ith student 's score for the ath question are given by x a i (\ displaystyle x_ (ai)). The purpose of factor analysis is to characterize the correlations between the variables x a (\ displaystyle x_ (a)) of which the x a i (\ displaystyle x_ (ai)) are a particular instance, or set of observations. In order for the variables to be on equal footing, they are normalized:
where the sample mean is:
and the sample variance is given by:
The factor analysis model for this particular sample is then:
or, more succinctly:
where
In matrix notation, we have
Observe that by doubling the scale on which "verbal intelligence '' -- the first component in each column of F -- is measured, and simultaneously halving the factor loadings for verbal intelligence makes no difference to the model. Thus, no generality is lost by assuming that the standard deviation of verbal intelligence is 1. Likewise for mathematical intelligence. Moreover, for similar reasons, no generality is lost by assuming the two factors are uncorrelated with each other. In other words:
where δ p q (\ displaystyle \ delta _ (pq)) is the Kronecker delta (0 when p ≠ q (\ displaystyle p \ neq q) and 1 when p = q (\ displaystyle p = q)). The errors are assumed to be independent of the factors:
Note that, since any rotation of a solution is also a solution, this makes interpreting the factors difficult. See disadvantages below. In this particular example, if we do not know beforehand that the two types of intelligence are uncorrelated, then we can not interpret the two factors as the two different types of intelligence. Even if they are uncorrelated, we can not tell which factor corresponds to verbal intelligence and which corresponds to mathematical intelligence without an outside argument.
The values of the loadings L, the averages μ, and the variances of the "errors '' ε must be estimated given the observed data X and F (the assumption about the levels of the factors is fixed for a given F). The "fundamental theorem '' may be derived from the above conditions:
The term on the left is the (a, b) term of the correlation matrix (an N a × N a (\ displaystyle N_ (a) \ times N_ (a)) matrix) of the observed data, and its N a (\ displaystyle N_ (a)) diagonal elements will be 1 's. The last term on the right will be a diagonal matrix with terms less than unity. The first term on the right is the "reduced correlation matrix '' and will be equal to the correlation matrix except for its diagonal values which will be less than unity. These diagonal elements of the reduced correlation matrix are called "communalities '' (which represent the fraction of the variance in the observed variable that is accounted for by the factors):
The sample data z a i (\ displaystyle z_ (ai)) will not, of course, exactly obey the fundamental equation given above due to sampling errors, inadequacy of the model, etc. The goal of any analysis of the above model is to find the factors F p i (\ displaystyle F_ (pi)) and loadings l a p (\ displaystyle \ ell _ (ap)) which, in some sense, give a "best fit '' to the data. In factor analysis, the best fit is defined as the minimum of the mean square error in the off - diagonal residuals of the correlation matrix:
This is equivalent to minimizing the off - diagonal components of the error covariance which, in the model equations have expected values of zero. This is to be contrasted with principal component analysis which seeks to minimize the mean square error of all residuals. Before the advent of high speed computers, considerable effort was devoted to finding approximate solutions to the problem, particularly in estimating the communalities by other means, which then simplifies the problem considerably by yielding a known reduced correlation matrix. This was then used to estimate the factors and the loadings. With the advent of high - speed computers, the minimization problem can be solved iteratively with adequate speed, and the communalities are calculated in the process, rather than being needed beforehand. The MinRes algorithm is particularly suited to this problem, but is hardly the only iterative means of finding a solution.
If the solution factors are allowed to be correlated (as in oblimin rotation, for example), then the corresponding mathematical model uses skew coordinates rather than orthogonal coordinates.
The parameters and variables of factor analysis can be given a geometrical interpretation. The data (z a i (\ displaystyle z_ (ai))), the factors (F p i (\ displaystyle F_ (pi))) and the errors (ε a i (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon _ (ai))) can be viewed as vectors in an N i (\ displaystyle N_ (i)) - dimensional Euclidean space (sample space), represented as z a (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (z) _ (a)), F p (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (F) _ (p)) and ε a (\ displaystyle (\ boldsymbol (\ varepsilon)) _ (a)) respectively. Since the data are standardized, the data vectors are of unit length (z a ⋅ z a = 1 (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (z) _ (a) \ cdot \ mathbf (z) _ (a) = 1)). The factor vectors define an N p (\ displaystyle N_ (p)) - dimensional linear subspace (i.e. a hyperplane) in this space, upon which the data vectors are projected orthogonally. This follows from the model equation
and the independence of the factors and the errors: F p ⋅ ε a = 0 (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (F) _ (p) \ cdot (\ boldsymbol (\ varepsilon)) _ (a) = 0). In the above example, the hyperplane is just a 2 - dimensional plane defined by the two factor vectors. The projection of the data vectors onto the hyperplane is given by
and the errors are vectors from that projected point to the data point and are perpendicular to the hyperplane. The goal of factor analysis is to find a hyperplane which is a "best fit '' to the data in some sense, so it does n't matter how the factor vectors which define this hyperplane are chosen, as long as they are independent and lie in the hyperplane. We are free to specify them as both orthogonal and normal (F p ⋅ F q = δ p q (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (F) _ (p) \ cdot \ mathbf (F) _ (q) = \ delta _ (pq))) with no loss of generality. After a suitable set of factors are found, they may also be arbitrarily rotated within the hyperplane, so that any rotation of the factor vectors will define the same hyperplane, and also be a solution. As a result, in the above example, in which the fitting hyperplane is two dimensional, if we do not know beforehand that the two types of intelligence are uncorrelated, then we can not interpret the two factors as the two different types of intelligence. Even if they are uncorrelated, we can not tell which factor corresponds to verbal intelligence and which corresponds to mathematical intelligence, or whether the factors are linear combinations of both, without an outside argument.
The data vectors z a (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (z) _ (a)) have unit length. The correlation matrix for the data is given by r a b = z a ⋅ z b (\ displaystyle r_ (ab) = \ mathbf (z) _ (a) \ cdot \ mathbf (z) _ (b)). The correlation matrix can be geometrically interpreted as the cosine of the angle between the two data vectors z a (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (z) _ (a)) and z b (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (z) _ (b)). The diagonal elements will clearly be 1 's and the off diagonal elements will have absolute values less than or equal to unity. The "reduced correlation matrix '' is defined as
The goal of factor analysis is to choose the fitting hyperplane such that the reduced correlation matrix reproduces the correlation matrix as nearly as possible, except for the diagonal elements of the correlation matrix which are known to have unit value. In other words, the goal is to reproduce as accurately as possible the cross-correlations in the data. Specifically, for the fitting hyperplane, the mean square error in the off - diagonal components
is to be minimized, and this is accomplished by minimizing it with respect to a set of orthonormal factor vectors. It can be seen that
The term on the right is just the covariance of the errors. In the model, the error covariance is stated to be a diagonal matrix and so the above minimization problem will in fact yield a "best fit '' to the model: It will yield a sample estimate of the error covariance which has its off - diagonal components minimized in the mean square sense. It can be seen that since the z ^ a (\ displaystyle (\ hat (z)) _ (a)) are orthogonal projections of the data vectors, their length will be less than or equal to the length of the projected data vector, which is unity. The square of these lengths are just the diagonal elements of the reduced correlation matrix. These diagonal elements of the reduced correlation matrix are known as "communalities '':
Large values of the communalities will indicate that the fitting hyperplane is rather accurately reproducing the correlation matrix. It should be noted that the mean values of the factors must also be constrained to be zero, from which it follows that the mean values of the errors will also be zero.
Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) is used to identify complex interrelationships among items and group items that are part of unified concepts. The researcher makes no a priori assumptions about relationships among factors.
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is a more complex approach that tests the hypothesis that the items are associated with specific factors. CFA uses structural equation modeling to test a measurement model whereby loading on the factors allows for evaluation of relationships between observed variables and unobserved variables. Structural equation modeling approaches can accommodate measurement error, and are less restrictive than least - squares estimation. Hypothesized models are tested against actual data, and the analysis would demonstrate loadings of observed variables on the latent variables (factors), as well as the correlation between the latent variables.
Principal component analysis (PCA) is a widely used method for factor extraction, which is the first phase of EFA. Factor weights are computed to extract the maximum possible variance, with successive factoring continuing until there is no further meaningful variance left. The factor model must then be rotated for analysis.
Canonical factor analysis, also called Rao 's canonical factoring, is a different method of computing the same model as PCA, which uses the principal axis method. Canonical factor analysis seeks factors which have the highest canonical correlation with the observed variables. Canonical factor analysis is unaffected by arbitrary rescaling of the data.
Common factor analysis, also called principal factor analysis (PFA) or principal axis factoring (PAF), seeks the least number of factors which can account for the common variance (correlation) of a set of variables.
Image factoring is based on the correlation matrix of predicted variables rather than actual variables, where each variable is predicted from the others using multiple regression.
Alpha factoring is based on maximizing the reliability of factors, assuming variables are randomly sampled from a universe of variables. All other methods assume cases to be sampled and variables fixed.
Factor regression model is a combinatorial model of factor model and regression model; or alternatively, it can be viewed as the hybrid factor model, whose factors are partially known.
Factor loadings: Commonality is the square of standardized outer loading of an item. Analogous to Pearson 's r, the squared factor loading is the percent of variance in that indicator variable explained by the factor. To get the percent of variance in all the variables accounted for by each factor, add the sum of the squared factor loadings for that factor (column) and divide by the number of variables. (Note the number of variables equals the sum of their variances as the variance of a standardized variable is 1.) This is the same as dividing the factor 's eigenvalue by the number of variables.
Interpreting factor loadings: By one rule of thumb in confirmatory factor analysis, loadings should be. 7 or higher to confirm that independent variables identified a priori are represented by a particular factor, on the rationale that the. 7 level corresponds to about half of the variance in the indicator being explained by the factor. However, the. 7 standard is a high one and real - life data may well not meet this criterion, which is why some researchers, particularly for exploratory purposes, will use a lower level such as. 4 for the central factor and. 25 for other factors. In any event, factor loadings must be interpreted in the light of theory, not by arbitrary cutoff levels.
In oblique rotation, one gets both a pattern matrix and a structure matrix. The structure matrix is simply the factor loading matrix as in orthogonal rotation, representing the variance in a measured variable explained by a factor on both a unique and common contributions basis. The pattern matrix, in contrast, contains coefficients which just represent unique contributions. The more factors, the lower the pattern coefficients as a rule since there will be more common contributions to variance explained. For oblique rotation, the researcher looks at both the structure and pattern coefficients when attributing a label to a factor. Principles of oblique rotation can be derived from both cross entropy and its dual entropy.
Communality: The sum of the squared factor loadings for all factors for a given variable (row) is the variance in that variable accounted for by all the factors, and this is called the communality. The communality measures the percent of variance in a given variable explained by all the factors jointly and may be interpreted as the reliability of the indicator.
Spurious solutions: If the communality exceeds 1.0, there is a spurious solution, which may reflect too small a sample or the researcher has too many or too few factors.
Uniqueness of a variable: That is, uniqueness is the variability of a variable minus its communality.
Eigenvalues: / Characteristic roots: The eigenvalue for a given factor measures the variance in all the variables which is accounted for by that factor. The ratio of eigenvalues is the ratio of explanatory importance of the factors with respect to the variables. If a factor has a low eigenvalue, then it is contributing little to the explanation of variances in the variables and may be ignored as redundant with more important factors. Eigenvalues measure the amount of variation in the total sample accounted for by each factor.
Extraction sums of squared loadings: Initial eigenvalues and eigenvalues after extraction (listed by SPSS as "Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings '') are the same for PCA extraction, but for other extraction methods, eigenvalues after extraction will be lower than their initial counterparts. SPSS also prints "Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings '' and even for PCA, these eigenvalues will differ from initial and extraction eigenvalues, though their total will be the same.
Factor scores (also called component scores in PCA): are the scores of each case (row) on each factor (column). To compute the factor score for a given case for a given factor, one takes the case 's standardized score on each variable, multiplies by the corresponding loadings of the variable for the given factor, and sums these products. Computing factor scores allows one to look for factor outliers. Also, factor scores may be used as variables in subsequent modeling. (Explained from PCA not from Factor Analysis perspective).
Researchers wish to avoid such subjective or arbitrary criteria for factor retention as "it made sense to me ''. A number of objective methods have been developed to solve this problem, allowing users to determine an appropriate range of solutions to investigate. Methods may not agree. For instance, the parallel analysis may suggest 5 factors while Velicer 's MAP suggests 6, so the researcher may request both 5 and 6 - factor solutions and discuss each in terms of their relation to external data and theory.
Horn 's parallel analysis (PA): A Monte - Carlo based simulation method that compares the observed eigenvalues with those obtained from uncorrelated normal variables. A factor or component is retained if the associated eigenvalue is bigger than the 95th percentile of the distribution of eigenvalues derived from the random data. PA is one of the most recommended rules for determining the number of components to retain, but many programs fail to include this option (a notable exception being R). However, Formann provided both theoretical and empirical evidence that its application might not be appropriate in many cases since its performance is considerably influenced by sample size, item discrimination, and type of correlation coefficient.
Velicer 's (1976) MAP test "involves a complete principal components analysis followed by the examination of a series of matrices of partial correlations '' (p. 397). The squared correlation for Step "0 '' (see Figure 4) is the average squared off - diagonal correlation for the unpartialed correlation matrix. On Step 1, the first principal component and its associated items are partialed out. Thereafter, the average squared off - diagonal correlation for the subsequent correlation matrix is then computed for Step 1. On Step 2, the first two principal components are partialed out and the resultant average squared off - diagonal correlation is again computed. The computations are carried out for k minus one step (k representing the total number of variables in the matrix). Thereafter, all of the average squared correlations for each step are lined up and the step number in the analyses that resulted in the lowest average squared partial correlation determines the number of components or factors to retain (Velicer, 1976). By this method, components are maintained as long as the variance in the correlation matrix represents systematic variance, as opposed to residual or error variance. Although methodologically akin to principal components analysis, the MAP technique has been shown to perform quite well in determining the number of factors to retain in multiple simulation studies. This procedure is made available through SPSS 's user interface. See Courtney (2013) for guidance.
Kaiser criterion: The Kaiser rule is to drop all components with eigenvalues under 1.0 -- this being the eigenvalue equal to the information accounted for by an average single item. The Kaiser criterion is the default in SPSS and most statistical software but is not recommended when used as the sole cut - off criterion for estimating the number of factors as it tends to over-extract factors. A variation of this method has been created where a researcher calculates confidence intervals for each eigenvalue and retains only factors which have the entire confidence interval greater than 1.0.
Scree plot: The Cattell scree test plots the components as the X axis and the corresponding eigenvalues as the Y - axis. As one moves to the right, toward later components, the eigenvalues drop. When the drop ceases and the curve makes an elbow toward less steep decline, Cattell 's scree test says to drop all further components after the one starting the elbow. This rule is sometimes criticised for being amenable to researcher - controlled "fudging ''. That is, as picking the "elbow '' can be subjective because the curve has multiple elbows or is a smooth curve, the researcher may be tempted to set the cut - off at the number of factors desired by their research agenda.
Variance explained criteria: Some researchers simply use the rule of keeping enough factors to account for 90 % (sometimes 80 %) of the variation. Where the researcher 's goal emphasizes parsimony (explaining variance with as few factors as possible), the criterion could be as low as 50 %.
The unrotated output maximises variance accounted for by the first and subsequent factors, and forces the factors to be orthogonal. This data - compression comes at the cost of having most items load on the early factors, and usually, of having many items load substantially on more than one factor. Rotation serves to make the output more understandable, by seeking so - called "Simple Structure '': A pattern of loadings where each item loads strongly on only one of the factors, and much more weakly on the other factors. Rotations can be orthogonal or oblique (allowing the factors to correlate).
Varimax rotation is an orthogonal rotation of the factor axes to maximize the variance of the squared loadings of a factor (column) on all the variables (rows) in a factor matrix, which has the effect of differentiating the original variables by extracted factor. Each factor will tend to have either large or small loadings of any particular variable. A varimax solution yields results which make it as easy as possible to identify each variable with a single factor. This is the most common rotation option. However, the orthogonality (i.e., independence) of factors is often an unrealistic assumption. Oblique rotations are inclusive of orthogonal rotation, and for that reason, oblique rotations are a preferred method.
Quartimax rotation is an orthogonal alternative which minimizes the number of factors needed to explain each variable. This type of rotation often generates a general factor on which most variables are loaded to a high or medium degree. Such a factor structure is usually not helpful to the research purpose.
Equimax rotation is a compromise between Varimax and Quartimax criteria.
Direct oblimin rotation is the standard method when one wishes a non-orthogonal (oblique) solution -- that is, one in which the factors are allowed to be correlated. This will result in higher eigenvalues but diminished interpretability of the factors. See below.
Promax rotation is an alternative non-orthogonal (oblique) rotation method which is computationally faster than the direct oblimin method and therefore is sometimes used for very large datasets.
Charles Spearman pioneered the use of factor analysis in the field of psychology and is sometimes credited with the invention of factor analysis. He discovered that school children 's scores on a wide variety of seemingly unrelated subjects were positively correlated, which led him to postulate that a general mental ability, or g, underlies and shapes human cognitive performance. His postulate now enjoys broad support in the field of intelligence research, where it is known as the g theory.
Raymond Cattell expanded on Spearman 's idea of a two - factor theory of intelligence after performing his own tests and factor analysis. He used a multi-factor theory to explain intelligence. Cattell 's theory addressed alternate factors in intellectual development, including motivation and psychology. Cattell also developed several mathematical methods for adjusting psychometric graphs, such as his "scree '' test and similarity coefficients. His research led to the development of his theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence, as well as his 16 Personality Factors theory of personality. Cattell was a strong advocate of factor analysis and psychometrics. He believed that all theory should be derived from research, which supports the continued use of empirical observation and objective testing to study human intelligence.
Factor analysis is used to identify "factors '' that explain a variety of results on different tests. For example, intelligence research found that people who get a high score on a test of verbal ability are also good on other tests that require verbal abilities. Researchers explained this by using factor analysis to isolate one factor, often called crystallized intelligence or verbal intelligence, which represents the degree to which someone is able to solve problems involving verbal skills.
Factor analysis in psychology is most often associated with intelligence research. However, it also has been used to find factors in a broad range of domains such as personality, attitudes, beliefs, etc. It is linked to psychometrics, as it can assess the validity of an instrument by finding if the instrument indeed measures the postulated factors.
While exploratory factor analysis and principal component analysis are treated as synonymous techniques in some fields of statistics, this has been criticised (e.g. Fabrigar et al., 1999; Suhr, 2009). In factor analysis, the researcher makes the assumption that an underlying causal model exists, whereas PCA is simply a variable reduction technique. Researchers have argued that the distinctions between the two techniques may mean that there are objective benefits for preferring one over the other based on the analytic goal. If the factor model is incorrectly formulated or the assumptions are not met, then factor analysis will give erroneous results. Factor analysis has been used successfully where adequate understanding of the system permits good initial model formulations. Principal component analysis employs a mathematical transformation to the original data with no assumptions about the form of the covariance matrix. The aim of PCA is to determine a few linear combinations of the original variables that can be used to summarize the data set without losing much information.
Fabrigar et al. (1999) address a number of reasons used to suggest that principal components analysis is not equivalent to factor analysis:
Factor analysis takes into account the random error that is inherent in measurement, whereas PCA fails to do so. This point is exemplified by Brown (2009), who indicated that, in respect to the correlation matrices involved in the calculations:
"In PCA, 1.00 s are put in the diagonal meaning that all of the variance in the matrix is to be accounted for (including variance unique to each variable, variance common among variables, and error variance). That would, therefore, by definition, include all of the variance in the variables. In contrast, in EFA, the communalities are put in the diagonal meaning that only the variance shared with other variables is to be accounted for (excluding variance unique to each variable and error variance). That would, therefore, by definition, include only variance that is common among the variables. ''
For this reason, Brown (2009) recommends using factor analysis when theoretical ideas about relationships between variables exist, whereas PCA should be used if the goal of the researcher is to explore patterns in their data.
The differences between principal components analysis and factor analysis are further illustrated by Suhr (2009):
The basic steps are:
The data collection stage is usually done by marketing research professionals. Survey questions ask the respondent to rate a product sample or descriptions of product concepts on a range of attributes. Anywhere from five to twenty attributes are chosen. They could include things like: ease of use, weight, accuracy, durability, colourfulness, price, or size. The attributes chosen will vary depending on the product being studied. The same question is asked about all the products in the study. The data for multiple products is coded and input into a statistical program such as R, SPSS, SAS, Stata, STATISTICA, JMP, and SYSTAT.
The analysis will isolate the underlying factors that explain the data using a matrix of associations. Factor analysis is an interdependence technique. The complete set of interdependent relationships is examined. There is no specification of dependent variables, independent variables, or causality. Factor analysis assumes that all the rating data on different attributes can be reduced down to a few important dimensions. This reduction is possible because some attributes may be related to each other. The rating given to any one attribute is partially the result of the influence of other attributes. The statistical algorithm deconstructs the rating (called a raw score) into its various components, and reconstructs the partial scores into underlying factor scores. The degree of correlation between the initial raw score and the final factor score is called a factor loading.
Factor analysis has also been widely used in physical sciences such as geochemistry, hydrochemistry, astrophysics and cosmology, as well as biological sciences, such as ecology, molecular biology and biochemistry.
In groundwater quality management, it is important to relate the spatial distribution of different chemical parameters to different possible sources, which have different chemical signatures. For example, a sulfide mine is likely to be associated with high levels of acidity, dissolved sulfates and transition metals. These signatures can be identified as factors through R - mode factor analysis, and the location of possible sources can be suggested by contouring the factor scores.
In geochemistry, different factors can correspond to different mineral associations, and thus to mineralisation.
Factor analysis can be used for summarizing high - density oligonucleotide DNA microarrays data at probe level for Affymetrix GeneChips. In this case, the latent variable corresponds to the RNA concentration in a sample.
Factor analysis has been implemented in several statistical analysis programs since the 1980s:
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where is the last supper in the bible | Last Supper - wikipedia
The Last Supper is the final meal that, in the Gospel accounts, Jesus shared with his Apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Maundy Thursday. The Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist, also known as "Holy Communion '' or "The Lord 's Supper ''.
The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains the earliest known mention of the Last Supper. The four canonical Gospels all state that the Last Supper took place towards the end of the week, after Jesus ' triumphal entry into Jerusalem and that Jesus and his Apostles shared a meal shortly before Jesus was crucified at the end of that week. During the meal Jesus predicts his betrayal by one of the Apostles present, and foretells that before the next morning, Peter will deny knowing him.
The three Synoptic Gospels and the First Epistle to the Corinthians include the account of the institution of the Eucharist in which Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to the Apostles, saying "This is my body given to you ''. The Gospel of John does not include this episode, but tells of Jesus washing the feet of the Apostles, giving the new commandment "to love one another as I have loved you '', and has a detailed farewell discourse by Jesus, calling the Apostles who follow his teachings "friends and not servants '', as he prepares them for his departure.
Scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharist traditions. Others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st - century eucharistic practice as described by Paul in the mid-50s.
The term "Last Supper '' does not appear in the New Testament, but traditionally many Christians refer to the New Testament accounts of the last meal Jesus shared with his Apostles as the "Last Supper ''.
Many Protestants use the term "Lord 's Supper '', stating that the term "last '' suggests this was one of several meals and not the meal. The term "Lord 's Supper '' refers both to the biblical event and the act of "Holy Communion '' and Eucharistic ("thanksgiving '') celebration within their liturgy. Evangelical Protestants also use the term "Lord 's Supper '', but most do not use the terms "Eucharist '' or the word "Holy '' with the name "Communion ''.
The Eastern Orthodox use the term "Mystical Supper '' which refers both to the biblical event and the act of Eucharistic celebration within liturgy.
The last meal that Jesus shared with his disciples is described in all four canonical Gospels (Mt. 26: 17 -- 30, Mk. 14: 12 -- 26, Lk. 22: 7 -- 39 and Jn. 13: 1 -- 17: 26). This meal later became known as the Last Supper. The Last Supper was likely a retelling of the events of the last meal of Jesus among the early Christian community, and became a ritual which recounted that meal.
Paul 's First Epistle to the Corinthians, which was likely written before the Gospels, includes a reference to the Last Supper but emphasizes the theological basis rather than giving a detailed description of the event or its background.
The overall narrative that is shared in all Gospel accounts that leads to the Last Supper is that after the Triumphal entry into Jerusalem early in the week, and encounters with various people and the Jewish elders, Jesus and his disciples share a meal towards the end of the week. After the meal, Jesus is betrayed, arrested, tried, and then crucified.
Key events in the meal are the preparation of the disciples for the departure of Jesus, the predictions about the impending betrayal of Jesus, and the foretelling of the upcoming denial of Jesus by Apostle Peter.
In Matthew 26: 24 -- 25, Mark 14: 18 -- 21, Luke 22: 21 -- 23 and John 13: 21 -- 30 during the meal, Jesus predicted that one of his Apostles would betray him. Jesus is described as reiterating, despite each apostle 's assertion that he would not betray Jesus, that the betrayer would be one of those who were present, and saying that there would be "woe to the man who betrays the Son of man! It would be better for him if he had not been born. ''
In Matthew 26: 23 -- 25 and John 13: 26 -- 27, Judas is specifically identified as the traitor. In the Gospel of John, when asked about the traitor, Jesus states:
It is the one to whom I will give this piece of bread when I have dipped it in the dish. '' Then, dipping the piece of bread, he gave it to Judas, the son of Simon Iscariot. As soon as Judas took the bread, Satan entered into him.
The three Synoptic Gospel accounts give somewhat different versions of the order of the meal. In chapter 26 of the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus prays thanks for the bread, divides it, and hands the pieces of bread to his disciples, saying "Take, eat, this is my body. '' Later in the meal Jesus takes a cup of wine, offers another prayer, and gives it to those present, saying "Drink from it, all of you; for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins. I tell you, I will never again drink of this fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father 's kingdom. ''
In chapter 22 of the Gospel of Luke, however, the wine is blessed and distributed before the bread, followed by the bread, then by a second, larger cup of wine, as well as somewhat different wordings. Additionally, according to Paul and Luke, he tells the disciples "do this in remembrance of me. '' This event has been regarded by Christians of most denominations as the institution of the Eucharist. There is recorded celebration of the Eucharist by the early Christian community in Jerusalem.
The institution of the Eucharist is recorded in the three Synoptic Gospels and in Paul 's First Epistle to the Corinthians. As noted above, Jesus ' words differ slightly in each account. In addition, Luke 22: 19b -- 20 is a disputed text which does not appear in some of the early manuscripts of Luke. Some scholars, therefore, believe that it is an interpolation, while others have argued that it is original.
A comparison of the accounts given in the Gospels and 1 Corinthians is shown in the table below, with text from the ASV. The disputed text from Luke 22: 19b -- 20 is in italics.
Jesus ' actions in sharing the bread and wine have been linked with Isaiah 53: 12 which refers to a blood sacrifice that, as recounted in Exodus 24: 8, Moses offered in order to seal a covenant with God. Some scholars interpret the description of Jesus ' action as asking his disciples to consider themselves part of a sacrifice, where Jesus is the one due to physically undergo it.
Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread and wine ritual during the Last Supper, most scholars agree that John 6: 58 -- 59 (the Bread of Life Discourse) has a Eucharistic nature and resonates with the "words of institution '' used in the Synoptic Gospels and the Pauline writings on the Last Supper.
In Matthew 26: 33 -- 35, Mark 14: 29 -- 31, Luke 22: 33 -- 34 and John 13: 36 -- 8 Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him, stating that Peter will disown him three times before the rooster crows the next morning. The three Synoptic Gospels mention that after the arrest of Jesus, Peter denied knowing him three times, but after the third denial, heard the rooster crow and recalled the prediction as Jesus turned to look at him. Peter then began to cry bitterly.
In John, Jesus ' last supper is not explicitly referred to as a Passover meal. Furthermore, John 's recounting of events has the crucifixion taking place concurrently with the evening Passover meal. Recent scholarship suggests that John 's chronological peculiarity is a result of his use of a more modern calendar than the one that would have been in use when Jesus was alive years earlier. As a result, the evidence dates the Last Supper to the same evening as the start of Passover, with the crucifixion taking place two days later. John therefore stands alone in its sequencing, which contradicts not only the uniform chronology expressed in the Synoptics but also the recent scholarship, the conclusions of which are supported by historical astronomical data.
John 13 includes the account of the washing the feet of the Apostles by Jesus before the meal. In this episode, Apostle Peter objects and does not want to allow Jesus to wash his feet, but Jesus answers him, "Unless I wash you, you have no part with me '', after which Peter agrees.
In the Gospel of John, after the departure of Judas from the Last Supper, Jesus tells his remaining disciples that he will be with them for only a short time, then gives them a New Commandment, stating: "A new command I give you: Love one another. As I have loved you, so you must love one another. By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you love one another. '' in John 13: 34 -- 35. Two similar statements also appear later in John 15: 12: "My command is this: Love each other as I have loved you '', and John 15: 17: "This is my command: Love each other. ''
At the Last Supper in the Gospel of John, Jesus gives an extended sermon to his disciples. This discourse resembles farewell speeches called testaments, in which a father or religious leader, often on the deathbed, leaves instructions for his children or followers.
This sermon is referred to as the Farewell discourse of Jesus, and has historically been considered a source of Christian doctrine, particularly on the subject of Christology. John 17: 1 -- 26 is generally known as the Farewell Prayer or the High Priestly Prayer, given that it is an intercession for the coming Church. The prayer begins with Jesus ' petition for his glorification by the Father, given that completion of his work and continues to an intercession for the success of the works of his disciples and the community of his followers.
Historians estimate that the date of the crucifixion fell in the range AD 30 -- 36. Physicists such as Isaac Newton and Colin Humphreys have ruled out the years 31, 32, 35, and 36 on astronomical grounds, leaving 7 April AD 30 and 3 April AD 33 as possible crucifixion dates. Humphreys proposes narrowing down the date of the Last Supper as having occurred in the evening of Wednesday, 1 April AD 33, by revising Annie Jaubert 's double - Passover theory. The rationale is as follows.
All Gospels agree that Jesus held a Last Supper with his disciples prior to dying on a Friday at or just before the time of Passover (annually on 15 Nisan, the official Jewish day beginning at sunset) and that his body was left in the tomb for the whole of the next day, which was a Shabbat (Saturday). However, while the Synoptic Gospels present the Last Supper as a Passover meal, the Gospel of John makes no explicit mention that the Last Supper was a Passover meal and presents the official Jewish Passover feast as beginning in the evening a few hours after the death of Jesus. John thus implies that the Friday of the crucifixion was the day of preparation for the feast (14 Nisan), not the feast itself (15 Nisan), and astronomical calculations of ancient Passover dates initiated by Isaac Newton, and posthumously published in 1733, support John 's chronology.
Historically, various attempts to reconcile the three synoptic accounts with John have been made, some of which are indicated in the article on the Last Supper by Francis Mershman in the 1912 Catholic Encyclopedia. The Maundy Thursday church tradition assumes that the Last Supper was held on the evening before the crucifixion day (although, strictly speaking, in no Gospel is it unequivocally said that this meal took place on the night before Jesus died).
A new approach to resolve this contrast was undertaken in the wake of the excavations at Qumran in the 1950s when Annie Jaubert argued that there were two Passover feast dates: while the official Jewish lunar calendar had Passover begin on a Friday evening in the year that Jesus died, a solar calendar was also used, for instance by the Essene community at Qumran, which always had the Passover feast begin on a Tuesday evening. According to Jaubert, Jesus would have celebrated the Passover on Tuesday, and the Jewish authorities three days later, on Friday.
However, Humphreys has calculated that Jaubert 's proposal can not be correct, as the Qumran solar Passover would always fall after the official Jewish lunar Passover. Nevertheless, he agrees with the approach of two Passover dates, and argues that the Last Supper took place on the evening of Wednesday 1 April 33, based on his recent discovery of the Essene, Samaritan, and Zealot lunar calendar, which is based on Egyptian reckoning. Humphreys ' implication is that Jesus and other communities were following the original Hebrew calendar putatively imported from Egypt by Moses (which requires calculating the time of the invisible new moon), rather than the official Jewish calendar which had been adopted more recently, in the 6th century BC during the Babylonian exile (which simply requires observing the visible waxing moon). A Last Supper on Wednesday, he argues, would allow more time than in the traditional view (Last Supper on Thursday) for the various interrogations of Jesus and his presentation to Pilate before he was crucified on Friday. Furthermore, a Wednesday Last Supper, followed by a Thursday daylight Sanhedrin trial, followed by a Friday judicial confirmation and crucifixion would not require violating Jewish court procedure as documented in the 2nd century, which forbade capital trials at night and moreover required a confirmatory session the following day.
In a review of Humphreys ' book, the Bible scholar William R Telford points out that the non-astronomical parts of his argument are based on the assumption that the chronologies described in the New Testament are historical and based on eyewitness testimony. In doing so, Telford says, Humphreys has built an argument upon unsound premises which "does violence to the nature of the biblical texts, whose mixture of fact and fiction, tradition and redaction, history and myth all make the rigid application of the scientific tool of astronomy to their putative data a misconstrued enterprise. ''
According to later tradition, the Last Supper took place in what is today called The Room of the Last Supper on Mount Zion, just outside the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem, and is traditionally known as The Upper Room. This is based on the account in the Synoptic Gospels that states that Jesus had instructed two disciples (Luke 22: 8 specifies that Jesus sent Peter and John) to go to "the city '' to meet "a man carrying a jar of water '', who would lead them to a house, where they would find "a large upper room furnished and ready ''. In this upper room they "prepare the Passover ''.
No more specific indication of the location is given in the New Testament, and the "city '' referred to may be a suburb of Jerusalem, such as Bethany, rather than Jerusalem itself. The traditional location is in an area that, according to archaeology, had a large Essene community, a point made by scholars who suspect a link between Jesus and the group (Kilgallen 265).
Saint Mark 's Syrian Orthodox Church in Jerusalem is another possible site for the room in which the Last Supper was held, and contains a Christian stone inscription testifying to early reverence for that spot. Certainly the room they have is older than that of the current coenaculum (crusader -- 12th century) and as the room is now underground the relative altitude is correct (the streets of 1st century Jerusalem were at least twelve feet (3.7 metres) lower than those of today, so any true building of that time would have even its upper story currently under the earth). They also have a revered Icon of the Virgin Mary, reputedly painted from life by St Luke.
Bargil Pixner claims the original site is located beneath the current structure of the Cenacle on Mount Zion.
St. Thomas Aquinas viewed The Father, Christ, and the Holy Spirit as teachers and masters who provide lessons, at times by example. For Aquinas, the Last Supper and the Cross form the summit of the teaching that wisdom flows from intrinsic grace, rather than external power. For Aquinas, at the Last Supper Christ taught by example, showing the value of humility (as reflected in John 's foot washing narrative) and self - sacrifice, rather than by exhibiting external, miraculous powers.
Aquinas stated that based on John 15: 15 (in the Farewell discourse) in which Jesus said: "No longer do I call you servants;... but I have called you friends ''. Those who are followers of Christ and partake in the Sacrament of the Eucharist become his friends, as those gathered at the table of the Last Supper. For Aquinas, at the Last Supper Christ made the promise to be present in the Sacrament of the Eucharist, and to be with those who partake in it, as he was with his disciples at the Last Supper.
John Calvin believed only in the two sacraments of Baptism and the "Lord 's Supper '' (i.e., Eucharist). Thus, his analysis of the Gospel accounts of the Last Supper were an important part of his entire theology. Calvin related the Synoptic Gospel accounts of the Last Supper with the Bread of Life Discourse in John 6: 35 that states: "I am the bread of life. He who comes to me will never go hungry. ''
Calvin also believed that the acts of Jesus at the Last Supper should be followed as an example, stating that just as Jesus gave thanks to the Father before breaking the bread, those who go to the "Lord 's Table '' to receive the sacrament of the Eucharist must give thanks for the "boundless love of God '' and celebrate the sacrament with both joy and thanksgiving.
The institution of the Eucharist at the Last Supper is remembered by Roman Catholics as one of the Luminous Mysteries of the Rosary, the First Station of a so - called New Way of the Cross and by Christians as the "inauguration of the New Covenant '', mentioned by the prophet Jeremiah, fulfilled at the last supper when Jesus "took bread, and after blessing it broke it and gave it to them, and said, ' Take; this is my body. ' And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks he gave it to them, and they all drank of it. And he said to them, ' This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many. ' '' Other Christian groups consider the Bread and Wine remembrance to be a change to the Passover ceremony, as Jesus Christ has become "our Passover, sacrificed for us '', and hold that partaking of the Passover Communion (or fellowship) is now the sign of the New Covenant, when properly understood by the practicing believer.
These meals evolved into more formal worship services and became codified as the Mass in the Catholic Church, and as the Divine Liturgy in the Eastern Orthodox Church; at these liturgies, Catholics and Eastern Orthodox celebrate the Sacrament of the Eucharist. The name "Eucharist '' is from the Greek word εὐχαριστία (eucharistia) which means "thanksgiving ''.
Early Christianity observed a ritual meal known as the "agape feast '' These "love feasts '' were apparently a full meal, with each participant bringing food, and with the meal eaten in a common room. They were held on Sundays, which became known as the Lord 's Day, to recall the resurrection, the appearance of Christ to the disciples on the road to Emmaus, the appearance to Thomas and the Pentecost which all took place on Sundays after the Passion.
Among Christian denominations, the Eastern Orthodox Church holds that this Eucharistic meal was not the Passover Seder, but a separate meal. The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) documents also specifically reject the Seder arguments and state that given that no Jewish Seder texts exist earlier than the 9th century, it is historically implausible to attempt a reconstruction of the Seder to create a parallel to the Last Supper, and that the Gospel accounts clearly indicate that the purpose of the Last Supper was not the annual repetition of the Exodus.
The fifth chapter in Quran, Al - Ma'ida (the table) contains a reference to a meal (Sura 5: 114) with a table sent down from God to ʿĪsá (i.e., Jesus) and the apostles (Hawariyyin). However, there is nothing in Sura 5: 114 to indicate that Jesus was celebrating that meal regarding his impending death, especially as the Qur'an insists that Jesus was never crucified to begin with. Thus, although Sura 5: 114 refers to "a meal '', there is no indication that it is the Last Supper. However, some scholars believe that Jesus ' manner of speech during which the table was sent down suggests that it was an affirmation of the apostles ' resolves and to strengthen their faiths as the impending trial was about to befall them.
Some Jesus Seminar scholars consider the Lord 's supper to have derived not from Jesus ' last supper with the disciples but rather from the gentile tradition of memorial dinners for the dead. In this view, the Last Supper is a tradition associated mainly with the gentile churches that Paul established, rather than with the earlier, Jewish congregations.
Prominent New Testament Scholar E.P. Sanders states in his book The Historical Figure of Jesus that Jesus having a final meal with his disciples is almost beyond dispute, and belongs to the framework of the narrative of Jesus ' life.
Luke is the only Gospel in which Jesus tells his disciples to repeat the ritual of bread and wine. Bart D. Ehrman states that these particular lines do not appear in certain ancient manuscripts and might not be original to the text. However, it is in the earliest Greek manuscripts, e.g. P75, Sinaticus, Vaticanus and Ephraemi Rescriptus.
However, many early Church Fathers have attested to the belief that at the Last Supper, Christ made the promise to be present in the Sacrament of the Eucharist, with attestations dating back to the first century AD. The teaching was also affirmed by many councils throughout the Church 's history.
The Last Supper has been a popular subject in Christian art. Such depictions date back to early Christianity and can be seen in the Catacombs of Rome. Byzantine artists frequently focused on the Apostles receiving Communion, rather than the reclining figures having a meal. By the Renaissance, the Last Supper was a favorite topic in Italian art.
There are three major themes in the depictions of the Last Supper: the first is the dramatic and dynamic depiction of Jesus ' announcement of his betrayal. The second is the moment of the institution of the tradition of the Eucharist. The depictions here are generally solemn and mystical. The third major theme is the farewell of Jesus to his disciples, in which Judas Iscariot is no longer present, having left the supper. The depictions here are generally melancholy, as Jesus prepares his disciples for his departure. There are also other, less frequently depicted scenes, such as the washing of the feet of the disciples.
Well known examples include Leonardo da Vinci 's depiction, which is considered the first work of High Renaissance art due to its high level of harmony, Tintoretto 's depiction which is unusual in that it includes secondary characters carrying or taking the dishes from the table and Salvadore Dali 's depiction combines the typical Christian themes with modern approaches of Surrealism.
Miniature depiction from circa 1230
Communion of the Apostles, by Fra Angelico, with donor portrait, 1440 -- 41
Domenico Ghirlandaio, 1480, depicting Judas separately
Valentin de Boulogne, 1625 -- 1626
Last Supper, sculpture
Last Supper by Jaume Huguet
Last Supper by Tiepolo
The Last Supper, by Bouveret, 19th century
Last Supper, by Gustave Van de Woestijne, 1927
The Lutheran Passion hymn "Da der Herr Christ zu Tische saß '' (When the Lord Christ sat at the table) derives from a depiction of the Last Supper.
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where does a baker's cyst come from | Baker 's cyst - wikipedia
A Baker 's cyst, also known as a popliteal cyst, is a benign swelling of the semimembranosus or more rarely some other synovial bursa found behind the knee joint. It is named after the surgeon who first described it, William Morrant Baker (1838 -- 1896). It is not a "true '' cyst, as an open communication with the synovial sac is often maintained.
In adults, Baker 's cysts usually arise from almost any form of knee arthritis (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis) or cartilage (particularly a meniscus) tear. Baker 's cysts in children do not point to underlying joint disease. Baker 's cysts arise between the tendons of the medial head of the gastrocnemius and the semimembranosus muscles. They are posterior to the medial femoral condyle.
The synovial sac of the knee joint can, under certain circumstances, produce a posterior bulge, into the popliteal space, the space behind the knee. When this bulge becomes large enough, it becomes palpable and cystic. Most Baker 's cysts maintain this direct communication with the synovial cavity of the knee, but sometimes, the new cyst pinches off. A Baker 's cyst can rupture and produce acute pain behind the knee and in the calf and swelling of the calf muscles.
Diagnosis is by examination. A Baker 's cyst is easier to see from behind with the patient standing with knees fully extended. It is most easily palpated (felt) with the knee partially flexed. Diagnosis is confirmed by ultrasonography, although if needed and there is no suspicion of a popliteal artery aneurysm then aspiration of synovial fluid from the cyst may be undertaken with care. An MRI image can reveal presence of a Baker 's cyst.
An infrequent but potentially life - threatening complication, which may need to be excluded by blood tests and ultrasonography, is a deep vein thrombosis (DVT). Quick assessment of the possibility of DVT may be required where a Baker 's cyst has compressed vascular structures, causing leg edema, as this sets up conditions for a DVT to develop.
A burst cyst commonly causes calf pain, swelling and redness that may mimic thrombophlebitis.
Baker 's cysts usually require no treatment unless they are symptomatic. It is very rare that the symptoms are actually coming from the cyst. In most cases, there is another disorder in the knee (arthritis, meniscal (cartilage) tear, etc.) that is causing the problem. Initial treatment should be directed at correcting the source of the increased fluid production. Often rest and leg elevation are all that is needed. If necessary, the cyst can be aspirated to reduce its size, then injected with a corticosteroid to reduce inflammation. Surgical excision is reserved for cysts that cause a great amount of discomfort to the patient. A ruptured cyst is treated with rest, leg elevation, and injection of a corticosteroid into the knee.
Baker 's cysts in children, unlike in older people, nearly always disappear with time, and rarely require excision.
Ice pack therapy may sometimes be an effective way of controlling the pain related to Baker 's cyst. Heat is also commonly used. A knee brace can offer support giving the feel of stability in the joint.
Rest and specific exercise Many activities can put strain on the knee, and cause pain in the case of Baker 's cyst. Avoiding activities such as squatting, kneeling, heavy lifting, climbing, and even running can help prevent pain. Despite this, some exercises can help relieve pain, and a physiotherapist may instruct on stretching and strengthening the quadriceps and / or the patellar ligament.
Baker 's cyst (popliteal cyst) is located behind the knee and is a swelling of the popliteal bursa. In this image, the Baker 's cyst is the yellowish bulbous tissue which was identified during routine dissection.
Baker 's cyst on axial MRI with communicating channel between the semimebranosus muscle and the medial head of the gastrocnemius muscle.
Baker 's cyst on MRI, sagittal image
Baker 's cyst on MRI, sagittal image
Notes
Bibliography
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who do the whisker haven pets belong to | Whisker Haven - Wikipedia
Whisker Haven Tales with the Palace Pets (also abbreviated as Whisker Haven Tales or simply Whisker Haven) is an American animated short series animated and produced by Ghostbot Studios and Disney Publishing, created and developed by Thomas the Tank Engine creator Britt Allcroft. It is based on Disney 's Palace Pets toyline, which in turn, is a spinoff of the Disney Princess Franchise. The series is directed by Alan Lau and written by Shea Fontana. The series launched on the Disney Junior Watch App and then aired on Disney Junior. The animated shorts are now available through the accompanying app, "Palace Pets in Whisker Haven '' which also includes activities and games featuring the Palace Pets.
Whisker Haven Tales with the Palace Pets is a series starring a core group of six palace pets: Treasure, Pumpkin, Petite, Sultan, Dreamy and Berry along with the caretaker fairy hummingbird Ms. Featherbon. These Palace Pets enter magical portals from their respective Princess Kingdoms and travel to the animal kingdom of Whisker Haven. In this new magical world, the Palace Pets go on fun - filled adventures and learn to value friendship, kindness and loyalty. From putting on a dance show to throwing the biggest ball, there 's no task too big, too small, or too glamorous for the Palace Pets.
Love in Your Life: (Valentine 's Day Special)
Bee Cool: Summer and Blossom are introduced. Treasure 's nose gets stung by a bee.
No Service: Macaron and Rouge are trying to find a way to put up a tent.
Pawcation: The Palace Pets leave Whisker Haven and Meet 3 New Palace Pets named Otto, Chipper, and Alora.
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who wrote on the sunny side of the street | On the Sunny Side of the Street - wikipedia
"On the Sunny Side of the Street '' is a 1930 song, with credited music composed by Jimmy McHugh and lyrics by Dorothy Fields. Some authors say that Fats Waller was actually the composer, but he sold the rights for the money. It was introduced in the Broadway musical Lew Leslie 's International Revue, starring Harry Richman and Gertrude Lawrence.
Richman and Ted Lewis enjoyed hit records with the song in 1930.
Having become a jazz standard, it was played by such greats as Louis Armstrong, Dave Brubeck, Earl Hines, Benny Goodman, Lionel Hampton, Erroll Garner, Dizzy Gillespie, Art Tatum, James Booker, Count Basie and Lester Young. The Louis Armstrong version was recorded in the key of C major, but it has been recorded in a range of keys; Ted Lewis recorded it in D major and Ella Fitzgerald in G major etc.
Cover versions date as far back as 1930, when Layton & Johnstone released the song on Columbia (UK) DB 254. The song also was recorded by other leading vocalists, including Billie Holiday, Bing Crosby (recorded January 21, 1946 with Lionel Hampton), Dinah Washington, Ella Fitzgerald, Judy Garland, Doris Day, Frankie Laine, Keely Smith, Nat King Cole, Jo Stafford with The Pied Pipers (a No. 17 hit in 1945), Frank Sinatra, and Willie Nelson. Arguably the best known arrangement is found in the 1945 record by Tommy Dorsey and the Sentimentalists which also achieved chart success in 1945 reaching the No. 16 spot.
It continues to be recorded in the 21st century, showing up not just on recordings but on movie soundtracks and on Broadway, such as in 2013 -- 14 's musical revue After Midnight.
Sung by John Mahoney and Wendy Malick as part of a dream sequence in season 11, episode 14 entitled ' Freudian Sleep '.
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where was ripley's believe it or not filmed | Ripley 's Believe It or Not! (TV series) - wikipedia
Ripley 's Believe It or Not! is the name of several documentary television series based on the newspaper feature. The first series aired on NBC from 1949 to 1950, and was hosted by Robert L. Ripley until his death, after which several substitute hosts filled in. The series was revived for ABC in the 1980s, and was hosted primarily by Jack Palance. Another revival debuted on TBS in 2000, and aired until 2003, with Dean Cain as host. A Filipino version, hosted by Chris Tiu, debuted in 2008. An animated series based on the Ripley 's franchise was also created.
The first Believe It or Not! TV series, a live show hosted by Robert L. Ripley, premiered on NBC television on March 1, 1949. Shortly after the 13th episode, on May 27, 1949, Ripley died of a heart attack and several of his friends substituted as host, including future Ripley 's Believe It or Not! president Doug Storer. Robert St. John served as host from the second season until the series ended on October 5, 1950.
In 1956, ABC Films Syndication had John Gibbs and Meridian Pictures prepare a Ripley 's Believe It or Not! television pilot.
Ripley 's Believe It or Not! later returned to television in a second series from 1982 to 1986, on the American ABC network. Actor Jack Palance hosted the popular series throughout its run, while three different co-hosts appeared from season to season, including Palance 's daughter, Holly Palance, actress Catherine Shirriff, and singer Marie Osmond. The 1980s series reran on the Sci - fi Channel (UK) and Sci - fi Channel (US) during the 1990s.
In December 1995, development was underway by Cinar for an animated series based on Ripley 's Believe It or Not!. The 26 - episode series, titled Ripley 's Believe It or Not!, was co-produced by French production company Alphanim, which was founded in 1997. The series premiered on Fox Family Channel on July 14, 1999, and was about three young people who discover unexplained mysteries and unusual items.
In March 1994, a pilot for The New Ripley 's Believe It or Not had been ordered for ABC.
In December 1998, TBS Superstation outbid two broadcast network competitors to purchase the rights from Columbia TriStar Television Distribution for 22 hour - long episodes of The New Ripley 's Believe It or Not, to premiere on TBS in January 2000. The series would air weekly, and would be an update of the earlier program that aired from 1982 to 1986. The new series was to involve correspondents being sent around the world to report on amazing and unusual subjects. TBS had an option to purchase additional seasons, and had won the rights because it agreed to a full season without seeing a pilot. In June 1999, Erik Nelson was signed on to serve as executive producer for the series. In December 1999, Dean Cain was hired to host the new series. Cain also served as a producer on the show, alongside Dan Jbara.
The new series, simply titled Ripley 's Believe It or Not!, premiered on TBS on January 12, 2000. The series was primarily shot at a 15,000 square - foot Ripley 's warehouse in Sylmar, Los Angeles. Most episodes open with an act that is performed in front of a live audience, while the rest of the episode involves Cain introducing various segments, each one for a different subject. Gregory Jbara served as one of the narrators for the different segments. Kelly Packard became a field correspondent in 2002, and would host coverage of events in which people demonstrate their unusual abilities, usually in front of an audience. The show also features such regular elements as "Spot the Not, '' a weekly trivia segment in which viewers are challenged to pick the claim that is not real and a special "Ripley 's Record '' commemoration for people who break a world record while appearing on the show. Reruns of the series began airing on The WB in September 2001, and were expected to continue until December 2001.
In early 2003, Sony Pictures Television ordered an 11 - episode fourth season. In March 2003, 11 additional episodes were ordered for the fourth season, which aired on Wednesday evenings at 9: 00 p.m. For its timeslot, the series was the top - rated program among its target audience of people between the ages of 18 - 34, 18 - 49 and 25 - 54. In September 2003, Sony Pictures announced a trimmed half - hour version of the existing show that would start airing in reruns on local television channels across the United States.
Reruns later began airing on Canada 's Space Channel as of 2012. As of 2017, hour - long reruns air on Chiller.
In 2008, a new version of the series, hosted by Chris Tiu, began airing on GMA Network, a Filipino television channel.
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who played walt in the world according to garp | The World According to Garp (film) - wikipedia
The World According to Garp is a 1982 American comedy - drama film produced and directed by George Roy Hill, written by Steve Tesich, and starring Robin Williams in the title role. It is based on the novel The World According to Garp by John Irving. For their roles, John Lithgow and Glenn Close were respectively nominated for Best Actor in a Supporting Role and Best Actress in a Supporting Role at the 55th Academy Awards.
The movie adaptation was filmed mostly in the Leewood Estates neighborhood of Eastchester, New York in the spring and summer of 1981. Many scenes were filmed at the town 's high school, as well as Rutgers University.
T.S. Garp is the illegitimate son of a feminist mother, Jenny Fields, who wanted a child but not a husband. A nurse during World War II, she encounters a dying ball turret gunner known only as Technical Sergeant Garp (that being the only sound he is able to utter) who was severely brain damaged in combat. Unconstrained by convention and driven by her desire for a child, Jenny is able to rape Garp due to his priapism, thus impregnating herself. She names the resultant child after Garp and raises him on her own.
Garp grows up, becoming interested in wrestling and fiction writing, topics his mother has little interest in. Garp 's writing piques the interest of the daughter of the school 's wrestling coach, Helen Holm. She is wary of him. Jenny also observes Garp 's interest in this regard and is intellectually curious about it, having little more than clinical interest in sex herself. She offers to procure a prostitute for Garp, and - after engaging the two of them in conversation on the subject - decides to write a book on her observations of lust and human sexuality.
Her book is a partial autobiography called Sexual Suspect, and is an overnight sensation. Jenny becomes a feminist icon. She uses the proceeds from the book to found a center at her home for troubled and abused women and transsexuals. Meanwhile, Garp 's first novel is published, which impresses Helen. The two marry and eventually have two children, Duncan and Walt. Garp becomes a devoted parent and successful fiction writer, while Helen becomes a college professor.
Having learned about his wife 's infidelity with one of her students, Garp gets into a car accident while his children are riding in the back seat. He crashes into his wife 's lover 's car, parked in their driveway, while his wife is in the car performing fellatio. As a result, Walt is killed and Duncan suffers an eye injury. Garp, through the aid of his mother, learns to forgive himself and his wife for their fidelity problems. The couple reconcile, and they have a baby daughter named Jenny.
Garp spends time visiting his mother and the people who live at her center, including transsexual ex-football player Roberta Muldoon. He also first hears the story of Ellen James, a girl who was gang raped and then had her tongue cut out so that she could not identify her attackers. Some of the women at Jenny 's center are "Ellen Jamesians '', women who voluntarily cut out their own tongues as a show of solidarity. Garp is horrified by the practice and learns that the Jamesians have received a letter from Ellen James begging them to stop the practice, but that they have voted to refuse.
Jenny receives credible death threats, because of both her center and her book. To Garp 's dismay, she is dismissive of physical danger, and in fact, decides to endorse a politician who supports her message. Garp writes a book about the life of Ellen James. The book is very successful and well - regarded, but is highly critical of the Jamesians. Garp begins receiving death threats of his own from them.
During a political rally, Jenny is shot and killed by an anti-feminist fanatic. The women of Jenny 's center hold a memorial for her, but forbid all men from attending. Garp, dressed as a woman, is secreted into the memorial by Muldoon. He is identified by Pooh, a Jamesian he had known when they both were in school. A commotion breaks out, and Garp is in danger of being hurt, until a woman leads him out of the memorial, away from danger, and to a taxi. The woman is Ellen James, who thanks Garp for his book about her. The Jamesians are further outraged that Garp attended the memorial.
Garp returns to his old school as the wrestling coach. One day during practice, Pooh enters the gymnasium and shoots him at close range with a pistol. Garp is airlifted away from the school by helicopter with his wife. He flashes back to an earlier time when his mother would toss him into the air.
The World According to Garp was generally well received by critics. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 79 % based on reviews from 14 critics.
Film critic Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three stars out of four, by which he was "entertained but unmoved, '' three stars as a "palatable '' interpretation of the novel, considering it "wonderfully well - written '' yet "cruel, annoying and smug, '' and wrote:
I thought the acting was unconventional and absorbing (especially by Williams, by Glenn Close as his mother, and by John Lithgow as a transsexual). I thought the visualization of the events, by director George Roy Hill, was fresh and consistently interesting. But when the movie was over, my immediate response was not at all what it should have been. All I could find to ask myself was: What the hell was that all about?
Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that "the movie is a very fair rendering of Mr. Irving 's novel, with similar strengths and weaknesses. If the novel was picaresque and precious, so is the film - although the absence of the book 's self - congratulatory streak helps the movie achieve a much lighter, more easy - going style. ''
Film critic Pauline Kael wrote, "There 's no feeling of truth in either the book or the movie, '' and that this "generally faithful adaptation, seems no more (and no less) than a castration fantasy. ''
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what does it mean when you have two different coloured eyes | Heterochromia iridum - wikipedia
Heterochromia is a difference in coloration, usually of the iris but also of hair or skin. Heterochromia is determined by the production, delivery, and concentration of melanin (a pigment). It may be inherited, or caused by genetic mosaicism, chimerism, disease, or injury. It occurs in humans and certain breeds of dogs and cats.
Heterochromia of the eye (heterochromia iridum or heterochromia iridis) is of three kinds. In complete heterochromia, one iris is a different color from the other. In segmental heterochromia or sectoral heterochromia, part of one iris is a different color from its remainder and finally in central heterochromia there are spikes of different colors radiating from the pupil.
Though multiple causes have been posited, the scientific consensus is that a lack of genetic diversity is the primary reason behind heterochromia. This is due to a mutation of the genes that determine melanin distribution at the 8 - HTP pathway, which usually only become corrupted due to chromosomal homogeneity.
Eye color, specifically the color of the irises, is determined primarily by the concentration and distribution of melanin. The affected eye may be hyperpigmented (hyperchromic) or hypopigmented (hypochromic). In humans, an increase of melanin production in the eyes indicates hyperplasia of the iris tissues, whereas a lack of melanin indicates hypoplasia. The term is from ancient Greek: ἕτερος, héteros meaning different and χρώμα, chróma meaning color.
Heterochromia is classified primarily by onset: as either genetic or acquired. Although a distinction is frequently made between heterochromia that affects an eye completely or only partially (segmental heterochromia), it is often classified as either genetic (due to mosaicism or congenital) or acquired, with mention as to whether the affected iris or portion of the iris is darker or lighter. Most cases of heterochromia are hereditary, caused by certain diseases and syndromes. Sometimes one eye may change color following disease or injury.
In segmental heterochromia, sometimes referred to as sectoral heterochromia, areas of the same iris contains two completely different colors.
Segmental heterochromia is rare in humans; it is estimated that only about 1 % of the population have it.
Acquired heterochromia is usually due to injury, inflammation, the use of certain eyedrops that damages the iris, or tumors.
Heterochromia has also been observed in those with Duane syndrome.
Central heterochromia is an eye condition where there are two colors in the same iris; the central (pupillary) zone of the iris is a different color than the mid-peripheral (ciliary) zone, with the true iris color being the outer color. (requires reference)
Eye color is determined primarily by the concentration and distribution of melanin within the iris tissues. Although the processes determining eye color are not fully understood, it is known that inherited eye color is determined by multiple genes. Environmental or acquired factors can alter these inherited traits.
The human iris can be seen in a number of various colors. There are three true colors in human eyes that determine the outward appearance: brown, yellow, and grey. The amount of each color an individual has determines the appearance of the eye color.
Eyes displaying central heterochromia are often referred to as "cat eyes '' because of their multi-colored iris. Central heterochromia appears to be prevalent in irises containing low amounts of melanin.
A famous case of a person with central heterochromia was Baroness Rózsika Edle von Wertheimstein, whose daughter wrote: "She was a very beautiful woman... She had dark, dark brown eyes, but each eye had a purple ring to it, about a quarter of an inch of purple around these dark brown eyes. ''
Although infrequently seen in humans, complete heterochromia is more frequently observed in other species, where it almost always involves one blue eye. The blue eye occurs within a white spot, where melanin is absent from the skin and hair (see Leucism). These species include the cat, particularly breeds such as Turkish Van, Turkish Angora, Khao Manee and (rarely) Japanese Bobtail. These so - called odd - eyed cats are white, or mostly white, with one normal eye (copper, orange, yellow, green), and one blue eye. Among dogs, complete heterochromia is seen often in the Siberian Husky and few other breeds, usually Australian Shepherd and Catahoula Leopard Dog and rarely in Shih Tzu. Horses with complete heterochromia have one brown and one white, gray, or blue eye -- complete heterochromia is more common in horses with pinto coloring. Complete heterochromia occurs also in cattle and even water buffalo. It can also be seen in ferrets with Waardenburg syndrome, although it can be very hard to tell at times as the eye color is often a midnight blue.
Sectoral heterochromia, usually sectoral hypochromia, is often seen in dogs, specifically in breeds with merle coats. These breeds include the Australian Shepherd, Border Collie, Collie, Shetland Sheepdog, Welsh Corgi, Pyrenean Shepherd, Mudi, Beauceron, Catahoula Cur, Dunker, Great Dane, Dachshund and Chihuahua. It also occurs in certain breeds that do not carry the merle trait, such as the Siberian Husky and rarely, Shih Tzu. There are example of cat breeds that have the condition such as Van cat.
Actress Alice Eve has complete heterochromia: her left eye is blue and right eye is green.
Actor Dominic Sherwood has sectoral heterochromia.
Heterochromia in a child.
Complete heterochromia in a teenager who also has anisocoria.
Example of central heterochromia showing an orange to blue iris.
Example of central heterochromia in green eye with speckled brown pigment.
A young adult exhibiting sectoral heterochromia in the form of an orange segment in her right, blue eye. The individual 's mother exhibited a similar orange segment in her left eye, although her iris color was green.
Norwegian forest cat with heterochromia. One blue, and one green. The blue one has sectoral heterochromia, as there is a bit of green in the top of the iris.
A cat with complete heterochromia.
This cat 's yellow eye has what looks like central heterochromia, as the outside of the eye is yellow, and the iris is green.
Complete heterochromia in a Siberian Husky: one eye blue, one eye brown.
Sectoral hypochromia in a blue merle Border Collie.
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when is the public holiday for queens birthday | Queen 's official birthday - wikipedia
The Queen 's Official Birthday, or the King 's Official Birthday, is the selected day in some Commonwealth realms on which the birthday of the monarch (currently Elizabeth II) is officially celebrated in those countries.
The sovereign 's birthday was first officially marked in the United Kingdom in 1748, for King George II. Since then, the date of the king or queen 's birthday has been determined throughout the British Empire, and later the Commonwealth of Nations, either by royal proclamations issued by the sovereign or governor or by statute laws passed by the local parliament. The date of the celebration today varies as adopted by each country and is generally set around the end of May or start of June, to coincide with a higher probability of fine weather in the Northern Hemisphere for outdoor ceremonies, rather than with the monarch 's actual birthday, that of the present monarch being 21 April. In some cases, it is an official public holiday, sometimes aligning with the celebration of other events. Most Commonwealth realms release a Queen 's Birthday Honours list at this time.
Australian states and territories observe the Queen 's Birthday on the second Monday in June, except in Western Australia and Queensland. As Western Australia celebrates Western Australia Day (formerly known as Foundation Day) on the first Monday in June, the Governor of Western Australia each year proclaims the day on which the state will observe the Queen 's Birthday, based on school terms and the Perth Royal Show. There is no firm rule to determine this date, though it is usually the last Monday of September or the first Monday of October. In 2012, Queensland celebrated the holiday in October, as the June holiday was reserved to mark Elizabeth II 's Diamond Jubilee as Queen of Australia, after which the holiday has reverted to its traditional date in line with the other eastern Australian states. Starting in 2016, Queensland celebrates the holiday on the first Monday of October, so that a long weekend coincides with the AFL and NRL grand finals.
The day has been celebrated since 1788, when Governor Arthur Phillip declared a holiday to mark the birthday of the King of Great Britain. Until 1936, it was held on the actual birthday of the monarch, but, after King George V died, it was decided to keep the date on the second Monday in June. This has more evenly spaced out public holidays throughout the year. While George V 's successor, Edward VIII, also celebrated his birthday in June, the two sovereigns since have not: George VI 's birthday was in December, very close to public holidays for Christmas, Boxing Day, and New Years, while Elizabeth II 's birthday falls shortly after holidays for Good Friday and Easter and very close to ANZAC Day.
The Queen 's Birthday weekend and Empire Day (24 May) were the traditional times for public fireworks displays in Australia. The sale of fireworks to the public was banned in various states through the 1980s and by the Australian Capital Territory on 24 August 2009. Tasmania is the only state and the Northern Territory the only territory to still sell fireworks to the public. The Queen 's Birthday Honours List, in which new members of the Order of Australia and other Australian honours are named, is released on the date of the Queen 's Birthday in most states.
A royal proclamation issued on 5 February 1957 established the Canadian monarch 's official birthday as the last Monday before 25 May. The sovereign 's birthday had been observed in Canada since 1845, when the parliament of the Province of Canada passed a statute to officially recognize Queen Victoria 's birthday, 24 May. Over the ensuing decades after Queen Victoria died in 1901 (at which time the Monday before 25 May became known by law as Victoria Day), the official date in Canada of the reigning monarch 's birthday changed through various royal proclamations: for Edward VII it continued by yearly proclamation to be observed on 24 May, but was 3 June for George V and 23 June for Edward VIII (their actual birthdays).
Edward VIII abdicated on 11 December 1936, three days before the birthday of his brother and successor, George VI. The new King expressed to his ministers his wish that his birthday not be publicly celebrated, in light of the recent circumstances. But, the Prime Minister at the time, William Lyon Mackenzie King, the rest of Cabinet, and Governor General the Lord Tweedsmuir felt otherwise, seeing such a celebration as a way to begin the reign on a positive note. George VI 's official birthday in Canada was thereafter marked on various days between 20 May and 14 June.
The first official birthday of Elizabeth II, daughter of George VI, was the last to be celebrated in June; the haphazard format was abandoned in 1952, when the Governor - General - in - Council moved Empire Day and an amendment to the law moved Victoria Day both to the Monday before 25 May, and the monarch 's official birthday in Canada was by regular viceregal proclamations made to fall on this same date every year between 1953 and 1957, when the link was made permanent. The two holidays are in law entirely distinct except for being appointed to be observed on the same day; it is a general holiday in Nunavut and New Brunswick (there prescribed as a day of rest on which retail businesses must be closed). The Queen 's official birthday is marked by the firing of an artillery salute in the national and provincial capitals and the flying of the Royal Union Flag on buildings belonging to the federal Crown, if there is a second flag pole available.
The Canadian monarch has been in Canada for his or her official birthday twice. The first time was 20 May 1939, when King George VI was on a coast - to - coast tour of Canada and his official birthday was celebrated with a Trooping the Colour ceremony on Parliament Hill. The second time was when Queen Elizabeth II was in Canada from 17 -- 25 May 2005, to mark the centennial of the entries of Saskatchewan and Alberta into Confederation; no government - initiated events, aside from those dictated by normal protocol, were organized to acknowledge the official birthday. Prince Charles, heir apparent to the throne, and his wife, Camilla, in 2012 attended events in Saint John, New Brunswick, and Toronto, Ontario, marking the Queen 's official birthday. In 2014, the couple attended a ceremony in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island.
Despite Fiji abolishing the monarchy in 1987, following a second military coup d'état, the Queen 's Birthday continued to be celebrated each 12 June until 2012. That year, the military government of Commodore Frank Bainimarama announced the holiday would be abolished.
In New Zealand, the holiday is the first Monday in June. Celebrations are mainly official, including the Queen 's Birthday Honours list and military ceremonies. There have been proposals, with some political support, to replace the holiday with Matariki (Māori New Year) as an official holiday. The idea of renaming the Queen 's Birthday weekend to Hillary weekend, after mountaineer Sir Edmund Hillary, was raised in 2009.
The monarch 's birthday has been celebrated in the United Kingdom since 1748, during the reign of King George II. The Queen 's Official Birthday was originally celebrated on the second Thursday of June, the same day that her father, King George VI, celebrated his Official Birthday during his reign. However, this was changed in 1959, seven years after she became Queen, and her Official Birthday has since then been celebrated on the second Saturday of June. Edward VII, who reigned from 1901 to 1910 and whose birthday was on 9 November, after 1908 moved the ceremony to summer in the hope of good weather.
The day is marked in London by the ceremony of Trooping the Colour, which is also known as the Queen 's Birthday Parade. The list of Birthday Honours is also announced at the time of the Official Birthday celebrations. In British diplomatic missions, the day is treated as the National Day of the United Kingdom. Although it is not celebrated as a specific public holiday in the UK, some civil servants are given a "privilege day '' at this time of year, which is often merged with the Spring Bank Holiday (last Monday in May) to create a long weekend, which was partly created to celebrate the monarch 's birthday.
Parts of Scotland also mark Queen Victoria 's birthday on the third Monday in May. Local government and higher education institutions typically close on this day.
Cook Islands, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands celebrate the Queen 's Official Birthday on the second Monday of June. Tuvalu does so on the second Saturday of June. In Saint Kitts and Nevis, the date of the holiday is set each year.
The Queen 's official birthday is a public holiday in Gibraltar and most other British overseas territories. In 2008, the government of Bermuda decided the day would be, beginning the following year, replaced by National Heroes ' Day, despite protests from people on the island, who signed a petition calling for retention of Queen 's Brithday. The Falkland Islands celebrate the actual day of the Queen 's birth, as June occurs in late autumn or winter there. It is a public holiday in Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha, where it falls on the third Monday in April. Norfolk Island, Australia 's external territory, celebrates the Queen 's birthday on the Monday after the second Saturday in June.
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who has made the most points in nba history | List of career achievements by Michael Jordan - wikipedia
This page details statistics, records, and other achievements pertaining to Michael Jordan.
Source: basketball-reference.com and nba.com
Total games: 1,264 (1,072 regular season, 179 postseason, 13 All - Star)
Seasons leading the league in scoring: 10 (1986 -- 87 -- 1992 -- 93, 1995 -- 96 -- 1997 -- 98)
Consecutive seasons leading the league in scoring: 7 (1986 -- 87 -- 1992 -- 93)
Seasons leading the league in total points: 11 (1984 -- 85, 1986 -- 87 -- 1992 -- 93, 1995 -- 96 -- 1997 -- 98)
Highest scoring average, points per game, career: 30.12 (32,292 / 1,072)
Seasons averaging 30 or more points per game: 8 (1986 -- 87 -- 1992 -- 93, 1995 -- 96)
Games scoring 30 or more points, career: 562
Games scoring 20 or more points, career: 926
Consecutive games scoring 10 or more points: 866, 000000001986 - 03 - 25 - 0000 March 25, 1986 to 000000002001 - 12 - 26 - 0000 December 26, 2001
Consecutive points scored in a game: 23, vs. Atlanta Hawks, April 16, 1987
Seasons scoring 2,000 or more points: 11 (1984 -- 85, 1986 -- 87 -- 1992 -- 93, 1995 -- 96 -- 1997 -- 98)
Oldest player in NBA history to lead the league in scoring: 7004128450000000000 ♠ 35 years, 61 days (1997 -- 98)
Oldest player in NBA history to score 50 points in a game: 7004141950000000000 ♠ 38 years, 315 days (51 points, vs. New Orleans Hornets, 000000002001 - 12 - 29 - 0000 December 29, 2001)
Oldest player in NBA history to score 40 points in a game: 7004146140000000000 ♠ 40 years, 4 days (43 points, vs. New Jersey Nets, 000000002003 - 02 - 21 - 0000 February 21, 2003)
Fewest games played to reach 31,000 points: 1,011 games, achieved vs. Portland Trail Blazers, December 10, 2002
Fewest games played to reach 32,000 points: 1,059 games, achieved at Golden State Warriors, March 23, 2003
Outscoring the opposing starting five: Jordan outscored the entire opposing starting five 58 -- 54, Chicago Bulls vs. New Jersey Nets, February 26, 1987
Seasons leading the league in field goals made: 10 (1986 -- 87 -- 1992 -- 93, 1995 -- 96 -- 1997 -- 98)
Consecutive seasons leading the league in field goals made: 7 (1986 -- 87 -- 1992 -- 93)
Seasons leading the league in field goal attempts: 9 (1986 -- 87 -- 1987 -- 88, 1989 -- 90 -- 1992 -- 93, 1995 -- 96 -- 1997 -- 98)
Free throws made, half: 20, second half, at Miami Heat, 000000001992 - 12 - 30 - 0000 December 30, 1992 (since tied by Devin Booker)
Free throws made, quarter: 14, twice
Free throw attempts, half: 23, second half, at Miami Heat, 000000001992 - 12 - 30 - 0000 December 30, 1992
Free throw attempts, quarter: 16, fourth quarter, at Miami Heat, 000000001992 - 12 - 30 - 0000 December 30, 1992
Consecutive free throws made in a game: 19, vs. New Jersey Nets, 000000001987 - 02 - 26 - 0000 February 26, 1987
Seasons leading the league in steals: 3 (1987 -- 88, 1989 -- 90, 1992 -- 93)
Steals, half: 8, first half, at Boston Celtics, 000000001988 - 11 - 09 - 0000 November 9, 1988
Games with 8 or more steals, career: 11
Personal fouls, quarter: 6, fourth quarter, vs. Detroit Pistons, 000000001989 - 01 - 31 - 0000 January 31, 1989
Points, career: 5,987
Highest scoring average, points per game, career: 33.4 (5,987 / 179)
Games scoring 50 or more points, career: 8
Consecutive games scoring 50 or more points: 2, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, 000000001988 - 04 - 28 - 0000 April 28, 1988 to 000000001988 - 05 - 01 - 0000 May 1, 1988
Games scoring 40 or more points, career: 38
Games scoring 30 or more points, career: 109
Games scoring 20 or more points, career: 173
Consecutive games scoring 20 or more points: 60, 000000001989 - 06 - 02 - 0000 June 2, 1989 to 000000001993 - 05 - 11 - 0000 May 11, 1993
Consecutive games scoring 10 or more points: 179, 000000001985 - 04 - 19 - 0000 April 19, 1985 to 000000001998 - 06 - 14 - 0000 June 14, 1998
Consecutive points scored in a game: 17, during second half (from 73 to 90 points), at New York Knicks, 000000001993 - 06 - 02 - 0000 June 2, 1993
Points, one postseason: 759 (1992)
Scoring 35 or more points in all games, any playoff series: Twice 5 games, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, 1988 First Round 5 games, vs. Philadelphia 76ers, 1990 Conference Semifinals
Scoring 30 or more points in all games, any playoff series: Seven times 3 games, vs. Boston Celtics, 1987 First Round 5 games, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, 1988 First Round 5 games, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, 1989 First Round 5 games, vs. Philadelphia 76ers, 1990 Conference Semifinals 3 games, vs. Miami Heat, 1992 First Round 6 games, vs. Phoenix Suns, 1993 NBA Finals 3 games, vs. New Jersey Nets, 1998 First Round
Points, 3 - game series: 135, vs. Miami Heat, 1992 First Round (45.0 ppg)
Points, 5 - game series: 226, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, 1988 First Round (45.2 ppg)
Points, game: 63, at Boston Celtics, 000000001986 - 04 - 20 - 0000 April 20, 1986 (2 OT)
Points, two consecutive games: 112, at Boston Celtics, 1986 Eastern Conference First Round, April 17 (49), 20 (63), 1986 (56.0 ppg)
Outscoring the opposing team in a quarter: Jordan outscored the entire opposing team 20 -- 19 in the second quarter of Game 1 of the 1988 Eastern Conference First Round, Chicago Bulls vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, April 28, 1988
Most points in three quarters: Jordan scored 54 points in three quarters (17 points in the second, 19 in the third and 18 in the fourth) in Game 3 of the 1992 Eastern Conference First Round, Chicago Bulls at Miami Heat, April 29, 1992
Most points without making the NBA Finals, one postseason: 591, 1989, and 587, 1990
NBA record 5 playoff series averaging at least 40 points per game
Field goals made, 3 - game series: 53, vs. Miami Heat, 1992 First Round
Field goals made, 5 - game series: 86, vs. Philadelphia 76ers, 1990 Conference Semifinals
Field goals made, 6 - game series: 101, vs. Phoenix Suns, 1993 NBA Finals
Field goals made, game: 24, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, 000000001988 - 05 - 01 - 0000 May 1, 1988
Consecutive field goals made in a game without a miss: 13, vs. Los Angeles Lakers, 000000001991 - 06 - 05 - 0000 June 5, 1991
Field goal attempts, career: 4,497
Field goal attempts, half: 25, first half, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, 000000001988 - 05 - 01 - 0000 May 1, 1988
Three - point field goals made, half: 6, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, 000000001992 - 06 - 03 - 0000 June 3, 1992
Three - point field goal attempts, half: 9, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, 000000001992 - 06 - 03 - 0000 June 3, 1992
Free throws made, career: 1,463
Free throws made, one postseason: 183 (1989)
Free throws made, game (regulation): 23, vs. New York Knicks, 000000001989 - 05 - 14 - 0000 May 14, 1989
Free throws made, half: 14, second half, vs. Detroit Pistons, 000000001990 - 05 - 28 - 0000 May 28, 1990
Free throws made, quarter: 13, fourth quarter, vs. Detroit Pistons, 000000001991 - 05 - 21 - 0000 May 21, 1991
Free throw attempts, career: 1,766
Free throw attempts, one postseason: 229 (1989)
Free throw attempts, 4 - game series: 58, vs. Milwaukee Bucks, 1985 First Round
Free throw attempts, game (regulation): 28, vs. New York Knicks, 000000001989 - 05 - 14 - 0000 May 14, 1989
Free throw attempts, half: 17, second half, vs. New York Knicks, 000000001989 - 05 - 14 - 0000 May 14, 1989
Free throw attempts, quarter: 14, fourth quarter, vs. Detroit Pistons, 000000001991 - 05 - 21 - 0000 May 21, 1991
Steals, career: 376
Highest scoring average, points per game, any championship series: 41.0 (246 / 6), vs. Phoenix Suns, 1993 NBA Finals
Points, 6 - game series: 246, vs. Phoenix Suns, 1993 NBA Finals (41.0 ppg)
Consecutive games scoring 40 or more points: 4, vs. Phoenix Suns, 000000001993 - 06 - 11 - 0000 June 11, 1993 to 000000001993 - 06 - 18 - 0000 June 18, 1993
Consecutive games scoring 20 or more points: 35, 000000001991 - 06 - 02 - 0000 June 2, 1991 to 000000001998 - 06 - 14 - 0000 June 14, 1998
Scoring 30 or more points in all games, any championship series: 6 games, vs. Phoenix Suns, 1993 NBA Finals
Points, half: 35, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, 000000001992 - 06 - 03 - 0000 June 3, 1992
Field goals made, 6 - game series: 101, vs. Phoenix Suns, 1993 NBA Finals
Field goals made, half: 14, twice 14, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, 000000001992 - 06 - 03 - 0000 June 3, 1992 14, first half, vs. Phoenix Suns, 000000001993 - 06 - 16 - 0000 June 16, 1993
Consecutive field goals made in a game without a miss: 13, vs. Los Angeles Lakers, 000000001991 - 06 - 05 - 0000 June 5, 1991
Field goals made, 5 - game series: 63, vs. Los Angeles Lakers, 1991 NBA Finals
Field goal attempts, 6 - game series: 199, vs. Phoenix Suns, 1993 NBA Finals
Three - point field goals made, career: 42
Three - point field goals made, game: 6, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, 000000001992 - 06 - 03 - 0000 June 3, 1992
Three - point field goals made, half: 6, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, 000000001992 - 06 - 03 - 0000 June 3, 1992
Three - point field goal attempts, game: 10, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, 000000001992 - 06 - 03 - 0000 June 3, 1992
Three - point field goal attempts, half: 10, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, 000000001992 - 06 - 03 - 0000 June 3, 1992
Free throws made, quarter: 9, second quarter, at Utah Jazz, 000000001997 - 06 - 11 - 0000 June 11, 1997
Free throw attempts, half: 15, second half, vs. Utah Jazz, 000000001997 - 06 - 04 - 0000 June 4, 1997
Free throw attempts, quarter: 12, fourth quarter, vs. Utah Jazz, 000000001997 - 06 - 04 - 0000 June 4, 1997
Steals, 5 - game series: 14, vs. Los Angeles Lakers, 1991 NBA Finals (2.8 spg)
Points, career: 262
Field goals made, career: 110
Field goals made, game: 17, 1988
Field goal attempts, career: 233
Field goal attempts, game: 27, 2003 (2 OT)
Steals, career: 37
Blocked shots, half: 4, 1988
NBA All - Defensive First Team selections: 9
Blocked shots by a guard, career: 893
Blocked shots by a guard, season: 131 (1987 -- 88)
Highest Player Efficiency Rating, career: 27.91
Only rookie in NBA history to lead his team in four statistics (1984 -- 85)
Second rookie in NBA history to average 20 + points, 5 + rebounds, and 5 + assists (1984 -- 85)
One of two players in NBA history to score 3,000 points in a season: 3,041 points scored in 82 games played (37.1 ppg) (1986 -- 87)
First player in NBA history to record 200 steals and 100 blocked shots in a season: 236 steals, 125 blocks (1986 -- 87)
Only player in NBA history with more than one season of 200 steals and 100 blocked shots: 259 steals, 131 blocks (1987 -- 88)
Only player in NBA history to lead the league in scoring and win Defensive Player of the Year in the same season (1987 -- 88)
First player in NBA history to win Rookie of the Year, Defensive Player of the Year and Most Valuable Player during his career
First player in NBA history to lead the league in scoring and win Defensive Player of the Year during his career
Only player in NBA history to lead the league in scoring, win Most Valuable Player, and Defensive Player of the Year in the same season (1987 -- 88)
First player in NBA history to win Most Valuable Player and Defensive Player of the Year in the same season (1987 -- 88)
First player in NBA history to lead the league both in scoring and steals in the same season (1987 -- 88, 1989 -- 90, 1992 -- 93)
Fourth player in NBA history to lead the league in scoring and win the NBA championship in the same season
One of three players in history to sweep the Most Valuable Player awards for the regular season, All - Star Game and NBA Finals in the same season (1995 -- 96, 1997 -- 98)
One of three players in history to win an Olympic gold medal both as an amateur and professional (1984, 1992)
Sixth player in history to win an Olympic gold medal, NCAA championship and NBA championship
Only player in NBA history to win Rookie of the Year (1984 -- 85), Defensive Player of the Year (1987 -- 88), NBA MVP (1987 -- 88, 1990 -- 91, 1991 -- 92, 1995 -- 96, 1997 -- 98), All - Star MVP (1988, 1996, 1998), and Finals MVP (1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998)
Led the 1995 -- 96 Chicago Bulls to the second - best regular season record in NBA history (72 wins, 10 losses)
Led the 1995 -- 96 Chicago Bulls to the best combined regular season and postseason record in NBA history (87 wins, 13 losses)
Only player in NBA history to score 15 or more points in all games in his career: 179 games
Blocked shots by a guard, career: 158
Only guard in NBA history to lead his team in all 5 categories (points, rebounds, assists, steals, blocks) during a playoff series
Jordan came close to leading all 5 categories in a playoff series on 3 more occasions
Only player in NBA history to average at least 30 points, 6 rebounds, 5 assists, 2 steals in a playoff run (7 times)
Only player in NBA history to average at least 30 points, 6 rebounds, 6 assists, 2 steals in a playoff run (5 times)
Only player in NBA history to average at least 30 points, 6 rebounds, 6 assists in a title run (2 times)
Averaged at least 30 points, 6 rebounds, 4 assists, 2 steals in a record 9 different playoff runs
Only player in NBA history to shoot at least 38 % on 3 - point field goals in 3 NBA Finals runs (minimum 15 points per game and 1.5 three - point attempts per game)
In the 1997 title run, Jordan led a championship team in all 5 main categories (points, rebounds, assists, steals, blocks) for the last 3 rounds of the 1997 Playoffs
Only player in NBA history to lead a team to the championship with only one teammate averaging double figures in scoring
Most Valuable Player awards: 6 (1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998)
Scoring 20 or more points in all games, career: 35 games
One of seven players to lead a team in 4 out of 5 categories for an NBA Finals
Most Valuable Player awards: 3 (1988, 1996, 1998)
First player to record a triple - double in All - Star Game history: 14 points, 11 rebounds, 11 assists in 26 minutes (1997)
Ninth pair of teammates in NBA history to score 40 or more points in the same game: Chicago Bulls (110) at Indiana Pacers (102), 000000001996 - 02 - 18 - 0000 February 18, 1996
One of at least three pairs of teammates in NBA history to record triple - doubles in the same game: Chicago Bulls (126) vs. Los Angeles Clippers (121), 000000001989 - 01 - 03 - 0000 January 3, 1989 (OT)
Michael Jordan holds approximately 200 records as a Chicago Bull; these are some of them.
Seasons played: 13
Games played, career: 930
Games played, season: 82 (1984 -- 85, 1986 -- 87, 1987 -- 88, 1989 -- 90, 1990 -- 91, 1995 -- 96, 1996 -- 97, 1997 -- 98)
Minutes played, career: 35,887
Points, career: 29,277
Scoring average, points per game, career: 31.5 (29,277 / 930)
Points, season: 3,041 (1986 -- 87)
Scoring average, points per game, season: 37.1 (3,041 / 82) (1986 -- 87)
Points, game (overtime): 69, at Cleveland Cavaliers, 000000001990 - 03 - 28 - 0000 March 28, 1990
Points, game (regulation): 61, vs. Atlanta Hawks, 000000001987 - 04 - 16 - 0000 April 16, 1987
Points, half: 39, second half, vs. Milwaukee Bucks, 000000001988 - 02 - 16 - 0000 February 16, 1988
Points, quarter: 30, fourth quarter, at Denver Nuggets, 000000001988 - 11 - 26 - 0000 November 26, 1988
Consecutive points, game: 23, last 6: 33 of second quarter and first 2: 12 of third quarter, vs. Atlanta Hawks, 000000001987 - 04 - 16 - 0000 April 16, 1987
Consecutive points, quarter: 18, vs. New York Knicks, 000000001986 - 11 - 21 - 0000 November 21, 1986
Field goals made, career: 10,962
Field goals made, season: 1,098 (1986 -- 87)
Field goals made, game (overtime): 27, vs. Orlando Magic, 000000001993 - 01 - 16 - 0000 January 16, 1993
Field goals made, game (regulation): 24, at Philadelphia 76ers, 000000001988 - 11 - 16 - 0000 November 16, 1988
Field goals made, half: 15, first half, vs. Orlando Magic, 000000001993 - 01 - 16 - 0000 January 16, 1993
Field goals made, quarter: 11, twice 11, first quarter, vs. Orlando Magic, 000000001993 - 01 - 16 - 0000 January 16, 1993
Field goal attempts, career: 21,686
Field goal attempts, season: 2,279 (1986 -- 87)
Field goal attempts, game (overtime): 49, vs. Orlando Magic, 000000001993 - 01 - 16 - 0000 January 16, 1993
Field goal attempts, game (regulation): 43, thrice 43, at Los Angeles Lakers, 000000001986 - 11 - 28 - 0000 November 28, 1986 43, vs. Houston Rockets, 000000001987 - 01 - 15 - 0000 January 15, 1987 43, vs. Orlando Magic, 000000001990 - 02 - 14 - 0000 February 14, 1990
Field goal attempts, half: 24, twice 24, second half, vs. Orlando Magic, 000000001993 - 01 - 16 - 0000 January 16, 1993
Field goal attempts, overtime: 8, vs. Seattle SuperSonics, 000000001988 - 02 - 23 - 0000 February 23, 1988
Three - point field goals made, game: 7, vs. Golden State Warriors, 000000001990 - 01 - 18 - 0000 January 18, 1990
Free throws made, one missed, game: 26 -- 27, vs. New Jersey Nets, 000000001987 - 02 - 26 - 0000 February 26, 1987
Free throws made, career: 6,798
Free throws made, season: 833 (1986 -- 87)
Free throws made, game: 26, vs. New Jersey Nets, 000000001987 - 02 - 26 - 0000 February 26, 1987
Free throws made, half: 20, second half, at Miami Heat, 000000001992 - 12 - 30 - 0000 December 30, 1992
Free throws made, quarter: 14, twice 14, fourth quarter, at Utah Jazz, 000000001989 - 11 - 15 - 0000 November 15, 1989 14, fourth quarter, at Miami Heat, 000000001992 - 12 - 30 - 0000 December 30, 1992
Free throw attempts, career: 8,115
Free throw attempts, season: 972 (1986 -- 87)
Free throw attempts, game: 27, vs. New Jersey Nets, 000000001987 - 02 - 26 - 0000 February 26, 1987
Free throw attempts, half: 23, second half, at Miami Heat, 000000001992 - 12 - 30 - 0000 December 30, 1992
Free throw attempts, quarter: 16, fourth quarter, at Miami Heat, 000000001992 - 12 - 30 - 0000 December 30, 1992
Rebounds, career: 5,836
Defensive rebounds, career: 4,289
Assists, career: 5,012
Steals, career: 2,306
Steals, season: 259 (1987 -- 88)
Consecutive games with a steal: 77, 000000001988 - 03 - 25 - 0000 March 25, 1988 to 000000001989 - 03 - 17 - 0000 March 17, 1989
Steals, game: 10, vs. New Jersey Nets, 000000001988 - 01 - 29 - 0000 January 29, 1988
Steals, half: 8, first half, at Boston Celtics, 000000001988 - 11 - 09 - 0000 November 9, 1988
Steals, quarter: 6, third quarter, vs. New Jersey Nets, 000000001988 - 01 - 29 - 0000 January 29, 1988
Personal fouls, quarter: 6, fourth quarter, vs. Detroit Pistons, 000000001989 - 01 - 31 - 0000 January 31, 1989
Turnovers, career: 2,589
Jordan 's rookie season was 1984 -- 85.
Minutes played: 3,144
Points: 2,313
Scoring average, points per game: 28.3 (2,313 / 82)
Field goals made: 837
Field goal attempts: 1,625
Free throws made: 630
Free throw attempts: 746
Steals: 196
Games played, career: 179
Minutes played, career: 7,474
Points, career: 5,987
Points, game (overtime): 63, at Boston Celtics, 000000001986 - 04 - 20 - 0000 April 20, 1986 (2 OT)
Points, game (regulation): 56, at Miami Heat, 000000001992 - 04 - 29 - 0000 April 29, 1992
Points, half: 37, second half, at Miami Heat, 000000001992 - 04 - 29 - 0000 April 29, 1992
Points, quarter: 24, fourth quarter, at Philadelphia 76ers, 000000001990 - 05 - 11 - 0000 May 11, 1990
Points, overtime: 9, at New York Knicks, 000000001989 - 05 - 09 - 0000 May 9, 1989
Consecutive points, game: 17, during second half (from 73 to 90 points), at New York Knicks, 000000001993 - 06 - 02 - 0000 June 2, 1993
Field goals made, career: 2,188
Field goals made, game: 24, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, 000000001988 - 05 - 01 - 0000 May 1, 1988
Field goals made, half: 14, four times 14, first half, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, 000000001988 - 05 - 01 - 0000 May 1, 1988 14, second half, at Philadelphia 76ers, 000000001990 - 05 - 11 - 0000 May 11, 1990 14, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, 000000001992 - 06 - 03 - 0000 June 3, 1992 14, first half, vs. Phoenix Suns, 000000001993 - 06 - 16 - 0000 June 16, 1993
Field goals made, quarter: 10, fourth quarter, at Philadelphia 76ers, 000000001990 - 05 - 11 - 0000 May 11, 1990
Field goals made, overtime: 4, at New York Knicks, 000000001989 - 05 - 09 - 0000 May 9, 1989
Field goal attempts, career: 4,497
Field goal attempts, game: 45, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, 000000001988 - 05 - 01 - 0000 May 1, 1988
Field goal attempts, half: 25, first half, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, 000000001988 - 05 - 01 - 0000 May 1, 1988
Field goal attempts, quarter: 13, first quarter, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, 000000001992 - 06 - 03 - 0000 June 3, 1992
Field goal attempts, overtime: 5, first overtime, at Boston Celtics, 000000001986 - 04 - 20 - 0000 April 20, 1986
Three - point field goals made, half: 6, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, 000000001992 - 06 - 03 - 0000 June 3, 1992
Three - point field goal attempts, half: 10, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, 000000001992 - 06 - 03 - 0000 June 3, 1992
Free throws made, career: 1,463
Free throws made, game: 23, vs. New York Knicks, 000000001989 - 05 - 14 - 0000 May 14, 1989
Free throws made, half: 14, second half, vs. Detroit Pistons, 000000001990 - 05 - 28 - 0000 May 28, 1990
Free throws made, quarter: 13, fourth quarter, vs. Detroit Pistons, 000000001991 - 05 - 21 - 0000 May 21, 1991
Free throws made, overtime: 3, vs. New Jersey Nets, 000000001998 - 04 - 24 - 0000 April 24, 1998
Free throw attempts, career: 1,766
Free throw attempts, game: 28, vs. New York Knicks, 000000001989 - 05 - 14 - 0000 May 14, 1989
Free throw attempts, half: 17, second half, vs. New York Knicks, 000000001989 - 05 - 14 - 0000 May 14, 1989
Free throw attempts, quarter: 14, fourth quarter, vs. Detroit Pistons, 000000001991 - 05 - 21 - 0000 May 21, 1991
Free throw attempts, overtime: 5, vs. New Jersey Nets, 000000001998 - 04 - 24 - 0000 April 24, 1998
Assists, career: 1,022
Assists, game: 14, at New York Knicks, 000000001993 - 06 - 02 - 0000 June 2, 1993
Personal fouls, overtime: 3, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, 000000001989 - 05 - 05 - 0000 May 5, 1989
Steals, career: 376
Steals, game: 6, four times
Points, half: 34, first half, vs. Charlotte Hornets, 000000002001 - 12 - 29 - 0000 December 29, 2001
Points, first quarter: 24, vs. Charlotte Hornets, 000000002001 - 12 - 29 - 0000 December 29, 2001
Points, second quarter: 19, vs. Chicago Bulls, 000000002002 - 01 - 04 - 0000 January 4, 2002
MCI Center record -- points, game: 51, vs. Charlotte Hornets, 000000002001 - 12 - 29 - 0000 December 29, 2001
* Jordan scored 50 points against the Milwaukee Bucks twice. The most recent occurrence is listed. * * Jordan scored 45 points against the Seattle SuperSonics twice. The most recent occurrence is listed.
* Excluding the Washington Bullets * * Expansion era, and including the Washington Bullets
* Including ties
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where does dragon ball z kai fit in | List of Dragon Ball Z Kai episodes - wikipedia
Dragon Ball Z Kai (known in Japan as Dragon Ball Kai) is a revised version of the anime series Dragon Ball Z. It was produced in commemoration of the original series ' 20th and 25th anniversaries. Produced by Toei Animation, the series was broadcast in Japan on Fuji TV from April 5, 2009 to March 27, 2011. It later continued with the final story arc from April 6, 2014 to June 28, 2015. It features remastered high definition picture, sound, and special effects as well as a re-recorded voice track by most of the original cast. As most of the series ' sketches and animation cels had been discarded since the final episode of Dragon Ball Z in 1996, new frames were produced by digitally tracing over still frames from existing footage and filling them with softer colors. This reduced visible damage to the original animation. Some frames were selectively cropped, while other frames feature new portions added to scenes that were hand drawn to conform to the designated picture ratio. Much of the material from the Dragon Ball Z anime that was not featured in the Dragon Ball manga has been left out in Kai, which reduced the total episode count from 291 to 167. However, the second part of the series, titled Dragon Ball Z Kai: The Final Chapters by Toei Europe, lasted 61 episodes in Japan, which was fewer than the previously planned 69. This brought the total number of episodes to 159 in Japan. The first Blu - ray and DVD compilation was released in Japan on September 18, 2009. Individual volumes and Blu - ray box sets were released monthly. In France, all 167 episodes were released on Blu - ray and DVD, while the bypassed episodes remain unreleased in Japan.
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when does hulu get adventure time season 10 | Adventure Time (season 10) - wikipedia
The tenth and final season of Adventure Time, an American animated television series created by Pendleton Ward, premiered on Cartoon Network on September 17, 2017 and ended on September 3, 2018. The season was produced by Cartoon Network Studios and Frederator Studios. It follows the final adventures of Finn (a human boy) and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake, a dog with magical powers to change shape and size at will. Finn and Jake live in the post-apocalyptic Land of Ooo, where they interact with the series ' other main characters: Princess Bubblegum, The Ice King, Marceline the Vampire Queen, Lumpy Space Princess, BMO, and Flame Princess.
The season began with "The Wild Hunt '', which was seen by 0.77 million viewers (a decrease from the previous season 's finale, "Three Buckets '', which was viewed by 0.85 million). It ended with "Come Along with Me '', a four - part episode which was the series finale. Critical reaction to the season was mostly positive, and the "Ring of Fire '' episode was nominated for a Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Award in 2018. A DVD set of the season was released on September 4, 2018.
The series follows the adventures of Finn the Human (a boy), and his best friend Jake, a dog with magical powers to change shape and size at will. Finn and Jake live in the post-apocalyptic Land of Ooo, where they interact with the other major characters: Princess Bubblegum, the Ice King, Marceline the Vampire Queen, Lumpy Space Princess, BMO, and Flame Princess. Common storylines revolve around Finn and Jake discovering strange creatures, dealing with the antagonistic - but - misunderstood Ice King, and battling monsters to help others. The season 's multi-episode story arcs include Princess Bubblegum confronting her antagonistic Uncle Gumbald, Finn dealing with Fern 's embrace of the dark side, and Betty trying to turn the Ice King back into Simon Petrikov.
On July 21, 2016, lead writer Kent Osborne posted an image on Twitter which suggested that Adventure Time had been renewed for another season. At the time, the season was intended to be the show 's ninth. The season divisions were later rearranged by Cartoon Network, and "The Wild Hunt '' became the first episode of season ten. According to series showrunner Adam Muto, the number of episodes ordered by the network as part of the season was substantially lower than it had been, leading the production crew to think "that if this was n't the end, it was coming up soon. '' This season 's episodes were produced similarly to those of previous seasons. Each episode began as simple two - to - three - page outline with necessary plot information. The rough outline was given to storyboard artists, who expanded it into a full storyboard. The episodes were designed and colored in Burbank, California, and animated in South Korea by Rough Draft Korea and Saerom Animation.
Storyboard artists who worked on this season included Sam Alden, Polly Guo, Seo Kim, Somvilay Xayaphone, Steve Wolfhard, Tom Herpich, Graham Falk, Kent Osborne, Hanna K. Nyström, Aleks Sennwald, Erik Fountain, and Patrick McHale. Ghostshrimp, the series ' former lead background designer, returned to work on the "final story arc of Adventure Time ''. Although Ghostshrimp had retired from the show after the fourth season, he had returned to draw backgrounds for the seventh - season miniseries Stakes and the ninth - season episodes "Abstract '', "Fionna and Cake and Fionna '', and "Whispers ''. Former character designer, storyboard artist, and background designer Andy Ristaino returned as a revisionist for this season. Former storyboard artist Rebecca Sugar returned to contribute the song "Time Adventure '' to the series finale.
During the last few seasons of Adventure Time, there was talk at Cartoon Network about wrapping up the series. According to Olivia Olson, the discussion went on for a while and "the ending of the show was getting stretched and stretched and stretched ''. About the decision to end the series, Cartoon Network executive vice president and chief content officer Rob Sorcher told the Los Angeles Times:
Adventure Time was playing less and less on Cartoon Network, yet we were moving towards a large volume of episodes. And I really began thinking "(The end) ca n't come quickly as a sudden company decision, it needs to be a conversation over a period of time. '' And it did also strike me that if we do n't wind this up soon, we 're going to have a generation of fans graduate through the (television) demo (graphic that Cartoon Network targets) and we wo n't have completed a thought for them.
Cartoon Network ordered a reduced number of episodes for the show 's tenth season, and the network announced on September 29, 2016 that the season would be its last. Asked in an interview with Skwigly about his feelings about the end of the series, Osborne said:
It 's weird because I 've never been on a show this long, and I do n't think Cartoon Network has done a show with this many episodes -- for the past few seasons we 've been surprised... every time it gets picked up. And I think a lot of us were thinking in the back of our minds, "When is this going to end? Am I gon na be 80 and still writing this?! '' It is sad, and everyone 's kind of grieving, but it 's hard to feel too bad about it, because... they have so many episodes in the bank that it 's gon na play for another couple years.
He noted that Cartoon Network gave the writers "an opportunity to spend a lot of time thinking about the finale. '' According to writer Jack Pendarvis, storyline writing for the series ended in mid-November 2016 and the last storyline meeting was held on November 21. Osborne tweeted that the show 's final script was pitched to storyboarders on November 28; the episode was pitched to the show 's producers during the third week of December 2016. A number of voice actors, including Maria Bamford and Andy Milonakis, confirmed that voice recording for the season (and series) ended on January 31, 2017.
Regular production of the series ended with a November 16, 2017 wrap party hosted by Cartoon Network for cast and crew who had worked on the series since its beginning. The party featured a DJ booth shaped like Finn and Jake 's tree fort, a live band, and Adventure Time - related food. Several crew members were hired for Cartoon Network 's Summer Camp Island, created by Adventure Time storyline writer Julia Pott, after the latter 's final season ended.
Voice actors for the season included Jeremy Shada (Finn the Human), John DiMaggio (Jake the Dog), Tom Kenny (The Ice King), Hynden Walch (Princess Bubblegum), and Olivia Olson (Marceline the Vampire Queen). Ward himself provides the voice for several minor characters, including Lumpy Space Princess. Former storyboard artist Niki Yang voiced sentient video - game console BMO in English and Jake 's girlfriend, Lady Rainicorn, in Korean. Polly Lou Livingston, a friend of Pendleton Ward 's mother Bettie, voiced the small elephant Tree Trunks. Jessica DiCicco voiced Flame Princess, Finn 's ex-girlfriend and sovereign of the Fire Kingdom. Andy Milonakis voiced N.E.P.T.R., a sentient robot who makes (and throws) pies. The Lich, the series ' principal antagonist, is voiced in his demonic form by Ron Perlman. The Adventure Time cast recorded their lines as a group for more natural - sounding dialogue. Hynden Walch has described the group sessions as similar to "doing a play reading -- a really, really out there play. ''
In addition to the regular cast members, episodes had guest voices by other actors, musicians, and artists. "The Wild Hunt '', "Always BMO Closing '', "Bonnibel Bubblegum '', "Seventeen '', "Gumbaldia '', and "Come Along with Me '' featured Fred Melamed voicing Princess Bubblegum 's Uncle Gumbald. In "The Wild Hunt '', Jenny Slate reprised her role as Huntress Wizard. "Son of Rap Bear '' saw Dumbfoundead voicing the titular character; Rekstizzy voiced Rap Bear, Keith David reprised his role as Flame King, Paul Scheer reprised his role as Toronto, and Open Mike Eagle voiced a gingerbread man. Livvy Stubenrauch voiced the younger Princess Bubblegum in "Bonnibel Bubblegum '', and former supervising director Andres Salaff reprised his role as Neddy.
Brad Neely voiced the Green Knight in "Seventeen '' and "Gumbaldia ''. "Ring of Fire '' featured David Herman as Randy, Raza Jaffrey as Danny, and Andy Daly as Wyatt. Martin Olson reprised his role as Hunson Abadeer, Marceline 's father, in "Marcy & Hunson ''. In "The First Investigation '', Marc Evan Jackson reprised his role as Kim Kil Whan and Dave Foley voiced Warren Ampersand; Foley reprised his role in "Jake the Starchild ''. In "Temple of Mars '', Felicia Day reprised her role as Betty; the episode also saw the return of Tom Scharpling as Jermaine the dog. Day and Scharpling returned in the series finale, "Come Along with Me '', which also featured Willow Smith as Beth the Pup Princess, Sean Giambrone as Shermy, Bettie Ward as a dream poodle, Jill Talley as Maja, and Ashley Eriksson as the music hole. Other characters were voiced during the season by Dee Bradley Baker, Maria Bamford, Steve Little, and Melissa Villaseñor.
Much like the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth seasons, the tenth season of Adventure Time featured several episode "bombs '' in which several episodes premiered over a relatively - short time. The first occurred on September 17, 2017, when "The Wild Hunt '', "Always BMO Closing '', "Son of Rap Bear '', and "Bonnibel Bubblegum '' aired. The second was December 17, 2017 when "Seventeen '', "Ring of Fire '', "Marcy and Hunson '' and "The First Investigation '' aired. The third was March 18, 2018, when "Blenanas '', "Jake the Starchild '', "Temple of Mars '', and "Gumbaldia '' aired.
The tenth season of Adventure Time had its television premiere on September 17, 2017, with "The Wild Hunt '' episode bomb. It was watched by 0.77 million viewers and scored a 0.24 Nielsen rating in the 18 - to - 49 - year - old demographic. Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems which determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States, and the episodes were seen by 0.24 percent of all households aged 18 to 49. This was a decrease compared with the season - nine finale, "Three Buckets '' (seen by 0.85 million viewers), but an increase from the previous season 's premiere, "Orb '' (which was viewed by 0.71 million). The series finale had 0.92 million viewers and a 0.25 Nielsen rating in the 18 - to - 49 demographic.
During this season, Entertainment Weekly named Adventure Time the tenth - best series of 2018: "All the episodes (that aired in 2018) shined with Adventure Time 's eccentric trademarks: sweet fairy - tale logic, twisted dark humor, full - blown cosmic adventure, an ability to create and puncture myths in under 11 minutes. '' At the 70th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in July 2018, "Ring of Fire '' was nominated for a Primetime Creative Arts Emmy for Outstanding Short - format Animated Program.
A DVD set including seasons eight, nine and ten was released on September 4, 2018.
On January 15, 2019, the tenth season is scheduled for release on DVD and Blu - ray in Australia.
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pro kabaddi highest raid points in a match | Pro Kabaddi - Wikipedia
The Pro Kabaddi League currently known as Vivo Pro Kabaddi League for sponsorship purpose is a professional - level Kabaddi league in India. It was launched in 2014 and is broadcast on Star Sports.
Pro Kabaddi League was conceptualized & founded by Mashal Sports promoted by Anand Mahindra, Charu Sharma and Rajiv Luthra. The leagues inception was influenced by the popularity of the Kabaddi tournament at the 2006 Asian Games. The format of the competition was influenced by Indian Premier League. The Pro Kabaddi League uses a franchise - based model and its first season was held in 2014 with eight teams each of which having paid fees of up to US $250,000 to join.
There were doubts over whether the PKL would be successful, noting that there were many leagues attempting to emulate the IPL 's business model and success, and that unlike cricket, there were relatively fewer well - known players in Kabaddi. However, it was also noted that kabaddi was widely played in grassroots community settings, and could thus attract a wide variety of rural and metropolitan viewers for advertisers to target if the league gained significant traction.
The inaugural season was seen by 435 million viewers, Mashal sports placing it just behind the total - season viewership of the 2014 Indian Premier League season, while the inaugural championship was seen by 86.4 million viewers. Star Sports, the PKL 's broadcaster, subsequently announced in 2015 that it would acquire a 74 % stake in the league 's parent company Mashal Sports.
For the 2017 season, the PKL added four new teams, and changed its format to split the teams into two divisions known as "zones ''.
The PKL 's rules are similar to that of the indoor team version of Kabaddi, but with additional rules to encourage more scoring. Playing two "empty '' raids in a row will trigger a "do - or - die raid '', where the raider must score a point or they will be declared out. When a defensive side has three or fewer players remaining, tackles are scored as a "Super Tackle '', which is worth two points instead of one.
The first signing and auction of players for the 8 teams was held on 20 May 2014 in Mumbai. India 's national kabaddi captain Rakesh Kumar was the priciest among the players bought for ₹ 12.80 lakh by the Patna Pirates. Sports Authority of India 's Deepak Nivas was bought by Telugu Titans franchise for ₹ 12.60 lakh. Tae Deok Eom was the highest paid overseas player bought for ₹ 7 lakh by Patna franchise.
The duration of the season was from 26 July 2014 to 31 August 2014. There were double round robin matches along with two semi finals, third place and final games. 56 games were to be played in first round and 4 in play off stage making total of 60 games. 8 teams took part in first edition. First game was played on July 26 between U Mumba and Jaipur Pink Panthers and the final was played on August 31 at Mumbai. Jaipur Pink Panthers beat U Mumba by 35 - 24 to win the inaugural Pro Kabaddi League.
Star Sports Pro Kabaddi season 2 was from July 18 to 23 August 2015. They were 60 matches played with two semifinals, a third place play - off and a final. First game was played on July 18 between U Mumba and Jaipur Pink Panthers and the final was played on August 23 at Mumbai between U Mumba and Bengaluru Bulls. U Mumba beat Bengaluru Bulls by 36 - 30 to win the 2015 season of Pro Kabaddi League. U Mumba stood first, Bengaluru Bulls stood second and Telugu Titans stood on third position in the league.
Star Sports Pro Kabaddi Season 3 will have two editions. The COO of Star India, Mr. Sanjay Gupta confirmed that Star Sports Pro Kabaddi wants to make Pro Kabaddi, a 5 - week event, happen 10 weeks a year by having two editions a year. The idea is to play the tournament once in January -- February 2016 and once in June -- July 2016. It also had 8 teams. Patna Pirates beat U Mumba by 3 Points in the final in Delhi to take home the trophy. Puneri Paltan came third this season.
The fourth season took place from June 25 to July 31, with the existing eight teams participating. Patna Pirates beat Jaipur Pink Panthers in the men 's final. Season 4 also saw the launch of first professional woman kabaddi league, Women 's Kabaddi Challenge (WKC). First season saw 3 teams namely Ice Divas, Fire Birds and Storm Queens battle it out to be the first ever WKC champions. The final, scheduled along with the men 's final in Hyderabad, saw the Storm Queens defeat the Fire Birds.
The 2017 season was the fifth edition of the Pro Kabaddi League, and it featured 12 teams, including new teams from Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, and Gujarat. The team from Haryana is known as Haryana Steelers owned by JSW Sports. Sachin Tendulkar co-owns the Tamil Nadu team named Tamil Thalaivas. The Uttar Pradesh team is named as UP Yoddha owned by GMR group and Gujarat team is named as Gujarat Fortune Giants owned by Gautam Adani.
Auctions for the new season were held in May, before which the existing teams were allowed to retain one player each. The auction saw over 400 players go under the hammer and Rs 46.99 spent by the 12 teams.
The Pro Kabaddi League Season 5 started on July 28, 2017.
The most expensive pick of the auction was raider Nitin Tomar, who was bought by the Uttar Pradesh team for a sum of Rs 93 lakh. Following in second place was Rohit Kumar after the Bengaluru Bulls picked him for a Rs 81 lakhs price. The most expensive foreign player was South Korea 's Jang Kun Lee after he was retained by the Bengal Warriors for Rs 80.3 lakhs.
The new season was slated to be the biggest league tournament of its kind in the history of Indian sports in terms of geographical coverage and duration. It featured 138 matches spread across a time period of 13 weeks across 11 states.
A Children 's Kabaddi tournament, known as KBD Juniors, was also organised between schools of the cities in which the matches were held.
Patna Pirates Beat Gujarat Fortune Giants by 55 - 38 in the final with the Man Of The Tournament Pardeep Narwal stealing the show with 19 raid points against a hapless Fortune Giant defense for the first time in the tournament.
The award ceremony of the finale was hosted by Pooja Bhamrah. Pardeep Narwal was adjudged the man of the finale. Utkarsh
As per the available data of the opening 2 weeks, Star Sports Pro Kabaddi viewership on TV increased by nearly 56 % from the 2014 year 's viewership. During the inaugural season tournament viewership was 43.5 crore (435 million) viewers, which was the second in India after the 56 crore (560 million) of IPL viewership. The online viewership also increased 1.3 crore unique visitors, which is 18.5 times than of last year 's 7 lakh unique visitors. The third season which was flagged off on 30 January, recorded a surge in viewership with the opening week ratings 36 per cent higher than the week one viewership for its last season.
Two teams, Jaipur Pink Panthers, U Mumba have won the tournament once while Patna Pirates have won the Pro Kabaddi League thrice and the only champions to have defended their title twice.
SD = 17
Prize money for the winner of Season 5 was ₹ 3 crore. The first and second runners - up were awarded ₹ 1.8 crore and ₹ 1.2 crore respectively.
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what records did lebron james break this season | List of career achievements by LeBron James - wikipedia
All of LeBron James 's career accomplishments are listed on this page. James is considered to be one of the greatest basketball players of all time.
Only player to lead a both teams in an NBA Finals Game in Points, Assists, Rebounds, Blocks & Steals
James owns numerous NBA "youngest player '' records. He is the youngest
Notes: Beginning in 2006 the NBA introduced age requirement restrictions. Prospective high school players must now wait at least a year before entering the NBA, making these records more difficult to break.
Highest average, points per game, career: 28.9 Lebron is the Only Player in Nba History to reach 30k pts 7,000 assists and 7,000 rebounds. Points, game: 49, vs. Orlando, May 20, 2009
Points, half: 28, first half, at Boston Celtics, May 7, 2010
Points, quarter: 23, first quarter, at Boston Celtics, May 7, 2010
Points, overtime: 10, at Orlando Magic, 000000002009 - 05 - 26 - 0000 May 26, 2009
Consecutive points, game: 25, from 2: 16 of fourth quarter to end of game (second overtime), at Detroit Pistons, 000000002007 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31, 2007
Games scoring 40 or more points, career: 14
Field goals made, game: 20, vs. Orlando Magic, May 20, 2009
Field goals made, half: 11, twice
Field goals made, quarter: 8, first quarter, at Boston Celtics, 000000002010 - 05 - 07 - 0000 May 7, 2010
Field goals made, overtime: 4, second overtime, at Detroit Pistons, 000000002007 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31, 2007
Field goal attempts, game: 33, at Detroit Pistons, 000000002007 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31, 2007 (2 OT)
Field goal attempts, half: 17, first half, at Detroit Pistons, 000000002006 - 05 - 17 - 0000 May 17, 2006
Three - point field goals made, game: 7, at Washington Wizards, 000000002006 - 04 - 30 - 0000 April 30, 2006
Three - point field goals made, half: 5, first half, at Washington Wizards, April 30, 2006
Three - point field goals made, overtime: 1, second overtime, at Detroit Pistons, 000000002007 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31, 2007
Three - point field goal attempts, half: 9, second half, at Boston Celtics, 000000002008 - 05 - 18 - 0000 May 18, 2008
Free throws made, game: 18, at Orlando Magic, 000000002009 - 05 - 24 - 0000 May 24, 2009
Free throws made, quarter: 10, fourth quarter, vs. Detroit Pistons, 000000002006 - 05 - 19 - 0000 May 19, 2006
Free throws made, overtime: 5, first overtime, at Detroit Pistons, 000000002007 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31, 2007
Free throw attempts, game: 24, at Orlando Magic, 000000002009 - 05 - 24 - 0000 May 24, 2009
Free throw attempts, half: 16, second half, at Orlando Magic, 000000002009 - 05 - 24 - 0000 May 24, 2009
Free throw attempts, quarter: 12, twice
Free throw attempts, overtime: 6, first overtime, at Detroit Pistons, 000000002007 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31, 2007
Rebounds, half: 13, second half, at Boston Celtics, 000000002010 - 05 - 13 - 0000 May 13, 2010
Defensive rebounds, game: 16, at Boston Celtics, 000000002010 - 05 - 13 - 0000 May 13, 2010
Defensive rebounds, half: 12, second half, at Boston Celtics, 000000002010 - 05 - 13 - 0000 May 13, 2010
Turnovers, game: 8, (2 games)
Career records cited from Basketball Reference 's Miami Heat Career Leaders page unless noted otherwise.
Points, quarter: 25 twice,
Field goals made, game: 22, vs. Charlotte Bobcats, March 3, 2014
Field goals made, first half: 12, at Orlando Magic, 000000002011 - 02 - 03 - 0000 February 3, 2011
Field goals made, quarter: 10, third quarter, at Cleveland Cavaliers, 000000002010 - 12 - 02 - 0000 December 2, 2010
Turnovers, quarter: 5, first quarter, at Philadelphia 76ers, 000000002010 - 10 - 27 - 0000 October 27, 2010
Triple - doubles, career: 13 (five in playoffs)
Triple - doubles, season: 4, twice
Points, game: 49, at Brooklyn Nets, May 12, 2014
Minutes played, game, 50: 17 at Boston Celtics, May 9, 2011
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what are the two most common elements in the solar system | Abundance of the chemical elements - wikipedia
The abundance of the chemical elements is a measure of the occurrence of the chemical elements relative to all other elements in a given environment. Abundance is measured in one of three ways: by the mass - fraction (the same as weight fraction); by the mole - fraction (fraction of atoms by numerical count, or sometimes fraction of molecules in gases); or by the volume - fraction. Volume - fraction is a common abundance measure in mixed gases such as planetary atmospheres, and is similar in value to molecular mole - fraction for gas mixtures at relatively low densities and pressures, and ideal gas mixtures. Most abundance values in this article are given as mass - fractions.
For example, the abundance of oxygen in pure water can be measured in two ways: the mass fraction is about 89 %, because that is the fraction of water 's mass which is oxygen. However, the mole - fraction is 33.3333... % because only 1 atom of 3 in water, H O, is oxygen. As another example, looking at the mass - fraction abundance of hydrogen and helium in both the Universe as a whole and in the atmospheres of gas - giant planets such as Jupiter, it is 74 % for hydrogen and 23 -- 25 % for helium; while the (atomic) mole - fraction for hydrogen is 92 %, and for helium is 8 %, in these environments. Changing the given environment to Jupiter 's outer atmosphere, where hydrogen is diatomic while helium is not, changes the molecular mole - fraction (fraction of total gas molecules), as well as the fraction of atmosphere by volume, of hydrogen to about 86 %, and of helium to 13 %.
The abundance of chemical elements in the universe is dominated by the large amounts of hydrogen and helium which were produced in the Big Bang. Remaining elements, making up only about 2 % of the universe, were largely produced by supernovae and certain red giant stars. Lithium, beryllium and boron are rare because although they are produced by nuclear fusion, they are then destroyed by other reactions in the stars. The elements from carbon to iron are relatively more common in the universe because of the ease of making them in supernova nucleosynthesis. Elements of higher atomic number than iron (element 26) become progressively more rare in the universe, because they increasingly absorb stellar energy in being produced. Elements with even atomic numbers are generally more common than their neighbors in the periodic table, also due to favorable energetics of formation.
The abundance of elements in the Sun and outer planets is similar to that in the universe. Due to solar heating, the elements of Earth and the inner rocky planets of the Solar System have undergone an additional depletion of volatile hydrogen, helium, neon, nitrogen, and carbon (which volatilizes as methane). The crust, mantle, and core of the Earth show evidence of chemical segregation plus some sequestration by density. Lighter silicates of aluminum are found in the crust, with more magnesium silicate in the mantle, while metallic iron and nickel compose the core. The abundance of elements in specialized environments, such as atmospheres, or oceans, or the human body, are primarily a product of chemical interactions with the medium in which they reside.
The elements -- that is, ordinary (baryonic) matter made of protons, neutrons, and electrons, are only a small part of the content of the Universe. Cosmological observations suggest that only 4.6 % of the universe 's energy (including the mass contributed by energy, E = mc2 ↔ m = E / c2) comprises the visible baryonic matter that constitutes stars, planets, and living beings. The rest is thought to be made up of dark energy (68 %) and dark matter (27 %). These are forms of matter and energy believed to exist on the basis of scientific theory and observational deductions, but they have not been directly observed and their nature is not well understood.
Most standard (baryonic) matter is found in intergalactic gas, stars, and interstellar clouds, in the form of atoms or ions (plasma), although it can be found in degenerate forms in extreme astrophysical settings, such as the high densities inside white dwarfs and neutron stars.
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe; helium is second. However, after this, the rank of abundance does not continue to correspond to the atomic number; oxygen has abundance rank 3, but atomic number 8. All others are substantially less common.
The abundance of the lightest elements is well predicted by the standard cosmological model, since they were mostly produced shortly (i.e., within a few hundred seconds) after the Big Bang, in a process known as Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Heavier elements were mostly produced much later, inside of stars.
Hydrogen and helium are estimated to make up roughly 74 % and 24 % of all baryonic matter in the universe respectively. Despite comprising only a very small fraction of the universe, the remaining "heavy elements '' can greatly influence astronomical phenomena. Only about 2 % (by mass) of the Milky Way galaxy 's disk is composed of heavy elements.
These other elements are generated by stellar processes. In astronomy, a "metal '' is any element other than hydrogen or helium. This distinction is significant because hydrogen and helium are the only elements that were produced in significant quantities in the Big Bang. Thus, the metallicity of a galaxy or other object is an indication of stellar activity, after the Big Bang.
In general, elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovae. Iron - 56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel - 56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy - absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with increasing atomic number.
The following graph (note log scale) shows abundance of elements in the Solar System. The table shows the twelve most common elements in our galaxy (estimated spectroscopically), as measured in parts per million, by mass. Nearby galaxies that have evolved along similar lines have a corresponding enrichment of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. The more distant galaxies are being viewed as they appeared in the past, so their abundances of elements appear closer to the primordial mixture. Since physical laws and processes are uniform throughout the universe, however, it is expected that these galaxies will likewise have evolved similar abundances of elements.
The abundance of elements is in keeping with their origin from the Big Bang and nucleosynthesis in a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, while the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays).
Beginning with carbon, elements have been produced in stars by buildup from alpha particles (helium nuclei), resulting in an alternatingly larger abundance of elements with even atomic numbers (these are also more stable). The effect of odd - numbered chemical elements generally being more rare in the universe was empirically noticed in 1914, and is known as the Oddo - Harkins rule.
Loose correlations have been observed between estimated elemental abundances in the universe and the nuclear binding energy curve. Roughly speaking, the relative stability of various atomic nuclides has exerted a strong influence on the relative abundance of elements formed in the Big Bang, and during the development of the universe thereafter. See the article about nucleosynthesis for the explanation on how certain nuclear fusion processes in stars (such as carbon burning, etc.) create the elements heavier than hydrogen and helium.
A further observed peculiarity is the jagged alternation between relative abundance and scarcity of adjacent atomic numbers in the elemental abundance curve, and a similar pattern of energy levels in the nuclear binding energy curve. This alternation is caused by the higher relative binding energy (corresponding to relative stability) of even atomic numbers compared with odd atomic numbers and is explained by the Pauli Exclusion Principle. The semi-empirical mass formula (SEMF), also called Weizsäcker 's formula or the Bethe - Weizsäcker mass formula, gives a theoretical explanation of the overall shape of the curve of nuclear binding energy.
The Earth formed from the same cloud of matter that formed the Sun, but the planets acquired different compositions during the formation and evolution of the solar system. In turn, the natural history of the Earth caused parts of this planet to have differing concentrations of the elements.
The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98 × 10 kg. In bulk, by mass, it is composed mostly of iron (32.1 %), oxygen (30.1 %), silicon (15.1 %), magnesium (13.9 %), sulfur (2.9 %), nickel (1.8 %), calcium (1.5 %), and aluminium (1.4 %); with the remaining 1.2 % consisting of trace amounts of other elements.
The bulk composition of the Earth by elemental - mass is roughly similar to the gross composition of the solar system, with the major differences being that Earth is missing a great deal of the volatile elements hydrogen, helium, neon, and nitrogen, as well as carbon which has been lost as volatile hydrocarbons. The remaining elemental composition is roughly typical of the "rocky '' inner planets, which formed in the thermal zone where solar heat drove volatile compounds into space. The Earth retains oxygen as the second - largest component of its mass (and largest atomic - fraction), mainly from this element being retained in silicate minerals which have a very high melting point and low vapor pressure.
The mass - abundance of the nine most abundant elements in the Earth 's crust is approximately: oxygen 46 %, silicon 28 %, aluminum 8.2 %, iron 5.6 %, calcium 4.2 %, sodium 2.5 %, magnesium 2.4 %, potassium 2.0 %, and titanium 0.61 %. Other elements occur at less than 0.15 %. For a complete list, see abundance of elements in Earth 's crust.
The graph at right illustrates the relative atomic - abundance of the chemical elements in Earth 's upper continental crust -- the part that is relatively accessible for measurements and estimation.
Many of the elements shown in the graph are classified into (partially overlapping) categories:
Note that there are two breaks where the unstable (radioactive) elements technetium (atomic number: 43) and promethium (atomic number: 61) would be. These elements are surrounded by stable elements, yet both have relatively short half lives (~ 4 million years and ~ 18 years respectively). These are thus extremely rare, since any primordial initial fractions of these in pre-Solar System materials have long since decayed and disappeared. These two elements are now only produced naturally through the spontaneous fission of very heavy radioactive elements (for example, uranium, thorium, or the trace amounts of plutonium that exist in uranium ores), or by the interaction of certain other elements with cosmic rays. Both technetium and promethium have been identified spectroscopically in the atmospheres of stars, where they are produced by ongoing nucleosynthetic processes.
There are also breaks in the abundance graph where the six noble gases would be, since they are not chemically bound in the Earth 's crust, and they are only generated by decay chains from radioactive elements in the crust, and are therefore extremely rare there.
The eight naturally occurring very rare, highly radioactive elements (polonium, astatine, francium, radium, actinium, protactinium, neptunium, and plutonium) are not included, since any of these elements that were present at the formation of the Earth have decayed away eons ago, and their quantity today is negligible and is only produced from the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium.
Oxygen and silicon are notably the most common elements in the crust. On Earth and in rocky planets in general, silicon and oxygen are far more common than their cosmic abundance. The reason is that they combine with each other to form silicate minerals. In this way, they are the lightest of all of the two - percent "astronomical metals '' (i.e., non-hydrogen and helium elements) to form a solid that is refractory to the Sun 's heat, and thus can not boil away into space. All elements lighter than oxygen have been removed from the crust in this way.
"Rare '' earth elements is a historical misnomer. The persistence of the term reflects unfamiliarity rather than true rarity. The more abundant rare earth elements are similarly concentrated in the crust compared to commonplace industrial metals such as chromium, nickel, copper, zinc, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, or lead. The two least abundant rare earth elements (thulium and lutetium) are nearly 200 times more common than gold. However, in contrast to the ordinary base and precious metals, rare earth elements have very little tendency to become concentrated in exploitable ore deposits. Consequently, most of the world 's supply of rare earth elements comes from only a handful of sources. Furthermore, the rare earth metals are all quite chemically similar to each other, and they are thus quite difficult to separate into quantities of the pure elements.
Differences in abundances of individual rare earth elements in the upper continental crust of the Earth represent the superposition of two effects, one nuclear and one geochemical. First, the rare earth elements with even atomic numbers (Ce, Nd,...) have greater cosmic and terrestrial abundances than the adjacent rare earth elements with odd atomic numbers (La, Pr,...). Second, the lighter rare earth elements are more incompatible (because they have larger ionic radii) and therefore more strongly concentrated in the continental crust than the heavier rare earth elements. In most rare earth ore deposits, the first four rare earth elements -- lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium -- constitute 80 % to 99 % of the total amount of rare earth metal that can be found in the ore.
The mass - abundance of the eight most abundant elements in the Earth 's mantle (see main article above) is approximately: oxygen 45 %, magnesium 23 %, silicon 22 %, iron 5.8 %, calcium 2.3 %, aluminum 2.2 %, sodium 0.3 %, potassium 0.3 %.
The mantle differs in elemental composition from the crust in having a great deal more magnesium and significantly more iron, while having much less aluminum and sodium.
Due to mass segregation, the core of the Earth is believed to be primarily composed of iron (88.8 %), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8 %), sulfur (4.5 %), and less than 1 % trace elements.
The most abundant elements in the ocean by proportion of mass in percent are oxygen (85.84), hydrogen (10.82), chlorine (1.94), sodium (1.08), magnesium (0.1292), sulfur (0.091), calcium (0.04), potassium (0.04), bromine (0.0067), carbon (0.0028), and boron (0.00043).
The order of elements by volume - fraction (which is approximately molecular mole - fraction) in the atmosphere is nitrogen (78.1 %), oxygen (20.9 %), argon (0.96 %), followed by (in uncertain order) carbon and hydrogen because water vapor and carbon dioxide, which represent most of these two elements in the air, are variable components. Sulfur, phosphorus, and all other elements are present in significantly lower proportions.
According to the abundance curve graph (above right), argon, a significant if not major component of the atmosphere, does not appear in the crust at all. This is because the atmosphere has a far smaller mass than the crust, so argon remaining in the crust contributes little to mass - fraction there, while at the same time buildup of argon in the atmosphere has become large enough to be significant.
For a complete list of the abundance of elements in urban soils, see Abundances of the elements (data page) # Urban soils.
By mass, human cells consist of 65 -- 90 % water (H O), and a significant portion of the remainder is composed of carbon - containing organic molecules. Oxygen therefore contributes a majority of a human body 's mass, followed by carbon. Almost 99 % of the mass of the human body is made up of six elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus. The next 0.75 % is made up of the next five elements: potassium, sulfur, chlorine, sodium, and magnesium. Only 17 elements are known for certain to be necessary to human life, with one additional element (fluorine) thought to be helpful for tooth enamel strength. A few more trace elements may play some role in the health of mammals. Boron and silicon are notably necessary for plants but have uncertain roles in animals. The elements aluminium and silicon, although very common in the earth 's crust, are conspicuously rare in the human body.
Below is a periodic table highlighting nutritional elements.
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in the scarlet letter who is arthur dimmesdale | Arthur Dimmesdale - Wikipedia
Arthur Dimmesdale is a fictional character in the 1850 romance The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne. A Puritan minister, he has fathered an illegitimate child, Pearl, with Hester Prynne and considers himself unable to reveal his sin.
Next to Hester Prynne herself, Dimmesdale is often considered Hawthorne 's finest character. His dilemma takes up a significant portion of the novel, bringing out Hawthorne 's most famous statements on many of the concepts that recur throughout his works: guilt and redemption, truth and falsehood, and others. Dimmesdale faces a problem that is both simple and paradoxical: the knowledge of his sin, his inability to disclose it to Puritan society, and his desire for confession. He attempts to ameliorate the pressure of this position by punishing himself (both physically and mentally) and by insisting to his parishioners that he is a base, worthless creature. Without the awareness of his specific crime, however, his flock takes his protestations of worthlessness as further evidence of his holiness (a fact of which he is well aware) since, in the Puritan conception, awareness of one 's sinful worthlessness is a necessary component of whatever virtue is available to humans; thus, Dimmesdale has been taken as an example of a conflict typical of Puritans (or seen as such by Hawthorne from his historical distance).
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when is kings maker season 2 coming out | Ni no Kuni II: Revenant Kingdom - Wikipedia
Ni no Kuni II: Revenant Kingdom is an action role - playing game developed by Level - 5 and published by Bandai Namco Entertainment. The game is a sequel to Ni no Kuni: Wrath of the White Witch, and was released for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation 4 on March 23, 2018.
The story follows Evan Pettiwhisker Tildrum, a young king who was usurped from his castle and sets out to build a new kingdom. While players can freely navigate Evan throughout the game 's overworld, other characters in the party can be freely controlled in battles. During these battles, players use magical abilities and are assisted by elemental creatures known as "Higgledies '', which are used to cast spells and grant other combat bonuses.
Ni no Kuni II: Revenant Kingdom is a role - playing game played from a third - person perspective. Players complete quests -- linear scenarios with set objectives -- to progress through the story. Outside of quests, players can freely roam the open world, where they explore towns, villages, dungeons, and other dangerous places scattered throughout the world. Upon leaving a location, players enter the World Map, which can be used to select a destination; the overworld represents a diorama, and the characters are portrayed with a chibi - like design.
When players encounter enemies, they enter a battle system. Battles take place on an open battlefield, allowing players to freely roam around the area. During battles, players command a single ally in their party; a party consists of three chosen characters, which can be switched between at any time during battle. The other two characters that the player does not command fight freely on their own. To fight enemies, players use melee attacks, magical abilities and "Higgledies ''. Higgledies are small creatures which exist in several forms, representing one of six elements, each with their own strengths. Players can have up to four in a party at one time.
In Revenant Kingdom, players have the ability to build and manage Evan 's kingdom, focusing on the arrangement of work - forces within the town to provide materials and shops, such as for weapons and armor.
Revenant Kingdom is set hundreds of years after the events of Ni no Kuni: Wrath of the White Witch. The game begins in the kingdom of Ding Dong Dell, which features the cat - like Grimalkin and mouse - like Mousekin races which have a history of animosity. The kingdom is ruled by the House of Tildrum, with its current heir, Evan, preparing himself to assume the throne after his father 's untimely death.
Aside from Ding Dong Dell, the world is divided among three other major realms: Goldpaw, focused on gambling and tourism, ruled by the Dogfolk, Hydropolis, a secluded marine nation of merfolk and humans, and Broadleaf, an industrious, highly advanced nation formed by a corporation that grew large enough to establish its independence. Each country 's ruler has a bond with a powerful being known as a Kingmaker. This bond is known as a Kingsbond, and it not only acts as a proof of authority, but also to protect the country and its population from harm. The bond between a ruler and its Kingmaker can only be broken when the ruler dies, loses the support of their subjects, or is forcefully stolen.
The two main protagonists are Evan Pettiwhisker Tildrum, a child and rightful heir of Ding Dong Dell, and Roland Crane, a president from an unnamed nation of Earth who is transmigrated to the world of Ni no Kuni in a younger form of himself, and becomes Evan 's friend and loyal companion. The party also includes Tani, a girl of Evan 's age and her father Batu, from a tribe of sky pirates, Leander, a young man who is the advisor for Queen Nerea of Hydropolis, and Bracken Meadows, a young woman who is the top engineer and one of the founders of Broadleaf.
The game begins with Roland witnessing a missile exploding over a city. In the aftermath, he vanishes and reappears in front of Evan in Ding Dong Dell, with his youth suddenly regained, just as Mausinger, the advisor to Evan 's late father, stages a coup. As they escape, they learn that Mausinger poisoned the previous king and intends to have Evan killed to assume control of the kingdom. Assisted by Evan 's governess Aranella, who sacrifices herself for their safety, Evan and Roland escape safely from Ding Dong Dell, with Evan promising to her that he will establish a new kingdom in which everyone can be happy and free. Since then, he is occasionally approached in his dreams by a mysterious boy around his age, who becomes his confidant.
Given this, Evan and Roland travel to Cloudcoil Canyon to reach the Kings ' Cradle to seek out a Kingmaker for themselves. There, they are joined by a group of sky - pirates, their boss Batu, and his daughter Tani who help them reach the shrine in which Evan undergoes a trial to make a bond with a new Kingmaker. Upon success, Evan is joined by the tiny Lofty, his new Kingmaker. After settling in an unclaimed plain area, Roland instructs Evan to make contact with a neighboring kingdom: Goldpaw, where they learn that Goldpaw 's ruler, Master Pugnacius, is making use of rigged gambling to exploit the population. Once Pugnacius is exposed by the party, his Kingsbond is exposed by a mysterious man called Doloran. The party later learns that Doloran was once a king from a long lost Kingdom that disappeared in a single day. Despite his errors, Pugnacius retains the support of his people, as he was just being manipulated by Doloran to do his bidding.
Back to their settlement, the party, along with the pirates and immigrants from other nations, establish the nation of Evermore. To plan their next step, Evan and the others seek for knowledge at Goldpaw 's library where they learn of Ferdinand, an ancient king who once united the kingdoms of the whole world through a "Declaration of Interdependance '', which inspires Evan to do the same. After convincing Pugnacius to sign the declaration, Evan and the others set to Hydropolis, where they fail to prevent Doloran from stealing Queen Nerea 's Kingsbond, but convinces her to sign the declaration, while Leander agrees to join the party to stop Doloran 's schemes. A similar situation occurs in Broadleaf, where Doloran steals the Kingsbond from President Zip Vector, who also agrees to sign the declaration afterwards, and the party is joined by Bracken.
After returning to Evermore, Roland leaves temporarily and sets to Ding Dong Dell, where he feigns allegiance with Mausinger in order to retrieve the Mark of Kings, an important artifact belonging to the royal family. After Roland returns to the party, they hold an audience with Mausinger in order to exchange the Mark of Kings for his cooperation, but he attacks them instead. In the occasion, Doloran takes advantage of the conflict to steal Mausinger 's Kingsbond and reveals that he corrupted Mausinger 's advisor, Vermine, instructing him to turn Mausinger aganst Evan 's father. Instead of rewarding Vermine for his services, Doloran steals his soul instead and flees. Realizing his errors, Mausinger reforms, and agrees to treat all citizens in Ding Dong Dell equally and sign the declaration.
With four Kingsbonds in his possession, Doloran begins the ritual to retrieve his own Kingsmaker, "The Horned One '', stealing the souls of people arround the world in the process. In response, the party returns to Goldpaw 's library where they find clues about the "Mornstar '', a legendary sword capable of destroying the Horned One. After the Mornstar is recreated and entrusted to Evan, the armies of the five nations launch an attack on the Horned One to allow the party to reach and confront Doloran. Facing the party himself, Doloran reveals that Roland is his soulmate from Earth, and should one of them die, the other will perish as well. He also reveals that his true intention is not only to revive his lost kingdom but to restore his former Kingsmaker and lover, Alisandra, who was turned into the Horned One because she defied the gods by loving him. Doloran then asks Roland, whose nation on Earth was destroyed by war, to join his side, but he refuses, and the party defeats Doloran in battle.
Soon after, the Horned One manifests itself and is slain by the party. Alisandra 's spirit appears before Doloran and reveals that she actually tried to relenquish her powers to live beside him, but by doing so, these powers converted her into the Horned One, and departs to the afterlife. Evan then convinces Doloran to start anew and recreate his kingdom from scratch. Back to Evermore, Evan and the kings of the other major nations celebrate their victory with their subjects, but Roland is sent back home, having one last encounter with Evan before departing. In another encounter with the mysterious boy, Evan discovers that he has been actually talking with Ferdinand in his dreams, who was not a king from the past, but his son and successor instead, who provided clues for the party through Goldpaw 's librarian, Boddly, who in reality is a soothsayer. Many years later, Ferdinand assumes his father 's throne and accomplishes Evan 's dream of uniting all countries in the world. In the post-credits, Roland, back to his original age, pushes forward in his mission to unite all countries of Earth as well, inspired by his journeys with Evan.
The game was announced during the PlayStation Experience event in December 2015. Eurogamer described the announcement as a highlight of the event. Unlike the first game, which was a collaboration with Studio Ghibli, the sequel did not have their involvement. Despite that, former Ghibli character designer Yoshiyuki Momose and longtime music composer Joe Hisaishi, both of whom worked on Wrath of the White Witch, reprised their lead roles. Level - 5 CEO Akihiro Hino said that the sequel would better fulfill the ambitions of the original game, with deeper stories and improved visuals. The character of Roland was developed to allow older players to feel more engaged with the story, due to his age. The "Higgledies '' were introduced to refresh the battle system.
Delayed twice prior to its launch, it was released for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation 4 on March 23, 2018. In addition to the standard version of the game, players can also purchase three different editions. The Day One Edition includes a downloadable content named Special Sword which introduces five new weapons. The Premium Edition features the Special Sword DLC, a papercraft kit, the game 's original soundtrack, and the Dragon 's Tooth DLC. The Collectors ' Edition includes content of the Premium Edition, a documentary, an art book, a mirror, a plush, a display case and the season pass. A soundtrack, featuring Hisaishi 's contributions and performances by the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra, will be released in Japan on June 6, 2018.
Ni no Kuni II: Revenant Kingdom received "generally positive '' reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. By May 2018, it had shipped over 900k copies worldwide.
Ni no Kuni II: Revenant Kingdom has sold over 900,000 copies worldwide as of May 2018.
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when do you find out if you pass the bar | Bar examination - wikipedia
A bar examination is a test intended to determine whether a candidate is qualified to practice law in a given jurisdiction.
The Order of Attorneys of Brazil (Ordem dos Advogados do Brasil), the Brazilian Bar association, administers a bar examination nationwide two to three times a year (usually in January, March and September). The exam is divided in two stages -- the first consists of 80 multiple choice questions covering all disciplines (Ethics, Human Rights, Philosophy of Law, Constitutional Law, Administrative Law, Civil Law, Consumer Law, Civil Procedure Law, Criminal Law, Criminal Procedure Law, Labour Law and Labour Procedure Law). The candidate must score at least 40 questions correctly to proceed to the second part of the exam, four essay questions and a drafting project (motion, opinion or claim document) in Civil Law (including Consumer Law), Labour Law, Criminal Law, Administrative Law, Constitutional Law, Corporate Law or Tax Law, and their respective procedures. The Bar examination can be taken on the graduation year. Success in the examination allows one to practice in any court or jurisdiction of the country.
Since the UK has a separated legal profession, Law graduates in England and Wales can take examinations to qualify as a Barrister or a Solicitor by either undertaking the BPTC or the LPC respectively. These courses are the vocational part of the training required under the Bar Association and The Law Society rules and are either undertaken on a full - time basis for one year or on a part - time basis over two years. After successfully completing these courses, which generally include various examinations and practical ability tests, graduates must secure either a Training Contract (for those who have completed the LPC) or a Pupillage (for those who have completed the BPTC). These are akin to Articling positions in other jurisdictions and are the final Practical stage before being granted full admission to practice. The general timescale therefore to become fully qualified after entering Law School can range between 6 -- 7 years (assuming no repeats are required).
However some controversy remains about the lack of Training Contracts and Pupillages available to graduates even after having completed the LPC / BPTC. These courses can vary in cost anywhere from £ 9,000 to £ 17,000 and are generally undertaken by students on a private basis making them incur additional costs. The final debt in student fees alone after having completed the academic and vocational training can range between £ 20,000 - £ 25,000. This is set to increase to £ 40,000 - £ 50,000 for students entering law school in the years 2012 due to the increased tuition fees for Law School itself.
In France, Law graduates must obtain a vocational degree called certificat d'aptitude à la profession d'avocat (or CAPA in everyday speech) in order to practice independently. The most common way to achieve the CAPA is by training in an école d'avocats (Lawyer 's School). This training includes academical and vocational courses and mandatory internships in law firms. Entrance to Lawyer 's School is obtained by competitive examination.
To become a lawyer in Germany, you have to study law at university for four or five years. Then you have to pass the First Juristic Examination (Erste Juristische Prüfung) in Law, which is administered in parts by the ministry of justice of the respective state and in parts by the university the person attends; the state part accounts for two thirds of the final grade, the university part for one third. This examination provides a very limited qualification, as there are no formal careers in the legal field that can be followed without further training. After the first juristic examination, candidates that wish to fully qualify must participate in a two - year practical training period (Referendariat) including practical work as judge, prosecutor, and attorney. At the end of this training, candidates must take and pass the Second State Examination (Zweites Staatsexamen). This examination, if passed, allows successful participants to enter the bar as attorney, to become judges and to become state attorneys. All careers have the same legal training (Einheitsjurist), even though some careers require additional training (namely public notaries and patent lawyers).
To become a lawyer in Ghana, you have to study law at any university that offers the Bachelor of Laws degree. After completing the four year law degree, graduands can apply to be enrolled at the Ghana School of Law. Following two years of professional training, successful students can take their bar examination. Upon passing the bar examination, an induction and calling to the bar ceremony is held for all graduating students.
In Hungary, the Bar Examination is called "Jogi Szakvizsga '', can be translated as "Legal Profession Examination ''. This exam is composed of three parts:
After passing these exams the candidate can practice law as an attorney - at - law / barrister or as a secretary / judge at the court or as a prosecutor at the public prosecutor 's office or in - house legal counsel or may operate individually at any field of law.
The bar exams in Ireland are the preserve of the Honorable Society of King 's Inns, which runs a series of fourteen exams over ten weeks, from March to June each year, for those enrolled as students in its one - year Barrister - at - Law degree course. These exams cover such skills as advocacy, research and opinion writing, consulting with clients, negotiation, drafting of legal documents and knowledge of civil and criminal procedure. For those who fail to meet the requisite 50 % pass mark, repeats are held in the following August and September.
The Bar Exam in Iran is administered by two different and completely separate bodies, one of which is the Bar Association of every province all of which are under the auspices of the country 's syndicate of the bars of the country, and the other one is administered by Judiciary System subject to article 187 of the country 's economic, social and cultural development plan. The following is the process of obtaining the license through the Bar Association 's procedures.
To receive the license to practice as a "First Degree Attorney '' in Iran, an applicant should complete a bachelor of law program. The official career path starts after passing the Bar Exam and receiving the title of "Trainee at Law ''. The exam is highly competitive and only a certain number of top applicants are admitted annually.
After admission to the bar, an eighteen - months apprenticeship program begins which is highly regulated under the auspices of Bar Syndicate Rules and supervision of an assigned First Degree Attorney. Trainees or apprentices must attend designated courts for designated weeks to hear cases and write case summaries. A logbook signed by the judge on the bench has to certify their weekly attendance. By the end of the eighteenth month, they are eligible to apply to take the Final Bar Exam by submitting their case summaries, the logbook and a research work pre-approved by the Bar. It is noteworthy, however, that during these eighteen months, Trainees are eligible to have a limited practice of law under the supervision of their supervising Attorney. This practice does not include Supreme Court eligible cases and certain criminal and civil cases. Candidates will be tested on Civil law, Civil Procedure, Criminal law, Criminal Procedure, Commercial Law, Notary (including rules pertaining Official Documents, Land & Real Estate registrations and regulations etc.). Each exam takes two days, a day on oral examination in front of a judge or an attorney, and a day of essay examination, in which they will be tested on hypothetical cases submitted to them. Successful applicants will be honoured with the title of "First Degree Attorney '', after they take the oath and can practice in all courts of the country including the Supreme Court. Those who fail must redo the apprenticeship program in full or in part before taking the Final Bar Exam again.
The bar exams in Japan yield the least number of successful candidates worldwide. The old format of the examinations, last held in 2010 saw only 6 % passing the exam. With the new format of examinations, even after extensive reforms and a new mandatory duration of graduate school education for a period of two years, the pass rate is only 22 %. Since 2014, candidates are allowed to take the examinations within five years before their right to take the exam is revoked and they either have to return to law school, take the preparatory exam or give up totally. It is administered solely by the Ministry of Justice.
Due to the colonial - era influence, Korea 's bar exam system closely follows that of Japan 's. Korea is phasing out in 2017 its old system that allows anyone to take the exam and undergo mandatory 2 - year state - sponsored training that is criticized for generating "고시 낭인 '' or "exam jobless '' referring to people who spend many years of their lives preparing for the exam. The new law school system that began in 2009 give only the graduates of a law school to apply for the bar exam, with around 50 % passing rate.
The Philippine Bar Examination is administered once every year on the four Sundays of November (September before 2011). It covers eight areas of law: political law, labor law and social legislation, criminal law, civil law, commercial law, taxation law, remedial law, and legal ethics and practical exercises.
In Poland, the bar examination is taken after graduating from a law faculty at a university. It allows a person to undertake practice, the duration of which varies depending on the specialization. After the practical period applicants must pass the exam held by the Professional Chambers with assistance from some members of the Ministry of Justice.
See Legal education: South Africa.
In Thailand, the bar examination is different from the lawyer licence. To practice law as a lawyer, i.e. to speak in the court, one must pass a lawyer licence examination and does not need to be called to the bar. People take the bar examination to become qualified to take a judge or public prosecutor examination.
To be called to the bar, one must pass the written exams consisting of four parts as follows.
Each part has 10 essay questions. The pass mark is 50. The parts 1 - 2 are usually taken in October and the rest are usually taken in March. One does not need to pass all four parts in one year. After passing all the written exams, there is an oral exam.
Around 10,000 bar students sit the exam each year. In 2013, 1,231 students were called to the bar, 111 of whom did it in only one year.
Quite confusingly with international norms, students called to the bar are referred to as netibandit (เนติบัณฑิต), which gets translated into English as Barrister - at - Law. The Thai legal profession, however, is a fused one and those with lawyer licenses are able to practice both as barristers and solicitors in the British / Commonwealth sense. Many students called to the bar choose to become judges or public prosecutors instead of lawyers. As the Thai bar examination (administered and awarded by the Thai Bar Association) is separate from the lawyers licensing scheme (administered and awarded by the Lawyers Council of Thailand), this means that judges and public prosecutors belong to a separate licensing organization from lawyers. This is unlike in the US where judges and prosecutors most often come from the ranks of senior lawyers and belong to the same bar. \
Bar exams are administered by agencies of individual states. In 1738, Delaware created the first bar exam with other American colonies soon following suit. A state bar licensing agency is invariably associated with the judicial branch of government, because American attorneys are all officers of the court of the bar (s) to which they belong.
Sometimes the agency is an office or committee of the state 's highest court or intermediate appellate court. In some states which have a unified or integrated bar association (meaning that formal membership in a public corporation controlled by the judiciary is required to practice law therein), the agency is either the state bar association or a subunit thereof. Other states split the integrated bar membership and the admissions agency into different bodies within the judiciary; in Texas, the Board of Law Examiners is appointed by the Texas Supreme Court and is independent from the integrated State Bar of Texas.
The bar examination in most U.S. states and territories is at least two days long (a few states have three - day exams) and usually consists of:
Each state controls where it administers its bar exam. Because the MBE (below) is a standardized test, it must be administered on the same day across the country. That day occurs twice a year as the last Wednesday in July and the last Wednesday in February. Two states, Delaware and North Dakota, may administer their bar exams only once, in July, if they do not have enough applicants to merit a second sitting. North Dakota requires ten applicants in order to administer the February exam. Most bar exams are administered on consecutive days. Louisiana is the exception, with the Louisiana Bar Exam being a three - day examination on Monday, Wednesday and Friday. Also, Louisiana 's examination is the longest in the country in terms of examination time, with seven hours on Monday and Wednesday and seven and one half hours on Friday for a total of 21.5 hours of testing. Montana 's bar examination also occurs over a three - day period, with a total of 18 hours of testing. The bar exams in California, Delaware, Nevada, South Carolina, and Texas are also three days long, though the California bar exam is moving to a two - day format with the July, 2017, sitting.
The MEE and MPT, as uniform though not standardized tests, also must be administered on the same day across the country -- specifically the day before the MBE.
Most law schools teach students common law and how to analyze hypothetical fact patterns like a lawyer, but do not specifically prepare law students for any particular bar exam. Only a minority of law schools offer bar preparation courses.
To refresh their memory on "black - letter rules '' tested on the bar, most students engage in a regimen of study (called "bar review '') between graduating from law school and sitting for the bar. For bar review, most students in the United States attend a private bar review course which is provided by a third - party company and not their law school.
The National Conference of Bar Examiners (NCBE) is a U.S. based non-profit organization that develops national ("multistate '') standardized tests for admission to the bar in individual states. The organization was founded in 1931. The best known exams developed by NCBE are the Multistate Bar Examination (1972), the Multistate Essay Examination (1988), the Multistate Performance Test (1997), and the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination (1980).
NCBE has developed a Uniform Bar Examination (UBE), which consists solely of the MBE, MEE, and MPT, and offers portability of scores across state lines. Missouri became the first state to adopt the UBE; both that state and North Dakota were the first to administer the UBE, doing so in February 2011. Following Missouri 's lead, several other jurisdictions, all of which were among the 22 that already were using all three components of the UBE, are expected to adopt that examination. However, many of the largest legal markets -- California, Florida, Illinois and Texas -- have so far chosen not to adopt the UBE. Among the concerns cited with the adoption of the UBE were its absence of questions on state law and the fact that it would give the NCBE much greater power in the bar credentialing process.
As of January 2017, the Uniform Bar Examination Jurisdictions are (date of first UBE administration in parentheses):
The Multistate Bar Examination (MBE) is a standardized, multiple - choice examination created and sold to participating state bar examiners.
The examination is administered on a single day of the bar examination in 49 states and the District of Columbia, as well as in Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Republic of Palau. The only state that does not administer the MBE is Louisiana, which follows a civil law system very different from the law in other states. The MBE is also not administered in Puerto Rico, which, like Louisiana, has a civil law system. The MBE is given twice a year: on the last Wednesday of July in all jurisdictions that require that examination, and on the last Wednesday of February in the same jurisdictions, except for Delaware and North Dakota.
The 200 MBE questions test six subjects based upon principles of common law and Article 2 of the Uniform Commercial Code (covering sales of goods) that apply throughout the United States. The questions are not broken down into sections and the six topics are distributed more or less evenly throughout the course of the exam. Exam - takers generally receive three hours during the morning session to complete the first 100 questions, and another three hours during the afternoon session to complete the second 100 questions.
In January 2009, NCBE indicated that it was considering adding a seventh topic, civil procedure, to the examination. Civil Procedure was scheduled to make its first showing on the MBE in February 2015.
The average raw score from the summer exam historically has been about 128, or about 67 % correct (only 175 of the 200 questions are scored with the remaining 25 questions being evaluated for future use), while the average scaled score in 2007 was about 140. In summer 2007, the average scaled score was 143.7 with a standard deviation of 15.9. Over 50,000 applicants took the test; less than half that number took it in the winter.
Taking the MBE in one jurisdiction may allow an applicant to use his or her MBE score to waive into another jurisdiction or to use the MBE score with another state 's bar examination.
The Multistate Essay Examination (MEE) is a collection of essay questions largely concerning the common law administered as a part of the bar examination in 26 jurisdictions of the United States: Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, District of Columbia, Guam, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Mexico, New York, North Dakota, Northern Mariana Islands, Oregon, Palau, Rhode Island, South Carolina (eff. Feb. 2017), South Dakota, Utah, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming.
The MEE can cover any of the following areas:
MEE questions are actually drafted by the NCBE Drafting Committee, with the assistance of outside academics and practitioners who are experts in the fields being tested. After initial drafting, the questions are pretested, analyzed by outside experts and a separate NCBE committee, reviewed by boards of bar examiners in the jurisdictions that use the test, and then revised by the Drafting Committee in accordance with the results of this process. Each MEE question is accompanied by a grading guide, and the NCBE sponsors a grading workshop on the weekend following the bar exam whose results are provided to bar examiners.
The examination is always administered on a single day of the bar examination, specifically the day before the Multistate Bar Examination (MBE). Through February 2007, the MEE consisted of seven questions, with most jurisdictions selecting six of the seven questions to administer. Unlike the MBE, which is graded and scored by the NCBE, the MEE is graded exclusively by the jurisdiction that administers the bar examination. Each jurisdiction has the choice of grading MEE questions according to general U.S. common law or the jurisdiction 's own law.
The MEE is generally paired with the MPT.
The Multistate Performance Test (MPT), a written performance test designed to test an examinee 's ability to use fundamental lawyering skills in a realistic situation and complete a task that a beginning lawyer should be able to accomplish. It was developed by the NCBE and is used in many U.S. jurisdictions. The MPT is generally paired with the MEE.
In almost all jurisdictions, the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination (MPRE), an ethics exam, is also administered by the NCBE, which creates it and grades it. The MPRE is offered three times a year, in March, August and November.
California and Pennsylvania draft and administer their own performance tests. California performance tests are three hours in length (as California has traditionally viewed the 90 - minute MPT as too short to meaningfully test anything, though is reverting to back to this format with its July, 2017, sitting) and are far more difficult than the MPT.
As noted above, essay questions are the most variable component of the bar exam. States emphasize different areas of law in their essay questions depending upon their respective histories and public policy priorities. For example, unlike Texas and Alta California, Louisiana did not convert to common law when it was acquired by the United States, so its essay questions require knowledge of the state 's unique civil law system. Several states whose law descends from Spanish and Mexican civil law, like Texas and California, require all bar exam applicants to demonstrate knowledge of community property law. Pennsylvania, with a history of federal tax evasion (e.g., the Whiskey Rebellion), tests federal income tax law, while New Jersey, with a history of discriminatory zoning (resulting in the controversial Mount Laurel doctrine), tests zoning and planning law. Washington, South Dakota, and New Mexico each test Indian law, because of their relatively large populations of Native Americans and large numbers of Indian reservations. Most states test knowledge of the law of negotiable instruments and secured transactions (Articles 3 and 9 of the Uniform Commercial Code), but Alaska, California, Minnesota, and Pennsylvania do not; they have recognized that the vast majority of criminal, personal injury, and family lawyers will never draft a promissory note or litigate the validity of a security interest.
A statement by the Society of American Law Teachers (SALT) articulates many criticisms of the bar exam.. The SALT statement, however, does propose some alternative methods of bar admission that are partially test - based. A response to the SALT statement was made by Suzanne Darrow - Kleinhau in The Bar Examiner
The NCBE published an article in 2005 addressing alternatives to the bar exam, including a discussion of the Daniel Webster Scholar Honors Program, an alternate certification program introduced at the University of New Hampshire School of Law (formerly Franklin Pierce Law Center) in that year.
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the death of arthur from le morte d'arthur summary | Le Morte d'Arthur - wikipedia
Le Morte d'Arthur (originally spelled Le Morte Darthur, Middle French for "the death of Arthur '') is a reworking of existing tales by Sir Thomas Malory about the legendary King Arthur, Guinevere, Lancelot, Merlin, and the Knights of the Round Table. Malory interprets existing French and English stories about these figures and adds original material (e.g., the Gareth story).
Malory 's actual title for the work was The Whole Book of King Arthur and His Noble Knights of the Round Table, but after Malory 's death the publisher changed the title to what is commonly known today. "The Death of King Arthur '' originally only referred to the final volume in the complete work.
Le Morte d'Arthur was first published in 1485 by William Caxton and is today one of the best - known works of Arthurian literature in English. Until the discovery of the Winchester Manuscript in 1934, the 1485 edition was considered the earliest known text of Le Morte d'Arthur and that closest to Malory 's translation and compilation. Various modern editions are inevitably variable, changing a variety of spelling, grammar, and / or pronouns for the convenience of readers of modern English. Many modern Arthurian writers have used Malory as their principal source, including T.H. White in his The Once and Future King and Alfred, Lord Tennyson in The Idylls of the King.
The exact identity of the author of Le Morte D'Arthur has long been the subject of speculation, owing to the fact that at least six historical figures bore the name of "Sir Thomas Malory '' in the late 15th century. In the work the author describes himself as "Knyght presoner Thomas Malleorre '' ("Sir Thomas Maleore '' according to Caxton). This is taken as supporting evidence for the identification most widely accepted by scholars: that the author was the Thomas Malory born in the year 1416, to Sir John Malory of Newbold Revel, Warwickshire.
Sir Thomas inherited the family estate in 1434, but by 1450 he was fully engaged in a life of crime. As early as 1433 he had been accused of theft, but the more serious allegations against him were that of the attempted murder of the Duke of Buckingham, an accusal of rape at least twice, and that he had attacked and robbed Coombe Abbey. Malory was first arrested and imprisoned in 1451 for the ambush of Buckingham, but was released early in 1452. By March he was back in prison at Marshalsea Prison and then in Colchester, escaping on at least two occasions. In 1461 he was granted a pardon by Henry VI, returning to live at his estate.
Although originally allied to the Yorkists, after his release Malory changed his allegiance to the Lancastrians. This led to him being imprisoned yet again in 1468 when he led an ill - fated plot to overthrow Edward IV. It was during this final stint at Newgate Prison in London that he is believed to have written Le Morte D'Arthur. Malory was released in October, 1470 when Henry VI came to the throne, but died only five months later.
Elizabeth Bryan speaks of Malory 's contribution to Arthurian Legend in her introduction to Le Morte D'Arthur: "Malory did not invent the stories in this collection; he translated and compiled them... Malory in fact translated Arthurian stories that already existed in thirteenth - century French prose (the so - called Old French Vulgate romances) and compiled them together with at least one tale from Middle English sources (the Alliterative Morte Arthure and the Stanzaic Morte Arthur) to create this text. ''
He called the full work The hoole booke of kyng Arthur & of his noble knyghtes of the rounde table, but William Caxton instead titled it with Malory 's name for the final section of the cycle. Modernized editions update the late Middle English spelling, update some pronouns, and repunctuate and reparagraph the text. Others furthermore update the phrasing and vocabulary to contemporary Modern English. Here is an example (from Caxton 's preface) in Middle English and then in Modern English:
The Middle English of Le Morte D'Arthur is much closer to Early Modern English than the Middle English of Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales. If the spelling is modernized, it reads almost like Elizabethan English.
The first printing of Malory 's work was made by Caxton in 1485. Only two copies of this original printing are known to exist, in the collections of the Morgan Library & Museum in New York and the John Rylands Library in Manchester. It proved popular and was reprinted in 1498 and 1529 with some additions and changes by Wynkyn de Worde who succeeded Caxton 's press. Three more editions were published before the English Civil War: William Copland 's (1557), Thomas East 's (1585), and William Stansby 's (1634), each of which contained additional changes and errors (including the omission of an entire leaf). Thereafter, the book went out of fashion until the Romantic revival of interest in all things medieval; the year 1816 saw a new edition by Walker and Edwards, and another one by Wilks, both based on the 1634 Stansby edition. Davison 's 1817 edition was promoted by Robert Southey and was based on Caxton 's 1485 edition or on a mixture of Caxton and Stansby. Davison was the basis for subsequent editions until the discovery of the Winchester Manuscript.
Caxton separated Malory 's eight books into 21 books; subdivided each book into a total of 507 chapters; added a summary of each chapter and added a colophon to the entire book. Malory 's eight tales are:
Most of the events in the book take place in Britain and France at an unspecified time. (The historical events on which the legend is based took place in the late 5th century, but the story contains many anachronisms and makes no effort at historical accuracy.) In some parts, the story ventures farther afield, to Rome and Sarras (near Babylon), and recalls Biblical tales from the ancient Near East.
Winchester College headmaster W.F. Oakeshott discovered a previously unknown manuscript copy of the work in June 1934, during the cataloging of the college 's library. Newspaper accounts announced that what Caxton had published in 1485 was not exactly what Malory had written. Oakeshott published "The Finding of the Manuscript '' in 1963, chronicling the initial event and his realization that "this indeed was Malory, '' with "startling evidence of revision '' in the Caxton edition. It is hypothesized that Caxton 's text and the Winchester manuscript are both derived from an earlier copy. (Having said this, microscopic examination revealed that ink smudges on the Winchester manuscript are offsets of newly printed pages set in Caxton 's own font, which indicates that the Winchester Manuscript was in Caxton 's print shop. (9)) The "Winchester Manuscript '' is believed to be closer on the whole to Malory 's original. In addition, it does not have the book and chapter divisions for which Caxton takes credit in his preface.
Malory scholar Eugène Vinaver examined the manuscript shortly after its discovery. Oakeshott was encouraged to produce an edition himself, but he ceded the project to Vinaver. Based on his initial study of the manuscript, Oakeshott concluded in 1935 that the copy from which Caxton printed his edition "was already subdivided into books and sections. '' Vinaver made an exhaustive comparison of the manuscript with Caxton 's edition and reached similar conclusions. In his 1947 publication of The Works of Sir Thomas Malory, he argued that Malory did not write a single book, but rather a series of Arthurian tales, each of which is an internally consistent and independent work. However, scholars (including William Matthews) pointed out that Malory 's later tales make frequent references back to the earlier events, suggesting that he had wanted the tales to cohere better but had not sufficiently revised the whole text to achieve this.
The Winchester manuscript has been digitised by a Japanese team, who note that "the text is imperfect, as the manuscript lacks the first and last quires and few leaves. The most striking feature of the manuscript is the extensive use of red ink. ''
The publication of Chaucer 's work by William Caxton was a precursor to his publication of Malory 's Le Morte D'Arthur. Where the Canterbury Tales are in Middle English, Malory extends "one hand to Chaucer, and one to Spenser '' constructing a manuscript which is hard to place in one category. Like other English prose in the fifteenth century, Le Morte D'Arthur was highly influenced by French writings, but Malory blends these with other English verse and prose forms. Although Malory hearkens back to an age of idealized knighthood, jousting tournaments, and grand castles to suggest a medieval world, his stories lack any agricultural life, or commerce which makes the story feel as if it were an era of its own.
Because there is so much lengthy ground to cover, Malory uses "so -- and -- then, '' often to transition his retelling. This repetition is not redundant, but adds an air of continuity only befitting the story 's scale and grandeur. The stories then become episodes instead of instances that can stand on their own.
There is an artful way in which Malory portrays Arthur by revealing him to us only by how others are affected by his actions. This creates a man whom we can not define, but still stands as the center of the legend, and lets our mind move from him to the scenes around him.
The themes of love and war "are fundamental to the work of Sir Thomas Malory. Religion -- the third of the great epic themes -- is admittedly and nobly subordinated; only at the end, Guinevere, in expiation of her guilt in destroying the Round Table, becomes a nun; and Lancelot, for love of her and not for the love of God, takes on himself the habit of perfection. '' It has been declared that, "Malory recreated an epic story from romance, '' because of his inclusion of the mysterious and magical elements in a depiction of a world with which Malory 's contemporaries are familiar. Through the format of a knightly romance provides, "an idealized version of the life of the knightly class; it is the warrior 's daydream, designed for recreation (or "solace ''), not instruction (or "doctrine ''), and representing the average sensual man 's point of view. '' The forms of romantic characters used in order to create the world of Arthur and the Round Table, "consist almost entirely of fighting men, their wives or mistresses, with an occasional clerk or an enchanter, a fairy or a fiend, a giant or a dwarf, '' and "time does not work on the heroes of Malory. ''
Arthur is born to Uther Pendragon and Igraine and then taken by Sir Ector to be fostered in the country. He later becomes the king of a leaderless England when he removes the fated sword from the stone. Arthur goes on to win many battles due to his military prowess and Merlin 's counsel. He then consolidates his kingdom.
This first book also tells "The Tale of Balyn and Balan '', which ends in accidental fratricide, and the begetting of Mordred, Arthur 's incestuous son by his half - sister, Morgause (though Arthur did not know her as his half - sister). On Merlin 's advice, and reminiscent of Herod 's killing of the innocents in scripture, Arthur takes every newborn boy in his kingdom and sends them to sea in a boat. The boat crashes and all but Mordred, who later kills his father, perish. This is mentioned matter - of - factly, with no apparent moral overtone. Arthur marries Guinevere, and inherits the Round Table from her father Leodegrance. At Pentecost, Arthur gathers his knights at Camelot and establishes the Round Table company. All swear to the Pentecostal Oath as a guide for knightly conduct.
This book, detailing Arthur 's march on Rome, is heavily based on the Middle English Alliterative Morte Arthure, which in turn is heavily based on Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae. The opening of Book V finds Arthur and his kingdom without an enemy. His throne is secure, his knights have proven themselves through a series of quests, Sir Lancelot and Sir Tristan have arrived and the court is feasting. When envoys from Emperor Lucius of Rome arrive and accuse Arthur of refusing tribute, "contrary to the statutes and decrees made by the noble and worthy Julius Caesar '', Arthur and his knights are stirring for a fight. They are "many days rested '' and excited, "for now shall we have warre and worshype. '' Arthur invokes the lineage of Ser Belyne and Sir Bryne, legendary British conquerors of Rome, and through their blood lineage demands tribute from Lucius under the argument that Britain conquered Rome first. Lucius, apprised of the situation by his envoys, raises a heathen army of the East, composed of Spaniards and Saracens, as well as other enemies of the Christian world. Rome is supposed to be the seat of Christianity, but it is more foreign and corrupt than the courts of Arthur and his allies. Departing from Geoffrey of Monmouth 's history in which Mordred is left in charge, Malory 's Arthur leaves his court in the hands of Sir Constantine of Cornwall and an advisor. Arthur sails to Normandy to meet his cousin Hoel, but he finds a giant terrorizing the people from the holy island of Mont St. Michel. Arthur battles him alone, an act of public relations intended to inspire his knights. The giant dies after Arthur "swappis his genytrottys in sondir '' and "kut his baly in sundir, that oute wente the gore ''. Arthur then fights Lucius and his armies defeat the Romans. He is crowned Emperor, a proxy government is arranged for the Roman Empire and Arthur returns to London where his queen welcomes him royally.
In this tale, Malory establishes Lancelot as King Arthur 's most revered knight. Among Lancelot 's numerous episodic adventures include being enchanted into a deep sleep by the four sorceresses including Morgan le Fay and Sebile and having to escape from their castle, proving victorious in a tournament fighting on behalf of King Bagdemagus, slaying the mighty Sir Turquine who had been holding several of Arthur 's knights prisoner, and also overcoming the betrayal of a damsel to defend himself unarmed against Sir Phelot.
The tale of Sir Gareth begins with his arrival at court as le bel inconnu, or the fair unknown. He comes without a name and therefore without a past. Sir Kay mockingly calls the unknown young man "Beaumains '' and treats him with contempt and condescension. An unknown woman, later revealed to be the Dame Lynette, eventually comes to court asking for assistance against the Red Knight of the Red Lands, and Gareth takes up the quest. On his quest, he encounters the Black, Green, Red, and Blue knights and the Red knight of the Red Lands. He kills the Black Knight, incorporates the others into Arthur 's court, and rescues Lynette 's sister Lyonesse. Lustily in love with Lyonesse, Gareth conspires to consummate their relationship before marrying. Only by the magical intervention of Lynette is their tryst unsuccessful, thus preserving Gareth 's virginity and, presumably, his standing with God. Gareth later counsels Lyonesse to report to King Arthur and pretend she does n't know where he is; instead, he tells her to announce a tournament of his knights against the Round Table. This allows Gareth to disguise himself and win honor by defeating his brother knights. The heralds eventually acknowledge that he is Sir Gareth right as he strikes down Sir Gawain, his brother. The book ends with Gareth rejoining his fellow knights and marrying Lyonesse.
In Book IV, there are only two knights that have ever held against Sir Lancelot in tournament: Tristan and Gareth. This was always under conditions where one or both parties were unknown by the other, for these knights loved each other "passingly well. '' Gareth was knighted by Lancelot himself when he took upon him the adventure on behalf of Dame Lynette. Much later, Gareth is accidentally slain by his beloved Lancelot when Guinevere is rescued from being burnt at the stake by King Arthur.
In "The Fyrste and the Secunde Boke of Syr Trystrams de Lyones, '' Malory tells the tales of Sir Tristan (Trystram), Sir Dinadan, Sir Palamedes, Sir La Cote De Male Tayle, Sir Alexander, and a variety of other knights. Based on the French Prose Tristan, or a lost English adaptation of it, Malory 's Tristan section is the literal centerpiece of Le Morte D'Arthur as well as the longest of the eight books.
The book is rife with adultery, characterized most visibly in Sir Tristan and the Belle Isolde. However, it should be noted that Sir Tristan had met and fallen in love with Isolde earlier, and that his uncle, King Mark, jealous of Tristan and seeking to undermine him, appears to seek marriage to Isolde for just such a hateful purpose, going so far as to ask Tristan to go and seek her hand on his behalf (which Tristan, understanding that to be his knightly duty, does). Sir Tristan is the namesake of the book and his adulterous relationship with Isolde, his uncle Mark 's wife, is one of the focuses of the section. Other knights, even knights of the Round Table, make requests that show the dark side of the world of chivalry. In one episode, Sir Bleoberis, one of Lancelot 's cousins, claims another knight 's wife for his own and rides away with her until stopped by Sir Tristan. In another, when Tristan defeats Sir Blamore, another knight of the Round Table, Blamore asks Tristan to kill him because he would rather die than have his reputation tarnished by the defeat.
Of all the knights, Tristan most resembles Lancelot. He loves a queen, the wife of another. Tristan is even considered to be as strong and able a knight as Lancelot, although they become beloved friends. Because of King Mark 's treacherous behavior, Tristan takes Isolde from him and lives with her for some time, but he then returns Isolde to him. Nonetheless, Mark kills Tristan while he is "harping '' (Tristan is noted in the book as one of the greatest of musicians and falconers).
Malory 's primary source for "The Noble Tale of the Sangreal '' is the French Vulgate Cycle 's La Queste Del Saint Graal. Malory 's version chronicles the adventures of numerous knights in their quest to achieve the Holy Grail. The Grail first appears in the hall of King Arthur "coverde with whyght samyte '', and it miraculously produces meat and drink for the knights. Gawain is the first to declare that he "shall laboure in the Queste of the Sankgreall ''. He embarks on the quest in order to see the Grail "more opynly than hit hath bene shewed '' before, and to gain more "metys and drynkes ''. Likewise, Lancelot, Percival, Bors, and Galahad undergo the quest. Their exploits are intermingled with encounters with maidens and hermits who offer advice and interpret dreams along the way.
At the beginning of the book "Sir Launcelot and Queene Gwenyvere '', Malory tells his readers that the pair started behaving carelessly in public, stating that "Launcelot began to resort unto the Queene Guinevere again and forget the promise and the perfection that he made in the Quest... and so they loved together more hotter than they did beforehand. '' They indulged in "privy draughts together '' and behaved in such a way that "many in the court spoke of it '' (Cooper, 402).
This book also includes the "knight of the cart '' episode, where Maleagant kidnapped Guinevere and her unarmed knights and held them prisoner in his castle. After Maleagant 's archers killed his horse, Launcelot had to ride to the castle in a cart in order to save the queen. Knowing Lancelot was on his way, Maleagant pleaded to Guinevere for mercy, which she granted and then forced Lancelot to stifle his rage against Maleagant.
In this same book Malory mentions Lancelot and Guinevere 's adultery. Malory says, "So, to passe upon this tale, Sir Launcelot wente to bedde with the Quene and toke no force of his hurte honed, but toke his plesaunce and hys lyknge untyll hit was the dawning of the day '' (Cooper, 633). Sir Maleagant, upon finding blood in Guinevere 's bed, was so convinced of her unfaithfulness to Arthur that he was willing to fight in an attempt to prove it to others. After Guinevere made it known that she wanted Maleagant dead, Launcelot killed him even though Maleagant begged for mercy (but only after Maleagant agreed to continue fighting with Lancelot 's helmet removed, his left side body armor removed, and his left hand tied behind his back -- Lancelot felt it necessary to finish the bout, but would not slay Maleagant unless Maleagant agreed to continue fighting). The book ends with Lancelot 's healing of Sir Urry of Hungary, where Malory notes that Lancelot is the only knight out of hundreds to succeed in this endeavor.
Mordred and Agravaine have been scheming to uncover Lancelot and Guinevere 's adultery for quite some time. When they find an opportune moment to finally and concretely reveal the adulterous relationship, Lancelot kills Agravaine and several others and escapes. Arthur is forced to sentence Guinevere to burn at the stake, and orders his surviving nephews, Gawain, Mordred, Gareth, and Gaheris, to guard the scene, knowing Lancelot will attempt a rescue. Gawain flatly refuses to be part of any act that will treat the queen shamefully. His younger brothers, Gaheris and Gareth, unable to deny the king 's request that they escort Guinevere to the stake to be burnt, advise that they will do so at his command, but they will not arm themselves. When Lancelot 's party raids the execution, many knights are killed, including, by accident, Gareth and Gaheris. Gawain, bent on revenge for their deaths, prompts Arthur into a war with Lancelot, first at his castle in northern England. At this point the Pope steps in and issues a bull to end the violence between Arthur 's and Lancelot 's factions. Shortly thereafter, Arthur pursues Lancelot to his home in France to continue the fight. Gawain twice challenges Lancelot to a duel, but each time loses and asks Lancelot to kill him; Lancelot refuses and grants him mercy before leaving.
Arthur receives a message that Mordred, whom he had left in charge back in Britain, has usurped his throne, and he leads his forces back home. In the invasion Gawain is mortally injured, and writes to Lancelot, asking for his help against Mordred, and for forgiveness for separating the Round Table. In a dream, the departed Gawain tells Arthur to wait thirty days for Lancelot to return to England before fighting Mordred, and Arthur sends Lucan and Bedivere to make a temporary peace treaty. At the exchange, an unnamed knight draws his sword to kill an adder. The other knights construe this as treachery and a declaration of war. Seeing no other recourse, at the Battle of Camlann, Arthur charges Mordred and impales him with a spear. But with the last of his strength, Mordred impales himself even further, so as to come within striking distance of King Arthur, then gives a mortal blow to Arthur 's head.
As he was dying, Arthur commands Bedivere to cast Excalibur into the lake. Bedivere initially does not throw the sword in the lake, but instead hides it behind a tree. He confesses his reluctance to Arthur, then returns to the lake and throws in his own sword instead of Excalibur. Bedivere once again relays his disobedience to Arthur, who requests the sword be returned to the lake for a third time. When Bedivere finally throws Excalibur back in the lake, it is retrieved by the hand of the Lady of the Lake. The hand shakes the sword three times and then vanishes back into the water. A barge appears, carrying ladies in black hoods (one being Morgan le Fay), who take Arthur to the Isle of Avalon.
After the passing of King Arthur, Malory provides a denouement, mostly following the lives (and deaths) of Guinevere, Lancelot, and Lancelot 's kinsmen. When Lancelot returns to Dover, he mourns the deaths of his comrades. Lancelot travels to Almesbury to see Guinevere. During the civil war, Guinevere is portrayed as a scapegoat for violence without developing her perspective or motivation. However, after Arthur 's death, Guinevere retires to a convent in penitence for her infidelity. Her contrition is sincere and permanent; Lancelot is unable to sway her to come away with him. Instead, Lancelot becomes a monk, and is joined in monastic life by his kinsmen. Arthur 's successor is appointed (Constantine, son of King Carados of Scotland), and the realm that Arthur created is significantly changed. After the deaths of Guinevere and Lancelot, Sirs Bors, Hector, Blamore, and Bleoberis head to the Holy Land to crusade, where they die on Good Friday.
The Victorian poet Alfred Tennyson retold the legends in the poetry volume Idylls of the King. His work focuses primarily on Sir Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d'Arthur and the Mabinogion, but with many expansions, additions, and several adaptations, like the fate of Guinevere. In Malory, she is sentenced to be burnt at the stake but is rescued by Lancelot; in the Idylls Guinevere flees to a convent, is forgiven by Arthur, repents, and serves in the convent until she dies.
In 1892, London publisher J.M. Dent & Co. decided to produce an illustrated edition of Le Morte Darthur in modern spelling. They chose a 20 - year - old insurance - office clerk and art student, Aubrey Beardsley, to illustrate the work. It was issued in 12 parts between June 1893 and mid-1894, and met with only modest success at the time. However, it has since been described as Beardsley 's first masterpiece, launching what has come to be known as the "Beardsley look ''. It was his first major commission, and included nearly 585 chapter openings, borders, initials, ornaments and full - or double - page illustrations. Most of the Dent edition illustrations were reprinted by Dover Publications, New York, in 1972 under the title Beardsley 's Illustrations for Le Morte Darthur. A facsimile of the Beardsley edition, complete with Malory 's unabridged text, was published in the 1990s.
In 1880, American poet Sidney Lanier published a much watered - down and expurgated version of Malory 's book entitled The Boy 's King Arthur. This version was later incorporated into Grosset and Dunlap 's series of books called the Illustrated Junior Library, and reprinted under the title King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table.
A number of other English versions of Le Morte d'Arthur have appeared. The first was published anonymously in 1950; the second by Roger Lancelyn and Richard Lancelyn Green published in 1953, and the third by Emma Gelders Sterne, Barbara Lindsay, Gustaf Tenggren and Mary Pope Osborne, published in 2002. Scholar Keith Baines published a modernized English version of Malory 's Le Morte D'Arthur in 1962. In 2009, scholar Dorsey Armstrong published a Modern English translation that focused on the Winchester manuscript rather than the Caxton edition.
Malory 's work served as inspiration for Mark Twain 's novel A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur 's Court. In Twain 's work, a reading of the text in modern times is interrupted by a mysterious stranger who claims to be a Yankee who was sent back in time to the Arthurian era.
The Once and Future King by T.H. White is, by far, the best - known and most influential retelling of Malory 's story. Not a scene - by - scene rendition, White instead retold the story in his own fashion, in the form of a novel. Just as Malory 's retelling stands as the "definitive '' and most popular version of Arthur 's story, White 's version stands out as, to date, the "definitive '' retelling of Malory 's work.
John Steinbeck utilized the Winchester Manuscripts of Thomas Malory and other sources as the original text for his The Acts of King Arthur and His Noble Knights, which he never completed. It was published posthumously in 1976 in unfinished form of The Book of King Arthur and His Noble Knights of the Round Table. He intended the work for young people.
Other adaptations include Excalibur, a 1981 British epic fantasy film directed, produced, and co-written by John Boorman, which retells Le Morte d'Arthur with some changes to the plot and fate of the characters (such as completely replacing Morgause with Morgan, who dies in this version). Castle Freeman, Jr. 's 2008 novel Go With Me is a modern retelling of the Tale of Sir Gareth.
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list of countries trying to join the eu | Future enlargement of the European Union - Wikipedia
Council of the EU
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There are five recognised candidates for future membership of the European Union: Turkey (applied in 14 April 1987), Macedonia (applied in 22 March 2004), Montenegro (applied in 2008), Albania (applied in 2009) and Serbia (applied in 2009). All except Albania and Macedonia have started accession negotiations. Kosovo, whose independence is not recognised by five EU member states, and Bosnia and Herzegovina are recognised as potential candidates for membership by the EU. Bosnia and Herzegovina has formally submitted an application for membership, while Kosovo has a Stabilisation and Association Agreement (SAA) with the EU, which generally precedes the lodging of membership application. In July 2014, Jean - Claude Juncker announced that the EU has no plans to expand before 2019 while Serbia and Montenegro, the most advanced candidates, are expected to join before 2025. While the others are progressing, Turkish talks are at an effective standstill.
The accession criteria are included in the Copenhagen criteria, agreed in 1993, and the Treaty of Maastricht (Article 49). Article 49 of the Maastricht Treaty (as amended) says that any "European state '' that respects the "principles of liberty, democracy, respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, and the rule of law '', may apply to join the EU. Whether a country is European or not is subject to political assessment by the EU institutions.
Past enlargement has brought membership to twenty - eight members since the foundation of the European Union (EU) as the European Economic Community by the Inner Six states in 1958.
The three major western European countries that are not EU members, Iceland, Norway and Switzerland, have all submitted membership applications in the past, but subsequently froze them. They do however, along with Liechtenstein, participate in the EU Single Market as well as the Schengen Area, which makes them closely aligned with the EU. According to an Eastern Partnership strategy, the EU is unlikely to invite any more of its post-Soviet neighbours to join the bloc before 2020. However, in 2014 the EU signed Association Agreements with Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine, and the European Parliament passed a resolution recognising the "European perspective '' of all three countries.
The present enlargement agenda of the European Union regards Turkey and the Western Balkan states of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia. These states must negotiate the terms of their EU accession with the current member states, and align their domestic legislation with EU law before joining.
Turkey has a long - standing application with the EU, but their negotiations are expected to take until at least 2023. This is due to the political issues surrounding the accession of the country. As for the Western Balkan states, the EU had pledged to include them after their civil wars: in fact, two states have entered, four are candidates and the others have pre-accession agreements.
There are, however, other states in Europe which either seek membership or could potentially apply if their present foreign policy changes, or the EU gives a signal that they might now be included on the enlargement agenda. However, these are not formally part of the current agenda, which is already delayed due to bilateral disputes in the Balkans and difficulty in fully implementing the acquis communautaire (the accepted body of EU law).
In 2005, the European Commission suggested in a strategy paper that the present enlargement agenda could potentially block the possibility of a future accession of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine. Olli Rehn has said on occasion that the EU should "avoid overstretching our capacity, and instead consolidate our enlargement agenda, '' adding, "this is already a challenging agenda for our accession process. ''
It was previously the norm for enlargements to see multiple entrants join the Union at once. The only previous enlargements of a single state were the 1981 admission of Greece and the 2013 admission of Croatia.
However, the EU members have warned that, following the significant impact of the fifth enlargement in 2004, a more individual approach will be adopted in the future, although the entry of pairs or small groups of countries will most probably coincide.
The 2003 European Council summit in Thessaloniki set integration of the Western Balkans as a priority of EU expansion. This commitment was made in order to stabilise the region in the wake of the Yugoslav Wars, a series of civil wars through the 1990s that led to the breakup of Yugoslavia.
Slovenia, the first former Yugoslav country to obtain independence, joined the EU in 2004, followed by Croatia in 2013.
Albania, Serbia, Macedonia and Montenegro are all candidate states, with Serbia and Montenegro in negotiations. Bosnia and Herzegovina has applied to join but is not yet recognised as a candidate while Kosovo, which declared independence in 2008, is not recognised by all EU states, or Serbia. Serbia and Montenegro are expected to join before 2025.
Corruption, organised crime, politicisation of the judiciary.
Constitution needs significant reform, little agreement about the future of the state.
Still under an EU rule - of - law assistance mission, deep political and corruption problems, status is disputed.
Naming dispute with Greece, disputes with Bulgaria, concerns about democracy and rule of law
Still has serious problems with corruption, political and economic progress is moderate, concerns about Montenegro joining before Serbia.
Ongoing dispute over Kosovo, no recent progress in fighting corruption.
Turkey 's candidacy to join the EU has been a matter of major significance and considerable controversy since it was granted in 1999. Turkey has had historically close ties with the EU, having an association agreement since 1964, being in a customs union with the EU since 1995 and initially applying to join in 1987. Only after a summit in Brussels on 17 December 2004 (following the major 2004 enlargement), the European Council announced that membership negotiations with Turkey were officially opened on 3 October 2005.
Turkey is the thirteenth largest economy in the world, it has the second largest military force of NATO and is a key regional power. According to Carl Bildt, Swedish foreign minister, "(The accession of Turkey) would give the EU a decisive role for stability in the Eastern part of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, which is clearly in the strategic interest of Europe. ''
However others, such as former French President Nicolas Sarkozy and German Chancellor Angela Merkel, maintain an opposition to Turkey 's membership. Opponents argue that Turkey does not respect the key principles that are expected in a liberal democracy, such as the freedom of expression. Turkey 's large population would also alter the balance of power in the representative European institutions. Upon joining the EU, Turkey 's 70 million inhabitants would bestow it the second largest number of MEPs in the European Parliament. Demographic projections indicate that Turkey would surpass Germany in the number of seats by 2020. Turkey also does not recognise one EU state, Cyprus, over the Cyprus dispute and the Cypriot government blocks some chapters of Turkey 's talks in retaliation.
Turkey 's relations with the EU have seriously deteriorated in the aftermath of the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt and subsequent purges. On 24 November 2016 the European Parliament approved a non-binding resolution calling for the "temporary freeze of the ongoing accession negotiations with Turkey '' over human rights and rule of law concerns, On 13 December, the European Council (comprising the heads of state or government of the member states) resolved that it would open no new areas in Turkey 's membership talks in the "prevailing circumstances '', as Turkey 's path toward autocratic rule made progress on EU accession impossible. As of 2017, and especially following Erdoğan 's victory in the constitutional referendum, Turkish accession talks are effectively at a standstill.
(bracketed date): approximate and most probable nearest possible date
s -- screening of the chapter fs -- finished screening f -- frozen chapter o -- open chapter x -- closed chapter
The Maastricht Treaty (Article 49) states that any European country (as defined by a European Council assessment) that is committed to democracy may apply for membership in the European Union. In addition to European states, other countries have also been speculated or proposed as future members of the EU.
States in western Europe who have chosen, for various reasons, not to become full members of the EU have integrated with it to different extents according to their circumstances. Iceland, Norway and Liechtenstein participate directly in the single market via the European Economic Area, Switzerland does so via bilateral treaties and the other European microstates have specific agreements with the EU and neighbouring countries, including their use of the euro as their currency. Most of these countries are also part of the Schengen Area. While this integration is designed as a substitute for full membership, there are ongoing debates in a number of these countries as to whether they should join as full members. Three (Norway, Iceland and Switzerland) have all previously had live applications to join the EU which have been rejected or otherwise frozen. Such applications could be resubmitted in the event of a change in the political landscape.
Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine ratified an Association Agreement with the EU and the European Parliament passed a resolution in 2014 stating that "in accordance with Article 49 of the Treaty on European Union, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine, as well as any other European country, have a European perspective and can apply for EU membership in compliance with the principles of democracy, respect for fundamental freedoms and human rights, minority rights and ensuring the rule of rights. '' They also entered the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area with the EU, that creates "framework for modernising (...) trade relations and for economic development by the opening of markets via the progressive removal of customs tariffs and quotas, and by an extensive harmonisation of laws, norms and regulations in various trade - related sectors, creating the conditions for aligning key sectors '' of their economies with EU standards.
Internal enlargement is the process of new member states arising from the break - up of or secession from an existing member state. There have been and are a number of active separatist movements within member states (for example in Catalonia and Flanders) but there are no clear agreements, treaties or precedents covering the scenario of an existing EU member state breaking into two or more states, both of which wish to remain EU member states. The question is whether one state is a successor and one a new applicant or, alternatively, both are new states which must be admitted to the EU.
In some cases, a region desires to leave its state and the EU, namely those regions wishing to join Switzerland. But most, namely the two movements who have had referendums within the 2010s, Scotland and Catalonia, see their future as independent states within the EU. This results in great interest on whether, once independent, they would retain EU membership or conversely whether they would have to re-apply. In the later case, since new members must be approved unanimously, any other state which has an interest in blocking their membership to deter similar independence movements could do so. Additionally, it is unclear whether the successor state would retain any opt - outs that the parent state was entitled to.
The Scottish Independence Referendum of 2014 was the first occasion the EU was faced with the potential breakup of a member state, and one where the region declaring independence wished to retain its EU membership. While no longer an issue in light of the UK 's withdrawal from the EU the debates in the referendum campaign may inform future scenarios.
On 1 October 2017, the Catalan government held a referendum on independence, which had been declared illegal by Spanish government, with potential polling stations being cordoned off by riot police. The subsequent events constituted a political crisis for Catalonia. The EU 's position is to keep distance from the crisis while supporting Spain 's territorial integrity and constitution. While the debate around Scotland 's referendum may inform the Catalan crisis, Catalonia is in a distinct situation from Scotland whereby the central government does not recognise the legitimacy of any independence declaration from Catalonia. If Spain does not recognise the independence of a Catalan state, both Catalonia can not separately join the EU and it is still recognised as part of Spain 's EU membership.
There is an active movement towards Flemish independence, or union with the Netherlands, with the future status of Wallonia and Brussels (the de facto capital of the EU) unclear as viable political states, perhaps producing a unique situation from Scotland and Catalonia. There are various proposals for what should happen to the city, ranging from staying part of the Belgian rump state, to joining the hypothetical Flemish state, to becoming a separate political entity.
The European Council has recognized that if the UK withdraws from the EU as expected, then were Northern Ireland to be incorporated into the Republic of Ireland to form a United Ireland it would automatically rejoin the EU under Ireland 's membership. This is consistent with the incorporation of East Germany into the Federal Republic of Germany as a single EU member state. A similar scenario has been envisioned with the unification of Romania and Moldova, which would incorporate the current territory of Moldova into Romania and thus into the EU.
Officially, the island nation Cyprus is part of the European Union, under the de jure sovereignty of the Republic of Cyprus. Turkish Cypriots are citizens of the Republic of Cyprus and thus of the European Union, and were entitled to vote in the 2004 European Parliament election (though only a few hundred registered). The EU 's acquis communautaire is suspended indefinitely in the northern third of the island, which has remained outside the control of the Republic of Cyprus since the Turkish invasion of 1974. The Greek Cypriot community rejected the Annan Plan for the settlement of the Cyprus dispute in a referendum on 24 April 2004. Had the referendum been in favour of the settlement proposal, the island (excluding the British Sovereign Base Areas) would have joined the European Union as the United Cyprus Republic. The European Union 's relations with the Turkish Cypriot Community are handled by the European Commission 's Directorate - General for Enlargement.
There are multiple Special member state territories, some of them are not fully covered by the EU treaties and apply EU law only partially, if at all. It is possible for a dependency to change its status regarding the EU or some particular treaty or law provision. The territory may change its status from participation to leaving or from being outside to joining.
The only country with the status of British Overseas Territory that is part of the EU is Gibraltar, which joined the EEC together with the United Kingdom in 1973. The other overseas territories are defined as Overseas Countries and Territories of the EU. All of them are associated with the EU (meaning they apply some parts of EU law) and their nationals are in principle EU citizens.
Special terms were negotiated for the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man on the UK 's accession to the European Economic Community. These are contained in Protocol 3 to the Treaty of Accession 1973. The effect of the protocol is that the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are within the Common Customs Area and the Common External Tariff (i.e. they enjoy access to European Union countries of physical exports without tariff barriers). Other Community rules do not apply to the Islands.
The UK Sovereign Base Areas, Akrotiri and Dhekelia on Cyprus did not join the European Union when the United Kingdom joined. Cyprus ' Accession Treaty specifically stated that this would not change with the accession of Cyprus to the European Union. However, currently, some provisions of the EU Law are applicable there -- mainly border management, food safety and free movement of people and goods.
The Faroe Islands, a self - governing nation within the Kingdom of Denmark, are not part of the EU, as explicitly asserted by both Rome treaties. The relations with the EU are governed by a Fisheries Agreement (1977) and a Free Trade Agreement (1991, revised 1998). The main reason for remaining outside the EU is disagreements about the Common Fisheries Policy, which disfavours countries with large fish resources. Also, every member has to pay for the Common Agricultural Policy, which favours countries having much agriculture which the Faroe Islands does not. When Iceland was in membership negotiatiions around 2010, there was a hope of better conditions for fish - rich countries, but this came to nothing. The Common Fisheries Policy was introduced in 1970 for the very reason of getting access for the first EC members into waters of candidate countries, UK, Ireland and Denmark with the Faroe Islands.
Nevertheless, there are politicians, mainly in the right - wing Union Party (Sambandsflokkurin), led by their chairman Kaj Leo Johannesen, who would like to see the Faroes as a member of the EU. However, the chairman of the left - wing Republic (Tjóðveldi), Høgni Hoydal, has expressed concerns that if the Faroes were to join the EU as is, they might vanish inside the EU, comparing this with the situation of the Shetland Islands and Åland today, and wants the local government to solve the political situation between the Faroes and Denmark first.
Greenland, a self - governing community that is part of the Kingdom of Denmark, entered the EC with Denmark in 1973, because it had no local independence at that time. After the establishment of Greenland 's home rule in 1979 (effective from 1980), it held a second referendum on membership. The result was (mainly because of the Common Fisheries Policy) to leave, so on 1 February 1985, Greenland left the EEC and EURATOM. Its status was changed to that of an Overseas Country. Danish nationals residing in Greenland (i.e. all native population) are nonetheless fully European citizens; they are not, however, entitled to vote in European elections.
There has been some speculation as to whether Greenland may consider rejoining the European Union. On 4 January 2007 the Danish daily Jyllands - Posten quoted the former Danish minister for Greenland, Tom Høyem, as saying "I would not be surprised if Greenland again becomes a member of the EU... The EU needs the Arctic window and Greenland can not alone manage the gigantic Arctic possibilities ''. Greenland has a lot of natural resources, and Greenland has, especially during the 2000s commodities boom, contracted private companies to exploit some of them, but the cost is considered too high, as Greenland is remote and severely lacks infrastructure. After 2013 prices have declined so such efforts have stalled.
The Brexit debate has reignited talk about the EU in Greenland, and there have been calls for the island to rejoin the Union.
The islands of Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten are constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, while Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba are special Dutch municipalities. All are Overseas Countries and Territories (OCT) under Annex II of the EC treaty. OCTs are considered to be "associated '' with the EU and apply some portions of EU law. The islands are opting to become an Outermost Region (OMR) of the EU, the same status the Azores, Madeira, the Canary Islands and the French overseas departments have.
When Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba were established as Dutch public bodies after the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles (which was an OCT) in 2010, their status within the EU were raised. Rather than change their status from an OCT to an outermost region, as their change in status within the Netherlands would imply, it was decided that their status would remain the same for at least five years. After those five years, their status would be reviewed.
If it was decided that one or all of the islands wish to integrate more with the EU then the Treaty of Lisbon provides for that following a unanimous decision from the European Council. Former European Commissioner for Enlargement Danuta Hübner has said before the European Parliament that she does n't expect many problems to occur with such a status change, as the population of the islands is only a few thousand people.
The territories of French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte and Réunion are overseas departments of France and at the same time mono - departmental overseas regions. According to the EC treaty (article 299 2), all of these departments are outermost regions (OMR) of the EU -- hence provisions of the EC treaty apply there while derogations are allowed. The status of the Overseas collectivity of Saint - Martin is also defined as OMR by the Treaty of Lisbon. New Caledonia and the overseas collectivities of French Polynesia, Saint - Barthelemy, Saint Pierre et Miquelon and Wallis and Futuna are Overseas Countries and Territories of the EU.
New Caledonia is an overseas territory of France with its own unique status under the French Constitution, which is distinct from that of overseas departments and collectivities. It is defined as an "overseas country '' under the 1998 Nouméa Accord, and enjoys a high degree of self - government. Currently, in regard to the EU, it is one of the Overseas Countries and Territories (OCT).
As a result of the Nouméa Accord, New Caledonians will vote on an independence referendum scheduled for November 2018. This referendum will determine whether the territory remains a part of the French Republic as a "sui generis collectivity '', or whether it will become an independent state. The accords also specify a gradual devolution of powers to the local New Caledonian assembly.
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if a person's head were divided on the coronal plane which of the following is true | Coronal plane - wikipedia
A coronal plane (also known as the frontal plane) is any vertical plane that divides the body into ventral and dorsal (belly and back) sections.
It is one of the three main planes of the body used to describe the location of body parts in relation to each other. axis
The coronal plane is an example of a longitudinal plane, because it is perpendicular to the transverse plane. For a human, the mid-coronal plane would transect a standing body into two halves (front and back, or anterior and posterior) in an imaginary line that cuts through both shoulders. The description of the coronal plane applies to most animals as well as humans even though humans walk upright and the various planes are usually shown in the vertical orientation.
The sternal plane (planum sternale) is a coronal plane which transects the front of the sternum.
The term is derived from Latin corona ("garland, crown ''), from Ancient Greek κορώνη (korōnē, "garland, wreath '').
Sectional Planes of the Brain
Identical twins at a gestational age of 15 weeks, shown in coronal and sagittal plane, respectively
Sagittal Section (top) Vs. coronal section (bottom) of a mouse brain
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what is the natural colour of coca cola | Coca - Cola formula - wikipedia
The Coca - Cola formula is the Coca - Cola Company 's secret recipe for Coca - Cola syrup, which bottlers combine with carbonated water to create the company 's flagship cola soft drink. Company founder Asa Candler initiated the veil of secrecy that surrounds the formula in 1891 as a publicity, marketing, and intellectual property protection strategy. While several recipes, each purporting to be the authentic formula, have been published, the company maintains that the actual formula remains a secret, known only to a very few select (and anonymous) employees.
Coca - Cola inventor John Pemberton is known to have shared his original formula with at least four people before his death in 1888. In 1891, Asa Candler purchased the rights to the formula from Pemberton 's estate, founded the Coca - Cola Company, and instituted the shroud of secrecy that has since enveloped the formula. He also made significant changes to the ingredients list, which by most accounts improved the flavor, and also entitled him to claim that anyone in possession of Pemberton 's original formula no longer knew the "real '' formula.
In 1919, Ernest Woodruff led a group of investors in purchasing the company from Candler and his family. As collateral for the acquisition loan, Woodruff placed the only written copy of the secret formula in a vault at the lending bank, Guaranty Bank in New York. In 1925, when the loan had been repaid, Woodruff relocated the written formula to the Trust Company Bank (now SunTrust Bank) in Atlanta. On December 8, 2011, the company placed it in a vault on the grounds of the World of Coca - Cola in Atlanta, where it remains on public "display ''.
According to the company, only two employees are privy to the complete formula at any given time and they are not permitted to travel together. When one dies, the other must choose a successor within the company and impart the secret to that person. The identity of the two employees in possession of the secret is itself a secret.
During the late 19th century, Coca - Cola was one of many popular coca - based drinks with purported medicinal properties and benefits to health; early marketing materials claimed that Coca - Cola alleviated headaches and acted as a "brain and nerve tonic ''. Coca leaves were used in Coca - Cola 's preparation; the small amount of cocaine they contained -- along with caffeine -- provided the drink 's "tonic '' quality. In 1903, cocaine was removed, leaving caffeine as the sole stimulant ingredient, and all medicinal claims were dropped. According to some sources, coca leaf extract, with the cocaine chemically removed, remained part of the formula. By one account, the FDA still screens random samples of Coca - Cola syrup for the presence of cocaine. The company will neither confirm nor deny that the current version of Coca - Cola contains coca leaf extract, deferring to the secret nature of the formula.
In 1911, the United States Government sued the Coca - Cola Company for violations of the Pure Food and Drugs Act, claiming that the high concentration of caffeine in Coca - Cola syrup was harmful to health. The case was decided in favor of Coca - Cola, but a portion of the decision was set aside in 1916 by the Supreme Court. As part of a settlement, the company agreed to reduce the amount of caffeine in its syrup.
The company protects the secrecy of its syrup recipe by shipping ingredients to its syrup factories in the form of anonymous "merchandises '', numbered 1 through 9. Factory managers are told the relative proportions of each numbered merchandise, and the mixing procedure, but not the ingredients in the merchandises, some of which are themselves mixtures of more basic ingredients. Merchandise no. 1 is known to be sugar, in the form of high - fructose corn syrup or sucrose (see variations, below); caramel coloring is no. 2, caffeine is no. 3, and phosphoric acid is no. 4. The identities of merchandises 5 through 9 are a matter of considerable debate -- particularly the legendary "merchandise 7X '' (the "X '' has never been explained), which is thought to contain a mixture of essential oils such as orange, lime, and lemon. Another ingredient is thought to be lavender.
Despite the implications of its name, there is no evidence that the current version of Coca - Cola syrup contains either coca leaf or kola nut extract; both substances have unpleasant, bitter flavors completely unlike that of Coca - Cola. (Nevertheless, a New Jersey company was named by one source as a supplier of coca extract to Coca - Cola.) The primary taste of Coca - Cola is thought to come from vanilla and cinnamon, with trace amounts of essential oils, and spices such as nutmeg. A 2015 study identified and measured 58 aroma compounds in common colas, confirming significant amounts of compounds corresponding to cinnamon, vanilla, nutmeg, orange and lemon essential oils in Coca Cola.
During the 1980s, most U.S. Coca - Cola bottlers switched their primary sweetening ingredient from cane sugar (sucrose) to the cheaper high - fructose corn syrup. The only U.S. bottler still using sucrose year - round is the Coca - Cola Bottling Company of Cleveland, which serves northern Ohio and a portion of Pennsylvania. Many bottlers outside the U.S. also continue to use sucrose as the primary sweetener. Twelve - ounce glass bottles of sucrose - sweetened Coca - Cola imported from Mexico are available in many U.S. markets for those consumers who prefer the sucrose version (see "Mexican Coke '', below).
Coca - Cola was certified Kosher in 1935 by Rabbi Tobias Geffen after beef tallow - derived glycerin was replaced with vegetable glycerin. However, the high - fructose corn syrup used by most U.S. bottlers since the 1980s renders it kitniyot by the definitions of Jewish kosher law, and therefore forbidden during Passover according to certain traditions. Each year, in the weeks leading up to Passover, bottlers in markets with substantial Jewish populations switch to sucrose sweetener in order to obtain Kosher for Passover certification.
In April 1985, in response to marketing research suggesting that a majority of North American consumers preferred the taste of rival Pepsi to Coca - Cola, the company introduced a sweeter, less effervescent version of Coca - Cola in the U.S. and Canada. Although the new formulation had beaten both Pepsi - Cola and the old Coke formula in multiple blind taste tests, consumer response was overwhelmingly negative. The company quickly reintroduced the original beverage, rebranded as "Coca - Cola Classic '', while continuing to market the new version as "Coke ''.
New Coke remained on the market, in North America only, for 17 years -- the last 10 as "Coke II '' -- until it was quietly discontinued in 2002. The "Classic '' designation remained on the original product 's label, its prominence gradually decreasing over the years, until it was removed entirely in 2009.
In the early 2000s, cane sugar - sweetened Coca - Cola produced in Mexico began to appear in bodegas and Hispanic supermarkets in the Southwest; in 2005, Costco began offering it. All were obtaining the Mexican product -- which was not labeled in accordance with U.S. food labeling laws -- outside the official Coca - Cola distribution network. In 2009, the Coca - Cola Company began officially importing Coca - Cola produced in Mexico, with proper labeling, for distribution through official channels.
Coca - Cola inventor John Pemberton is said to have written this recipe in his diary shortly before his death in 1888. The recipe does not specify when or how the ingredients are mixed, nor the flavoring oil quantity units of measure (though it implies that the "Merchandise 7X '' was mixed first). This was common in recipes at the time, as it was assumed that preparers knew the method.
Recipe is from Food Flavorings: Composition, Manufacture and Use. Makes one 1 US gallon (3.8 l; 0.83 imp gal) of syrup. Yield (used to flavor carbonated water at 1 US fl oz (30 ml) per bottle): 128 bottles, 6.5 US fl oz (190 ml).
In 2011, Ira Glass announced on his Public Radio International show, This American Life, that TAL staffers had found a recipe in "Everett Beal 's Recipe Book '', reproduced in the February 28, 1979, issue of The Atlanta Journal - Constitution, that they believed was either Pemberton 's original formula for Coca - Cola, or a version that he made either before or after the product hit the market in 1886. The formula is very similar to the one found in Pemberton 's diary. Coca - Cola archivist Phil Mooney acknowledged that the recipe "could... be a precursor '' to the formula used in the original 1886 product, but emphasized that the original formula is not the same as the one used in the current product.
The secret 7X flavor (use 2 oz of flavor to 5 gals syrup):
On January 23, 2011, in a commercial aired during the NFL Football AFC Championship Game, Coca - Cola teased that they would share the secret formula, only to flash a comical "formula '' for a few frames. This required the use of a video recording device to freeze on the formula for any analysis, and it ultimately proved to be a marketing ploy with no intention of sharing the full official formula. Ingredients listed in the commercial included nutmeg oil, lime juice, cocoa, vanilla extract, caffeine, "flavoring '', and a smile.
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who does quentin tarantino play in pulp fiction | Pulp Fiction - Wikipedia
Pulp Fiction is a 1994 American black comedy neo-noir crime film written and directed by Quentin Tarantino, from a story by Tarantino and Roger Avary. Directed in a highly stylized manner, Pulp Fiction connects the intersecting storylines of Los Angeles mobsters, fringe players, small - time criminals, and a mysterious briefcase. The film 's title refers to the pulp magazines and hardboiled crime novels popular during the mid-20th century, known for their graphic violence and punchy dialogue.
The screenplay of Pulp Fiction was written in 1992 and 1993, and incorporated some scenes originally written by Avary for True Romance. Its plot, as in many of Tarantino 's other works, is presented out of chronological order. The film is also self - referential from its opening moments, beginning with a title card that gives two dictionary definitions of "pulp ''. Considerable screen time is devoted to monologues and casual conversations with eclectic dialogue revealing each character 's perspectives on several subjects, and the film features an ironic combination of humor and strong violence. Its script was reportedly turned down by Columbia TriStar as "too demented ''. Miramax co-chairman Harvey Weinstein was instantly enthralled with it, however, and the film became the first that Miramax fully financed.
Pulp Fiction won the Palme d'Or at the 1994 Cannes Film Festival, and was a major critical and commercial success upon its U.S. release. It was nominated for seven Oscars, including Best Picture; Tarantino and Avary won for Best Original Screenplay. John Travolta, Samuel L. Jackson, and Uma Thurman, each received Academy Award nominations for their roles and revitalized and / or elevated their careers. The nature of its development, marketing, and distribution -- and its consequent profitability -- had a sweeping effect on the field of independent cinema.
Since its release, Pulp Fiction has been widely regarded as Tarantino 's masterpiece, with particular praise singled out for its screenwriting. The film 's self - reflexivity, unconventional structure, and extensive use of homage and pastiche have led critics to describe it as a touchstone of postmodern film. It is often considered a cultural watershed, with a strong influence felt not only in later movies that adopted various elements of its style, but in several other media as well. A 2008 Entertainment Weekly list named it the best film from 1983 to 2008 and the work has appeared on many critics ' lists of the greatest films ever made. In 2013, Pulp Fiction was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Pulp Fiction 's narrative is told out of chronological order, and follows three main interrelated stories: mob contract killer Vincent Vega is the protagonist of the first story, prizefighter Butch Coolidge is the protagonist of the second, and Vincent 's partner Jules Winnfield is the protagonist of the third. The stories intersect in various ways.
The film begins with a diner hold - up staged by a couple, then picks up the stories of Vincent, Jules, and Butch. It finally returns to where it began, in the diner. There are a total of seven narrative sequences; the three primary storylines are preceded by intertitles:
If the seven sequences were ordered chronologically, they would run: 4a, 2, 6, 1, 7, 3, 4b, 5. Sequences 1 and 7 partially overlap and are presented from different points of view, as do sequences 2 and 6. In Philip Parker 's description, the structural form is "an episodic narrative with circular events adding a beginning and end and allowing references to elements of each separate episode to be made throughout the narrative. '' Other analysts describe the structure as a "circular narrative ''.
Hitmen Jules Winnfield and Vincent Vega arrive at the apartment of Brett to retrieve a briefcase for their boss, gangster Marsellus Wallace. After Vincent checks the contents of the briefcase, Jules shoots one of Brett 's associates, then declaims a passage from the Bible before he and Vincent kill Brett. They take the briefcase to Marsellus, but have to wait while he bribes champion boxer Butch Coolidge to take a dive in his upcoming match.
The next day, Vincent purchases heroin from his drug dealer, Lance. He shoots up then drives to meet Marsellus 's wife Mia, whom Marsellus has asked Vincent to escort while he is out of town. They head to a 1950s - themed restaurant and participate in a twist contest, then return to the Wallace house with the trophy. While Vincent is in the bathroom, Mia finds his heroin, mistakes it for cocaine, snorts it, and overdoses. Vincent rushes her to Lance 's house, where they revive her with an adrenaline shot to her heart.
Butch double - crosses Marsellus and wins the bout, killing his opponent in the process. At the motel where he and his girlfriend Fabienne are lying low, Butch discovers that she has forgotten to pack his father 's gold watch, a beloved heirloom, and flies into a rage. Returning to his apartment to retrieve the watch, he notices a gun on the kitchen counter, and hears the toilet flush. Vincent exits the bathroom, and Butch shoots him dead.
As Butch waits at a traffic light in his car, Marsellus spots him by chance, and chases him into a pawnshop. The owner, Maynard, captures them at gunpoint, and ties them up in the basement. Maynard is joined by Zed, a security guard; they take Marsellus to another room to rape him, leaving the "gimp '', a silent figure in a bondage suit, to watch Butch. Butch breaks loose, and knocks out the gimp. He is about to flee, but decides to save Marsellus. As Zed rapes Marsellus, Butch kills Maynard with a katana retrieved from the pawnshop. Marsellus retrieves Maynard 's shotgun, and shoots Zed. Marsellus informs Butch that they are even, as long as he tells no one about the rape and departs Los Angeles forever. Butch picks up Fabienne on Zed 's chopper.
Some time earlier, after Vincent and Jules have executed Brett in his apartment, another man bursts out of the bathroom, and shoots wildly, missing every time; Jules and Vincent shoot him. Jules decides their survival was a miracle, which Vincent disputes. As Jules drives, Vincent accidentally shoots Brett 's associate Marvin in the face. They hide the car at the home of their associate Jimmie, who insists they deal with the problem before his wife comes home. Marsellus sends his cleaner, Winston Wolfe, who directs Jules and Vincent to clean the car, hide the body in the trunk, dispose of their bloody clothes, and drive the car to a junk yard.
At a diner, Jules tells Vincent that he plans to retire from his life of crime, taking their "miraculous '' survival as a sign. While Vincent is in the bathroom, a couple, Pumpkin and Honey Bunny, hold up the restaurant. When Jules holds Pumpkin at gunpoint, Honey Bunny becomes hysterical and trains her gun on him; Vincent returns with his gun trained on her, creating a Mexican standoff. Jules recites the biblical passage, expresses ambivalence about his life of crime, and allows the robbers to take his cash and leave. Jules and Vincent leave the diner with the briefcase.
Roger Avary wrote the first element of what would become the Pulp Fiction screenplay in the fall of 1990:
Tarantino and Avary decided to write a short, on the theory that it would be easier to get made than a feature. But they quickly realized that nobody produces shorts, so the film became a trilogy, with one section by Tarantino, one by Avary, and one by a third director who never materialized. Each eventually expanded his section into a feature - length script.
The initial inspiration was the three - part horror anthology film Black Sabbath (1963), by Italian filmmaker Mario Bava. The Tarantino -- Avary project was provisionally titled "Black Mask, '' after the seminal hardboiled crime fiction magazine. Tarantino 's script was produced as Reservoir Dogs, his directorial debut; Avary 's, titled "Pandemonium Reigns, '' would form the basis for the "Gold Watch '' storyline of Pulp Fiction.
With work on Reservoir Dogs completed, Tarantino returned to the notion of a trilogy film: "I got the idea of doing something that novelists get a chance to do but filmmakers do n't: telling three separate stories, having characters float in and out with different weights depending on the story. '' Tarantino explains that the idea "was basically to take like the oldest chestnuts that you 've ever seen when it comes to crime stories -- the oldest stories in the book... You know, ' Vincent Vega and Marsellus Wallace 's Wife ' -- the oldest story about... the guy 's got ta go out with the big man 's wife and do n't touch her. You know, you 've seen the story a zillion times. '' "I 'm using old forms of storytelling and then purposely having them run awry '', he says. "Part of the trick is to take these movie characters, these genre characters and these genre situations and actually apply them to some of real life 's rules and see how they unravel. '' In at least one case, boxer Butch Coolidge, Tarantino had in mind a specific character from a classic Hollywood crime story: "I wanted him to be basically like Ralph Meeker as Mike Hammer in Aldrich 's Kiss Me Deadly (1955). I wanted him to be a bully and a jerk ''.
Tarantino went to work on the script for Pulp Fiction in Amsterdam in March 1992, possibly at the Winston Hotel in the Red Light District. He was joined there by Avary, who contributed "Pandemonium Reigns '' to the project and participated in its rewriting as well as the development of the new storylines that would link up with it. Two scenes originally written by Avary for the True Romance screenplay, exclusively credited to Tarantino, were incorporated into the opening of "The Bonnie Situation '': the "miraculous '' missed shots by the hidden gunman and the rear seat automobile killing. The notion of the crimeworld "cleaner '' that became the heart of the episode was inspired by a short, Curdled, that Tarantino saw at a film festival. He cast the lead actress, Angela Jones, in Pulp Fiction and later backed the filmmakers ' production of a feature - length version of Curdled. The script included a couple of made - up commercial brands that would feature often in later Tarantino films: Big Kahuna burgers (a Big Kahuna soda cup appears in Reservoir Dogs) and Red Apple cigarettes. As he worked on the script, Tarantino also accompanied Reservoir Dogs around the European film festivals. Released in the U.S. in October 1992, the picture was a critical and commercial success. In January 1993, the Pulp Fiction script was complete.
Tarantino and his producer, Lawrence Bender, brought the script to Jersey Film. Before even seeing Reservoir Dogs, Jersey had attempted to sign Tarantino for his next project. Ultimately a development deal worth around $1 million had been struck -- the deal gave A Band Apart, Bender and Tarantino 's newly formed production company, initial financing and office facilities; Jersey got a share of the project and the right to shop the script to a studio. Jersey had a distribution and "first look '' deal with Columbia TriStar, which paid Tarantino for the right to consider exercising its option. In February, Pulp Fiction appeared on a Variety list of films in preproduction at TriStar. In June, however, the studio put the script into turnaround. According to a studio executive, TriStar chief Mike Medavoy found it "too demented ''. There were suggestions that TriStar was resistant to back a film featuring a heroin user; there were also indications that the studio simply saw the project as too low - budget for its desired star - driven image. Avary -- who was about to start shooting his own directorial debut, Killing Zoe -- has said that TriStar 's objections were comprehensive, encompassing the script 's fundamental structure. He characterizes the studio 's position: "' This is the worst thing ever written. It makes no sense. Someone 's dead and then they 're alive. It 's too long, violent, and unfilmable. '... So I thought, ' That 's that! ' ''
Bender brought the script to Miramax, the formerly independent studio that had recently been acquired by Disney. Harvey Weinstein -- co-chairman of Miramax, along with his brother, Bob -- was instantly enthralled by the script and the company picked it up. Pulp Fiction, the first Miramax project to get a green light after the Disney acquisition, was budgeted at $8.5 million. It became the first movie that Miramax completely financed. Helping hold costs down was the plan Bender executed to pay all the main actors the same amount per week, regardless of their industry status. The biggest star to sign on to the project was Bruce Willis. Though he had recently appeared in several big - budget flops, he was still a major overseas draw. On the strength of his name, Miramax garnered $11 million for the film 's worldwide rights, virtually ensuring its profitability.
Principal photography commenced on September 20, 1993. The lead offscreen talent had all worked with Tarantino on Reservoir Dogs -- cinematographer Andrzej Sekuła, film editor Sally Menke, production designer David Wasco, and costume designer Betsy Heimann. According to Tarantino, "(W) e had $8 million (sic). I wanted it to look like a $20 -- 25 million movie. I wanted it to look like an epic. It 's an epic in everything -- in invention, in ambition, in length, in scope, in everything except the price tag. '' The film, he says, was shot "on 50 ASA film stock, which is the slowest stock they make. The reason we use it is that it creates an almost no - grain image, it 's lustrous. It 's the closest thing we have to 50s Technicolor. '' The largest chunk of the budget -- $150,000 -- went to creating the Jack Rabbit Slim 's set. It was built in a Culver City warehouse, where it was joined by several other sets as well as the film 's production offices. The diner sequence was shot on location in Hawthorne at the Hawthorne Grill, known for its Googie architecture. For the costumes, Tarantino took his inspiration from French director Jean - Pierre Melville, who believed that the clothes his characters wore were their symbolic suits of armor. Tarantino cast himself in a modest - sized role as he had in Reservoir Dogs. One of his pop totems, Fruit Brute, a long - discontinued General Mills cereal, also returned from the earlier film. The shoot wrapped on November 30. Before Pulp Fiction 's premiere, Tarantino convinced Avary to forfeit his agreed - on cowriting credit and accept a "story by '' credit, so the line "Written and directed by Quentin Tarantino '' could be used in advertising and onscreen.
No film score was composed for Pulp Fiction; Quentin Tarantino instead used an eclectic assortment of surf music, rock and roll, soul, and pop songs. Dick Dale 's rendition of "Misirlou '' plays during the opening credits. Tarantino chose surf music as the basic musical style for the film, but not, he insists, because of its association with surfing culture: "To me it just sounds like rock and roll, even Morricone music. It sounds like rock and roll spaghetti Western music. '' Some of the songs were suggested to Tarantino by his friends Chuck Kelley and Laura Lovelace, who were credited as music consultants. Lovelace also appeared in the film as Laura, a waitress; she reprises the role in Jackie Brown. The soundtrack album, Music from the Motion Picture Pulp Fiction, was released along with the film in 1994. The album peaked on the Billboard 200 chart at number 21. The single, Urge Overkill 's cover of the Neil Diamond song "Girl, You 'll Be a Woman Soon '', reached number 59.
Estella Tincknell describes how the particular combination of well - known and obscure recordings helps establish the film as a "self - consciously ' cool ' text. (The) use of the mono - tracked, beat - heavy style of early 1960s U.S. ' underground ' pop mixed with ' classic ' ballads such as Dusty Springfield 's ' Son of a Preacher Man ' is crucial to the film 's postmodern knowingness. '' She contrasts the soundtrack with that of Forrest Gump, the highest - grossing film of 1994, which also relies on period pop recordings: "(T) he version of ' the sixties ' offered by Pulp Fiction... is certainly not that of the publicly recognized counter-culture featured in Forrest Gump, but is, rather, a more genuinely marginal form of sub-culture based around a lifestyle -- surfing, ' hanging ' -- that is resolutely apolitical. '' The soundtrack is central, she says, to the film 's engagement with the "younger, cinematically knowledgeable spectator '' it solicits.
Pulp Fiction premiered in May 1994 at the Cannes Film Festival. The Weinsteins "hit the beach like commandos '', bringing the picture 's entire cast over. The film was unveiled at a midnight hour screening and caused a sensation. It won the Palme d'Or, the festival 's top prize, generating a further wave of publicity.
The first U.S. review of the film was published on May 23 in industry trade magazine Variety. Todd McCarthy called Pulp Fiction a "spectacularly entertaining piece of pop culture... a startling, massive success. '' From Cannes forward, Tarantino was on the road continuously, promoting the film. Over the next few months it played in smaller festivals around Europe, building buzz: Nottingham, Munich, Taormina, Locarno, Norway, and San Sebastián. Tarantino later said, "One thing that 's cool is that by breaking up the linear structure, when I watch the film with an audience, it does break (the audience 's) alpha state. It 's like, all of a sudden, ' I got ta watch this... I got ta pay attention. ' You can almost feel everybody moving in their seats. It 's actually fun to watch an audience in some ways chase after a movie. '' In late September, it opened the New York Film Festival. The New York Times published its review the day of the opening. Janet Maslin called the film a "triumphant, cleverly disorienting journey through a demimonde that springs entirely from Mr. Tarantino 's ripe imagination, a landscape of danger, shock, hilarity and vibrant local color... (He) has come up with a work of such depth, wit and blazing originality that it places him in the front ranks of American film makers. ''
On October 14, 1994, Pulp Fiction went into general release in the United States. As Peter Biskind describes, "It was not platformed, that is, it did not open in a handful of theaters and roll out slowly as word of mouth built, the traditional way of releasing an indie film; it went wide immediately, into 1,100 theaters. '' In the eyes of some cultural critics, Reservoir Dogs had given Tarantino a reputation for glamorizing violence. Miramax played with the issue in its marketing campaign: "You wo n't know the facts till you 've seen the fiction '', went one slogan. Pulp Fiction was the top - grossing film at the box office its first weekend, edging out a Sylvester Stallone vehicle, The Specialist, which was in its second week and playing at more than twice as many theaters. Against its budget of $8.5 million and about $10 million in marketing costs, Pulp Fiction wound up grossing $107.93 million at the U.S. box office, making it the first "indie '' film to surpass $100 million. Worldwide, it took in nearly $213 million. In terms of domestic grosses, it was the tenth biggest film of 1994, even though it played on substantially fewer screens than any other film in the top 20. Popular engagement with the film, such as speculation about the contents of the precious briefcase, "indicates the kind of cult status that Pulp Fiction achieved almost immediately. '' As MovieMaker puts it, "The movie was nothing less than a national cultural phenomenon. '' Abroad, as well: In Britain, where it opened a week after its U.S. release, not only was the film a big hit, but in book form its screenplay became the most successful in UK publishing history, a top - ten bestseller.
The response of major American film reviewers was widely favorable. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times described it as "so well - written in a scruffy, fanzine way that you want to rub noses in it -- the noses of those zombie writers who take ' screenwriting ' classes that teach them the formulas for ' hit films. ' '' Richard Corliss of TIME wrote, "It towers over the year 's other movies as majestically and menacingly as a gang lord at a preschool. It dares Hollywood films to be this smart about going this far. If good directors accept Tarantino 's implicit challenge, the movie theater could again be a great place to live in. '' In Newsweek, David Ansen wrote, "The miracle of Quentin Tarantino 's Pulp Fiction is how, being composed of secondhand, debased parts, it succeeds in gleaming like something new. '' "You get intoxicated by it, '' wrote Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman, "high on the rediscovery of how pleasurable a movie can be. I 'm not sure I 've ever encountered a filmmaker who combined discipline and control with sheer wild - ass joy the way that Tarantino does. '' "There 's a special kick that comes from watching something this thrillingly alive '', wrote Peter Travers of Rolling Stone. "Pulp Fiction is indisputably great. '' Overall, the film attained exceptionally high ratings among U.S. reviewers: a 94 % score based on 78 reviews at Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 9.1 / 10, the site 's consensus reading, "One of the most influential films of the 1990s, Pulp Fiction is a delirious post-modern mix of neo-noir thrills, pitch - black humor, and pop - culture touchstones ''. It has an average score of 94 / 100 based on 24 reviews on Metacritic.
The Los Angeles Times was one of the few major news outlets to publish a negative review on the film 's opening weekend. Kenneth Turan wrote, "The writer - director appears to be straining for his effects. Some sequences, especially one involving bondage harnesses and homosexual rape, have the uncomfortable feeling of creative desperation, of someone who 's afraid of losing his reputation scrambling for any way to offend sensibilities. '' Some who reviewed it in the following weeks took more exception to the predominant critical reaction than to Pulp Fiction itself. While not panning the film, Stanley Kauffman of The New Republic felt that "the way that (it) has been so widely ravened up and drooled over verges on the disgusting. Pulp Fiction nourishes, abets, cultural slumming. '' Responding to comparisons between Tarantino 's film and the work of French New Wave director Jean - Luc Godard, especially his first, most famous feature, Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader wrote, "The fact that Pulp Fiction is garnering more extravagant raves than Breathless ever did tells you plenty about which kind of cultural references are regarded as more fruitful -- namely, the ones we already have and do n't wish to expand. '' Observing in the National Review that "(n) o film arrives with more advance hype '', John Simon was unswayed: "titillation cures neither hollowness nor shallowness ''.
Debate about the film spread beyond the review pages. Violence was often the theme. In the Washington Post, Donna Britt described how she was happy not to see Pulp Fiction on a recent weekend and thus avoid "discussing the rousing scene in which a gunshot sprays somebody 's brains around a car interior ''. Some commentators took exception to the film 's frequent use of the word "nigger ''. In the Chicago Tribune, Todd Boyd argued that the word 's recurrence "has the ability to signify the ultimate level of hipness for white males who have historically used their perception of black masculinity as the embodiment of cool ''. In Britain, James Wood, writing in The Guardian, set the tone for much subsequent criticism: "Tarantino represents the final triumph of postmodernism, which is to empty the artwork of all content, thus avoiding its capacity to do anything except helplessly represent our agonies... Only in this age could a writer as talented as Tarantino produce artworks so vacuous, so entirely stripped of any politics, metaphysics, or moral interest. ''
Around the turn of the year, Pulp Fiction was named Best Picture by the National Society of Film Critics, National Board of Review, Los Angeles Film Critics Association, Boston Society of Film Critics, Society of Texas Film Critics, Southeastern Film Critics Association, and Kansas City Film Critics Circle. Tarantino was named Best Director by all seven of those organizations as well as by the New York Film Critics Circle and Chicago Film Critics Association. The screenplay won several prizes, with various awarding bodies ascribing credit differently. At the 52nd Golden Globe Awards, Tarantino, named as sole recipient of the Best Screenplay honor, failed to mention Avary in his acceptance speech. In February 1995, the film received seven Oscar nominations -- Best Picture, Director, Actor (Travolta), Supporting Actor (Jackson), Supporting Actress (Thurman), Original Screenplay, and Film Editing. Travolta, Jackson, and Thurman were each nominated as well for the 1st Screen Actors Guild Awards, presented on February 25, but none took home the honor. At the Academy Awards ceremony the following month, Tarantino and Avary were announced as joint winners of the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. The furor around the film was still going strong: much of the March issue of Artforum was devoted to its critical dissection. Pulp Fiction garnered four honors at the Independent Spirit Awards, held at the end of the month -- Best Feature, Best Director, Male Lead (Jackson), and Best Screenplay (Tarantino). At the British Academy Film Awards (BAFTA), Tarantino and Avary shared the BAFTA Award for Best Original Screenplay, and Jackson won for Best Supporting Actor. The film was nominated for the Grand Prix of the Belgian Film Critics Association.
Pulp Fiction quickly came to be regarded as one of the most significant films of its era. In 1995, in a special edition of Siskel & Ebert devoted to Tarantino, Gene Siskel argued that the work posed a major challenge to the "ossification of American movies with their brutal formulas ''. In Siskel 's view,
the violent intensity of Pulp Fiction calls to mind other violent watershed films that were considered classics in their time and still are. Hitchcock 's Psycho (1960), Arthur Penn 's Bonnie and Clyde (1967), and Stanley Kubrick 's A Clockwork Orange (1971). Each film shook up a tired, bloated movie industry and used a world of lively lowlifes to reflect how dull other movies had become. And that, I predict, will be the ultimate honor for Pulp Fiction. Like all great films, it criticizes other movies.
Ken Dancyger writes that its "imitative and innovative style '' -- like that of its predecessor, Reservoir Dogs -- represents
a new phenomenon, the movie whose style is created from the context of movie life rather than real life. The consequence is twofold -- the presumption of deep knowledge on the part of the audience of those forms such as the gangster films or Westerns, horror films or adventure films. And that the parody or alteration of that film creates a new form, a different experience for the audience.
In a widely covered speech on May 31, 1995, Republican presidential candidate Bob Dole attacked the American entertainment industry for peddling "nightmares of depravity ''. Pulp Fiction was soon associated with his charges concerning gratuitous violence. Dole had not, in fact, mentioned the film; he cited two less celebrated movies based on Tarantino screenplays, Natural Born Killers and True Romance. In September 1996, Dole did accuse Pulp Fiction -- which he had not seen -- of promoting "the romance of heroin ''.
Paula Rabinowitz expresses the general film industry opinion that Pulp Fiction "simultaneously resurrected John Travolta and film noir ''. In Peter Biskind 's description, it created a "guys - with - guns frenzy ''. The film has also been labeled as a black comedy and a "neo-noir ''. Critic Geoffrey O'Brien, however, argued against the classification of Pulp Fiction into the neo-noir genre: "The old - time noir passions, the brooding melancholy and operatic death scenes, would be altogether out of place in the crisp and brightly lit wonderland that Tarantino conjures up. (It is) neither neo-noir nor a parody of noir. '' Similarly, Nicholas Christopher calls it "more gangland camp than neo-noir '', and Foster Hirsch suggests that its "trippy fantasy landscape '' characterizes it more definitively than any genre label. Regardless, the stylistic influence of Pulp Fiction soon became apparent. Less than a year after the picture 's release, British critic Jon Ronson attended the National Film School 's end - of - semester screenings and assessed the impact: "Out of the five student movies I watched, four incorporated violent shoot - outs over a soundtrack of iconoclastic 70s pop hits, two climaxed with all the main characters shooting each other at once, and one had two hitmen discussing the idiosyncrasies of The Brady Bunch before offing their victim. Not since Citizen Kane has one man appeared from relative obscurity to redefine the art of moviemaking. '' Among the first Hollywood films cited as its imitators were Destiny Turns on the Radio (1995), in which Tarantino acted, Things to Do in Denver When You 're Dead (1995), and 2 Days in the Valley (1996). It "triggered a myriad of clones '', writes Fiona Villella. Internationally, according to David Desser, it "not only influenced a British brand of noir, but extended the noir vision virtually around the world. '' Pulp Fiction 's effect on film form was still reverberating in 2007, when David Denby of The New Yorker credited it with initiating the ongoing cycle of disordered cinematic narratives.
Its impact on Hollywood was deeper still. According to Variety, the trajectory of Pulp Fiction from Cannes launch to commercial smash "forever altered the game '' of so - called independent cinema. It "cemented Miramax 's place as the reigning indie superpower '', writes Biskind. "Pulp became the Star Wars of independents, exploding expectations for what an indie film could do at the box office. '' The film 's large financial return on its small budget
transform (ed) the industry 's attitude toward the lowly indies... spawning a flock of me - too classics divisions... (S) mart studio executives suddenly woke up to the fact that grosses and market share, which got all the press, were not the same as profits... Once the studios realized that they could exploit the economies of (small) scale, they more or less gave up buying or remaking the films themselves, and either bought the distributors, as Disney had Miramax, or started their own... copy (ing) Miramax 's marketing and distribution strategies.
In 2001, Variety, noting the increasing number of actors switching back and forth between expensive studio films and low - budget independent or indie - style projects, suggested that the "watershed moment for movie stars '' came with the decision by Willis -- one of Hollywood 's highest - paid performers -- to appear in Pulp Fiction.
And its impact was even broader than that. It has been described as a "major cultural event '', an "international phenomenon '' that influenced television, music, literature, and advertising. Not long after its release, it was identified as a significant focus of attention within the growing community of Internet users. Adding Pulp Fiction to his roster of The Great Movies in 2001, Roger Ebert called it "the most influential film of the decade ''. Four years later, Time 's Corliss wrote much the same: "(unquestionably) the most influential American movie of the 90s ''.
Several scenes and images from the film achieved iconic status; in 2008, Entertainment Weekly declared, "You 'd be hard - pressed, by now, to name a moment from Quentin Tarantino 's film that is n't iconic. '' Jules and Vincent 's "Royale with Cheese '' dialogue became famous. It was referenced more than a decade and a half later in the Travolta vehicle From Paris with Love. The adrenalin shot to Mia Wallace 's heart is on Premiere 's list of "100 Greatest Movie Moments ''. The scene of Travolta and Thurman 's characters dancing has been frequently homaged, most unambiguously in the 2005 film Be Cool, starring the same two actors. The image of Travolta and Jackson 's characters standing side by side in suit and tie, pointing their guns, has also become widely familiar. In 2007, BBC News reported that "London transport workers have painted over an iconic mural by ' guerrilla artist ' Banksy... The image depicted a scene from Quentin Tarantino 's Pulp Fiction, with Samuel L. Jackson and John Travolta clutching bananas instead of guns. '' Certain lines were adopted popularly as catchphrases, in particular Marsellus 's threat, "I 'm ' a get medieval on your ass. '' Jules 's "Ezekiel '' recitation was voted the fourth greatest movie speech of all time in a 2004 poll. One of the more notable homages to Jules "Biblical '' quote was one Jackson himself played a part in, near the end of 2014 's Captain America: The Winter Soldier, Jackson 's character Col. Nick Fury, presumed dead, visits his own gravestone, on which, below Fury 's name is inscribed "The path of the righteous man... '' Ezekiel 25: 17.
Pulp Fiction now appears in several critical assessments of all - time great films. In 2008, Entertainment Weekly named it the best film of the past quarter - century. That same year, the American Film Institute 's "Ten Top Ten '' poll ranked it number 7 all - time in the gangster film genre. In 2007, it was voted 94th overall on the AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies list. In 2005, it was named one of Time 's "All - Time 100 Movies ''. As of January 2010, it is number 10 on Metacritic 's list of all - time highest scores. The film ranks very highly in popular surveys. A 2008 Empire poll combining the opinions of readers, movie industry professionals, and critics named Pulp Fiction the ninth - best film of all time. In a 2006 readers ' poll by the British magazine Total Film, it ranked as the number three film in history. It was voted as the fourth - greatest film of all time in a nationwide poll for Britain 's Channel 4 in 2001.
Tarantino has stated that he originally planned "to do a Black Mask movie '', referring to the magazine largely responsible for popularizing hardboiled detective fiction. "(I) t kind of went somewhere else ''. Geoffrey O'Brien sees the result as connected "rather powerfully to a parallel pulp tradition: the tales of terror and the uncanny practiced by such writers as Cornell Woolrich (and) Fredric Brown... Both dealt heavily in the realm of improbable coincidences and cruel cosmic jokes, a realm that Pulp Fiction makes its own. '' In particular, O'Brien finds a strong affinity between the intricate plot mechanics and twists of Brown 's novels and the recursive, interweaving structure of Pulp Fiction. Philip French describes the film 's narrative as a "circular movement or Möbius strip of a kind Resnais and Robbe - Grillet would admire. '' James Mottram regards crime novelist Elmore Leonard, whose influence Tarantino has acknowledged, as the film 's primary literary antecedent. He suggests that Leonard 's "rich dialogue '' is reflected in Tarantino 's "popular - culture - strewn jive ''; he also points to the acute, extremely dark sense of humor Leonard applies to the realm of violence as a source of inspiration.
Robert Kolker sees the "flourishes, the apparent witty banality of the dialogue, the goofy fracturing of temporality (as) a patina over a pastiche. The pastiche... is essentially of two films that Tarantino ca n't seem to get out of his mind: Mean Streets (1973; directed by Martin Scorsese, who loved Pulp Fiction and the way the film was told.) and The Killing (1956; directed by Stanley Kubrick). '' He contrasts Pulp Fiction with postmodern Hollywood predecessors Hudson Hawk (1991; starring Willis) and Last Action Hero (1993; starring Arnold Schwarzenegger) that "took the joke too far... simply mocked or suggested that they were smarter than the audience '' and flopped. Todd McCarthy writes that the film 's "striking widescreen compositions often contain objects in extreme close - up as well as vivid contrasts, sometimes bringing to mind the visual strategies of Sergio Leone '', an acknowledged hero of Tarantino 's. To Martin Rubin, the "expansive, brightly colored widescreen visuals '' evoke comedy directors such as Frank Tashlin and Blake Edwards.
The movie 's host of pop culture allusions, ranging from the famous image of Marilyn Monroe 's skirt flying up over a subway grating to Jules addressing a soon - to - be victim as "Flock of Seagulls '' because of his haircut, have led many critics to discuss it within the framework of postmodernism. Describing the film in 2005 as Tarantino 's "postmodern masterpiece... to date '', David Walker writes that it "is marked by its playful reverence for the 1950s... and its constantly teasing and often deferential references to other films ''. He characterizes its convoluted narrative technique as "postmodern tricksiness ''. Calling the film a "terminally hip postmodern collage '', Foster Hirsch finds Pulp Fiction far from a masterpiece: "authoritative, influential, and meaningless ''. Set "in a world that could exist only in the movies '', it is "a succulent guilty pleasure, beautifully made junk food for cinéastes ''. O'Brien, dismissing attempts to associate the movie with film noir, argues that "Pulp Fiction is more a guided tour of an infernal theme park decorated with cultural detritus, Buddy Holly and Mamie Van Doren, fragments of blaxploitation and Roger Corman and Shogun Assassin, music out of a twenty - four - hour oldies station for which all the decades since the fifties exist simultaneously. '' Catherine Constable takes the moment in which a needle filled with adrenaline is plunged into the comatose Mia 's heart as exemplary. She proposes that it "can be seen as effecting her resurrection from the dead, simultaneously recalling and undermining the Gothic convention of the vampire 's stake. On this model, the referencing of previous aesthetic forms and styles moves beyond... empty pastiche, sustaining an ' inventive and affirmative ' mode of postmodernism. ''
Mark T. Conard asks, "(W) hat is the film about? '' and answers, "American nihilism. '' Hirsch suggests, "If the film is actually about anything other than its own cleverness, it seems dedicated to the dubious thesis that hit men are part of the human family. '' Richard Alleva argues that "Pulp Fiction has about as much to do with actual criminality or violence as Cyrano de Bergerac with the realities of seventeenth - century France or The Prisoner of Zenda with Balkan politics. '' He reads the movie as a form of romance whose allure is centered in the characters ' nonnaturalistic discourse, "wise - guy literate, media - smart, obscenely epigrammatic ''. In Alan Stone 's view, the "absurd dialogue '', like that between Vincent and Jules in the scene where the former accidentally kills Marvin, "unexpectedly transforms the meaning of the violence cliché... Pulp Fiction unmasks the macho myth by making it laughable and deheroicizes the power trip glorified by standard Hollywood violence. '' Stone reads the film as "politically correct. There is no nudity and no violence directed against women... (It) celebrates interracial friendship and cultural diversity; there are strong women and strong black men, and the director swims against the current of class stereotype. ''
Where Stone sees a celebration, Kolker finds a vacuum: "The postmodern insouciance, violence, homophobia, and racism of Pulp Fiction were perfectly acceptable because the film did n't pretend seriousness and therefore did n't mock it. '' Calling it the "acme of postmodern nineties filmmaking '', he explains, "the postmodern is about surfaces; it is flattened spatiality in which event and character are in a steady state of reminding us that they are pop - cultural figures. '' According to Kolker:
That 's why Pulp Fiction was so popular. Not because all audiences got all or any of its references to Scorsese and Kubrick, but because the narrative and spatial structure of the film never threatened to go beyond themselves into signification. The film 's cycle of racist and homophobic jokes might threaten to break out into a quite nasty view of the world, but this nastiness keeps being laughed off -- by the mock intensity of the action, the prowling, confronting, perverse, confined, and airless nastiness of the world Tarantino creates.
Henry A. Giroux argues that Tarantino "empties violence of any critical social consequences, offering viewers only the immediacy of shock, humor, and irony - without - insight as elements of mediation. None of these elements gets beyond the seduction of voyeuristic gazing... (t) he facile consumption of shocking images and hallucinatory delight. ''
Regarding the violence and nihilism in the film, Pamela Demory has suggested that Pulp Fiction should be seen in light of the short stories of Flannery O'Connor, which likewise feature "religious elements, banality, and violence with grotesque humor. '' Discussing "the connection between violence and redemption, '' Demory concludes that while O'Connor's purpose is to convince readers "of the powerful force of evil in the world and of our need for grace, '' Tarantino "seeks to demonstrate that in spite of everything we have seen in the film -- all the violence, degradation, death, crime, amoral behavior -- grace is still possible; there might be still be a God who does n't judge us on merits. ''
Pulp Fiction is full of homages to other movies. "Tarantino 's characters '', writes Gary Groth, "inhabit a world where the entire landscape is composed of Hollywood product. Tarantino is a cinematic kleptomaniac -- he literally ca n't help himself. '' Two scenes in particular have prompted discussion of the film 's highly intertextual style. Many have assumed that the dance sequence at Jack Rabbit Slim 's was intended as a reference to Travolta 's star - making performance as Tony Manero in the epochal Saturday Night Fever (1977); Tarantino, however, credits a scene in the Jean - Luc Godard film Bande à part (1964) with the inspiration. According to the filmmaker,
Everybody thinks that I wrote this scene just to have John Travolta dancing. But the scene existed before John Travolta was cast. But once he was cast, it was like, "Great. We get to see John dance. All the better. ''... My favorite musical sequences have always been in Godard, because they just come out of nowhere. It 's so infectious, so friendly. And the fact that it 's not a musical, but he 's stopping the movie to have a musical sequence, makes it all the more sweet.
Jerome Charyn argues that, beyond "all the better '', Travolta 's presence is essential to the power of the scene, and of the film:
Travolta 's entire career becomes "backstory '', the myth of a movie star who has fallen out of favor, but still resides in our memory as the king of disco. We keep waiting for him to shed his paunch, put on a white polyester suit, and enter the 2001 Odyssey club in Bay Ridge, Brooklyn, where he will dance for us and never, never stop. Daniel Day - Lewis could n't have woken such a powerful longing in us. He is n't part of America 's own mad cosmology... Tony Manero (is) an angel sitting on Vince 's shoulder... (Vince and Mia 's) actual dance may be closer to the choreography of Anna Karina 's shuffle with her two bumbling gangster boyfriends in Bande à part, but even that reference is lost to us, and we 're with Tony again...
Estella Tincknell notes that while the "diner setting seems to be a simulacrum of a ' fifties ' restaurant... the twist contest is a musical sequence which evokes ' the sixties, ' while Travolta 's dance performance inevitably references ' the seventies ' and his appearance in Saturday Night Fever... The ' past ' thus becomes a more general ' pastness ' in which the stylistic signifiers of various decades are loaded in to a single moment. '' She also argues that in this passage the film "briefly shifts from its habitually ironic discourse to one that references the conventions of the classic film musical and in doing so makes it possible for the film to inhabit an affective space that goes beyond stylistic allusion. ''
The pivotal moment in which Marsellus crosses the street in front of Butch 's car and notices him evokes the scene in which Marion Crane 's boss sees her under similar circumstances in Psycho (1960). Marsellus and Butch are soon held captive by Maynard and Zed, "two sadistic honkies straight out of Deliverance '' (1972), directed by John Boorman. Zed shares a name with Sean Connery 's character in Boorman 's follow - up, the science - fiction film Zardoz (1974). When Butch decides to rescue Marsellus, in Glyn White 's words, "he finds a trove of items with film - hero resonances ''. Critics have identified these weapons with a range of possible allusions:
At the conclusion of the scene, a portentous line of Marsellus ' echoes one from the crime drama Charley Varrick (1973), directed by another of Tarantino 's heroes, Don Siegel; the name of the character who speaks it there is Maynard.
David Bell argues that far from going against the "current of class stereotype '', this scene, like Deliverance, "mobilize (s) a certain construction of poor white country folk -- and particularly their sexualization... ' rustic sexual expression often takes the form of homosexual rape ' in American movies. '' Stephen Paul Miller believes the Pulp Fiction scene goes down much easier than the one it echoes: "The buggery perpetrated is not at all as shocking as it was in Deliverance... The nineties film reduces seventies competition, horror, and taboo into an entertainingly subtle adrenaline play -- a fiction, a pulp fiction. '' Giroux reads the rape scene homage similarly: "in the end Tarantino 's use of parody is about repetition, transgression, and softening the face of violence by reducing it to the property of film history. '' In Groth 's view, the crucial difference is that "in Deliverance the rape created the film 's central moral dilemma whereas in Pulp Fiction it was merely ' the single weirdest day of (Butch 's) life. ' '' ("American Me did it too, '' Tarantino observed. "There 's like three butt - fucking scenes in American Me. That 's definitely the one to beat in that particular category! '')
Neil Fulwood focuses on Butch 's weapon selection, writing, "Here, Tarantino 's love of movies is at its most open and nonjudgemental, tipping a nod to the noble and the notorious, as well as sending up his own reputation as an enfant terrible of movie violence. Moreover, the scene makes a sly comment about the readiness of cinema to seize upon whatever is to hand for its moments of mayhem and murder. '' White asserts that "the katana he finally, and significantly, selects identifies him with... honourable heroes. '' Conard argues that the first three items symbolize a nihilism that Butch is rejecting. The traditional Japanese sword, in contrasts, represents a culture with a well - defined moral code and thus connects Butch with a more meaningful approach to life.
Robert Miklitsch argues that "Tarantino 's telephilia '' may be more central to the guiding sensibility of Pulp Fiction than the filmmaker 's love for rock ' n ' roll and even cinema:
Talking about his generation, one that came of age in the ' 70s, Tarantino has commented that the "number one thing we all shared was n't music, that was a Sixties thing. Our culture was television. '' A random list of the TV programs referenced in Pulp Fiction confirms his observation: Speed Racer, Clutch Cargo, The Brady Bunch, The Partridge Family, The Avengers, The Three Stooges, The Flintstones, I Spy, Green Acres, Kung Fu, Happy Days, and last but not least, Mia 's fictional pilot, Fox Force Five.
"The above list, with the possible exception of The Avengers, '' writes Miklitsch, "suggests that Pulp Fiction has less of an elective affinity with the cinematic avant - gardism of Godard than with mainstream network programming. '' Jonathan Rosenbaum had brought TV into his analysis of the Tarantino / Godard comparison, acknowledging that the directors were similar in wanting to cram everything they like onscreen: "But the differences between what Godard likes and what Tarantino likes and why are astronomical; it 's like comparing a combined museum, library, film archive, record shop, and department store with a jukebox, a video - rental outlet, and an issue of TV Guide. ''
Sharon Willis focuses on the way a television show (Clutch Cargo) marks the beginning of, and plays on through, the scene between young Butch and his father 's comrade - in - arms. The Vietnam War veteran is played by Christopher Walken, whose presence in the role evokes his performance as a traumatized G.I. in the Vietnam War movie The Deer Hunter (1978). Willis writes that "when Captain Koons enters the living room, we see Walken in his function as an image retrieved from a repertoire of 1970s television and movie versions of ruined masculinity in search of rehabilitation... (T) he gray light of the television presiding over the scene seems to inscribe the ghostly paternal gaze. '' Miklitsch asserts that, for some critics, the film is a "prime example of the pernicious ooze - like influence of mass culture exemplified by their bête noire: TV. '' Kolker might not disagree, arguing that "Pulp Fiction is a simulacrum of our daily exposure to television; its homophobes, thugs and perverts, sentimental boxers and pimp promoters move through a series of long - take tableaux: we watch, laugh, and remain with nothing to comprehend. ''
The combination of the mysterious suitcase lock is 666, the "number of the beast ''. Tarantino has said there is no explanation for its contents -- it is simply a MacGuffin, a pure plot device. Originally, the case was to contain diamonds, but this was seen as too mundane. For filming purposes, it contained a hidden orange light bulb that produced an otherworldly glow. In a 2007 video interview with fellow director and friend Robert Rodriguez, Tarantino purportedly "reveals '' the secret contents of the briefcase, but the film cuts out and skips the scene in the style employed in Tarantino and Rodriguez 's Grindhouse (2007), with an intertitle that reads "Missing Reel ''. The interview resumes with Rodriguez discussing how radically the "knowledge '' of the briefcase 's contents alters one 's understanding of the movie.
Despite Tarantino 's statements, many solutions to what one scholar calls this "unexplained postmodern puzzle '' have been proposed. A strong similarity has often been observed with the 1955 film noir Kiss Me Deadly. That movie, whose protagonist Tarantino has cited as a source for Butch, features a glowing briefcase housing an atomic explosive. In their review of Alex Cox 's 1984 film Repo Man in the Daily Telegraph, Nick Cowen and Hari Patience suggest that Pulp Fiction may also owe "a debt of inspiration '' to the glowing car trunk in that film. In scholar Paul Gormley 's view, this connection with Kiss Me Deadly, and a similar one with Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), makes it possible to read the eerie glow as symbolic of violence itself. The idea that the briefcase contains Marsellus ' soul gained popular currency in the mid-1990s. Analyzing the notion, Roger Ebert dismissed it as "nothing more than a widely distributed urban legend given false credibility by the mystique of the Net ''.
Jules ritually recites what he describes as a biblical passage, Ezekiel 25: 17, before he executes someone. The passage is heard three times -- in the introductory sequence in which Jules and Vincent reclaim Marsellus ' briefcase from the doomed Brett; that same recitation a second time, at the beginning of "The Bonnie Situation '', which overlaps the end of the earlier sequence; and in the epilogue at the diner. The first version of the passage is as follows:
The path of the righteous man is beset on all sides by the inequities of the selfish and the tyranny of evil men. Blessed is he who in the name of charity and goodwill shepherds the weak through the valley of darkness, for he is truly his brother 's keeper and the finder of lost children. And I will strike down upon thee with great vengeance and furious anger those who attempt to poison and destroy my brothers. And you will know my name is the Lord when I lay my vengeance upon thee.
The second version, from the diner scene, is identical except for the final line: "And you will know I am the Lord when I lay my vengeance upon you. ''
While the final two sentences of Jules ' speech are similar to the actual cited passage, the first two are fabricated from various biblical phrases. The text of Ezekiel 25 preceding verse 17 indicates that God 's wrath is retribution for the hostility of the Philistines. In the King James version from which Jules ' speech is adapted, Ezekiel 25: 17 reads in its entirety:
And I will execute great vengeance upon them with furious rebukes; and they shall know that I am the LORD, when I shall lay my vengeance upon them.
Tarantino 's primary inspiration for the speech was the work of Japanese martial arts star Sonny Chiba. Its text and its identification as Ezekiel 25: 17 derive from an almost identical creed that appears at the beginning of the Chiba movie Karate Kiba (The Bodyguard; 1976), where it is both shown as a scrolling text and read by an offscreen narrator.
The version seen at the beginning of The Bodyguard (1976) is as follows:
The path of the righteous man and defender is beset on all sides by the iniquity of the selfish and the tyranny of evil men. Blessed is he, who in the name of charity and good will, shepherds the weak through the valley of darkness, for he is truly his brother 's keeper, and the father of lost children. And I will execute great vengeance upon them with furious anger, who poison and destroy my brothers; and they shall know that I am Chiba the Bodyguard when I shall lay my vengeance upon them! (Ezekiel 25: 17)
In the 1980s television series Kage no Gundan (Shadow Warriors), Chiba 's character would lecture the villain - of - the - week about how the world must be rid of evil before killing him. A killer delivers a similar biblical rant in Modesty Blaise, the hardback but pulp - style novel Vincent is shown with in two scenes.
Two critics who have analyzed the role of the speech find different ties between Jules ' transformation and the issue of postmodernity. Gormley argues that unlike the film 's other major characters -- Marsellus aside -- Jules is:
linked to a "thing '' beyond postmodern simulation... (T) his is perhaps most marked when he moves on from being a simulation of a Baptist preacher, spouting Ezekiel because it was "just a cool thing to say... '' In his conversion, Jules is shown to be cognizant of a place beyond this simulation, which, in this case, the film constructs as God.
Adele Reinhartz writes that the "depth of Jules 's transformation '' is indicated by the difference in his two deliveries of the passage: "In the first, he is a majestic and awe - inspiring figure, proclaiming the prophecy with fury and self - righteousness... In the second... he appears to be a different sort of man altogether... (I) n true postmodern fashion, (he) reflects on the meaning of his speech and provides several different ways that it might pertain to his current situation. '' Similar to Gormley, Conard argues that as Jules reflects on the passage, it dawns on him "that it refers to an objective framework of value and meaning that is absent from his life ''; to Conard, this contrasts with the film 's prevalent representation of a nihilistic culture. Rosenbaum finds much less in Jules 's revelation: "(T) he spiritual awakening at the end of Pulp Fiction, which Jackson performs beautifully, is a piece of jive avowedly inspired by kung - fu movies. It may make you feel good, but it certainly does n't leave you any wiser. ''
Much of Pulp Fiction 's action revolves around characters who are either in the bathroom or need to use the toilet. To a lesser extent, Tarantino 's other films also feature this narrative element. At Jack Rabbit Slim 's, Mia goes to "powder her nose '' -- literally; she snorts coke in the restroom, surrounded by a bevy of women vainly primping. Butch and Fabienne play an extended scene in their motel bathroom, he in the shower, she brushing her teeth; the next morning, but just a few seconds later in screen time, she is again brushing her teeth. As Jules and Vincent confront Brett and two of his pals, a fourth man is hiding in the bathroom -- his actions will lead to Jules ' transformative "moment of clarity ''. After Marvin 's absurd death, Vincent and Jules wash up in Jimmie 's bathroom, where they get into a contretemps over a bloody hand towel. When the diner hold - up turns into a Mexican standoff, "Honey Bunny '' whines, "I got ta go pee! ''
As described by Peter and Will Brooker, "In three significant moments Vincent retires to the bathroom (and) returns to an utterly changed world where death is threatened. '' The threat increases in magnitude as the narrative progresses chronologically, and is realized in the third instance:
In the Brookers ' analysis, "Through Vince... we see the contemporary world as utterly contingent, transformed, disastrously, in the instant you are not looking. '' Fraiman finds it particularly significant that Vincent is reading Modesty Blaise in two of these instances. She links this fact with the traditional derisive view of women as "the archetypal consumers of pulp '':
Locating popular fiction in the bathroom, Tarantino reinforces its association with shit, already suggested by the dictionary meanings of "pulp '' that preface the movie: moist, shapeless matter; also, lurid stories on cheap paper. What we have then is a series of damaging associations -- pulp, women, shit -- that taint not only male producers of mass - market fiction but also male consumers. Perched on the toilet with his book, Vincent is feminized by sitting instead of standing as well as by his trashy tastes; preoccupied by the anal, he is implicitly infantilized and homosexualized; and the seemingly inevitable result is being pulverized by Butch with a Czech M61 submachine gun. That this fate has to do with Vincent 's reading habits is strongly suggested by a slow tilt from the book on the floor directly up to the corpse spilled into the tub.
Willis reads Pulp Fiction in almost precisely the opposite direction, finding "its overarching project as a drive to turn shit into gold. This is one way of describing the project of redeeming and recycling popular culture, especially the popular culture of one 's childhood, as is Tarantino 's wont as well as his stated aim. '' Despite that, argues Fraiman, "Pulp Fiction demonstrates... that even an open pulpophile like Tarantino may continue to feel anxious and emasculated by his preferences. ''
Pulp Fiction won eight awards from a total of twenty - six nominations. Also, in the balloting by the National Society of Film Critics, Samuel L. Jackson was the runner - up in both the Best Actor and the Best Supporting Actor categories.
American Film Institute Lists
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who died on hit the floor season finale | Hit the Floor (tv series) - wikipedia
Hit the Floor, originally titled Bounce, is an American sports drama television series that debuted on VH1 on May 27, 2013. Created by James LaRosa, the series chronicles the off - the - court drama surrounding the Los Angeles Devils, a fictional professional basketball team. On April 27, 2017, the series was renewed for an eight - episode fourth season that premiered on BET on July 10, 2018.
Ahsha Hayes (Taylour Paige) becomes the newest member of the Devil Girls, the cheerleaders for the professional basketball team, the Los Angeles Devils, and immediately makes an enemy of Devil Girl captain Jelena Howard (Logan Browning). Knowing that her mother Sloane (Kimberly Elise) used to be a Devil Girl herself, Ahsha is shocked to discover that former player - turned - coach of the Devils, Pete Davenport (Dean Cain), is her biological father. Ahsha is also tempted by bad boy player Derek Roman (McKinley Freeman), even though she is already involved with German Vega (Jonathan McDaniel).
Season two is overshadowed by the murder of Olivia Vincent (Charlotte Ross), who was blackmailing several people associated with the Devils. Meanwhile, Ahsha and Derek try to keep their relationship a secret, Pete 's estranged wife Lionel (Jodi Lyn O'Keefe) becomes a regular presence at the arena, and a devious new forward named Zero (Adam Senn) arrives with a plan to supplant star players Terrence Wall (Robert Christopher Riley) and Derek. Zero seduces -- and eventually gets burned by -- Jelena, before he becomes sexually involved with his male agent, Jude Kinkade (Brent Antonello).
In season three, a reunited Jelena and Terrence secretly plot to take over the Devils and oust Lionel, and Zero 's unwillingness to go public becomes an obstacle to his fledgling relationship with Jude. From jail, Devils owner Oscar Kinkade (Don Stark) seeks vengeance against Sloane, who has rekindled her romance with Pete.
Hit the Floor was announced by VH1 in April 2012. The series was created and executive produced by LaRosa, alongside Bryan Johnson and Maggie Malina. The pilot was written by James LaRosa and directed by Sanaa Hamri. Signed on to the pilot was Taylour Paige as Ahsha, the lead; Dean Cain as Pete, the coach of the basketball team; Kimberly Elise as Sloane, Ahsha 's mother; Valery Ortiz as Raquel, and Katherine Bailess as Kyle. Following the announcement of the pilot, Charlotte Ross signed on to play Olivia, a former dancer - turned - basketball wife who oversees the squad. The pilot was ordered to series in July 2012, with Logan Browning, Jonathan McDaniel and McKinley Freeman signing on to the main cast. Don Stark, who plays Oscar Kinkade, the owner of the basketball team, and Robert Christopher Riley, who plays star player Terrence, were upgraded to series regulars after being billed as guest stars in the pilot. In April 2013, Starz Distribution finalized an international television distribution agreement to represent Hit the Floor outside of the United States. The series premiered on May 27, 2013, and the first season was the No. 1 new cable scripted series of mid-2013 among the adults 18 -- 49 viewership demo.
VH1 announced the renewal for a second season on July 15, 2013. Season two production began on January 31, 2014, and premiered on May 26, 2014. The season featured a whodunit story involving Olivia 's murder, and LaRosa was inspired by the 1980s "Who shot J.R.? '' storyline on Dallas to shoot multiple resolutions so that even the cast would not know the identity of the killer until the episode aired. Teasing the reveal in the season two finale, LaRosa said, "It 's definitely someone you 've come to know. It 's a name at the top of the credits and I can tell you that you will be shocked... the reveal gives me chills every single time ''.
On July 29, 2014, VH1 announced the third season renewal of Hit the Floor. The 10 - episode new season premiered on January 18, 2016 and ended on March 28, 2016. In April 2016, VH1 greenlit an hour - long summer special to resolve the cliffhangers raised in the third season finale. The special aired on September 5, 2016.
On April 27, 2017, it was announced that the series would move to BET for its future seasons. In October 2017, BET announced that Cain, Elise, Freeman, Bailess, O'Keefe, and Antonello would be returning to the series, and series creator James LaRosa confirmed that Paige and Senn would not be returning for season four. Teyana Taylor was cast in an undisclosed role in October, and four new regular cast members were announced in November 2017: Tiffany Hines as "mystery woman '' Eve, Cort King as rookie player Pax, Kyndall as new dancer Jamie, and Kristian Kordula as reporter Noah. Production began in November 2017, and the series ' eight - episode fourth season premiered on July 10, 2018.
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