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No Man 's Sky - wikipedia No Man 's Sky is an action - adventure survival game developed and published by the indie studio Hello Games. It was released worldwide for PlayStation 4 and Microsoft Windows in August 2016, and for Xbox One in July 2018. The game is built around four pillars: exploration, survival, combat, and trading. Players are free to perform within the entirety of a procedurally generated deterministic open world universe, which includes over 18 quintillion planets. Through the game 's procedural generation system, planets have their own ecosystems with unique forms of flora and fauna, and various sentient alien species may engage the player in combat or trade within planetary systems. Players advance in the game by mining for resources to power and improve their spacecraft, tools, and spacesuit for survival, buying and selling resources using credits earned by documenting flora and fauna, and otherwise seeking out the mystery around the Atlas, an entity at the center of the universe. The founder of Hello Games, Sean Murray, had wanted to create a game that captured the sense of exploration and optimism of science fiction writings and art of the 1970s and 1980s with No Man 's Sky. The game was developed over three years by a small team at Hello Games with promotional and publishing help from Sony Interactive Entertainment. The game was seen as an ambitious project by a small team by the gaming media, and Murray and Hello Games drew significant attention leading to its release. At release, the game was found to be lacking several features that Murray had previously stated would be present, particularly multiplayer capabilities, though Murray had tried to downplay expectations prior to launch. Critically, the game received a wide range of mixed reviews, with some praising the technical achievements of the procedurally generated universe, while others considered the gameplay lacklustre and repetitive. Additionally, the lack of promised features, and Hello Games ' lack of communication in the months following the launch, created backlash from its player base. The promotion and marketing for No Man 's Sky became a subject of debate, and the video game industry has used No Man 's Sky as an example of missteps to avoid in marketing. Hello Games has remained committed to improving and expanding the game, while it continued to have a cult following of players. Since the initial criticism, the game has received multiple major content updates that have introduced numerous previously missing features, which has generally improved its overall reception. No Man 's Sky is an action - adventure survival game played from a first or third person perspective that allows players to engage in four principal activities: exploration, survival, combat, and trading. The player takes the role of a specimen of alien humanoid planetary explorer, known in game as the Traveller, in an uncharted universe. They start on a random planet near a crashed spacecraft at the edge of the galaxy, and are equipped with a survival exosuit with a jetpack, and a "multitool '' that can be used to scan, mine and collect resources as well as to attack or defend oneself from creatures and hostile forces. The player can collect, repair, and refuel the craft, allowing them to travel about the planet, between other planets and space stations in the local solar system, engage in space combat with alien factions, or make hyperspace jumps to other star systems. While the game is open ended, the player may follow the guidance of the entity known as the Atlas to head towards the centre of the galaxy. The defining feature of No Man 's Sky is that nearly all parts of the galaxy, including stars, planets, flora and fauna on these planets, and sentient alien encounters, are created through procedural generation using deterministic algorithms and random number generators from a single seed number. This 64 - bit value leads to there being over 18 quintillion (1.8 × 10) planets to explore within the game. Very little data is stored on the game 's servers, as all elements of the game are created through deterministic calculations when the player is near them, assuring that other players will see the same elements as another player by travelling to the same location in the galaxy. The player may make temporary changes on planets, such as mining resources, but these changes are not tracked once the player leaves that vicinity. Only some "significant '' changes, such as destroying a space station, are tracked for all players on the game 's servers. The game uses different servers for the PlayStation 4 and Windows versions. Through exploration, the player is credited with "units '', the in - game currency, by observing not - yet - seen planets, alien bases, flora and fauna in their travels. If the player is first to discover one of these, they can earn additional units by uploading this information to the Atlas, as well as having their name credited with the discovery to be seen by other players through the game 's servers. Players also have the opportunity to rename these features at this point within limits set by a content filter. No Man 's Sky can be played offline, but interaction with the Atlas requires online connectivity. The player must assure the survival of the Traveller, as many planets have dangerous atmospheres such as extreme temperatures, toxic gases, and dangerous storms. Though the player can seek shelter at alien bases or underground caves, these environments will wear away at the exosuit 's shielding and armour and can kill the Traveller, thus the player must collect resources necessary for survival. By collecting blueprints, the player can use resources to craft upgrades to their exosuit, multitool, and spacecraft to make survival easier, with several of these upgrades working in synergistic manners to improve the survivability and capabilities of the Traveller. Each of these elements have a limited number of slots for both upgrades and resource space, requiring the player to manage their inventories and feature sets, though the player can either gain new slots for the exosuit or purchase new ships and multitools with more slots. Many features of the exosuit, multitool, and spacecraft need to be refuelled after prolonged use, using collected resources as a fuel source. Better equipment, and the blueprints and resources to craft that equipment, are generally located closer to the centre of the galaxy, providing a driver for the player. While on a planet, the Traveller may be attacked by hostile creatures. They also may be attacked by Sentinels, a self - replicating robot force that patrols the planets and takes action against those that take the planet 's resources. The player can fend these off using the weapons installed on the multitool. The game uses a "wanted level '' similar to that of the Grand Theft Auto series; low wanted levels may cause small drones to appear which may be easily fought off, while giant walking machines can assault the player at higher wanted levels. While in space, the Traveller may be attacked by pirates seeking their ship 's cargo, or by alien factions with whom they have a poor reputation. Here, the player can use the ship 's weapon systems to engage in these battles. Should the Traveller die on a planet, they will be respawned at their last save point without their exosuit 's inventory; the player can recover these materials if the player can reach the last death location. If the Traveller dies in space, they will similarly respawn at the local system 's space station, but having lost all the goods aboard their ship. Again, these goods can be recovered by travelling to the point at which the player died in space, but with the added uncertainty of pirates claiming the goods first. Each star system has a space station where the Traveller can trade resources, multitools, and ships, and interact with one or more aliens from three different races that populate the galaxy. The player may also find active or abandoned alien bases on planets that offer similar functions. Each alien race has their own language, presented as a word - for - word substitution which initially will be nonsense to the player. By frequent communications with that race, as well as finding monoliths scattered on planets that act as Rosetta stones, the player can better understand these languages and perform proper actions when interacting with the alien non-player characters, gaining favour from the alien and its race for future trading and combat. Consequentially, improper responses to aliens may cause them to dislike the Traveller, and their space - bound fleets may attack the Traveller on sight. The game includes a free market galactic store accessible at space stations or alien bases, where some resources and goods have higher values in some systems compared to others, enabling the player to profit on resource gathering and subsequent trade. No Man 's Sky is primarily designed as a single - player game, though discoveries can be shared to all players via the Steam Workshop, and friends can track each other on the game 's galactic map. Hello Games ' Sean Murray stated that one might spend about forty hours of game - time to reach the centre of the galaxy if they did not perform any side activities, but he also fully anticipated that players would play the game in a manner that suits them, such as having those that might try to catalogue the flora and fauna in the universe, while others may attempt to set up trade routes between planets. Players can track friends on the galactic map and the system maps. Due to limited multiplayer aspects, Sony does not require PlayStation 4 users to have a PlayStation Plus subscription to play the game online. A large update released in November 2016, known as the "Foundation Update '', added the ability for the player to define a planet as a "home planet '', and construct a base on that planet from modular components created from collected resources. Once constructed, the player can then immediately return to their base via teleportation from a space station in the rest of the galaxy. The base supports adding special stations, such as research terminals, that can be manned by one of the sentient aliens, which can help to unlock additional base components and blueprints, tend to harvesting flora for resources, and other aspects. The player may opt to tear down the base and relocate to a different home planet at any time. The player also has abilities to construct devices such as automatic mineral drills in the field. The player is able to purchase starship freighters, which serve both as a space - bound base, with similar base - building and construction options as the planetary base, and as additional storage capacity that collected resources can be transferred. The Foundation update also adds in two new play modes, with the original gameplay considered as the third, default mode. Survival mode is similar to standard gameplay but the difficulty is much higher -- atmospheric effects have larger impact on the exosuit 's armour, alien creatures are more hostile, Sentinels are more alert and deadly, and resources tend to be sparse. If a player should die in Survival mode, they must restart without being able to recover their lost progress, though they still possess their credits, alien language progress, and known blueprints. Creative mode removes much of the mechanics that can kill the player 's character, and gives them unlimited resources for constructing bases. A second update released in March 2017, known as the "Path Finder Update '', added several new features to the game. Among these included the ability to share bases with other players, as well as new vehicles called exocraft to help in exploration. The exocraft can be built on the player 's set home planet, and called upon on any other planet via a minor update released a few days afterwards. The update also contained a permadeath option that wipes the player 's progress completely on death; support for Steam Workshop for user modifications on the Windows version; new base building features and materials, ship and multitool classes and support for PlayStation 4 Pro enhanced graphics. A third update, titled "The Atlas Rises, '' was released in August 2017. It included significant contributions to the game 's story mode, added an estimated 30 hours of narrative, and added procedurally - generated missions. The player can use portals to quickly transport across the game 's galaxy. A limited online cooperative mode, called "Joint Exploration '', allows for up to 16 players to explore the same planet and use voice chat and text commands to communicate to others in close proximity, seeing each other as glowing spheres, but otherwise they can not directly interact with each other; Hello Games called it an "important first step into the world of synchronous co-op ''. The update was preceded by several weeks of a "Waking Titan '' alternate reality game. The fourth major update, titled No Man 's Sky Next, was released for Windows and PlayStation 4 on 24 July 2018; this also coincided with No Man 's Sky 's release on Xbox One which included all updates including Next. Additionally, the Next update will include support for Tencent 's WeGame distribution platform in China, which Hello Games says hosts a significant number of No Man 's Sky players. No Man 's Sky Next is a significant update to the game that Hello Games considered to be more representative of the game they wanted to release in 2016. The update will include a full multiplayer experience, allowing up to four players to create and customize their in - game avatar and to join as allies to explore planets and star systems and build bases together, or as opponents to fight against each other. Bases are no longer limited to specific spots on a planet and now can be built nearly anywhere, including underwater, and such bases will be visible to all other players of the game (on their respective platform). Players will be able to assemble fleets of starships to be used to send out on various missions. The game 's engine has gotten a significant overhaul in how planets are procedurally generated as well as how they are rendered to the player. At launch, the GOG.com version of No Man 's Sky Next lacked the multiplayer component, a feature that Hello Games expects to add later in the year to work with the GOG Galaxy software, but otherwise had all new content. As a result GOG offered refunds within a limited window for anyone that had bought the game regardless of when that purchase was made. Following "Next '', Hello Games plans to be more interactive with the community and provide more frequent updates, including weekly content with special events with community - driven goals that will provide all players with in - game currency to purchase in - game items, but otherwise free to all players and without microtransactions. Additionally, Hello Games launched the Galactic Atlas, a website that players can upload information about interesting discoveries they found in - game for other players to explore themselves. The player character, known as the Traveller, wakes up on a remote planet near their crashed spacecraft. They receive a message from an entity called "The Atlas '' that offers its guidance, directing the character to make the necessary repairs to the spacecraft and collecting the resources needed to fuel a hyperspace jump to another solar system. En route, they encounter individual members of three alien species, the Gek, the Korvax, and the Vy'keen, that inhabit the galaxy. As the Traveller moves towards other systems, they are alerted to a presence of a space anomaly in a nearby system. Travelling there they find a special space station ("space anomaly '') where two aliens wait for them, Priest Entity Nada and Specialist Polo. Nada and Polo have knowledge beyond what other aliens in the galaxy appear to possess, including being able to speak without translation to the Traveller. They are able to guide the Traveller towards meeting Atlas, either by directing them to the location of a nearby Atlas Interface, or to a black hole that can quickly take the Traveller closer to the centre of the galaxy. The Traveller investigates the Interfaces to find themselves in direct communication with the Atlas which wants them to continue to explore and collect information all while moving towards the centre, where the Atlas entity appears to be. The Atlas judges the Traveller 's progress, and grants it an Atlas Stone if it deems the Traveller worthy. The Traveller continues on its journey, continuing to gain help from Nada and Polo and Atlas Stones from other Interfaces. As the Traveller progresses, they become aware that they, like Nada and Polo, are different from the other sentient beings in the galaxy, having some sense of the universe 's construction and nature. It is revealed that the galaxy itself exists as a computer simulation managed by the Atlas, the Traveller an entity created by the Atlas to explore the simulation, while Nada and Polo were "errors '' that had become self - aware of being in a simulation and isolated themselves in the anomaly to help others. Ultimately, the Traveller reaches the galaxy 's centre, finding another Atlas Interface. The Traveller presents the Interface with the Atlas Stones they have obtained, upon which the Atlas creates a new star and solar system, as well as creating another new Traveller entity to restart the exploration. The current Traveller is released, free to explore on its own, while from the player 's view, they are placed in control of this new Traveller, effectively restarting the game. No Man 's Sky represented Hello Games ' vision of a broad, attention - getting game that they wanted to pursue while they secured their financial well being through the Joe Danger series of games. The game 's original prototype was worked on by Hello Games ' Sean Murray, who wanted to create a game about the spirit of exploration inspired by the optimistic science fiction of Isaac Asimov, Arthur C. Clarke and Robert Heinlein, and the cover artwork of these works in the 1970s and 1980s. Development expanded into a small four - person team prior to its first teaser in December 2013. About a dozen developers worked on the game in the three years leading up to its release, with Sony Interactive Entertainment providing promotional and marketing support. Sony formally announced the title during their press conference at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2014, the first independently - developed game to be presented at the Expo 's centrepiece events. The game 's engine employs several deterministic algorithms such as parameterised mathematical equations that can mimic a wide range of geometry and structure found in nature. Art elements created by human artists are used and altered as well. The game 's audio, including ambient sounds and its underlying soundtrack, also uses procedural generation methods from base samples created by audio designer Paul Weir and the British musical group 65daysofstatic. No Man 's Sky was first revealed at the VGX Awards in December 2013, and subsequently gained significant attention from the gaming press. Hello Games sought help from a publisher and got the interest of Sony Interactive Entertainment (then Sony Computer Entertainment). Sony offered to provide development funding but Hello Games only requested financial assistance for promotion and publication. Sony presented the game at their media event during Electronic Entertainment Expo 2014 (E3); until that point, no independently - developed game has been demonstrated during these centre - stage events. Rumors circulated in the lead - up to the 2015 Paris Games Week in October 2015 that No Man 's Sky would be released alongside Sony 's press conference, but Murray and Sony denied these rumours. Instead, Sony used their press conference to announce the game 's expected release in June 2016 for the PlayStation 4. The game 's scheduled release during the week of 21 June 2016 was announced in March 2016, along with the onset of pre-orders for both PlayStation 4 and Windows versions. Hello Games also announced that the PlayStation 4 version would also be available in both a standard and "Limited Edition '' retail release, published by Sony, alongside the digital version. About a month before this planned release, Sony and Hello Games announced that the game would be delayed until August 2016, with Murray opting to use the few extra weeks as "some key moments needed extra polish to bring them up to our standards ''. Hello Games opted not to present at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2016 in June 2016 so as to devote more time to polishing the game, with Murray noting that due to the structure of the game, "we get one shot to make this game and we ca n't mess it up. '' The game had gone gold on 7 July 2016, and was officially released on 9 August 2016. The release date in the United Kingdom, originally slated for 12 August and two days after the rest of Europe, was later pushed up to 10 August due in part to a new deal Sony arranged with retailers to allow for simultaneous release in both regions. Two weeks before release, the worldwide Windows version release was pushed out a few days, to 12 August 2016. Murray stated through Twitter that they felt the best experience for players would be a simultaneous worldwide release on the Windows platform, something they could not control with the retail aspects that were associated with the regional PlayStation 4 market, and thus opted to hold back the Windows release to make this possible. They also used the few extra days to finish additional technical features that they wanted to include at the Windows launch, such as multiple monitor widescreen support. The limited edition retail version includes an art book and a comic written by Dave Gibbons, James Swallow and Angus McKie; Sony previously expressed interest in companion fiction for the game 's release, and Murray had engaged with Gibbons on developing such a work. Swallow also helped with some of the in - game narrative. A limited - run "Explorer 's Edition '' for the Windows version, published by iam8bit, included a miniature replica of one of the game 's spacecraft alongside other materials. Sony released a limited edition bundle with No Man 's Sky and a custom face plate for the PlayStation 4 in Europe. The New Yorker featured No Man 's Sky in their 2015 New Yorker Festival as part of their inaugural Tech@Fest event, highlighting topics on the intersection of culture and technology. On 2 October 2015, Murray made an appearance and gave a demonstration of the game on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, an American television late - night talk show. In the weeks leading up to the game 's release, Sony released a set of four videos, each focused on the principal activities of the game: exploring, fighting, trading, and surviving. Sony Interactive Entertainment Europe also released a television advertisement for the game featuring comedian Bill Bailey. Hello Games had been in legal negotiations with Sky plc over the trademark on the word "Sky '' used for No Man 's Sky, a trademark Sky had previously defended against Microsoft 's choice of "Skydrive ''. The issue was ultimately settled in June 2016, allowing Hello Games to continue to use the name. A few weeks before the game 's launch, No Man 's Sky was claimed to be using the superformula based on work done by Dr. Johan Gielis in 2003, and subsequently patented by Gielis under the Dutch company Genicap which Gielis founded and serves as Chief Research Officer. Murray had mentioned the superformula while describing the procedural generation aspects of the game in an interview with The New Yorker during development. Genicap anticipates developing a software tool using the superformula for their own product that they can see being used in video game development, which Hello Games would be infringing on if they had used the superformula in the game. The company states they have attempted to reach out to Hello Games to ask them about its use for No Man 's Sky but have not received anything back. Genicap said they did not want to stop the launch of No Man 's Sky, considered the game to be "very impressive '', and that they would like to talk more with Hello Games to exchange knowledge with them, but "if the formula is used we 'll need to have a talk ''. Murray replied that No Man 's Sky does not use the superformula, and was working to arrange a meeting with Genicap to discuss the situation and their respective mathematics. Two weeks before the official release, a Reddit user was able to purchase a leaked copy of the game for the PlayStation 4 from eBay for roughly $1,250, and started posting various videos of their experiences in the game. Other users also claimed to have leaked copies, and began sharing their own gameplay videos. Some of these reports included negative elements about the game, including frequent crashes and a much - shorter time to "complete '' the game by reaching the centre of the virtual galaxy than Hello Games had claimed, leading many fans to express concern and frustration that the game might not be as good as they anticipated. In response, Murray asked fans waiting for the game to avoid these spoilers, stating "We 've spent years filling No Man 's Sky with surprises. You 've spent years waiting. Please do n't spoil it for yourself. '' Some retailers broke the street date, as several players, including journalists at Kotaku and Polygon, streamed their starting playthroughs of the game starting from 5 August 2016. Polygon noted that Sony had not issued any review embargoes for the game at this point. Hello Games reset the servers for the game just prior to 9 August 2016 so as to give all players a clean slate. Prior to official release, Sony requested sites to take down videos from early copies, citing that due to the nature of the game, they considered that Hello Games ' vision of the game would only be met once a day - one patch was made available at release. Some of these video takedowns had accidentally included users discussing the game but without using these pre-release footage videos, a situation that Murray and Sony worked to resolve. The day - one patch, which Hello Games had been at work at since the game went gold in July, altered several aspects of how the procedurally generated universe was created, such that existing saves from previous copies would no longer work. This patch also removed an exploit that was observed by pre-release players that allowed them to complete the game much faster than anticipated. Commentators noted that the patch would substantially change the aspects of the game previously critiqued by aforementioned early players, and believed some of the changes were made specifically to address these concerns. Concern was raised by the fan community when OpenCritic, a review aggregator site, stated that there were going to be no review copies of the game prior to the public release and a review embargo that would end on the date of release. The lack of review copies is a general sign within the industry that there are concerns by the developers or publishers that a game may not live up to expectations and thus indicates that they want to minimise any impact reviews may have prior to release. However, both OpenCritic and Sony later affirmed there would be pre-release review copies and that they were waiting on a pre-release patch before sending these out to journalists. Eurogamer noted that they had expected to have review copies by 5 August, but these were pushed until 8 August so as to get the day - one patch in place, a situation they attributed to the certification process required by Sony for any games on their service. Because of the late arrival of the review copies, and the size of the game, critics presented their reviews "in progress '' over several days, omitting a final review score until they had completed enough of the game to their satisfaction. At launch, a number of software bugs affected both the PlayStation 4 and Windows versions. A game - breaking bug occurred with an in - game pre-order bonus spaceship players could collect that would potentially strand them on a planet, and a resource duplication exploit could significantly reduce the time needed to reach the game 's endings. The Windows version also garnered several reports of poor graphics rendering, framerates, and the inability to even start the game. Within a day, Hello Games had identified several of the common issues and issued patches while working to provide better technical support and resolve other issues. Murray stated that their initial patches for both systems would be "focused on customer support '' before moving onto adding in new features. Murray has offered the potential to extend the game through downloadable content that, because of the procedural generation systems used, would likely be in the form of added features rather than new content. For example, with release of the day one patch, Hello Games has pointed to base building and the ability to purchase freighters as planned additions to the game. Murray anticipates all updates will be freely available, but did not rule out that some yet - planned features may require them to charge for the content. Former Sony executive Shahid Ahmad, who led Sony 's efforts to get No Man 's Sky, stated that Hello Games had a planned schedule of updates for the game as early as 2013. The game 's first major content patch, called the "Foundation Update '', was released in November 2016 and added the ability for planet - side base - building, interstellar freighter purchases with similar base - building customisation, as well as an open Creative mode. It also includes a Survival mode, which reduces the availability of resources and makes encounters with hostiles more difficult, and makes various other improvements. Murray did suggest the possibility of releasing modding tools for Windows players to alter the game, though noted that they would be limited, and would not allow players to create new planets in the game, for example. About a week after the Windows release players had already started to examine the game 's files and create unofficial mods, with at least one mod - sharing website offering these for distribution. Hello Games have since provided patches that help to support these user mods. Murray stated in an interview with IGN prior to release that VR "would be a really good fit '' for No Man 's Sky, as the immersive experience could create "really intense moments within a game ''. Murray also commented on the potential for a remastering of No Man 's Sky for a system with more hardware capabilities, suggesting that they would be able to both increase the texture resolution and the degree of complexity of the flora and fauna on the planets. The first introduction of No Man 's Sky at the 2013 VGX awards was considered to be the best aspect of the awards presentation. Its expanded coverage at E3 2014 was also met with similar praise, with several critics considering it to have "stolen the show ''. The title won the show 's "Best Original Game '' and "Best Independent Game '' by a panel of game critics, as well as receiving the "Special Commendation for Innovation '' title. Upon release, No Man 's Sky received "mixed or average '' reviews from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic, with the later release on Xbox One receiving "generally favorable reviews ''. While many praised the technical achievement of No Man 's Sky 's procedurally - generated universe, several found that the nature of the game can become repetitive and monotonous, with the survival gameplay elements being lacklustre and tedious. As summarised by Jake Swearingen in New York, "You can procedurally generate 18.6 quintillion unique planets, but you ca n't procedurally generate 18.6 quintillion unique things to do. '' Some of the game 's criticism stemmed from the limitations of what procedural generation can bring to a game. While the engine can produce a vast array of different planets, it is built atop a finite number of predetermined assets, such as basic creature shapes or planetary biomes, and one quickly exhausts these core assets even with the variations allowed by procedural generation. An evaluation of the game 's code showed that Hello Games had the foresight to enable new predetermined assets to be added into the game through updates, which Gamasutra 's Alissa McAloon suggested that with more artists to provide more content, Hello Games or third - parties could exponentially expand the perceived uniqueness of each planet. Kate Compton, who worked on the procedural generation elements of Spore, called this issue "procedural oatmeal '', in that while you can pour a near infinite number of bowls of oatmeal with various differences, the end result still will look like a bowl of oatmeal. Compton noted that No Man 's Sky lacks a quality of perceptual uniqueness, a problem that other game researchers are looking to try to solve to provide a more crafted but still procedurally generated experience to the player, placing less emphasis on the vastness of potential outcomes as No Man 's Sky 's marketing relied on. Polygon 's Ben Kuchera hypothesised that No Man 's Sky could follow the same route as Destiny, a 2014 game that, at release, received lukewarm reviews as it lacked much of the potential that its developers and publishers had claimed in marketing, but became highly praised after several major updates. Kuchera referred to Hello Games ' statements regarding new features, downloadable content, and tracking what players are interested in as evidence that No Man 's Sky would evolve over time. Within a day of the game 's official launch, Hello Games reported that more than 10 million distinct species were registered by players, exceeding the estimated 8.7 million species identified to date on Earth. On the first day of the Windows release, No Man 's Sky saw more than 212,000 concurrent players on Steam, exceeding the largest number of concurrent players for most other games, including other 2016 releases such as XCOM 2 and Dark Souls III. Chart - Track reported that sales of the physical release of No Man 's Sky in the United Kingdom during the first week was the second - largest PlayStation 4 launch title published by Sony, following Uncharted 4, and the fifth highest across all publishers and Sony formats. However, a week later, these numbers had dropped significantly; the concurrent player count on Steam fell under 23,000, and United Kingdom sales fell by 81 % in the second week. The number of concurrent players on Steam fell to around 2,100 by the end of September 2016. While player dropoff after release is common in games, the dropoff rate for No Man 's Sky was considered unusually high. Steam Spy reported that No Man 's Sky had the third - highest "hype factor '', a statistical measure of concurrent player dropoff from publicly - available reports, of all games released on Steam from the start of 2016 to August of that year. The game was the top downloaded title from the PlayStation Store in the month of August 2016. Physical sales of No Man 's Sky across both PlayStation 4 and Windows in August 2016 made it the second - highest selling game in North America by revenue that month, according to NPD Group. SuperData Research stated that for the month of August 2016, No Man 's Sky was the second highest grossing game in digital sales across all consoles, and sixth - highest for PC. Steam developer Valve Corporation reported that No Man 's Sky was one of the top twelve highest - grossing revenue games available on the platform during 2016, while Steam Spy estimated that more than 823,000 copies were sold in 2016 for a total gross revenue of more than $43 million. No Man 's Sky won the Innovation Award and was nominated for the Best Technology Award for the 2017 Game Developers Choice Awards. Murray and other members of Hello Games had attended the Game Developers Conference, but had not expected to win anything given the game 's reputation by that point, and opted to go elsewhere for dinner when they were named the winners of the Innovation Award. The game was nominated for the Excellence in Technical Achievement for the 2017 SXSW Gaming Awards. The title was also named for the British Game award for the 13th British Academy Games Awards. PC Gamer named No Man 's Sky its Best Ongoing Game award in 2017, and Shacknews considered it the Best Comeback in 2017, both praising the updates added in the year since its launch that had improved how one interacted with the game. The game 's official soundtrack, Music for an Infinite Universe by 65daysofstatic, was released on 5 August 2016, and received positive reviews from music critics. Andrew Webster of The Verge described the soundtrack as an extension of past 65daysofstatic albums, particularly from Wild Light, but with a greater science - fiction vibe to it, considering the track "Asimov '' to be like "taking flight into a Chris Foss painting ''. Sam Walker - Smart for Clash rated the album 8 out of 10, considered the album one of 65daysofstatic 's best, and that it was "apocalyptic, transcendental and drenched in a sense of pure epic - ness ''. Since its reveal at the 2013 VGX show and over the course of its development, the potential of No Man 's Sky had been widely promoted across the video game industry and created a great deal of hype. Matt Kamen of Wired UK called No Man 's Sky "perhaps one of, if not the, most hyped indie titles in the history of gaming ''. Much of the attention has been drawn to the massive scope realised by the procedural generation of the game, and the relatively small size of the Hello Games ' team behind it. No Man 's Sky was seen as a potential industry - changing title, challenging the status quo of triple - A game development, which according to Peckham, had become "rich and complacent ''. The game had been considered to have similar potential to impact the game industry as Minecraft, though in contrast, The Atlantic 's David Sims opined that Minecraft 's relevance took several years to develop, while No Man 's Sky was burdened with expectations from the start. No Man 's Sky has been considered by Nathan Lawrence of IGN as a mainstream - friendly space flight simulator game, providing controls that were "simple to learn and fascinating to plumb '' compared to Elite: Dangerous and Star Citizen while still offering engaging gameplay. The concepts behind No Man 's Sky, allowing for a "grail - like feedback loop '' around the exploration of near - infinite space according to Time 's Matt Peckham, created a great amount of anticipation for the game from gamers, as such lofty goals were often seen as a dare for them to challenge. In a specific example, Hello Games had first claimed their system would achieve 4.3 billion planets (2) through the use of a 32 - bit key; when players expressed doubt that this scope could be done, Hello Games altered their approach to use a 64 - bit number as to create 18 quintillion planets to prove otherwise. Many commentators compared No Man 's Sky to 2008 's Spore by Maxis, which had promised similar ambitions to use procedural generation to construct new creatures and worlds. However, by release, the extent of the use of procedural generation was scaled back during the course of production, and the resulting game was not as well - received as anticipated. Murray was aware that some critics were applying caution to their view of No Man 's Sky due to their previous experiences with Spore. Kris Graft for Gamasutra commented that many players and journalists had both high expectations for the game as well as wide expectations, with some believing that it would be, among other aspects, the "best space sim '', the "best multiplayer action shooter '', and the "best pure exploration game ''. Ars Technica 's Kyle Orland found that unlike Spore or Fable which had "saturation PR campaigns that promised revolutionary and industry - changing gameplay features '' which failed to be present in the final releases, Hello Games ' statements about No Man 's Sky were "relatively restrained and realistic about what they were promising ''. Orland surmises that many players and journalists "layer (ed) their own expectations onto the game 's gaps '' from what Hello Games actually claimed. Vlambeer 's founder Rami Ismail considered the strength of the marketing campaign by Hello Games and Sony to generate interest in the game, calling the pitch using the concept of magnitudes and scale rather than absolutes as "a little masterclass in explaining an abstract concept to the largest possible audience ''; Polygon 's Ben Kuchera agreed on this point, but considered that the marketing may have gotten away from Sony and Hello Games since players did not have a concrete understanding of the game 's limitations prior to launch. Murray himself was aware of the "unrealistic, intangible level of excitement '' that fans had of the game and given that they had been waiting three years to play it, would be expecting it to be perfect. He countered that he felt he and Hello Games tried to be "reasonably open and honest about what the game is '' all throughout the marketing cycle to set expectations. On the day before the official release, Murray cautioned players that No Man 's Sky may not have been "the game you imagined from those trailers '' and instead that the title was meant as a "very very chill game '', giving players a universe - sized sandbox that makes you feel as if you "stepped into a sci - fi book cover ''; Murray believed the game would have a "super divisive '' response from players due to some of these expectations. No Man 's Sky developed a dedicated fan - base before its release, with many congregating in a subreddit to track and share information published about the game. Sam Zucchi writing for Kill Screen proposed that the players anxiously awaiting No Man 's Sky were a kind of religion, putting faith in Hello Games to be able deliver an experience that has otherwise never been offered by video games before, the ability to explore a near - infinite universe. Following the news of the game 's delay from June to August 2016, Murray, along with Kotaku writer Jason Schreier, who first reported on the rumour of the delay, received a number of death threats in response, which Murray publicly responded to in good humor. The situation was seen by other journalists as a growing issue between the pre-release hype created by marketing for video games, and the excited nature of the fans of these games even before their release. New Statesman 's Phil Hartup considered that when marketing for a game drives a need for any type of news by those anxious to play the game, disappointing news such as delays could readily lead to online fans reacting in a paranoid manner against marketing expectations. Phil Owen writing for TheWrap blamed such issues on the video game marketers, as the field had become less about selling a game and more about creating a cult - like following for the game and "weaponizing fandom ''. In addition to its mixed response from critics, player reaction to the release version of No Man 's Sky was generally negative in response to several issues at the game 's launch, buoyed by early reactions from those that had played the game before its official release. Users expressed concern with the apparent lack of features and other issues associated with the PlayStation 4 launch, while many players on the Windows version via Steam and GOG.com gave the game negative reviews due to the poor graphics capabilities or inability to launch the game. Players were also disappointed at the apparent lack of features that Hello Games and Sony had stated in earlier announcements and interviews would be included in the game; a list initially compiled by members of the No Man 's Sky subreddit consisting of all such features appeared around a week after launch. By October 2016, the game had one of the worst user - based ratings on Steam, with an aggregate "mostly negative '' average from more than 70,000 users. At the 2017 Game Developers Conference, Murray admitted they have far underestimated the number of players that would initially get the game; using estimates from Inside and Far Cry: Primal, both released just before No Man 's Sky, the studio had expected about 10,000 concurrent players at launch, but in actuality saw over 500,000 players across both PlayStation 4 and Windows, with about half coming from the Windows side. This overwhelmed their expected server capacity and overloaded their support team with bug reports and technical help, leading to the noted problems with communications within the release window. At the same event, Hello Games announced that they had started their own support programme, known as "Hello Labs '', which will help fund and support the developers of games using procedural generation, or otherwise experimental gameplay. Murray stated they anticipate funding one or two games at a time, and that one title was already part of the programme at the time of announcement. One of the more significant features that appeared to be absent from the release version of No Man 's Sky was its multiplayer capabilities. Hello Games had stated during development that No Man 's Sky would include multiplayer elements, though the implementation would be far from traditional methods as one would see in a massive multiplayer online game, to the point where Murray has told players to not think of No Man 's Sky as a multiplayer game. Because of the size of the game 's universe, Hello Games estimated that more than 99.9 % of the planets would never be explored by players, and that the likelihood of meeting another player through chance encounters is nearly zero. Murray had stated in a 2014 interview that No Man 's Sky would include a matchmaking system that is similar to that used for Journey when such encounters do occur; each online player would have an "open lobby '' that any players in their in - universe proximity would enter and leave. This approach was envisioned to provide "cool moments '' for players as they encounter each other, but not meant to support gameplay like player versus environment or fully cooperative modes. According to Murray in 2018, Hello Games had worked to try to keep this light multiplayer element in the game though the final part of their development cycle, but found that it was very difficult to include, and opted to remove it for the game 's release, believing that with the size of the game 's universe, only a few players would end up experiencing it. Questions regarding the multiplayer aspects of No Man 's Sky were raised a day following the official release on the PlayStation 4. Two players attempted to meet at a location in the game 's virtual universe after one player recognised the other upon seeing their username attached to a planetary discovery. Despite confirming they had been at the same spot on the same planet outside of the game through their respective Twitch.tv streams, they could not see each other. Furthering this was the discovery that European copies of the limited edition packaging used a sticker to cover the PEGI online play icon. Journalists noted a number of potential reasons why the players may not have encountered each other, including the users being on separate instances or server problems reported by Hello Games at launch, though some opined that this may have been a feature removed before launch. Hello Games noted that they have had "far more '' players than they expected at launch and are bringing on more people to help support the game along with patching the critical issues at the game 's launch, but they have not made a direct statement on the multiplayer situation as of September 2016. Outside of patch notes, Hello Games had effectively gone silent on social media right after the game 's release up until the announcement of the Foundation update in late November 2016. Murray, who used the Hello Games ' Twitter account with some frequency before release, had not been visible online for the first two months following the game 's release. In the announcement of this update, Hello Games admitted to being "quiet '' but have been paying attention to the various criticisms levelled at the game. Schreier from Kotaku and Ben Kuchera of Polygon commented that some of the negative player reaction was due to a lack of clarification on these apparently missing features from either Hello Games or Sony in the weeks just after release, with Kuchera further stating that with the silence from either company, "the loudest, most negative voices are shouting unopposed '' and leading to a strong negative perception of the game. Kuchera later wrote that many of the issues in the lead - up and follow - up to No Man 's Sky 's release, whether by choice or happenstance, provide many lessons on the importance of proper public relations. Kuchera specifically pointed to the decision to withhold review copies and an apparent lack of public relations (PR) to manage statements relating to what features would be in the game. Kuchera also noted that many people had taken the hype generated by the press only to be disappointed by the final game, and that consumers did have ways to evaluate the game following its release before they purchased the title. Sony president Shuhei Yoshida admitted that Hello Games did not have "a great PR strategy '' for No Man 's Sky, in part for lacking a dedicated PR staff to manage expectations, but still support the developers as they continue to patch and update the game. Jesse Signal, writing for the Boston Globe noted that some of the hype for No Man 's Sky may be attributed to game journalists themselves for getting too excited about the game, positing "Had journalists asked certain questions at certain times, perhaps it would have been more difficult for Hello Games to make promises it could n't deliver on. '' The lack of features in the release version of the game became a point of contention, with many players using the Steam and GOG.com review pages, along with Metacritic reviews, to give it poor ratings. Sean Murray received a great deal of online criticism from players, including accusations of lying. A Reddit user temporarily took down the documented list of removed features after he received messages that congratulated him on "really sticking it to these ' dirtbag ' devs '', which was not his intention in publishing the list; he wanted no part of the anger towards Hello Games. The subreddit forum had become hostile due to a lack of updates from Hello Games or Sony, leading one moderator to delete the subreddit due to the toxicity of the comments, later undoing that action on further review. In an interview in July 2018, Murray stated that the period following No Man 's Sky ' release was difficult for him and the studio due to the fan backlash that included numerous death and bomb threats during that period that forced the studio to be in constant contact with Scotland Yard. Murray stated of that period, "I find it really personal, and I do n't have any advice for dealing with it. '' The Hello Games ' Twitter account had been hacked into in October 2016 and used to post the message "No Man 's Sky was a mistake '' among other tweets before the companies regained control of it, leading to confusion and additional drama within the community. Users sought refunds for the game via both Sony and Valve outside of the normal time allowance for claiming such refunds by their policies, citing the numerous bugs within the game and / or the lack of features, and while some players claim to have received such refunds, both companies have reemphasised their refund policies in response to the volume of refund requests. Game journalist Geoff Keighley, who had been in discussions with Murray and Hello Games throughout the development, had expressed concern to Murray in the year leading up to release, according to Keighley in September 2016. He said he was "internally conflicted '' about the state of the game near its release, recognising that many of the features that Murray had been talking about were not going to make it, and compared Murray to Peter Molyneux who had overpromised on a vision for his games that ultimately fell short. Keighley had expressed to Murray his concern that the $60 price tag was a bit steep for the current state of the game and recommended that they take an early access approach instead. According to Keighley, Murray said he did n't want to be around Keighley any more as he was "a little too negative about the game and (Keighley) 's assessment of where the team was at ''. Keighley felt that Murray could not "rip off that band - aid '' and explain exactly what had made it and had to be cut for the game prior to release, and in the end appeared to "disrespect his audience ''. As such, Keighley sympathised with those that felt they were misled by the marketing. Keighley rekindled the relationship with Murray since launch, and anticipated discussing more of what happened near release with him. Sony Chairman Shawn Layden, in November 2016, stated that Hello Games had an "incredible vision '' and a "very huge ambition '' for No Man 's Sky, and that the developers are still working to update the game to bring it to what they wanted, adding that "sometimes you just do n't get all the way there at the first go ''. Layden further expressed that from Sony 's side, they recognised that they "do n't want to stifle ambition '' and force a specific style of play onto their games. In September 2016, the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) of the United Kingdom, following on "several complaints '', began an investigation into the promotion of No Man 's Sky. The ASA has authority to require publishers to remove offending advertising materials if they are found in violation of ASA standards. In the No Man 's Sky complaints directed at Hello Games and Valve, the ASA specifically evaluated materials used on the Steam store page to promote the game that demonstrate features that do not appear to be a part of the final game, but has also reviewed other official promotional outlets including the game 's official YouTube channel. Several game industry lawyers, speaking to PC Gamer, noted that while the ASA has successfully taken action in previous cases of false advertising, demonstrating such for a procedurally - generated game of No Man 's Sky scope may be difficult since it is impossible to play the entire game to prove something does not exist. The lawyers also noted that most of what Murray and other Hello Games members said outside of any official promotional channels, such as interviews or through social media, can not be taken as part of the game 's advertising, further limiting the claims that the ASA can act on. The ASA ruled in November 2016 that the Steam storepage advertising of No Man 's Sky was not in breach of their standards, attributing the used footage and screenshots to be reasonable representative of the average player 's experience with a procedurally - generated game, and dismissed the submitted complaints; the ASA further ruled that as Valve has no control over what Hello Games included on the store page, they were not liable for the material either. On 25 November 2016, Hello Games announced it was planning on bringing a large update, known as the Foundation Update, to the game, stating that "We have been quiet, but we are listening and focusing on improving the game that our team loves and feels so passionately about. '' Hello Games had not mentioned a release window, and many journalists were surprised when the update was released just two days later. The update was generally well received by journalists, that while not fully satisfying all the features that seemed to have been promised for the game, helped to push the game into the right direction in anticipation of future major patches. The update had drawn back some players that had previously turned their back to the game and created a better reception across some players, while others still remained disappointed from the game 's initial release problems. By the time of the third major update, "Atlas Rises '', a year after initial release, many felt the game was now much better and approaching what they had expected. Wired 's Julie Muncy said that the ability of the updates to No Man 's Sky demonstrates the game can be more organic, adding significant new features that can dramatically change the feel of the game. In retrospective following the patch, journalists generally commended Hello Games for staying quiet about the exact details of the update until just prior to its release to avoid the same situation that the game got on its initial release. Gamasutra named Hello Games one of its top ten developers for 2016 not only for the technical achievements within No Man 's Sky, but also for not collapsing amid the anger directed at the company and instead keeping to making improvements to the game. The discontinuity between No Man 's Sky expectations and its initially - released product are considered a milestone in video game promotion, with many sources considering how to properly promote a game in a "post No Man 's Sky world ''. The situation around No Man 's Sky 's promotion using screenshots and videos that were not from the game 's final state (a practice known as "bullshots '') led to discussion among developers, publishers, and journalists of how to best showcase upcoming games without being deceptive to the audience. Keighley, who felt some responsibility for the No Man 's Sky situation, announced that all games that will be shown during The Game Awards 2016 ceremony would be more focused on gameplay of near - completed titles, using a Let 's Play - type format, rather than allowing for scripted or pre-rendered videos. Several journalists attribute a change in Valve 's Steam storefront policies in November 2016, requiring all game screenshots and videos to be from the final product, as a response to the No Man 's Sky situation. The failure of No Man 's Sky 's promotional aspects has affected other space simulation and open world games that are based on the premise of providing a vast ranging sandbox for players, as players have become wary of the broad claims that these games might make. Novaquark, the developers of the upcoming open - world Dual Universe, found themselves struggling to complete their Kickstarter funding in the months immediately after No Man 's Sky 's release, but have recognised the need to be open and transparent to potential funders on what the game will and will not have. Fenix Fire, the developers of the space exploration game Osiris: New Dawn, used the various question - and - answers that Sean Murray had to handle during the pre-release period to gauge what players were looking for in such games and guide development of their own game. According to a report from Kotaku, BioWare had envisioned that Mass Effect: Andromeda would use procedural generation for creating a universe to explore prior to No Man 's Sky 's announcement, and further pushed for this following the excitement for No Man 's Sky once it was announced, but could not get the procedural generation to work well with the Frostbite 3 game engine, and had to scrap these plans by 2015. Eurogamer 's Wesley Yin - Poole observed that following No Man 's Sky problematic release, developers appear to be "keeping their cards close to their chests for fear of failing to deliver on a promise that never should have slipped out in the first place ''; as an example, he stated that Rare 's Sea of Thieves, whereas having only been promoted through obscure videos that left too many questions to potential players in its earlier stages, has started an "Insider '' programme in December 2016 to provide limited alpha - testing access and more concrete gameplay videos. Similarly, Compulsion Games, who premiered their game We Happy Few at PAX East 2015 to similar hype as No Man 's Sky, worked to backtrack on perceived expectations of their game after seeing what had happened to No Man 's Sky at its launch. Specifically, Compulsion, a small developer, found that many were treating their title as a AAA release, and wanted to be clear what the game was to be, deciding to use the early access approach to provide transparency.

you shook me all night long film clip

You Shook Me All Night Long - wikipedia "You Shook Me All Night Long '' is a song by Australian hard rock band AC / DC, from the album Back in Black. The song also reappeared on their later album Who Made Who. AC / DC 's first single with Brian Johnson as the lead singer, it reached number 35 on the USA 's Hot 100 pop singles chart in 1980. The single was re-released internationally in 1986, following the release of the album Who Made Who. The re-released single in 1986 contains the B - side (s): B1. "She 's Got Balls '' (Live, Bondi Lifesaver ' 77); B2. "You Shook Me All Night Long '' (Live ' 83 -- 12 - inch maxi - single only). "You Shook Me All Night Long '' placed at number 10 on VH1 's list of "The 100 Greatest Songs of the 80s ''. It was also number 1 on VH1 's "Top Ten AC / DC Songs ''. Guitar World placed "You Shook Me All Night Long '' at number 80 on their "100 Greatest Guitar Solos '' list. Robert Christgau regarded it as a "drum - hooked fucksong '' and the band 's "only great work of art ''. The song has also become a staple of AC / DC concerts, and is rarely excluded from the setlist. Four live versions of the song were officially released. The first one appeared on the 1986 maxi - single "You Shook Me All Night Long ''; the second one was included on the band 's album Live; the third version is on the soundtrack to the Howard Stern movie Private Parts, and also appears on the AC / DC box set Backtracks; and the fourth one is on the band 's live album, Live at River Plate. "You Shook Me All Night Long '' was also the second song to be played by AC / DC on Saturday Night Live in 2000, following their performance of "Stiff Upper Lip. '' When AC / DC was inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2003 by Steven Tyler of Aerosmith, they performed this song with Tyler. Johnson performed the song with Billy Joel at Madison Square Garden in New York, US in March 2014. The Salon publication stated on the following morning in its introduction to the video footage of the performance: "This will either be your favorite video today, or a total musical nightmare! '' The song is in the key of G major. The main verse and riff follows a G -- C -- D chord progression. The lyrics borrow heavily from the Willie Dixon tune "You Shook Me ''. Two versions of the music video exist. The first version, directed by Eric Dionysius and Eric Mistler, is similar to the other Back in Black videos ("Back in Black '', "Hells Bells '', "What Do You Do For Money Honey '', "Rock and Roll Ai n't Noise Pollution '' and "Let Me Put My Love Into You '') and is available on the special Back in Black, The Videos. It is also included on the Backtracks box set. In the second version, directed by David Mallet and released six years after the song 's original release (when the song was reissued in Who Made Who), Angus and Malcolm Young follow Johnson around the English town of Huddersfield, with Angus Young wearing his signature schoolboy outfit. The video clip casts the English glamour model Corinne Russell, a former Hill 's Angel and Page 3 Girl -- along with other leather clad women wearing suits with zips at the groin region -- pedaling exercise bicycles in the background. The VH1 series Pop - Up Video revealed that, during the scene with the mechanical bull, the woman playing Johnson 's lover accidentally jabbed herself with her spur twice. The roadie who came to her aid married her a year later, and Angus Young gave them a mechanical bull as a wedding present as a joke. In the original 1980 video Phil Rudd played drums, while the 1986 video showed Simon Wright, who replaced Rudd in 1983. Rudd returned to AC / DC in 1994. Jesse Fink 's book Bon: The Last Highway contains claims from two former girlfriends of Bon Scott, Silver Smith and "Holly X '' (a pseudonym) that Scott wrote parts of the song before his death on 19 February 1980. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone

who sings why must i be a teenager in love

A teenager in Love - wikipedia "A Teenager in Love '' is a song written by Doc Pomus and partner Mort Shuman and was originally sung and released by Dion and the Belmonts in March 1959. It reached # 5 on the Billboard pop charts. In May 1959, the song held three positions in the British Top 20, the other two versions being by Marty Wilde and Craig Douglas. The song is considered one of the greatest songs in rock and roll history. The song was covered by Bob Marley with The Wailers in 1965, recorded on the Coxsone label. It was also covered by Simon & Garfunkel in their final show as a recording duo at Forest Hills Tennis Stadium in Queens, New York. This song was covered several other times, for example by The Fleetwoods, by Helen Shapiro in 1963, by Connie Stevens and the Mutations on The Muppet Show in 1976, by Less Than Jake on their 2002 album, Goodbye Blue & White, by the Red Hot Chili Peppers in 2002 as a B - Side to the single By The Way and on their 2012 release, Rock & Roll Hall of Fame Covers EP, by The Overtones on their 2013 album Saturday Night at the Movies, and by The Regrettes on their 2018 EP Attention Seeker. It is also featured as a playable song in the Nintendo Wii Game Rayman Raving Rabbids 2. The Fugs parodied the song as "Septuagenarian in Love '' on The Fugs Final CD Part 1. This version turns the teenager into a senior citizen who is having trouble getting an erection. The Four Preps parodied the song in "More Money for You and Me. ''

actress who played abigail on days of our lives

Marci Miller - wikipedia Marci Miller (born August 2, 1989) is an American model, singer and actress. She has portrayed the role of Abigail Deveraux on the NBC soap opera Days of Our Lives since 2016. Miller was born and raised in the small farming town of North Liberty, Indiana (pop 1,900). She studied Vocal Performance at nearby Bethel College. After graduating college, she moved to Louisville, Kentucky to pursue theatrical opportunities followed by moving to Los Angeles where she studied Film Master Class at Baron Brown Studio, in Santa Monica, CA. Miller has a younger sister who is named after the iconic Days of Our Lives character, Kayla Brady. In late 2015, Miller joined the cast of American Fable as Gavin MacIntosh 's mother, in the lead role of Sarah. In June 2016, it was announced that Miller had joined the cast of Days of Our Lives, in the role of Abigail Deveraux, making her first appearance on November 10. In addition to her aforementioned roles, she has starred in a number of movies, including: Most Likely to Die, J Plus C, Children of the Corn: Runaway and Death Race 2050, as well as a number of short films. Miller is married to Ryan Matteson. She also helps with her husband 's organic farm - to - table business, KaleCart.

how many season of house of cards are there

List of House of Cards episodes - wikipedia House of Cards is an American political drama web television series created by Beau Willimon for Netflix. The first season, based on the BBC miniseries of the same name and the series of books by Michael Dobbs, premiered exclusively via Netflix 's web streaming service on February 1, 2013. Kevin Spacey stars as Representative Francis Underwood, the Majority Whip, who, after being passed up for the position of Secretary of State, initiates an elaborate plan to get himself into a position of greater power, aided by his wife, Claire Underwood (Robin Wright). As of May 30, 2017, 65 episodes of House of Cards have been released, concluding the fifth season. The series has been renewed for a sixth season that will consist of eight episodes and be released on November 2, 2018. The season will not include Spacey, as he was fired from the show due to sexual misconduct allegations.

who was jude writing to in the bible

Epistle of Jude - wikipedia The Epistle of Jude, often shortened to Jude, is the next - to - last book of the New Testament and is attributed to Jude, the servant of Jesus and the brother of James the Just. The letter of Jude was one of the disputed books of the Canon. The links between the Epistle and 2 Peter, its use of the Apocryphal Books, and its brevity raised concern. It is one of the shortest books in the Bible, being only 25 verses long. Jude urges his readers to defend the deposit of Christ 's doctrine that had been closed by the time he wrote his epistle, and to remember the words of the apostles spoken somewhat before. Jude then asks the reader to recall how even after the Lord saved his own people out of the land of Egypt, he did not hesitate to destroy those who fell into unbelief, much as he punished the angels who fell from their original exalted status and Sodom and Gomorrah. He describes in vivid terms the apostates of his day. He exhorts believers to remember the words spoken by the Apostles, using language similar to the second epistle of Peter to answer concerns that the Lord seemed to tarry, How that they told you there should be mockers in the last time, who should walk after their own ungodly lusts..., and to keep themselves in God 's love, before delivering a doxology. Jude quotes directly from the Book of Enoch, part of the scripture of the Ethiopian and Eritrean churches but rejected by other churches. He cites Enoch 's prophecy that the Lord would come with many thousands of his saints to render judgement on the whole world. He also paraphrases (verse 9) an incident in a text that has been lost about Satan and Michael the Archangel quarreling over the body of Moses. I. Salutation (1 - 3) II. Occasion for the Letter (3 - 4) A. The change of Subject (3) B. The Reason for the Change: The Presence of Godless Apostates (4) III. Warning against the False Teachers (5 - 16) A. Historical Examples of the Judgement of Apostates (5 - 7) 1. Unbelieving Israel (5) 2. Angels who fell (6) 3. Sodom and Gomorrah (7) B. Description of the Apostates of Jude 's Day (8 - 16) 1. Their slanderous speech deplored (8 - 10) 2. Their character graphically portrayed (11 - 13) 3. Their destruction prophesied (14 - 16) IV. Exhortation to Believers (17 - 23) V. Concluding Doxology (24 - 25) The Epistle of Jude is held as canonical in the Christian Church; conservative scholars date it between 70 and 90. Some scholars consider the letter a pseudonymous work written between the end of the 1st century and the first quarter of the 2nd century because of its references to the apostles and to tradition and because of its competent Greek style. "More remarkable is the evidence that by the end of the second century Jude was widely accepted as canonical. '' Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and the Muratorian canon considered the letter canonical. The first historical record of doubts as to authorship are found in the writings of Origen of Alexandria, who spoke of the doubts held by some, albeit not him. Eusebius classified it with the "disputed writings, the antilegomena. '' The letter was eventually accepted as part of the Canon by Church Fathers such as Athanasius and the Synods of Laodicea (c. 363) and Carthage (397). The Epistle title is written as follows: "Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and brother of James '' (NRSV). There is a dispute as to whether "brother '' means someone who has the same father and mother, or a half - brother or cousin or more distant familial relationship. This dispute over the true meaning of "brother '' grew as the doctrine of the Virgin Birth evolved. The debate has continued over the author 's identity as the apostle, the brother of Jesus, both, or neither. Some scholars have argued that since the author of the letter has not identified himself as an apostle and actually refers to the apostles as a third party, he can not be identified with the Jude who is listed as one of the Twelve (and, in the Gospel of Luke, is explicitly identified as being as "of James ''). Others have drawn the opposite conclusion, i.e., that, as an apostle, he would not have made a claim of apostleship on his own behalf. The naming of many Judes in the gospels and among the relatives of Jesus and Jude 's relationship to James the Just (called the brother of Jesus) have caused much confusion. Not a lot is known of Jude, which would explain the apparent need to identify him by reference to his better - known brother. The Epistle of Jude is a brief book of only a single chapter with 25 verses. It was composed as an encyclical letter -- that is, one not directed to the members of one church in particular, but intended rather to be circulated and read in all churches. The form, as opposed to the earlier letters of Paul, suggests that the author knew Paul 's Epistle to the Ephesians or even that the Pauline epistles had already been collected and were circulating when the text was written. The wording and syntax of this epistle in its original Greek demonstrates that the author was capable and fluent. The epistle is addressed to Christians in general, and it warns them about the doctrine of certain errant teachers to whom they were exposed. Examples of heterodox opinions that were circulating in the early 2nd century include Docetism, Marcionism, and Gnosticism. The epistle 's style is combative, impassioned, and rushed. Many examples of evildoers and warnings about their fates are given in rapid succession. The epithets contained in this writing are considered to be some of the strongest found in the New Testament. The epistle concludes with a doxology, which is considered by Peter H. Davids to be one of the highest in quality contained in the Bible. Part of Jude is very similar to 2 Peter (mainly 2 Peter chapter 2), so much so that most scholars agree that there is a dependence between the two, i.e., that either one letter used the other directly, or they both drew on a common source. Because this epistle is much shorter than 2 Peter, and due to various stylistic details, some writers consider Jude the source for the similar passages of 2 Peter. However, other writers, noting that Jude 18 quotes 2 Peter 3: 3 as past tense, consider Jude to have come after 2 Peter. Some scholars who consider Jude to predate 2 Peter note that the latter appears to quote the former but excises the reference to the non-canonical book of Enoch. The Epistle of Jude references at least two other books, with one being non-canonical in all churches and the other non-canonical in most churches. The Book of Enoch is not considered canonical by most churches, although it is by the Ethiopian Orthodox church. According to Western scholars, the older sections of the Book of Enoch (mainly in the Book of the Watchers) date from about 300 BC and the latest part (Book of Parables) probably was composed at the end of the 1st century BC. 1 Enoch 1: 9, mentioned above, is part of the pseudepigrapha and is among the Dead Sea Scrolls (4Q Enoch (4Q204 (4QENAR)) COL I 16 -- 18). It is generally accepted by scholars that the author of the Epistle of Jude was familiar with the Book of Enoch and was influenced by it in thought and diction. Online translations of the Epistle of Jude: Audiobook Version: Additional information:

when was the last time a democrat senator won in alabama

List of United States Senators from Alabama - wikipedia Alabama was admitted to the Union on December 14, 1819, and elects U.S. Senators to Class 2 and Class 3. Its Senate seats were declared vacant from March 1861 to July 1868 due to its secession from the Union during the American Civil War. Alabama 's current U.S. Senators are Republican Richard Shelby and Democrat Doug Jones. Class 2 Class 2 U.S. Senators belong to the electoral cycle that were first elected for two United States Congresses in the election of 1819, and then the seat was contested again for the 18th, 21st, and every three Congresses (six years) thereafter. Those seats in recent years have been contested in 2002, 2008, 2014, and the next election will be in 2020. Class 3 Class 3 U.S. Senators belong to the electoral cycle that were first elected for three U.S. Congresses in the election of 1819, and then the seat was contested again for the 19th, 22nd, and every three Congresses (six years) thereafter. Those seats in recent years have been contested in 1998, 2004, 2010, and 2016. The next election will be in 2022. As of January 2018, there are four living former U.S. Senators from Alabama. The most recent senator to die was Jeremiah Denton on March 28, 2014, who is also the most recently serving senator to die.

where does the story take place in the great gatsby

The Great Gatsby - Wikipedia The Great Gatsby is a 1925 novel written by American author F. Scott Fitzgerald that follows a cast of characters living in the fictional town of West and East Egg on prosperous Long Island in the summer of 1922. The story primarily concerns the young and mysterious millionaire Jay Gatsby and his quixotic passion and obsession for the beautiful former debutante Daisy Buchanan. Considered to be Fitzgerald 's magnum opus, The Great Gatsby explores themes of decadence, idealism, resistance to change, social upheaval, and excess, creating a portrait of the Jazz Age or the Roaring Twenties that has been described as a cautionary tale regarding the American Dream. Fitzgerald -- inspired by the parties he had attended while visiting Long Island 's north shore -- began planning the novel in 1923, desiring to produce, in his words, "something new -- something extraordinary and beautiful and simple and intricately patterned. '' Progress was slow, with Fitzgerald completing his first draft following a move to the French Riviera in 1924. His editor, Maxwell Perkins, felt the book was vague and persuaded the author to revise over the following winter. Fitzgerald was repeatedly ambivalent about the book 's title and he considered a variety of alternatives, including titles that referenced the Roman character Trimalchio; the title he was last documented to have desired was Under the Red, White, and Blue. First published by Scribner 's in April 1925, The Great Gatsby received mixed reviews and sold poorly; in its first year, the book sold only 20,000 copies. Fitzgerald died in 1940, believing himself to be a failure and his work forgotten. However, the novel experienced a revival during World War II, and became a part of American high school curricula and numerous stage and film adaptations in the following decades. Today, The Great Gatsby is widely considered to be a literary classic and a contender for the title "Great American Novel. '' In 1998, the Modern Library editorial board voted it the 20th century 's best American novel and second best English - language novel of the same time period. Set on the prosperous Long Island of 1922, The Great Gatsby provides a critical social history of America during the Roaring Twenties within its fictional narrative. That era, known for profound economic prosperity, the development of jazz music flapper culture, new technologies in communication (motion pictures, broadcast radio, recorded music) forging a genuine mass culture; and bootlegging, along with other criminal activity, is plausibly depicted in Fitzgerald 's novel. Fitzgerald uses many of these societal developments of the 1920s that were to build Gatsby 's stories from many of the simple details like automobiles to broader themes like Fitzgerald 's discreet allusions to the organized crime culture which was the source of Gatsby 's fortune. Fitzgerald depicts the garish society of the Roaring Twenties by placing the book 's plotline within the historical context of the era. Fitzgerald 's visits to Long Island 's north shore and his experience attending parties at mansions inspired The Great Gatsby 's setting. Today, there are a number of theories as to which mansion was the inspiration for the book. One possibility is Land 's End, a notable Gold Coast Mansion where Fitzgerald may have attended a party. Many of the events in Fitzgerald 's early life are reflected throughout The Great Gatsby. Fitzgerald was a young man from Minnesota, and like Nick, he was educated at an Ivy League school, Princeton (in Nick 's case, Yale). Fitzgerald is also similar to Jay Gatsby, in that he fell in love while stationed far from home in the military and fell into a life of decadence trying to prove himself to the girl he loved. Fitzgerald became a second lieutenant and was stationed at Camp Sheridan, in Montgomery, Alabama. There he met and fell in love with a wild seventeen - year - old beauty named Zelda Sayre. Zelda finally agreed to marry him, but her preference for wealth, fun, and leisure led her to delay their wedding until he could prove a success. Like Nick in The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald found this new lifestyle seductive and exciting, and, like Gatsby, he had always idolized the very rich. In many ways, The Great Gatsby represents Fitzgerald 's attempt to confront his conflicting feelings about the Jazz Age. Like Gatsby, Fitzgerald was driven by his love for a woman who symbolized everything he wanted, even as she led him toward everything he despised. In her book Careless People: Murder, Mayhem and the Invention of ' The Great Gatsby (2013), Sarah Churchwell speculates that parts of the ending of The Great Gatsby were based on the Hall - Mills Case. Based on her forensic search for clues, she asserts that the two victims in the Hall - Mills murder case inspired the characters who were murdered in The Great Gatsby. In the summer of 1922, Nick Carraway, a Yale graduate and veteran of the Great War from the Midwest -- who serves as the novel 's narrator -- takes a job in New York as a bond salesman. He rents a small house on Long Island, in the fictional village of West Egg, next door to the lavish mansion of Jay Gatsby, a mysterious multi-millionaire who holds extravagant parties but does not participate in them. Nick drives around the bay to East Egg for dinner at the home of his cousin, Daisy Fay Buchanan, and her husband, Tom, a college acquaintance of Nick 's. They introduce Nick to Jordan Baker, an attractive, cynical young golfer. She reveals to Nick that Tom has a mistress, Myrtle Wilson, who lives in the "valley of ashes '', an industrial dumping ground between West Egg and New York City. Not long after this revelation, Nick travels to New York City with Tom and Myrtle to an apartment where Tom keeps his affairs with Myrtle and others. At Tom 's New York apartment, a vulgar and bizarre party takes place. It ends with Tom breaking Myrtle 's nose after she annoys him by saying Daisy 's name several times. Nick eventually receives an invitation to one of Gatsby 's parties. Nick encounters Jordan Baker at the party and they meet Gatsby himself, an aloof and surprisingly young man who recognizes Nick from their same division in the Great War. Through Jordan, Nick later learns that Gatsby knew Daisy through a purely chance meeting in 1917 when Daisy and her friends were doing volunteer services ' work with young officers headed to Europe. From their brief meetings and casual encounters at that time, Gatsby became (and still is) deeply in love with Daisy. Gatsby had hoped that his wild parties would attract an unsuspecting Daisy, who lived across the bay, to appear at his doorstep and allow him to present himself as a man of wealth and position. Having developed a budding friendship with Nick, Gatsby uses him to arrange a reunion between himself and Daisy. Nick invites Daisy to have tea at his house without telling her that Gatsby will also be there. After an initially awkward reunion, Gatsby and Daisy begin an affair over the summer. At a luncheon at the Buchanans ' house, Daisy speaks to Gatsby with such undisguised intimacy that Tom realizes she is in love with Gatsby. Though Tom is himself involved in an extramarital affair, he is outraged by his wife 's infidelity. He forces the group to drive into New York City and confronts Gatsby in a suite at the Plaza Hotel, asserting that he and Daisy have a history that Gatsby could never understand. In addition to that, he announces to his wife that Gatsby is a criminal whose fortune comes from bootlegging alcohol and other illegal activities. Daisy realizes that her allegiance is to Tom, and Tom contemptuously sends her back to East Egg with Gatsby, attempting to prove that Gatsby can not hurt her. On the way back, Gatsby 's car strikes and kills Tom 's mistress, Myrtle. Nick later learns from Gatsby that Daisy, not Gatsby himself, was driving the car at the time of the accident. Myrtle 's husband, George Wilson, falsely concludes that the driver of the yellow car is the secret lover he suspects she has. He learns that the yellow car is Gatsby 's, fatally shoots him and then turns the gun on himself. Nick stages an unsettlingly small funeral for Gatsby which none of Gatsby 's associates or partygoers attend. Later, Nick runs into Tom in New York and finds out that Tom had told George that the yellow car was Gatsby 's and gave him Gatsby 's address. Disillusioned with the East, Nick moves back to the Midwest. Fitzgerald began planning his third novel in June 1922, but it was interrupted by production of his play, The Vegetable, in the summer and fall. The play failed miserably, and Fitzgerald worked that winter on magazine stories struggling to pay his debt caused by the production. The stories were, in his words, "all trash and it nearly broke my heart, '' although included among those stories was "Winter Dreams '', which Fitzgerald later described as "a sort of first draft of the Gatsby idea ''. After the birth of their child, the Fitzgeralds moved to Great Neck, New York, on Long Island, in October 1922. The town was used as the scene of The Great Gatsby. Fitzgerald 's neighbors in Great Neck included such prominent and newly wealthy New Yorkers as writer Ring Lardner, actor Lew Fields, and comedian Ed Wynn. These figures were all considered to be "new money '', unlike those who came from Manhasset Neck or Cow Neck Peninsula, places which were home to many of New York 's wealthiest established families, and which sat across the bay from Great Neck. This real - life juxtaposition gave Fitzgerald his idea for "West Egg '' and "East Egg ''. In this novel, Great Neck (King 's Point) became the "new money '' peninsula of West Egg and Port Washington (Sands Point) the old - money East Egg. Several mansions in the area served as inspiration for Gatsby 's home, such as Oheka Castle and Beacon Towers, since demolished. By mid-1923, Fitzgerald had written 18,000 words for his novel but discarded most of his new story as a false start, some of which resurfaced in the 1924 short story "Absolution ''. Work on The Great Gatsby began in earnest in April 1924. Fitzgerald wrote in his ledger, "Out of woods at last and starting novel. '' He decided to make a departure from the writing process of his previous novels and told Perkins that the novel was to be a "consciously artistic achievement '' and a "purely creative work -- not trashy imaginings as in my stories but the sustained imagination of a sincere and yet radiant world. '' He added later, during editing, that he felt "an enormous power in me now, more than I 've ever had. '' Soon after this burst of inspiration, work slowed while the Fitzgeralds made a move to the French Riviera, where a serious crisis in their relationship soon developed. By August, however, Fitzgerald was hard at work and completed what he believed to be his final manuscript in October, sending the book to his editor, Maxwell Perkins, and agent, Harold Ober, on October 30. The Fitzgeralds then moved to Rome for the winter. Fitzgerald made revisions through the winter after Perkins informed him in a November letter that the character of Gatsby was "somewhat vague '' and Gatsby 's wealth and business, respectively, needed "the suggestion of an explanation '' and should be "adumbrated ''. Content after a few rounds of revision, Fitzgerald returned the final batch of revised galleys in the middle of February 1925. Fitzgerald 's revisions included an extensive rewriting of Chapter VI and VIII. Despite this, he refused an offer of $10,000 for the serial rights in order not to delay the book 's publication. He had received a $3,939 advance in 1923 and $1,981.25 upon publication. The cover of the first printing of The Great Gatsby is among the most celebrated pieces of art in American literature. It depicts disembodied eyes and a mouth over a blue skyline, with images of naked women reflected in the irises. A little - known artist named Francis Cugat was commissioned to illustrate the book while Fitzgerald was in the midst of writing it. The cover was completed before the novel; Fitzgerald was so enamored with it that he told his publisher he had "written it into '' the novel. Fitzgerald 's remarks about incorporating the painting into the novel led to the interpretation that the eyes are reminiscent of those of fictional optometrist Dr. T.J. Eckleburg (depicted on a faded commercial billboard near George Wilson 's auto repair shop) which Fitzgerald described as "blue and gigantic -- their retinas are one yard high. They look out of no face, but instead, from a pair of enormous yellow spectacles which pass over a non-existent nose. '' Although this passage has some resemblance to the painting, a closer explanation can be found in the description of Daisy Buchanan as the "girl whose disembodied face floated along the dark cornices and blinding signs. '' Ernest Hemingway wrote in A Moveable Feast that when Fitzgerald lent him a copy of The Great Gatsby to read, he immediately disliked the cover, but "Scott told me not to be put off by it, that it had to do with a billboard along a highway in Long Island that was important in the story. He said he had liked the jacket and now he did n't like it. '' Fitzgerald had difficulty choosing a title for his novel and entertained many choices before reluctantly choosing The Great Gatsby, a title inspired by Alain - Fournier 's Le Grand Meaulnes. Prior, Fitzgerald shifted between Gatsby; Among Ash - Heaps and Millionaires; Trimalchio; Trimalchio in West Egg; On the Road to West Egg; Under the Red, White, and Blue; The Gold - Hatted Gatsby; and The High - Bouncing Lover. The titles The Gold - Hatted Gatsby and The High - Bouncing Lover came from Fitzgerald 's epigraph for the novel, one which he wrote himself under the pen name of Thomas Parke D'Invilliers. He initially preferred titles referencing Trimalchio, the crude parvenu in Petronius ' Satyricon, and even refers to Gatsby as Trimalchio once in the novel: "It was when curiosity about Gatsby was at its highest that the lights in his house failed to go on one Saturday night -- and, as obscurely as it had begun, his career as Trimalchio was over. '' Unlike Gatsby 's spectacular parties, Trimalchio participated in the audacious and libidinous orgies he hosted but, according to Tony Tanner 's introduction to the Penguin edition, there are subtle similarities between the two. In November 1924, Fitzgerald wrote to Perkins that "I have now decided to stick to the title I put on the book... Trimalchio in West Egg '' but was eventually persuaded that the reference was too obscure and that people would not be able to pronounce it. His wife, Zelda, and Perkins both expressed their preference for The Great Gatsby and the next month Fitzgerald agreed. A month before publication, after a final review of the proofs, he asked if it would be possible to re-title it Trimalchio or Gold - Hatted Gatsby but Perkins advised against it. On March 19, 1925, Fitzgerald expressed intense enthusiasm for the title Under the Red, White and Blue, but it was at that stage too late to change. The Great Gatsby was published on April 10, 1925. Fitzgerald remarked that "the title is only fair, rather bad than good. '' Early drafts of the novel entitled Trimalchio: An Early Version of The Great Gatsby have been published. A notable difference between the Trimalchio draft and The Great Gatsby is a less complete failure of Gatsby 's dream in Trimalchio. Another difference is that the argument between Tom Buchanan and Jay Gatsby is more even, although Daisy still returns to Tom. Sarah Churchwell sees The Great Gatsby as a "cautionary tale of the decadent downside of the American dream. '' The story deals with the limits and realities of America 's ideals of social and class mobility; and the inevitably hopeless lower class aspirations to rise above the station (s) of their birth. The book in stark relief through the narrator, Nick Carraway, observes that: "... a sense of the fundamental decencies is parcelled out unequally at birth. '' Using elements of irony and tragic ending, it also delves into themes of excesses of the rich, and recklessness of youth. Others, like journalist Nick Gillespie, see The Great Gatsby as a story "underlying permanence of class differences; even in the face of a modern economy 's attempt to assert that the class structure is based; not on status and inherited position; but, upon the innovation and the ability of literally anyone, to succeed by meeting the ever - changing demands and tastes of consumers ' needs. '' This interpretation asserts that The Great Gatsby captures the American experience because it is a story about change and those who resist it; whether the change comes in the form of a new wave of immigrants (Southern Europeans in the early 20th century, Latin Americans today), the nouveau riche, or successful minorities, Americans from the 1920s to the 21st century have plenty of experience with changing economic and social circumstances. As Gillespie states, "While the specific terms of the equation are always changing, it 's easy to see echoes of Gatsby 's basic conflict between established sources of economic and cultural power and upstarts in virtually all aspects of American society. '' Because this concept is particularly American and can be seen throughout American history, readers are able to relate to The Great Gatsby (which has lent the novel an enduring popularity). Later critical writings on The Great Gatsby, following the novel 's revival, focus in particular on Fitzgerald 's disillusionment with the American Dream -- life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness -- in the context of the hedonistic Jazz Age, a name for the era which Fitzgerald claimed to have coined. In 1970, Roger Pearson published the article Gatsby: False prophet of the American Dream, in which he states that Fitzgerald "has come to be associated with this concept of the AMERICAN Dream more than any other writer of the twentieth century ''. Pearson goes on to suggest that Gatsby 's failure to realize the American dream demonstrates that it no longer exists except in the minds of those as materialistic as Gatsby. He concludes that the American dream pursued by Gatsby "is, in reality, a nightmare '', bringing nothing but discontent and disillusionment to those who chase it as they realize its unsustainability and ultimately its unattainability. In addition to exploring the trials and tribulations of achieving the great American dream during the Jazz Age, The Great Gatsby explores societal gender expectations as a theme, exemplifying in Daisy Buchanan 's character the marginalization of women in the East Egg social class that Fitzgerald depicts. As an upper - class, white woman living in East Egg during this time period in America, Daisy must adhere to certain societal expectations, including but certainly not limited to actively filling the role of dutiful wife, mother, keeper of the house, and charming socialite. As the reader finds in the novel, many of Daisy 's choices, ultimately culminating in the tragedy of the plot and misery for all those involved, can be at least partly attributed to her prescribed role as a "beautiful little fool '' who is completely reliant on her husband for financial and societal security. For instance, one could argue that Daisy 's ultimate decision to remain with her husband despite her feelings for Gatsby can be attributed to the status, security, and comfort that her marriage to Tom Buchanan provides. Additionally, the theme of the female familial role within The Great Gatsby goes hand in hand with that of the ideal family unit associated with the great American dream - a dream that goes unrealized for Gatsby and Daisy in Fitzgerald 's prose. The Great Gatsby was published by Charles Scribner 's Sons on April 10, 1925. Fitzgerald called Perkins on the day of publication to monitor reviews: "Any news? '' "Sales situation doubtful, '' read a wire from Perkins on April 20, "(but) excellent reviews. '' Fitzgerald responded on April 24, saying the cable "depressed '' him, closing the letter with "Yours in great depression. '' Fitzgerald had hoped the novel would be a great commercial success, perhaps selling as many as 75,000 copies. By October, when the original sale had run its course, the book had sold fewer than 20,000 copies. Despite this, Scribner 's continually kept the book in print; they carried the original edition on their trade list until 1946, by which time Gatsby was in print in three other forms and the original edition was no longer needed. Fitzgerald received letters of praise from contemporaries T.S. Eliot, Edith Wharton, and Willa Cather regarding the novel; however, this was private opinion, and Fitzgerald feverishly demanded the public recognition of reviewers and readers. The Great Gatsby received mixed reviews from literary critics of the day. Generally the most effusive of the positive reviews was Edwin Clark of The New York Times, who felt the novel was "A curious book, a mystical, glamourous (sic) story of today. '' Similarly, Lillian C. Ford of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "(the novel) leaves the reader in a mood of chastened wonder, '' calling the book "a revelation of life '' and "a work of art. '' The New York Post called the book "fascinating... His style fairly scintillates, and with a genuine brilliance; he writes surely and soundly. '' The New York Herald Tribune was unimpressed, but referred to The Great Gatsby as "purely ephemeral phenomenon, but it contains some of the nicest little touches of contemporary observation you could imagine - so light, so delicate, so sharp... a literary lemon meringue. '' In The Chicago Daily Tribune, H.L. Mencken called the book "in form no more than a glorified anecdote, and not too probable at that, '' while praising the book 's "careful and brilliant finish. '' Several writers felt that the novel left much to be desired following Fitzgerald 's previous works and promptly criticized him. Harvey Eagleton of The Dallas Morning News believed the novel signaled the end of Fitzgerald 's success: "One finishes Great Gatsby with a feeling of regret, not for the fate of the people in the book, but for Mr. Fitzgerald. '' John McClure of The Times - Picayune said that the book was unconvincing, writing, "Even in conception and construction, The Great Gatsby seems a little raw. '' Ralph Coghlan of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch felt the book lacked what made Fitzgerald 's earlier novels endearing and called the book "a minor performance... At the moment, its author seems a bit bored and tired and cynical. '' Ruth Snyder of New York Evening World called the book 's style "painfully forced '', noting that the editors of the paper were "quite convinced after reading The Great Gatsby that Mr. Fitzgerald is not one of the great American writers of to - day. '' The reviews struck Fitzgerald as completely missing the point: "All the reviews, even the most enthusiastic, not one had the slightest idea what the book was about. '' Fitzgerald 's goal was to produce a literary work which would truly prove himself as a writer, and Gatsby did not have the commercial success of his two previous novels, This Side of Paradise and The Beautiful and Damned. Although the novel went through two initial printings, some of these copies remained unsold years later. Fitzgerald himself blamed poor sales on the fact that women tended to be the main audience for novels during this time, and Gatsby did not contain an admirable female character. According to his own ledger, now made available online by University of South Carolina 's Thomas Cooper library, he earned only $2,000 from the book. Although 1926 brought Owen Davis ' stage adaption and the Paramount - issued silent film version, both of which brought in money for the author, Fitzgerald still felt the novel fell short of the recognition he hoped for and, most importantly, would not propel him to becoming a serious novelist in the public eye. For several years afterward, the general public believed The Great Gatsby to be nothing more than a nostalgic period piece. In 1940, Fitzgerald suffered a third and final heart attack, and died believing his work forgotten. His obituary in The New York Times mentioned Gatsby as Fitzgerald "at his best ''. A strong appreciation for the book had developed in underground circles; future writers Edward Newhouse and Budd Schulberg were deeply affected by it and John O'Hara showed the book 's influence. The republication of Gatsby in Edmund Wilson 's edition of The Last Tycoon in 1941 produced an outburst of comment, with the general consensus expressing the sentiment that the book was an enduring work of fiction. In 1942, a group of publishing executives created the Council on Books in Wartime. The Council 's purpose was to distribute paperback books to soldiers fighting in the Second World War. The Great Gatsby was one of these books. The books proved to be "as popular as pin - up girls '' among the soldiers, according to the Saturday Evening Post 's contemporary report. 155,000 copies of Gatsby were distributed to soldiers overseas.. By 1944, full - length articles on Fitzgerald 's works were being published, and the following year, "the opinion that Gatsby was merely a period piece had almost entirely disappeared. '' This revival was paved by interest shown by literary critic Edmund Wilson, who was Fitzgerald 's friend. In 1951, Arthur Mizener published The Far Side of Paradise, a biography of Fitzgerald. He emphasized The Great Gatsby 's positive reception by literary critics, which may have influenced public opinion and renewed interest in it. By 1960, the book was steadily selling 50,000 copies per year, and renewed interest led The New York Times editorialist Arthur Mizener to proclaim the novel "a classic of twentieth - century American fiction ''. The Great Gatsby has sold over 25 million copies worldwide as of 2013, annually sells an additional 500,000 copies, and is Scribner 's most popular title; in 2013, the e-book alone sold 185,000 copies. Scribner 's copyright is scheduled to expire in 2020, according to Maureen Corrigan 's book about the making of The Great Gatsby, So We Read On. The Great Gatsby has resulted in a number of film and television adaptations: The New York Metropolitan Opera commissioned John Harbison to compose an operatic treatment of the novel to commemorate the 25th anniversary of James Levine 's debut. The work, called The Great Gatsby, premiered on December 20, 1999.

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List of Prime ministers of Australia - wikipedia Thirty people have served as Prime Minister of Australia since the office was created in 1901. The parties shown are those to which the prime ministers belonged at the time they held office, and the electoral divisions shown are those they represented while in office. Several prime ministers belonged to parties other than those given and represented other electorates before and after their time in office. Australian Labor Party Liberal Party of Australia Australian Country Party Nationalist Party of Australia United Australia Party Commonwealth Liberal Party National Labor Party Free Trade Party Protectionist Party MP for Higgins, Vic, 1968 -- 1975 (retired)

what is a track pad on a laptop

Touchpad - wikipedia A touchpad or trackpad is a pointing device featuring a tactile sensor, a specialized surface that can translate the motion and position of a user 's fingers to a relative position on the operating system that is made output to the screen. Touchpads are a common feature of laptop computers, and are also used as a substitute for a mouse where desk space is scarce. Because they vary in size, they can also be found on personal digital assistants (PDAs) and some portable media players. Wireless touchpads are also available as detached accessories. Touchpads operate in one of several ways, including capacitive sensing and resistive touchscreen. The most common technology used as of 2010 entails sensing the capacitive virtual ground effect of a finger, or the capacitance between sensors. Capacitance - based touchpads will not sense the tip of a pencil or other similar implement. Gloved fingers may also be problematic. While touchpads, like touchscreens, are able to sense absolute position, resolution is limited by their size. For common use as a pointer device, the dragging motion of a finger is translated into a finer, relative motion of the cursor on the output to the display on the operating system, analogous to the handling of a mouse that is lifted and put back on a surface. Hardware buttons equivalent to a standard mouse 's left and right buttons are positioned below, above, or beside the touchpad. Some touchpads and associated device driver software may interpret tapping the pad as a click, and a tap followed by a continuous pointing motion (a "click - and - a-half '') can indicate dragging. Tactile touchpads allow for clicking and dragging by incorporating button functionality into the surface of the touchpad itself. To select, one presses down on the touchpad instead of a physical button. To drag, instead performing the "click - and - a-half '' technique, one presses down while on the object, drags without releasing pressure and lets go when done. Touchpad drivers can also allow the use of multiple fingers to facilitate the other mouse buttons (commonly two - finger tapping for the center button). Some touchpads have "hotspots '', locations on the touchpad used for functionality beyond a mouse. For example, on certain touchpads, moving the finger along an edge of the touch pad will act as a scroll wheel, controlling the scrollbar and scrolling the window that has the focus vertically or horizontally. Many touchpads use two - finger dragging for scrolling. Also, some touchpad drivers support tap zones, regions where a tap will execute a function, for example, pausing a media player or launching an application. All of these functions are implemented in the touchpad device driver software, and can be disabled. By 1982, Apollo desktop computers were equipped with a touchpad on the right side of the keyboard. Introduced a year later, the Gavilan SC included a touchpad above its keyboard. A touchpad was first developed for Psion 's MC 200 / 400 / 600 / WORD Series in 1989. Olivetti and Triumph - Adler introduced the first laptops with touchpad in 1992. Cirque introduced the first widely available touchpad, branded as GlidePoint, in 1994. Apple Inc introduced touchpads to the modern laptop in the PowerBook series in 1994, using Cirque 's GlidePoint technology; later PowerBooks and MacBooks would use Apple - developed trackpads. Another early adopter of the GlidePoint pointing device was Sharp. Later, Synaptics introduced their touchpad into the marketplace, branded the TouchPad. Epson was an early adopter of this product. As touchpads began to be introduced in laptops in the 1990s, there was often confusion as to what the product should be called. No consistent term was used, and references varied, such as: glidepoint, touch sensitive input device, touchpad, trackpad, and pointing device. Users were often presented the option to purchase a pointing stick, touchpad, or trackball. Combinations of the devices were common, though touchpads and trackballs were rarely included together. Since the early 2000s, touchpads have become the dominant laptop pointing device as most laptops produced during this period beyond include only touchpads, displacing the pointing stick. Touchpads are primarily used in self - contained portable laptop computers and do not require a flat surface near the machine. The touchpad is close to the keyboard, and only very short finger movements are required to move the cursor across the display screen; while advantageous, this also makes it possible for a user 's palm or wrist to move the mouse cursor accidentally while typing. Touchpads also exist for desktop computers as an external peripheral, albeit rarely seen. Touchpads are sometimes integrated in some desktop computer keyboards, particularly keyboards oriented for HTPC use. One - dimensional touchpads are the primary control interface for menu navigation on second - generation and later iPod Classic portable music players, where they are referred to as "click wheels '', since they only sense motion along one axis, which is wrapped around like a wheel. Creative Labs also uses a touchpad for their Zen line of MP3 players, beginning with the Zen Touch. The second - generation Microsoft Zune product line (the Zune 80 / 120 and Zune 4 / 8) uses touch for the Zune Pad. Apple 's PowerBook 500 series was its first laptop to carry such a device, which Apple refers to as a "trackpad ''. When introduced in May 1994, it replaced the trackball of previous PowerBook models. In late 2008 Apple 's revisions of the MacBook and MacBook Pro incorporated a "Tactile Touchpad '' design with button functionality incorporated into the tracking surface. Beginning in the second generation of MacBook Pro, the entire touchpad surface acts as a clickable button. Laptops today feature multitouch touchpads that can sense in some cases up to five fingers simultaneously, providing more options for input, such as the ability to bring up the context menu by tapping two fingers, dragging two fingers for scrolling, or gestures for zoom in / out or rotate. Psion 's MC 200 / 400 / 600 / WORD Series, introduced in 1989, came with a new mouse - replacing input device similar to a touchpad, although more closely resembling a graphics tablet, as the cursor was positioned by clicking on a specific point on the pad, instead of moving it in the direction of a stroke. There are two principal means by which touchpads work. In the matrix approach, a series of conductors are arranged in an array of parallel lines in two layers, separated by an insulator and crossing each other at right angles to form a grid. A high frequency signal is applied sequentially between pairs in this two - dimensional grid array. The current that passes between the nodes is proportional to the capacitance. When a virtual ground, such as a finger, is placed over one of the intersections between the conductive layer some of the electrical field is shunted to this ground point, resulting in a change in the apparent capacitance at that location. This method received U.S. Patent 5,305,017 awarded to George Gerpheide in April 1994. The capacitive shunt method, described in an application note by Analog Devices, senses the change in capacitance between a transmitter and receiver that are on opposite sides of the sensor. The transmitter creates an electric field which oscillates at 200 -- 300 kHz. If a ground point, such as the finger, is placed between the transmitter and receiver, some of the field lines are shunted away, decreasing the apparent capacitance. Major manufacturers include:

what is the nine years war in brave new world

World State in Brave new World - wikipedia The World State is the primary setting of Aldous Huxley 's 1932 novel Brave New World. In the novel, the World State is a unified government which administers the entire planet, with a few isolated exceptions. The motto of the World State is "Community, Identity, Stability. '' The citizens of the World State use a calendar which takes the year 1908 AD ("0 AF '' - "After Ford '') as its epoch, as this was the first year in which the Model T automobile was produced by the Ford Motor Company. According to the novel, the "Nine Years ' War '' broke out in Year 141 AF (2049 AD of the Gregorian calendar). Very little is revealed of the Nine Years ' War, but it can be inferred that the conflict broke out in Europe, affected most of the planet, and caused massive physical damage. It is repeatedly stated that chemical and biological weapons were heavily used during the war, particularly in mass air - raids against cities, similar to the portrayal of World War III. Following the war, which seems to have petered out rather than been ended by a decisive victory, the global economy collapsed and created an unprecedented worldwide economic crisis. To deal with the two catastrophes of the Nine Years ' War and the Great Economic Collapse, the new world leaders tried to forcibly impose their new ideologies on Earth 's populations. This met with widespread resistance, including large - scale riots at Golders Green and a massacre at the British Museum. Realising that they could not force people to adopt the new lifestyle, the World Controllers instead united the planet into the One World State and began a peaceful campaign of change. This campaign included the closing of museums, the suppression of almost all literature published before 150 AF (2058 AD), and the destruction of the few historical world monuments that had survived the Nine Years ' War. By the time the novel is set, the World State is fully established and almost all the people of Earth are citizens. At the time of the novel, the entire planet is united as the World State, governed by ten World Controllers, headquartered in various key cities. Prospective World Controllers are recruited from social outcasts who display unconventional thoughts. A few isolated areas have been left as "savage reservations '', including parts of New Mexico, Samoa, and a small group of islands off the coast of New Guinea. Toward the end of the novel, a conversation between John and Western Europe 's World Controller, Mustapha Mond, reveals further details of the World State 's political geography. Mond explains that certain areas which have very few resources or languish in unpleasant climates are not "civilised '' by the government, as it would be uneconomical. Subsequently, these areas are left as reservations, and local life continues -- albeit under constant surveillance by the World State. Small islands across the planet, such as the Falkland Islands, Iceland, and the Marquesas Islands, are reserved for citizens of the World State who do not wish to live in, or do not fit into the normal society. The citizens of the World State constitute a eusocial consumer society whose individuals are produced in hatcheries by application of "Bokanovsky 's '' and other techniques to the hatchery line to produce the five classes or castes named after letters of the Greek alphabet: alpha, beta, gamma, delta, and epsilon, respectively. Society is controlled by Alphas and their subordinates, Betas. Below them, in descending order of intelligence and physique, are Gammas, Deltas, and Epsilons. Each caste is further subdivided into Plus and Minus (with Epsilons having the additional classifications of regular or semi-moron), and are distinguished by colour - coded work clothes. Epsilons are dressed in black, Deltas in khaki, Gammas in leaf green, Betas in mulberry, and Alphas in grey. At the very pinnacle of society sit Alpha Double - Plus, who serve as the future scientists and top administrators of the world. Citizens in the World State of all castes are not born to a mother, but instead created in laboratories through a process of artificial insemination. They are then grown to ' birth ' in bottles, the bottles being treated in a manner similar to a production line. Fetuses are pre-determined to be born into specific caste and ' lower ' castes such as Deltas or Epsilons are interfered with during development in order to restrict their mental and physical development (for example by adding alcohol to their bottle). People in different castes are conditioned to be happy in their own way; they do not feel resentment towards other castes, but rather feel a slight contempt for people not members of their own caste. At the same time, however, all members of society are repeatedly taught that everyone is equally important to society. Citizens of the World State enjoy racial, social and economic harmony across the planet. Although England is seen to be mostly populated with Caucasians, the population also contains substantial ethnic proportions, and across the planet, people of different racial heritage live alongside one another in harmony. When visiting an electrical products factory in London, John witnesses Caucasians and black Senegalese working together. The only "feely '' (see below) in the novel features a black antagonist with a white heroine. An official at the Central London Hatchery explains that Negro fetuses are slightly easier to grow than Caucasians or Asians. Although all the World State hatcheries attempt to refine the limits of the production process, the Mombasa hatchery is a few hundred ahead of the others in the number of embryos produced from a single ovary (London: 16,012, Singapore: approx 16,500, Mombasa: approx 17,000). In addition to racial harmony, gender roles appear to have been eliminated in the World State. Both men and women are equals in society. However, a third pseudo-sex has been engineered: freemartins, a hermaphroditic group of humans who appear to have been grown as females, but are sterile and exhibit traits of both the male and female sexes. While freemartins appear female, they exhibit some male characteristics, including the growth of facial hair. The purpose of their creation is to allow citizens to engage in sexual intercourse for pleasure without the need for contraception. Aging is a thing of the past in the World State. Biological engineering has eliminated the impact of old age upon the human body; using blood transfusions, chemical enhancements, and hormone replacement therapy, as well as the standard devotion to physical sports, people maintain young, strong bodies for the duration of their lives, and do not exhibit any physical indications of old age, even appearing young when they eventually expire from natural causes. Without these physical signs, it is virtually impossible to gauge a person 's age based on appearance, and as a result, ageism is non-existent. An unspecified number of persons live as "savages '' and non-citizens in reservations which figure in sections of the novel, since as noted the creation of the World State was accomplished peacefully as a consolidation of a post-apocalypse consumer society carried to the limit of conscious production of an irreversible division of labor. The World State operates a command economy, in which prices, production, and trade are all regulated by the state. Furthermore, the economy is based on the principles of mass production and mass consumerism. Citizens of the World State have access to a vast array of very high - quality foods, goods, and services, whilst the manufacture and provision of these goods and services creates jobs for all members of society. In order to enhance consumerism and so keep the economy strong, people are encouraged to throw away old or damaged possessions and buy new ones. In this way, every citizen of the World State is kept happy, with a plentiful supply of creature comforts and a permanent job. Later in the novel, World Controller Mustapha Mond explains that approximately one third of the global population is employed permanently in agricultural occupations, a surprisingly high proportion for such a high - tech, industrialised society, although this may have something to do with the fact that Huxley 's world is limited in its mechanization and automation. This limitation is deliberately put in place in order to keep the populace busy working to produce new goods, with fears that increased free time and further technological advancements would lead to civil unrest and social instability. This was proven in an experiment in Ireland where all workers were placed on a 4 - hour day, which led to unrest and increased consumption of soma. Culture in the World State is homogenous and appears to be fairly similar across the entire planet. Music is very popular, and makes use of the latest gadgets to enhance listening pleasure by adding light shows and pleasant aromas. Television and "feelies '' (see below) are widespread throughout the World State. Sport is a cornerstone of culture and is very popular, consisting of various bizarre games played using a bewildering array of high - tech gadgets, in order to keep factories busy. Games such as "Centrifugal Bumble - Puppy '', "Riemann Surface Tennis '', "Escalator Squash '', and "Electro - Magnetic Golf '' are major distractions for all levels of society, alongside more recognisable sports, including wrestling and swimming. Citizens of the World State enjoy many frequent holidays, and global travel allows people to journey across the planet for relaxation. Advertisements in Western Europe are seen promoting holidays to "the gorgeous East ''. One surprising holiday destination is a large (but apparently unimpressive) hotel complex at the North Pole. It is possible that holidays to the moon are available, but as such trips are only given two vague, passing reference in the novel, lunar recreation can neither be confirmed as a physical reality or dismissed as yet another hallucinogenic "holiday '' brought on by soma. Life in the World State in (After Ford) A.F. 632 is dominated by very advanced technology, which influences all aspects of life. Sport is a pillar of the World State, consisting of various games and activities which use very high - tech equipment. Another key aspect of entertainment are the "feelies '' -- the World State 's high - tech version of the then - current "talkies ''. In the later part of the novel, Lenina takes John to a feely, where the concept is explained. Users rest their hands on metal knobs protruding from the arms of their chair, allowing them to feel the physical sensations of the actors on - screen (usually in sexually - themed films). Various other high - tech entertainment devices feature heavily in the book, including Synthetic Music Boxes, Scent Organs (musical instruments which combine music with pleasant aromas), Colour Organs (combining music with a dazzling light show), and televisions. Transport technology is also highly advanced. The main form of urban transport is the helicopter, with variations including "taxicopters '' and expensive, long - range "sporticopters ''. For the lower castes, high - speed monorails are used to travel around the countryside. Global travel is conducted using rocket planes, which are colour - coded according to their destinations. In the Hatcheries and Conditioning Centres, advanced technology is used in the creation of new embryos. In addition to high - tech laboratory equipment, the Hatcheries rely on machines to condition bottled embryos to heat, sudden motion, and disease, allowing the embryos to fulfill their predestined jobs in specific climates. Newly ' decanted ' children in the Conditioning Centres are exposed to a variety of technologically advanced devices which help to mould them into their predetermined roles. In one early scene, Delta children are trained to hate the countryside and books through operant conditioning involving klaxons and electrocution. Hypnopædia is conducted using speakers built into the beds. The speakers themselves are fed by machines which convert printed material into softly spoken words. In spite of this, tasks such as elevator operation, automatable in the present day, are still performed by humans. Other aspects of life are greatly influenced by advanced technology. Most clothes are made from fine synthetic materials such as acetate and viscose. Architecture is dominated by "vitra - glass '' and "ferroconcrete '' skyscrapers. Men shave using electrolytic razors and consume sex - hormone chewing gum. Citizens can relax using "vibro - vac '' massage machines and the ever - present soma (the novel reveals that although this is ingested in tablet form, it can also be vaporised to form an anaesthetic cloud). The novel repeatedly explains that the reason for such advanced technology is to keep workers busy manufacturing products. Interestingly though, the citizens of the World State could enjoy significantly better devices. In a conversation towards the end of the novel, World Controller Mustapha Mond explains to John that countless plans and designs for more advanced technologies already exist. The World State could, he explains, synthetically manufacture all of its food products and use highly efficient labour - saving machines. However, more advanced technology is not developed, as the World Controllers fear that high - tech machines would result in people having too much time on their hands. This, explains Mond, is not in the World State 's best interests, following a previous experiment in Ireland, which revealed that more advanced technology simply led to widespread boredom and increased use of soma. Although the citizens of Brave New World enjoy apparently very advanced gadgets, they are unaware that human technology has in fact been limited artificially.

when was the statue of liberty torch closed

Statue of Liberty - wikipedia The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World; French: La Liberté éclairant le monde) is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor in New York City, in the United States. The copper statue, a gift from the people of France to the people of the United States, was designed by French sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi and built by Gustave Eiffel. The statue was dedicated on October 28, 1886. The Statue of Liberty is a figure of a robed woman representing Libertas, a Roman liberty goddess. She holds a torch above her head with her right hand, and in her left hand carries a tabula ansata inscribed in Roman numerals with "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI '' (July 4, 1776), the date of the U.S. Declaration of Independence. A broken chain lies at her feet as she walks forward. The statue became an icon of freedom and of the United States, and was a welcoming sight to immigrants arriving from abroad. Bartholdi was inspired by a French law professor and politician, Édouard René de Laboulaye, who is said to have commented in 1865 that any monument raised to U.S. independence would properly be a joint project of the French and U.S. peoples. Because of the post-war instability in France, work on the statue did not commence until the early 1870s. In 1875, Laboulaye proposed that the French finance the statue and the U.S. provide the site and build the pedestal. Bartholdi completed the head and the torch - bearing arm before the statue was fully designed, and these pieces were exhibited for publicity at international expositions. The torch - bearing arm was displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, and in Madison Square Park in Manhattan from 1876 to 1882. Fundraising proved difficult, especially for the Americans, and by 1885 work on the pedestal was threatened by lack of funds. Publisher Joseph Pulitzer, of the New York World, started a drive for donations to finish the project and attracted more than 120,000 contributors, most of whom gave less than a dollar. The statue was built in France, shipped overseas in crates, and assembled on the completed pedestal on what was then called Bedloe 's Island. The statue 's completion was marked by New York 's first ticker - tape parade and a dedication ceremony presided over by President Grover Cleveland. The statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War; since 1933 it has been maintained by the National Park Service. Public access to the balcony around the torch has been barred for safety since 1916. According to the National Park Service, the idea for the Statue of Liberty was first proposed by Édouard René de Laboulaye, president of the French Anti-Slavery Society and a prominent and important political thinker of his time. The project is traced to a mid-1865 conversation between de Laboulaye, a staunch abolitionist, and Frédéric Bartholdi, a sculptor. In after - dinner conversation at his home near Versailles, Laboulaye, an ardent supporter of the Union in the American Civil War, is supposed to have said: "If a monument should rise in the United States, as a memorial to their independence, I should think it only natural if it were built by united effort -- a common work of both our nations. '' The National Park Service, in a 2000 report, however, deemed this a legend traced to an 1885 fundraising pamphlet, and that the statue was most likely conceived in 1870. In another essay on their website, the Park Service suggested that Laboulaye was minded to honor the Union victory and its consequences, "With the abolition of slavery and the Union 's victory in the Civil War in 1865, Laboulaye 's wishes of freedom and democracy were turning into a reality in the United States. In order to honor these achievements, Laboulaye proposed that a gift be built for the United States on behalf of France. Laboulaye hoped that by calling attention to the recent achievements of the United States, the French people would be inspired to call for their own democracy in the face of a repressive monarchy. '' According to sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, who later recounted the story, Laboulaye 's comment was not intended as a proposal, but it inspired Bartholdi. Given the repressive nature of the regime of Napoleon III, Bartholdi took no immediate action on the idea except to discuss it with Laboulaye. Bartholdi was in any event busy with other possible projects; in the late 1860s, he approached Isma'il Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, with a plan to build Progress or Egypt Carrying the Light to Asia, a huge lighthouse in the form of an ancient Egyptian female fellah or peasant, robed and holding a torch aloft, at the northern entrance to the Suez Canal in Port Said. Sketches and models were made of the proposed work, though it was never erected. There was a classical precedent for the Suez proposal, the Colossus of Rhodes: an ancient bronze statue of the Greek god of the sun, Helios. This statue is believed to have been over 100 feet (30 m) high, and it similarly stood at a harbor entrance and carried a light to guide ships. Any large project was further delayed by the Franco - Prussian War, in which Bartholdi served as a major of militia. In the war, Napoleon III was captured and deposed. Bartholdi 's home province of Alsace was lost to the Prussians (Alsace - Lorraine), and a more liberal republic was installed in France. As Bartholdi had been planning a trip to the United States, he and Laboulaye decided the time was right to discuss the idea with influential Americans. In June 1871, Bartholdi crossed the Atlantic, with letters of introduction signed by Laboulaye. Arriving at New York Harbor, Bartholdi focused on Bedloe 's Island (now named Liberty Island) as a site for the statue, struck by the fact that vessels arriving in New York had to sail past it. He was delighted to learn that the island was owned by the United States government -- it had been ceded by the New York State Legislature in 1800 for harbor defense. It was thus, as he put it in a letter to Laboulaye: "land common to all the states. '' As well as meeting many influential New Yorkers, Bartholdi visited President Ulysses S. Grant, who assured him that it would not be difficult to obtain the site for the statue. Bartholdi crossed the United States twice by rail, and met many Americans who he thought would be sympathetic to the project. But he remained concerned that popular opinion on both sides of the Atlantic was insufficiently supportive of the proposal, and he and Laboulaye decided to wait before mounting a public campaign. Bartholdi had made a first model of his concept in 1870. The son of a friend of Bartholdi 's, U.S. artist John LaFarge, later maintained that Bartholdi made the first sketches for the statue during his U.S. visit at La Farge 's Rhode Island studio. Bartholdi continued to develop the concept following his return to France. He also worked on a number of sculptures designed to bolster French patriotism after the defeat by the Prussians. One of these was the Lion of Belfort, a monumental sculpture carved in sandstone below the fortress of Belfort, which during the war had resisted a Prussian siege for over three months. The defiant lion, 73 feet (22 m) long and half that in height, displays an emotional quality characteristic of Romanticism, which Bartholdi would later bring to the Statue of Liberty. Bartholdi and Laboulaye considered how best to express the idea of American liberty. In early American history, two female figures were frequently used as cultural symbols of the nation. One of these symbols, the personified Columbia, was seen as an embodiment of the United States in the manner that Britannia was identified with the United Kingdom and Marianne came to represent France. Columbia had supplanted the earlier figure of an Indian princess, which had come to be regarded as uncivilized and derogatory toward Americans. The other significant female icon in American culture was a representation of Liberty, derived from Libertas, the goddess of freedom widely worshipped in ancient Rome, especially among emancipated slaves. A Liberty figure adorned most American coins of the time, and representations of Liberty appeared in popular and civic art, including Thomas Crawford 's Statue of Freedom (1863) atop the dome of the United States Capitol Building. Artists of the 18th and 19th centuries striving to evoke republican ideals commonly used representations of Libertas as an allegorical symbol. A figure of Liberty was also depicted on the Great Seal of France. However, Bartholdi and Laboulaye avoided an image of revolutionary liberty such as that depicted in Eugène Delacroix 's famed Liberty Leading the People (1830). In this painting, which commemorates France 's Revolution of 1830, a half - clothed Liberty leads an armed mob over the bodies of the fallen. Laboulaye had no sympathy for revolution, and so Bartholdi 's figure would be fully dressed in flowing robes. Instead of the impression of violence in the Delacroix work, Bartholdi wished to give the statue a peaceful appearance and chose a torch, representing progress, for the figure to hold. Crawford 's statue was designed in the early 1850s. It was originally to be crowned with a pileus, the cap given to emancipated slaves in ancient Rome. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis, a Southerner who would later serve as President of the Confederate States of America, was concerned that the pileus would be taken as an abolitionist symbol. He ordered that it be changed to a helmet. Delacroix 's figure wears a pileus, and Bartholdi at first considered placing one on his figure as well. Instead, he used a diadem, or crown, to top its head. In so doing, he avoided a reference to Marianne, who invariably wears a pileus. The seven rays form a halo or aureole. They evoke the sun, the seven seas, and the seven continents, and represent another means, besides the torch, whereby Liberty enlightens the world. Bartholdi 's early models were all similar in concept: a female figure in neoclassical style representing liberty, wearing a stola and pella (gown and cloak, common in depictions of Roman goddesses) and holding a torch aloft. According to popular accounts, the face was modeled after that of Charlotte Beysser Bartholdi, the sculptor 's mother, but Regis Huber, the curator of the Bartholdi Museum is on record as saying that this, as well as other similar speculations, have no basis in fact. He designed the figure with a strong, uncomplicated silhouette, which would be set off well by its dramatic harbor placement and allow passengers on vessels entering New York Bay to experience a changing perspective on the statue as they proceeded toward Manhattan. He gave it bold classical contours and applied simplified modeling, reflecting the huge scale of the project and its solemn purpose. Bartholdi wrote of his technique: The surfaces should be broad and simple, defined by a bold and clear design, accentuated in the important places. The enlargement of the details or their multiplicity is to be feared. By exaggerating the forms, in order to render them more clearly visible, or by enriching them with details, we would destroy the proportion of the work. Finally, the model, like the design, should have a summarized character, such as one would give to a rapid sketch. Only it is necessary that this character should be the product of volition and study, and that the artist, concentrating his knowledge, should find the form and the line in its greatest simplicity. Bartholdi made alterations in the design as the project evolved. Bartholdi considered having Liberty hold a broken chain, but decided this would be too divisive in the days after the Civil War. The erected statue does stride over a broken chain, half - hidden by her robes and difficult to see from the ground. Bartholdi was initially uncertain of what to place in Liberty 's left hand; he settled on a tabula ansata, used to evoke the concept of law. Though Bartholdi greatly admired the United States Constitution, he chose to inscribe "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI '' on the tablet, thus associating the date of the country 's Declaration of Independence with the concept of liberty. Bartholdi interested his friend and mentor, architect Eugène Viollet - le - Duc, in the project. As chief engineer, Viollet - le - Duc designed a brick pier within the statue, to which the skin would be anchored. After consultations with the metalwork foundry Gaget, Gauthier & Co., Viollet - le - Duc chose the metal which would be used for the skin, copper sheets, and the method used to shape it, repoussé, in which the sheets were heated and then struck with wooden hammers. An advantage of this choice was that the entire statue would be light for its volume, as the copper need be only 0.094 inches (2.4 mm) thick. Bartholdi had decided on a height of just over 151 feet (46 m) for the statue, double that of Italy 's Sancarlone and the German statue of Arminius, both made with the same method. By 1875, France was enjoying improved political stability and a recovering postwar economy. Growing interest in the upcoming Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia led Laboulaye to decide it was time to seek public support. In September 1875, he announced the project and the formation of the Franco - American Union as its fundraising arm. With the announcement, the statue was given a name, Liberty Enlightening the World. The French would finance the statue; Americans would be expected to pay for the pedestal. The announcement provoked a generally favorable reaction in France, though many Frenchmen resented the United States for not coming to their aid during the war with Prussia. French monarchists opposed the statue, if for no other reason than it was proposed by the liberal Laboulaye, who had recently been elected a senator for life. Laboulaye arranged events designed to appeal to the rich and powerful, including a special performance at the Paris Opera on April 25, 1876, that featured a new cantata by composer Charles Gounod. The piece was titled La Liberté éclairant le monde, the French version of the statue 's announced name. Despite its initial focus on the elites, the Union was successful in raising funds from across French society. Schoolchildren and ordinary citizens gave, as did 181 French municipalities. Laboulaye 's political allies supported the call, as did descendants of the French contingent in the American Revolutionary War. Less idealistically, contributions came from those who hoped for American support in the French attempt to build the Panama Canal. The copper may have come from multiple sources and some of it is said to have come from a mine in Visnes, Norway, though this has not been conclusively determined after testing samples. According to Cara Sutherland in her book on the statue for the Museum of the City of New York, 200,000 pounds (91,000 kg) was needed to build the statue, and the French copper industrialist Eugène Secrétan donated 128,000 pounds (58,000 kg) of copper. Although plans for the statue had not been finalized, Bartholdi moved forward with fabrication of the right arm, bearing the torch, and the head. Work began at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop. In May 1876, Bartholdi traveled to the United States as a member of a French delegation to the Centennial Exhibition, and arranged for a huge painting of the statue to be shown in New York as part of the Centennial festivities. The arm did not arrive in Philadelphia until August; because of its late arrival, it was not listed in the exhibition catalogue, and while some reports correctly identified the work, others called it the "Colossal Arm '' or "Bartholdi Electric Light ''. The exhibition grounds contained a number of monumental artworks to compete for fairgoers ' interest, including an outsized fountain designed by Bartholdi. Nevertheless, the arm proved popular in the exhibition 's waning days, and visitors would climb up to the balcony of the torch to view the fairgrounds. After the exhibition closed, the arm was transported to New York, where it remained on display in Madison Square Park for several years before it was returned to France to join the rest of the statue. During his second trip to the United States, Bartholdi addressed a number of groups about the project, and urged the formation of American committees of the Franco - American Union. Committees to raise money to pay for the foundation and pedestal were formed in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. The New York group eventually took on most of the responsibility for American fundraising and is often referred to as the "American Committee ''. One of its members was 19 - year - old Theodore Roosevelt, the future governor of New York and president of the United States. On March 3, 1877, on his final full day in office, President Grant signed a joint resolution that authorized the President to accept the statue when it was presented by France and to select a site for it. President Rutherford B. Hayes, who took office the following day, selected the Bedloe 's Island site that Bartholdi had proposed. On his return to Paris in 1877, Bartholdi concentrated on completing the head, which was exhibited at the 1878 Paris World 's Fair. Fundraising continued, with models of the statue put on sale. Tickets to view the construction activity at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop were also offered. The French government authorized a lottery; among the prizes were valuable silver plate and a terracotta model of the statue. By the end of 1879, about 250,000 francs had been raised. The head and arm had been built with assistance from Viollet - le - Duc, who fell ill in 1879. He soon died, leaving no indication of how he intended to transition from the copper skin to his proposed masonry pier. The following year, Bartholdi was able to obtain the services of the innovative designer and builder Gustave Eiffel. Eiffel and his structural engineer, Maurice Koechlin, decided to abandon the pier and instead build an iron truss tower. Eiffel opted not to use a completely rigid structure, which would force stresses to accumulate in the skin and lead eventually to cracking. A secondary skeleton was attached to the center pylon, then, to enable the statue to move slightly in the winds of New York Harbor and as the metal expanded on hot summer days, he loosely connected the support structure to the skin using flat iron bars which culminated in a mesh of metal straps, known as "saddles '', that were riveted to the skin, providing firm support. In a labor - intensive process, each saddle had to be crafted individually. To prevent galvanic corrosion between the copper skin and the iron support structure, Eiffel insulated the skin with asbestos impregnated with shellac. Eiffel 's design made the statue one of the earliest examples of curtain wall construction, in which the exterior of the structure is not load bearing, but is instead supported by an interior framework. He included two interior spiral staircases, to make it easier for visitors to reach the observation point in the crown. Access to an observation platform surrounding the torch was also provided, but the narrowness of the arm allowed for only a single ladder, 40 feet (12 m) long. As the pylon tower arose, Eiffel and Bartholdi coordinated their work carefully so that completed segments of skin would fit exactly on the support structure. The components of the pylon tower were built in the Eiffel factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois - Perret. The change in structural material from masonry to iron allowed Bartholdi to change his plans for the statue 's assembly. He had originally expected to assemble the skin on - site as the masonry pier was built; instead he decided to build the statue in France and have it disassembled and transported to the United States for reassembly in place on Bedloe 's Island. In a symbolic act, the first rivet placed into the skin, fixing a copper plate onto the statue 's big toe, was driven by United States Ambassador to France Levi P. Morton. The skin was not, however, crafted in exact sequence from low to high; work proceeded on a number of segments simultaneously in a manner often confusing to visitors. Some work was performed by contractors -- one of the fingers was made to Bartholdi 's exacting specifications by a coppersmith in the southern French town of Montauban. By 1882, the statue was complete up to the waist, an event Barthodi celebrated by inviting reporters to lunch on a platform built within the statue. Laboulaye died in 1883. He was succeeded as chairman of the French committee by Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez Canal. The completed statue was formally presented to Ambassador Morton at a ceremony in Paris on July 4, 1884, and de Lesseps announced that the French government had agreed to pay for its transport to New York. The statue remained intact in Paris pending sufficient progress on the pedestal; by January 1885, this had occurred and the statue was disassembled and crated for its ocean voyage. The committees in the United States faced great difficulties in obtaining funds for the construction of the pedestal. The Panic of 1873 had led to an economic depression that persisted through much of the decade. The Liberty statue project was not the only such undertaking that had difficulty raising money: construction of the obelisk later known as the Washington Monument sometimes stalled for years; it would ultimately take over three - and - a-half decades to complete. There was criticism both of Bartholdi 's statue and of the fact that the gift required Americans to foot the bill for the pedestal. In the years following the Civil War, most Americans preferred realistic artworks depicting heroes and events from the nation 's history, rather than allegorical works like the Liberty statue. There was also a feeling that Americans should design American public works -- the selection of Italian - born Constantino Brumidi to decorate the Capitol had provoked intense criticism, even though he was a naturalized U.S. citizen. Harper 's Weekly declared its wish that "M. Bartholdi and our French cousins had ' gone the whole figure ' while they were about it, and given us statue and pedestal at once. '' The New York Times stated that "no true patriot can countenance any such expenditures for bronze females in the present state of our finances. '' Faced with these criticisms, the American committees took little action for several years. The foundation of Bartholdi 's statue was to be laid inside Fort Wood, a disused army base on Bedloe 's Island constructed between 1807 and 1811. Since 1823, it had rarely been used, though during the Civil War, it had served as a recruiting station. The fortifications of the structure were in the shape of an eleven - point star. The statue 's foundation and pedestal were aligned so that it would face southeast, greeting ships entering the harbor from the Atlantic Ocean. In 1881, the New York committee commissioned Richard Morris Hunt to design the pedestal. Within months, Hunt submitted a detailed plan, indicating that he expected construction to take about nine months. He proposed a pedestal 114 feet (35 m) in height; faced with money problems, the committee reduced that to 89 feet (27 m). Hunt 's pedestal design contains elements of classical architecture, including Doric portals, as well as some elements influenced by Aztec architecture. The large mass is fragmented with architectural detail, in order to focus attention on the statue. In form, it is a truncated pyramid, 62 feet (19 m) square at the base and 39.4 feet (12.0 m) at the top. The four sides are identical in appearance. Above the door on each side, there are ten disks upon which Bartholdi proposed to place the coats of arms of the states (between 1876 and 1889, there were 38 U.S. states), although this was not done. Above that, a balcony was placed on each side, framed by pillars. Bartholdi placed an observation platform near the top of the pedestal, above which the statue itself rises. According to author Louis Auchincloss, the pedestal "craggily evokes the power of an ancient Europe over which rises the dominating figure of the Statue of Liberty ''. The committee hired former army General Charles Pomeroy Stone to oversee the construction work. Construction on the 15 - foot - deep (4.6 m) foundation began in 1883, and the pedestal 's cornerstone was laid in 1884. In Hunt 's original conception, the pedestal was to have been made of solid granite. Financial concerns again forced him to revise his plans; the final design called for poured concrete walls, up to 20 feet (6.1 m) thick, faced with granite blocks. This Stony Creek granite came from the Beattie Quarry in Branford, Connecticut. The concrete mass was the largest poured to that time. Norwegian immigrant civil engineer Joachim Goschen Giæver designed the structural framework for the Statue of Liberty. His work involved design computations, detailed fabrication and construction drawings, and oversight of construction. In completing his engineering for the statue 's frame, Giæver worked from drawings and sketches produced by Gustave Eiffel. Fundraising for the statue had begun in 1882. The committee organized a large number of money - raising events. As part of one such effort, an auction of art and manuscripts, poet Emma Lazarus was asked to donate an original work. She initially declined, stating she could not write a poem about a statue. At the time, she was also involved in aiding refugees to New York who had fled anti-Semitic pogroms in eastern Europe. These refugees were forced to live in conditions that the wealthy Lazarus had never experienced. She saw a way to express her empathy for these refugees in terms of the statue. The resulting sonnet, "The New Colossus '', including the iconic lines "Give me your tired, your poor / Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free '', is uniquely identified with the Statue of Liberty and is inscribed on a plaque in the museum in its base. Even with these efforts, fundraising lagged. Grover Cleveland, the governor of New York, vetoed a bill to provide $50,000 for the statue project in 1884. An attempt the next year to have Congress provide $100,000, sufficient to complete the project, also failed. The New York committee, with only $3,000 in the bank, suspended work on the pedestal. With the project in jeopardy, groups from other American cities, including Boston and Philadelphia, offered to pay the full cost of erecting the statue in return for relocating it. Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the New York World, a New York newspaper, announced a drive to raise $100,000 -- the equivalent of $2.3 million today. Pulitzer pledged to print the name of every contributor, no matter how small the amount given. The drive captured the imagination of New Yorkers, especially when Pulitzer began publishing the notes he received from contributors. "A young girl alone in the world '' donated "60 cents, the result of self denial. '' One donor gave "five cents as a poor office boy 's mite toward the Pedestal Fund. '' A group of children sent a dollar as "the money we saved to go to the circus with. '' Another dollar was given by a "lonely and very aged woman. '' Residents of a home for alcoholics in New York 's rival city of Brooklyn -- the cities would not merge until 1898 -- donated $15; other drinkers helped out through donation boxes in bars and saloons. A kindergarten class in Davenport, Iowa, mailed the World a gift of $1.35. As the donations flooded in, the committee resumed work on the pedestal. On June 17, 1885, the French steamer Isère, arrived in New York with the crates holding the disassembled statue on board. New Yorkers displayed their new - found enthusiasm for the statue. Two hundred thousand people lined the docks and hundreds of boats put to sea to welcome the ship. After five months of daily calls to donate to the statue fund, on August 11, 1885, the World announced that $102,000 had been raised from 120,000 donors, and that 80 percent of the total had been received in sums of less than one dollar. Even with the success of the fund drive, the pedestal was not completed until April 1886. Immediately thereafter, reassembly of the statue began. Eiffel 's iron framework was anchored to steel I - beams within the concrete pedestal and assembled. Once this was done, the sections of skin were carefully attached. Due to the width of the pedestal, it was not possible to erect scaffolding, and workers dangled from ropes while installing the skin sections. Nevertheless, no one died during the construction. Bartholdi had planned to put floodlights on the torch 's balcony to illuminate it; a week before the dedication, the Army Corps of Engineers vetoed the proposal, fearing that ships ' pilots passing the statue would be blinded. Instead, Bartholdi cut portholes in the torch -- which was covered with gold leaf -- and placed the lights inside them. A power plant was installed on the island to light the torch and for other electrical needs. After the skin was completed, renowned landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, co-designer of New York 's Central Park and Brooklyn 's Prospect Park, supervised a cleanup of Bedloe 's Island in anticipation of the dedication. A ceremony of dedication was held on the afternoon of October 28, 1886. President Grover Cleveland, the former New York governor, presided over the event. On the morning of the dedication, a parade was held in New York City; estimates of the number of people who watched it ranged from several hundred thousand to a million. President Cleveland headed the procession, then stood in the reviewing stand to see bands and marchers from across America. General Stone was the grand marshal of the parade. The route began at Madison Square, once the venue for the arm, and proceeded to the Battery at the southern tip of Manhattan by way of Fifth Avenue and Broadway, with a slight detour so the parade could pass in front of the World building on Park Row. As the parade passed the New York Stock Exchange, traders threw ticker tape from the windows, beginning the New York tradition of the ticker - tape parade. A nautical parade began at 12: 45 p.m., and President Cleveland embarked on a yacht that took him across the harbor to Bedloe 's Island for the dedication. De Lesseps made the first speech, on behalf of the French committee, followed by the chairman of the New York committee, Senator William M. Evarts. A French flag draped across the statue 's face was to be lowered to unveil the statue at the close of Evarts 's speech, but Bartholdi mistook a pause as the conclusion and let the flag fall prematurely. The ensuing cheers put an end to Evarts 's address. President Cleveland spoke next, stating that the statue 's "stream of light shall pierce the darkness of ignorance and man 's oppression until Liberty enlightens the world ''. Bartholdi, observed near the dais, was called upon to speak, but he declined. Orator Chauncey M. Depew concluded the speechmaking with a lengthy address. No members of the general public were permitted on the island during the ceremonies, which were reserved entirely for dignitaries. The only females granted access were Bartholdi 's wife and de Lesseps 's granddaughter; officials stated that they feared women might be injured in the crush of people. The restriction offended area suffragists, who chartered a boat and got as close as they could to the island. The group 's leaders made speeches applauding the embodiment of Liberty as a woman and advocating women 's right to vote. A scheduled fireworks display was postponed until November 1 because of poor weather. Shortly after the dedication, The Cleveland Gazette, an African American newspaper, suggested that the statue 's torch not be lit until the United States became a free nation "in reality '': "Liberty enlightening the world, '' indeed! The expression makes us sick. This government is a howling farce. It can not or rather does not protect its citizens within its own borders. Shove the Bartholdi statue, torch and all, into the ocean until the "liberty '' of this country is such as to make it possible for an inoffensive and industrious colored man to earn a respectable living for himself and family, without being ku - kluxed, perhaps murdered, his daughter and wife outraged, and his property destroyed. The idea of the "liberty '' of this country "enlightening the world, '' or even Patagonia, is ridiculous in the extreme. When the torch was illuminated on the evening of the statue 's dedication, it produced only a faint gleam, barely visible from Manhattan. The World characterized it as "more like a glowworm than a beacon. '' Bartholdi suggested gilding the statue to increase its ability to reflect light, but this proved too expensive. The United States Lighthouse Board took over the Statue of Liberty in 1887 and pledged to install equipment to enhance the torch 's effect; in spite of its efforts, the statue remained virtually invisible at night. When Bartholdi returned to the United States in 1893, he made additional suggestions, all of which proved ineffective. He did successfully lobby for improved lighting within the statue, allowing visitors to better appreciate Eiffel 's design. In 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt, once a member of the New York committee, ordered the statue 's transfer to the War Department, as it had proved useless as a lighthouse. A unit of the Army Signal Corps was stationed on Bedloe 's Island until 1923, after which military police remained there while the island was under military jurisdiction. The statue rapidly became a landmark. Many immigrants who entered through New York saw it as a welcoming sight. Oral histories of immigrants record their feelings of exhilaration on first viewing the Statue of Liberty. One immigrant who arrived from Greece recalled: I saw the Statue of Liberty. And I said to myself, "Lady, you 're such a beautiful! (sic) You opened your arms and you get all the foreigners here. Give me a chance to prove that I am worth it, to do something, to be someone in America. '' And always that statue was on my mind. Originally, the statue was a dull copper color, but shortly after 1900 a green patina, also called verdigris, caused by the oxidation of the copper skin, began to spread. As early as 1902 it was mentioned in the press; by 1906 it had entirely covered the statue. Believing that the patina was evidence of corrosion, Congress authorized US $62,800 (equivalent to $1,710,486 in 2017) for various repairs, and to paint the statue both inside and out. There was considerable public protest against the proposed exterior painting. The Army Corps of Engineers studied the patina for any ill effects to the statue and concluded that it protected the skin, "softened the outlines of the Statue and made it beautiful. '' The statue was painted only on the inside. The Corps of Engineers also installed an elevator to take visitors from the base to the top of the pedestal. On July 30, 1916, during World War I, German saboteurs set off a disastrous explosion on the Black Tom peninsula in Jersey City, New Jersey, in what is now part of Liberty State Park, close to Bedloe 's Island. Carloads of dynamite and other explosives that were being sent to Britain and France for their war efforts were detonated, and seven people were killed. The statue sustained minor damage, mostly to the torch - bearing right arm, and was closed for ten days. The cost to repair the statue and buildings on the island was about US $100,000 (equivalent to $2,248,930 in 2017). The narrow ascent to the torch was closed for public - safety reasons, and it has remained closed ever since. That same year, Ralph Pulitzer, who had succeeded his father Joseph as publisher of the World, began a drive to raise US $30,000 (equivalent to $674,679 in 2017) for an exterior lighting system to illuminate the statue at night. He claimed over 80,000 contributors, but failed to reach the goal. The difference was quietly made up by a gift from a wealthy donor -- a fact that was not revealed until 1936. An underwater power cable brought electricity from the mainland and floodlights were placed along the walls of Fort Wood. Gutzon Borglum, who later sculpted Mount Rushmore, redesigned the torch, replacing much of the original copper with stained glass. On December 2, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson pressed the telegraph key that turned on the lights, successfully illuminating the statue. After the United States entered World War I in 1917, images of the statue were heavily used in both recruitment posters and the Liberty Bond drives that urged American citizens to support the war financially. This impressed upon the public the war 's stated purpose -- to secure liberty -- and served as a reminder that embattled France had given the United States the statue. In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge used his authority under the Antiquities Act to declare the statue a National Monument. The only successful suicide in the statue 's history occurred five years later, when a man climbed out of one of the windows in the crown and jumped to his death, glancing off the statue 's breast and landing on the base. In 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt ordered the statue to be transferred to the National Park Service (NPS). In 1937, the NPS gained jurisdiction over the rest of Bedloe 's Island. With the Army 's departure, the NPS began to transform the island into a park. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) demolished most of the old buildings, regraded and reseeded the eastern end of the island, and built granite steps for a new public entrance to the statue from its rear. The WPA also carried out restoration work within the statue, temporarily removing the rays from the statue 's halo so their rusted supports could be replaced. Rusted cast - iron steps in the pedestal were replaced with new ones made of reinforced concrete; the upper parts of the stairways within the statue were replaced, as well. Copper sheathing was installed to prevent further damage from rainwater that had been seeping into the pedestal. The statue was closed to the public from May until December 1938. During World War II, the statue remained open to visitors, although it was not illuminated at night due to wartime blackouts. It was lit briefly on December 31, 1943, and on D - Day, June 6, 1944, when its lights flashed "dot - dot - dot - dash '', the Morse code for V, for victory. New, powerful lighting was installed in 1944 -- 1945, and beginning on V-E Day, the statue was once again illuminated after sunset. The lighting was for only a few hours each evening, and it was not until 1957 that the statue was illuminated every night, all night. In 1946, the interior of the statue within reach of visitors was coated with a special plastic so that graffiti could be washed away. In 1956, an Act of Congress officially renamed Bedloe 's Island as Liberty Island, a change advocated by Bartholdi generations earlier. The act also mentioned the efforts to found an American Museum of Immigration on the island, which backers took as federal approval of the project, though the government was slow to grant funds for it. Nearby Ellis Island was made part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument by proclamation of President Lyndon Johnson in 1965. In 1972, the immigration museum, in the statue 's base, was finally opened in a ceremony led by President Richard Nixon. The museum 's backers never provided it with an endowment to secure its future and it closed in 1991 after the opening of an immigration museum on Ellis Island. In 1970, Ivy Bottini led a demonstration at the statue where she and others from the National Organization for Women 's New York chapter draped an enormous banner over a railing which read "WOMEN OF THE WORLD UNITE! '' Beginning December 26, 1971, 15 anti-Vietnam War veterans occupied the statue, flying a US flag upside down from her crown. They left December 28 following a Federal Court order. The statue was also several times taken over briefly by demonstrators publicizing causes such as Puerto Rican independence, opposition to abortion, and opposition to US intervention in Grenada. Demonstrations with the permission of the Park Service included a Gay Pride Parade rally and the annual Captive Baltic Nations rally. A powerful new lighting system was installed in advance of the American Bicentennial in 1976. The statue was the focal point for Operation Sail, a regatta of tall ships from all over the world that entered New York Harbor on July 4, 1976, and sailed around Liberty Island. The day concluded with a spectacular display of fireworks near the statue. The statue was examined in great detail by French and American engineers as part of the planning for its centennial in 1986. In 1982, it was announced that the statue was in need of considerable restoration. Careful study had revealed that the right arm had been improperly attached to the main structure. It was swaying more and more when strong winds blew and there was a significant risk of structural failure. In addition, the head had been installed 2 feet (0.61 m) off center, and one of the rays was wearing a hole in the right arm when the statue moved in the wind. The armature structure was badly corroded, and about two percent of the exterior plates needed to be replaced. Although problems with the armature had been recognized as early as 1936, when cast iron replacements for some of the bars had been installed, much of the corrosion had been hidden by layers of paint applied over the years. In May 1982, President Ronald Reagan announced the formation of the Statue of Liberty -- Ellis Island Centennial Commission, led by Chrysler Corporation chair Lee Iacocca, to raise the funds needed to complete the work. Through its fundraising arm, the Statue of Liberty -- Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., the group raised more than $350 million in donations. The Statue of Liberty was one of the earliest beneficiaries of a cause marketing campaign. A 1983 promotion advertised that for each purchase made with an American Express card, the company would contribute one cent to the renovation of the statue. The campaign generated contributions of $1.7 million to the restoration project. In 1984, the statue was closed to the public for the duration of the renovation. Workers erected the world 's largest free - standing scaffold, which obscured the statue from view. Liquid nitrogen was used to remove layers of paint that had been applied to the interior of the copper skin over decades, leaving two layers of coal tar, originally applied to plug leaks and prevent corrosion. Blasting with baking soda powder removed the tar without further damaging the copper. The restorers ' work was hampered by the asbestos - based substance that Bartholdi had used -- ineffectively, as inspections showed -- to prevent galvanic corrosion. Workers within the statue had to wear protective gear, dubbed "moon suits '', with self - contained breathing circuits. Larger holes in the copper skin were repaired, and new copper was added where necessary. The replacement skin was taken from a copper rooftop at Bell Labs, which had a patina that closely resembled the statue 's; in exchange, the laboratory was provided some of the old copper skin for testing. The torch, found to have been leaking water since the 1916 alterations, was replaced with an exact replica of Bartholdi 's unaltered torch. Consideration was given to replacing the arm and shoulder; the National Park Service insisted that they be repaired instead. The original torch was removed and replaced in 1986 with the current one, whose flame is covered in 24 - karat gold. The torch reflects the sun 's rays in daytime and is lighted by floodlights at night. The entire puddled iron armature designed by Gustave Eiffel was replaced. Low - carbon corrosion - resistant stainless steel bars that now hold the staples next to the skin are made of Ferralium, an alloy that bends slightly and returns to its original shape as the statue moves. To prevent the ray and arm making contact, the ray was realigned by several degrees. The lighting was again replaced -- night - time illumination subsequently came from metal - halide lamps that send beams of light to particular parts of the pedestal or statue, showing off various details. Access to the pedestal, which had been through a nondescript entrance built in the 1960s, was renovated to create a wide opening framed by a set of monumental bronze doors with designs symbolic of the renovation. A modern elevator was installed, allowing handicapped access to the observation area of the pedestal. An emergency elevator was installed within the statue, reaching up to the level of the shoulder. July 3 -- 6, 1986, was designated "Liberty Weekend '', marking the centennial of the statue and its reopening. President Reagan presided over the rededication, with French President François Mitterrand in attendance. July 4 saw a reprise of Operation Sail, and the statue was reopened to the public on July 5. In Reagan 's dedication speech, he stated, "We are the keepers of the flame of liberty; we hold it high for the world to see. '' Following the September 11 attacks, the statue and Liberty Island were immediately closed to the public. The island reopened at the end of 2001, while the pedestal and statue remained off - limits. The pedestal reopened in August 2004, but the National Park Service announced that visitors could not safely be given access to the statue due to the difficulty of evacuation in an emergency. The Park Service adhered to that position through the remainder of the Bush administration. New York Congressman Anthony Weiner made the statue 's reopening a personal crusade. On May 17, 2009, President Barack Obama 's Secretary of the Interior, Ken Salazar, announced that as a "special gift '' to America, the statue would be reopened to the public as of July 4, but that only a limited number of people would be permitted to ascend to the crown each day. The statue, including the pedestal and base, closed on October 29, 2011, for installation of new elevators and staircases and to bring other facilities, such as restrooms, up to code. The statue was reopened on October 28, 2012, only to close again a day later due to Hurricane Sandy. Although the storm did not harm the statue, it destroyed some of the infrastructure on both Liberty Island and Ellis Island, severely damaging the dock used by the ferries bearing visitors to the statue. On November 8, 2012, a Park Service spokesperson announced that both islands would remain closed for an indefinite period for repairs to be done. Due to lack of electricity on Liberty Island, a generator was installed to power temporary floodlights to illuminate the statue at night. The superintendent of Statue of Liberty National Monument, David Luchsinger, whose home on the island was severely damaged, stated that it would be "optimistically... months '' before the island was reopened to the public. The statue and Liberty Island reopened to the public on July 4, 2013. Ellis Island remained closed for repairs for several more months but reopened in late October 2013. For part of October 2013, Liberty Island was closed to the public due to the United States federal government shutdown of 2013, along with other federally funded museums, parks, monuments, construction projects and buildings. The statue and Liberty Island were briefly closed on July 4, 2018, due to a protester against American immigration policy climbing on to the statue. On October 7, 2016, construction started on a new Statue of Liberty museum on Liberty Island. The new $70 million, 26,000 - square - foot (2,400 m) museum will be able to accommodate all of the island 's visitors when it opens in 2019, as opposed to the current museum, which only 20 % of the island 's visitors can visit. The museum, designed by FXFOWLE Architects, will integrate with the parkland around it. Von Fürstenberg heads the fundraising for the museum, and the project had garnered more than $40 million in fundraising as of groundbreaking. The statue is situated in Upper New York Bay on Liberty Island south of Ellis Island, which together comprise the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Both islands were ceded by New York to the federal government in 1800. As agreed in an 1834 compact between New York and New Jersey that set the state border at the bay 's midpoint, the original islands remain New York territory despite their location on the New Jersey side of the state line. Liberty Island is one of the islands that are part of the borough of Manhattan in New York. Land created by reclamation added to the 2.3 - acre (0.93 ha) original island at Ellis Island is New Jersey territory. No charge is made for entrance to the national monument, but there is a cost for the ferry service that all visitors must use, as private boats may not dock at the island. A concession was granted in 2007 to Statue Cruises to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities, replacing Circle Line, which had operated the service since 1953. The ferries, which depart from Liberty State Park in Jersey City and Battery Park in Lower Manhattan, also stop at Ellis Island when it is open to the public, making a combined trip possible. All ferry riders are subject to security screening, similar to airport procedures, prior to boarding. Visitors intending to enter the statue 's base and pedestal must obtain a complimentary museum / pedestal ticket along with their ferry ticket. Those wishing to climb the staircase within the statue to the crown purchase a special ticket, which may be reserved up to a year in advance. A total of 240 people per day are permitted to ascend: ten per group, three groups per hour. Climbers may bring only medication and cameras -- lockers are provided for other items -- and must undergo a second security screening. There are several plaques and dedicatory tablets on or near the Statue of Liberty. A group of statues stands at the western end of the island, honoring those closely associated with the Statue of Liberty. Two Americans -- Pulitzer and Lazarus -- and three Frenchmen -- Bartholdi, Eiffel, and Laboulaye -- are depicted. They are the work of Maryland sculptor Phillip Ratner. In 1984, the Statue of Liberty was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The UNESCO "Statement of Significance '' describes the statue as a "masterpiece of the human spirit '' that "endures as a highly potent symbol -- inspiring contemplation, debate and protest -- of ideals such as liberty, peace, human rights, abolition of slavery, democracy and opportunity. '' Hundreds of replicas of the Statue of Liberty are displayed worldwide. A smaller version of the statue, one - fourth the height of the original, was given by the American community in Paris to that city. It now stands on the Île aux Cygnes, facing west toward her larger sister. A replica 30 feet (9.1 m) tall stood atop the Liberty Warehouse on West 64th Street in Manhattan for many years; it now resides at the Brooklyn Museum. In a patriotic tribute, the Boy Scouts of America, as part of their Strengthen the Arm of Liberty campaign in 1949 -- 1952, donated about two hundred replicas of the statue, made of stamped copper and 100 inches (2.5 m) in height, to states and municipalities across the United States. Though not a true replica, the statue known as the Goddess of Democracy temporarily erected during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 was similarly inspired by French democratic traditions -- the sculptors took care to avoid a direct imitation of the Statue of Liberty. Among other recreations of New York City structures, a replica of the statue is part of the exterior of the New York - New York Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. As an American icon, the Statue of Liberty has been depicted on the country 's coinage and stamps. It appeared on commemorative coins issued to mark its 1986 centennial, and on New York 's 2001 entry in the state quarters series. An image of the statue was chosen for the American Eagle platinum bullion coins in 1997, and it was placed on the reverse, or tails, side of the Presidential Dollar series of circulating coins. Two images of the statue 's torch appear on the current ten - dollar bill. The statue 's intended photographic depiction on a 2010 forever stamp proved instead to be of the replica at the Las Vegas casino. Depictions of the statue have been used by many regional institutions. Between 1986 and 2000, New York State issued license plates with an outline of the statue. The Women 's National Basketball Association 's New York Liberty use both the statue 's name and its image in their logo, in which the torch 's flame doubles as a basketball. The New York Rangers of the National Hockey League depicted the statue 's head on their third jersey, beginning in 1997. The National Collegiate Athletic Association 's 1996 Men 's Basketball Final Four, played at New Jersey 's Meadowlands Sports Complex, featured the statue in its logo. The Libertarian Party of the United States uses the statue in its emblem. The statue is a frequent subject in popular culture. In music, it has been evoked to indicate support for American policies, as in Toby Keith 's song "Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue (The Angry American) '', and in opposition, appearing on the cover of the Dead Kennedys ' album Bedtime for Democracy, which protested the Reagan administration. In film, the torch is the setting for the climax of director Alfred Hitchcock 's 1942 movie Saboteur. The statue makes one of its most famous cinematic appearances in the 1968 picture Planet of the Apes, in which it is seen half - buried in sand. It is knocked over in the science - fiction film Independence Day and in Cloverfield the head is ripped off. In Jack Finney 's time - travel novel Time and Again, the right arm of the statue, on display in the early 1880s in Madison Square Park, plays a crucial role. Robert Holdstock, consulting editor of The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, wondered in 1979: Where would science fiction be without the Statue of Liberty? For decades it has towered or crumbled above the wastelands of deserted (E) arth -- giants have uprooted it, aliens have found it curious... the symbol of Liberty, of optimism, has become a symbol of science fiction 's pessimistic view of the future.

what is the active ingredient in ortho home defense

Bifenthrin - wikipedia Bifenthrin is a pyrethroid insecticide used primarily against the red imported fire ant by influencing its nervous system. It has a high toxicity to aquatic organisms. Although it is listed as a restricted use chemical in the United States, it is allowed to be sold for daily use, provided the product sold has a low concentration of bifenthrin. The chemical was discovered and developed by FMC Corporation. Products containing bifenthrin include Transport, Talstar, Maxxthor, Capture, Brigade, Bifenthrine, Ortho Home Defense Max, Bifen XTS, Bifen IT, Bifen L / P, Torant, Zipak, Scotts LawnPro Step 3, Wisdom TC Flowable, FMC 54800, Allectus, Ortho Max Pro and OMS3024 and mega wash from green planet. Bifenthrin is poorly soluble in water and often remains in soil. Its residual half - life in soil is between 7 days and 8 months, depending on the soil type, with a low mobility in most soil types. Bifenthrin has the longest known residual time in soil of insecticides currently on the market. It is a white, waxy solid with a faint sweet smell. It is chemically synthesized in various forms, including powder, granules and pellets. However, it is not naturally occurring. Like other pyrethroids, bifenthrin is chiral; it has different enantiomers which can have different effects. Bifenthrin is found in two enantiomers: 1S - cis - bifenthrin and 1R - cis - bifenthrin. 1S - cis - Bifenthrin is 3 - 4 times more toxic to humans than 1R - cis - bifenthrin, while the latter is more than 300 times more effective as a pesticide. The two types of pyrethroids are the ones with an α - cyanogroup and the ones without an α - cyanogroup. The neurotoxicity of bifenthrin is based on the affinity to the voltage - gated sodium channels (both in insects, as well as in mammals). The pyrethroids with an α - cyanogroup block the closing of the sodium - channel permanently, causing the membrane to be permanently depolarized. The resting potential will not be restored, and no further action potential can be generated. The pyrethroids without an α - cyanogroup, to which bifenthrin belongs, are only able to bind to the sodium channel transiently. This will result in after potentials and eventual continuous firing of axons. The resting potential is not affected by these pyrethroids. Bifenthrin will open the sodium channel for a shorter period than other pyrethroids. The mechanism in mammals and invertebrates is not different, but the effect on mammals is much less due to higher body temperature, higher body volume, and lower affinity of bifenthrin to sodium channels. Numerous studies have been conducted on the half life of bifenthrin in soil, water, and air under different conditions, such as aerobic or anaerobic, and at different temperatures and pH. It is more likely to remain in the soil and not so much in water (it is hydrophobic), nor in the air (it is unlikely to volatize because of its physical properties). Because of the water - insolubility of bifenthrin, it will not rapidly cause contamination of ground water. However, some contamination might occur by soil - bound bifenthrin to surface water through runoff. For an overview of the environmental degradation of bifenthrin, see figure below. The main path of degradation results in 4 ' - hydroxy bifenthrin. Pyrethroids are much less toxic in mammals than they are in insects and fish, because mammals have the ability to rapidly break the ester bond in bifenthrin and break the substance into its inactive acid and alcohol components: In humans and rats, bifenthrin is degraded by the cytochrome p450 - family. On a large scale, bifenthrin is often used against red imported fire ants. It is also effective against aphids, worms, ants, gnats, moths, beetles, earwigs, grasshoppers, mites, midges, spiders, ticks, yellow jackets, maggots, thrips, caterpillars, flies, fleas, and termites. It is mostly used in orchards, nurseries, and homes. In the agricultural sector, it is used in great amounts on certain crops, such as corn. About 70 % of all hops and raspberries cultured in the United States are treated with bifenthrin. Bifenthrin is used by the textile industry to protect woollen products from insect attack. It was introduced as an alternative to permethrin - based agents, due to greater efficacy against keratinophagous insects, better wash - fastness, and lower aquatic toxicity. Bifenthrin is not at all toxic to plants. Though it does not have a large toxicological risk towards mammals or birds, bifenthrin is able to accumulate in food, so it might be dangerous to mammals or birds in some scenarios. Bifenthrin is an effective pesticide to use against malaria and filaria vector mosquitoes. It is still effective when a resistance to other pyrethroids is found. Mosquito nets and indoor walls can be treated with bifenthrin to keep more mosquitoes away. Bifenthrin is an effectively used insecticide, but the risk is high of it working only for a short time. Mosquitoes can develop a resistance to it, as well. Bifenthrin is hardly soluble in water, so nearly all bifenthrin will stay in the sediment, but it is very harmful for the aquatic life. Even in small concentrations, fish and other aquatic animals are affected by bifenthrin. One of the reasons for the high sensitivity of fish is fish have a slow metabolism. Bifenthrin will stay longer in the system of the fish. Another reason for the high sensitivity of fish is the effect of bifenthrin as ATPase - inhibitor. The gills need ATP to control the osmotic balance of oxygen. If the fish is no longer capable of taking up oxygen because ATP can no longer be used, the fish will die. In cold water, bifenthrin is even more dangerous. pH and calcium concentration are also factors that influence the toxicity. Vertebrates are less sensitive to the effects of bifenthrin as ATPase - inhibitor. In bees, the lethal concentration (LC) of bifenthrin is about 17 mg / l. At sublethal concentrations, bifenthrin reduces the fecundity of bees, decreases the rate at which bee larvae develop into adults, and increases their immature periods. Bifenthrin and other synthetic pyrethroids are being used in agriculture in increasing amounts because of the high efficiency of these substances in killing insects, the low toxicity for mammals, and good biodegradability. However, because of its success, they are being used more often (also indoors) and high exposure of bifenthrin to humans can occur. The U.S. EPA classified bifenthrin as a Category C, possible human carcinogen. This rating is based on an increased rate of urinary bladder tumors in mice, adenoma and adenocarcinoma of the liver in male mice, and bronchioalveolar adenomas and adenocarcinomas of the lung in some female mice. Exposure to bifenthrin can be achieved either by skin contact or ingestion. Skin contact is not toxic, apart from a slight tingling sensation on the specific location of contact. Ingestion is toxic, although only slightly. Commercially available bifenthrin (Ortho Home Defense Max, for example), however, can induce toxic effects in those concentrations, because the added chemicals which improve the sustainability either potentiate bifenthrin or are toxic on their own. Symptoms of excessive exposure are nausea, headaches, hypersensitivity for touch and sound, and irritation of the skin and the eyes. The EPA monitors and regulates the use of pesticides in the United States. Bifenthrin is classified as a restricted - use pesticide, meaning it is allowed to be legally sold only by certified pesticide applicators. For everyday use, it is allowed to be sold in lower concentrations. Bifenthrin has been approved for use against the Rasberry crazy ant in the Houston, Texas, area, under a special "crisis exemption '' from the Texas Department of Agriculture and the EPA. The chemical is only approved for use in Texas counties experiencing "confirmed infestations '' of the newly imported, invasive ant species. The EPA has classified bifenthrin as a class C carcinogen, a possible human carcinogen based on a test with mice, which showed increased development of certain tumors. An acute and chronic reference dose (RfD) for bifenthrin has been established, based on animal studies. The reference dose resembles the estimated quantity of a chemical which a person could be exposed to every day (or a one - time exposure for the acute RfD) without any appreciable risk of adverse health effects. The acute reference dose (RfD) for bifenthrin is 0.328 mg / kg bodyweight / day. The chronic reference dose (RfD) for bifenthrin is 0.013 mg / kg bodyweight / day. Bifenthrin was included in a biocide ban proposed by the Swedish Chemicals Agency, because of its carcinogenic effect. This was approved by the European Parliament in 2009. Pesticides containing bifenthrin were withdrawn from use in the European Union. They have since been reinstated.

where did the brand north face come from

The North Face - wikipedia The North Face, Inc. is an American outdoor product company specializing in outerwear, fleece, coats, shirts, footwear, and equipment such as backpacks, tents, and sleeping bags. Its clothing and equipment lines are catered towards college students, climbers, mountaineers, skiers, snowboarders, hikers, and endurance athletes. The company sponsors professional athletes from the worlds of running, climbing, skiing and snowboarding. The North Face began as a San Francisco - based climbing equipment retail store, founded in 1966 by Douglas Tompkins and his then - wife, Susie Tompkins. It was acquired two years later by Kenneth "Hap '' Klopp. The name was derived to evoke homage to the fact the north face of a mountain in the northern hemisphere is generally the coldest, iciest and most formidable route to climb. Originally the store offered only highly selective merchandise, targeted to climbers and backpackers. By the 1980s, skiwear was added, followed by camping equipment. Today The North Face offers many product categories from athletic clothing to more casual sportswear, though they are best known for insulated jackets. The North Face is now a wholly owned subsidiary of the VF Corporation. It is headquartered in Alameda, California, co-located with its corporate sibling, JanSport. In 2007, JanSport was the world 's largest backpack manufacturer; combined, the two manufactured nearly half of all small backpacks sold in the United States. The North Face 's quarter - circle logo, produced by California designer David Alcorn in 1971, evokes Half Dome, a massive granitic monolith in Yosemite National Park. The North Face maintains strong links with the outdoor community through sponsoring athletes, including Lizzy Hawker, winner of the Ultra Trail Tour du Mont Blanc in 2005, 2008 and 2010. North Face attire has grown in popularity. The rise in the popularity of the North Face attire has resulted in wearers of the line becoming the targets of robbery. In early 2005, a group of teenagers from Washington D.C. were arrested on charges including the armed robbery of, specifically, The North Face jackets from students on the street. In December 2008, The North Face filed a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri against The South Butt, its creator James A. Winkelmann, Jr., and a company which handled the firm 's marketing and manufacturing. In the legal action, The North Face alleged trademark infringement and sought injunctive relief. After the court ordered mediation in the case, the parties reached a closed settlement agreement on April 1, 2010; however, in October 2012, Winkelmann admitted in court that he and his father violated the settlement agreement with The North Face and agreed to pay $65,000, an amount that will be reduced by $1,000 for every month of compliance. In addition to selling through department stores and outdoor retailers, The North Face operates over 55 retail and 20 outlet locations in the United States, 4 retail and 2 outlet locations in Canada, 19 locations in the United Kingdom and many others worldwide.

what affect does acetylcholine have on the sarcolemma

Neuromuscular junction - wikipedia A neuromuscular junction (or myoneural junction) is a chemical synapse formed by the contact between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. It is at the neuromuscular junction that a motor neuron is able to transmit a signal to the muscle fiber, causing muscle contraction. Muscles require innervation to function -- and even just to maintain muscle tone, avoiding atrophy. Synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction begins when an action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal of a motor neuron, which activates voltage - dependent calcium channels to allow calcium ions to enter the neuron. Calcium ions bind to sensor proteins (synaptotagmin) on synaptic vesicles, triggering vesicle fusion with the cell membrane and subsequent neurotransmitter release from the motor neuron into the synaptic cleft. In vertebrates, motor neurons release acetylcholine (ACh), a small molecule neurotransmitter, which diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) on the cell membrane of the muscle fiber, also known as the sarcolemma. nAChRs are ionotropic receptors, meaning they serve as ligand - gated ion channels. The binding of ACh to the receptor can depolarize the muscle fiber, causing a cascade that eventually results in muscle contraction. Neuromuscular junction diseases can be of genetic and autoimmune origin. Genetic disorders, such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy, can arise from mutated structural proteins that comprise the neuromuscular junction, whereas autoimmune diseases, such as myasthenia gravis, occur when antibodies are produced against nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the sarcolemma. The neuromuscular junction differs from chemical synapses between neurons. Presynaptic motor axons stop 30 nanometers from the sarcolemma, the cell membrane of a muscle cell. This 30 - nanometer space forms the synaptic cleft through which signalling molecules are released. The sarcolemma has invaginations called postjunctional folds, which increase the surface area of the membrane exposed to the synaptic cleft. These postjunctional folds form what is referred to as the motor endplate, which possess nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) at a density of 10,000 receptors / micrometer in skeletal muscle. The presynaptic axons form bulges called terminal boutons (or presynaptic terminals) that project into the postjunctional folds of the sarcolemma. The presynaptic terminals have active zones that contain vesicles, also called quanta, full of acetylcholine molecules. These vesicles can fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release ACh molecules into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis after depolarization. AChRs are localized opposite the presynaptic terminals by protein scaffolds at the postjunctional folds of the sarcolemma. Dystrophin, a structural protein, connects the sarcomere, sarcolemma, and extracellular matrix components. Rapsyn is another protein that docks AChRs and structural proteins to the cytoskeleton. Also present is the receptor tyrosine kinase protein MuSK, a signaling protein involved in the development of the neuromuscular junction, which is also held in place by rapsyn. The neuromuscular junction is where a neuron activates a muscle to contract. Upon the arrival of an action potential at the presynaptic neuron terminal, voltage - dependent calcium channels open and Ca ions flow from the extracellular fluid into the presynaptic neuron 's cytosol. This influx of Ca causes neurotransmitter - containing vesicles to dock and fuse to the presynaptic neuron 's cell membrane through SNARE proteins. Fusion of the vesicular membrane with the presynaptic cell membrane results in the emptying of the vesicle 's contents (acetylcholine) into the synaptic cleft, a process known as exocytosis. Acetylcholine diffuses into the synaptic cleft and can bind to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the motor endplate, causing calcium ions to flow into the muscle cell, initiating a sequence of steps that finally produce muscle contraction. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter synthesized from dietary choline and acetyl - CoA (ACoA), and is involved in the stimulation of muscle tissue in vertebrates as well as in some invertebrate animals. In vertebrate animals, the acetylcholine receptor subtype that is found at the neuromuscular junction of skeletal muscles is the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), which is a ligand - gated ion channel. Each subunit of this receptor has a characteristic "cys - loop '', which is composed of a cysteine residue followed by 13 amino acid residues and another cysteine residue. The two cysteine residues form a disulfide linkage which results in the "cys - loop '' receptor that is capable of binding acetylcholine and other ligands. These cys - loop receptors are found only in eukaryotes, but prokaryotes possess ACh receptors with similar properties. Not all species use a cholinergic neuromuscular junction; e.g. crayfish and fruit flies have a glutamatergic neuromuscular junction. AChRs at the skeletal neuromuscular junction form heteropentamers composed of two α, one β, one ɛ, and one δ subunits. When a single ACh ligand binds to one of the α subunits of the ACh receptor it induces a conformational change at the interface with the second AChR α subunit. This conformational change results in the increased affinity of the second α subunit for a second ACh ligand. AChRs therefore exhibit a sigmoidal dissociation curve due to this cooperative binding. The presence of the inactive, intermediate receptor structure with a single - bound ligand keeps ACh in the synapse that might otherwise be lost by cholinesterase hydrolysis or diffusion. The persistence of these ACh ligands in the synapse can cause a prolonged post-synaptic response. The development of the neuromuscular junction requires signaling from both the motor neuron 's terminal and the muscle cell 's central region, During development, muscle cells produce acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) and express them in the central regions in a process called prepatterning. Agrin, a heparin proteoglycan, and MuSK kinase are thought to help stabilize the accumulation of AChR in the central regions of the myocyte. MuSK is a receptor tyrosine kinase -- meaning that it induces cellular signaling by binding phosphate molecules to self regions like tyrosines, and to other targets in the cytoplasm. Upon activation by its ligand agrin, MuSK signals via two proteins called "Dok - 7 '' and "rapsyn '', to induce "clustering '' of acetylcholine receptors. ACh release by developing motor neurons produces postsynaptic potentials in the muscle cell that positively reinforces the localization and stabilization of the developing neuromuscular junction. These findings were demonstrated in part by mouse "knockout '' studies. In mice which are deficient for either agrin or MuSK, the neuromuscular junction does not form. Further, mice deficient in Dok - 7 did not form either acetylcholine receptor clusters or neuromuscular synapses. The development of neuromuscular junctions is mostly studied in model organisms, such as rodents. In addition, in 2015 an all - human neuromuscular junction has been created in vitro using human embryonic stem cells and somatic muscle stem cells. In this model presynaptic motor neurons are activated by optogenetics and in response synaptically connected muscle fibers twitch upon light stimulation. José del Castillo and Bernard Katz used ionophoresis to determine the location and density of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) at the neuromuscular junction. With this technique, a microelectrode was placed inside the motor endplate of the muscle fiber, and a micropipette filled with acetylcholine (ACh) is placed directly in front of the endplate in the synaptic cleft. A positive voltage was applied to the tip of the micropipette, which caused a burst of positively charged ACh molecules to be released from the pipette. These ligands flowed into the space representing the synaptic cleft and bound to AChRs. The intracellular microelectrode monitored the amplitude of the depolarization of the motor endplate in response to ACh binding to nicotinic (ionotropic) receptors. Katz and del Castillo showed that the amplitude of the depolarization (excitatory postsynaptic potential) depended on the proximity of the micropipette releasing the ACh ions to the endplate. The farther the micropipette was from the motor endplate, the smaller the depolarization was in the muscle fiber. This allowed the researchers to determine that the nicotinic receptors were localized to the motor endplate in high density. Toxins are also used to determine the location of acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. α - Bungarotoxin is a toxin found in the snake species Bungarus multicinctus that acts as an ACh antagonist and binds to AChRs irreversibly. By coupling assayable enzymes such as horseradish peroxidase (HRP) or fluorescent proteins such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) to the α - bungarotoxin, AChRs can be visualized and quantified. Nerve gases and liquor damage this area. Botulinum toxin (aka botulinum neurotoxin, BoNT, and sold under the trade name Botox) inhibits the release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction by interfering with SNARE proteins. This toxin crosses into the nerve terminal through the process of endocytosis and subsequently interferes with SNARE proteins, which are necessary for ACh release. By doing so, it induces a transient flaccid paralysis and chemical denervation localized to the striated muscle that it has affected. The inhibition of the ACh release does not set in until approximately two weeks after the injection is made. Three months after the inhibition occurs, neuronal activity begins to regain partial function, and six months, complete neuronal function is regained. Tetanus toxin, also known as tetanospasmin is a potent neurotoxin produced by Clostridium tetani and causes the disease state, tetanus. The LD of this toxin has been measured to be approximately 1 ng / kg, making it second only to Botulinum toxin D as the deadliest toxin in the world. It functions very similarly to botunlinum neurotoxin (BoNT) by attaching and endocytosing into the presynaptic nerve terminal and interfering with SNARE protein complexes. It differs from BoNT in a few ways, most apparently in its end state, wherein tetanospasmin demonstrates a rigid / spastic paralysis as opposed to the flaccid paralysis demonstrated with BoNT. Latrotoxin (α - Latrotoxin) found in venom of widow spiders also affects the neuromuscular junction by causing the release of acetylcholine from the presynaptic cell. Mechanisms of action include binding to receptors on the presynaptic cell activating the IP3 / DAG pathway and release of calcium from intracellular stores and pore formation resulting in influx of calcium ions directly. Either mechanism causes increased calcium in presynaptic cell, which then leads to release of synaptic vesicles of acetylcholine. Latrotoxin causes pain, muscle contraction and if untreated potentially paralysis and death. Snake venoms act as toxins at the neuromuscular junction and can induce weakness and paralysis. Venoms can act as both presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins. Presynaptic neurotoxins, commonly known as β - neurotoxins, affect the presynaptic regions of the neuromuscular junction. The majority of these neurotoxins act by inhibiting the release of neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine, into the synapse between neurons. However, some of these toxins have also been known to enhance neurotransmitter release. Those that inhibit neurotransmitter release create a neuromuscular blockade that prevents signaling molecules from reaching their postsynaptic target receptors. In doing so, the victim of these snake bite suffer from profound weakness. Such neurotoxins do not respond well to anti-venoms. After one hour of inoculation of these toxins, including notexin and taipoxin, many of the affected nerve terminals show signs of irreversible physical damage, leaving them devoid of any synaptic vesicles. Postsynaptic neurotoxins, otherwise known as α - neurotoxins, act oppositely to the presynaptic neurotoxins by binding to the postsynaptic acetylcholine receptors. This prevents interaction between the acetylcholine released by the presynaptic terminal and the receptors on the postsynaptic cell. In effect, the opening of sodium channels associated with these acetylcholine receptors is prohibited, resulting in a neuromuscular blockade, similar to the effects seen due to presynaptic neurotoxins. This causes paralysis in the muscles involved in the affected junctions. Unlike presynaptic neurotoxins, postsynaptic toxins are more easily affected by anti-venoms, which accelerate the dissociation of the toxin from the receptors, ultimately causing a reversal of paralysis. These neurotoxins experimentally and qualitatively aid in the study of acetylcholine receptor density and turnover, as well as in studies observing the direction of antibodies toward the affected acetylcholine receptors in patients diagnosed with myasthenia gravis. Any disorder that compromises the synaptic transmission between a motor neuron and a muscle cell is categorized under the umbrella term of neuromuscular diseases. These disorders can be inherited or acquired and can vary in their severity and mortality. In general, most of these disorders tend to be caused by mutations or autoimmune disorders. Autoimmune disorders, in the case of neuromuscular diseases, tend to be humoral mediated, B cell mediated, and result in an antibody improperly created against a motor neuron or muscle fiber protein that interferes with synaptic transmission or signaling. Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disorder where the body makes antibodies against either the acetylcholine receptor (AchR) (in 80 % of cases), or against postsynaptic muscle - specific kinase (MuSK) (0 -- 10 % of cases). In seronegative myasthenia gravis low density lipoprotein receptor - related protein 4 is targeted by IgG1, which acts as a competitive inhibitor of its ligand, preventing the ligand from binding its receptor. It is not known if seronegative myasthenia gravis will respond to standard therapies. Neonatal MG is an autoimmune disorder that affects 1 in 8 children born to mothers who have been diagnosed with myasthenia gravis (MG). MG can be transferred from the mother to the fetus by the movement of AChR antibodies through the placenta. Signs of this disease at birth include weakness, which responds to anticholinesterase medications, as well as fetal akinesia, or the lack of fetal movement. This form of the disease is transient, lasting for about three months. However, in some cases, neonatal MG can lead to other health effects, such as arthrogryposis and even fetal death. These conditions are thought to be initiated when maternal AChR antibodies are directed to the fetal AChR and can last until the 33rd week of gestation, when the γ subunit of AChR is replaced by the ε subunit. Lambert - Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS) is an autoimmune disorder that affects the presynaptic portion of the neuromuscular junction. This rare disease can be marked by a unique triad of symptoms: proximal muscle weakness, autonomic dysfunction, and areflexia. Proximal muscle weakness is a product of pathogenic autoantibodies directed against P / Q - type voltage - gated calcium channels, which in turn leads to a reduction of acetylcholine release from motor nerve terminals on the presynaptic cell. Examples of autonomic dysfunction caused by LEMS include erectile dysfunction in men, constipation, and, most commonly, dry mouth. Less common dysfunctions include dry eyes and altered perspiration. Areflexia is a condition in which tendon reflexes are reduced and it may subside temporarily after a period of exercise. 50 -- 60 % of the patients that are diagnosed with LEMS also have present an associated tumor, which is typically small - cell lung carcinoma (SCLC). This type of tumor also expresses voltage - gated calcium channels. Oftentimes, LEMS also occurs alongside myasthenia gravis. Treatment for LEMS consists of using 3, 4 - diaminopyridine as a first measure, which serves to increase the compound muscle action potential as well as muscle strength by lengthening the time that voltage - gated calcium channels remain open after blocking voltage - gated potassium channels. In the US, treatment with 3, 4 - diaminopyridine for eligible LEMS patients is available at no cost under an expanded access program. Further treatment includes the use of prednisone and azathioprine in the event that 3, 4 - diaminopyridine does not aid in treatment. Neuromyotonia (NMT), otherwise known as Isaac 's syndrome, is unlike many other diseases present at the neuromuscular junction. Rather than causing muscle weakness, NMT leads to the hyperexcitation of motor nerves. NMT causes this hyperexcitation by producing longer depolarizations by down - regulating voltage - gated potassium channels, which causes greater neurotransmitter release and repetitive firing. This increase in rate of firing leads to more active transmission and as a result, greater muscular activity in the affected individual. NMT is also believed to be of autoimmune origin due to its associations with autoimmune symptoms in the individual affected. Congenital myasthenic syndromes (CMS) are very similar to both MG and LEMS in their functions, but the primary difference between CMS and those diseases is that CMS is of genetic origins. Specifically, these syndromes are diseases incurred due to mutations, typically recessive, in 1 of at least 10 genes that affect presynaptic, synaptic, and postsynaptic proteins in the neuromuscular junction. Such mutations usually arise in the ε - subunit of AChR, thereby affecting the kinetics and expression of the receptor itself. Single nucleotide substitutions or deletions may cause loss of function in the subunit. Other mutations, such as those affecting acetylcholinesterase and acetyltransferase, can also cause the expression of CMS, with the latter being associated specifically with episodic apnea. These syndromes can present themselves at different times within the life of an individual. They may arise during the fetal phase, causing fetal akinesia, or the perinatal period, during which certain conditions, such as arthrogryposis, ptosis, hypotonia, ophthalmoplegia, and feeding or breathing difficulties, may be observed. They could also activate during adolescence or adult years, causing the individual to develop slow - channel syndrome. Treatment for particular subtypes of CMS (postsynaptic fast - channel CMS) is similar to treatment for other neuromuscular disorders. 3, 4 - Diaminopyridine, the first - line treatment for LEMS, is under development as an orphan drug for CMS in the US, and available to eligible patients under an expanded access program at no cost. Bulbospinal muscular atrophy, also known as Kennedy 's disease, is a rare recessive trinucleotide, polyglutamine disorder that is linked to the X chromosome. Because of its linkage to the X chromosome, it is typically transmitted through females. However, Kennedy 's disease is only present in adult males and the onset of the disease is typically later in life. This disease is specifically caused by the expansion of a CAG - tandem repeat in exon 1 found on the androgen - receptor (AR) gene on chromosome Xq 11 - 12. Poly - Q - expanded AR accumulates in the nuclei of cells, where it begins to fragment. After fragmentation, degradation of the cell begins, leading to a loss of both motor neurons and dorsal root ganglia. Symptoms of Kennedy 's disease include weakness and wasting of the facial bulbar and extremity muscles, as well as sensory and endocrinological disturbances, such as gynecomastia and reduced fertility. Other symptoms include elevated testosterone and other sexual hormone levels, development of hyper - CK - emia, abnormal conduction through motor and sensory nerves, and neuropathic or in rare cases myopathic alterations on biopsies of muscle cells. Duchenne muscular dystrophy is an X-linked genetic disorder that results in the absence of the structural protein dystrophin at the neuromuscular junction. It affects 1 in 3,600 -- 6,000 males and frequently causes death by the age of 30. The absence of dystrophin causes muscle degeneration, and patients present with the following symptoms: abnormal gait, hypertrophy in the calf muscles, and elevated creatine kinase. If left untreated, patients may suffer from respiratory distress, which can lead to death.

where does passive diffusion occur in the body

Passive transport - wikipedia Passive transport is a movement of ions and other atomic or molecular substances across cell membranes without need of energy input. Unlike active transport, it does not require an input of cellular energy because it is instead driven by the tendency of the system to grow in entropy. The rate of passive transport depends on the permeability of the cell membrane, which, in turn, depends on the organization and characteristics of the membrane lipids and proteins. The four main kinds of passive transport are simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, filtration, and osmosis. Diffusion is the net movement of material from an area of high concentration to an area with lower concentration. The difference of concentration between the two areas is often termed as the concentration gradient, and diffusion will continue until this gradient has been eliminated. Since diffusion moves materials from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, it is described as moving solutes "down the concentration gradient '' (compared with active transport, which often moves material from area of low concentration to area of higher concentration, and therefore referred to as moving the material "against the concentration gradient ''). However, in many cases (e.g. passive drug transport) the driving force of passive transport can not be simplified to the concentration gradient. If there are different solutions at the two sides of the membrane with different equilibrium solubility of the drug, the difference in degree of saturation is the driving force of passive membrane transport. It is also true for supersaturated solutions which are more and more important owing to the spreading of the application of amorphous solid dispersions for drug bioavailability enhancement. Simple diffusion and osmosis are in some ways similar. Simple diffusion is the passive movement of solute from a high concentration to a lower concentration until the concentration of the solute is uniform throughout and reaches equilibrium. Osmosis is much like simple diffusion but it specifically describes the movement of water (not the solute) across a selectively permeable membrane until there is an equal concentration of water and solute on both sides of the membrane. Simple diffusion and osmosis are both forms of passive transport and require none of the cell 's ATP energy. Facilitated diffusion, also called carrier - mediated osmosis, is the movement of molecules across the cell membrane via special transport proteins that are embedded within the cellular membrane. Large, insoluble molecules, such as glucose, vesicles and proteins require a carrier molecule to move through the plasma membrane. Therefore, it will bind with its specific carrier proteins, and the complex will then be bonded to a receptor site and moved through the cellular membrane. Facilitated diffusion is a passive process: the solutes move down their concentration gradient and do not require the expenditure of cellular energy for this process. Carrier proteins and channel proteins allow for the diffusion of molecules across the cell membrane. Carrier proteins undergo conformational alterations to allow molecules to pass, while channel proteins form unblocked pores. Facilitated diffusion may be achieved as a consequence of charge gradients in addition to concentration gradients. Plant cells create an unequal distribution of charge across their plasma membrane by actively taking up or excluding ions. Active transport of protons by H ATPases alters membrane potential allowing for facilitated passive transport of particular ions such as Potassium down their charge gradient through high affinity transporters and channels. Filtration is movement of water and solute molecules across the cell membrane due to hydrostatic pressure generated by the cardiovascular system. Depending on the size of the membrane pores, only solutes of a certain size may pass through it. For example, the membrane pores of the Bowman 's capsule in the kidneys are very small, and only albumins, the smallest of the proteins, have any chance of being filtered through. On the other hand, the membrane pores of liver cells are extremely large, but not forgetting cells are extremely small to allow a variety of solutes to pass through and be metabolized. Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane. The net movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from a solution of high water potential to an area of low water potential. A cell with a less negative water potential will draw in water but this depends on other factors as well such as solute potential (pressure in the cell e.g. solute molecules) and pressure potential (external pressure e.g. cell wall). There are three types of Osmosis solutions: the isotonic solution, hypotonic solution, and hypertonic solution. Isotonic solution is when the extracellular solute concentration is balanced with the concentration inside the cell. In the Isotonic solution, the water molecules still moves between the solutions, but the rates are the same from both directions, thus the water movement is balanced between the inside of the cell as well as the outside of the cell. A hypotonic solution is when the solute concentration outside the cell is lower than the concentration inside the cell. In hypotonic solutions, the water moves into the cell, down its concentration gradient (from higher to lower water concentrations). That can cause the cell to swell. Cells that do n't have a cell wall, such as animal cells, could burst in this solution. A hypertonic solution is when the solute concentration is higher (think of hyper - as high) than the concentration inside the cell. In hypertonic solution, the water will move out, causing the cell to shrink.

when did pubg come out on xbox one

PlayerUnknown 's Battlegrounds - Wikipedia PlayerUnknown 's Battlegrounds (PUBG) is a multiplayer online battle royale game developed and published by PUBG Corporation, a subsidiary of publisher Bluehole. The game is based on previous mods that were created by Brendan "PlayerUnknown '' Greene for other games using the film Battle Royale for inspiration, and expanded into a standalone game under Greene 's creative direction. In the game, up to one hundred players parachute onto an island and scavenge for weapons and equipment to kill others while avoiding getting killed themselves. The available safe area of the game 's map decreases in size over time, directing surviving players into tighter areas to force encounters. The last player or team standing wins the round. The game was released for Microsoft Windows via Steam 's early access beta program in March 2017, with a full release on December 20, 2017. That same month, the game was released by Microsoft Studios for the Xbox One via its Xbox Game Preview program. A few months later, it was localized and released by Tencent Games in China, while two mobile versions based on the game for Android and iOS were also released. By March 2018, the game sold over forty million copies across all platforms, with the Windows version having sold over thirty million and holding a peak concurrent player count of over three million on Steam, an all - time high on the platform, while the Xbox version sold over five million itself. Battlegrounds received several positive reviews from critics during both its early access period and on final release; reviewers found that while the game still was not fully finished and had some technical flaws, Battlegrounds presented new types of gameplay that could be easily approached by players of any skill level and was highly replayable. The game received several nominations for Game of the Year and other awards for 2017, and is considered by Greene to be the defining game of the battle royale genre. Several other video games, following in Battlegrounds 's success, added battle royale - style modes, while a number of clones, primarily out of China, also appeared. PUBG Corporation has run several small tournaments and introduced in - game tools to help with broadcasting the game to spectators, as they wish for it to become a popular eSport. Battlegrounds is a player versus player (PvP) action game in which up to one hundred players fight in a battle royale, a type of large - scale last man standing deathmatch where players fight to remain the last alive. Players can choose to enter the match solo, or with a small team of up to four people. In either case, the last person or team left alive wins the match. Each match starts with players parachuting from a plane onto a map area approximately 8 × 8 kilometres (5.0 × 5.0 mi) in size. The plane 's flight path across the map varies with each round, requiring players to quickly determine the best time to eject and parachute to the ground. Players start with no gear beyond customized clothing selections which do not affect gameplay. Once they land, players can search buildings and other sites to find weapons, vehicles, armor, clothing, and other equipment. These items are procedurally distributed throughout the map at the start of a match, with certain high - risk zones typically having better equipment. Killed players can be looted to acquire their gear as well. Players can opt to play either from the first - person or third - person perspective, each having their own advantages and disadvantages in combat and situational awareness; though server - specific settings can be used to force all players into one perspective to eliminate some advantages. Every few minutes, the playable area of the map begins to shrink down towards a random location, with any player caught outside the safe area taking damage incrementally, and eventually being eliminated if the safe zone is not entered in time; in game, the players see the boundary as a shimmering blue wall that contracts over time. This results in a more confined map, in turn increasing the chances of encounters. During the course of the match, random regions of the map are highlighted in red and bombed, posing a threat to players who remain in that area. In both cases, players are warned a few minutes before these events, giving them time to relocate to safety. At random, a plane will fly over various parts of the playable map and drop a loot package, containing items which are typically unobtainable during normal gameplay. These packages emit highly visible red smoke, drawing interested players near it and creating further confrontations. On average, a full round takes no more than 30 minutes. At the completion of each round, players gain in - game currency based on how long they survived, how many other players they had killed, and how much damage they dealt to other players. The currency is used to purchase crates which contain cosmetic items for character or weapon customization. A rotating Event mode was added to the game around March 2018. These events change up the normal game rules, such as establishing larger teams or squads, or altering the distribution of weapons and armor across the game map. Lead designer Brendan Greene, better known by his online handle PlayerUnknown, had previously created the ARMA 2 mod DayZ: Battle Royale, an offshoot of popular mod DayZ, and inspired by the 2000 Japanese film Battle Royale. At the time he created DayZ: Battle Royale, around 2013, Irish - born Greene had been living in Brazil for a few years as a photographer, graphic designer, and web designer, and played video games such as Delta Force: Black Hawk Down and America 's Army. The DayZ mod caught his interest, both as a realistic military simulation and its open - ended gameplay, and started playing around with a custom server, learning programming as he went along. Greene found most multiplayer first - person shooters too repetitive, considering maps small and easy to memorize. He wanted to create something with more random aspects so that players would not know what to expect, creating a high degree of replayability; this was done by creating vastly larger maps that could not be easily memorized, and using random item placement across it. Greene was also inspired by an online competition for DayZ called Survivor GameZ, which featured a number of Twitch.tv and YouTube streamers fighting until only a few were left; as he was not a streamer himself, Greene wanted to create a similar game mode that anyone could play. His initial efforts on this mod were more inspired by The Hunger Games novels, where players would try to vie for stockpiles of weapons at a central location, but moved away from this partially to give players a better chance at survival by spreading weapons around, and also to avoid copyright issues with the novels. In taking inspiration from the Battle Royale film, Greene had wanted to use safe square areas, but his inexperience in coding led him to use circular safe areas instead, which persisted to Battlegrounds. When DayZ became its own standalone title, interest in his ARMA 2 version of the Battle Royale mod trailed off, and Greene transitioned development of the mod to ARMA 3. Sony Online Entertainment (now the Daybreak Game Company) had become interested in Greene 's work, and brought him on as a consultant to develop on H1Z1, licensing the battle royale idea from him. In February 2016, Sony Online split H1Z1 into two separate games, the survival mode H1Z1: Just Survive, and the battle royale - like H1Z1: King of the Kill, around the same time that Greene 's consultation period was over. Separately, the Seoul - based studio Ginno Games, led by Chang - han Kim and who developed massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) for personal computers, was acquired and renamed Bluehole Ginno Games by Bluehole in January 2015, a major South Korean publisher of MMOs and mobile games. Kim recognized that producing a successful game in South Korea generally meant it would be published globally, and wanted to use his team to create a successful title for personal computers that followed the same model as other mobile games published by Bluehole. He had already been excited about making a type of battle royale game after he had played DayZ, in part that the format had not caught on in Korea. He also wanted to make this through an early access model and have a very limited development schedule to get the game out as quickly as possible, while treating the product as a "games as a service '' model to be able to support it for many years. In researching what had been done, he came across Greene 's mods and reached out to him. In July 2017, Bluehole partnered with social media platform Facebook to provide exclusive streaming content to Facebook 's gaming channels, as part of their pushing to provide more gaming content for its users. Around the same time that Greene left Sony Online, Kim contacted and offered him the opportunity to work on a new battle royale concept. Within a week, Greene flew out to Bluehole 's headquarters in Korea to discuss the options, and a few weeks later, became the creative director of Bluehole. He moved to South Korea to oversee development. According to Greene, this was the first time a Korean game studio had brought aboard a foreigner for a creative director role, and while a risk, he says that his relationship with Bluehole 's management is strong, allowing Greene 's team to work autonomously with minimal oversight. The game 's main theme was composed by Tom Salta, who was personally selected by Green as he and the team were looking for an "orchestral electronic hybrid theme '' that would give players a "huge build - up '', keeping them "resolutely determined '' until a match starts. Development began in early 2016 and was publicly announced that June, with plans to have the game ready within a year. Kim served as executive producer for the game. Bluehole started with a team of about 35 developers supporting Greene 's work, but had expanded to 70 by June 2017. Greene stated that many of these developers were voluntarily putting in longer work hours into the game due to their dedication to the project, and not by any mandate from himself or Bluehole 's management. In addition to Bluehole, Greene also credits Bohemia Interactive, the developers of ARMA and DayZ, for support with motion capture animations via their Prague studio. With the rapid growth of interest in the game, Bluehole spun out the entire development for Battlegrounds into Bluehole Ginno Games in September 2017, which was renamed PUBG Corporation with Kim as its chief executive officer. PUBG Corporation continued the development of the game and its marketing and growth, opening an office in the United States with plans for future ones in Europe and Japan. Battlegrounds represents the standalone version of what Greene believes is the "final version '' of the battle royale concept, incorporating the elements he had designed in previous iterations. Faster development was possible with the game engine Unreal Engine 4, compared with ARMA and H1Z1, which were built with proprietary game engines. Greene acknowledged that implementing the size of the maps in Battlegrounds has been one of the challenges with working with Unreal, which was not designed with such maps in mind. The game was designed as a mix between the realistic simulation of ARMA 3 and the arcade - like action focus and player accessibility of H1Z1. Based on Greene 's experience with the genre, an island with many terrain features was picked as the first map, known as "Erangel ''. The map design scope was to offer players many possible options for strategic and unique gameplay. Some buildings and structures were designed to depict the style of the brutalist architecture of the Soviet Union during the 1950s. The developer team playtested architecture features and random item placement systems, looking at both how close - quarters encounters went, and for open terrain areas. The goal was to optimize the right distribution and placement of weapons and gear across the map, to encourage players to make strategic decisions about how to proceed in the game without overly penalizing players who may not find weapons within the first few minutes of a round. During early access, additional maps were planned, such as one set on a fictional island in the Adriatic Sea that included snow - covered Yugoslavian territories. Greene stated that he thought the Erangel map felt disjointed despite meeting their goals for gameplay, and sought to create more unified ideas with future maps. The freefall from an airplane at the start of each match was a new feature for the genre, to encourage strategy between staying with the pack of players or seeking out one 's own route for a better chance at finding good loot. With the added parachute drop, Greene considered that Battlegrounds had three distinct subgames: the airdrop during which one must quickly figure out the best time to jump and where to land in relationship to the other players, the loot game of knowing where and how to gather the best possible equipment, and the combat game with other players. Players who win a match are greeted with the phrase "winner winner chicken dinner '', an idiom that Greene had used in his prior battle royale games and kept in Battlegrounds, which itself had origins as early as the Great Depression. Features that Greene anticipates adding include custom games and modding support. He considered modding support an essential part of the full release as, just as he had his start with mods, he wants to enable others to create variations on his game so that he can "find the next PlayerUnknown ''. Greene also wants to incorporate the game with streaming services like Twitch.tv that would enable replays or other features amenable to treating Battlegrounds as an eSport. Greene had anticipated that Battlegrounds would develop into an eSport, and this was an ultimate end goal for his development, but he wanted to let the nature of how it would play out as an eSport grow naturally with the player community. He also plans to introduce microtransactions to allow players to use real - world funds to purchase loot crates that provide randomly - selected cosmetic items, also known as "skins '', which they can trade with other players; while Greene recognizes the issue with skin gambling, he believes that Valve has put safeguards in place to support a "skin economy '' that will provide further revenue for them without concerns over gambling. However, by November 2017, grey market skin gambling sites began to appear, using Battlegrounds cosmetics as virtual currency. Following controversy over the use of loot boxes to offer "pay - to - win '' items in other games in November 2017, the PUBG Corporation affirmed that while they will continue to add new cosmetic items rewarded by in - game crate purchases, they "will never add anything that affects the gameplay ''. In May 2018, PUBG Corporation disabled the ability to trade skins on the Steam Marketplace as they found that players were still abusing the system by selling them for monetary value through unofficial third - party platforms. While in early access, Bluehole offered an early preview of the system by offering time - limited crates that could be purchased during the first Battlegrounds Invitations tournament during Gamescom in August 2017, with the sales from these contributing to the prize pool. Among loot from these crates are special outfits inspired by the Battle Royale movie. Greene anticipates adding a campaign mode with co-operative player support, though there would be "no serious lore '' crafted for the narrative, comparing this to similar modes in Watch Dogs. The game, while in early access, has already received alternate gameplay modes created by players, determined by unenforceable rules that players agree to abide by, that have been popular with streamers. This was aided by a quiet release of custom server support to a number of influential streamers which subsequently made it into public release. In one case, "Zombie Mode '', all but four players pretend to be zombies, who may sometimes distinguish themselves by removing all clothing and are limited only to collecting melee weapons and consumable items, and must rush to attack the other four players, who are able to collect all gear and attempt to outrun and defeat the zombies. Inspired by this mode, Greene announced plans to introduce an official zombie - based gameplay mode based on this into Battlegrounds. Whereas most of the rest of the team continued to develop the core gameplay and maps, Greene is taking on the zombie mode as a near solo project, only using the assistance of the lead animator to help with the zombie animations. Greene sees Battlegrounds as a platform, and would like to see more custom game types and mods developed by players for it. Greene identified that some mods that he also previously worked on from ARMA 3 may become part of the Battlegrounds platform. To prevent in - game cheating, the game uses the "BattlEye '' anti-cheating software, which was banning more than 6,000 players a day in October 2017 and over 2.5 million players in total by the beginning of 2018, with over a million in January alone. In December 2017, BattlEye indicated that 99 % of cheats were made in China. Bluehole used closed alpha and beta periods with about 80,000 players, including popular Twitch streamers, to gauge initial reaction to the gameplay and adjust balance prior to a wider release. Just prior to the early access phase on Steam, Bluehole opened a few servers and invited some of the top streamers of the battle royale genre to try it out as to start gaining interest. Early access launched on March 23, 2017 for the Windows version. This early access period was planned to last approximately six months, originally aiming for a September 2017 release. In July 2017, Greene announced that they would need to extend the early access period by a few months, continuing to release updates on a regular basis, with plans to still release by the end of 2017, as committing to this original period "could hinder us from delivering a fully featured game and / or lead to disappointment within the community if the launch deadline is not met ''. Initially, Bluehole had expected that they would just gain enough players through early access to smooth out the gameplay, and only when the game was completed, they would have started more marketing for the title. The sudden interest in the game from early access exceeded their expectations, and put emphasis on the stability of the game and its underlying networking alongside gameplay improvements. Through August 2017, these updates generally included a major weekly patch alongside major monthly updates that provided key performance improvements. However, from August onward Bluehole backed off the rate of such patches, as the high frequency has led to some quality control issues, and the developers rather make sure each patch content is well - vetted by the community before providing new updates; this did not change their plans for a 2017 release, where it fully released out of early access on December 20. In part of the game 's success in early access, Tencent Games, the largest publisher of video games in China, approached Bluehole that same month with an offer to publish Battlegrounds in China and purchase equity in the company. However, the China Audio - Video and Digital Publishing Association issued a statement in October 2017 that discouraged battle royale - style games, stating that they are too violent and deviate from Chinese values of socialism, deeming it harmful to young consumers. The following month however, PUBG had reached a formal agreement with the Chinese government to allow the release of the game in the country, with Tencent as the publishing partner. However, some changes were made to make sure it aligned with socialist values and traditional Chinese morals. In South Korea, the game is marketed and distributed by Kakao Games. Despite the lack of a Chinese publisher prior to the Tencent deal, players in China had found ways to acquire and play the game through Steam via proxies and other networking tricks. The large Chinese player base had led to some technical and community problems with the game. From a technical standpoint, while PUBG Corporation offers various servers in different geographic regions, they have not used region locking, thus allowing players from disparate regions playing in the same matches. The network latency has caused issued in - game that make some characters "rubber band '', appearing to be moving to one location before network synchronization that causes them to snap back to a different position. With the game out of early access, PUBG Corporation seeks to eliminate this effect to make this rubber banding less pronounced. To address the technical problems, PUBG Corporation plans to add maximum client ping limits for servers which can reduce the issues with latency problems and prevent some of the cheating that has occurred. This would not prevent cross-region matchmaking but may make it difficult for some players to play outside their region if they have a poor Internet infrastructure. Tencent has also helped by identifying and reporting around 30 software programs to Chinese police that can be used to cheat in Battlegrounds, leading to over a hundred arrests by the beginning of 2018. Separately, this technical issue, in addition to the larger number of Chinese players, has created complaints in the player community. Some Western players fear that many Chinese players are able to cheat in the game by exploiting some of the network latency issues, something that PUBG Corporation continued to address as the game shifted out of early access. However, a small number of players called for server segregation by region, and had used racial insults at Chinese players they encounter in game. Greene was disappointed with this "xenophobic attitude '', calling it "disgraceful '', and asked the player community to respect the Chinese players more as their numbers were a key part of the game 's success. Greene also identified that players can easily get around such region locks using virtual private networks, making this approach ineffective. Bluehole planned to port the game to consoles, which will be released sometime following the completion of the Windows release, with the company already having a team starting on the Xbox One port. Greene was part of Microsoft 's press conference during Electronic Entertainment Expo 2017 to announce that Battlegrounds would be coming to Xbox One as a timed console exclusive sometime by the end of 2017, using the Xbox Game Preview early access approach to test it. Initially, Greene said that Microsoft was not directly involved in the porting but only providing assistance to make sure the port is good, and that most of the porting responsibilities are being done by Anticto, a Spanish developer. However, at Gamescom that year, Bluehole affirmed that Microsoft Studios would be publishing the Xbox One version of the title, helping to make a planned 2017 release for this version. Greene said that Microsoft 's support has helped in several ways, not only for the Xbox One version but improving the performance and security of the Windows version. Further, by being part of the group of studios under the Microsoft banner, they have been able to talk and incorporate technology from other developers, such as improved water rendering techniques they obtained from Rare that they had developed for Sea of Thieves. Microsoft considered Battlegrounds to be an important project to demonstrate their company 's ability to be more than just a publisher, according to Microsoft 's Nico Bihary who lead the project. Bihary said they have given Battlegrounds a "white glove '' treatment, and for the Xbox One port have provided services from their advanced technology group and time and support from The Coalition, another of Microsoft Studios ' subsidiaries. Kim also stated that the team was interested in cross-platform play between the Windows and console versions, but did not anticipate this as a release feature, as they need to determine how to mitigate the advantage keyboard and mouse - using players would have over those using controllers. Titled "Game Preview Edition '', the early access version for the Xbox One was released on December 12, 2017 in both digital and physical formats. To promote it, Microsoft performed real - life supply crate drops in Australia in the week prior, with the crates containing Xbox hardware, Battlegrounds merchandise, and other goods, using passcodes published alongside the drop locations on social media. The Xbox version also includes Xbox - specific in - game cosmetic items, some which could be purchased directly rather than through in - game crates. Following the Chinese publication deal for the Windows version, Tencent Games and PUBG Corporation additionally announced that they were planning on releasing two mobile versions based on the game in the country. The first, PUBG: Exhilarating Battlefield, is an abridged version of the original game, and was developed by Tencent 's Lightspeed & Quantum Studio. The second, PUBG: Army Attack, includes more arcade - style elements, including action taking place on warships, and was developed by Tencent 's Timi Studio. Both versions are free - to - play, and were released for Android and iOS devices on February 9, 2018. The games had a combined total of 75 million pre-registrations, and ranked first and second on the Chinese iOS download charts at launch. Following a soft launch in Canada, an English version of Exhilarating Battlefield known as PUBG Mobile, was released worldwide on March 19, 2018. Kim also stated that a PlayStation 4 version is planned; Bluehole 's head of global business Woonghee Cho said that because of Microsoft 's assistance and suggestions for supporting Battlegrounds, the title would be a timed console exclusive for the Xbox One. Following news that Microsoft Studios was serving as a publisher for the Xbox One version as a "console launch exclusive '' in August 2017, reporters questioned Bluehole about their PlayStation 4 plans, but Bluehole did not confirm either way on current plans for this platform. In an interview shortly after Gamescom, Greene said that their deal with Microsoft did not exclude a PlayStation 4 port, but that their focus at the time was only on the Windows and Xbox One version, given the small size of their team. Bluehole later confirmed they were in discussions with Sony for the PlayStation 4 version. When asked about it in January 2018, Kim stated that the team released the game first on the Steam and Xbox Game Preview early access programs as they both easily allowed in - development games to be released and updated over time, which contrasted with Sony 's lack of their own early access program, as well as their strict quality control for even completed games. Kim further stated that if given the opportunity, he wants the game released on every possible platform. To celebrate the game surpassing two million copies sold, Bluehole announced a 2017 Charity Invitational event, inviting 128 players to compete over their official Twitch.tv channel to raise money for the Gamers Outreach Foundation, with Bluehole matching all donations up to US $ 100,000. The competition ran in early May 2017, and raised at least US $120,000 from viewers along with Bluehole 's US $100,000 match, and served as a prototype for future eSports events for the game. During the August 2017 Gamescom event, Bluehole and ESL organized the first Battlegrounds invitational tournament, with a $350,000 prize pool. Separate events were held for solo players, two - player teams, two - player teams fixed to first - person perspective, and four - player squads. Each event featured three matches, with the player or team scoring the highest across all three named winners. Greene said that while he had envisioned the battle royale format to be a spectator sport since his ARMA II mod, their approach to making Battlegrounds an eSport would be a matter of taking "baby steps ''. Greene said that they would not actively pursue eSports until after the game was fully released and that all major bugs were eliminated. The Gamescom 2017 event demonstrated the issues surrounding the logistics of running a large Battlegrounds tournament with a large number of players involved, and they had worked alongside ESL to explore how to do this effectively in the future. Further, Green stated there was also the need to establish a format for presenting a Battlegrounds match to make it interesting to spectators, which he thought would take some time to develop given the nature of the emergent gameplay, comparing it to established first - person shooters and multiplayer online battle arena eSport games. A 20 - team, 80 - player tournament produced by Intel took place in Oakland in November 2017, with a prize pool of US $ 200,000. The game received "generally favorable '' reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. During both its early access phase and after, Battlegrounds also surpassed numerous player - count records. Bluehole released statistics for the first four months of release that showed that over ten million rounds of Battlegrounds had been played, effectively equal to more than 25,000 man - years of time. Data by SteamSpy showed that Battlegrounds had surpassed long - standing popular titles in concurrent player count on Steam, such as Fallout 4 and Grand Theft Auto V, even surpassing Dota 2, the most played game on the platform, in August 2017. The following month, the game had its peak concurrent player count reach over 1.3 million, surpassing Dota 2 's all - time record of 1.29 set in March 2016. The game then reached a concurrent player count of two million in October 2017, and three million by the end of the year. The game has also been shown popular in South Korean PC bangs; analysis firm Gametrics reported that Battlegrounds had surpassed Overwatch and became the second-most played game in the country by August 2017, only behind League of Legends, it subsequently surpassed League of Legends by October 2017. Battlegrounds 's popularity from Chinese players led to large increases in users of Steam from that geographic region, and by November 2017, more than half of Steam users were fluent in Chinese due to the game 's availability through the platform. Several journalists commented on the game 's rapid growth towards a large player base for a game that was still in early access. Greene had confidence that the game could reach over a million players within a month, but some of his development team were only anticipating around 200,000 to 300,000 within the first year, and were surprised by its performance in its first month. Greene himself believed that the strong growth was buoyed by non-traditional promotional channels like Twitch streamers and other content creators, which they have since worked to introduce new gameplay elements ahead of public release. IGN 's Rad believed that the popularity of the game was due to its fast - paced nature compared to similar type games available at the time, such as H1Z1 and DayZ. She thought that the design balanced the solitary periods when the player is scavenging or sneaking around with those of being in combat with others, and the approach is readily accessible to new players with very little waiting time to get into a new match. Andy Moore for Glixel considered that Battlegrounds 's popularity comes from how the game encouraged players to engage due to the situation they are placed in rather than from the player 's own disposition, comparing it to the Stanford prison experiment, and thus able to capture the interest of players who may normally eschew these types of games. Rock Paper Shotgun 's Michael Johnson described Battlegrounds as "a tactical shooting sandbox, a story generator, and a horror game all in one '', providing some of the "highest highs '' in multiplayer gaming as reason for its popularity. Rob Zacny for Waypoint found that Battlegrounds offered the same type of entertainment experience for viewers that many other player - vs - player survival games have, but because of the lack of persistence, players were more likely to experiment with resources rather than hoard them, leading to humorous or unexpected situations that are often absent in survival games and making the title more enjoyable to watch and play, leading to its popularity. Jeff Grubb of Venture Beat considered Battlegrounds as a paradigm shift in the first - person shooter market similar to how Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare also changed the landscape of shooters when it was released in 2007, and believed it did this by being an anti-Call of Duty in terms of pacing and strategy. Battlegrounds is considered the defining game of the battle royale game genre due to its popularity, even though other games, including Greene 's previous mods, were already on the market. After its large early access sales numbers, other games followed with battle royale mechanics, with either existing games that added a battle royale mode or fully new games. Notably, Epic Games updated their in - development title Fortnite, a sandbox - based survival game that included the ability to construct fortifications to include a battle royale mode that including the fortification aspects. Epic later released this mode, Fortnite Battle Royale, as a standalone free - to - play game in September 2017. Shorty after its release, Bluehole expressed concerns about the game, acknowledging that while they can not claim ownership of the battle royale genre, they feared that since they had been working with Epic for technical support of the Unreal engine, that they may have had a heads - up on planned features they wanted to bring to Battlegrounds and could release it first. PUBG Corporation later filed a lawsuit against Epic Games Korea in January 2018, alleging that Fortnite Battle Royale was copyright infringing of Battlegrounds. Greene had expressed concern on the large number of games that have simply cloned the Battleground mechanics, particularly in China where clones of Battlegrounds are considered a new genre of "chicken - eating game '' (based on the "winner winner chicken dinner '' line to a match winner in Battlegrounds). Greene said "I want this genre of games to grow. For that to happen you need new and interesting spins on the game mode. If it 's just copycats down the line, then the genre does n't grow and people get bored. '' Greene claimed no ownership of the battle royale or last man standing genres, but believed that the clones were taking some specific mechanics he had developed in Battlegrounds and prior mods, such as the initial parachuting segment or the red - zone bombing runs, and would like to see legislation to give developers such as himself protection against these types of concepts as well as improve creativity as developers invent new approaches to mimic such innovations. Battlegrounds 's explosive growth and how it popularized the battle royale genre was considered to be one of the top stories in the video game industry during 2017. Prior to release of their mobile versions, PUBG Corporation initiated legal action in the Northern Distinct Court of California against Chinese game publisher NetEase in January 2018, claiming that their mobile games Rules of Survival and Knives Out infringe on Battlegrounds 's copyrights. PUBG 's lawsuit asserts that Rules of Survival is "a copyrightable audio - visual work, individually and / or in combination with other elements of Battlegrounds '', and identified several elements that appear similar in both games. While some of these elements are common features of a battle royale game, PUBG asserted that other elements reference specific facets of Battlegrounds, such as references to chicken for winning a game or using cookware as weapons or armor, makes Rules of Survival imply a connection to Battlegrounds. PUBG seeks both monetary damages and requiring NetEase from further distribution of the games. NetEase, in responding to PUBG 's request to Apple to remove the games, denied that their games violated Battlegrounds 's copyrights. Battlegrounds made US $11 million in the first three days of its Windows early access release. By the second week of April 2017, the game had sold over one million copies, with a peak player count of 89,000, SuperData Research estimated that the game 's April sales exceeded US $34 million, putting it as one of the top 10 highest grossing revenue games for the month and exceeding revenue from Overwatch and Counter-Strike: Global Offensive. By May 2017, the game had sold over two million copies, with total gross revenues estimated at US $60 million. Within three months of its early access release, it had surpassed over five million copies sold, and Bluehole announced it had exceeded US $100 million in sale revenue. Battlegrounds reached this four million mark faster than Minecraft, which took over a year to reach similar sales figures while it was in its paid - beta development period. By September 2017, Bluehole 's value, as tracked by a firm that tracks private Korean corporations, increased five-fold from June of that year to a value of US $4.6 billion, primarily due to Battlegrounds. By December 2017, PUBG Corporation reported that there were more than 30 million players worldwide between the Windows and Xbox versions. The research film SuperData estimated that Battlegrounds drew in more than US $712 million in revenue within 2017. By February 2018, the game had sold thirty million on Steam. The following month, Gabe Newell stated that the game was the third highest - grossing game of all time on Steam. Within three days of going live on the Xbox Live Preview Program in mid-December 2017, Microsoft announced that Battlegrounds had sold more than a million copies on the platform. Alongside this, Microsoft announced that Battlegrounds would be offered as a free add - on for those buying the Xbox One X console through the end of 2017. A month after release, the Xbox version had sold more than four million copies and was the fourth best - selling game in the United States, according to The NPD Group. By March 2018, the game had sold forty million copies across all platforms. While still in early access, Battlegrounds won the "Best Multiplayer Game '' and was also nominated for the categories "Game of the Year '' and "Best Ongoing Game '' at The Game Awards 2017. The game 's nomination for "Game of the Year '' created some debate, being the first early access title to be named for one of the top industry awards. Also, about a month before it was released, the game won "Best Multiplayer Game '' and "PC Game of the Year '' at the 35th Golden Joystick Awards, whereas its other nominations were for "Studio of the Year '' (PUBG Corporation) and "Ultimate Game of the Year ''. It also won the "Breakout Game of the Year '' award at PC Gamer 's end of the year awards, whereas its other nomination was for "Game of the Year ''. Polygon ranked the game second on their list of the 50 best games of 2017, while Entertainment Weekly ranked it seventh on their "Best Games of 2017 '' list. On the day it was released, the game won the award for "Best PC Game '', "Best Multiplayer '', and "Best Spectator Game '' at the IGN Best of 2017 Awards, whereas its other nominations were for "Game of the Year '' and "Best Shooter ''. It also won the award for "Best PC Game '' at Destructoid 's Game of the Year Awards 2017. The game also won Giant Bomb 's "Best Multiplayer '', "Best Surprise '', "Best Debut '', and "Game of the Year '' awards, and was classified as a runner - up for the "Best Moment or Sequence '' award for the "chicken - eating game ''. Eurogamer ranked PUBG fourth on their list of the "Top 50 Games of 2017 '', while GamesRadar+ ranked it 12th on their list of the 25 Best Games of 2017. Game Informer gave it the award each for "Best Competitive Multiplayer '' and "Best Shooter '' in their Best of 2017 Awards, and also for "Best Competitive Multiplayer '', "Best Multiplayer Map '' (Erangel), "Best Innovation '', and "Shooter of the Year '' in their 2017 Shooter of the Year Awards. In their Reader 's Choice Best of 2017 Awards, the game won the "Best Competitive Multiplayer '' award, and was runner - up in the "Best Microsoft Exclusive '' and "Best Shooter '' categories. The game was also nominated for the Big Apple Award for Best Game of the Year at the New York Game Awards 2018, and for "Best Design '', "Innovation Award '', and "Game of the Year '' at the Game Developers Choice Awards. In addition, it was nominated for "Game of the Year '' and "Outstanding Achievement in Game Design '', and won "Action Game of the Year '' and "Outstanding Achievement in Online Gameplay '' at the D.I.C.E. Awards; it was also nominated for "Game, eSports '' at the National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewers Awards, and won the awards for "Excellence in Multiplayer '', "Trending Game of the Year '', and "eSports Game of the Year '' at the SXSW Gaming Awards, whereas its other nominations were for "Most Promising New Intellectual Property '', "Excellence in Design '', and "Video Game of the Year ''; and it was nominated for "Evolving Game '', "Multiplayer '' and "Original Property '' at the 14th British Academy Games Awards.

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Bacillus anthracis - wikipedia Bacillus anthracis is the etiologic agent of anthrax -- a common disease of livestock and, occasionally, of humans -- and the only obligate pathogen within the genus Bacillus. B. anthracis is a Gram - positive, endospore - forming, rod - shaped bacterium, with a width of 1.0 -- 1.2 μm and a length of 3 -- 5 μm. It can be grown in an ordinary nutrient medium under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. It is one of few bacteria known to synthesize a protein capsule (poly - D - gamma - glutamic acid). Like Bordetella pertussis, it forms a calmodulin - dependent adenylate cyclase exotoxin known as Anthrax edema factor, along with anthrax lethal factor. It bears close genotypical and phenotypical resemblance to Bacillus cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis. All three species share cellular dimensions and morphology. All form oval spores located centrally in an unswollen sporangium. B. anthracis endospores, in particular, are highly resilient, surviving extremes of temperature, low - nutrient environments, and harsh chemical treatment over decades or centuries. The endospore is a dehydrated cell with thick walls and additional layers that form inside the cell membrane. It can remain inactive for many years, but if it comes into a favorable environment, it begins to grow again. It initially develops inside the rod - shaped form. Features such as the location within the rod, the size and shape of the endospore, and whether or not it causes the wall of the rod to bulge out are characteristic of particular species of Bacillus. Depending upon the species, the endospores are round, oval, or occasionally cylindrical. They are highly refractile and contain dipicolinic acid. Electron micrograph sections show they have a thin outer endospore coat, a thick spore cortex, and an inner spore membrane surrounding the endospore contents. The endospores resist heat, drying, and many disinfectants (including 95 % ethanol). Because of these attributes, B. anthracis endospores are extraordinarily well - suited to use (in powdered and aerosol form) as biological weapons. Such weaponization has been accomplished in the past by at least five state bioweapons programs -- those of the United Kingdom, Japan, the United States, Russia, and Iraq -- and has been attempted by several others. French physician Casimir Davaine (1812 - 1882) demonstrated the symptoms of anthrax were invariably accompanied by the microbe B. anthracis. German physician Aloys Pollender (1799 -- 1879) is credited for discovery. B. anthracis was the first bacterium conclusively demonstrated to cause disease, by Robert Koch in 1876. The species name anthracis is from the Greek anthrax (ἄνθραξ), meaning "coal '' and referring to the most common form of the disease, cutaneous anthrax, in which large, black skin lesions are formed. Throughout the 19th century, Anthrax was an infection that involved several very important medical developments. The first vaccine containing live organisms was Louis Pasteur 's veterinary anthrax vaccine. B. anthracis has a single chromosome which is a circular, 5,227,293 - bp DNA molecule. It also has two circular, extrachromosomal, double - stranded DNA plasmids, pXO1 and pXO2. Both the pXO1 and pXO2 plasmids are required for full virulence and represent two distinct plasmid families. The pXO1 plasmid (182 kb) contains the genes that encode for the anthrax toxin components: pag (protective antigen, PA), lef (lethal factor, LF), and cya (edema factor, EF). These factors are contained within a 44.8 - kb pathogenicity island (PAI). The lethal toxin is a combination of PA with LF and the edema toxin is a combination of PA with EF. The PAI also contains genes which encode a transcriptional activator AtxA and the repressor PagR, both of which regulate the expression of the anthrax toxin genes. pXO2 encodes a five - gene operon (capBCADE) which synthesizes a poly - γ - D - glutamic acid (polyglutamate) capsule. This capsule allows B. anthracis to evade the host immune system by protecting itself from phagocytosis. Expression of the capsule operon is activated by the transcriptional regulators AcpA and AcpB, located in the pXO2 pathogenicity island (35 kb). Interestingly, AcpA and AcpB expression are under the control of AtxA from pXO1. The 89 known strains of B. anthracis include: Whole genome sequencing has made reconstruction of the B. anthracis phylogeny extremely accurate. A contributing factor to the reconstruction is B. anthracis being monomorphic, meaning it has low genetic diversity, including the absence of any measurable lateral DNA transfer since its derivation as a species. The lack of diversity is due to a short evolutionary history that has precluded mutational saturation in single nucleotide polymorphisms. A short evolutionary time does not necessarily mean a short chronological time. When DNA is replicated, mistakes occur which become genetic mutations. The buildup of these mutations over time leads to the evolution of a species. During the B. anthracis lifecycle, it spends a significant amount of time in the soil spore reservoir stage, in which DNA replication does not occur. These prolonged periods of dormancy have greatly reduced the evolutionary rate of the organism. B. anthracis belongs to the B. cereus group consisting of the strains: B. cereus, B. anthracis, B. thuringiensis, B. weihenstephanensis, B. mycoides, and B. pseudomycoides. The first three strains are pathogenic or opportunistic to insects or mammals, while the last three are not considered pathogenic. The strains of this group are genetically and phenotypically heterogeneous overall, but some of the strains are more closely related and phylogenetically intermixed at the chromosome level. The B. cereus group generally exhibits complex genomes and most carry varying numbers of plasmids. B. cereus is a soil - dwelling bacterium which can colonize the gut of invertebrates as a symbiont and is a frequent cause of food poisoning It produces an emetic toxin, enterotoxins, and other virulence factors. The enterotoxins and virulence factors are encoded on the chromosome, while the emetic toxin is encoded on a 270 - kb plasmid, pCER270. B. thuringiensis is an insect pathogen and is characterized by production of parasporal crystals of insecticidal toxins Cry and Cyt. The genes encoding these proteins are commonly located on plasmids which can be lost from the organism, making it indistinguishable from B. cereus. PlcR is a global transcriptional regulator which controls most of the secreted virulence factors in B. cereus and B. thuringiensis. It is chromosomally encoded and is ubiquitous throughout the cell. In B. anthracis, however, the plcR gene contains a single base change at position 640, a nonsense mutation, which creates a dysfunctional protein. While 1 % of the B. cereus group carries an inactivated plcR gene, none of them carries the specific mutation found only in B. anthracis. The plcR gene is part of a two - gene operon with papR. The papR gene encodes a small protein which is secreted from the cell and the reimported as a processed heptapeptide forming a quorum - sensing system. The lack of PlcR in B. anthracis is a principle characteristic differentiating it from other members of the B. cereus group. While B. cereus and B. thuringiensis depend on the plcR gene for expression of their virulence factors, B. anthracis relies on the pXO1 and pXO2 plasmids for its virulence. B. anthracis possesses an antiphagocytic capsule essential for full virulence. The organism also produces three plasmid - coded exotoxins: edema factor, a calmodulin - dependent adenylate cyclase, causes elevation of intracellular cAMP, and is responsible for the severe edema usually seen in B. anthracis infections; lethal toxin is responsible for tissue necrosis; protective antigen (so named because of its use in producing protective anthrax vaccines) mediates cell entry of edema factor and lethal toxin. The symptoms in anthrax depend on the type of infection and can take anywhere from 1 day to more than 2 months to appear. All types of anthrax have the potential, if untreated, to spread throughout the body and cause severe illness and even death. Four forms of human anthrax disease are recognized based on their portal of entry. A number of anthrax vaccines have been developed for preventive use in livestock and humans. Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed (AVA) may protect against cutaneous and inhalation anthrax. However, this vaccine is only used for at - risk adults before exposure to anthrax and has not been approved for use after exposure. Infections with B. anthracis can be treated with β - lactam antibiotics such as penicillin, and others which are active against Gram - positive bacteria. Penicillin - resistant B. anthracis can be treated with fluoroquinolones such as ciprofloxacin or tetracycline antibiotics such as doxycycline. Components of tea, such as polyphenols, have the ability to inhibit the activity both of B. anthracis and its toxin considerably; spores, however, are not affected. The addition of milk to the tea completely inhibits its antibacterial activity against anthrax. Activity against the B. athracis in the laboratory does not prove that drinking tea affects the course of an infection, since it is unknown how these polyphenols are absorbed and distributed within the body. Advances in genotyping methods have led to improved genetic analysis for variation and relatedness. These methods include multiple - locus variable - number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) and typing systems using canonical single - nucleotide polymorphisms. The Ames ancestor chromosome was sequenced in 2003 and contributes to the identification of genes involved in the virulence of B. anthracis. Recently, B. anthracis isolate H9401 was isolated from a Korean patient suffering from gastrointestinal anthrax. The goal of the Republic of Korea is to use this strain as a challenge strain to develop a recombinant vaccine against anthrax. The H9401 strain isolated in the Republic of Korea was sequenced using 454 GS - FLX technology and analyzed using several bioinformatics tools to align, annotate, and compare H9401 to other B. anthracis strains. The sequencing coverage level suggests a molecular ratio of pXO1: pXO2: chromosome as 3: 2: 1 which is identical to the Ames Florida and Ames Ancestor strains. H9401 has 99.679 % sequence homology with Ames Ancestor with an amino acid sequence homology of 99.870 %. H9401 has a circular chromosome (5,218,947 bp with 5,480 predicted ORFs), the pXO1 plasmid (181,700 bp with 202 predicted ORFs), and the pXO2 plasmid (94,824 bp with 110 predicted ORFs). As compared to the Ames Ancestor chromosome above, the H9401 chromosome is about 8.5 kb smaller. Due to the high pathogenecity and sequence similarity to the Ames Ancestor, H9401 will be used as a reference for testing the efficacy of candidate anthrax vaccines by the Republic of Korea. Since the genome of B. anthracis was sequenced, alternative ways to battle this disease are being endeavored. Bacteria have developed several strategies to evade recognition by the immune system. The predominant mechanism for avoiding detection, employed by all bacteria is molecular camouflage. Slight modifications in the outer layer that render the bacteria practically invisible to lysozymes. Three of these modifications have been identified and characterized. These include 1) N - glycosylation of N - acetyl - muramic acid, 2) O - acetylation of N - acetylmuramic acid and 3) N - deacetylation of N - acetyl - glucosamine. Research during the last few years has focused on inhibiting such modifications. As a result the enzymatic mechanism of polysacharide de-acetylases is being investigated, that catalyze the removal of an acetyl group from N - acetyl - glucosamine and N - acetyl - muramic acid, components of the peptidoglycan layer. As with most other pathogenic bacteria, B. anthracis must acquire iron to grow and proliferate in its host environment. The most readily available iron sources for pathogenic bacteria are the heme groups used by the host in the transport of oxygen. To scavenge heme from host hemoglobin and myoglobin, B. anthracis uses two secretory siderophore proteins, IsdX1 and IsdX2. These proteins can separate heme from hemoglobin, allowing surface proteins of B. anthracis to transport it into the cell. The presence of B. anthracis can be determined through samples taken on non-porous surfaces. How to sample with cellulose sponge on non-porous surfaces How to sample with macrofoam swab on non-porous surfaces

what are the names of winnie the poohs friends

List of Winnie - the - Pooh characters - wikipedia This is a list of characters appearing in the Winnie - the - Pooh books and the Disney adaptations of the series. Winnie - the - Pooh, or Pooh for short, is an anthropomorphic, soft - voiced, cuddly, loveable and quiet toy bear and the main protagonist. Despite being naïve and slow - witted, he is a friendly, thoughtful and sometimes insightful character who is always willing to help his friends and try his best. A prime motivation is his love for honey, which quite often leads to trouble. In the books, Pooh is a talented poet, and the stories are frequently punctuated by his poems and "hums. '' He is humble about his slow - wittedness, but comfortable with his creative gifts. In the Disney adaptations, Pooh has a soft voice, wears a red shirt and his catchphrases are "Oh, Bother! '' and "Think, think, think ''. He has been voiced by Sterling Holloway (1966 -- 1977), Hal Smith (1981 -- 1986), and by Jim Cummings (1988 -- present). Cummings reprised his role for the Christopher Robin film. The sole human character in the story books, he has a "cheerful '' and compassionate personality and is someone whom Pooh and the others look up to. Despite being a child, he is much wiser and more mature than many of the other characters. Pooh considers both Christopher Robin and Piglet to be his best friends. Christopher Robin matures considerably over the course of the books. Several chapters in The House at Pooh Corner are concerned with Christopher Robin beginning to go to school and his increasing book - learning. In the final chapter, Christopher Robin leaves his stuffed animals behind and asks Pooh to understand and to always remember him. In the Disney adaptations, he is 10 years old and only goes to day school. As in the books, he is best friends with both Piglet and Pooh, and he and Pooh always do nothing together. He has a best friend, Darby, a six year old girl who hosts My Friends Tigger & Pooh, but she only appeared on the show twice. Christopher Robin is voiced by Bruce Reitherman (1966), Timothy Turner (1974), Jon Walmsley (1968), Kim Christianson (1983), Tim Hoskins (1988 -- 1991), Edan Gross (1991), Brady Bluhm (1997 -- 1999), Tom Attenborough (2000), Tom Wheatley (2003), William Green (2002), Paul Tiesler (2001 -- 2003), Struan Erlenborn (2007 -- 2010), Jack Boulter (2011), and Oliver Bell (2017). Christopher Robin starred in his own film, portrayed by Ewan McGregor as an adult and Orton O'Brien a child (2018). Pooh 's best friend besides Christopher Robin. In the books he is a timorous small animal, who often takes his lead from Pooh unless overcome by fear. But increasingly through the stories he shows himself to be very brave when faced with a crisis and given sufficient encouragement (usually by Pooh). He is fond of "haycorns ''. In the Disney series he is kind, gentle and ordinarily quite shy, but with Pooh by his side, he often overcomes his fears. His catchphrase is "Oh, D-D - Dear! ''. Piglet lives in a beech tree that he likes to keep neat and tidy, and can sing very well. He has been voiced by Robie Lester (1967 - 1968), John Fiedler (1968 -- 2005), Phil Baron (1983 -- 1986), Travis Oates (2005 -- present), and in the Christopher Robin film, he was voiced by Nick Mohammed. Pooh 's ever - glum, sarcastic and pessimistic donkey friend who has trouble keeping his tail attached to his bottom, since the nail keeps falling out. Eeyore has a house made of sticks, which falls apart (many times in the Disney films as a running gag) and has to be rebuilt. In the Disney cartoons, Eeyore is slow - talking and more cautious than some of the other animals, and is often reluctant to go along with their actions, but usually does not bother trying to oppose anyone because he believes it to be futile to try. His catchphrase is "Thanks for noticing '' as indicated to himself. He has been voiced by Ralph Wright (1966 -- 1983), Thurl Ravenscroft (1967 - 1968), Ron Feinberg (1981), Ron Gans (1983 -- 1986), Peter Cullen (1988 -- 2010, 2017 -- present), Bud Luckey (2011 -- 2014), and in the Christopher Robin film, he was voiced by Brad Garrett. Kanga is a female kangaroo and the doting mother of Roo. The two live in a house near the Sandy Pit in the northwestern part of the forest. Kanga is the only female character to appear in the books. She was based on a stuffed toy that belonged to Christopher Robin Milne. When Kanga and Roo first come to the forest in chapter seven of Winnie - the - Pooh, everyone thinks Kanga is a fierce animal, but discover this to be untrue and become friends with her. In the books, when Tigger comes to the forest, she welcomes him into her home, attempts to find him food he likes and allows him to live with her and Roo. After this, Kanga treats him much the way she does her own son. Kanga is kind - hearted, calm, patient and docile. She likes to keep things clean and organized, and offers motherly advice and food to anyone who asks her. She is protective over Roo, almost obsessively, and treats him with kind words and gentle discipline. She also has a sense of humor, as revealed in chapter seven of Winnie - the - Pooh when Rabbit connives to kidnap Roo, leaving Piglet in his place; Kanga pretends not to notice that Piglet is not Roo and proceeds to give him Roo 's usual bath, much to Piglet 's dismay. In the Disney adaptations, Kanga 's personality is unchanged (though she is a little more sensible and does give Roo some level of independence), but she plays a slightly lesser role and does not appear as often as Roo does. Additionally, Tigger lives in his own house instead of with Kanga (although he is seen frequently visiting her house). Kanga also has a love for carrots. She has been voiced by Barbara Luddy (1966 -- 1977), Julie McWhirter (1983), Patricia Parris (1988 -- 1991), Tress MacNeille (1994 -- 1999), Kath Soucie (2000 -- 2010), Kristen Anderson - Lopez (2011 -- present), and in the film Christopher Robin (2018), she was voiced by Sophie Okonedo. Kanga 's cheerful, playful and energetic joey, who is her son and moved to the Hundred Acre Wood with her. His best friend is a young Heffalump named Lumpy who love to play with him. Roo is the youngest of the main characters. Voiced in the Disney films by Clint Howard (1966 -- 1977), Robie Lester (1967 -- 1968), Dori Whitaker (1974), Dick Billingsley (1983), Kim Christianson (1983 -- 1986), Nicholas Melody (1988 -- 1990), Nikita Hopkins (1994 -- 2005), Jimmy Bennett (2004 -- 2005), Max Burkholder (2007 -- 2010), Wyatt Hall (2011), and Sara Sheen (2018). Rabbit is one of the characters not based on a toy once owned by Christopher Robin Milne. He was said to be based on a real rabbit where they lived. He is friendly, yet capable of being impatient and irritable. He fancies himself the smartest animal in the Hundred Acre Wood, since he is not scatterbrained like Owl. He insists on doing things his way and is obsessed with rules, planning and order. He often bosses others around, but deep down, he cares a lot about his friends. In the Walt Disney films, he takes pride in his garden and dislikes it when the other characters disrupt it. Disney 's Rabbit likes gardening, cleaning, and magic tricks. Voiced in the Disney films by Junius Matthews (1966 -- 1977), Dallas McKennon (1967 -- 1968), Ray Erlenborn (1983), Will Ryan (1983 -- 1986), Ken Sansom (1988 -- 2010), Tom Kenny (2011 -- present), and in the Christopher Robin film, he was voiced by Peter Capaldi. Pooh 's exuberant, happy, less - than - responsible and sometimes trouble - making tiger friend. He bounces around, especially bouncing on others. He is full of energy, outgoing, and likes to have fun and is so overconfident that he thinks that any task is "what tiggers do best ''. He becomes Roo 's best friend and later Pooh 's when Roo and Lumpy become best friends. In the Disney films Tigger commonly mispronounces words, like ' ridickerus ' (ridiculous) or ' vill - i - an ' (villain) and often causes chaos rather than good. However, Tigger is also shown to be tough, fearless, optimistic and resourceful; he is shown to be protective of Roo when Kanga 's not around, as seen in "Too Smart For Strangers ''. His main catchphrase is "Hoo Hoo Hoo Hoo! '' when he is happy. He has been voiced by Sam Edwards (1967 -- 1968), Paul Winchell (1968 -- 1999), Will Ryan (1983 -- 1986), and Jim Cummings (1989 -- present). Cummings reprised his role for the Christopher Robin film. He often uses nicknames for the other characters, calling Pooh "Pooh Boy '', "Fluff Boy '' and "Buddy Bear '', Rabbit "Ol ' Long Ears '', "Fluffface '' and "Bunny Boy '', and Eeyore "Donkey Boy '' (with Tigger pronouncing it as ' dunkey '). In The Tigger Movie and The Book of Pooh, Tigger also sometimes calls Owl "Beak Lips ''. Owl is the stuffy and talkative eldest main character who presents himself as a mentor and teacher to the others. He was not based on a stuffed toy, so in the illustrations he looks more like a live animal. Owl and most of his friends believe that he is the most intelligent animal in the wood, but he is really quite scatterbrained. He often rambles on into long - winded speeches and uses words that his friends do not understand. Though Owl likes to present himself as very knowledgeable, like most of the other characters he does not spell very well; he even spells his own name "Wol ''. When Pooh comes to him for help in writing a birthday greeting for Eeyore, Owl tells Pooh that he is writing, "A very happy birthday with love from Pooh, '' but in fact writes "HIPY PAPY BTHUTHDTH THUTHDA BTHUTHDY. '' Pooh, who can not read or write himself, goes on his way happy with Owl 's work and grateful for his help. When Rabbit (who is quite literate) comes to Owl to discuss a notice that Christopher Robin has left, Owl can not read the notice. But rather than admit this, Owl anxiously bluffs his way through the conversation until he finally tricks Rabbit into reading the notice out loud, at which point Owl resumes his wise demeanor as if he had known all along what it said. In the books, Owl has a superior but kindly manner towards the others. He can be cross and easily annoyed, especially when his friends ignore or interrupt his long - winded speeches. He sometimes wears reading glasses and he uses his talons for hands, not his wings like in the Disney version. He lives in a tree known as The Chestnuts, described as an "old world residence of great charm ''. That house is blown down by a storm in the eighth chapter of The House at Pooh Corner. Eeyore eventually discovers what he believes is the perfect new house for Owl, apparently without noticing that it is actually Piglet 's house. Nonetheless, Piglet offers the house to Owl. Owl calls his new home "The Wolery ''. In the Disney adaptations, Owl is much more jovial and friendly. He speaks with a strong Southern English accent. He enjoys telling stories about his relatives, including his cousin, Dexter, whenever something reminds him of one, but many of his stories are pointless or absurd. His house blows down and he moves into Piglet 's house in Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day, but these events are disregarded from Winnie the Pooh and a Day for Eeyore onward. In Welcome to Pooh Corner, Owl always wears glasses and loves to cook. He does not appear in My Friends Tigger and Pooh. He has been voiced by Sam Edwards (1967 -- 1968), Hal Smith (1966 -- 1991), Andre Stojka (1997 -- 2007), Craig Ferguson (2011 -- present), and in the Christopher Robin film, he was voiced by Toby Jones. A swarm of honeybees makes their debut in the very first chapter. They live in the hive where Pooh tries to get his honey. They frequently appear in virtually every version of the Disney adaptations. There appear to be several different beehives in the Hundred Acre Wood. Whenever Pooh and his friends encounter the bees, trouble usually occurs with the bees going after them. Many small mammals and insects in the books are collectively known as Rabbit 's Friends and Relations. They do not generally do much or have much character development, and only a few of them are named. Heffalumps are elephant - like monsters first mentioned in the fifth chapter of the first book and in the third chapter of the second. In the books, Piglet twice has a run - in with a Heffalump that is only a figment of his imagination. The Disney version establishes them as real creatures. Like Pooh imagined in the books, Heffalumps are fond of honey and like to take it for themselves. There have been several real Heffalump characters in the Disney version. Some Heffalumps are villainous creatures and some are genuinely good. Lumpy the heffalump is Roo 's good friend, appearing in Pooh 's Heffalump Movie and My Friends Tigger and Pooh. A Woozle is a weasel - like monster imagined by the characters in the third and ninth chapters of Winnie - the - Pooh. No Woozles actually appear in A.A. Milne 's original stories, but the book depicts them as living in cold, snowy places. They are first mentioned when Pooh and Piglet attempt to capture one, which they assume made the tracks in the snow going around a larch spinney. The more they follow them, the more sets of tracks they find, but Christopher Robin shows them that the tracks around the spinney are their own. Woozles appear in the song "Heffalumps and Woozles '' in Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day, which establishes their fondness for stealing honey and their association with Heffalumps. In The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh, Woozles are real creatures. A Woozle named Stan and his sidekick Heff the Heffalump are recurring villains. They once recruited a giant Woozle named Wooster (also voiced by Jim Cummings) who turned against them when Pooh and his friends taught him the value of friendship. Woozles do not appear in the Disney adaptations nearly as often as Heffalumps do and, unlike Heffalumps, always attempt to act as villains, with Wooster being the only one to change his mind on this. Jagulars are imagined jaguar - like fierce creatures that are only mentioned in the fourth chapter of The House at Pooh Corner, in which Pooh and Piglet mistake Tigger for one. According to Pooh, they always yell "Help '' (or "Halloo '' in Winnie the Pooh and Tigger Too!), hang in trees, and drop on you when you look up. Jagulars have yet to actually appear in any Disney adaptations. Their most prominent role to date is in The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh where they are mentioned more often and are the main antagonists in a couple of episodes. The Backson is a creature imagined by the characters after misunderstanding Christopher Robin 's note, which meant he would be "back soon '' from school. He is mentioned but not seen in The House at Pooh Corner as "the Spotted or Herbaceous Backson '' He is the main antagonist in Winnie the Pooh where the animals think he has captured Christopher Robin. Owl describes him as a large, ugly, mean and scary purple and blue creature who ruins or destroys many everyday items, such as books, socks and crayons. Pooh and his friends build a trap to try to capture him (a pit with a trail of books, socks, dishes, toys and other items leading to it), but Christopher Robin reveals that he was never captured, just away at school. At the end of the film, the Backson turns out to be real, but he is a kind and helpful creature who wants to return people 's things to them. However, the trap does capture him, as he picks up all the items and then falls into the pit. The Backson is voiced by Huell Howser. Evil living trees that tend to frighten those who encounter them. They first appeared in Boo to You Too! Winnie the Pooh where Piglet encounters two of them while fleeing in the woods. They make most of their appearances in video games. Owl 's uncle whose portrait hangs on Owl 's wall. He is mentioned in the eighth chapter of The House at Pooh Corner, but never actually appears. His portrait appears in Winnie the Pooh and a Day for Eeyore when Owl says Uncle Robert celebrated his 103rd birthday, despite claiming to be 97. Return to the Hundred Acre Wood reveals that Uncle Robert is dead, but Owl keeps his ashes in a vase and attempts to write his biography. Lottie is an otter and the only new major character in Return to the Hundred Acre Wood. Lottie is a "feisty '' character who is also good at cricket and insists on proper etiquette. She wears a pearl necklace and can play the mouth organ, but is a little snide and snobby in her remarks. She makes her home in a wooden trunk filled with water that she calls Fortitude Hall. According to Benedictus, "Lottie the Otter truly embodies Winnie - the - Pooh 's values of friendship and adventure seen throughout Milne 's work, thus making the perfect companion for everyone 's favourite bear. '' Grandad Buck is Rabbit 's grandfather. He wears glasses and is described as "Very Ancient and the Head of the Rabbit Family ''. He does not entirely approve of Rabbit, but gives him advice anyway. He knew Owl 's late Uncle Robert, who sent him letters. A Thesaurus is what Piglet imagines to be a large reptilian creature in a similar way to how the characters imagined Heffalumps and other creatures in the original books. Even after Piglet learns what the word "thesaurus '' means, he still imagines it to be an animal. The storyteller who speaks off - screen. Sometimes the characters, who are aware that they are in a book, speak with him while facing him. They sometimes affectionately call him "Mr. Narrator ''. He sometimes uses his position to help the characters, since he can manipulate the book and pages. Some stories, such as Pooh 's Grand Adventure: The Search for Christopher Robin have a narrator, but omit the "book '' feature, so the characters are unaware of him. Welcome to Pooh Corner is the only time when viewers actually see his face. He does not appear at all in The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh, Piglet 's Big Movie and Pooh 's Heffalump Movie (in Pooh 's Heffalump Movie, Pooh is the narrator). He is the only Disney - only character who returns for Winnie the Pooh. Typically, he speaks with a Southern English Accent. Voiced by Sebastian Cabot, Laurie Main, David Warner, John Hurt, David Ogden Stiers, Michael York and most recently John Cleese Gopher is a fictional gray anthropomorphic bucktoothed gopher with a habit of whistling out his sibilant consonants. He is based on the beaver in Lady and the Tramp. He often accidentally falls into one of the many holes he makes in the forest ground by forgetting to watch where he is going. Gopher first appears in Winnie the Pooh and the Honey Tree and regularly breaks the fourth wall by pointing out that he is "not in the book '', although this simply means that he is ' not in the Phone Book ', and the purpose of his statement being to get better business. Originally, he was intended to replace Piglet, but he later became his own character. He also appears in Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day with a smaller role, warning Pooh about the "Windsday ''. Gopher is a much more prominent character in The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh. The series depicts him as a hard worker who takes pride in building tunnels and doing other work, and enjoys blowing things up with dynamite. Gopher and Rabbit often disagree with and complain at each other. In the episode "Lights Out '', he is afraid of the dark (mostly instigated by Tigger 's claims of dangerous creatures living within his dark tunnels). His grandfather also appears. Gopher 's most recent appearances were in A Winnie the Pooh Thanksgiving, Winnie the Pooh: A Valentine for You and Boo to You Too! Winnie the Pooh. The latter was included as part of Pooh 's Heffalump Halloween Movie. Gopher was notably absent from the 2011 film. Voiced by Howard Morris (1966 -- 1977), Dallas McKennon (1967 - 1968) and most recently Michael Gough (1988 -- 2002) Kessie is a blue bird with a white belly. She debuted in The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh episode "Find Her, Keep Her ''. Kessie is cheerful, brave and eager to prove herself. As a baby, Rabbit saved her from a snowstorm and she came to live with him and nicknamed him "Rabbie ''. Rabbit was very protective of her and initially did not want her to fly. After she finally learned to fly, she migrated south for the winter, despite a reluctant Rabbit, but returned in "A Bird in the Hand '', where she is now older. In later appearances, she has reverted to being a young bird. After appearing in Seasons of Giving, Kessie was relaunched as a main character in The Book of Pooh, her first regular role, though after the series, Kessie is never seen or mentioned again. Voiced by Laura Mooney, Stephanie D'Abruzzo and Amanda Maddock. Heffridge Trumpler Brompet "Lumpy '' Heffalump, IV is a young lavender Heffalump with a tuft of purple hair on his head, a furry bobble - tail and a British accent and is Roo 's closest best friend. He lives in a part of the forest called Heffalump Hollow with his mother. He has a stuffed alligator named Alvin and enjoys a snack called rumpledoodles. Lumpy debuts in Pooh 's Heffalump Movie. The characters were initially afraid of Heffalumps and set out to capture one. Likewise, Lumpy 's mother told him not to leave Heffalump Hollow because of scary creatures outside of it. After Roo "captured '' Lumpy, they became best friends and no one was afraid of each other anymore. Lumpy also features in Pooh 's Heffalump Halloween Movie and My Friends Tigger & Pooh. Voiced by Kyle Stanger. Darby is a 6 - year - old feisty, imaginative and tomboyish red - headed girl who is the hostess of My Friends Tigger & Pooh and is believed to be Christopher Robin 's younger best friend and sister. She is the leader of the problem - solving Super Sleuths along with Tigger, Pooh and her pet puppy Buster. They are the only four characters to appear in every episode. Darby is brave, inquisitive, clever and imaginative. Her catchphrases are "Time to slap my cap '' and "Good sleuthin ', everyone! '' For the most part, she replaced Christopher Robin, who was away at college and rarely appears in the My Friends Tigger and Pooh, but the episode "Christopher Froggin '' reveals that she is Christopher Robin 's young best friend. Christopher Robin only appeared in two episodes. After the cancellation of the series, she and other new characters from the series ceased appearing, until returning in 2016 when the series returned on Disney Junior for Pooh 's 90th anniversary. Voiced by Chloë Grace Moretz. Buster is Darby 's beloved and curious pet puppy and sidekick in My Friends Tigger & Pooh. He is white and wears a red collar with a gold tag. He appears in every episode and is a member of the Super Sleuths. Though he often seems to be only tagging along with the group, he is often a valuable asset in their work. Buster likes to yap loudly when he is excited or on the scent of something. Voiced by Dee Bradley Baker A Dragon - like monster that appeared in the episode "Pooh Oughta Be in Pictures '', it was based on Godzilla. A swarm of green insects who invade Rabbit 's garden in several episodes of The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh and try to eat his vegetables. They resemble caterpillars, but are much shorter and have only six limbs. The leader wears an old - fashioned bicorne and acts like an army general. They are the main antagonists in Winnie the Pooh and Christmas Too. Appearing only in The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh and in The Book of Pooh: Stories from the Heart, Christopher Robin 's mother 's face is never shown. She is normally seen from behind, and when we see the front of her, she is usually seen from the chest down. She enforces the rules on her son, but is usually calm and patient with him and loves him very much. His father is never seen or mentioned. Just like her son, she has light brown hair. Voiced by Patricia Parris and most recently Vicki Kenderes - Eibner. A flock of crows appears in several episodes of The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh trying to steal Rabbit 's vegetables. There are commonly three or four of them. A bigger and more fiendish version of the crows appear only in "A Very Very Large Animal '' stealing food from a picnic and eating corn in Rabbit 's garden. A redesigned version of the crows appears briefly in Springtime with Roo. Owl 's young cousin who wears glasses. He appeared in "Owl in the Family '' and "The Bug Stops Here ''. In the former, his parents Torbet and Ophelia appear, and in the latter, he becomes friends with Roo, who is the same age as him, while Pooh babysits them. He talks in a similar manner to Owl. Voiced by Hal Smith. Gopher 's grandfather who prefers to "dream '' rather than "do ''. Gopher calls him "Grandpappy ''. He appears in "To Dream the Impossible Scheme '' during the "Pewter Pickaxe '' contest that Gopher is desperate to see him win by building an above - ground underground city. He also appears briefly in "Easy Come, Easy Gopher '' and is mentioned in "Grown But Not Forgotten ''. Voiced by Jim Cummings. A family of Heffalumps who appeared in "There 's No Camp Like Home '' and "Trap as Trap Can ''. Piglet was afraid of Heffalumps before they met and became friends. They live in a house made of logs. Junior wants to make his father, who has many implausible allergies, proud of him. Three rodents (all voiced by Jim Cummings) who appear as recurring antagonists. They steal anything they can and leave a walnut in exchange, thinking it as payment. The orange Pack Rat is fat and dimwitted, the brown one is grumpy and complaining, and the gray one is their leader. They debut in "Nothing But the Tooth '' where they are more like real villains, but in "The Rats Who Came to Dinner '', they turn out to be misunderstood and actually help the characters. However, they always return to their urge to steal. Their third and final appearance is in "Oh, Bottle! '' A very large sheepdog belonging to a neighbor of Christopher Robin 's. He appears in "Sorry, Wrong Slusher '' and "A Pooh Day Afternoon ''. He is a nice dog, but sometimes makes trouble for the characters. Piglet is afraid of him (as shown in "Sorry, Wrong Slusher '', where he thinks Skippy is the "slusher '' that Christopher Robin and the animals are afraid of). Unlike other animal characters, Skippy is not anthropomorphized. Stan and Heff are gangster - like villains who appeared in the episodes "The Great Honey Pot Robbery '' and "A Bird in the Hand ''. They are a Woozle and a Heffalump respectively and try to steal as much honey as they can. Stan is the smarter and more irritable of the two and does most of the scheming, while his dimwitted sidekick Heff provides the muscle. He is also afraid of mice and thinks that Roo is a giant mouse. Voiced by Ken Sansom and Chuck McCann respectively. A giant woozle who only appears in "The Great Honey Pot Robbery. '' He is actually revealed to be a nice woozle, despite his size. Beaver lives in a dam near Poohsticks Bridge. He bears a strong resemblance to Gopher, who does not appear in My Friends Tigger and Pooh. Both are hard working rodents with similar appearances and personalities, although Beaver is a little more easygoing. Voiced by Jim Cummings. Holly is one of Santa 's reindeer. She and her mother Vixen appear in Super Sleuth Christmas Movie. Holly came to the forest to find Santa 's lost magic bag. The characters rescue her, help her find the bag and accompany her home. When they reach the North Pole, she flies for the first time. She returns for a visit in the episode "Home For the Holly Days ''. She is voiced by Makaila Baumel. Mama Heffalump is Lumpy 's mother and the biggest resident of the Hundred Acre Wood. She first appears in Pooh 's Heffalump Movie saving Roo from being trapped in a pile of logs, and later appears in episodes of My Friends Tigger and Pooh. Voiced by Brenda Blethyn / Patricia Parris. Porcupine can play the flute and has a passion for cooking but can not see without her glasses. She is a close friend with Turtle, who is the only character who can hug her because of her sharp quills. They were pen pals before he came to the forest. Voiced by Tara Strong. Twin possum siblings first appear in "Topsy Turvy Tigger, '' where they attempt to invite others to their birthday party through use of upside - down drawings. They later appear in "Darby 's Im - possum - ible Case '', in which the characters are shown meeting them for the first time. They look alike, but have opposite personalities. The boy is zippy and outgoing, while the girl is shy and flees from crowds. Voiced by Sydney Saylor. Raccoon first appears in "Darby 's Lost and Found '' and later makes regular appearances in the series. He is in charge of a junk / fix - it shop. He speaks a bit like a hippie, and is annoyed when Tigger refers to his "mask, '' which is just part of his fur. Voiced by Rob Paulsen. Skunk first appears in "Skunk 's Non-Scents ''. He is initially upset that he can not produce a skunk 's foul odor. After it is revealed why and when skunks spray, he accomplishes it, pleasing himself. In "Beaver Gets Skunked '', Beaver is reluctant to accept him due to skunks ' reputation, but overcomes his prejudice and they become friends. Voiced by James Arnold Taylor. Various unnamed squirrels appear frequently in the Hundred Acre Wood. They usually do not speak. They appear numerous times in My Friends Tigger and Pooh, occasionally playing a role in the plot of an episode, and Buster likes to chase them. Squirrels also appear in The Tigger Movie and Piglet 's Big Movie. Turtle has been Porcupine 's friend and pen pal since before he came to live in the forest. He lives a slow and easy life, moves slowly, and speaks with a southeastern United States accent. Turtle enjoys quiet activities like bird watching or playing checkers with his friends. Because of his shell, he is the only character who can hug Porcupine. Voiced by Mark Hamill. Woodpecker is an absent - minded woodpecker who irritates Rabbit by pecking on his house and talks in a fast, bouncy and high - pitched voice. Although Owl does not appear in the series, Woodpecker does share some characteristics with him. Voiced by Dee Bradley Baker. A bouncing robot who only appears in "Tigger Gets Bounced. '' Rabbit built Springs to replace Tigger 's bouncing. Tigger and Springs compete in a bouncing contest that ends with Springs winning, which gratefully hurts Tigger 's feelings. After Beaver foolishly tries to use Springs to mash dirty water (even though Rabbit warns him that Springs is n't supposed to get wet), Springs then short circuits and becomes hostile. Tigger battles Springs while protecting others. After Tigger and Springs disappear behind a hill, an unseen fight is heard. In the end, Tigger comes out from behind the hill, concluding that he had defeated Springs. The Pygmy Piglets only appear in "The Piglet Who Would Be King '', an episode of The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh. They are about half the height of Piglet and are all clad in white clothing. They reside in the Land of Milk and Honey, which is where Piglet and his friends go to collect more honey for Pooh. They proclaim Piglet their king and a spring from a broken Jack - in - the - box, given to Piglet as a friendship present from Pooh, is thought to be the tail of a Piglet statue with a honey fountain. When the spring is removed later, the volcano of honey erupts, but Piglet, with the assistance of the Pygmies, diverts the honey flow using two statues and is hailed as a hero. Long John Cottontail is Rabbit 's deceased great - great uncle. He only appears in The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh episode "Rabbit Marks the Spot ''. Rabbit is annoyed at Pooh, Piglet, Tigger and Gopher for digging up his garden when pretending to be pirates, so he buries a treasure chest full of rocks in the ground and tells them it was the treasure of Long John Cottontail. He gives them a map showing where it is. They find it (despite Rabbit regretting his action and trying to stop them). Rabbit admits that he buried the rocks, but Pooh, Piglet, Tigger and Gopher still believe it was Long John Cottontail, and the rocks were very useful to them. The ghost of Long John Cottontail then appears and says that the animals found his buried rocks, which scares them all away. He is confused as to why they are scared of him, ending the episode. A babysitter appears in The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh episode "Babysitter Blues ''. Christopher Robin, Pooh, Piglet and Tigger repeatedly make a mess at night when his mother is out, and the babysitter gets upset, at one point telling him that if his mother saw the mess she 'd never let her babysit again. However, at the end of the episode, Christopher Robin does not make a mess and the babysitter thinks he has been swapped with someone else. Like Christopher Robin 's mother, the Babysitter 's face is not shown. Three stuff animals who look almost like Pooh, Piglet, and Tigger, but resemble gangsters and are partly bad guys. They only appear in "How Much is That Rabbit in the Window '' where they try to steal Rabbit 's tag in hopes of getting someone to buy them from the toy store, but the store 's owner is seemly unaware of them. After Christopher Robin bought Rabbit, he encouraged them that someone will buy them one day. They then take Rabbit 's advice and continue to wait for someone to buy them.

when did the world population reach 2 billion

World population - wikipedia In demographics, the world population is the total number of humans currently living. The world population was estimated to have reached 7.5 billion in April 2017. The United Nations estimates it will further increase to 11.2 billion by the year 2100. World population has experienced continuous growth since the end of the Great Famine of 1315 -- 17 and the Black Death in 1350, when it was near 370 million. The highest population growth rates -- global population increases above 1.8 % per year -- occurred between 1955 - 1975 peaking to 2.06 % between 1965 - 1970. The growth rate has declined to 1.18 % between 2010 - 2015 and is projected to decline to 0.13 % by the year 2100. Total annual births were highest in the late 1980s at about 139 million, and are now expected to remain essentially constant at their 2011 level of 135 million, while deaths number 56 million per year and are expected to increase to 80 million per year by 2040. World population reached 7 billion on October 31, 2011 according to the United Nations Population Fund, and on March 12, 2012 according to the United States Census Bureau. The median age of the world 's population was estimated to be 30.1 years in 2016, with the male median age estimated to be 29.4 years and female, 30.9 years. The 2012 UN projections show a continued increase in population in the near future with a steady decline in population growth rate; the global population is expected to reach between 8.3 and 10.9 billion by 2050. 2003 UN Population Division population projections for the year 2150 range between 3.2 and 24.8 billion. One of many independent mathematical models supports the lower estimate, while a 2014 estimate forecasts between 9.3 and 12.6 billion in 2100, and continued growth thereafter. Some analysts have questioned the sustainability of further world population growth, highlighting the growing pressures on the environment, global food supplies, and energy resources. Estimates on the total number of humans who have ever lived range in the order of 106 to 108 billion. Six of the Earth 's seven continents are permanently inhabited on a large scale. Asia is the most populous continent, with its 4.3 billion inhabitants accounting for 60 % of the world population. The world 's two most populated countries alone, China and India, together constitute about 37 % of the world 's population. Africa is the second most populated continent, with around 1 billion people, or 15 % of the world 's population. Europe 's 733 million people make up 12 % of the world 's population as of 2012, while the Latin American and Caribbean regions are home to around 600 million (9 %). Northern America, primarily consisting of the United States and Canada, has a population of around 352 million (5 %), and Oceania, the least - populated region, has about 35 million inhabitants (0.5 %). Though it is not permanently inhabited by any fixed population, Antarctica has a small, fluctuating international population, based mainly in polar science stations. This population tends to rise in the summer months and decrease significantly in winter, as visiting researchers return to their home countries. Estimates of world population by their nature are an aspect of modernity, possible only since the Age of Discovery. Early estimates for the population of the world date to the 17th century: William Petty in 1682 estimated world population at 320 million (modern estimates ranging close to twice this number); by the late 18th century, estimates ranged close to one billion (consistent with modern estimates). More refined estimates, broken down by continents, were published in the first half of the 19th century, at 600 to 1000 million in the early 1800s and at 800 to 1000 million in the 1840s. Estimates of the population of the world at the time agriculture emerged in around 10,000 BCE have ranged between 1 million and 15 million. Even earlier, genetic evidence suggests humans may have gone through a population bottleneck of between 1,000 and 10,000 people about 70,000 BCE, according to the Toba catastrophe theory. By contrast, it is estimated that around 50 -- 60 million people lived in the combined eastern and western Roman Empire in the 4th century CE. The Plague of Justinian, which first emerged during the reign of the Roman emperor Justinian, caused Europe 's population to drop by around 50 % between the 6th and 8th centuries CE. The population of Europe was more than 70 million in 1340. The Black Death pandemic of the 14th century may have reduced the world 's population from an estimated 450 million in 1340 to between 350 and 375 million in 1400; it took 200 years for population figures to recover. The population of China decreased from 123 million in 1200 to 65 million in 1393, presumably due to a combination of Mongol invasions, famine, and plague. Starting in 2 AD, the Han Dynasty of ancient China kept consistent family registers in order to properly assess the poll taxes and labor service duties of each household. In the year 2 AD the population of Western Han was recorded as 57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households, decreasing to 47,566,772 individuals in 9,348,227 households by 146 AD, towards the End of the Han Dynasty. At the founding of the Ming Dynasty in 1368, China 's population was reported to be close to 60 million; toward the end of the dynasty in 1644, it may have approached 150 million. England 's population reached an estimated 5.6 million in 1650, up from an estimated 2.6 million in 1500. New crops that were brought to Asia and Europe from the Americas by Portuguese and Spanish colonists in the 16th century are believed to have contributed to population growth. Since their introduction to Africa by Portuguese traders in the 16th century, maize and cassava have similarly replaced traditional African crops as the most important staple food crops grown on the continent. Around 300 BCE, the population of India was between 100 million and 140 million. The population of India in 1600 was around 100 million. Hence, from 300 BCE to 1600 CE India 's population was more or less stable. The pre-Columbian North American population probably numbered somewhere between 2 million and 18 million. Encounters between European explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced local epidemics of extraordinary virulence. According to the most extreme scholarly claims, as many as 90 % of the Native American population of the New World died due to Old World diseases such as smallpox, measles and influenza. Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no such immunity. During the European Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5 % in 1730 -- 1749 to 31.8 % in 1810 -- 1829. Between 1700 and 1900, Europe 's population increased from about 100 million to over 400 million. Altogether, the areas populated by people of European descent comprised 36 % of the world 's population in 1900. Population growth in the West became more rapid after the introduction of vaccination and other improvements in medicine and sanitation. Improved material conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to 40 million in the 19th century. The population of the United Kingdom reached 60 million in 2006. The United States saw its population grow from around 5.3 million in 1800 to 106 million in 1920, exceeding 307 million in 2010. The first half of the 20th century in Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union was marked by a succession of major wars, famines and other disasters which caused large - scale population losses (approximately 60 million excess deaths). After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia 's population declined significantly -- from 150 million in 1991 to 143 million in 2012 -- but by 2013 this decline appeared to have halted. Many countries in the developing world have experienced extremely rapid population growth since the early 20th century, due to economic development and improvements in public health. China 's population rose from approximately 430 million in 1850 to 580 million in 1953, and now stands at over 1.3 billion. The population of the Indian subcontinent, which was about 125 million in 1750, increased to 389 million in 1941; today, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are collectively home to about 1.63 billion people. Java had about 5 million inhabitants in 1815; its present - day successor, Indonesia, now has a population of over 140 million. In just one hundred years, the population of Brazil decoupled (x10), from about 17 million in 1900, or about 1 % of the world population in that year, to about 176 million in 2000, or almost 3 % of the global population in the very early 21st century. Mexico 's population grew from 13.6 million in 1900 to about 112 million in 2010. Between the 1920s and 2000s, Kenya 's population grew from 2.9 million to 37 million. It is estimated that the world population reached one billion for the first time in 1804. It was another 123 years before it reached two billion in 1927, but it took only 33 years to reach three billion in 1960. Thereafter, the global population reached four billion in 1974, five billion in 1987, six billion in 1999 and, according to the United States Census Bureau, seven billion in March 2012. The United Nations, however, estimated that the world population reached seven billion in October 2011. According to current projections, the global population will reach eight billion by 2024, and will likely reach around nine billion by 2042. Alternative scenarios for 2050 range from a low of 7.4 billion to a high of more than 10.6 billion. Projected figures vary depending on underlying statistical assumptions and the variables used in projection calculations, especially the fertility variable. Long - range predictions to 2150 range from a population decline to 3.2 billion in the "low scenario '', to "high scenarios '' of 24.8 billion. One extreme scenario predicted a massive increase to 256 billion by 2150, assuming the global fertility rate remained at its 1995 level of 3.04 children per woman; however, by 2010 the global fertility rate had declined to 2.52. There is no estimation for the exact day or month the world 's population surpassed one or two billion. The points at which it reached three and four billion were not officially noted, but the International Database of the United States Census Bureau placed them in July 1959 and April 1974 respectively. The United Nations did determine, and commemorate, the "Day of 5 Billion '' on July 11, 1987, and the "Day of 6 Billion '' on October 12, 1999. The Population Division of the United Nations declared the "Day of 7 Billion '' to be October 31, 2011. As of 2012, the global sex ratio is approximately 1.01 males to 1 female. The greater number of men is possibly due to the significant sex imbalances evident in the Indian and Chinese populations. Approximately 26.3 % of the global population is aged under 15, while 65.9 % is aged 15 -- 64 and 7.9 % is aged 65 or over. The median age of the world 's population was estimated to be 29.7 years in 2014, and is expected to rise to 37.9 years by 2050. According to the World Health Organization, the global average life expectancy is 70.5 years as of 2012, with women living an average of 73 years and men approximately 68 years. In 2010, the global fertility rate was estimated at 2.52 children per woman. In June 2012, British researchers calculated the total weight of Earth 's human population as approximately 287 million tonnes, with the average person weighing around 62 kilograms (137 lb). The CIA estimated nominal 2013 gross world product at US $74.31 trillion, giving an annual global per capita figure of around US $10,500. Around 1.29 billion people (18.4 % of the world population) live in extreme poverty, subsisting on less than US $1.25 per day; approximately 870 million people (12.25 %) are undernourished. 83 % of the world 's over-15s are considered literate. In June 2014, there were around 3.03 billion global Internet users, constituting 42.3 % of the world population. The Han Chinese are the world 's largest single ethnic group, constituting over 19 % of the global population in 2011. The world 's most - spoken first languages are Mandarin Chinese (spoken by 12.44 % of the world 's population), Spanish (4.85 %), English (4.83 %), Arabic (3.25 %) and Hindustani (2.68 %). The world 's largest religion is Christianity, whose adherents account for 33.35 % of the global population; Islam is the second - largest religion, accounting for 22.43 %, and Hinduism the third, accounting for 13.78 %. In 2005, around 16 % of the global population were reported to be non-religious. Approximately 4.3 billion people live in these ten countries, representing around 58 % of the world 's population as of March 2016. Approximately 3.7 billion people, or half of the world population, live in the six most populous countries. The tables below list the world 's most densely populated countries, both in absolute terms and in comparison to their total populations. Population size fluctuates at differing rates in differing regions. Nonetheless, population growth is the long - standing trend on all inhabited continents, as well as in most individual states. During the 20th century, the global population saw its greatest increase in known history, rising from about 1.6 billion in 1900 to over 6 billion in 2000. A number of factors contributed to this increase, including the lessening of the mortality rate in many countries by improved sanitation and medical advances, and a massive increase in agricultural productivity attributed to the Green Revolution. In 2000, the United Nations estimated that the world 's population was growing at an annual rate of 1.14 % (equivalent to around 75 million people), down from a peak of 88 million per year in 1989. By 2000, there were approximately ten times as many people on Earth as there had been in 1700. Globally, the population growth rate has been steadily declining from its peak of 2.19 % in 1963, but growth remains high in Latin America, the Middle East, and Sub-Saharan Africa. During the 2010s, Japan and some countries in Europe began to encounter negative population growth (i.e. a net decrease in population over time), due to sub-replacement fertility rates. In 2006, the United Nations stated that the rate of population growth was visibly diminishing due to the ongoing global demographic transition. If this trend continues, the rate of growth may diminish to zero by 2050, concurrent with a world population plateau of 9.2 billion. However, this is only one of many estimates published by the UN; in 2009, UN population projections for 2050 ranged between around 8 billion and 10.5 billion. An alternative scenario is given by the statistician Jorgen Randers, who argues that traditional projections insufficiently take into account the downward impact of global urbanization on fertility. Randers ' "most likely scenario '' reveals a peak in the world population in the early 2040s at about 8.1 billion people, followed by decline. Adrian Raftery, a University of Washington professor of statistics and of sociology, states that "there 's a 70 percent probability the world population will not stabilize this century. Population, which had sort of fallen off the world 's agenda, remains a very important issue. '' Estimated world population figures, 10,000 BCE -- 2000 CE Estimated world population figures, 10,000 BC -- 2000 CE (in log y scale) World population figures, 1950 -- 2000 Estimated global growth rates, 1950 -- 2050 Estimated and projected populations of the world and its continents (except Antarctica) from 1950 to 2100. The shaded regions correspond to the range of projections by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. The table below shows historical and predicted regional population figures in millions. The availability of historical population figures varies by region. The following table gives estimates of population in the past. The data for 1750 to 1900 are from the UN report "The World at Six Billion '' whereas the data from 1950 to 2015 are from a UN data sheet. Using the above figures, the change in population from 2010 to 2015 was: Long - term global population growth is difficult to predict. The United Nations and the US Census Bureau both give different estimates -- according to the UN, the world population reached seven billion in late 2011, while the USCB asserted that this occurred in March 2012. The UN has issued multiple projections of future world population, based on different assumptions. From 2000 to 2005, the UN consistently revised these projections downward, until the 2006 revision, issued on March 14, 2007, revised the 2050 mid-range estimate upwards by 273 million. Average global birth rates are declining fast, but vary greatly between developed countries (where birth rates are often at or below replacement levels) and developing countries (where birth rates typically remain high). Different ethnicities also display varying birth rates. Death rates can change rapidly due to disease epidemics, wars and other mass catastrophes, or advances in medicine. In 1975, Sebastian von Hoerner proposed a formula for population growth which represented hyperbolic growth with an infinite population in 2025. The hyperbolic growth of the world population observed until the 1970s was later correlated to a non-linear second order positive feedback between demographic growth and technological development. This feedback can be described as follows: technological advance → increase in the carrying capacity of land for people → demographic growth → more people → more potential inventors → acceleration of technological advance → accelerating growth of the carrying capacity → faster population growth → accelerating growth of the number of potential inventors → faster technological advance → hence, the faster growth of the Earth 's carrying capacity for people, and so on. The transition from hyperbolic growth to slower rates of growth is related to the demographic transition. According to the Russian demographer Sergey Kapitsa, the world population grew between 67,000 BCE and 1965 according to the following formula: where According to linear interpolation and extrapolation of UNDESA population estimates, the world population has doubled, or will double, in the years listed in the tables below (with two different starting points). During the 2nd millennium CE, each doubling took roughly half as long as the previous doubling, fitting the hyperbolic growth model mentioned above. However, after 2024, it is unlikely that there will be another doubling of the global population in the 21st century. In his 1798 work An Essay on the Principle of Population, the British scholar Thomas Malthus incorrectly predicted that continued population growth would exhaust the global food supply by the mid-19th century. Malthus wrote the essay to refute what he considered the unattainable utopian ideas of William Godwin and Marquis de Condorcet, as presented in Political Justice and The Future Progress of the Human Mind. In 1968, Paul R. Ehrlich reprised Malthus ' argument in The Population Bomb, predicting that mass global famine would occur in the 1970s and 1980s. The predictions of Ehrlich and other neo-Malthusians were vigorously challenged by a number of economists, notably Julian Lincoln Simon, and advances in agriculture, collectively known as the Green Revolution, forestalled any potential global famine in the late 20th century. Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the world, grain production increased by over 250 %. The world population has grown by over four billion since the beginning of the Green Revolution, but food production has so far kept pace with population growth. Most scholars believe that, without the Revolution, there would be greater levels of famine and malnutrition than the UN presently documents. However, neo-Malthusians point out that fossil fuels provided the energy for the Green Revolution, in the form of natural gas - derived fertilizers, oil - derived pesticides, and hydrocarbon - fueled irrigation, and that many crops have become so genetically uniform that a crop failure in any one country could potentially have global repercussions. In 2004, a meta - analysis of 70 quantitative studies estimating a sustainable limit to the world population generated a meta - estimate of 7.7 billion people. In May 2008, the price of grain was pushed up severely by the increased cultivation of biofuels, the increase of world oil prices to over $140 per barrel ($880 / m), global population growth, the effects of climate change, the loss of agricultural land to residential and industrial development, and growing consumer demand in the population centres of China and India. Food riots subsequently occurred in some countries. However, oil prices then fell sharply. Resource demands are expected to ease as population growth declines, but it is unclear whether mass food wastage and rising living standards in developing countries will once again create resource shortages. David Pimentel, professor of ecology and agriculture at Cornell University, estimates that the sustainable agricultural carrying capacity for the United States is about 200 million people; its population as of 2015 is over 300 million. In 2009, the UK government 's chief scientific advisor, Professor John Beddington, warned that growing populations, falling energy reserves and food shortages would create a "perfect storm '' of shortages of food, water, and energy by 2030. According to a 2009 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the world will have to produce 70 % more food by 2050 to feed a projected extra 2.3 billion people. The observed figures for 2007 showed an actual increase in absolute numbers of undernourished people in the world, with 923 million undernourished in 2007, versus 832 million in 1995. The 2009 FAO estimates showed an even more dramatic increase, to 1.02 billion. A number of scientists have argued that the current global population expansion and accompanying increase in resource consumption threatens the world 's ecosystem. The InterAcademy Panel Statement on Population Growth, which was ratified by 58 member national academies in 1994, states that "unprecedented '' population growth aggravates many environmental problems, including rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, global warming, and pollution. Indeed, some analysts claim that overpopulation 's most serious impact is its effect on the environment. The situation has continued to worsen, as at the time of the 1994 IAP statement, the world population stood at 5.5 billion and lower - bound scenarios predicted a peak of 7.8 billion by 2050, a number that current estimates state will be reached in the late 2020s. Scientists contend that human overpopulation, continued human population growth and overconsumption, particularly by the wealthy, are the primary drivers of mass species extinction. By 2050 population growth, along with profligate consumption, could result in oceans containing more plastic than fish by weight. Human population control is the practice of intervening to alter the rate of population growth. Historically, human population control has been implemented by limiting a region 's birth rate, by voluntary contraception or by government mandate. It has been undertaken as a response to factors including high or increasing levels of poverty, environmental concerns, and religious reasons. The use of abortion in some population control strategies has caused controversy, with religious organizations such as the Roman Catholic Church explicitly opposing any intervention in the human reproductive process. The University of Nebraska publication Green Illusions argues that population control to alleviate environmental pressures need not be coercive. It states that "Women who are educated, economically engaged, and in control of their own bodies can enjoy the freedom of bearing children at their own pace, which happens to be a rate that is appropriate for the aggregate ecological endowment of our planet. '' The book Fatal Misconception by Matthew Connelly similarly points to the importance of supporting the rights of women in bringing population levels down over time. The Population Research Institute (PRI), an anti-abortion, anti-contraception advocacy group, has criticised predictions of overpopulation and attendant resource scarcity, with some describing overpopulation as a "myth ''. The PRI argues that advances in agricultural, medical, and industrial technology have allowed global economic productivity to keep pace with rising populations despite Malthusian predictions to the contrary. PRI further says that family sizes are naturally declining worldwide due to higher living standards, increased availability of contraception and better economic opportunities for women. However, other commentators have described PRI 's arguments on overpopulation as deceptive. Estimates of the total number of humans who have ever lived range in the order of 100 billion. It is difficult for estimates to be better than rough approximations, as even modern population estimates are fraught with uncertainties on the order of 3 % to 5 %. Kapitza (1996) cites estimates ranging between 80 and 150 billion. Haub (1995) prepared another figure, updated in 2002 and 2011; the 2011 figure was approximately 107 billion. Haub characterized this figure as an estimate that required "selecting population sizes for different points from antiquity to the present and applying assumed birth rates to each period ''. One problem is in regard to the semantic difficulty of deciding the precise meaning of "human ''. A population of, say, 4 million, with an average lifespan of, say, 10 years (see below), implies a birthrate of 0.4 million per year, which over a period of 100 000 years represents 40 000 million people. Also, robust population data only exists for the last two or three centuries. Until the late 18th century, few governments had ever performed an accurate census. In many early attempts, such as in Ancient Egypt and the Persian Empire, the focus was on counting merely a subset of the population for purposes of taxation or military service. Thus, there is a significant margin of error when estimating ancient global populations. Another critical factor for such an estimate is the question of pre-modern infant mortality rates; these figures are very difficult to estimate for ancient times due to a lack of accurate records. Haub (1995) estimates that around 40 % of those who have ever lived did not survive beyond their first birthday. Haub also stated that "life expectancy at birth probably averaged only about ten years for most of human history ''. Lists: Historical:

coldplay songs rush of blood to the head

A Rush of Blood to the Head - wikipedia A Rush of Blood to the Head is the second studio album by the British rock band Coldplay. It was released on 26 August 2002 by Parlophone in the United Kingdom, and a day later by Capitol Records in the United States. The album was produced by the band and producer Ken Nelson. Recording started after the band became popular worldwide with the release of their debut album Parachutes (2000), and one of its singles in particular, "Yellow ''. The album makes greater use of electric guitar and piano than its predecessor. The album was made available in August 2002, two months after its original planned release date. The album topped the UK Albums Chart upon its first week of release in the United Kingdom, and became the eighth biggest - selling album of the 21st century in the UK. The British Phonographic Industry has since certified the album 9 × Platinum for its accumulated sales of over 2.9 million units in the UK and the album has sold 22 million copies worldwide. The album spawned the hit singles "In My Place '', "The Scientist '', and "Clocks ''. "God Put a Smile upon Your Face '' was also released, but was significantly less successful. A Rush of Blood to the Head has been critically acclaimed, and the band won the 2003 Grammy for Best Alternative Album for the second year in a row, and the 2004 Grammy for Record of the Year for the song "Clocks ''. In 2012, it was ranked number 466 on Rolling Stone Magazine 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. It was also voted the best album of all time by the listeners of BBC Radio 2 in a poll conducted in 2013. Capitol released a remastered version of the album in 2008 on a 180 - gram vinyl record as part of its "From the Capitol Vaults '' series. The band started recording the album in London a week after the September 11 attacks in the United States, during which their "poignant songs... garnered larger audiences ''. Coldplay had never stayed in London for an extended period before and were bombarded by problems focusing on the production process. They decided to relocate to Liverpool, where they had recorded some of the songs on Parachutes. Lead singer Chris Martin said that once there they "became obsessed with recording ''. "In My Place '' was the first song recorded for the album and the one that the band released as the album 's lead single "because it was the song that made us want to do a second album. It kept us going and made us think we could still write songs '', following "a strange period of not really knowing what we were doing '' three months after the success of Parachutes. The band wrote more than twenty songs for the album and some of those, including "In My Place '' and "Animals '', were performed live during the tours promoting Parachutes. The album 's title was revealed through a post on the band 's official website. During initial recording sessions in Liverpool, lead singer Chris Martin and guitarist Jonny Buckland worked alone, and only on weekends. Each Monday, they would present the song ideas that they had developed to their bandmates. With A Rush of Blood to the Head nearly completed, Martin went into the studio late one night and wrote a piano riff that he has stated "just came out ''. The band recognised that this early version of the song, that would become "Clocks '', was special the first time Martin played it to them. Reasoning that it was too late to include the song on the album, they recorded a demo version and included it on a CD marked "Songs for # 3 '', featuring unfinished tracks they intended to work on for their third studio album. By June 2002, the band had completed A Rush of Blood to the Head, but thought their output sounded "rubbish '' and reached an agreement with the label to postpone the release of the album until they were completely satisfied. Subsequently, many songs were discarded because they sounded like they could have been on Parachutes. Martin has claimed that it would have been uninteresting: "It would have shown that we 're happy to sit back on what we 'd done, and we 're not. For us, it was important to progress and try to improve upon our abilities as musicians. '' Such ambitions put the band under strain: "sometimes practice sessions ended abruptly with one or more members of Coldplay threatening to quit ''. After headlining the 2002 Glastonbury Festival, Coldplay returned to the studio and worked on some tracks from the "Songs for # 3 '' CD they had produced earlier. Phil Harvey, the band 's manager, heard "Clocks '' and urged them to rework it immediately: "No, you must do that song now ' cause you 're going on (in the lyrics) about urgency, and you 're talking about keeping this song back. That does n't make sense. '' Production of the album began quickly with the writing of the track "Politik '', which was a song seen as a reflection of the world at the time, giving the band a renewed perspective on their lives and society. Many of the song lyrics on the album relate strongly to the theme of urgency. Martin has commented that previous songs were more relaxed since they were in a comfortable state of mind: "Perhaps there 's a bit more urgency on some of these songs. And that 's born from all the places we 've been and the things we 've experienced. '' Martin has explained. In relation to the theme of urgency, Martin has also started that the album 's title means "doing something on impulse ''. Several songs on the album are about the themes of love & relationships. These tracks are based on reality, but according to Martin, they were written with a fictional twist: "Songs are like fairy tales: they have a beginning and an end and you can make it all work perfectly. Real life does n't work like that ''. The album includes ballads and acoustic songs featuring extensive use of guitar and piano. The U2-esque "epic rock '' of the album 's opening track "Politik '', the piano - driven "Clocks '', the loud guitars of "A Whisper '' and the Crowded House - inspired guitar in "Warning Sign '' were seen as an extension of the band 's musical range. Chris Martin has also stated that the album 's title track is an homage to American singer - songwriter Johnny Cash, whom he considered one of "the greatest... men with just guitars ''. The title track is about uncertainties faced in life. According to Martin, the song "Green Eyes '' was composed for two individuals: An "American friend '' (speculated to be a woman of Chris ' romantic desire), and bandmate Jonny Buckland. The album cover for A Rush of Blood to the Head was designed by photographer Sølve Sundsbø. Sundsbø had been hired by fashion magazine Dazed & Confused in the late 1990s to produce a shot with a "technological feel, something all white '', according to himself. As an artist, Sundsbø attempted to do a unique original piece, creating a shot that had never been seen before; He suggested taking shots using a three - dimensional scanning machine to fulfil his vision. The model for the shots wore all - white cosmetic makeup, along with a twill - coloured cape, to aesthetically produce optimal and desired results. The scanner could not properly identify the colors on the model, so they were replaced with digital spikes, and the head in the image was chopped as the machine was unable scan more than about a foot of the image. The editor of the magazine well - received the image, and eventually featured it in one of the magazine 's publications. Martin eventually saw the image in a publication of the magazine, then approaching Sundsbø for proper permission to use the image as the cover of A Rush of Blood to the Head. For the album 's singles, Martin asked Sundsbø for any ideas; Sundsbø suggested scanning the head of each member of the band (Sundsbø also did artwork duties for the Live 2003 album cover). The album booklet contains only two photos; One with Coldplay in a location that was rumoured to be a forest, and one with the band in a recording studio. The album cover was among the ten chosen by the Royal Mail for a set of "Classic Album Cover '' postage stamps issued in January 2010. Upon release, A Rush of Blood to the Head received generally favorable reviews from contemporary critics. Review aggregating website Metacritic reports a normalised score of 80 based on 25 reviews. Many felt that it built upon their previous album, Parachutes. Alexis Petridis of the newspaper The Guardian wrote that the band 's "new assurance is everywhere... the timidity of Parachutes is nowhere to be found ''. He concludes, "It sounds like an album ready to take on the world, and win. '' Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times praised the album, commenting that it is "one of the year 's best albums '' and describing it as "sparser, stranger and even catchier than its predecessor ''. Rolling Stone magazine 's Rob Sheffield, said that "A Rush of Blood to the Head is a nervier, edgier, thoroughly surprising album '', adding, "where Parachutes was the clumsy diary of a high - strung kid, A Rush of Blood sounds more like a band with the confidence to test its own limits. '' Ted Kessler of NME lauded the album, calling it "an album of outstanding natural beauty, an organic, wholesome work. '' MacKenzie Wilson of AllMusic echoed the above comments, saying that it is a "strong album ''. Wilson, who compliments Martin for his "sharpened '' falsetto and refined "haunting delivery '' and Buckland for his "riveting guitar work '', notes that "regardless of the band still being in their mid-twenties, they 've made an amazing record ''. Emma Pearse of the American newspaper The Village Voice has the same sentiments, stating that it is "a little edgier, trancier, and more conversational '' compared to Parachutes. Robert Christgau gave the album a one - star honourable mention () and quipped, "Let Green Eyes dump him for real and we 'll see how long he hums in the void. '' A Rush of Blood to the Head has earned the band several awards from both the domestic and international music press. In 2002 it was awarded Best Album at the Q Awards. In the same year, the band won two Grammy Awards: Best Alternative Music Album and Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal for the song "In My Place ''. In 2003 A Rush of Blood to the Head won Best British Album at the BRIT Awards, and the following year the band earned their first Grammy Award for Record of the Year for the song "Clocks '' for a total of three Grammys for the album. The band also won three VMAs at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Group Video, Breakthrough Video and Best Direction in a Video for "The Scientist ''. The same year, they won the awards best NME album of the year, and best album of the year at the NME Awards. The album was chosen in 2002 as Billboard magazine 's Critics ' Choice. Kludge included it on their list of best albums of 2002. In 2012, it was ranked number 466 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. It was also ranked 21st on Rolling Stone 's list of top 100 albums of the 2000s. In 2007 The National Association of Recording Merchandisers and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame released a list of what they term "The Definitive 200 Albums of All Time ''; A Rush of Blood to the Head ranks at number 65 on the list. The album was nominated for the BRITs Album of 30 Years at the 2010 BRIT Awards. In a BBC Radio poll in 2013, the album topped the list ahead of Hopes and Fears by Keane, Rio by Duran Duran and The Dark Side of the Moon by Pink Floyd. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. A Rush of Blood to the Head made an entrance into the UK Albums Chart upon its debut week, entering at number 1 and moving 273,924 copies. The British Phonographic Industry has since certified the album 9x Platinum for its accumulated sales of over 2.8 million copies. With the subsequent release of "Clocks '' and "The Scientist '', the album spent over one year on the chart. A Rush of Blood to the Head has been placed at number seven on the list of United Kingdom 's 20 biggest - selling albums of the 21st century, published by the British trade paper Music Week. In July 2011, A Rush of Blood to the Head climbed from No. 176 back to No. 44 in the album 's 250th charting week there. As of June 2016, the album has sold 2,909,750 copies in the UK, making it Coldplay 's best - selling studio album. It is the tenth best - selling album of the 21st century. In the United States, A Rush of Blood was Coldplay 's first venture into the top 5 with 144,000 copies sold initially, stronger than its predecessor, Parachutes, which debuted at number 189 in December 2000. It has since been certified 4x platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America, and it has sold sales 4,925,000 copies as of July 2014. It has been certified 7x platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association, having accumulated shipments of over 490,000 units, and 4x times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association for shipments of over 400,000. All tracks written by Chris Martin, Jonny Buckland, Guy Berryman, and Will Champion. Coldplay Technical and additional personnel sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone

which part of india lies in subtropical zone

Climatic regions of India - wikipedia India has a large variation in climate from region to region, due to its vast size. India experiences climate from four major climate groups. These can be further subdivided into seven climatic types. For ecological regions, see Ecoregions of India, for Regions see List of regions of India. The regions belonging to this group experience persistent high temperatures which normally do not go below 18 ° C even in the coolest month. The west coastal lowlands, the Western Ghats, and southern parts of Assam have this climate type. It is characterised by high temperatures throughout the year, even in the hills. The rainfall here is seasonal, but heavy and is above 78 cm in a year. Most of the rain is received in the period from May to November, and is adequate for the growth of vegetation during the entire year. December to March are the dry months with very little rainfall. The heavy rain is responsible for the tropical wet forests in these regions, which consists of a large number of species of animals. Evergreen forests are the typical feature of the region. Most of the plateau of peninsula India enjoys this climate, except a semi-arid tract to the east of the Western Ghats. Winter and early summer are long dry periods with temperature above 18 ° C. Summer is very hot and the temperatures in the interior low level areas can go above 45 ° C during May. The rainy season is from June to September and the annual rainfall is between 75 and 150 cm. Only central eastern Tamil Nadu falls under this tract and receives rainfall during the winter months of late November to January. This group consists of regions where the rate of evaporation of water is higher than the rate of moisture received through precipitation. A long stretch of land situated to the south of Tropic of Cancer and east of the western ghats and the Cardamom Hills experiences this climate. It includes Karnataka, interior and western Tamil Nadu, western Andhra Pradesh and central Maharashtra. This area receives minimal rainfall due to being situated in the rainshadow area. This region is a famine prone zone with very unreliable rainfall which varies between 40 and 75 cm annually. Towards the north of Krishna River the summer monsoon is responsible for most of the rainfall, while to the south of the river rainfall also occurs in the months of October and November. The coldest month is December but even in this month the temperature remains between 20 ° C and 24 ° C. The months of March to May are hot and dry with mean monthly temperatures of around 32 ° C. The vegetation mostly comprises grasses with a few scattered trees due to the rainfall. Hence this area is not very well suited for permanent agriculture. Most of western Rajasthan falls under this climate type characterised by scanty rainfall. Cloud bursts are largely responsible for the all the rainfall seen in this region which is less than 30 cm. These happen when the monsoon winds penetrate this region in the months of July, August and September. The rainfall is very erratic and a few regions might not see rainfall for a couple of years. The summer months of May and June are very hot with mean monthly temperatures in the region of 35 ° C and highs which can sometimes reach 50 ° C. During winters the temperatures can drop below freezing in some areas due to cold wave. There is a large diurnal range of about 14 ° C during summer which becomes higher by a few more degrees during winter. This extreme climate makes this a sparsely populated region of India. The region towards the east of the tropical desert running from Punjab and Haryana to Kathiawar experiences this climate type. India 's capital city Delhi lies in this climatic zone. This climate is a transitional climate falling between tropical desert and humid sub-tropical, with temperatures which are less extreme than the desert climate. The annual rainfall is between 30 and 65 cm but is very unreliable and happens mostly during the summer monsoon season. Maximum temperatures during summer can rise to 45 ° C. Minimums during winter can drop down to freezing point. Areas under this belt do not experience high humidity throughout the year except during the monsoon season, and are generally dry. The vegetation mostly comprises short coarse grass. Some crops like jowar and bajra are also cultivated. The temperature during the coldest months in regions experiencing this climate falls between 18 and 0 ° C. The foothills of the Himalayas, Punjab - Haryana plain adjacent to the Himalayas, Rajasthan east of the Aravalli range, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and northern part of West Bengal and Assam experience this climate. The rainfall is received mostly in the summer and is about 65 cm in the west and increases to 250 cm annually to the east and near the Himalayas. The winters are mainly dry due to the land derived winter winds which blow down the lowlands of north India towards the Bay of Bengal. The summers are hot and temperatures can reach 46 ° C in the lowlands. May and June are the hottest months. Winter months are mostly dry with feeble winds. Frost occurs for a few weeks in winter. The difference in rainfall between the east and the west gives rise to a wide difference in the natural vegetation. In the Himalayan mountains the temperature falls by 0.6 ° C for every 100 m rise in altitude and this gives rise to a variety of climates from nearly tropical in the foothills to tundra type above the snow line. One can also observe sharp contrast between temperatures of the sunny and shady slopes, high diurnal range of temperature, inversion of temperature, and variability of rainfall based on altitude. The northern side of the western Himalayas also known as the trans - Himalayan belt is arid, cold and generally wind swept. The vegetation is sparse and stunted as rainfall is scanty and the winters are severely cold. Most of the snowfall is in the form of snow during late winter and spring months. The area to the south of the Himalayan range is protected from cold winds coming from interior of Asia during winter. The leeward side of the mountains receive less rain while the well exposed slopes get heavy rainfall. The places situated between 1070 and 2290 m altitudes receive the heaviest rainfall and the rainfall decreases rapidly above 2290m. The great Himalayan range witnesses heavy snowfall during winter months of December to February at altitudes above 1500m. The diurnal range of temperature is also high. The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim experience this kind of weather.

who has the greatest spectrum of police powers

Counterintelligence - wikipedia Counterintelligence refers to information gathered and activities conducted to protect against espionage, other intelligence activities, sabotage, or assassinations conducted for or on behalf of foreign powers, organizations or persons or international terrorist activities, sometimes including personnel, physical, document or communications security programs.. Modern tactics of espionage and dedicated government intelligence agencies were developed over the course of the late 19th century. A key background to this development was the Great Game, a period denoting the strategic rivalry and conflict that existed between the British Empire and the Russian Empire throughout Central Asia. To counter Russian ambitions in the region and the potential threat it posed to the British position in India, a system of surveillance, intelligence and counterintelligence was built up in the Indian Civil Service. The existence of this shadowy conflict was popularised in Rudyard Kipling 's famous spy book, Kim, where he portrayed the Great Game (a phrase he popularised) as an espionage and intelligence conflict that ' never ceases, day or night '. The establishment of dedicated intelligence and counterintelligence organizations was directly linked to the colonial rivalries between the major European powers and the accelerating development of military technology. As espionage became more widely used, it became imperative to expand the role of existing police and internal security forces into a role of detecting and countering foreign spies. The Austro - Hungarian Evidenzbureau was entrusted with the role from the late 19th century to counter the actions of the Pan-Slavist movement operating out of Serbia. As mentioned above, after the fallout from the Dreyfus Affair in France, responsibility for military counter-espionage was passed in 1899 to the Sûreté générale -- an agency originally responsible for order enforcement and public safety -- and overseen by the Ministry of the Interior. The Okhrana was initially formed in 1880 to combat political terrorism and left - wing revolutionary activity throughout the Russian Empire, but was also tasked with countering enemy espionage. Its main concern was the activities of revolutionaries, who often worked and plotted subversive actions from abroad. It created an antenna in Paris run by Pyotr Rachkovsky to monitor their activities. The agency used many methods to achieve its goals, including covert operations, undercover agents, and "perlustration '' -- the interception and reading of private correspondence. The Okhrana became notorious for its use of agents provocateurs who often succeeded in penetrating the activities of revolutionary groups including the Bolsheviks. Integrated counterintelligence agencies run directly by governments were also established. The British Secret Service Bureau was founded in 1909 as the first independent and interdepartmental agency fully in control over all government counterintelligence activities. Due to intense lobbying from William Melville and after he obtained German mobilization plans and proof of their financial support to the Boers, the government authorized the creation of a new intelligence section in the War Office, MO3 (subsequently redesignated M05) headed by Melville, in 1903. Working under cover from a flat in London, Melville ran both counterintelligence and foreign intelligence operations, capitalizing on the knowledge and foreign contacts he had accumulated during his years running Special Branch. Due to its success, the Government Committee on Intelligence, with support from Richard Haldane and Winston Churchill, established the Secret Service Bureau in 1909 as a joint initiative of the Admiralty, the War Office and the Foreign Office to control secret intelligence operations in the UK and overseas, particularly concentrating on the activities of the Imperial German Government. Its first director was Captain Sir George Mansfield Smith - Cumming alias "C ''. The Secret Service Bureau was split into a foreign and counter intelligence domestic service in 1910. The latter was headed by Sir Vernon Kell and was originally aimed at calming public fears of large scale German espionage. As the Service was not authorized with police powers, Kell liaised extensively with the Special Branch of Scotland Yard (headed by Basil Thomson), and succeeded in disrupting the work of Indian revolutionaries collaborating with the Germans during the war. Instead of a system whereby rival departments and military services would work on their own priorities with little to no consultation or cooperation with each other, the newly established Secret Intelligence Service was interdepartmental, and submitted its intelligence reports to all relevant government departments. For the first time, governments had access to a peace - time, centralized independent intelligence and counterintelligence bureaucracy with indexed registries and defined procedures, as opposed to the more ad hoc methods used previously. Collective counterintelligence is gaining information about an opponent 's intelligence collection capabilities whose aim is at an entity. Defensive counterintelligence is thwarting efforts by hostile intelligence services to penetrate the service. Offensive counterintelligence is having identified an opponent 's efforts against the system, trying to manipulate these attacks by either "turning '' the opponent 's agents into double agents or feeding them false information to report. Many governments organize counterintelligence agencies separate and distinct from their intelligence collection services for specialized purposes. In most countries the counterintelligence mission is spread over multiple organizations, though one usually predominates. There is usually a domestic counterintelligence service, usually part of a larger law enforcement organization such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the United States. The United Kingdom has the separate Security Service, also known as MI5, which does not have direct police powers but works closely with law enforcement called Special Branch that can carry out arrests, do searches with a warrant, etc. The Russian Federation 's major domestic security organization is the FSB, which principally came from the Second Chief Directorate and Third Chief Directorate of the USSR 's KGB. Canada separates the functions of general defensive counterintelligence (contre - ingérence), security intelligence (the intelligence preparation necessary to conduct offensive counterintelligence), law enforcement intelligence, and offensive counterintelligence. Military organizations have their own counterintelligence forces, capable of conducting protective operations both at home and when deployed abroad. Depending on the country, there can be various mixtures of civilian and military in foreign operations. For example, while offensive counterintelligence is a mission of the US CIA 's National Clandestine Service, defensive counterintelligence is a mission of the U.S. Diplomatic Security Service (DSS), Department of State, who work on protective security for personnel and information processed abroad at US Embassies and Consulates. The term counter-espionage is really specific to countering HUMINT, but, since virtually all offensive counterintelligence involves exploiting human sources, the term "offensive counterintelligence '' is used here to avoid some ambiguous phrasing. In the United States, there is a very careful line drawn between intelligence and law enforcement. In the United Kingdom, there is a distinction between the Security Service (MI5) and the Special Branch of the Metropolitan Police ("Scotland Yard ''). Other countries also deal with the proper organization of defenses against Foreign Intelligence Services ("FIS ''), often with separate services with no common authority below the head of government. France, for example, builds its domestic counterterror in a law enforcement framework. In France, a senior anti-terror magistrate is in charge of defense against terrorism. French magistrates have multiple functions that overlap US and UK functions of investigators, prosecutors, and judges. An anti-terror magistrate may call upon France 's domestic intelligence service Direction de la surveillance du territoire (DST), which may work with the Direction générale de la sécurité extérieure (DGSE), foreign intelligence service. Spain gives its Interior Ministry, with military support, the leadership in domestic counterterrorism. For international threats, the National Intelligence Center (CNI) has responsibility. CNI, which reports directly to the Prime Minister, is staffed principally by which is subordinated directly to the Prime Minister 's office. After the March 11, 2004 Madrid train bombings, the national investigation found problems between the Interior Ministry and CNI, and. as a result, the National Anti-Terrorism Coordination Center was created. Spain 's 3 / 11 Commission called for this Center to do operational coordination as well as information collection and dissemination. The military has organic counterintelligence to meet specific military needs. Frank Wisner, a well - known CIA operations executive said of the autobiography of Director of Central Intelligence Allen W. Dulles, that Dulles "disposes of the popular misconception that counterintelligence is essentially a negative and responsive activity, that it moves only or chiefly in reaction to situations thrust upon it and in counter to initiatives mounted by the opposition '' Rather, he sees that can be most effective, both in information gathering and protecting friendly intelligence services, when it creatively but vigorously attacks the "structure and personnel of hostile intelligence services. '' Today 's counterintelligence missions have broadened from the time when the threat was restricted to the foreign intelligence services (FIS) under the control of nation - states. Threats have broadened to include threats from non-national or trans - national groups, including internal insurgents, organized crime, and transnational based groups (often called "terrorists '', but that is limiting). Still, the FIS term remains the usual way of referring to the threat against which counterintelligence protects. In modern practice, several missions are associated with counterintelligence from the national to the field level. Counterintelligence is part of intelligence cycle security, which, in turn, is part of intelligence cycle management. A variety of security disciplines also fall under intelligence security management and complement counterintelligence, including: The disciplines involved in "positive security '', or measures by which one 's own society collects information on its actual or potential security, complement security. For example, when communications intelligence identifies a particular radio transmitter as one used only by a particular country, detecting that transmitter inside one 's own country suggests the presence of a spy that counterintelligence should target. In particular, counterintelligence has a significant relationship with the collection discipline of HUMINT and at least some relationship with the others. Counterintellingence can both produce information and protect it. All US departments and agencies with intelligence functions are responsible for their own security abroad, except those that fall under Chief of Mission authority. Governments try to protect three things: In many governments, the responsibility for protecting these things is split. Historically, CIA assigned responsibility for protecting its personnel and operations to its Office of Security, while it assigned the security of operations to multiple groups within the Directorate of Operations: the counterintelligence staff and the area (or functional) unit, such as Soviet Russia Division. At one point, the counterintelligence unit operated quite autonomously, under the direction of James Jesus Angleton. Later, operational divisions had subordinate counterintelligence branches, as well as a smaller central counterintelligence staff. Aldrich Ames was in the Counterintelligence Branch of Europe Division, where he was responsible for directing the analysis of Soviet intelligence operations. US military services have had a similar and even more complex split. This kind of division clearly requires close coordination, and this in fact occurs on a daily basis. The interdependence of the US counterintelligence community is also manifest in our relationships with liaison services. We can not cut off these relationships because of concern about security, but experience has certainly shown that we must calculate the risks involved. On the other side of the CI coin, counterespionage has one purpose which transcends all others in importance: penetration. The emphasis which the KGB places on penetration is evident in the cases already discussed from the defensive, or security viewpoint. The best security system in the world can not provide an adequate defense against it because the technique involves people. The only way to be sure that an enemy has been contained is to know his plans in advance and in detail. "Moreover, only a high - level penetration of the opposition can tell you whether your own service is penetrated. A high - level defector can also do this, but the adversary knows that he defected and within limits can take remedial action. Conducting CE without the aid of penetrations is like fighting in the dark. Conducting CE with penetrations can be like shooting fish in a barrel. '' In the British service, the cases of the Cambridge Five, and the later suspicions about MI5 chief Sir Roger Hollis caused great internal dissension. Clearly, the British were penetrated by Philby, but it has never been determined, in any public forum, if there were other serious penetrations. In the US service, there was also significant disruption over the contradictory accusations about moles from defectors Anatoliy Golitsyn and Yuri Nosenko, and their respective supporters in CIA and the British Security Service (MI5). Golitsyn was generally believed by Angleton. George Kisevalter, the CIA operations officer that was the CIA side of the joint US - UK handling of Oleg Penkovsky, did not believe Angleton 's theory that Nosenko was a KGB plant. Nosenko had exposed John Vassall, a KGB asset principally in the British Admiralty, but there were arguments Vassall was a KGB sacrifice to protect other operations, including Nosenko and a possibly more valuable source on the Royal Navy. Defensive counterintelligence starts by looking for places in one 's own organization that could easily be exploited by foreign intelligence services (FIS). FIS is an established term of art in the counterintelligence community, and, in today 's world, "foreign '' is shorthand for "opposing ''. Opposition might indeed be a country, but it could be a transnational group or an internal insurgent group. Operations against a FIS might be against one 's own nation, or another friendly nation. The range of actions that might be done to support a friendly government can include a wide range of functions, certainly including military or counterintelligence activities, but also humanitarian aid and aid to development (i.e., "nation building ''). Terminology here is still emerging, and "transnational group '' could include not only terrorist groups but also transnational criminal organization. Transnational criminal organizations include the drug trade, money laundering, extortion targeted against computer or communications systems, smuggling, etc. "Insurgent '' could be a group opposing a recognized government by criminal or military means, as well as conducting clandestine intelligence and covert operations against the government in question, which could be one 's own or a friendly one. Counterintelligence and counterterrorism analyses provide strategic assessments of foreign intelligence and terrorist groups and prepare tactical options for ongoing operations and investigations. Counterespionage may involve proactive acts against foreign intelligence services, such as double agents, deception, or recruiting foreign intelligence officers. While clandestine HUMINT sources can give the greatest insight into the adversary 's thinking, they may also be most vulnerable to the adversary 's attacks on one 's own organization. Before trusting an enemy agent, remember that such people started out as being trusted by their own countries. They may still be loyal to that country. Wisner emphasized his own, and Dulles ', views that the best defense against foreign attacks on, or infiltration of, intelligence services is active measures against those hostile services. This is often called counterespionage: measures taken to detect enemy espionage or physical attacks against friendly intelligence services, prevent damage and information loss, and, where possible, to turn the attempt back against its originator. Counterespionage goes beyond being reactive, and actively tries to subvert hostile intelligence services, by recruiting agents in the foreign service, by discrediting personnel actually loyal to their own service, and taking away resources that would be useful to the hostile service. All of these actions apply to non-national threats as well as to national organizations. If the hostile action is in one 's own country, or in a friendly one with cooperating police, the hostile agents may be arrested, or, if diplomats, declared persona non grata. From the perspective of one 's own intelligence service, exploiting the situation to the advantage of one 's side is usually preferable to arrest or actions that might result in the death of the threat. The intelligence priority sometimes comes into conflict with the instincts of one 's own law enforcement organizations, especially when the foreign threat combines foreign personnel with citizens of one 's country. In some circumstances, arrest may be a first step, in which the prisoner is given the choice of cooperating, or facing severe consequence up to and including a death sentence for espionage. Cooperation may consist of telling all one knows about the other service, but, preferably, actively assisting in deceptive actions against the hostile service. Defensive counterintelligence specifically for intelligence services involves risk assessment of their culture, sources, methods and resources. Risk management must constantly reflect those assessments, since effective intelligence operations are often risk - taking. Even while taking calculated risks, the services need to mitigate risk with appropriate countermeasures. FIS are especially able to explore open societies, and, in that environment, have been able to subvert insiders in the intelligence community. Offensive counterespionage is the most powerful tool for finding penetrators and neutralizing them, but it is not the only tool. Understanding what leads individuals to turn on their own side is the focus of Project Slammer. Without undue violations of personal privacy, systems can be developed to spot anomalous behavior, especially in the use of information systems. "Decision makers require intelligence free from hostile control or manipulation. Since every intelligence discipline is subject to manipulation by our adversaries, validating the reliability of intelligence from all collection platforms is essential. Accordingly, each counterintelligence organization will validate the reliability of sources and methods that relate to the counterintelligence mission in accordance with common standards. For other mission areas, we will examine collection, analysis, dissemination practices, and other intelligence activities and will recommend improvements, best practices, and common standards. Intelligence is vulnerable not only to external but also to internal threats. Subversion, treason, and leaks expose our vulnerabilities, our governmental and commercial secrets, and our intelligence sources and methods. This insider threat has been a source of extraordinary damage to US national security, as with Aldrich Ames, Robert Hanssen, and Edward Lee Howard, all of whom had access to major clandestine activities. Had an electronic system to detect anomalies in browsing through counterintellence files been in place, Robert Hanssen 's searches for suspicion of activities of his Soviet (and later Russian) paymasters might have surfaced early. Anomalies might simply show that an especially creative analyst has a trained intuition possible connections, and is trying to research them. Adding these new tools and techniques to (national arsenals), the counterintelligence community will seek to manipulate foreign spies, conduct aggressive investigations, make arrests and, where foreign officials are involved, expel them for engaging in practices inconsistent with their diplomatic status or exploit them as an unwitting channel for deception, or turn them into witting double agents. "Witting '' is a term of intelligence art that indicates that one is not only aware of a fact or piece of information but also aware of its connection to intelligence activities. Victor Suvorov, the pseudonym of a former Soviet military intelligence (i.e., GRU) officer, makes the point that a defecting HUMINT officer is a special threat to walk - in or other volunteer assets of the country that he is leaving. Volunteers who are "warmly welcomed '' do not take into consideration the fact that they are despised by hostile intelligence agents. The Soviet operational officer, having seen a great deal of the ugly face of communism, very frequently feels the utmost repulsion to those who sell themselves to it willingly. And when a GRU or KGB officer decides to break with his criminal organization, something which fortunately happens quite often, the first thing he will do is try to expose the hated volunteer. '' Attacks against military, diplomatic and related facilities are a very real threat, as demonstrated by the 1983 attacks against French and US peacekeepers in Beirut, the 1996 attack on the Khobar Towers in Saudi Arabia, 1998 attacks on Colombian bases and on US embassies (and local buildings) in Kenya and Tanzania the 2000 attack on the USS Cole, and many others. The US military force protection measures are the set of actions taken against military personnel and family members, resources, facilities and critical information, and most countries have a similar doctrine for protecting those facilities and conserving the potential of the forces. Force protection is defined to be a defense against deliberate attack, not accidents or natural disasters. Counterintelligence Force Protection Source Operations (CFSO) are human source operations, normally clandestine in nature, conducted abroad that are intended to fill the existing gap in national level coverage, as well as satisfying the combatant commander 's intelligence requirements. Military police and other patrols that mingle with local people may indeed be valuable HUMINT sources for counterintelligence awareness, but are not themselves likely to be CFSOs. Gleghorn distinguishes between the protection of national intelligence services, and the intelligence needed to provide combatant commands with the information they need for force protection. There are other HUMINT sources, such as military reconnaissance patrols that avoid mixing with foreign personnel, that indeed may provide HUMINT, but not HUMINT especially relevant to counterintelligence. Active countermeasures, whether for force protection, protection of intelligence services, or protection of national security interests, are apt to involve HUMINT disciplines, for the purpose of detecting FIS agents, involving screening and debriefing of non-tasked human sources, also called casual or incidental sources. such as: "Physical security is important, but it does not override the role of force protection intelligence... Although all intelligence disciplines can be used to gather force protection intelligence, HUMINT collected by intelligence and CI agencies plays a key role in providing indications and warning of terrorist and other force protection threats. Force protection, for forces deployed in host countries, occupation duty, and even at home, may not be supported sufficiently by a national - level counterterrorism organization alone. In a country, colocating FPCI personnel, of all services, with military assistance and advisory units, allows agents to build relationships with host nation law enforcement and intelligence agencies, get to know the local environments, and improve their language skills. FPCI needs a legal domestic capability to deal with domestic terrorism threats. As an example of terrorist planning cycles, the Khobar Towers attack shows the need for long - term FPCI. "The Hizballah operatives believed to have conducted this attack began intelligence collection and planning activities in 1993. They recognized American military personnel were billeted at Khobar Towers in the fall of 1994, and began surveillance of the facility, and continued to plan, in June 1995. In March 1996, Saudi Arabian border guards arrested a Hizballah member attempting plastic explosive into the country, leading to the arrest of two more Hizballah members. Hizballah leaders recruited replacements for those arrested, and continued planning for the attack. '' In US doctrine, although not necessarily that of other countries, CI is now seen as primarily a counter to FIS HUMINT. In the 1995 US Army counterintelligence manual, CI had a broader scope against the various intelligence collection disciplines. Some of the overarching CI tasks are described as More recent US joint intelligence doctrine restricts its primary scope to counter-HUMINT, which usually includes counter-terror. It is not always clear, under this doctrine, who is responsible for all intelligence collection threats against a military or other resource. The full scope of US military counterintelligence doctrine has been moved to a classified publication, Joint Publication (JP) 2 - 01.2, Counterintelligence and Human Intelligence Support to Joint Operations. More specific countermeasures against intelligence collection disciplines are listed below If accessible, use SATRAN reports of satellites overhead to hide or stop activities while being viewed Counter-HUMINT deals with both the detection of hostile HUMINT sources within an organization, or the detection of individuals likely to become hostile HUMINT sources, as a mole or double agent. There is an additional category relevant to the broad spectrum of counterintelligence: why one becomes a terrorist. The acronym MICE: describes the most common reasons people break trust and disclose classified materials, reveal operations to hostile services, or join terrorist groups. It makes sense, therefore, to monitor trusted personnel for risks in these areas, such as financial stress, extreme political views, potential vulnerabilities for blackmail, and excessive need for approval or intolerance of criticism. With luck, problems in an employee can be caught early, assistance can be provided to correct them, and not only is espionage avoided, but a useful employee retained. See Motives for spying for specific examples. Sometimes, the preventive and neutralization tasks overlap, as in the case of Earl Edwin Pitts. Pitts had been an FBI agent who had sold secret information to the Soviets, and, after the fall of the USSR, to the Russians. He was caught by an FBI false flag sting, in which FBI agents, posing as Russian FSB agents, came to Pitts with an offer to "reactivate '' him. His activities seemed motivated by both Money and Ego over perceived bad treatment when he was an FBI agent. His sentence required him to tell the FBI all he knew of foreign agents. Ironically, he told them of suspicious actions by Robert Hanssen, which were not taken seriously at the time. To go beyond slogans, Project Slammer was an effort of the Intelligence Community Staff, under the Director of Central Intelligence, to come up with characteristics of an individual likely to commit espionage against the United States. It "examines espionage by interviewing and psychologically assessing actual espionage subjects. Additionally, persons knowledgeable of subjects are contacted to better understand the subjects ' private lives and how they are perceived by others while conducting espionage. '' -- Deserving. -- The individual 's situation is not satisfactory. -- No other (easier) option (than to engage in espionage). -- Doing only what others frequently do. -- Not a bad person. -- Performance in a government job (if presently employed) is separate from espionage; espionage does not (really) discount contribution in the workplace. -- Security procedures do not (really) apply to the individual. -- Security programs (e.g., briefings) have no meaning for the individual unless they connect with something with which they can personally identify. -- They see espionage as a "Victimless '' crime. -- Once they consider espionage, they figure out how it might be done. These are mutually reinforcing, often simultaneous events. -- Subject finds that it is easy to go around security safeguards (or is able to solve that problem). They belittle the security system, feeling that if the information was really important espionage would be hard to do (the information would really be better protected). This "Ease of accomplishment '' further reinforces resolve. -- After a relationship with espionage activity and HOIS develops, the process becomes much more bearable, espionage continues (even flourishes). -- In the course of long - term activity, subjects may reconsider their involvement. -- Some consider breaking their role to become an operative for the government. This occurs when access to classified information is lost or there is a perceived need to prove themselves or both. -- Others find that espionage activity becomes stressful, they no longer want it. Glamour (if present earlier) subsides. They are reluctant to continue. They may even break contact. -- Sometimes they consider telling authorities what they have done. Those wanting to reverse their role are n't confessing, they 're negotiating. Those who are "Stressed out '' want to confess. Neither wants punishment. Both attempt to minimize or avoid punishment. According to a press report about Project Slammer and Congressional oversight of counterespionage, one fairly basic function is observing one 's own personnel for behavior that either suggests that they could be targets for foreign HUMINT, or may already have been subverted. News reports indicate that in hindsight, red flags were flying but not noticed. In several major penetrations of US services, such as Aldrich Ames, the Walker ring or Robert Hanssen, the individual showed patterns of spending inconsistent with their salary. Some people with changed spending may have a perfectly good reason, such as an inheritance or even winning the lottery, but such patterns should not be ignored. Personnel in sensitive positions, who have difficulty getting along with peers, may become risks for being compromised with an approach based on ego. William Kampiles, a low - level worker in the CIA Watch Center, sold, for a small sum, the critical operations manual on the KH - 11 reconnaissance satellite. To an interviewer,. Kampiles suggested that if someone had noted his "problem '' -- constant conflicts with supervisors and co-workers -- and brought in outside counseling, he might not have stolen the KH - 11 manual. By 1997, the Project Slammer work was being presented at public meetings of the Security Policy Advisory Board. While a funding cut caused the loss of impetus in the mid-nineties, there are research data used throughout the security community. They emphasize the "essential and multi-faceted motivational patterns underlying espionage. Future Slammer analyses will focus on newly developing issues in espionage such as the role of money, the new dimensions of loyalty and what seems to be a developing trend toward economic espionage. '' Military and security organizations will provide secure communications, and may monitor less secure systems, such as commercial telephones or general Internet connections, to detect inappropriate information being passed through them. Education on the need to use secure communications, and instruction on using them properly so that they do not become vulnerable to specialized technical interception. The basic methods of countering IMINT are to know when the opponent will use imaging against one 's own side, and interfering with the taking of images. In some situations, especially in free societies, it must be accepted that public buildings may always be subject to photography or other techniques. Countermeasures include putting visual shielding over sensitive targets or camouflaging them. When countering such threats as imaging satellites, awareness of the orbits can guide security personnel to stop an activity, or perhaps cover the sensitive parts, when the satellite is overhead. This also applies to imaging on aircraft and UAVs, although the more direct expedient of shooting them down, or attacking their launch and support area, is an option in wartime. While the concept well precedes the recognition of a discipline of OSINT, the idea of censorship of material directly relevant to national security is a basic OSINT defense. In democratic societies, even in wartime, censorship must be watched carefully lest it violate reasonable freedom of the press, but the balance is set differently in different countries and at different times. Great Britain is generally considered to have a very free press, but the UK does have the DA - Notice, formerly D - notice system. Many British journalists find that this system is used fairly, although there will always be arguments. In the specific context of counterintelligence, note that Peter Wright, a former senior member of the Security Service who left their service without his pension, moved to Australia before publishing his book Spycatcher. While much of the book was reasonable commentary, it did reveal some specific and sensitive techniques, such as Operation RAFTER, a means of detecting the existence and setting of radio receivers. MASINT is mentioned here for completeness, but the discipline contains so varied a range of technologies that a type - by - type strategy is beyond the current scope. One example, however, can draw on the Operation RAFTER technique revealed in Wright 's book. With the knowledge that Radiofrequency MASINT was being used to pick up an internal frequency in radio receivers, it would be possible to design a shielded receiver that would not radiate the signal that RAFTER monitored. Offensive techniques in current counterintelligence doctrine are principally directed against human sources, so counterespionage can be considered a synonym for offensive counterintelligence. At the heart of exploitation operations is the objective to degrade the effectiveness of an adversary 's intelligence service or a terrorist organization. Offensive counterespionage (and counterterrorism) is done one of two ways, either by manipulating the adversary (FIS or terrorist) in some manner or by disrupting the adversary 's normal operations. Defensive counterintelligence operations that succeed in breaking up a clandestine network by arresting the persons involved or by exposing their actions demonstrate that disruption is quite measurable and effective against FIS if the right actions are taken. If defensive counterintelligence stops terrorist attacks, it has succeeded. Offensive counterintelligence seeks to damage the long - term capability of the adversary. If it can lead a national adversary into putting large resources into protecting a nonexistent threat, or if it can lead terrorists to assume that all of their "sleeper '' agents in a country have become unreliable and must be replaced (and possibly killed as security risks), there is a greater level of success than can be seen from defensive operations alone, To carry out offensive counterintelligence, however, the service must do more than detect; it must manipulate persons associated with the adversary. The Canadian Department of National Defence makes some useful logical distinctions in its Directive on its National Counter-Intelligence Unit. The terminology is not the same as used by other services, but the distinctions are useful: DND further makes the useful clarification, "The security intelligence process should not be confused with the liaison conducted by members of the Canadian Forces National Investigation Service (CFNIS) for the purpose of obtaining criminal intelligence, as the collection of this type of information is within their mandate. '' Manipulating an intelligence professional, himself trained in counterintelligence, is no easy task, unless he is already predisposed toward the opposing side. Any effort that does not start with a sympathetic person will take a long - term commitment, and creative thinking to overcome the defenses of someone who knows he is a counterintelligence target and also knows counterintelligence techniques. Terrorists on the other hand, although they engage in deception as a function of security appear to be more prone to manipulation or deception by a well - placed adversary than are foreign intelligence services. This is in part due to the fact that many terrorist groups, whose members "often mistrust and fight among each other, disagree, and vary in conviction. '', are not as internally cohesive as foreign intelligence services, potentially leaving them more vulnerable to both deception and manipulation. A person willing to take on an offensive counterintelligence role, especially when not starting as a professional member of a service, can present in many ways. A person may be attracted by careful nurturing of a sense that someone may want to act against service A, or may be opportunistic: a walk - in or write - in. Opportunistic acquisition, as of a walk - in, has the disadvantage of being unexpected and therefore unplanned for: the decision to run a double agent should be made only after a great deal of thought, assessment, and evaluation, and if the candidate comes as a volunteer, the service may have to act without sufficient time for reflection. In this situation the necessity of assessing the candidate conflicts also with the preservation of security, particularly if the officer approached is in covert status. Volunteers and walk - ins are tricky customers, and the possibility of provocation is always present. On the other hand, some of our best operations have been made possible by volunteers. The test of the professional skill of an intelligence organization is its ability to handle situations of this type. When an agent candidate appears, judgments are needed on four essential questions to decide if a potential operation makes sense, if the candidate is the right person for the operation, and if one 's own service can support the operation. Negative answers on one or even two of these questions are not ground for immediate rejection of the possible operation. But they are ground for requiring some unusually high entries on the credit side of the ledger. The initial assessment comes from friendly debriefing or interview. The interviewing officer may be relaxed and casual, but underneath the surface his attitude is one of deliberate purpose: he is trying to find out enough to make an initial judgment of the man sensing the subject 's motivations, emotional state and mental processes. For instance, if an agent walks in, says he is a member of another service, and reveals information so sensitive that the other service would surely not give it away just to establish the informant 's bona fides, there are two possibilities: Sometimes, the manner in which the man conducts himself will suggest which of the two it is. In addition to establishing the individual 's true identity and examining his documents, there is also a need to gain information on the walk - in 's service. It may be more difficult to determine the reason why the agent presented himself than to establish who he is and what service he represents, because motivation is a complex of mental and emotional drives. The question of the double agent 's motivation is approached by the interviewing officer from two angles: If a recruit speaks of a high regard for democratic ideology, but casual conversation about Western history and politics may reveal that the potential double agent really has no understanding of democracy. Ideology may not be the real reason why he is willing to cooperate. While it is possible such an individual created a romanticized fantasy of democracy, it is more likely that he is saying what he thinks the CI officer wants to hear. CI officers should make it comfortable for the agent to mention more base motivations: money or revenge. It can be informative to leave such things as luxury catalogs where the agent can see them, and observe if he reacts with desire, repugnance, or disbelief. To decide between what the officer thinks the motive is and what the agent says it is not easy, because double agents act out of a wide variety of motivations, sometimes psychopathic ones like a masochistic desire for punishment by both services. Others have financial, religious, political, or vindictive motives. The last are often the best double agents: they get pleasure out of deceiving their comrades by their every act day after day. Making the judgment about the agent 's psychological and physical suitability is also difficult. Sometimes a psychologist or psychiatrist can be called in under some pretext. Such professionals, or a well - trained CI officer, may recognize signs of sociopathic personality disorder in potential double agents. From the point of view of the double agent operation, here are their key traits: The candidate must be considered as a person and the operation as a potential. Possibilities which would otherwise be rejected out of hand can be accepted if the counterintelligence service is or will be in a position to obtain and maintain an independent view of both the double agent and the case. The estimate of the potential value of the operation must take into consideration whether his service has the requisite personnel, facilities, and technical support; whether running the operation will prejudice other activities of his government; whether it will be necessary or desirable, at the outset or later, to share the case with foreign liaison; and whether the case has political implications. A subject of offensive counterintelligence starts with a loyalty to one service. In these examples: Double agents and defectors start out being loyal to service B, which immediately creates the potential for emotional conflict. False flag operations also have the potential for conflict, as these operations recruit people who believe they are working for service C, but they have not been told the truth: they are actually working for service A or B, depending on the nature of the operation. Moles start out as loyal to service A, but may or may not be a trained intelligence officer of that service. Indeed, those that are not trained, but volunteer to penetrate a FIS, may either not understand the risk, or are tremendously brave individuals, highly motivated against Country B and willing to risk its retaliation if their limited preparation reveals their true affiliation. Note that some intelligence professionals reserve mole to refer to enemy personnel that personally know important things about enemy intelligence operations, technology, or military plans. A person such as a clerk or courier, who photographs many documents but is not really in a position to explore enemy thinking, is more generically an asset. To be clear, all moles are assets, but not all assets are moles. One of the more difficult methods involves having the would - be-mole "dangled '' -- that is luring the adversary intelligence service (or terrorist group) to recruit the opposition 's clandestine intelligence officer who is posing as a "walk - in '' (someone who voluntarily offers information) -- in the hopes that the adversary will unknowingly take the bait. Another special case is a "deep cover '' or "sleeper '' mole, who may enter a service, possibly at a young age, but definitely not reporting or doing anything that would attract suspicion, until reaching a senior position. Kim Philby is an example of an agent actively recruited by Britain while he was already committed to Communism. A special case is a false - flag recruitment of a penetrator: An individual may want to leave their service at once, perhaps from high - level disgust, or low - level risk of having been discovered in financial irregularities and is just ahead of arrest. Even so, the defector certainly brings knowledge with him, and may be able to bring documents or other materials of value. Another method is to directly recruit an intelligence officer (or terrorist member) from within the ranks of the adversary service (terrorist group) and having that officer (terrorist) maintain their normal duties while spying on their parent service (organization); this is also referred to as recruiting an "agent '' or defector in place. Before even considering double agent operations, a service has to consider its own resources. Managing that agent will take skill and sophistication, both at the local / case officer and central levels. Complexity goes up astronomically when the service can not put physical controls on its doubles, as did the Double Cross System in World War II. From beginning to end, a DA operation must be most carefully planned, executed, and above all, reported. The amount of detail and administrative backstopping seems unbearable at times in such matters. But since penetrations are always in short supply, and defectors can tell less and less of what we need to know as time goes on, because of their cut - off dates, double agents will continue to be part of the scene. Services functioning abroad -- and particularly those operating in areas where the police powers are in neutral or hostile hands -- need professional subtlety as well. Case officers must know the agent 's area and have a nuanced understanding of his language; this is an extremely unwise situation for using interpreters, since the case officer needs to sense the emotional content of the agent 's communication and match it with the details of the information flowing in both directions. Depending on whether the operation is being run in one 's own country, an allied country, or hostile territory, the case officer needs to know the relevant laws. Even in friendly territory, the case officer needs both liaison with, and knowledge of, the routine law enforcement and security units in the area, so the operation is not blown because an ordinary policeman gets suspicious and brings the agent in for questioning. The most preferable situation is that the service running the double agent have complete control of communications. When communications were by Morse code, each operator had a unique rhythm of keying, called a "fist ''. MASINT techniques of the time recognized individual operators, so it was impossible to substitute a different operator than the agent. The agent also could make deliberate and subtle changes in his keying, to alert his side that he had been turned. While Morse is obsolete, voices are very recognizable and resistant to substitution. Even text communication can have patterns of grammar or word choice, known to the agent and his original service, that can hide a warning of capture. Full knowledge of (the agent 's) past (and especially of any prior intelligence associations), a solid grasp of his behavior pattern (both as an individual and as a member of a national grouping), and rapport in the relationship with him. The discovery of an adversary intelligence officer who has succeeded in penetrating one 's own organization offers the penetrated intelligence service the possibility of "turning '' this officer in order to use him as a "double agent ''. The way a double agent case starts deeply affects the operation throughout its life. Almost all of them begin in one of the three ways following: Double agent False flag double agent Active penetrator Passive Provocateur This may be extremely difficult to accomplish, and even if accomplished the real difficulty is maintaining control of this "turned asset ''. Controlling an enemy agent who has been turned is a many - faceted and complex exercise that essentially boils down to making certain that the agent 's new - found loyalty remains consistent, which means determining whether the "doubled '' agent 's turning is genuine or false. However, this process can be quite convoluted and fraught with uncertainty and suspicion. Where it concerns terrorist groups, a terrorist who betrays his organization can be thought of and run as a double - agent against the terrorist 's "parent '' organization in much the same fashion as an intelligence officer from a foreign intelligence service. Therefore, for sake of ease, wherever double - agents are discussed the methodologies generally apply to activities conducted against terrorist groups as well. A double agent is a person who engages in clandestine activity for two intelligence or security services (or more in joint operations), who provides information about one or about each to the other, and who wittingly withholds significant information from one on the instructions of the other or is unwittingly manipulated by one so that significant facts are withheld from the adversary. Peddlers, fabricators, and others who work for themselves rather than a service are not double agents because they are not agents. The fact that doubles have an agent relationship with both sides distinguishes them from penetrations, who normally are placed with the target service in a staff or officer capacity. The unwitting double agent is an extremely rare bird. The manipulative skill required to deceive an agent into thinking that he is serving the adversary when in fact he is damaging its interests is plainly of the highest order. For predictive purposes the most important clue imbedded in the origins of an operation is the agent 's original or primary affiliation, whether it was formed voluntarily or not, the length of its duration, and its intensity. The effects of years of clandestine association with the adversary are deep and subtle; the Service B case officer working with a double agent of service A is characterized by an ethnicity or religion may find those bonds run deep, even if the agent hates the government of A. The service B officer may care deeply for the double. Another result of lengthy prior clandestine service is that the agent may be hard to control in most operations the case officer 's superior training and experience give him so decided an edge over the agent that recognition of this superiority makes the agent more tractable. But add to the fact that the experienced double agent may have been in the business longer than his U.S. control his further advantage in having gained a first - hand comparative knowledge of the workings of at least two disparate services, and it is obvious that the case officer 's margin of superiority diminishes, vanishes, or even is reversed. One facet of the efforts to control a double agent operation is to ensure that the double agent is protected from discovery by the parent intelligence service; this is especially true in circumstances where the double agent is a defector - in - place. Like all other intelligence operations, double agent cases are run to protect and enhance the national security. They serve this purpose principally by providing current counterintelligence about hostile intelligence and security services and about clandestine subversive activities. The service and officer considering a double agent possibility must weigh net national advantage thoughtfully, never forgetting that a double agent is, in effect, a condoned channel of communication with the enemy. A service discovering an adversary agent may offer him employment as a double. His agreement, obtained under open or implied duress, is unlikely, however, to be accompanied by a genuine switch of loyalties. The so - called redoubled agent whose duplicity in doubling for another service has been detected by his original sponsor and who has been persuaded to reverse his affections again also belongs to this dubious class. Many detected and doubled agents degenerate into what are sometimes called "piston agents '' or "mailmen, '' who change their attitudes with their visas as they shunt from side to side. Operations based on them are little more than unauthorized liaison with the enemy, and usually time - wasting exercises in futility. A notable exception is the detected and unwillingly doubled agent who is relieved to be found out in his enforced service to the adversary. There can be active and passive provocation agents. A double agent may serve as a means through which a provocation can be mounted against a person, an organization, an intelligence or security service, or any affiliated group to induce action to its own disadvantage. The provocation might be aimed at identifying members of the other service, at diverting it to less important objectives, at tying up or wasting its assets and facilities, at sowing dissension within its ranks, at inserting false data into its files to mislead it, at building up in it a tainted file for a specific purpose, at forcing it to surface an activity it wanted to keep hidden, or at bringing public discredit on it, making it look like an organization of idiots. The Soviets and some of the Satellite services, the Poles in particular, are extremely adept in the art of conspiratorial provocation. All kinds of mechanisms have been used to mount provocation operations; the double agent is only one of them. An active one is sent by Service A to Service B to tell B that he works for A but wants to switch sides. Or he may be a talk - in rather than a walk - in. In any event, the significant information that he is withholding, in compliance with A 's orders, is the fact that his offer is being made at A 's instigation. He is also very likely to conceal one channel of communication with A-for example, a second secret writing system. Such "side - commo '' enables A to keep in full touch while sending through the divulged communications channel only messages meant for adversary eyes. The provocateur may also conceal his true sponsor, claiming for example (and truthfully) to represent an A1 service (allied with A) whereas his actual control is the A. Passive provocations are variants involving false - flag recruiting. In Country C, Service A surveys the intelligence terrain through the eyes of Service B (a species of mirror - reading) and selects those citizens whose access to sources and other qualifications make them most attractive to B. Service A officers, posing as service B officers, recruit the citizens of country C. At some point, service A then exposes these individuals, and complains to country C that country B is subverting its citizens. The stake - out has a far better chance of success in areas like Africa, where intelligence exploitation of local resources is far less intensive than in Europe, where persons with valuable access are likely to have been approached repeatedly by recruiting services during the postwar years. A triple agent can be a double agent that decides his true loyalty is to his original service, or could always have been loyal to his service but is part of an active provocation of your service. If managing a double agent is hard, agents that turned again (i.e., tripled) or another time after that are far more difficult, but in some rare cases, worthwhile. Any service B controlling, or believing it controls, a double agent, must constantly evaluate the information that agent is providing on service A. While service A may have been willing to sacrifice meaningful information, or even other human assets, to help an intended penetration agent establish his bona fides, at some point, service A may start providing useless or misleading information as part of the goal of service A. In the World War II Double Cross System, another way the British controllers (i.e., service B in this example) kept the Nazis believing in their agent, was that the British let true information flow, but too late for the Germans to act on it. The double agent might send information indicating that a lucrative target was in range of a German submarine, but, by the time the information reaches the Germans, they confirm the report was true because the ship is now docked in a safe port that would have been a logical destination on the course reported by the agent. While the Double Cross System actively handled the double agent, the information sent to the Germans was part of the overall Operation Bodyguard deception program of the London Controlling Section. Bodyguard was meant to convince the Germans that the Allies planned their main invasion at one of several places, none of which were Normandy. As long as the Germans found those deceptions credible, which they did, they reinforced the other locations. Even when the large landings came at Normandy, deception operations continued, convincing the Germans that Operation Neptune at Normandy was a feint, so that they held back their strategic reserves. By the time it became apparent that Normandy was indeed the main invasions, the strategic reserves had been under heavy air attack, and the lodgment was sufficiently strong that the reduced reserves could not push it back. There are other benefits to analyzing the exchange of information between the double agent and his original service, such as learning the priorities of service A through the information requests they are sending to an individual they believe is working for them. If the requests all turn out to be for information that service B could not use against A, and this becomes a pattern, service A may have realized their agent has been turned. Since maintaining control over double agents is tricky at best, it is not hard to see how problematic this methodology can become. The potential for multiple turnings of agents and perhaps worse, the turning of one 's own intelligence officers (especially those working within counterintelligence itself), poses a serious risk to any intelligence service wishing to employ these techniques. This may be the reason that triple - agent operations appear not to have been undertaken by U.S. counterintelligence in some espionage cases that have come to light in recent years, particularly among those involving high - level penetrations. Although the arrest and prosecution of Aldrich Ames of the CIA and Robert Hanssen of the FBI, both of whom were senior counterintelligence officers in their respective agencies who volunteered to spy for the Russians, hardly qualifies as conclusive evidence that triple - agent operations were not attempted throughout the community writ large, these two cases suggest that neutralization operations may be the preferred method of handling adversary double agent operations vice the more aggressive exploitation of these potential triple - agent sources. Triple agent A concern with triple agents, of course, is if they have changed loyalties twice, why not a third or even more times? Consider a variant where the agent remains fundamentally loyal to B Quadruple agent Successes such as the British Double Cross System or the German Operation North Pole show that these types of operations are indeed feasible. Therefore, despite the obviously very risky and extremely complex nature of double agent operations, the potentially quite lucrative intelligence windfall -- the disruption or deception of an adversary service -- makes them an inseparable component of exploitation operations. If a double agent wants to come home to Service A, how can he offer a better way to redeem himself than recruiting the Service B case officer that was running his double agent case, essentially redoubling the direction of the operation? If the case officer refuses, that is apt to be the end of the operation. If the attempt fails, of course, the whole operation has to be terminated. A creative agent can tell his case office, even if he had not been tripled, that he had been loyal all along, and the case officer would, at best, be revealed as a fool. Occasionally a service runs a double agent whom it knows to be under the control of the other service and therefore has little ability to manipulate or even one who it knows has been successfully redoubled. The question why a service sometimes does this is a valid one. One reason for us is humanitarian: when the other service has gained physical control of the agent by apprehending him in a denied area, we often continue the operation even though we know that he has been doubled back because we want to keep him alive if we can >. Another reason might be a desire to determine how the other service conducts its double agent operations or what it uses for operational build - up or deception material and from what level it is disseminated. There might be other advantages, such as deceiving the opposition as to the service 's own capabilities, skills, intentions, etc. Perhaps the service might want to continue running the known redoubled agent in order to conceal other operations. It might want to tie up the facilities of the opposition. It might use the redoubled agent as an adjunct in a provocation being run against the opposition elsewhere. Running a known redoubled agent is like playing poker against a professional who has marked the cards but who presumably is unaware that you can read the backs as well as he can. Control is the capacity of a case officer of country B to generate, alter, or halt agent behavior by using or indicating his capacity to use physical or psychological means of leverage. And a case officer working overseas does not control a double agent the way a policeman controls an informer. At best, the matter is in shades of gray. The case officer has to consider that the double from country A still has contact with country B. Before the case officer pushes a button on the agent 's control panel he should know what is likely to happen next. For example, pressure exerted bluntly or blindly, without insight into the agent 's motivation and personality, may cause him to tell the truth to the adversary as a means of escaping from a painful situation. The target service (A) inevitably exercises some control over the double agent, if only in his performance of the tasks that it assigns to him. B, in fact, has to be careful not to disrupt the double 's relation with his own service, warning service A of a control. Even if the positive side is being run so poorly that the misguided agent is in danger of coming to the attention of local authorities whose intervention would spoil the CI aspect too, the case officer must restrain his natural impulse to button up the adversary 's operation for him. At the very most, he can suggest that the agent complain to the hostile case officer about insecure practices, and then only if the agent 's sophistication and relationship with that case officer make such a complaint seem normal. Physical control of the double is likely only with agents captured in war. The best possible outside capture is either to have the double live where he can be watched, or at least work in a place where he can be watched. Control of the agent 's communications is very close to physical control. Communications control, at least partial, is essential: the agent himself is controlled to a considerable extent if his communications are controlled. But even when his communications are completely controlled, a welltrained agent doubled against his will can appear to be cooperating but manage at an opportune moment to send a signal to his own service indicating that he is under duress. With only partial control, if the agent is in communication with the opposition service through a courier, dead drop, or live drop, some control or surveillance has to be established over these meetings or servicings. The double agent who makes trips in and out of the area where he can be physically controlled presents a multiplicity of problems. The nature and value of the double agent 's functions depend greatly on his personal ability as well as on his mission for the other service. He can always report on the objectives and conduct of this mission and possibly more broadly on the positive and counterintelligence targets of the other service or on its plans. If he is skillful and well trained, he can do valuable work by exploiting the weaknesses of others: all intelligence officers of any service, despite their training, have some weaknesses. One 's own side may triple an agent, or turn even more times than that. With each turn, the chances of deception increase, so in such operations, the quality of the agent 's services needs to be checked constantly. If the agent no longer elicits trust, he might be offered exfiltration if in a foreign country. He might be retired and given an advisory position where he handles no secrets, but might be useful as an occasional reference. A rare agent may actually understand the thinking of the highest levels of government policy. This may not be purely a matter of his assignment; Oleg Penkovsky had social ties to high - ranking generals. An agent, who has been with his service any appreciable time, will be able to provide a good deal of information on the practices, and possibly resources, of his FIS. Other than for the most important of agents, a service is not apt to invent new communications techniques, either for hard - copy passed by dead drop or courier, or for electronic transmission. Information on capabilities comes indirectly, from the level of technology and manufacturing quality with the country - specific equipment with which he was provided. Some agencies, however, make a point of providing their agents with "sterile '' equipment obtained commercially from third countries. If that is their pattern, it may become obvious only if multiple agents are compared at the national CI level. A sufficiently sophisticated agency may obtain different third - country equipment for different agents, leaving the operational instructions as the only detail that may establish a pattern. The double agent serves also as a controlled channel through which information can be passed to the other service, either to build up the agent in its estimation or for purposes of deception. In the complex matter of deception we may distinguish here between National deception operations are usually very delicate, frequently involving the highest levels of the government, and therefore require prior coordination and approval at the national headquarters level. The double agent channel can be used by the controlling service to insert data into the mechanisms of the other service with a number of possible objectives -- for example, to detect its activities in some field. The inserted material is designed to induce certain actions on the part of the other service, which are then observed through another operation or group of operations. The material has to be designed very skillfully if it is to deceive the other service and produce the desired reactions. Such a situation might arise if a case officer handling several operations wanted to set up still another and needed to find out in advance what the pertinent operational pattern was. The following principles apply to the handling of all double agent operations in varying degrees. In composite they form a check - list against which ongoing operations might be periodically reviewed -- and given special examination with the appearance of danger signals. "Testing is a continuous process. '' In accordance with the doctrine in force, use your own, or assistance from psychological specialists, look for changes in motivation. Where appropriate, use a polygraph or newer techniques for detecting emotional stress. Without revealing the penetration, cross-check the information from the agents, including technical analysis of documents and equipment, surveillance, and further research into verifying the agent 's story (i.e., "legend '' in tradecraft) While "name traces can not be run on every person mentioned by the agent, do not be stingy with them on persons who have familial, emotional, or business ties with him '' in verifying his legend. T, but only as a double. '' Improve his own security and cover as a double. Do not, however, improve his intelligence collection skills. The hostile service might make use of information that he collects independently, or they may become suspicious if his skill and reporting suddenly improve. If he has been a bad speller in his reports to his service, do n't volunteer to copy edit! "Require the agent to report and, as security permits, turn over to you everything he gets from the other side: money, gifts, equipment, documents, etc. '' This is a delicate balance. If he thinks he does n't have to report something to you, he can become confused about who gets what. At the same time, use judgment to keep him motivated. Rather than confiscating payments to him, you might deposit them in a third - country bank account of which he is aware, and that he can access on termination. "Prepare all briefings carefully. '' Teaching him resistance to interrogation may improve his security, but it also may make his service suspicious if his manner, to them, changes. "Keep analyzing the agent as well as the case. '' Labels such as "anti-Communist '', "militant Jihadi '', "morally offended by own side '' can oversimplify and interfere with your own understanding of his thinking. "Review the case file periodically. '' Always be thinking if the situation would be improved with improvements in your cover, his cover, or the cover for the operational techniques. Think about how new facts validate or invalidate the old. You may be able to ferret out the real priorities of the opposition with a historical perspective, looking at what they told him to follow up out of his reporting. "Decide early in the operation how it will be terminated if the need arises. '' The last thing you want to do is leave an angry agent in place, in a hostile service. Transfer him to another case officer or allied agency, or arrange his escape to your side. "Mirror - read '' Constantly think about the operation as if you were in the opposing service. Think about what they are receiving from your agent, their satisfaction with it, and their perception of the agent and his capabilities. Do not assume the other side thinks as your service does, a special risk for the United States. The US tends to rely more on technical collection and OSINT than many other world services; the USSR regarded espionage as the most important collection technique, even when they could have used OSINT to collect the same information. "Be careful about awakening in the hostile service an appetite which can not later be satisfied without giving away too much. '' Do not give the agent material, attractive to the other service, but that they might realize he could not have obtained on his own. As long as you are monitoring what he collects before sending it to the other side, let him operate in his own way. By letting him do this, you may detect vulnerabilities that have been missed by your own service, but you can stop the material being sent, or create appropriate disinformation. "Avoid interference. '' Let the other service solve -- or not solve -- agent problems in their usual manner. For example, if the agent is arrested, do not immediately and visibly intervene. In such a situation, the other side may expose additional resources either to support the agent or to provide alternate means of collection. This can always be explained to the agent, with some truth, that you are not giving obvious help to protect his security to his own service. "Be constantly alert for hostile provocation ''. If the agent reports a crisis with his service, do not take it at face value; always look for the plot within a plot, but keep perspective. The opposition are not supermen. "If the adversary appears to be a Satellite (client) service '', do not forget that the more powerful organization may not be pulling the strings. A local ideological terror group may well be receiving direction from a distant transnational group. Consider the possibility of false - flag agents in such circumstances. "Report the case frequently, quickly, and in detail. '' The FIS has a headquarters staff looking globally for penetrations; why should you not take advantage of your central resources? "Only timely and full reporting to your headquarters will permit it to help you effectively. '' Keep a full record, including dates, of all adversary assignments given the agent. "Keep precise records '' of any of your own side 's classified material fed to the agent. Both for protecting your service and yourself, keep careful notes about who approved the release. "Do not plan a deception operation or pass deception material without prior headquarters approval. '' "Do not reveal your service 's assets or CI knowledge to a double. '' It is vital that double agents be run within the framework of their own materials -- the information which they themselves supply. The more you keep from an experienced double the information he should not have, the more he will be reassured that his own safety is in good hands. "Do not run the operation in a vacuum. '' Be aware of any political implications that it may have, locally or internationally. Ask for advice when you are n't sure. "If the operation is joint, weigh, its probable effect upon the liaison relationship. '' What should you do if the joint service (s) change their priorities?

who are the chrisleys and why are they on tv

Chrisley Knows Best - wikipedia Chrisley Knows Best is an American reality television series airing on the USA Network. It centers around the lives of wealthy Georgia real estate mogul Todd Chrisley and his family. The show formerly took place in Roswell and Alpharetta, Georgia, both near Atlanta. The show is currently in its fifth season, which was filmed mainly in Nashville, Tennessee. In the summer of 2017, it was announced that a sixth season of Chrisley Knows Best would air. The series is executive produced by Adam Greener, Jim Sayer, and Stephanie Chambers. Maverick TV and All3Media America are the production companies behind the series. On April 14, 2014, the USA Network ordered a 12 - episode second season of Chrisley Knows Best. It is also USA Network 's youngest - skewing original series. On October 20, 2014, the series was renewed for a 12 - episode third season. On February 5, 2015, the episode order was increased by 6 episodes for a total of 18 for season 3. On July 7, 2016, USA renewed the show for a fifth season. That same day, the network announced that the second half of season 4 will premiere in August bringing it to a total of 26 episodes. On July 25, 2017, a sixth season was picked up of Chrisley Knows Best, and on that same day it was confirmed that Season 5 will start back airing on September 12, 2017, and a sixth season will begin filming in November 2017. The first season averaged 1.16 million viewers. The second season averaged 1.49 million viewers. The third season averaged 1.61 million viewers. The fourth season averaged 1.62 million viewers. The 5th season averaged 1.95 million viewers so far. The show has received mixed reviews. Tom Gliatto of People gave the show a rating of 75 % and gave a positive review, saying "This is the best ' family ' reality series since Honey Boo Boo or even The Osbournes from several eons ago ''. Hillary Busis of Entertainment Weekly gave a mixed review, saying "If you can get past the canned lines and sub-sitcom storylines, the Chrisley crew can be fun ''. Brian Lowry of Variety gave a mixed review, saying "As intriguing in the details as it is uncomfortable to watch, ' Chrisley Knows Best, ' a self - consciously sitcom - like reality show, initially seems to be just another knockoff designed to cash in on the ' Duck Dynasty ' demo. Cut through the deep - fried window dressing, though, and this USA series is almost entirely devoted to its subtext, intended to elicit sniggering regarding that which goes unsaid about the show 's wealthy father of five, whom his son - in - law understandably dubs ' flamboyant. ' Played as epic farce, the skein should have a disparate range of appeal, but let 's hope the Chrisleys do n't mind being laughed at, not with ''. Chrisley Knows Best is broadcast on USA Network in the United States. In the UK, it airs on ITVBe.

who is the most quoted writer in the english language

Samuel Johnson - wikipedia Samuel Johnson (18 September 1709 (OS 7 September) -- 13 December 1784), often referred to as Dr. Johnson, was an English writer who made lasting contributions to English literature as a poet, essayist, moralist, literary critic, biographer, editor and lexicographer. He was a devout Anglican and committed Tory, and is described by the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as "arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history ''. He is also the subject of James Boswell 's The Life of Samuel Johnson, described by Walter Jackson Bate as "the most famous single work of biographical art in the whole of literature ''. Born in Lichfield, Staffordshire, Johnson attended Pembroke College, Oxford, for just over a year, but a lack of funds forced him to leave. After working as a teacher, he moved to London, where he began to write for The Gentleman 's Magazine. His early works include the biography Life of Mr Richard Savage, the poems London and The Vanity of Human Wishes, and the play Irene. After nine years of work, Johnson 's A Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1755. It had a far - reaching effect on Modern English and has been acclaimed as "one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship ''. This work brought Johnson popularity and success. Until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 150 years later, Johnson 's was the pre-eminent British dictionary. His later works included essays, an influential annotated edition of The Plays of William Shakespeare, and the widely read tale The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia. In 1763, he befriended James Boswell, with whom he later travelled to Scotland; Johnson described their travels in A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland. Towards the end of his life, he produced the massive and influential Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets, a collection of biographies and evaluations of 17th - and 18th - century poets. Johnson was a tall and robust man. His odd gestures and tics were disconcerting to some on first meeting him. Boswell 's Life, along with other biographies, documented Johnson 's behaviour and mannerisms in such detail that they have informed the posthumous diagnosis of Tourette syndrome, a condition not defined or diagnosed in the 18th century. He suffered from depression, known as "melancholy '' at the time, his whole life. After a series of illnesses, he died on the evening of 13 December 1784, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. In the years following his death, Johnson began to be recognised as having had a lasting effect on literary criticism, and he was claimed by some to be the only truly great critic of English literature. Samuel Johnson was born on 18 September 1709, to Sarah (née Ford) and Michael Johnson, a bookseller. The birth took place in the family home above his father 's bookshop in Lichfield, Staffordshire. Sarah was 40 when she gave birth to Samuel. This was considered an unusually late pregnancy, so precautions were taken, and a "man - midwife '' and surgeon of "great reputation '' named George Hector was brought in to assist. The infant Samuel did not cry, and there were concerns for the baby 's health. His aunt exclaimed that "she would not have picked such a poor creature up in the street ''. The family feared that the baby would not survive, and in this extremity, summoned the vicar of St Mary 's to perform a baptism. Two godfathers were chosen, Samuel Swynfen, a physician and graduate of Pembroke College, Oxford, and Richard Wakefield, a lawyer, coroner, and Lichfield town clerk. Johnson 's health soon improved and he was put to wet - nurse with Joan Marklew. Some time later he contracted scrofula, known at the time as the "King 's Evil '' because it was thought royalty could cure it. Sir John Floyer, former physician to King Charles II, recommended that the young Johnson should receive the "royal touch '', which he received from Queen Anne on 30 March 1712. He was gifted a gold "touch piece '' that he wore as an amulet for the rest of his life. However, the ritual proved ineffective, and an operation was performed that left him with permanent scars across his face and body. With the birth of Johnson 's brother, Nathaniel, a few months later, Michael became unable to pay the debts he had accrued over the years, and his family was no longer able to maintain its standard of living. Boswell 's Life of Samuel Johnson Samuel Johnson displayed signs of great intelligence as a child, and his parents, to his later disgust, would show off his "newly acquired accomplishments ''. His education began at the age of three, and was provided by his mother, who had him memorise and recite passages from the Book of Common Prayer. When Samuel turned four, he was sent to a nearby school, and, at the age of six he was sent to a retired shoemaker to continue his education. A year later Johnson went to Lichfield Grammar School, where he excelled in Latin. During this time, Johnson started to exhibit the tics that would influence how people viewed him in his later years, and which formed the basis for a posthumous diagnosis of Tourette syndrome. He excelled at his studies and was promoted to the upper school at the age of nine. During this time, he befriended Edmund Hector, nephew of his "man - midwife '' George Hector, and John Taylor, with whom he remained in contact for the rest of his life. At the age of 16 Johnson was given the opportunity to stay with his cousins, the Fords, at Pedmore, Worcestershire. There he became a close friend of Cornelius Ford, who employed his knowledge of the classics to tutor Johnson while he was not attending school. Ford was a successful, well - connected academic, but he was also a notorious alcoholic whose excesses contributed to his death six years later. After spending six months with his cousins, Johnson returned to Lichfield, but Mr. Hunter, the headmaster, "angered by the impertinence of this long absence '', refused to allow Samuel to continue at the grammar school. Unable to return to Lichfield Grammar School, Johnson enrolled at the King Edward VI grammar school at Stourbridge. Because the school was located near Pedmore, Johnson was able to spend more time with the Fords, and he began to write poems and verse translations. However, he spent only six months at Stourbridge before returning once again to his parents ' home in Lichfield. During this time, Johnson 's future remained uncertain because his father was deeply in debt. To earn money, Johnson began to stitch books for his father, and it is likely that Johnson spent much time in his father 's bookshop reading and building his literary knowledge. The family remained in poverty until Sarah Johnson 's cousin, Elizabeth Harriotts, died in February 1728 and left enough money to send Johnson to university. On 31 October 1728, a few weeks after he turned 19, Johnson entered Pembroke College, Oxford. The inheritance did not cover all of his expenses at Pembroke, but Andrew Corbet, a friend and fellow student at Pembroke, offered to make up the deficit. Johnson made friends at Pembroke and read much. In later life he told stories of his idleness. His tutor asked him to produce a Latin translation of Alexander Pope 's Messiah as a Christmas exercise. Johnson completed half of the translation in one afternoon and the rest the following morning. Although the poem brought him praise, it did not bring the material benefit he had hoped for. The poem later appeared in Miscellany of Poems (1731), edited by John Husbands, a Pembroke tutor, and is the earliest surviving publication of any of Johnson 's writings. Johnson spent the rest of his time studying, even during the Christmas holiday. He drafted a "plan of study '' called "Adversaria '', which he left unfinished, and used his time to learn French while working on his Greek. After thirteen months, a shortage of funds forced Johnson to leave Oxford without a degree, and he returned to Lichfield. Towards the end of Johnson 's stay at Oxford, his tutor, Jorden, left Pembroke and was replaced by William Adams. Johnson enjoyed Adams ' tutoring, but by December, Johnson was already a quarter behind in his student fees, and he was forced to return home. He left behind many books that he had borrowed from his father because he could not afford to transport them, and also because he hoped to return to Oxford soon. He eventually did receive a degree. Just before the publication of his Dictionary in 1755, Oxford University awarded Johnson the degree of Master of Arts. He was awarded an honorary doctorate in 1765 by Trinity College Dublin and in 1775 by Oxford University. In 1776 he returned to Pembroke with Boswell and toured the college with his former tutor Adams, who by then was the Master of the college. During that visit he recalled his time at the college and his early career, and expressed his later fondness for Jorden. Little is known about Johnson 's life between the end of 1729 and 1731. It is likely that he lived with his parents. He experienced bouts of mental anguish and physical pain during years of illness; his tics and gesticulations associated with Tourette syndrome became more noticeable and were often commented upon. By 1731 Johnson 's father was deeply in debt and had lost much of his standing in Lichfield. Johnson hoped to get an usher 's position, which became available at Stourbridge Grammar School, but since he did not have a degree, his application was passed over on 6 September 1731. At about this time, Johnson 's father became ill and developed an "inflammatory fever '' which led to his death in December 1731. Johnson eventually found employment as undermaster at a school in Market Bosworth, run by Sir Wolstan Dixie, who allowed Johnson to teach without a degree. Although Johnson was treated as a servant, he found pleasure in teaching even though he considered it boring. After an argument with Dixie he quit the school, and by June 1732 he had returned home. Johnson continued to look for a position at a Lichfield school. After being turned down for a job at Ashbourne, he spent time with his friend Edmund Hector, who was living in the home of the publisher Thomas Warren. At the time, Warren was starting his Birmingham Journal, and he enlisted Johnson 's help. This connection with Warren grew, and Johnson proposed a translation of Jerónimo Lobo 's account of the Abyssinians. Johnson read Abbé Joachim Le Grand 's French translations, and thought that a shorter version might be "useful and profitable ''. Instead of writing the work himself, he dictated to Hector, who then took the copy to the printer and made any corrections. Johnson 's A Voyage to Abyssinia was published a year later. He returned to Lichfield in February 1734, and began an annotated edition of Poliziano 's Latin poems, along with a history of Latin poetry from Petrarch to Poliziano; a Proposal was soon printed, but a lack of funds halted the project. Johnson remained with his close friend Harry Porter during a terminal illness, which ended in Porter 's death on 3 September 1734. Porter 's wife Elizabeth (née Jervis) (otherwise known as "Tetty '') was now a widow at the age of 45, with three children. Some months later, Johnson began to court her. The Reverend William Shaw claims that "the first advances probably proceeded from her, as her attachment to Johnson was in opposition to the advice and desire of all her relations, '' Johnson was inexperienced in such relationships, but the well - to - do widow encouraged him and promised to provide for him with her substantial savings. They married on 9 July 1735, at St Werburgh 's Church in Derby. The Porter family did not approve of the match, partly because of the difference in their ages. (Johnson was 25 and Elizabeth was 46.) Elizabeth 's marriage to Johnson so disgusted her son Jervis that he severed all relations with her. However, her daughter Lucy accepted Johnson from the start, and her other son, Joseph, later came to accept the marriage. In June 1735, while working as a tutor for the children of Thomas Whitby, a local Staffordshire gentleman, Johnson had applied for the position of headmaster at Solihull School. Although Johnson 's friend Gilbert Walmisley gave his support, Johnson was passed over because the school 's directors thought he was "a very haughty, ill - natured gent, and that he has such a way of distorting his face (which though he ca n't help) the gents think it may affect some lads ''. With Walmisley 's encouragement, Johnson decided that he could be a successful teacher if he ran his own school. In the autumn of 1735, Johnson opened Edial Hall School as a private academy at Edial, near Lichfield. He had only three pupils: Lawrence Offley, George Garrick, and the 18 - year - old David Garrick, who later became one of the most famous actors of his day. The venture was unsuccessful and cost Tetty a substantial portion of her fortune. Instead of trying to keep the failing school going, Johnson began to write his first major work, the historical tragedy Irene. Biographer Robert DeMaria believed that Tourette syndrome likely made public occupations like schoolmaster or tutor almost impossible for Johnson. This may have led Johnson to "the invisible occupation of authorship ''. Johnson left for London with his former pupil David Garrick on 2 March 1737, the day Johnson 's brother died. He was penniless and pessimistic about their travel, but fortunately for them, Garrick had connections in London, and the two were able to stay with his distant relative, Richard Norris. Johnson soon moved to Greenwich near the Golden Hart Tavern to finish Irene. On 12 July 1737 he wrote to Edward Cave with a proposal for a translation of Paolo Sarpi 's The History of the Council of Trent (1619), which Cave did not accept until months later. In October 1737 Johnson brought his wife to London, and he found employment with Cave as a writer for The Gentleman 's Magazine. His assignments for the magazine and other publishers during this time were "almost unparalleled in range and variety, '' and "so numerous, so varied and scattered '' that "Johnson himself could not make a complete list ''. The name Columbia, a poetic name for America coined by Johnson, first appears in a 1738 weekly publication of the debates of the British Parliament in The Gentlemen 's Magazine. In May 1738 his first major work, the poem London, was published anonymously. Based on Juvenal 's Satire III, it describes the character Thales leaving for Wales to escape the problems of London, which is portrayed as a place of crime, corruption, and poverty. Johnson could not bring himself to regard the poem as earning him any merit as a poet. Alexander Pope said that the author "will soon be déterré '' (unearthed, dug up), but this would not happen until 15 years later. In August, Johnson 's lack of an MA degree from Oxford or Cambridge led to his being denied a position as master of the Appleby Grammar School. In an effort to end such rejections, Pope asked Lord Gower to use his influence to have a degree awarded to Johnson. Gower petitioned Oxford for an honorary degree to be awarded to Johnson, but was told that it was "too much to be asked ''. Gower then asked a friend of Jonathan Swift to plead with Swift to use his influence at the University of Dublin to have a master 's degree awarded to Johnson, in the hope that this could then be used to justify an MA from Oxford, but Swift refused to act on Johnson 's behalf. Between 1737 and 1739, Johnson befriended poet Richard Savage. Feeling guilty about living on Tetty 's money, Johnson stopped living with her and spent his time with Savage. They were poor and would stay in taverns or sleep in "night - cellars ''. Some nights they would roam the streets until dawn because they had no money at all. Savage 's friends tried to help him by attempting to persuade him to move to Wales, but Savage ended up in Bristol and again fell into debt. He was committed to debtors ' prison and died in 1743. A year later, Johnson wrote Life of Mr Richard Savage (1744), a "moving '' work which, in the words of the biographer and critic Walter Jackson Bate, "remains one of the innovative works in the history of biography ''. In 1746, a group of publishers approached Johnson with an idea about creating an authoritative dictionary of the English language. A contract with William Strahan and associates, worth 1,500 guineas, was signed on the morning of 18 June 1746. Johnson claimed that he could finish the project in three years. In comparison, the Académie Française had forty scholars spending forty years to complete their dictionary, which prompted Johnson to claim, "This is the proportion. Let me see; forty times forty is sixteen hundred. As three to sixteen hundred, so is the proportion of an Englishman to a Frenchman. '' Although he did not succeed in completing the work in three years, he did manage to finish it in eight. Some criticised the dictionary, including Thomas Babington Macaulay, who described Johnson as "a wretched etymologist, '' but according to Bate, the Dictionary "easily ranks as one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship, and probably the greatest ever performed by one individual who laboured under anything like the disadvantages in a comparable length of time. '' Johnson 's dictionary was not the first, nor was it unique. It was, however, the most commonly used and imitated for the 150 years between its first publication and the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary in 1928. Other dictionaries, such as Nathan Bailey 's Dictionarium Britannicum, included more words, and in the 150 years preceding Johnson 's dictionary about twenty other general - purpose monolingual "English '' dictionaries had been produced. However, there was open dissatisfaction with the dictionaries of the period. In 1741, David Hume claimed: "The Elegance and Propriety of Stile have been very much neglected among us. We have no Dictionary of our Language, and scarce a tolerable Grammar. '' Johnson 's Dictionary offers insights into the 18th century and "a faithful record of the language people used ''. It is more than a reference book; it is a work of literature. For a decade, Johnson 's constant work on the Dictionary disrupted his and Tetty 's living conditions. He had to employ a number of assistants for the copying and mechanical work, which filled the house with incessant noise and clutter. He was always busy, and kept hundreds of books around. John Hawkins described the scene: "The books he used for this purpose were what he had in his own collection, a copious but a miserably ragged one, and all such as he could borrow; which latter, if ever they came back to those that lent them, were so defaced as to be scarce worth owning. '' Johnson was also distracted by Tetty 's poor health as she began to show signs of a terminal illness. To accommodate both his wife and his work, he moved to 17 Gough Square near his printer, William Strahan. In preparation, Johnson wrote a Plan for the Dictionary. Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield, was the patron of the Plan, to Johnson 's displeasure. Seven years after first meeting Johnson to go over the work, Chesterfield wrote two anonymous essays in The World recommending the Dictionary. He complained that the English language lacked structure and argued in support of the dictionary. Johnson did not like the tone of the essays, and he felt that Chesterfield had not fulfilled his obligations as the work 's patron. In a letter to Chesterfield, Johnson expressed this view and harshly criticised Chesterfield, saying "Is not a patron, my lord, one who looks with unconcern on a man struggling for life in the water, and when he has reached ground, encumbers him with help? The notice which you have been pleased to take of my labours, had it been early, had been kind: but it has been delayed till I am indifferent and can not enjoy it; till I am solitary and can not impart it; till I am known and do not want it. '' Chesterfield, impressed by the language, kept the letter displayed on a table for anyone to read. The Dictionary was finally published in April 1755, with the title page acknowledging that Oxford had awarded Johnson a Master of Arts degree in anticipation of the work. The dictionary as published was a huge book. Its pages were nearly 18 inches (46 cm) tall, and the book was 20 inches (51 cm) wide when opened; it contained 42,773 entries, to which only a few more were added in subsequent editions, and it sold for the extravagant price of £ 4 10s, perhaps the rough equivalent of £ 350 today. An important innovation in English lexicography was to illustrate the meanings of his words by literary quotation, of which there were approximately 114,000. The authors most frequently cited include William Shakespeare, John Milton and John Dryden. It was years before Johnson 's Dictionary, as it came to be known, turned a profit. Authors ' royalties were unknown at the time, and Johnson, once his contract to deliver the book was fulfilled, received no further money from its sale. Years later, many of its quotations would be repeated by various editions of the Webster 's Dictionary and the New English Dictionary. Besides working on the Dictionary, Johnson also wrote numerous essays, sermons, and poems during these nine years. In 1750, he decided to produce a series of essays under the title The Rambler that were to be published every Tuesday and Saturday and sell for twopence each. Explaining the title years later, he told his friend, the painter Joshua Reynolds: "I was at a loss how to name it. I sat down at night upon my bedside, and resolved that I would not go to sleep till I had fixed its title. The Rambler seemed the best that occurred, and I took it. '' These essays, often on moral and religious topics, tended to be more grave than the title of the series would suggest; his first comments in The Rambler were to ask "that in this undertaking thy Holy Spirit may not be withheld from me, but that I may promote thy glory, and the salvation of myself and others. '' The popularity of The Rambler took off once the issues were collected in a volume; they were reprinted nine times during Johnson 's life. Writer and printer Samuel Richardson, enjoying the essays greatly, questioned the publisher as to who wrote the works; only he and a few of Johnson 's friends were told of Johnson 's authorship. One friend, the novelist Charlotte Lennox, includes a defence of The Rambler in her novel The Female Quixote (1752). In particular, the character Mr. Glanville says, "you may sit in Judgment upon the Productions of a Young, a Richardson, or a Johnson. Rail with premeditated Malice at the Rambler; and for the want of Faults, turn even its inimitable Beauties into Ridicule. '' (Book VI, Chapter XI) Later, she claims Johnson as "the greatest Genius in the present Age. '' Boswell 's Life of Samuel Johnson However, not all of his work was confined to The Rambler. His most highly regarded poem, The Vanity of Human Wishes, was written with such "extraordinary speed '' that Boswell claimed Johnson "might have been perpetually a poet ''. The poem is an imitation of Juvenal 's Satire X and claims that "the antidote to vain human wishes is non-vain spiritual wishes ''. In particular, Johnson emphasises "the helpless vulnerability of the individual before the social context '' and the "inevitable self - deception by which human beings are led astray ''. The poem was critically celebrated but it failed to become popular, and sold fewer copies than London. In 1749, Garrick made good on his promise that he would produce Irene, but its title was altered to Mahomet and Irene to make it "fit for the stage. '' The show eventually ran for nine nights. Tetty Johnson was ill during most of her time in London, and in 1752 she decided to return to the countryside while Johnson was busy working on his Dictionary. She died on 17 March 1752, and, at word of her death, Johnson wrote a letter to his old friend Taylor, which according to Taylor "expressed grief in the strongest manner he had ever read ''. He wrote a sermon in her honour, to be read at her funeral, but Taylor refused to read it, for reasons which are unknown. This only exacerbated Johnson 's feelings of loss and despair after the death of his wife. Consequently, John Hawkesworth had to organise the funeral. Johnson felt guilty about the poverty in which he believed he had forced Tetty to live, and blamed himself for neglecting her. He became outwardly discontent, and his diary was filled with prayers and laments over her death which continued until his own. She was his primary motivation, and her death hindered his ability to complete his work. On 16 March 1756, Johnson was arrested for an outstanding debt of £ 5 18 s. Unable to contact anyone else, he wrote to the writer and publisher Samuel Richardson. Richardson, who had previously lent Johnson money, sent him six guineas to show his good will, and the two became friends. Soon after, Johnson met and befriended the painter Joshua Reynolds, who so impressed Johnson that he declared him "almost the only man whom I call a friend ''. Reynolds ' younger sister Frances observed during their time together "that men, women and children gathered around him (Johnson) '', laughing at his gestures and gesticulations. In addition to Reynolds, Johnson was close to Bennet Langton and Arthur Murphy. Langton was a scholar and an admirer of Johnson who persuaded his way into a meeting with Johnson which led to a long friendship. Johnson met Murphy during the summer of 1754 after Murphy came to Johnson about the accidental republishing of the Rambler No. 190, and the two became friends. Around this time, Anna Williams began boarding with Johnson. She was a minor poet who was poor and becoming blind, two conditions that Johnson attempted to change by providing room for her and paying for a failed cataract surgery. Williams, in turn, became Johnson 's housekeeper. To occupy himself, Johnson began to work on The Literary Magazine, or Universal Review, the first issue of which was printed on 19 March 1756. Philosophical disagreements erupted over the purpose of the publication when the Seven Years ' War began and Johnson started to write polemical essays attacking the war. After the war began, the Magazine included many reviews, at least 34 of which were written by Johnson. When not working on the Magazine, Johnson wrote a series of prefaces for other writers, such as Giuseppe Baretti, William Payne and Charlotte Lennox. Johnson 's relationship with Lennox and her works was particularly close during these years, and she in turn relied so heavily upon Johnson that he was "the most important single fact in Mrs Lennox 's literary life ''. He later attempted to produce a new edition of her works, but even with his support they were unable to find enough interest to follow through with its publication. To help with domestic duties while Johnson was busy with his various projects, Richard Bathurst, a physician and a member of Johnson 's Club, pressured him to take on a freed slave, Francis Barber, as his servant. Johnson 's work on The Plays of William Shakespeare took up most of his time. On 8 June 1756, Johnson published his Proposals for Printing, by Subscription, the Dramatick Works of William Shakespeare, which argued that previous editions of Shakespeare were edited incorrectly and needed to be corrected. Johnson 's progress on the work slowed as the months passed, and he told music historian Charles Burney in December 1757 that it would take him until the following March to complete it. Before that could happen, he was arrested again, for a debt of £ 40, in February 1758. The debt was soon repaid by Jacob Tonson, who had contracted Johnson to publish Shakespeare, and this encouraged Johnson to finish his edition to repay the favour. Although it took him another seven years to finish, Johnson completed a few volumes of his Shakespeare to prove his commitment to the project. In 1758, Johnson began to write a weekly series, The Idler, which ran from 15 April 1758 to 5 April 1760, as a way to avoid finishing his Shakespeare. This series was shorter and lacked many features of The Rambler. Unlike his independent publication of The Rambler, The Idler was published in a weekly news journal The Universal Chronicle, a publication supported by John Payne, John Newbery, Robert Stevens and William Faden. Since The Idler did not occupy all Johnson 's time, he was able to publish his philosophical novella Rasselas on 19 April 1759. The "little story book '', as Johnson described it, describes the life of Prince Rasselas and Nekayah, his sister, who are kept in a place called the Happy Valley in the land of Abyssinia. The Valley is a place free of problems, where any desire is quickly satisfied. The constant pleasure does not, however, lead to satisfaction; and, with the help of a philosopher named Imlac, Rasselas escapes and explores the world to witness how all aspects of society and life in the outside world are filled with suffering. They return to Abyssinia, but do not wish to return to the state of constantly fulfilled pleasures found in the Happy Valley. Rasselas was written in one week to pay for his mother 's funeral and settle her debts; it became so popular that there was a new English edition of the work almost every year. References to it appear in many later works of fiction, including Jane Eyre, Cranford and The House of the Seven Gables. Its fame was not limited to English - speaking nations: Rasselas was immediately translated into five languages (French, Dutch, German, Russian and Italian), and later into nine others. By 1762, however, Johnson had gained notoriety for his dilatoriness in writing; the contemporary poet Churchill teased Johnson for the delay in producing his long - promised edition of Shakespeare: "He for subscribers baits his hook / and takes your cash, but where 's the book? '' The comments soon motivated Johnson to finish his Shakespeare, and, after receiving the first payment from a government pension on 20 July 1762, he was able to dedicate most of his time towards this goal. Earlier that July, the 24 - year - old King George III granted Johnson an annual pension of £ 300 in appreciation for the Dictionary. While the pension did not make Johnson wealthy, it did allow him a modest yet comfortable independence for the remaining 22 years of his life. The award came largely through the efforts of Sheridan and the Earl of Bute. When Johnson questioned if the pension would force him to promote a political agenda or support various officials, he was told by Bute that the pension "is not given you for anything you are to do, but for what you have done ''. On 16 May 1763, Johnson first met 22 - year - old James Boswell -- who would later become Johnson 's first major biographer -- in the bookshop of Johnson 's friend, Tom Davies. They quickly became friends, although Boswell would return to his home in Scotland or travel abroad for months at a time. Around the spring of 1763, Johnson formed "The Club '', a social group that included his friends Reynolds, Burke, Garrick, Goldsmith and others (the membership later expanded to include Adam Smith and Edward Gibbon). They decided to meet every Monday at 7: 00 pm at the Turk 's Head in Gerrard Street, Soho, and these meetings continued until long after the deaths of the original members. Boswell 's Life of Samuel Johnson On 9 January 1765, Murphy introduced Johnson to Henry Thrale, a wealthy brewer and MP, and his wife Hester. They struck up an instant friendship; Johnson was treated as a member of the family, and was once more motivated to continue working on his Shakespeare. Afterwards, Johnson stayed with the Thrales for 17 years until Henry 's death in 1781, sometimes staying in rooms at Thrale 's Anchor Brewery in Southwark. Hester Thrale 's documentation of Johnson 's life during this time, in her correspondence and her diary (Thraliana), became an important source of biographical information on Johnson after his death. Oliver Goldsmith told her of one illness that Johnson had "he owed his recovery to her attention ''. Johnson said of her, "If she was not the wisest woman in the world, she was undoubtedly one of the wittiest. '' Johnson 's edition of Shakespeare was finally published on 10 October 1765 as The Plays of William Shakespeare, in Eight Volumes... To which are added Notes by Sam. Johnson in a printing of one thousand copies. The first edition quickly sold out, and a second was soon printed. The plays themselves were in a version that Johnson felt was closest to the original, based on his analysis of the manuscript editions. Johnson 's revolutionary innovation was to create a set of corresponding notes that allowed readers to clarify the meaning behind many of Shakespeare 's more complicated passages, and to examine those which had been transcribed incorrectly in previous editions. Included within the notes are occasional attacks upon rival editors of Shakespeare 's works. Years later, Edmond Malone, an important Shakespearean scholar and friend of Johnson 's, stated that Johnson 's "vigorous and comprehensive understanding threw more light on his authour than all his predecessors had done ''. In February 1767, Johnson was granted a special audience with King George III. This took place at the library of the Queen 's house, and it was organised by Barnard, the King 's librarian. The King, upon hearing that Johnson would visit the library, commanded that Barnard introduce him to Johnson. After a short meeting, Johnson was impressed both with the King himself and with their conversation. On 6 August 1773, eleven years after first meeting Boswell, Johnson set out to visit his friend in Scotland, and to begin "a journey to the western islands of Scotland '', as Johnson 's 1775 account of their travels would put it. The work was intended to discuss the social problems and struggles that affected the Scottish people, but it also praised many of the unique facets of Scottish society, such as a school in Edinburgh for the deaf and mute. Also, Johnson used the work to enter into the dispute over the authenticity of James Macpherson 's Ossian poems, claiming they could not have been translations of ancient Scottish literature on the grounds that "in those times nothing had been written in the Earse (i.e. Gaelic) language ''. There were heated exchanges between the two, and according to one of Johnson 's letters, MacPherson threatened physical violence. Boswell 's account of their journey, The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides (1786), was a preliminary step toward his later biography, Life of Johnson. Included were various quotations and descriptions of events, including anecdotes such as Johnson swinging a broadsword while wearing Scottish garb, or dancing a Highland jig. In the 1770s, Johnson, who had tended to be an opponent of the government early in life, published a series of pamphlets in favour of various government policies. In 1770 he produced The False Alarm, a political pamphlet attacking John Wilkes. In 1771, his Thoughts on the Late Transactions Respecting Falkland 's Islands cautioned against war with Spain. In 1774 he printed The Patriot, a critique of what he viewed as false patriotism. On the evening of 7 April 1775, he made the famous statement, "Patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel. '' This line was not, as widely believed, about patriotism in general, but the false use of the term "patriotism '' by John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute (the patriot - minister) and his supporters -- and the enemies of Bute, who played upon his non-English descent. Johnson opposed "self - professed Patriots '' in general, but valued what he considered "true '' patriotism. The last of these pamphlets, Taxation No Tyranny (1775), was a defence of the Coercive Acts and a response to the Declaration of Rights of the First Continental Congress of America, which protested against taxation without representation. Johnson argued that in emigrating to America, colonists had "voluntarily resigned the power of voting '', but they still had "virtual representation '' in Parliament. In a parody of the Declaration of Rights, Johnson suggested that the Americans had no more right to govern themselves than the Cornish people, and asked "How is it that we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the drivers of negroes? '' If the Americans wanted to participate in Parliament, said Johnson, they could move to England and purchase an estate. Johnson denounced English supporters of American separatists as "traitors to this country '', and hoped that the matter would be settled without bloodshed, but he felt confident that it would end with "English superiority and American obedience ''. Years before, Johnson had stated that the English and the French were just "two robbers '' who were stealing land from the natives, and that neither deserved to live there. After the signing of the 1783 Peace of Paris treaty, marking the colonists ' defeat of the British, Johnson was "deeply disturbed '' with the "state of this kingdom ''. Boswell 's Life of Samuel Johnson On 3 May 1777, while Johnson was trying to save Reverend William Dodd from execution, he wrote to Boswell that he was busy preparing a "little Lives '' and "little Prefaces, to a little edition of the English Poets ''. Tom Davies, William Strahan and Thomas Cadell had asked Johnson to create this final major work, the Lives of the English Poets, for which he asked 200 guineas, an amount significantly less than the price he could have demanded. The Lives, which were critical as well as biographical studies, appeared as prefaces to selections of each poet 's work, and they were longer and more detailed than originally expected. The work was finished in March 1781 and the whole collection was published in six volumes. As Johnson justified in the advertisement for the work, "my purpose was only to have allotted to every Poet an Advertisement, like those which we find in the French Miscellanies, containing a few dates and a general character. '' Johnson was unable to enjoy this success because Henry Thrale, the dear friend with whom he lived, died on 4 April 1781. Life changed quickly for Johnson when Hester Thrale became romantically involved with the Italian singing teacher Gabriel Mario Piozzi, which forced Johnson to change his previous lifestyle. After returning home and then travelling for a short period, Johnson received word that his friend and tenant Robert Levet, had died on 17 January 1782. Johnson was shocked by the death of Levet, who had resided at Johnson 's London home since 1762. Shortly afterwards Johnson caught a cold that developed into bronchitis and lasted for several months. His health was further complicated by "feeling forlorn and lonely '' over Levet 's death, and by the deaths of his friend Thomas Lawrence and his housekeeper Williams. Although he had recovered his health by August, he experienced emotional trauma when he was given word that Hester Thrale would sell the residence that Johnson shared with the family. What hurt Johnson most was the possibility that he would be left without her constant company. Months later, on 6 October 1782, Johnson attended church for the final time in his life, to say goodbye to his former residence and life. The walk to the church strained him, but he managed the journey unaccompanied. While there, he wrote a prayer for the Thrale family: To thy fatherly protection, O Lord, I commend this family. Bless, guide, and defend them, that they may pass through this world, as finally to enjoy in thy presence everlasting happiness, for Jesus Christ 's sake. Amen. Hester Thrale did not completely abandon Johnson, and asked him to accompany the family on a trip to Brighton. He agreed, and was with them from 7 October until 20 November 1782. On his return, his health began to fail, and he was left alone after Boswell 's visit on 29 May 1783. Dr. Johnson "established an evening club at the Essex Head in 1783 '' according to an English Heritage blue plaque in Essex Street, Westminster. The Rev. John Bowle and William Seward, both men of letters, were members of this club. On 17 June 1783, Johnson 's poor circulation resulted in a stroke and he wrote to his neighbour, Edmund Allen, that he had lost the ability to speak. Two doctors were brought in to aid Johnson; he regained his ability to speak two days later. Johnson feared that he was dying, and wrote: The black dog I hope always to resist, and in time to drive, though I am deprived of almost all those that used to help me. The neighbourhood is impoverished. I had once Richardson and Lawrence in my reach. Mrs. Allen is dead. My house has lost Levet, a man who took interest in everything, and therefore ready at conversation. Mrs. Williams is so weak that she can be a companion no longer. When I rise my breakfast is solitary, the black dog waits to share it, from breakfast to dinner he continues barking, except that Dr. Brocklesby for a little keeps him at a distance. Dinner with a sick woman you may venture to suppose not much better than solitary. After dinner, what remains but to count the clock, and hope for that sleep which I can scarce expect. Night comes at last, and some hours of restlessness and confusion bring me again to a day of solitude. What shall exclude the black dog from an habitation like this? By this time he was sick and gout - ridden. He had surgery for gout, and his remaining friends, including novelist Fanny Burney (the daughter of Charles Burney), came to keep him company. He was confined to his room from 14 December 1783 to 21 April 1784. His health began to improve by May 1784, and he travelled to Oxford with Boswell on 5 May 1784. By July, many of Johnson 's friends were either dead or gone; Boswell had left for Scotland and Hester Thrale had become engaged to Piozzi. With no one to visit, Johnson expressed a desire to die in London and arrived there on 16 November 1784. On 25 November 1784, he allowed Burney to visit him and expressed an interest to her that he should leave London; he soon left for Islington, to George Strahan 's home. His final moments were filled with mental anguish and delusions; when his physician, Thomas Warren, visited and asked him if he were feeling better, Johnson burst out with: "No, Sir; you can not conceive with what acceleration I advance towards death. '' Boswell 's Life of Samuel Johnson Many visitors came to see Johnson as he lay sick in bed, but he preferred only Langton 's company. Burney waited for word of Johnson 's condition, along with Windham, Strahan, Hoole, Cruikshank, Des Moulins and Barber. On 13 December 1784, Johnson met with two others: a young woman, Miss Morris, whom Johnson blessed, and Francesco Sastres, an Italian teacher, who was given some of Johnson 's final words: "Iam Moriturus '' ("I who am about to die ''). Shortly afterwards he fell into a coma, and died at 7: 00 p.m. Langton waited until 11: 00 p.m. to tell the others, which led to John Hawkins ' becoming pale and overcome with "an agony of mind '', along with Seward and Hoole describing Johnson 's death as "the most awful sight ''. Boswell remarked, "My feeling was just one large expanse of Stupor... I could not believe it. My imagination was not convinced. '' William Gerard Hamilton joined in and stated, "He has made a chasm, which not only nothing can fill up, but which nothing has a tendency to fill up. - Johnson is dead. - Let us go to the next best: There is nobody; - no man can be said to put you in mind of Johnson. '' He was buried on 20 December 1784 at Westminster Abbey with an inscription that reads: Johnson 's works, especially his Lives of the Poets series, describe various features of excellent writing. He believed that the best poetry relied on contemporary language, and he disliked the use of decorative or purposefully archaic language. He was suspicious of the poetic language used by Milton, whose blank verse he believed would inspire many bad imitations. Also, Johnson opposed the poetic language of his contemporary Thomas Gray. His greatest complaint was that obscure allusions found in works like Milton 's Lycidas were overused; he preferred poetry that could be easily read and understood. In addition to his views on language, Johnson believed that a good poem incorporated new and unique imagery. In his smaller poetic works, Johnson relied on short lines and filled his work with a feeling of empathy, which possibly influenced Housman 's poetic style. In London, his first imitation of Juvenal, Johnson uses the poetic form to express his political opinion and, as befits a young writer, approaches the topic in a playful and almost joyous manner. However, his second imitation, The Vanity of Human Wishes, is completely different; the language remains simple, but the poem is more complicated and difficult to read because Johnson is trying to describe complex Christian ethics. These Christian values are not unique to the poem, but contain views expressed in most of Johnson 's works. In particular, Johnson emphasises God 's infinite love and shows that happiness can be attained through virtuous action. When it came to biography, Johnson disagreed with Plutarch 's use of biography to praise and to teach morality. Instead, Johnson believed in portraying the biographical subjects accurately and including any negative aspects of their lives. Because his insistence on accuracy in biography was little short of revolutionary, Johnson had to struggle against a society that was unwilling to accept biographical details that could be viewed as tarnishing a reputation; this became the subject of Rambler 60. Furthermore, Johnson believed that biography should not be limited to the most famous and that the lives of lesser individuals, too, were significant; thus in his Lives of the Poets he chose both great and lesser poets. In all his biographies he insisted on including what others would have considered trivial details to fully describe the lives of his subjects. Johnson considered the genre of autobiography and diaries, including his own, as one having the most significance; in Idler 84 he explains how a writer of an autobiography would be the least likely to distort his own life. Johnson 's thoughts on biography and on poetry coalesced in his understanding of what would make a good critic. His works were dominated with his intent to use them for literary criticism. This was especially true of his Dictionary of which he wrote: "I lately published a Dictionary like those compiled by the academies of Italy and France, for the use of such as aspire to exactness of criticism, or elegance of style ''. Although a smaller edition of his Dictionary became the standard household dictionary, Johnson 's original Dictionary was an academic tool that examined how words were used, especially in literary works. To achieve this purpose, Johnson included quotations from Bacon, Hooker, Milton, Shakespeare, Spenser, and many others from what he considered to be the most important literary fields: natural science, philosophy, poetry, and theology. These quotations and usages were all compared and carefully studied in the Dictionary so that a reader could understand what words in literary works meant in context. Johnson did not attempt to create schools of theories to analyse the aesthetics of literature. Instead, he used his criticism for the practical purpose of helping others to better read and understand literature. When it came to Shakespeare 's plays, Johnson emphasised the role of the reader in understanding language: "If Shakespeare has difficulties above other writers, it is to be imputed to the nature of his work, which required the use of common colloquial language, and consequently admitted many phrases allusive, elliptical, and proverbial, such as we speak and hear every hour without observing them ''. His works on Shakespeare were devoted not merely to Shakespeare, but to understanding literature as a whole; in his Preface to Shakespeare, Johnson rejects the previous dogma of the classical unities and argues that drama should be faithful to life. However, Johnson did not only defend Shakespeare; he discussed Shakespeare 's faults, including his lack of morality, his vulgarity, his carelessness in crafting plots, and his occasional inattentiveness when choosing words or word order. As well as direct literary criticism, Johnson emphasised the need to establish a text that accurately reflects what an author wrote. Shakespeare 's plays, in particular, had multiple editions, each of which contained errors caused by the printing process. This problem was compounded by careless editors who deemed difficult words incorrect, and changed them in later editions. Johnson believed that an editor should not alter the text in such a way. Boswell 's Life of Samuel Johnson Johnson 's tall and robust figure combined with his odd gestures were confusing to some; when William Hogarth first saw Johnson standing near a window in Samuel Richardson 's house, "shaking his head and rolling himself about in a strange ridiculous manner '', Hogarth thought Johnson an "ideot, whom his relations had put under the care of Mr. Richardson ''. Hogarth was quite surprised when "this figure stalked forwards to where he and Mr. Richardson were sitting and all at once took up the argument... (with) such a power of eloquence, that Hogarth looked at him with astonishment, and actually imagined that this ideot had been at the moment inspired ''. Beyond appearance, Adam Smith claimed that "Johnson knew more books than any man alive '', while Edmund Burke thought that if Johnson were to join Parliament, he "certainly would have been the greatest speaker that ever was there ''. Johnson relied on a unique form of rhetoric, and he is well known for his "refutation '' of Bishop Berkeley 's immaterialism, his claim that matter did not actually exist but only seemed to exist: during a conversation with Boswell, Johnson powerfully stomped a nearby stone and proclaimed of Berkeley 's theory, "I refute it thus! '' Johnson was a devout, conservative Anglican and a compassionate man who supported a number of poor friends under his own roof, even when unable to fully provide for himself. Johnson 's Christian morality permeated his works, and he would write on moral topics with such authority and in such a trusting manner that, Walter Jackson Bate claims, "no other moralist in history excels or even begins to rival him ''. However, Johnson 's moral writings do not contain, as Donald Greene points out, "a predetermined and authorized pattern of ' good behavior ' '', even though Johnson does emphasise certain kinds of conduct. He did not let his own faith prejudice him against others, and had respect for those of other denominations who demonstrated a commitment to Christ 's teachings. Although Johnson respected John Milton 's poetry, he could not tolerate Milton 's Puritan and Republican beliefs, feeling that they were contrary to England and Christianity. He was an opponent of slavery on moral grounds, and once proposed a toast to the "next rebellion of the negroes in the West Indies ''. Beside his beliefs concerning humanity, Johnson is also known for his love of cats, especially his own two cats, Hodge and Lily. Boswell wrote, "I never shall forget the indulgence with which he treated Hodge, his cat: for whom he himself used to go out and buy oysters, lest the servants having that trouble should take a dislike to the poor creature. '' It is a common error to think that these oysters were expensive, since they are so in modern Britain. However, in Johnson 's time they were very cheap and eaten by the poor. He thought that his servant, Frank, might resent Hodge if he had to go buy the oysters for him. Johnson was also known as a staunch Tory; he admitted to sympathies for the Jacobite cause during his younger years but, by the reign of George III, he came to accept the Hanoverian Succession. It was Boswell who gave people the impression that Johnson was an "arch - conservative '', and it was Boswell, more than anyone else, who determined how Johnson would be seen by people years later. However, Boswell was not around for two of Johnson 's most politically active periods: during Walpole 's control over British Parliament and during the Seven Years ' War. Although Boswell was present with Johnson during the 1770s and describes four major pamphlets written by Johnson, he neglects to discuss them because he is more interested in their travels to Scotland. This is compounded by the fact that Boswell held an opinion contradictory to two of these pamphlets, The False Alarm and Taxation No Tyranny, and so attacks Johnson 's views in his biography. In his Life of Samuel Johnson Boswell referred to Johnson as ' Dr. Johnson ' so often that he would always be known as such, even though he hated being called such. Boswell 's emphasis on Johnson 's later years shows him too often as merely an old man discoursing in a tavern to a circle of admirers. Although Boswell, a Scotsman, was a close companion and friend to Johnson during many important times of his life, like many of his fellow Englishmen Johnson had a reputation for despising Scotland and its people. Even during their journey together through Scotland, Johnson "exhibited prejudice and a narrow nationalism ''. Hester Thrale, in summarising Johnson 's nationalistic views and his anti-Scottish prejudice, said: "We all know how well he loved to abuse the Scotch, & indeed to be abused by them in return. '' Johnson had several health problems, including childhood tuberculous scrofula resulting in deep facial scarring, deafness in one ear and blindness in one eye, gout, testicular cancer, and a stroke in his final year that left him unable to speak; his autopsy indicated that he had pulmonary fibrosis along with cardiac failure probably due to hypertension, a condition then unknown. Johnson displayed signs consistent with several diagnoses, including depression and Tourette syndrome. There are many accounts of Johnson suffering from bouts of depression and what Johnson thought might be madness. As Walter Jackson Bate puts it, "one of the ironies of literary history is that its most compelling and authoritative symbol of common sense -- of the strong, imaginative grasp of concrete reality -- should have begun his adult life, at the age of twenty, in a state of such intense anxiety and bewildered despair that, at least from his own point of view, it seemed the onset of actual insanity ''. To overcome these feelings, Johnson tried to constantly involve himself with various activities, but this did not seem to help. Taylor said that Johnson "at one time strongly entertained thoughts of Suicide ''. Boswell claimed that Johnson "felt himself overwhelmed with an horrible melancholia, with perpetual irritation, fretfulness, and impatience; and with a dejection, gloom, and despair, which made existence misery ''. Early on, when Johnson was unable to pay off his debts, he began to work with professional writers and identified his own situation with theirs. During this time, Johnson witnessed Christopher Smart 's decline into "penury and the madhouse '', and feared that he might share the same fate. Hester Thrale Piozzi claimed, in a discussion on Smart 's mental state, that Johnson was her "friend who feared an apple should intoxicate him ''. To her, what separated Johnson from others who were placed in asylums for madness -- like Christopher Smart -- was his ability to keep his concerns and emotions to himself. Two hundred years after Johnson 's death, the posthumous diagnosis of Tourette syndrome became widely accepted. The condition was unknown during Johnson 's lifetime, but Boswell describes Johnson displaying signs of Tourette syndrome, including tics and other involuntary movements. According to Boswell "he commonly held his head to one side... moving his body backwards and forwards, and rubbing his left knee in the same direction, with the palm of his hand... (H) e made various sounds '' like "a half whistle '' or "as if clucking like a hen '', and "... all this accompanied sometimes with a thoughtful look, but more frequently with a smile. Generally when he had concluded a period, in the course of a dispute, by which time he was a good deal exhausted by violence and vociferation, he used to blow out his breath like a Whale. '' There are many similar accounts; in particular, Johnson was said to "perform his gesticulations '' at the threshold of a house or in doorways. When asked by a little girl why he made such noises and acted in that way, Johnson responded: "From bad habit. '' The diagnosis of the syndrome was first made in a 1967 report, and Tourette syndrome researcher Arthur K. Shapiro described Johnson as "the most notable example of a successful adaptation to life despite the liability of Tourette syndrome ''. Details provided by the writings of Boswell, Hester Thrale, and others reinforce the diagnosis, with one paper concluding: (Johnson) also displayed many of the obsessional - compulsive traits and rituals which are associated with this syndrome... It may be thought that without this illness Dr Johnson 's remarkable literary achievements, the great dictionary, his philosophical deliberations and his conversations may never have happened; and Boswell, the author of the greatest of biographies would have been unknown. From early childhood, Johnson suffered from poor eyesight, especially in his left eye, which interfered with his education. There were somewhat contradictory reports about his eyesight from his contemporaries. He appeared to have been near - sighted, yet he did not use eyeglasses. His eyesight became worse with age; still, his handwriting remained quite legible. Johnson was, in the words of Steven Lynn, "more than a well - known writer and scholar ''; for it is said of his poetry, ' small in amount, its quality excellent ', and regrets were expressed that he had not written much more '. He was a celebrity for the activities and the state of his health in his later years were constantly reported in various journals and newspapers, and when there was nothing to report, something was invented. According to Bate, "Johnson loved biography, '' and he "changed the whole course of biography for the modern world. One by - product was the most famous single work of biographical art in the whole of literature, Boswell 's Life of Johnson, and there were many other memoirs and biographies of a similar kind written on Johnson after his death. '' These accounts of his life include Thomas Tyers 's A Biographical Sketch of Dr Samuel Johnson (1784); Boswell 's The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides (1785); Hester Thrale 's Anecdotes of the Late Samuel Johnson, which drew on entries from her diary and other notes; John Hawkins 's Life of Samuel Johnson, the first full - length biography of Johnson; and, in 1792, Arthur Murphy 's An Essay on the Life and Genius of Samuel Johnson, which replaced Hawkins 's biography as the introduction to a collection of Johnson 's Works. Another important source was Fanny Burney, who described Johnson as "the acknowledged Head of Literature in this kingdom '' and kept a diary containing details missing from other biographies. Above all, Boswell 's portrayal of Johnson is the work best known to general readers. Although critics like Donald Greene argue about its status as a true biography, the work became successful as Boswell and his friends promoted it at the expense of the many other works on Johnson 's life. In criticism, Johnson had a lasting influence, although not everyone viewed him favourably. Some, like Macaulay, regarded Johnson as an idiot savant who produced some respectable works, and others, like the Romantic poets, were completely opposed to Johnson 's views on poetry and literature, especially with regard to Milton. However, some of their contemporaries disagreed: Stendhal 's Racine et Shakespeare is based in part on Johnson 's views of Shakespeare, and Johnson influenced Jane Austen 's writing style and philosophy. Later, Johnson 's works came into favour, and Matthew Arnold, in his Six Chief Lives from Johnson 's "Lives of the Poets '', considered the Lives of Milton, Dryden, Pope, Addison, Swift, and Gray as "points which stand as so many natural centres, and by returning to which we can always find our way again ''. More than a century after his death, literary critics such as G. Birkbeck Hill and T.S. Eliot came to regard Johnson as a serious critic. They began to study Johnson 's works with an increasing focus on the critical analysis found in his edition of Shakespeare and Lives of the Poets. Yvor Winters claimed that "A great critic is the rarest of all literary geniuses; perhaps the only critic in English who deserves that epithet is Samuel Johnson ''. F.R. Leavis agreed and, on Johnson 's criticism, said, "When we read him we know, beyond question, that we have here a powerful and distinguished mind operating at first hand upon literature. This, we can say with emphatic conviction, really is criticism ''. Edmund Wilson claimed that "The Lives of the Poets and the prefaces and commentary on Shakespeare are among the most brilliant and the most acute documents in the whole range of English criticism ''. The critic Harold Bloom placed Johnson 's work firmly within the Western canon, describing him as "unmatched by any critic in any nation before or after him... Bate in the finest insight on Johnson I know, emphasised that no other writer is so obsessed by the realisation that the mind is an activity, one that will turn to destructiveness of the self or of others unless it is directed to labour. '' It is no wonder that his philosophical insistence that the language within literature must be examined became a prevailing mode of literary theory during the mid-20th century. There are many societies formed around and dedicated to the study and enjoyment of Samuel Johnson 's life and works. On the bicentennial of Johnson 's death in 1984, Oxford University held a week - long conference featuring 50 papers, and the Arts Council of Great Britain held an exhibit of "Johnsonian portraits and other memorabilia ''. The London Times and Punch produced parodies of Johnson 's style for the occasion. In 1999, the BBC Four television channel started the Samuel Johnson Prize, an award for non-fiction. Half of Johnson 's surviving correspondence, together with some of his manuscripts, editions of his books, paintings and other items associated with him are in the Donald and Mary Hyde Collection of Dr. Samuel Johnson, housed at Houghton Library at Harvard University since 2003. Materials in the collection may be accessed through the Houghton Reading Room. The collection includes drafts of his Plan for a Dictionary, documents associated with Hester Thrale Piozzi and James Boswell (including corrected proofs of his Life of Johnson) and a teapot owned by Johnson. A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque, unveiled in 1876, commemorates his Gough Square house. On 18 September 2017 Google commemorated Johnson 's 308th birthday with a Google Doodle. Specific General

when did the home run derby format change

Home Run Derby - wikipedia The Home Run Derby is an annual home run hitting contest in Major League Baseball (MLB) customarily held the day before the MLB All - Star Game, which places the contest on a Monday in July. Since the inaugural derby in 1985, the event has seen several rule changes, evolving from a short outs - based competition, to multiple rounds, and eventually a bracket - style timed event. The event has grown significantly from its roots in the 1980s, when it was not televised. Prior to 1991, the Home Run Derby was structured as a two - inning event with each player receiving five outs per inning, allowing for the possibility of ties. It is now one of the most - watched events broadcast on ESPN. In 2000, a "match play '' - style format was instituted for the second round. The player with the most home runs in the first round faced the player with the least among the four qualifying players, as did the players with the second - and third-most totals. The contestant who won each matchup advanced to the finals. This format was discontinued after the 2003 competition. The field of players selected currently consists of four American League players and four National League players. The first Derby in 1985 featured five from each league, and the 1986 and 1987 events featured three and two players from each league, respectively. In 1996, the field was again expanded to ten players, five from each league (though in 1997, the AL had six contestants to the NL 's four). In 2000, the field reverted to the current four - player - per - league format. The only exception was 2005, when Major League Baseball changed the selection criteria with eight players representing their home countries rather than their respective leagues. The change was believed to be in promotion of the inaugural World Baseball Classic, played in March 2006. In 2006, the selection of four players from each league resumed. In 2011, the format was revised so that team captains selected the individual sides. Some notable performances in the Derby include Bobby Abreu in 2005, who won the Derby with a then - record 41 homers, including a then - record 24 in the first round. The first - round record was broken in 2008 by Josh Hamilton, who hit 28 home runs. Though Hamilton 's performance was notable for the length of his home runs, he ultimately lost to Justin Morneau in a brief final round. The overall record was broken in 2016 by Giancarlo Stanton, who finished with a total of 61 home runs, defeating Todd Frazier in the final round. Only two participants, Yoenis Céspedes and Giancarlo Stanton, have won the Home Run Derby without being selected to the All - Star game itself. The format has varied since the Home Run Derby started in 1985. In the early years of the Home Run Derby, 4 - 10 players from both the AL and NL were selected to participate. Each player was given 2 "innings '' to hit as many home runs as possible before reaching 5 outs. For the derby, an out is defined as any swing that is not a home run. The winner of the contest was the player with the most total home runs in the two innings. Beginning in 1991, the format changed to a 3 - round contest. From 1991 -- 2006, 8 - 10 players were selected and hit as many home runs as possible before reaching 10 outs in each round. The tally reset for each round, with the top four advancing to the second round, and the top two advancing to the final. In honor of the World Baseball Classic, the 2005 contest featured eight players from different countries. The format remained the same. The format changed slightly in 2006. Instead of the tally resetting for each round, it was only reset before the final round. Therefore, the players with the four highest totals after Round 1 advanced to Round 2, and the players with the two highest sum of Round 1 and 2 advanced to the finals. The Home Run Derby format was changed significantly in 2014, as MLB sought to speed - up the contest and increase the drama. In the new bracket format, five players from each league faced the other players in their league in Round 1, with each players having seven "outs. '' The player in each league with the highest Round 1 total received a second - round bye, and the players with the second - and third - highest Round 1 totals from each league faced off. The Round 2 winner from each league faced the Round 1 winner, and the Round 3 winner crowned the league winner. The final featured the winner of each league. Each round stands alone, with the score reset for each round. Ties in any round are broken by a 3 - swing swing - off. If the players remain tied, the players engage in a sudden - death swing - off until one player homers. The format was changed once again in 2015. The most significant change was the elimination of "outs '', which was replaced by a time limit. Eight players are seeded based on their season home run totals and are given five minutes to hit as many home runs as possible. The winner of each head - to - head matchup advances, until a final winner is determined. If a tie occurs in any match - up, three sets of tiebreakers are employed: first, a 90 - second swing - off decides the winner; second, best - of - 3 - swing swing - off; thereafter, sudden - death swingoffs until a winner is determined. Further, a player can get "bonus time '' in the last minute of each round. During that time, the clock stops for each home run, and does n't restart until a swing does not result in a home run. Additional bonus time could be earned for distance. Players who hit at least two home runs measuring at least 420 feet (128.0 m) are given an extra minute of bonus time. An additional 30 seconds of bonus time is granted if at least one home run measures over 475 feet (144.8 m). Weather concerns in 2015 lead to a reduction in time from five minutes per round to four minutes. The clock was not stopped in the final minute, and bonus time was only granted for hitting two home runs of over 425 feet (129.5 m). The format was tweaked slightly in 2016. The four - minute round length returned, while the minute of bonus time was changed to 30 seconds and required two home runs of 440 feet (134.1 m) or longer. The additional time was removed, while the swing - off (which was not required) was reduced to one minute. Each batter is allowed one time - out during each round, and two in the finals. By 2017 the first tie - breaker was restored back to 90 seconds. From 2005 -- 2013, a gold ball has been used once a player reaches nine outs (in 2014 when the T - Mobile Ball came into play, six; since 2015, during the final minute). If a batter hit a home run using the golden ball, Century 21 Real Estate and Major League Baseball would donate $21,000 (a reference to the "21 '' in "Century 21 '') per home run to charity (MLB donated to the Boys and Girls Clubs of America, and Century 21 donated to Easter Seals). In both 2005 and 2006, $294,000 was raised for the charities, equaling fourteen golden ball home runs per year. State Farm continued this in 2007 as they designated $17,000 per home run (one dollar for each of State Farm 's agencies), to the Boys and Girls Clubs of America. In the 2007 event, fifteen golden balls were hit for a donation of $255,000, and ten ($170,000) were hit in the 2008 event. For 2009, State Farm added $5,000 for all non-Gold Ball homers, and $517,000 was collected. For 2010, the non-Gold Ball homer was reduced to $3,000 per home run and a total of $453,000 was collected. Since 2014 any homer hit off a T - Mobile Ball resulted in a $10,000 donation to charity by T - Mobile and MLB, to Team Rubicon. On July 11, 1988, the day before the Major League Baseball All - Star Game from Cincinnati, TBS televised the annual All - Star Gala from the Cincinnati Zoo. Larry King hosted the broadcast with Craig Sager and Pete Van Wieren handling interviews. The broadcast 's big draw would 've been the Home Run Derby, which TBS intended on taping during the afternoon, and later airing it in prime time during the Gala coverage. Unfortunately, the derby and a skills competition were canceled due to rain. The derby was first nationally televised by ESPN in 1993 on a same - day delayed basis, with the first live telecast in 1998. Although two hours are scheduled in programming listings for the telecast, it has rarely ever been contained to the timeslot and consistently runs three to four hours. Chris Berman has gained notoriety for his annual hosting duties on ESPN, including his catchphrase, "Back back back... Gone! ''. Berman starts this phrase when the ball is hit, and does not say "Gone! '' until the ball lands. The 2008 Derby was the year 's most highly rated basic cable program. Because of the game 's TV popularity, invited players have felt pressure to participate. Notably, Ken Griffey Jr. initially quietly declined to take part in 1998, partly due to ESPN scheduling the Mariners in their late Sunday game the night before. After a discussion with ESPN 's Joe Morgan and another with Hall of Famer Frank Robinson, Griffey changed his mind, and then won the Derby at Coors Field. In Spanish, the event is televised on Spanish language network ESPN Deportes. ESPN Radio also carries the event annually. Note: these numbers exclude swingoffs. Note: these numbers exclude swingoffs. Home Run Derby canceled due to rain. * Lost in playoff to Gonzalez * Beat Belle in finals * Beat Walker in finals * Lost to Burnitz in round 2 * Giambi defeated Konerko in a swing off * Total rounds record. Notes: ^ a Recorded only seven of ten outs before hitting winning home run. Italicized numbers denote swing - offs. Notes: ^ a New single round record. ^ b Voluntarily ended round with four outs. Notes: Italicized numbers denote swing - offs. Notes: Italicized numbers denote swing - offs. Notes: Italicized numbers denote swing - offs. Note: ^ a Recorded only five of ten outs before hitting winning home run. * designates bye round. (designates swing off home runs).

the earliest hominin discovery from africa and the world was done in

Early hominin expansions out of Africa - wikipedia In palaeoanthropology, hominins carried out several early expansions out of Africa (known as Out of Africa I) and into Eurasia between 1.8 million and 500,000 years ago. Shortly before, in Africa, Homo erectus had descended from the woodland - restricted Homo habilis and adapted to the open grounds of the savannahs and arid landscapes. These pre-modern hominins moved out of Africa in at least three waves. Primitive chopper producers moved out by c. 1.8 Ma, followed by early Acheulean industries c. 1.4 Ma, and various cleaver - producing Acheulean groups around 0.8 Ma. According to the recent African origin of modern humans hypothesis (Out of Africa II), anatomically modern humans started moving into Eurasia and replacing earlier humans c. 100,000 years ago. The phrase Out of Africa used alone generally means Out of Africa II, the expansion of modern humans into Eurasia. Until the early 1980s, hominins were thought to have been restricted to the African continent in the Early Pleistocene, or until about 0.8 Ma; thus, early archaeological efforts focused disproportionately on (East) Africa. Further, hominin migrations out of East Africa were probably rare in the Early Pleistocene, leaving a record of events broken in space and time. In general, archeological evidence does not fit simple theories of where the migrations took place and is insufficient to support elaborate conjectures. The oldest hominin sites are in East Africa. The earliest known retouched tools were found in Lomekwi, Kenya, and date back to 3.3 Ma, in the late Pliocene. They might be the product of Australopithecus garhi or Paranthropus aethiopicus, the two known hominins contemporary with the tools. Homo habilis is the first member of the Homo line and could have descended from the Australopithecus as early as 2.3 Ma; it is first attested in Lake Turkana, Kenya. Homo erectus seems to have appeared later, its earliest remains dating back to c. 1.9 -- 1.6 Ma at Koobi Fora, Kenya. The two species would have lived face to face in East Africa for nearly half a million years. Well before Homo habilis disappeared (c. 1.4 Ma), Homo erectus had made it into Eurasia. The earliest well - dated Eurasian site is Dmanisi in Georgia, securely dated to 1.81 Ma. A skull found at Dmanisi is evidence for caring for the old. The skull shows that this Homo erectus was advanced in age and had lost all but one tooth years before death, and it is perhaps unlikely that this hominid would have survived alone. It is not certain, however, that this is sufficient proof for caring -- a partially paralysed chimpanzee at the Gombe reserve survived for years without help. Early Pleistocene sites in North Africa, the geographical intermediate of East Africa and Georgia, are in poor stratigraphic context. The earliest of the dated is Ain Hanech in northern Algeria (c. 1.8 -- 1.2 Ma), an Oldowan grade layer. These sites attest that early hominins have crossed the North African tracts, which are usually hot and dry. Hominins were part of the East African biome, and a flux in climate could have briefly expanded their environment, giving them the chance to move north. There is little time between Homo erectus ' apparent arrival in South Caucasus around 1.81 Ma, and its probable arrival in East and Southeast Asia. There is evidence of hominins in Yuanmou, China, dating to 1.7 Ma and in Sangiran, on Java, Indonesia, from 1.66 Ma. It appears hominins took longer to move into Europe, the earliest site being Barranco León in southeastern Spain dated to 1.4 Ma and a controversial Pirro Nord in Southern Italy, allegedly from 1.7 -- 1.3 Ma. In any case, by 1 Ma, hominins had settled in most of the Old World. It is hard to say, however, whether settlement was continuous in Western Europe, or if successive waves repopulated the territory in glacial interludes. Early Acheulean tools at Ubeidiya from 1.4 Ma is some evidence for a continuous settlement in the West, as successive waves out of Africa after then would likely have brought Acheulean technology to Western Europe. The Sinai Peninsula is the simplest African exit route, being since the Pliocene the only land bridge between the two continents of the Old World. Unless one argues for boats on behalf of Homo erectus, it is surely the only way out. However, it was hard to access until the Middle Pleistocene. The Nile was a much smaller river and followed a different course. There are two Eurasian entryways that take advantage of the Sinai. First, the Levantine corridor, which moves north along the Eastern Mediterranean. Second, down the eastern bank of the Red Sea. Archaeological efforts in Arabia are limited, and attention is usually given to the Levantine corridor. The Bab - el - Mandeb is a 30 km strait between East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, with a small island, Perim, 3 km off the Arabian bank. The strait has a major appeal in the study of Eurasian expansion in that it brings East Africa in direct proximity with Eurasia. It does not require hopping from one water body to the next across the North African desert. The land connection with Arabia disappeared in the Pliocene, and though it may have briefly reformed, the evaporation of the Red Sea and associated increase in salinity would have left traces in the fossil record after just 200 years and evaporite deposits after 600 years. Neither have been detected. A strong current flows from the Red Sea into the Indian Ocean and crossing would have been difficult without a land connection. Oldowan grade tools are reported from Perim Island, implying that the strait could have been crossed in the Early Pleistocene, but these finds have yet to be confirmed. The Strait of Gibraltar is the Atlantic entryway to the Mediterranean, where Spanish and Moroccan banks are only 14 km apart. A decrease in sea levels in the Pleistocene due to glaciation would not have brought this down to less than 10 km. Deep currents push westwards, and surface water flows strongly back into the Mediterranean. Entrance into Eurasia across the strait of Gibraltar could explain the hominin remains at Barranco León in southeastern Spain (1.4 Ma) and Sima del Elefante in northern Spain (1.2 Ma). But the site of Pirro Nord in southern Italy, allegedly from 1.3 -- 1.7 Ma, suggests a possible arrival from the East. Resolution is insufficient to settle the matter. The modern Strait of Sicily separates Tunisia and Sicily by 145 km, but is shallow and would have been much narrower in glacial maxima. We have a poor understanding of plate tectonics of this area for the greater part of the Pleistocene. But while plate tectonics could have made the strait narrower than predicted by the lowering of sea levels alone, contrast of Pleistocene fauna strongly argues against an actual land bridge. Since the strait is only 400 km away from the North African hominin site of Ain Hanech in Algeria (1.8 Ma or 1.2 Ma) it remains a plausible route for Early Pleistocene expansion into Eurasia. But there is close to no evidence for a hominin passage. Alimen based most of her argument in favour of such a migration on Bianchini 's discovery of Sicilian Oldowan grade tools. Radiometric dates, however, have not been produced, and the artefacts might as well be from the Middle Pleistocene. Presence of hominin remains in Indonesian islands is good evidence for seafaring by Homo erectus late in the Early Pleistocene. Bednarik suggests that navigation had appeared by 1 Ma, possibly to exploit offshore fishing grounds. He has reproduced a primitive dirigible raft to demonstrate the feasibility of faring across the Lombok Strait on such a device, which he believes to have been done before 850 ka. The strait has maintained a width of at least 20 km for the whole of the Pleistocene. Such an achievement by Homo erectus in the Early Pleistocene offers some strength to the suggested water routes out of Africa, as the Gibraltar, Sicilian, and Bab - el - Mandeb exit routes are harder to consider if boats are deemed beyond the capacities of Homo erectus. It is unlikely that hominins populated Eurasia after a one - off event getting a few hominins across a strait (such as a Homo erectus family drifting on flood debris and landing on a Eurasian bank). There are biological constraints to the minimum size a population must maintain to avoid extinction. That is to say, if less than 50 hominins at once made it into Eurasia and lost contact with African hominins, the population would likely undergo an extinction vortex, in part due to inbreeding. For a given species in a given environment, available resources will limit the number of individuals that can survive indefinitely. This is the carrying capacity. Upon reaching this threshold, individuals may find it easier to gather resources in the poorer yet less exploited peripheral environment than in the preferred habitat. Homo habilis could have developed some baseline behavioural flexibility prior to its expansion into the peripheries (such as encroaching into the predatory guild). This flexibility could then have been positively selected and amplified, leading to Homo erectus ' adaptation to the peripheral open habitats. A new and environmentally flexible hominin population could have come back to the old niche and replace the ancestral population. Moreover, some step-wise shrinking of the woodland and the associated reduction of hominin carrying capacity in the woods around 1.8 Ma, 1.2 Ma, and 0.6 Ma would have stressed the carrying capacity 's pressure for adapting to the open grounds. With Homo erectus ' new environmental flexibility, favourable climate fluxes likely opened it the way to the Levantine corridor, perhaps sporadically, in the Early Pleistocene. Lithic analysis implies that Oldowan hominins were not predators. However, Homo erectus appears to have followed animal migrations to the north during wetter periods, likely as a source of scavenged food. The sabre - tooth cat Megantereon was an apex predator of the Early and Middle Pleistocene (before MIS 12). It became extinct in Africa c. 1.5 Ma, but had already moved out through the Sinai, and is among the faunal remains of the Levantine hominin site of Ubeidiya, c. 1.4 Ma. It could not break bone marrow and its kills were likely an important food source for hominins, especially in glacial periods. In colder Eurasian times, the hominin diet would have to be principally meat - based and Acheulean hunters must have competed with cats. Bar - Yosef and Belfer - Cohen suggest that the success of hominins within Eurasia once out of Africa is in part due to the absence of zoonotic diseases outside their original habitat. Zoonotic diseases are those that are transmitted from animals to humans. While a disease specific to hominins must keep its human host alive long enough to transmit itself, zoonotic diseases will not necessarily do so as they can complete their life cycle without humans. Still, these infections are well accustomed to human presence, having evolved alongside them. The higher an African ape 's population density, the better a disease fares. 55 % of chimps at the Gombe reserve die of disease, most of them zoonotic. The majority of these diseases are still restricted to hot and damp African environments. Once hominins had moved out into drier and colder habitats of higher latitudes, one major limiting factor in population growth was out of the equation. While Homo habilis was certainly bipedal, its long arms are indicative of an arboreal adaptation. Homo erectus had longer legs and shorter arms, revealing a transition to obligate terrestriality, though it remains unclear how this change in relative leg length might have been an advantage. Sheer body size, on the other hand, seems to have allowed for better walking energy efficiency and endurance. A larger Homo erectus would also dehydrate more slowly and could thus cover greater distances before facing thermoregulatory limitations. The ability for prolonged walking at a normal pace would have been a decisive factor for effective colonisation of Eurasia. Thermoregulation and dehydration are major problems that need to be dealt with to move into the open grasslands. In particular, vascularisation of the brain is crucial in maintaining it in the narrow frame of tolerable temperatures. Bones of the higher cranium grow in response to expansion of cerebral mass, in such a way that brain tissue and blood vessels mold the inner brain case. Endocranial casts of fossil skulls allow approximating brain vascularisation. Dean Falk noticed that a single large vessel, the occipital marginal sinus, was responsible for irrigating most of the brain in early australopiths (Australopithecus afarensis, Paranthropus robustus and boisei). The vessel grew smaller with time to be progressively replaced by a network of small veins in later hominins, starting with Homo habilis and continuing well into Eurasia. She interprets the change as an adaptation to cool the brain, which she uses to advance her "radiator theory '' for accelerated encephalisation from Homo habilis onwards. To Falk, bipedalism, which predates large brains, favoured a rewiring of cerebral blood vessels into a gravity - assisted irrigation network, itself allowing the cool down needed for encephalisation. Endocranial casts of Homo habilis and Homo erectus differ in the organisation of the frontal lobe, in particular in the prefrontal cortex where higher mental functions of consciousness and abstraction occur. By themselves, mental capacities have likely played a role in the success of Eurasian colonisation. They would have allowed for greater social complexity, predation and sharing prey, and an overall higher quality diet. If we are to believe Bednarik and his seafaring Indonesian Homo erectus, then the brain must have played a role in crossing channels. According to Wheeler, loss of functional body hair would have helped prevent hyperthermia, since hair will obstruct air flow over the skin and restrict cooling by evaporation. He further suggests that body cooling due to hair loss has relieved a thermal constraint on brain size (but in a response to Falk 's radiator hypothesis, Ralph Holloway maintains that there is no evidence for a temperature constraint on brain size). However, differences in body hair between Homo habilis and Homo erectus are impossible to test, and it will remain unclear whether hair loss was part of the hominin adaptation or preadaptation to Eurasia.

what are some of the origins of contract law

History of contract law - wikipedia The history of contract law dates back to Ancient civilizations. English contract law 's history was heavily influenced by Ancient Greek and Roman thought. In The Laws, Plato devoted little attention to forms of agreement, but recognized the same basic categories for cancelling agreements as exist today. Roman law identified discrete categories of contractual transaction, each with its own requirements, which needed to be fulfilled in order for promises to be enforced. The general kind, stipulatio, required various words to be used to generate an obligation, or in a contractus litteris it could be written down. There were four categories of consensual agreement, and four kinds of contract creating property rights, such as a pledge (pignus) or a secured loan (mutuum). More than appeared from the general rules in Ancient Greece, Roman law represented an early division between specific kinds of contract, depending on the transaction 's nature. During the middle ages, the English court system was minimal and so a number of methods for restricting access to judicial hearings. In the local and manorial courts, according to the first treatise by Ranulf de Glanville, Treatise on the laws and customs of the English Kingdom in 1188, if people disputed the payment of a debt they, and witnesses, would attend court and swear oaths (called a wager of law). They risked perjury if they lost the case, and so this was strong encouragement to resolve disputes elsewhere. The royal courts accepted claims, without a wager of law, if "trespass on the case '' was alleged. A jury would be called, but to access the royal courts, which were fixed by the Magna Carta 1215 to meet in London, some breach of the King 's peace had to be alleged. But gradually, the courts allowed claims where there had been no such trouble, no tort vi et armis, even though it was still necessary to inventively plead this. For instance, in 1317 one Simon de Rattlesdene alleged he was sold a tun of wine that was contaminated with salt water, "with force and arms, namely with swords and bows and arrows ''. The Court of Chancery and the King 's Bench started to allow claims without the fictitious allegation of force and arms from around 1350. Otherwise, a breach of covenant required production of proof of an agreement from a seal. However, in The Humber Ferryman 's case a claim was allowed, without any documentary evidence, against a ferryman who dropped a horse overboard that he was contracted to carry across the River Humber. Despite this liberalisation, in the 1200s a threshold of 40 shillings for dispute value had been created. Though its importance tapered away with gradual inflation, it foreclosed court access to most people. Moreover, freedom to contract was firmly suppressed among the peasantry. After the Black Death, the Statute of Labourers 1351 prevented any increase in workers ' wages, fuelling among other things the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381. With the courts ' hostility to restraints on trade, the doctrine of consideration was forming, that to enforce any obligation something of value needed to be conveyed. Some courts remained sceptical that damages might be awarded purely for a broken agreement (that was not a sealed covenant). Other disputes allowed a remedy, notably in Shepton v Dogge where a defendant had agreed in London, where the City courts ' custom was to allow claims without covenants under seal, to sell 28 acres of land in Hoxton. Although the house itself was outside London at the time, in Middlesex, a remedy was awarded for deceit, but essentially based on a failure to convey the land. The resolution of these restrictions came shortly after 1585, when a new Court of Exchequer Chamber was established to hear common law appeals. In 1602, in Slade v Morley, a grain merchant named Slade claimed that Morley had agreed to buy wheat and rye for £ 16, but had backed out. Actions for debt were in the jurisdiction of the Court of Common Pleas, but it had required that there needed to be both (1) proof of a debt, and (2) a subsequent promise to repay the debt, so that a finding of deceit (for non-payment) could be made against a defendant. But if a claimant wanted to simply demand payment of the contractual debt (rather than a subsequent promise to pay) he could have to risk a wager of law. The judges of the Court of the King 's Bench was prepared to allow "assumpsit '' actions (for obligations being assumed) simply from proof of the original agreement. With a majority in the Exchquer Chamber, after six years Lord Popham CJ held that "every contract importeth in itself an Assumpsit ''. Around the same time the Common Pleas indicated a different limit for contract enforcement in Bret v JS, that "natural affection of itself is not a sufficient consideration to ground an assumpsit '' and there had to be some "express quid pro quo ''. Now that wager of law, and sealed covenants were essentially unnecessary, the Statute of Frauds 1677 codified the contract types that were thought should require some form. Increasingly, English contract law was affected by its trading relations with northern Europe, particularly since the Magna Carta 1215 guaranteed merchants "safe and secure '' exit and entry to England "for buying and selling by the ancient rights and customs, quit from all evil tolls ''. In 1266 King Henry III had granted the Hanseatic League a charter to trade in England. The "Easterlings '' who came to trade brought goods and money that the English came to call "Sterling '', and standard rules for commerce that formed a Lex Mercatoria, the laws of the merchants. Merchant custom was most influential in the coastal trading ports like London, Boston, Hull and King 's Lynn. In the 1500s, litigation sharply increased, although the causes are unclear and it may have been due to a centralization of lawsuits in the King 's Bench and Common Pleas. The Chief Justices received a large portion of their income from fees paid by litigants, mostly in civil disputes. Over the late 17th and 18th centuries Sir John Holt, and then Lord Mansfield actively incorporated the principles of international trade law and custom into English common law as they saw it: principles of commercial certainty, good faith, fair dealing, and the enforceability of seriously intended promises. As Lord Mansfield held, "Mercantile law is not the law of a particular country but the law of all nations '', but also that "the law of merchants and the law of the land is the same ''. Over the industrial revolution, English courts became more and more wedded to the concept of "freedom of contract ''. It was partly a sign of progress, as the vestiges of feudal and mercantile restrictions on workers and businesses were lifted, a move of people from "status to contract ''. On the other hand, a preference for laissez faire thought concealed the inequality of bargaining power in contracts of employment, consumer, and tenancy. At the centre, captured in nursery rhymes like Robert Browning 's Pied Piper of Hamelin in 1842 was the fabled notion that if people had promised something "let us keep our promise ''. But then, as if everybody had the same degree of free will, a generalised law of contract purported to cover every form of agreement was expounded. Courts were suspicious of interfering in agreements, whoever the parties were, so that in Printing and Numerical Registering Co v Sampson Sir George Jessel MR proclaimed that "contracts when entered into freely and voluntarily shall be held sacred and shall be enforced by Courts of justice. '' The Judicature Act 1875 merged the Courts of Chancery and common law, with equitable principles (such as estoppel, undue influence, rescission for misrepresentation and fiduciary duties or disclosure requirements in some transactions) always taking precedence. But the essential principles of English contract law remained stable and familiar, as an offer for certain terms, mirrored by an acceptance, supported by consideration, and free from duress, undue influence or misrepresentation, would generally be enforceable. The rules were exported across the British Empire, as for example in the Indian Contract Act 1872. Further requirements of fairness in exchanges between unequal parties, or general obligations of good faith and disclosure were unwarranted because was said that liabilities "are not to be forced upon people behind their backs ''. Parliament 's statutes, outside general codifications of commercial law like the Sale of Goods Act 1893, left people to the harsh "freedom of contract '' of the market until the property qualifications for Parliament were reduced, and the electoral vote finally became democratic. Over the 20th century, legislation and changes ' in court attitudes effected a wide - ranging reform of 19th century contract law. First, specific types of non-commercial contract were given special protection where "freedom of contract '' appeared far more on the side of large businesses. Consumer contracts came to be regarded as "contracts of adhesion '' where there was no real negotiation and most people were given "take it or leave it '' terms. In the UK, the courts began by requiring entirely clear information before onerous clauses could be enforced, the Misrepresentation Act 1967 switched the burden of proof onto business to show misleading statements were not negligent, and the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 created the jurisdiction to scrap contract terms that were "unreasonable '' considering the bargaining power of the parties. Collective bargaining and growing number of employment rights carried the employment contract into an autonomous field of labour law where workers had rights, like a minimum wage, fairness in dismissal, the right to join a union and take collective action, and these could not be given up in a contract with an employer. Private housing was subject to basic terms, such as the right to repairs, and restrictions on unfair rent increases, though many protection was abolished during the 1980s. This reduced the scope of the general law of contract, and meant that most contracts individual people made in their ordinary lives were shielded from the power of corporations to impose whatever terms they chose in selling goods and services, at work, and in people 's home. Nevertheless, classical contract law remained at the foundation of specific contracts, unless particular rights were given by the courts or Parliament. Internationally, the UK had joined the European Union, which aimed to harmonise significant parts of consumer and employment law across member states. Moreover, with increasing openness of markets commercial contracts were receiving ideas from abroad. Both the Principles of European Contract Law, the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts, and the practice of international commercial arbitration was reshaping thinking about English contract principles with the rest of the globalising economy.

when did the republican and democratic parties begin

Democratic - Republican party - wikipedia The Democratic - Republican Party was an American political party formed by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in 1791 -- 1793 to oppose the centralizing policies of the new Federalist Party run by Alexander Hamilton, who was secretary of the treasury and chief architect of George Washington 's administration. From 1801 to 1825, the new party controlled the presidency and Congress as well as most states during the First Party System. It began in 1791 as one faction in Congress and included many politicians who had been opposed to the new constitution. They called themselves "Republicans '' after their ideology, republicanism. They distrusted the Federalist commitment to republicanism. The party splintered in 1824 into the Jacksonian movement (which became the Democratic Party in 1828) and the short - lived National Republican Party (later succeeded by the Whig Party). The term "Democratic - Republican '' is used especially by modern political scientists for the first "Republican Party '' (as opposed to the modern Republican Party founded in 1854). It is also known as the Jeffersonian Republicans. Historians typically use the title "Republican Party ''. An "Anti-Administration '' faction met secretly in the national capital (Philadelphia) to oppose Hamilton 's financial programs. Jefferson denounced the programs as leading to monarchy and subversive of republicanism. Jefferson needed to have a nationwide party to challenge the Federalists, which Hamilton was building up with allies in major cities. Foreign affairs took a leading role in 1794 -- 1795 as the Republicans vigorously opposed the Jay Treaty with Britain, which was then at war with France. Republicans saw France as more democratic after its revolution, while Britain represented the hated monarchy. The party denounced many of Hamilton 's measures as unconstitutional, especially the national bank. The party was strongest in the South and weakest in the Northeast. It demanded states ' rights as expressed by the "Principles of 1798 '' articulated in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions that would allow states to nullify a federal law. Above all, the party stood for the primacy of the yeoman farmers. Republicans were deeply committed to the principles of republicanism, which they feared were threatened by the supposed monarchical tendencies of the Hamiltonian Federalists. The party came to power in 1801 with the election of Jefferson in the 1800 presidential election. The Federalists -- too elitist to appeal to most people -- faded away and totally collapsed after 1815. Despite internal divisions, the Republicans dominated the First Party System until partisanship itself withered away during the Era of Good Feelings after 1816. The party selected its presidential candidates in a caucus of members of Congress. They included Thomas Jefferson (nominated 1796; elected 1800 -- 1801, 1804), James Madison (1808, 1812) and James Monroe (1816, 1820). By 1824, the caucus system had practically collapsed. After 1800, the party dominated Congress and most state governments outside New England. By 1824, the party was also split four ways and lacked a center, as the First Party System collapsed. The emergence of the Second Party System in the 1830s realigned the old factions. One remnant followed Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren into the new Democratic Party by 1828. Another remnant led by John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay formed the National Republicans in 1828, which developed into the Whig Party by 1835. Congressman James Madison started the party among Representatives in Philadelphia (then the national capital) as the "Republican Party ''. Then he, Jefferson and others reached out to include state and local leaders around the country, especially New York and the South. The precise date of founding is disputed, but 1791 is a reasonable estimate and some time by 1792 is certain. The new party set up newspapers that made withering critiques of Hamiltonianism, extolled the yeoman farmer, argued for strict construction of the Constitution, favored the French Revolution, strongly opposed Great Britain and called for stronger state governments than the Federalist Party was proposing. The elections of 1792 were the first ones to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis. In most states the congressional elections were recognized, as Jefferson strategist John Beckley put it, as a "struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest ''. In New York, the candidates for governor were John Jay, a Federalist; and incumbent George Clinton, who was allied with Jefferson and the Republicans. Four states ' electors voted for Clinton and one (Kentucky) for Jefferson for Vice President in opposition to incumbent John Adams as well as casting their votes for President Washington. Before 1804, electors cast two votes together without differentiation as to which office was to be filled by which candidate. In the 1796 election, the party made its first bid for the presidency with Jefferson as its presidential candidate and Aaron Burr as its vice presidential candidate. Jefferson came in second in the electoral college (at the time, its balloting could not distinguish between President and Vice President) and became Vice President. He would become a consistent and strong opponent of the policies of the John Adams administration. Jefferson and Madison were deeply upset by the unconstitutionality of the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 and they secretly wrote the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, which called on state legislatures to nullify unconstitutional laws. However, the other states did not follow suit and several rejected the notion that states could nullify federal law. The Republican critique of federalism became wrapped in the slogan of "Principles of 1798 '', which became the hallmark of the party. The most important of these principles were states ' rights, opposition to a strong national government, distrust of the federal courts and opposition to the navy and the national bank. The party saw itself as a champion of republicanism and denounced the Federalists as supporters of monarchy and aristocracy. The party coalesced around Jefferson, who diligently maintained extensive correspondence with like - minded Republican leaders throughout the country. Washington frequently decried the growing sense of "party '' emerging from the internal battles among Jefferson, Madison, Hamilton, Adams and others in his administration. As warfare in Europe increased, the two factions increasingly made foreign policy the central political issue of the day. The Republicans wanted to maintain the 1778 alliance with France, which had overthrown the monarchy and aristocracy and become a republic. Even though Britain was by far United States ' leading trading partner, Republicans feared that increased trade would undermine republicanism. The Republicans distrusted Hamilton 's national bank and rejected his premise that a national debt was good for the country as Republicans said they were both forms of corruption. They strongly distrusted the elitism of Hamilton 's circle, denouncing it as "aristocratic ''; and they called for states ' rights lest the Federalists centralize ever more power in the national governments. The intense debate over the Jay Treaty in 1794 -- 1795 transformed those opposed to Hamilton 's policies from a loose movement into a true political party. To fight the treaty, the Jeffersonians "established coordination in activity between leaders at the capital, and leaders, actives and popular followings in the states, counties and towns ''. However, they were defeated when Washington mobilized public opinion in favor of the treaty. Historians have used statistical techniques to estimate the party breakdown in Congress. Many Congressmen were hard to classify in the first few years, but after 1796 there was less uncertainty. The affiliation of many Congressmen in the earliest years is an assignment by later historians; these were slowly coalescing groups with initially considerable independent thinking and voting. Cunningham noted that only about a quarter of the House of Representatives up untill 1794 voted with Madison as much as two - thirds of the time and another quarter against him two - thirds of the time, leaving almost half as fairly independent. Albert Gallatin recalled only two caucuses on legislative policy between 1795 and 1801, one over appropriations for Jay 's Treaty and the other over the Quasi-War, but in neither case did the party decide to vote unanimously. The new party invented some of the campaign and organizational techniques which were later adopted by the Federalists and became standard American practice. It was especially effective in building a network of newspapers in major cities to broadcast its statements and editorialize its policies. Fisher Ames, a leading Federalist, used the term "Jacobin '' to link members of Jefferson 's party to the radicals of the French Revolution. He blamed the newspapers for electing Jefferson and wrote they were "an overmatch for any Government... The Jacobins owe their triumph to the unceasing use of this engine; not so much to skill in use of it as by repetition ''. As one historian explained: "It was the good fortune of the Republicans to have within their ranks a number of highly gifted political manipulators and propagandists. Some of them had the ability... to not only see and analyze the problem at hand but to present it in a succinct fashion; in short, to fabricate the apt phrase, to coin the compelling slogan and appeal to the electorate on any given issue in language it could understand ''. Outstanding propagandists included editor William Duane (1760 -- 1835) and party leaders Albert Gallatin, Thomas Cooper and Jefferson himself. Just as important was effective party organization of the sort that John J. Beckley pioneered. In 1796, he managed the Jefferson campaign in Pennsylvania, blanketing the state with agents who passed out 30,000 hand - written tickets, naming all 15 electors (printed tickets were not allowed). Beckley told one agent: "In a few days a select republican friend from the City will call upon you with a parcel of tickets to be distributed in your County. Any assistance and advice you can furnish him with, as to suitable districts & characters, will I am sure be rendered ''. Beckley was the first American professional campaign manager and his techniques were quickly adopted in other states. The emergence of the new organizational strategies can be seen in the politics of Connecticut around 1806, which have been well documented by Cunningham. The Federalists dominated Connecticut, so the Republicans had to work harder to win. In 1806, the state leadership sent town leaders instructions for the forthcoming elections. Every town manager was told by state leaders "to appoint a district manager in each district or section of his town, obtaining from each an assurance that he will faithfully do his duty ''. Then the town manager was instructed to compile lists and total the number of taxpayers and the number of eligible voters, find out how many favored the Republicans and how many the Federalists and to count the number of supporters of each party who were not eligible to vote but who might qualify (by age or taxes) at the next election. These highly detailed returns were to be sent to the county manager and in turn were compiled and sent to the state manager. Using these lists of potential voters, the managers were told to get all eligible people to town meetings and help the young men qualify to vote. The state manager was responsible for supplying party newspapers to each town for distribution by town and district managers. This highly coordinated "get - out - the - vote '' drive would be familiar to modern political campaigners, but was the first of its kind in world history. The party 's electors secured a majority in the 1800 election, but an equal number of electors cast votes for Jefferson and Aaron Burr. The tie sent the election to the House and Federalists there blocked any choice. Hamilton, believing that Burr would be a poor choice for president, intervened and let Jefferson win, a move that would result in the collapse of the Federalist Party and Hamilton 's death four years later at the hands of Burr himself in a pistol duel. Starting in 1800 in what Jefferson called the "Revolution of 1800 '', the party took control of the presidency and both houses of Congress, beginning a quarter century of control of those institutions. A faction called "Old Republicans '' opposed the nationalism that grew popular after 1815 as they were stunned when party leaders started a Second Bank of the United States in 1816. The first official Republican Congressional Caucus meeting took place at Marache 's boarding house on May 11, 1800 in Philadelphia. The January 26, 1799 letter Thomas Jefferson wrote to Elbridge Gerry became the party 's platform. In the Senate chamber on February 25, 1804, a "Convention of Republican members of both houses of Congress '' met. Senator Stephen Bradley presided, a Committee on Presidential Electors was formed and it was resolved that Thomas Jefferson be nominated for President and George Clinton be nominated Vice President. The party held a convention by the same name on January 23, 1808, again in the Senate chamber at 6: 00 pm on a Saturday. Senator Stephen Bradley, who was the President pro tempore of the Senate, again served as President of the convention with Representative Richard Johnson as the Secretary. A Committee on Correspondence was formed, James Madison was nominated for President and George Clinton was re-nominated for Vice President. Legislative issues were handled by the Committee of the Whole and the elected Speaker of the House of Representatives and floor leaders, who at that time were the Chairman for the Committee on Ways and Means of the House of Representatives and Chairman for the Committee on Finance of the Senate. The state legislatures often instructed Members of Congress how to vote on specific issues. More exactly, they "instructed '' the Senators (who were elected by the legislatures) and "requested '' the Representatives (who were elected by the people). On rare occasions a Senator resigned rather than follow instructions. The opposition Federalist Party quickly declined, suffering from a lack of leadership after the death of Hamilton and the retirement of John Adams. It revived briefly in opposition to the War of 1812, but the extremism of its Hartford Convention of 1815 utterly destroyed it as a political force. Jefferson and Albert Gallatin focused on the danger that the public debt, unless it was paid off, would be a threat to republican values. They were appalled that Hamilton was increasing the national debt and using it to solidify his Federalist base. Gallatin was the Republican Party 's chief expert on fiscal issues and as Treasury Secretary under Jefferson and Madison worked hard to lower taxes and lower the debt, while at the same time paying cash for the Louisiana Purchase and funding the War of 1812. Burrows says of Gallatin: His own fears of personal dependency and his small shopkeeper 's sense of integrity, both reinforced by a strain of radical republican thought that originated in England a century earlier, convinced him that public debts were a nursery of multiple public evils -- corruption, legislative impotence, executive tyranny, social inequality, financial speculation, and personal indolence. Not only was it necessary to extinguish the existing debt as rapidly as possible, he argued, but Congress would have to ensure against the accumulation of future debts by more diligently supervising government expenditures. Fear of a large debt is a major legacy of the party. Andrew Jackson believed the national debt was a "national curse '' and he took special pride in paying off the entire national debt in 1835. Politicians ever since have used the issue of a high national debt to denounce the other party for profligacy and a threat to fiscal soundness and the nation 's future. In rapidly expanding western states, the Federalists had few supporters. Every state had a distinct political geography that shaped party membership. In Pennsylvania, the Republicans were weakest around Philadelphia and strongest in Scots - Irish settlements in the west. Members came from all social classes, but came predominantly from the poor, subsistence farmers, mechanics and tradesmen. After the War of 1812, partisanship subsided across the young republic -- people called it the Era of Good Feelings. James Monroe narrowly won the party 's nomination for President in Congress over William Crawford in 1816 and defeated Federalist Rufus King in the general election. In the early years of the party, the key central organization grew out of caucuses of Congressional leaders in Washington. However, the key battles to choose electors occurred in the states, not in the caucus. In many cases, legislatures still chose electors; and in others, the election of electors was heavily influenced by local parties that were heavily controlled by relatively small groups of officials. Without a significant Federalist opposition, the need for party unity was greatly diminished and the party 's organization faded away. James Monroe ran under the party 's banner in the 1820 election and built support by consensus. Monroe faced no serious rival and was nearly unanimously elected by the electoral college. The party 's historic domination by the Virginian delegation faded as New York and Pennsylvania became more important. In the 1824 election, most of the party in Congress boycotted the caucus; only a small rump group backed William Crawford. The Crawford faction included most "Old Republicans '' -- those who remained committed to states ' rights and the Principles of 1798 and were distrustful of the nationalizing program promoted by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Thomas Jefferson wrote on the state of party politics in the early 1820s: An opinion prevails that there is no longer any distinction, that the republicans & Federalists are completely amalgamated but it is not so. The amalgamation is of name only, not of principle. All indeed call themselves by the name of Republicans, because that of Federalists was extinguished in the battle of New Orleans. But the truth is that finding that monarchy is a desperate wish in this country, they rally to the point which they think next best, a consolidated government. Their aim is now therefore to break down the rights reserved by the constitution to the states as a bulwark against that consolidation, the fear of which produced the whole of the opposition to the constitution at its birth. Hence new Republicans in Congress, preaching the doctrines of the old Federalists, and the new nick - names of Ultras and Radicals. But I trust they will fail under the new, as the old name, and that the friends of the real constitution and union will prevail against consolidation, as they have done against monarchism. I scarcely know myself which is most to be deprecated, a consolidation, or dissolution of the states. The horrors of both are beyond the reach of human foresight. In the aftermath of the disputed 1824 presidential election, the separate factions took on many characteristics of parties in their own right. Adams ' supporters, in league with Clay, favored modernization, banks, industrial development and federal spending for roads and other internal improvements, which the Old Republicans and the Jackson men usually opposed. Writing in his personal journal on December 13, 1826, President Adams noted the difficulty he faced in attempting to be nonpartisan in appointing men to office: And it is upon the occasion of appointments to office that all the wormwood and the gall of the old party hatred ooze out. Not a vacancy to any office occurs but there is a distinguished federalist started and pushed home as a candidate to fill it -- always well qualified, sometimes in an eminent degree, and yet so obnoxious to the Republican party that he can not be appointed without exciting a vehement clamor against him and against the Administration. It becomes thus impossible to fill any appointment without offending one - half the community -- the federalists, if their associate is overlooked; the Republicans, if he is preferred. Presidential electors were now all chosen by direct election, except in South Carolina, where the state legislatures chose them. White manhood suffrage was the norm throughout the West and in most of the East as well. The voters thus were much more powerful, and to win their votes required complex party organization. Under the leadership of Martin Van Buren, a firm believer in political organization, the Jacksonians built strong state and local organizations throughout the country. The Old Republicans, or "Radicals '', mostly supported Jackson and joined with supporters of incumbent Vice President Calhoun in an alliance. President Adams was defeated by Andrew Jackson in the election of 1828. Political parties were new in the United States, and people were not accustomed to having formal names for them. There was no single, official name for the party. Party members generally called themselves "Republicans '' and voted for what they called the "Republican party '', "republican ticket '' or "republican interest ''. Jefferson and Madison often used the terms "republican '' and "Republican party '' in their letters. The 1804 Convention of Republican members of Congress that renominated Jefferson described itself as a "regular republican caucus ''. The name Democratic - Republican was used by contemporaries only occasionally. The term "republican '' was in widespread usage from the 1770s to describe the type of government the break - away colonies wanted to form: a republic of three separate branches of government derived from some principles and structure from ancient republics; especially the emphasis on civic duty and the opposition to corruption, elitism, aristocracy and monarchy. The word is used in the United States Constitution. A split appeared in the then Republican party during the 1824 elections (at the end of the Monroe administration). When the election was thrown to the House of Representatives, Henry Clay backed John Quincy Adams to deny the presidency to Andrew Jackson, a longtime political rival. Jackson defeated Adams in 1828 and in the next election the first Democratic national convention took place in Baltimore, Maryland on May 21 -- 23, 1832. It nominated Andrew Jackson for a second term and he went on to win the presidential election. The Adams / Clay alliance became the basis of the National Republican Party, a rival to the Jackson 's Democracy and one of the successors of the Democratic - Republican Party. This party favored a higher tariff in order to protect U.S. manufacturers, as well as public works, especially roads. Many former members of the defunct Federalist Party, including Daniel Webster, joined the party. After Clay 's defeat by Jackson in the 1832 presidential election, the National Republicans were absorbed into the Whig Party, a diverse group of Jackson opponents. Taking a leaf from the Jacksonians, the Whigs tended to nominate non-ideological war heroes as their presidential candidates. The Whig party fell apart in the 1850s over the question of whether to allow the expansion of slavery into new territories. The modern Republican Party was formed in 1854 to oppose the expansion of slavery. Many former Whig party leaders (such as Abraham Lincoln -- modern Republican Party supporters still sometimes refer to themselves as "the party of Lincoln '') and former Free Soil Party leaders joined the newly formed anti-slavery party. The party sought to combine Jefferson 's ideals of liberty and equality with Clay 's program of using an active government to modernize the economy. Four United States Presidents were elected following a process that selected them as a national nominee of the Democratic - Republican party:

who sings buckaroo i wanna be like you

Watching you (Rodney Atkins song) - wikipedia "Watching You '' is a song co-written and recorded by American country music artist Rodney Atkins. It was released in September 2006 as the second single from the album If You 're Going Through Hell. The single became Atkins ' second number - one single on the Billboard U.S. Hot Country Songs chart. It was named the number - one song of 2007 on Billboard 's year - end chart. The song was written by Atkins, Steve Dean and Brian Gene White. The song was inspired by Atkins ' son, Elijah. After having found out that Elijah had been singing Atkins ' 2006 hit "If You 're Going Through Hell (Before the Devil Even Knows) '' to his teachers, he then had to explain to his son that it "might not be appropriate for him to be singing that in school ''. The song is a moderate up - tempo portraying two examples of a son learning from his father. In the first verse, the father and son are in the car together, driving through town. The son is eating a Happy Meal in the passenger seat, just as the father slams on the brakes at a red light, causing the boy to spill his food all over himself and say a bad word (implied to be shit). The father asks where his son learned to swear, and the boy then responds with "I 've been watching you. / Dad, ai n't that cool? / I 'm your buckaroo, I wan na be like you ''. In the second verse, the father heads out to his barn and begins to pray ("Lord, please help me help my stupid self ''). Still later, at bedtime, the boy kneels beside his bed to pray as well, with his father watching. Upon hearing the boy 's prayers, the father asks "Where 'd you learn to pray like that? '' to which the boy again responds by saying that he has been watching his father. The father then responds by hugging his son and stating his pride in the boy 's growing up. The video portrays the events which are laid out in the song 's lyrics. Elijah also portrays the child in the song 's video, and as a result, he has gained recognition in public. It was Atkins ' second video directed by Eric Welch. On the Comedy Central special with Natasha Leggero ' Diamond Pussy ' (2015), she lampoons country music and specifically "Watching You '' 's lyric: "Knowing that he could n't have the toy ' til his nuggets were gone. '' sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone

which of the following is the proper name for the figure below

Demonym - wikipedia A demonym (/ ˈdɛmənɪm /; δῆμος dẽmos "people, tribe '', ὄνομα ónoma "name '') is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism (i.e., a recently minted term); previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e.g., the Oxford English Dictionary and Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary. Examples of demonyms include a Swahili for a person of the Swahili coast, the colloquial Kiwi for a person from New Zealand, and a Cochabambino for a person from the city of Cochabamba. Demonyms do not always clearly distinguish place of origin or ethnicity from place of residence or citizenship, and many demonyms overlap with the ethnonym for the ethnically dominant group of a region. Thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms. For example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Briton or, informally, a Brit. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, a demonym is borrowed from another language as a nickname or descriptive adjective of a group of people. In English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e.g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist; for instance the adjectival form of Spain is "Spanish '', but the demonym is "Spaniard ''. English commonly uses national demonyms such as "Ethiopian '' or "Guatemalan '' and more local demonyms such as "Chicagoan '', "Wisconsinite '', or "Parisian ''. Some places, especially smaller towns and cities, lack a commonly used and accepted demonym. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis ("of a clan, or gens '') and the English suffix - ic. The word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning "populace '' (δῆμος demos) with the suffix for "name '' (- onym). National Geographic attributes the term "demonym '' to Merriam - Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990. The word did not appear for nouns, adjectives, and verbs derived from geographical names in the Merriam - Webster Collegiate Dictionary nor in prominent style manuals such as the Chicago Manual of Style. It was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From...? A Dictionary of Resident Names (the first edition of Labels for Locals) Dickson attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names ' Names: A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon (1988), which is apparently where the term first appears. The term may have been fashioned after demonymic, which the Oxford English Dictionary defines as the name of an Athenian citizen according to the deme to which the citizen belongs, with its first use traced to 1893. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language. The most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. These may resemble Late Latin, Semitic, Celtic, or Germanic suffixes, such as: as adaptations from the standard Spanish suffix - e (ñ / n) o (sometimes using a final - a instead of - o for a female, following the Spanish suffix standard - e (ñ / n) a) Often used for European locations and Canadian locations (Usually suffixed to a truncated form of the toponym, or place - name.) "- ish '' is usually proper only as an adjective. See note below list. Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. "- ese '' is usually considered proper only as an adjective, or to refer to the entirety. Thus, "a Chinese person '' is used rather than "a Chinese ''. Often used for East Asian and Francophone locations, from the similar - sounding French suffix - ais (e), which is originally from the Latin adjectival ending - ensis, designating origin from a place: thus Hispaniensis (Spanish), Danensis (Danish), etc. Mostly for Middle Eastern and South Asian locales and in Latinate names for the various people that ancient Romans encountered (e.g. Allemanni, Helvetii) Used especially for Greek locations. Often used for French locations. Often used for British and Irish locations. While derived from French, these are also official demonyms in English. It is much rarer to find Demonyms created with a prefix. Mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of a particular ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, and the language, Kiluba or Tshiluba. Similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti (Viti being the Fijian name for Fiji). On a country level: In the Pacific, at least two countries use prefixation: Demonyms may also not conform to the underlying naming of a particular place, but instead arise out of historical or cultural particularities that become associated with its denizens. These demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the intercollegiate sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed. Literature and science fiction have created a wealth of gentilics that are not directly associated with a cultural group. These will typically be formed using the standard models above. Examples include Martian for hypothetical people of Mars (credited to scientist Percival Lowell) or Gondorian for the people of Tolkien 's fictional land of Gondor. Other science fiction examples include Jovian for those of Jupiter or its moons, and Venusian for those of Venus. Fictional aliens refer to the inhabitants of Earth as Earthling (from the diminutive - ling, ultimately from Old English - ing meaning "descendant ''), as well as "Terran '', "Terrene '', "Tellurian '', "Earther '', "Earthican '', "Terrestrial '', and "Solarian '' (from Sol, the sun). Fantasy literature which involves other worlds or other lands also has a rich supply of gentilics. Examples include Lilliputians and Brobdingnagians, from the islands of Lilliput and Brobdingnag in the satire Gulliver 's Travels. In a few cases, where a linguistic background has been created, non-standard gentilics are formed (or the eponyms back - formed). Examples include Tolkien 's Rohirrim (from Rohan) and the Star Trek world 's Klingon people (with various version of homeworld name). - onym, especially ethnonym and Exonym and endonym

when did mariah careys all i want for christmas come out

All I Want for Christmas Is You - wikipedia "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' is a Christmas song performed by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey. She wrote and produced the song alongside Walter Afanasieff. Columbia Records released it on November 1, 1994, as the lead single from her fourth studio album and first holiday album, Merry Christmas (1994). It is an uptempo love song that includes bell chimes, heavy back - up vocals, and synthesizers. Two music videos were commissioned for the song: the song 's primary music video features grainy home - movie - style footage of Carey, her dogs and family during the holiday season, as well as Carey dressed in a Santa suit frolicking on a snowy mountainside. Carey 's then - husband Tommy Mottola makes a cameo appearance as Santa Claus, bringing Carey a gift and leaving on a red sleigh. The second video was filmed in black and white, and features Carey dressed in 1960s style in homage to The Ronettes, alongside back up singers and female dancers. Carey has performed "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' in numerous live television appearances and tours throughout her career. In 2010, Carey re-recorded the song for her second holiday album, Merry Christmas II You, titled "All I Want for Christmas Is You (Extra Festive) ''. Carey also re-recorded the song as a duet with Canadian singer Justin Bieber for his 2011 album Under the Mistletoe, titled "All I Want for Christmas for You (SuperFestive!) ''. The song has also been covered by many artists over the years. In the years since its original release, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' has been critically lauded; it was once called "one of the few worthy modern additions to the holiday canon '' in The New Yorker. It has become established as a Christmas standard and continues to surge in popularity each holiday season. The song was commercially successful, topping the charts in the Czech Republic, Hungary, the Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, and Spain while reaching number two in Australia, Japan, and the United Kingdom, and the top 10 in several other countries. With global sales of over 16 million copies, the song remains Carey 's biggest international success and is the 11th best - selling single of all time. As of 2017, the song was reported to have earned $60 million in royalties. Following the success of the singer 's 1993 career best - selling album Music Box, Carey and her management at Columbia Records began devising ideas and strategies for subsequent projects. Carey 's then - husband, Tommy Mottola, head of Columbia 's parent label Sony Music Entertainment, began mapping out possible follow ups for the singer during the pinnacle years of her career. During initial discussions regarding the thought of doing a Christmas - themed album with Carey and her writing partner of over four years, Walter Afanasieff, fear arose that it was not commercially expedient or wise to release holiday music at the peak of one 's career, as it was more often equated with a release towards the end of a musician 's waning career. Afanasieff recalled his sentiments during initial discussions for a holiday record: "Back then, you did n't have a lot of artists with Christmas albums. It was n't a known science at all back then, and there was nobody who did new, big Christmas songs. So we were going to release it as kind of an everyday, ' Hey, you know, we 're putting out a Christmas album. No big deal. ' '' Ultimately, with Mottola 's persistence and Carey 's initiative to be a "risk - taker '' as Afanasieff put it, the song and its parent album, Merry Christmas, began taking form in early - mid 1994. Recording for the album began in June, while the Carey - Afanasieff songwriting duo penned "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' in late August. Often referencing herself a festive person and demonstrating a usual penchant for her love of all things Christmas, Carey began decorating the home she shared with Mottola in upstate New York (which also came equipped with a personal recording studio) with Christmas ornaments and other holiday - inspired trinkets. In doing so, Carey felt she could capture the essence and spirit of what she was singing and make her vocal performance and delivery more emotive and authentic. The songwriting pair carved out the chords, structure and melody for the song in just a quarter of an hour: "It 's definitely not ' Swan Lake, ' ' admits Afanasieff. ' But that 's why it 's so popular -- because it 's so simple and palatable! ''. At first, Afanasieff admitted that he was puzzled and "blanched '' as to where Carey wanted to take the melody and vocal scales, though she was "adamant '' in her direction for the song. In an interview with Billboard, Afanasieff described the type of relationship he and Carey shared in the studio and as songwriters for the song and in general: It was always the same sort of system with us. We would write the nucleus of the song, the melody primary music, and then some of the words were there as we finished writing it. I started playing some rock ' n ' roll piano and started boogie woogie - ing my left hand, and that inspired Mariah to come up with the melodic (Sings.) ' I do n't want a lot for Christmas. ' And then we started singing and playing around with this rock ' n ' roll boogie song, which immediately came out to be the nucleus of what would end up being ' All I Want For Christmas Is You. ' That one went very quickly: It was an easier song to write than some of the other ones. It was very formulaic, not a lot of chord changes. I tried to make it a little more unique, putting in some special chords that you really do n't hear a lot of, which made it unique and special. Then for the next week or two Mariah would call me and say, ' What do you think about this bit? ' We would talk a little bit until she got the lyrics all nicely coordinated and done. And then we just waited until the sessions began, which were in the summer of ' 94 where we got together in New York and started recording. And that 's when we first hear her at the microphone singing, and the rest is history. Afanasieff flew back to California where he finished the song 's programming and production. Originally, he had a live band play the drums and other instruments with the thought of giving it a more raw and affective sound. He was unhappy with the results of the recording and subsequently scrapped the effort and used his original, personal arrangement and programmed all the instruments heard on the song (with the exception of the background vocals) including the piano, effects, drums and triangle. While Carey continued writing material in her rented home in The Hamptons, Afanasieff completed the song 's programming and awaited to rendezvous with her a final time in order to layer and harmonize the background vocals. In touching on several aspects of what excited her to record and release a Christmas album, Carey went into detail on what writing and recording the song and album meant for her: "I 'm a very festive person and I love the holidays. I 've sung Christmas songs since I was a little girl. I used to go Christmas caroling. When it came to the album, we had to have a nice balance between standard Christian hymns and fun songs. It was definitely a priority for me to write at least a few new songs, but for the most part people really want to hear the standards at Christmas time, no matter how good a new song is. '' "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' is an uptempo song, composed with pop, soul, R&B, gospel, dance - pop and rhythmic adult contemporary influences and stylings. By early August, Carey already had two original songs written alongside Afanasieff; the "sad and balld - y '' "Miss You Most (At Christmas Time) '' and the "Gospel - tinged and religious '' "Jesus Born on This Day ''. The third and final original song the pair planned to write was to be centered and inspired and in the vein of a "Phil Spector, old rock ' n roll, sixties - sounding Christmas song ''. The song begins with a "sparking '' bit of percussion "that resembles an antique music box or a whimsical snow globe. '' After Carey 's a cappella style vocal introduction, the song introduces other seasonal percussive signifiers including; celebratory church - like bells, cheerful sleigh bells, and "an underlying rhythmic beat that sounds like the loping pace of a horse or reindeer. These sounds echo religious and secular musical touchstones, without veering blatantly too much in either direction, and give the song an upbeat, joyous tone. '' In an interview in 1994, Carey described the song as "fun '', and continued: "It 's very traditional, old - fashioned Christmas. It 's very retro, kind of ' 60s. '' Afanasieff went further in breaking down the song 's musical elements: "A lush bed of keyboards, reminiscent of a small - scale Wall of Sound, cushions the song 's cheery rhythms, while a soulful vocal chorus adds robust oohs, tension - creating counter-melodies, and festive harmonies. Most notably, however, the song 's jaunty piano chords and melody keep the song merrily bouncing along. '' Lyrically, the describes the yearning desire to be with a loved one for Christmas, regardless of whether they have to forgo the usual commercial aspect of the holiday season such as ornamental lights, trees, snow and presents. The song incorporates various instruments, including piano, drums, violin, oboe, flute, bell chimes, bass effect, and cowbells. The song layers background vocals throughout the chorus and sections of the bridge. "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' is played at an original tempo of 150.162 beats per minute. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing, the song is set in common time and in the key of G major. Carey 's vocal range in the song spans from the note of G to the high note of G. Carey wrote the song 's lyrics and melody, while Afanasieff arranged and produced the piece with synthetically created computerized equipment. Slate 's Ragusea counts "at least 13 distinct chords at work, resulting in a sumptuously chromatic melody. The song also includes what I consider the most Christmassy chord of all -- a minor subdominant, or ' iv, ' chord with an added 6, under the words ' underneath the Christmas tree, ' among other places. (You might also analyze it as a half - diminished ' ii ' 7th chord, but either interpretation seems accurate). '' According to Roch Parisien from AllMusic, the song contains "The Beach Boys - style harmonies, jangling bells, and a sleigh - ride pace, injecting one of the few bits of exuberant fun in this otherwise vanilla set. '' Critics have noted the song 's 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s influences which, in conjunction with Carey 's voice and its simple melody, heralded its recipe for success. In discussing the song 's chord progression and stylistic approaches, Slate 's Adam Ragusea hailed the song as "the only Christmas song written in the last half - century worthy of inclusion in the Great American Songbook. '' The A.V. Club 's Annie Zaleski attributes the song 's enduring appeal to its ambiguity in being able to pin it down as belonging to a specific era. Critics also noted the song a tad reminiscent of the works of Judy Garland and Nat King Cole, while also describing it as hearkening back to "' 60s and ' 70s Motown covers of prewar Christmas classics, such as The Jackson 5 's (and) Stevie Wonder ''. Slate 's Ragusea conceded that "All I Want For Christmas Is You '' "sounds like it could have been written in the ' 40s and locked in a Brill Building safe. '' In a piece on the song in Vogue, a writer felt the song 's lyrics helped solidify its status over two decades later: "those lyrics could have been sung by Frank Sinatra -- well, maybe not Frank, but another singer back then. I think that 's what gives it that timeless, classic quality. '' "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' was lauded by music critics. Parisien called the song "a year - long banger '', complimenting its instrumentation and melody. Steve Morse, editor of The Boston Globe, wrote that Carey sang with a lot of soul. According to Barry Schwartz from Stylus Magazine, "to say this song is an instant classic somehow does n't capture its amazingicity; it 's a modern standard: joyous, exhilarating, loud, with even a hint of longing. '' Schwartz praised the song 's lyrics as well, describing them as "beautifully phrased, '' and calling Carey 's voice "gorgeous '' and "sincere. '' Kyle Anderson from MTV labeled the track "a majestic anthem full of chimes, sleigh bells, doo - wop flourishes, sweeping strings and one of the most dynamic and clean vocal performances of Carey 's career ''. While reviewing the 2009 remix version, Becky Bain from Idolator called the song a "timeless classic '' and wrote, "We love the original song to pieces -- we blast it while decorating our Christmas tree and lighting our Menorah. '' Shona Craven of Scotland 's The Herald, said, "(it 's) a song of optimism and joy that maybe, just maybe, hints at the real meaning of Christmas. '' Additionally, she felt the main reason it was so successful is the subject "you '' in the lyrics, explaining, "Perhaps what makes the song such a huge hit is the fact that it 's for absolutely everyone. '' Craven opened her review with a bold statement: "Bing Crosby may well be turning in his grave, but no child of the 1980s will be surprised to see Mariah Carey 's sublime All I Want For Christmas Is You bounding up the charts after being named the nation 's top festive song. '' In his review for Carey 's Merry Christmas II You, Thomas Connor from the Chicago Sun - Times called the song "a simple, well - crafted chestnut and one of the last great additions to the Christmas pop canon ''. In a 2006 retrospective look at Carey 's career, Sasha Frere - Jones of The New Yorker said, the "charming '' song was one of Carey 's biggest accomplishments, calling it "one of the few worthy modern additions to the holiday canon ''. Dan Hancox, editor of The National, quoted and agreed with Jones ' statement, calling the song "perfection ''. In the United States, in the first week of January 1995, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary and at No. 12 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart. The song placed on these two charts again in December 1995 and in December 1996. The song was ineligible for inclusion on the Billboard Hot 100 during its original release, because it was not released commercially as a single. This rule lapsed in 1998, however, allowing the song to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 (peaking at No. 83 in January 2000). The song topped the Billboard Hot Digital Songs chart in December 2005, but it was unable to attain a new peak on the Billboard Hot 100 chart because it was considered a recurrent single and was thus ineligible for chart re-entry. Every December from 2005 to 2008, the song topped the Billboard Hot 100 Re-currents chart. In 2012, after the recurrent rule was revised to allow all songs in the top 50 onto the Billboard Hot 100 chart, the single re-entered the chart at No. 29 and peaked at number 21 for the week ending January 5, 2013. In December 2017, the song peaked at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100, making it its highest peak since its original release. As of December 16, 2017, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' topped the Billboard Holiday 100 chart for a record - extending 27th cumulative week. No other song has spent more than two weeks at No. 1 on the Holiday 100 since the chart 's launch in 2011. It has become the first holiday ringtone to be certified double - platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Additionally, of songs recorded before the year 2000, it is the best - selling digital single by a woman, as well as the overall best - selling holiday digital single. As of November 2016, Nielsen SoundScan estimated total sales of the digital track at 3,200,000 downloads. In the United Kingdom, the song entered the UK Singles Chart at number 5 during the week of December 10, 1994. The following week, the song peaked at number 2, staying there for the final three weeks of December (held out of the coveted "Christmas No. 1 '' honor by East 17 's "Stay Another Day ''). As of January 27, 2017, it had spent seventy - eight weeks on the UK Singles Chart. As of December 19, 2013, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' has sold one million copies in the UK. On December 11, 2015, it was certified double platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for shipment of 1.2 million units (including streams) and remains Carey 's best - selling single in the UK. In 2010, "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' was named the No. 1 holiday song of the decade in the United Kingdom. The song peaked at number 2 in the United Kingdom for a second time in December 2017 due to strong downloads and streaming. The song peaked at No. 2 on the Australian Singles Chart and was certified triple - platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of over 210,000 units. In Denmark, it peaked at No. 4, staying in the chart for sixteen weeks and being certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI). "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' became Carey 's best - selling single in Japan. It was used as the theme song to the popular drama 29 - sai no Christmas (29 才 の クリスマス, lit. "Christmas in 29 Years, 29th Christmas ''), and was titled Koibito - tachi no Christmas (恋人 たち の クリスマス, lit. "Lovers ' Christmas ''). The single peaked at No. 2 for two weeks, blocked from the top spot by "Tomorrow Never Knows '' and "Everybody Goes '', both released by rock band Mr. Children. It sold in excess of 1.1 million units in Japan. Due to strong sales and airplay, the song re-charted in Japan in 2010, peaking at No. 6 on the Japan Hot 100. The single has been certified the Million award by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) on two different formats (compact disc and ringtone), in 1994 and 2008, respectively. When the song was first released as a single in 1994, no remixes were commissioned except for the instrumental version; however, this version was not released on the single that year. Carey re-released the song commercially in Japan in 2000, with a new remix known as the So So Def remix. The remix contains new vocals and is played over a harder, more urban beat that contains a sample of Afrika Bambaataa & the Soulsonic Force 's "Planet Rock; '' it features guest vocals by Jermaine Dupri and Bow Wow. The remix appears on Carey 's compilation album Greatest Hits (2001) as a bonus track. In 2009, a remix produced by Carey and Low Sunday, called "Mariah 's New Dance Mix '', was released. The mix laid the original 1994 vocals over new electronic instrumentation. The remix garnered a positive response. MTV 's Kyle Anderson wrote that "it 's difficult to improve perfection, '' but that the remix "does dress up the song in a disco thump that should make your office Christmas party 28 percent funkier than it was last year. '' Idolator 's Becky Bain praised the song 's catchiness. In 2010, Carey re-recorded the song for her thirteenth studio and second holiday album, Merry Christmas II You. Titled "All I Want for Christmas Is You (Extra Festive) '', the new version featured re-recorded vocals, softer bell ringing and stronger drumming, and an orchestral introduction that replaced the slow vocal introduction. Steven J. Horowitz from Rap - Up wrote that the new version "sound (ed) just as enjoyable as it did in 1994. '' While the song was praised, it drew criticism for being too similar to the original. Thomas Connor from the Chicago Sun - Times wrote that the new version "just seems to add a few brassy backup singers to the exact same arrangement. '' Caryn Ganz from Rolling Stone agreed, writing that it was "hard to figure out what 's ' extra festive ' '' about the new version. Dan Hancox, editor of The National, also felt the new version was unnecessary. In 2011, Justin Bieber also recorded a version of the song as a duet with Carey on his holiday album, Under the Mistletoe. Carey has performed the song during concerts as well as live televised performances. There are three music videos for "All I Want for Christmas Is You ''. The first, primary video was shot in the style of a home movie using Super-8mm film; it was directed and filmed by Carey during the Christmas season of 1993. The video begins with Carey placing holiday ornaments on a Christmas tree and frolicking through the snowy mountainside. Outdoor scenes were shot at the Fairy Tale Forest in New Jersey, where Carey 's then - husband Tommy Mottola made a cameo appearance as Santa Claus. It continues with scenes of Carey getting ready for her album cover photo shoot and spending time with her dog Jack. It concludes with Santa Claus leaving Carey with a bag of presents and waving goodbye. It has more than 400 million views on YouTube as of December 27, 2017. In the song 's alternate video, inspired by The Ronettes, Carey dances in a 1960s - influenced studio surrounded by go -- go dancers. For a 1960s look, the video was filmed in black and white, with Carey in white boots and teased up hair. This video was also directed by Carey. There are two edits to this version of the video. Another video was created for the So So Def remix, but it does not feature Carey or the hip - hop musicians that perform in the song. Instead, the video is animated and based on a scene in the video from Carey 's "Heartbreaker '' (1999). It features cartoon cameo appearances by Carey, Jermaine Dupri, Bow Wow, Luis Miguel (Carey 's boyfriend at the time), Carey 's dog Jack, and Santa Claus. Kris Kringle is credited with directing the music video. Since 2009, the song has been included in a music video accompanying ESPN 's (and their sister station, ABC) Christmas Day coverage of the NBA. The music video for the duet featuring Bieber was filmed in Macy 's department store in New York City, and features Bieber shopping with his friends whilst Carey is seen singing in the background. "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' charts every holiday season since its original release. In December 2017, the song peaked at # 9 on the Billboard Hot 100, making it the first holiday song to enter Hot 100 's Top 10 since Kenny G 's cover of "Auld Lang Syne '' in January 2000. It became Carey 's 28th Top 10 Hit in the Hot 100. With global sales of over 16 million copies, the song remains Carey 's biggest international success and the 11th best selling single of all time. As of 2017, the song was reported to have earned $60 million in royalties. The Daily Telegraph hailed "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' as the most popular and most played Christmas song of the decade in the United Kingdom. Rolling Stone ranked it fourth on its Greatest Rock and Roll Christmas Songs list, calling it a "holiday standard. '' Due to the song 's lasting impact, Carey was dubbed the "Queen of Christmas '', a title she 's hesitant to accept. "I do n't accept that name because I feel like it 's (too much), '' she said. "I humbly thank them and I do have an extraordinary love for the holiday season, and it is the best time of the year. '' Carey released a children 's book based on "All I Want for Christmas Is You '' on November 10, 2015, which went on to sell over 750,000 copies. She later released an animated family film based on the book and song on November 14, 2017. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone Works cited

who is tom married to in the great gatsby

Daisy Buchanan - wikipedia Daisy Fay Buchanan is a fictional character in F. Scott Fitzgerald 's magnum opus The Great Gatsby (1925). In the novel, Daisy is depicted as a married woman with a daughter who is reunited with her former lover Jay Gatsby, arousing the jealousy of her husband, Tom. She is widely believed to have been based on Ginevra King. She has appeared in various media related to the novel including feature films and plays. Daisy Fay was born into a wealthy Louisville family. By 1917, Daisy had several suitors of her same class, but fell in love with Jay Gatsby, a poor soldier. Before Gatsby left for war, Daisy promised to wait for him. After Gatsby started attending Trinity College, Oxford, Daisy sent him a letter revealing that she had married Tom Buchanan. During the marriage, Daisy gave birth to a daughter, Pammy, who Daisy had hoped would be "a beautiful little fool. '' Daisy and her family settled in East Egg, a wealthy old money enclave in Long Island. After her cousin Nick Carraway arrives in West Egg, the neighboring island, he meets Gatsby, who by now has become extremely wealthy. Gatsby throws several large, extravagant parties in hopes that Daisy will attend. Nick successfully sets up a meeting between Daisy and Jay at his neighboring cottage in West Egg where the two meet for the first time in five years, which leads to an affair. At the Buchanan home, Daisy, Tom, Gatsby, Nick and his girlfriend Jordan Baker decide to visit New York City, Tom taking Gatsby 's yellow Rolls Royce with Jordan and Nick while Daisy and Gatsby drive alone. Once the group reach the city, they throw a party that turns into a confrontation between Daisy, Tom and Gatsby. Though Gatsby insisted that Daisy never loved Tom, Daisy admits that she loves both Tom and Gatsby. The party ends with Daisy driving Gatsby out of New York City in Tom 's car, while Tom leaves with Nick and Jordan. Tom 's mistress Myrtle Wilson, who earlier had a falling out with Tom, runs in front of Tom 's car in hopes of reconciling with Tom. Daisy does not see her until it is too late, and runs her over. Daisy, panicked, drives away from the scene of the accident. In her home in East Egg, Gatsby assures her that he will take the blame. Tom tells George, Myrtle 's husband, that it was Gatsby 's car that killed Myrtle. George goes to Gatsby 's home in West Egg and shoots Gatsby dead before turning the gun on himself. After Gatsby 's murder, Daisy, Tom and their daughter leave East Egg, having no forwarding address. The first adaptation of The Great Gatsby was a silent film produced in 1926 and featured Lois Wilson as Daisy. The film is now considered lost. In 1949, another film was made, starring Alan Ladd as Gatsby and Betty Field as Daisy. Phyllis Kirk portrayed Daisy in a 1955 episode of the television series Robert Montgomery Presents adapting The Great Gatsby. Jeanne Crain played Daisy in a 1958 episode of the television series Playhouse 90. In the 1974 film adaptation, Daisy is portrayed by Mia Farrow. A photo of Farrow portraying Daisy appeared on the cover of the first issue of People magazine in promotion of the then - upcoming film. In the photo, Farrow holds a string of pearls in her hand while the pearls are also in her mouth. It was later emulated in 2014 by Taylor Swift. Farrow 's performance as Daisy was met with mixed reception, Bruce Handy of Vanity Fair praising Farrow as being "full of vain flutter and the seductive instant intimacy of the careless rich '' while Leigh Paatsch of News.com.au thought Farrow missed Daisy "by a country mile. '' While Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote favorably of Farrow as Daisy, he added that Daisy "may be an impossible role, one that is much more easily accepted on the page than on the screen. '' Mira Sorvino played Daisy in the 2000 film adaptation. In the 2013 film adaptation, Daisy is portrayed by Carey Mulligan. Mulligan had two 90 - minute auditions, which she found to be fun and served as her initial encounters with Leonardo DiCaprio, who portrayed Gatsby, and who read with her both days. Mulligan left the audition, unsure she had secured the role, but was satisfied to have played off DiCaprio. Mulligan read the novel in preparation for auditioning for the role, finding the book to be accessible due to its length. Mulligan was familiar with the dislike some readers of The Great Gatsby had for the character, but felt she could not "think that about her, because I ca n't play her thinking she 's awful. '' Mulligan strayed from watching Farrow 's prior portrayal of Daisy, believing she might steal from Farrow 's performance subconsciously for her own. Director Baz Luhrmann confirmed Mulligan had been cast as Daisy in November 2010, one month after she acquired the role. After the confirmation, Time assessed Mulligan as being attractive but in a childlike way, a contrast to Daisy 's womanly beauty in the novel. Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter in his review of the film wrote that viewers had their own ideals about Daisy 's character and would debate whether Mulligan "has the beauty, the bearing, the dream qualities desired for the part, but she lucidly portrays the desperate tear Daisy feels between her unquestionable love for Gatsby and fear of her husband. '' Tricia Paoluccio portrayed Daisy in the American Masters episode "Novel Reflections: The American Dream ''. Starting in 2006, in the Simon Levy version of the play, Daisy was portrayed by Heidi Armbruster, who according to Quinton Skinner, "is full of loony momentary enthusiasms and a dangerous sensuality, though by the second act, Armbruster 's perf veers toward hollow mannerisms. '' Daisy was portrayed by Monte McGrath in the 2012 version of the play, and her performance was met with acclaim. Daisy is portrayed by Madeleine Herd in an adaptation by Independent Theater productions. According to his own letters and diary entries, Fitzgerald 's character of Daisy was based on Chicago socialite and debutante, Ginevra King. He had met on a visit back home in St. Paul, Minnesota while enrolled as a student at Princeton University. Immediately infatuated with her, according to his biographer Andrew Mizner, Fitzgerald "remained devoted to Ginevra as long as she would allow him to '', wrote to her "daily the incoherent, expressive letters all young lovers write '', and she would become his inspiration for Daisy, as well as several other characters in his novels and short stories. The curator of Fitzgerald manuscripts and letters at Princeton, Don Skemer, has written that Ginerva "remained for Fitzgerald an archetype for the alluring, independent and upper class woman, ultimately unattainable by someone of a modest social background like himself '', and that she "was a model for Daisy '', as well as being "recognizable in many other (Fitzgerald) characters. '' There is also evidence of Daisy being partially based on Fitzgerald 's wife Zelda. Theresa Anne Fowler has written of the similarities that both Daisy and Zelda shared: "the Southern upbringing, the prominent family. And it is no secret that Scott borrowed liberally from Zelda 's early diaries and their own life for his stories. '' And, when their daughter Scottie was born, Zelda, upon emerging from the anesthesia, was reported to have expressed her hope that their child would be a "beautiful little fool '' -- one of Daisy 's lines, among many others, that have been attributed to Zelda. When first introduced, Daisy is shown to speak in a manner that is childlike and without any knowledge of what is correct. She fakes ignorance when speaking in Tom 's presence but then reveals her actual feelings to Nick, including the fact that she had hoped her daughter would be unintelligent. From this, it is implied that her mannerisms are not some mere attempt at fooling those around her but actually contribute to an ongoing effort to serve as a role model toward her daughter and be directly responsible for her not learning much and becoming the "beautiful little fool '' that she had aspired to have for a child. Daisy 's motivations in wanting this are revealed by her to be that of hoping that her daughter is spared the unpleasant events that can occur in one 's life and rooted in her view that she will not be affected by the emotional pain of her life as in being moronic, she can not understand the events transpiring around her. Though she is faithful to her husband in the years of their marriage leading up to Gatsby 's return, she jumps nearly instantly at the chance of being able to have an affair with Gatsby. While it appears at first that this is a mere relationship of lust between two former lovers that are seeking to reignite an old flame, it is later revealed by Daisy 's words to Tom after he learns of the relationship that she went along with it due to her feeling of neglect by her husband. Not only did her neglect drive her to the point of breaking a vow, but so did her ambitions to have an actual fulfilling relationship for the first time since shortly after she married, as Daisy reveals the lack of intimacy between her and Tom, further evidenced by his continued decline to show her any type of consideration in their shared appearances. Daisy 's reluctance to accept Tom 's claims of remorse demonstrate that her trust is not earned easily and the fact that she continues seeing Gatsby following this proves that she was not as concerned with the consequences of her cheating than that of her happiness. Looking at Daisy 's character, one can see she did care for Gatsby, though maybe not as much as she ended up caring for Tom. Daisy was important to Gatsby because Daisy made Gatsby feel loved. Though no matter what Gatsby did to win Daisy 's affection, she married Tom and remained married to him despite Gatsby 's pursuit of her. "(Gatsby 's) efforts to attain Daisy... are no more successful, as she abandons him and he realizes too late that he has set his sights on the wrong goal. '' Daisy is "a woman who gives birth to a child, cheats on her husband, kills another person, and allows Gatsby to take the blame for her mistake. '' This says much about Daisy 's character, because Daisy seems to think that she can do what she wants without needing to worry about the consequences of her actions, nor how they affect other people. Beginning when Gatsby left the first time for the army, for she could never seem to find someone to fill the hole that which Gatsby had left: "Wild rumors were circulating about her... After that she did n't play around with the soldiers any more but only with a few flat - footed, short sighted young men in town who could n't get into the army at all. '' Then there came the time for Daisy to marry Tom, but she wanted to "change ' her mind! '' for she knew that she loved Gatsby still, but decided not to do anything about her conflicted heart. Daisy has become associated with wealth, victims of marital affairs, and glamor. Since the Baz Luhrmann live action film was released, featuring Daisy with a bob cut, certain versions of the hairstyle are attributed to her. Actress Carey Mulligan, who portrayed Daisy in the 2013 film adaptation, said Daisy was similar to members of the Kardashian family, later stating, "what I was trying to imply was that there 's an essence of part of the amazing business they run as the Kardashians is looking beautiful a lot and looking very present, presentational and perfect. '' Since the comparisons, members of the Kardashian family have been compared to Daisy. Shaun Fitzpatrick of Bustle compared Daisy with the lead character in the novel Irresistible: The Jazz Age Life of Henrietta Bingham, even using images of Daisy when talking about actions of the character since as Fitzpatrick wrote, she was similar to "a character in an F. Scott Fitzgerald novel ''. Inga Ting of The Sydney Morning Herald used an image of Mulligan as Daisy in an article titled, "Men want beauty, women want money: what we want from the opposite sex ''. The character 's physical description has become synonymous with 1920s culture. Emma Gray of The Huffington Post wrote of Daisy, "As F. Scott Fitzgerald 's twisted 1920s version of a manic pixie dream girl, The Great Gatsby antiheroine has become one of the most discussed and polarizing female characters in American literature. '' An afterward in the 1992 edition of the novel by publisher Charles Scribner III claimed that Fitzgerald blamed the initial commercial failure of The Great Gatsby on it containing "no important woman character and women control the fiction market at present. '' The line was inferred that Fitzgerald did not believe it contained any sympathetic female characters. Daisy has become a role model for young women who aspire to attain wealth, be considered physically attractive and fashionable and portray appealing personal qualities. This desire has been critiqued due to the perceived outdatedness of the character, her shallowness, and for sending negative connotations. Daisy has been vilified for the consequences of her actions, such as directly and indirectly causing the deaths of several characters, and has even been considered the true antagonist of the novel. She ranked No. 1 on 10 On Screen Villains that Will Make Your Blood Boil, Part 2 on Moviepilot, a list consisting entirely of female film characters. Bloom wrote that, although Daisy was not technically the villain of the story, "she still sucks, and if it were n't for her a couple key players in the book would be alive at the end of it. '' Bloom then dedicated the subsequent list of her top ten detestable literary characters to Daisy. Despite the criticism, some commentators have sympathized with the character. Katie Baker of The Daily Beast concluded that though Daisy lives and Gatsby dies, "in the end both Gatsby and Daisy have lost their youthful dreams, that sense of eternal possibility that made the summertimes sweet. And love her or hate her, there 's something to pity in that irrevocable fact. '' Dave McGinn listed the character as one who needed their side of the story in their novel told, questioning if she really had a "voice full of money '' as Gatsby claimed and wondered what her thoughts were on the love triangle between her, Gatsby and her husband.

when does k 104.7 start playing christmas music

WKQC - wikipedia WKQC (104.7 FM, "K104. 7 '') is a Beasley Broadcasting Group - owned adult contemporary radio station in Charlotte, North Carolina. WKQC 's studios are located on South Boulevard in Charlotte, while their transmitter site is in East Charlotte. WKQC broadcasts in the HD Radio format. WKQC - HD2 airs a "70s hits '' format, while WKQC - HD3 is a simulcast of sister station WBCN. The station receives exceptional co-channel interference from WNOK in Columbia, just 75 miles south of Charlotte. The Chester and Lancaster, South Carolina areas are affected the most with interference from both stations. WKQC signed on in 1960 as WYFM with a beautiful music format. By 1973, after EZ Communications bought the station, WYFM became WEZC (known by the moniker "EZ - 104 '') and had a 100,000 - watt signal. In September 1978, rival WBT - FM changed to rock and became WBCY, leaving WEZC as the city 's only beautiful music station. In December 1982, even though the area had two other soft adult contemporary FM stations -- WLVV and WZXI -- WEZC changed to soft adult contemporary as well. The switch generated so many protests that WZXI moved to fill the gap. During the 1980s, WEZC gradually evolved from soft adult contemporary to mainstream adult contemporary. The station 's most famous personality was controversial morning host Chuck Boozer. In March 1989, WEZC completed its transition with a name and call letter change to WMXC, "Mix 104.7 '', and the WEZC call letters were picked up by the former WRLX at 102.9. The station originally wanted the calls WMIX, but at the last minute found out those calls were already being used by a pair of stations in Mount Vernon, Illinois, WMIX AM and WMIX - FM. Furthermore, in a somewhat controversial move, for a time it referred to itself on - air as WMIX, with an announcer whispering its true calls hurriedly during hourly legal IDs; however, the use of WMIX as a brand was short - lived, as the owners of the WMIX stations in Mount Vernon, Withers Broadcasting, registered the "WMIX '' branding as a registered trademark. WMXC would gain a sister station in 1992, when Cox Broadcasting sold WSOC - FM to EZ. On September 2, 1994, with WBT - FM and WLYT (formerly the "new '' WEZC) competing, WMXC became WSSS, "Star 104.7 '', playing "Super Sounds of the Seventies '', which evolved to classic hits later in 1997. WSSS would gain 4 sister stations (WBAV - FM, WBAV - AM, WNKS and WPEG) in December 1996 from Evergreen Media, which was part of a large multi-market swap (Evergreen received EZ Communications ' Philadelphia stations WIOQ and WUSL in return). EZ would then be bought by American Radio Systems in July 1997. ARS would be bought out by Infinity Broadcasting on September 19, 1997, making WSSS a CBS O&O station (CBS owned Infinity). In January 2000, WSSS added 1980s music to their playlist, and the station later went all - 1980s. WSSS would shift back to Classic hits in 2002. But even though format changes generated brief ratings improvement, nothing worked until the station returned to adult contemporary music, with an emphasis on older songs. The switch to the current format came after stunting with Christmas music beginning on Halloween and continuing all through the 2003 holiday season. Operations Manager John Reynolds, Market Manager Bill Schoening and AC Programming Consultant Gary Berkowitz designed the rebirth of the station. Plans were to rename the station "Cool 104.7 ''. However, on December 23, just three days before the new format was scheduled to debut, CBS Radio 's legal department notified the station that the word "Cool '', when used as a noun, had been copyrighted by Clear Channel Communications. A $10,000 jingle package had to be scrapped and Program Director Tom Jeffries and PM Drive host T. Edward Bensen spent Christmas Day re-imaging the station with the quickly revised name of "K 104.7 '' so the debut could occur as scheduled the next morning. Infinity changed its name to CBS Radio in December 2005 as part of the spin - off of CBS ' motion picture and cable television assets under a relaunched Viacom. In January 2007, Tom Jeffries, a former Boston - area programming legend who had been Program Director and Morning Host since the station 's flip in 2004, resigned to go into semi-retirement. In April 2007, the station picked up local TV meteorologist Derek James as the new morning host, while promoting Scarlet C. to Assistant Program Director and T. Edward Bensen to Music Director. The station abruptly eliminated its entire on - air staff in October 2008, with the only exception being Holly Haze from 7pm - 12am weekdays. Production Director Rick Scaffe and Promotions Director Leah Galloway, as well as sister WNKS Promotions Director Natalie Kirby and long time WSOC - FM newsman Frank Lassiter were also cut at the same time in what was called a cost - cutting move. The station hired Charlotte radio veteran Jon Robinson to do mornings from 6am - 12pm a few months later. On November 18, 2009, his name was abruptly removed from the station website, with no report as to why he was terminated. Later, Robinson revealed that he 'd been arrested at the end of his shift one day in October for violating a protective order, and that he and station officials agreed to part ways at the end of his contract so he could focus on recovering from a long term substance abuse problem. By 2010, the station had hired an all - new air staff. In January 2012, WKQC changed its slogan from Charlotte 's Cool Music Station to More Music, Better Variety. WKQC calls itself "Christmas K - 104.7 '' when it shifts to its all - Christmas format. The station also uses holiday - themed jingles. Initially, it airs the all - Christmas format only on weekends leading up to Thanksgiving, with a mix of regular and Christmas songs on the weekdays. On the week of Thanksgiving, the all - Christmas format runs on a full - time basis, as of Christmas 2008. The station bills itself as the Carolinas ' radio home for the holidays, a title that WLYT once held exclusively until 2004, when both stations started going head - to - head; as of Christmas 2012, WKQC is the exclusive Christmas music station for Charlotte, thanks to WLYT 's aforementioned format flip to adult hits and rebranding to WLKO ("102.9 The Lake ''). WKQC also claims to be Charlotte 's first eco-friendly station that boasts a promotions fleet of gas saving and flex fuel vehicles. To further promote this, WKQC switched their logo to "Be Cool, Go Green '' and promotes a ' green ' lifestyle by providing tips and partnering with local community campaigns in the Charlotte area. On October 2, 2014, CBS Radio announced that it would trade all of their Tampa and Charlotte stations (including WKQC), as well as WIP in Philadelphia to the Beasley Broadcast Group in exchange for 5 stations located in Miami and Philadelphia. The swap was completed on December 1, 2014. Coordinates: 35 ° 15 ′ 07 '' N 80 ° 41 ′ 10 '' W  /  35.252 ° N 80.686 ° W  / 35.252; - 80.686

who won the rugby union world cup 2019

2019 Rugby World Cup - wikipedia The 2019 Rugby World Cup will be the ninth Rugby World Cup, to be held in Japan from September 20 to November 2. This will be the first time the tournament is to be held in Asia, the first time consecutive tournaments have been staged in the same hemisphere, and also the first time that the event will take place outside the traditional heartland of the sport. Hong Kong and Singapore had expressed interest in hosting some of the matches and were included as part of the JRFU 's successful original hosting bid to World Rugby (known at the time of bidding as the International Rugby Board, or IRB) but were not amongst the fourteen locations announced by organisers Japan 2019 on 5 November 2014 that had formally bid for the right to host games. The opening match of the 2019 Rugby World Cup will take place at Tokyo Stadium in Chōfu, and the final match will be held at International Stadium Yokohama in Kanagawa. These venue assignments were announced in September 2015 when plans for the tournament were revised by Japan 's organizing committee and accepted by World Rugby. The National Olympic Stadium, being rebuilt for the 2020 Summer Olympics, was originally the centerpiece of Japan 's Rugby World Cup bid, but revisions to the Olympic Stadium plans mandated the World Cup venue changes. The IRB requested that any member unions wishing to host the 2019 or 2015 Rugby World Cup should indicate their interest by 15 August 2008. This would be purely to indicate interest; no details had to be provided at this stage. A record ten unions indicated interest in hosting either the 2015 and / or the 2019 events. The 2019 tournament received interest from nine different nations. Jamaica were the most surprising union to announce an interest in hosting the event, considering they had never participated in a previous World Cup, though they quickly withdrew. Russia also initially announced plans to bid for both the 2015 and 2019 World Cups, but withdrew both bids in February 2009 in favour of what proved to be a successful bid for the 2013 Rugby World Cup Sevens. Australia withdrew from the bidding process on 6 May 2009. The three potential hosts -- Italy, Japan and South Africa -- were announced on 8 May 2009. At a special meeting held in Dublin on 28 July 2009, the International Rugby Board (IRB) confirmed that England would host the 2015 Rugby World Cup, and Japan would host the 2019 event. The IRB voted 16 -- 10 in favour of approving the recommendation from Rugby World Cup Ltd (RWCL) that England and Japan should be named hosts. The IRB, RWC Ltd, JRFU and host organisers Japan 2019 went through the process of asking for expressions of interest, and meeting with and explaining game hosting requirements to interested parties from late 2013. In May it was announced that twenty - two municipal and / or prefectural organisations had expressed interest from throughout Japan. Interested organisations were asked to enter a formal bid by 31 October 2014. At a press conference on 5 November in Tokyo, organisers Japan 2019 announced that bids from fourteen localities had been received. Secretary - General of the organising committee, Mr. Akira Shimazu advised that amongst the twenty - two interested parties, Yokohama (Yokohama International Stadium, venue for the 2002 FIFA World Cup Final), and Niigata 's Denka Big Swan Stadium, which was also a 2002 FIFA World Cup venue had decided not to bid. Shimazu added that the decision of Yokohama not to bid meant that it was virtually a fore - gone conclusion that the new National Stadium in Tokyo would host both the semi-finals, and the third - place playoff in addition to the opening game and final. There have been a number of changes to the venues submitted in the JRFU 's original bid in 2009. Gone are both Hong Kong and Singapore. All games will be in Japan. The JRFU 's own Chichibunomiya Stadium in Tokyo which might have been expected to host smaller interest games in the capital is missing. Also the JRFU plumped for the larger, and more modern 50,000 seat Nagai multi-purpose stadium as its preferred venue for games in Osaka in 2009 but the Osaka Municipality and East Osaka City governments have submitted the Hanazono Rugby Stadium which they are planning to refurbish as the Osaka venue option. East Osaka City will take over the stadium from long - time corporate owners Kintetsu in April 2015. Kamaishi, Shizuoka, Kyoto, Oita, Nagasaki, and Kumamoto are all venues that were n't part of the JRFU 's bid. While the bids include venues from a broad area of Japan, two parts wo n't be involved in hosting. Firstly the Hokushin'etsu area (Hokuriku region and Koshin'etsu region), which includes the city of Niigata, and secondly the Chugoku Region, including Hiroshima, and nearby Shikoku Island. No city in the latter region were venues for games in the 2002 FIFA World Cup, but Hiroshima did host games in the 2006 FIBA World Championship. On 17 July 2015, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe announced that plans to build the new National Stadium would be scrapped and rebid on amid public discontent over the stadium 's building costs. As a result, the new stadium would not be ready until the 2020 Summer Olympics. World Rugby released a statement saying that they were extremely disappointed by the announcement "despite repeated assurances to contrary from the Japan Rugby 2019 Organising Committee and Japan Sports Council, '' and would "need to consider the options relating to the impact of (the) announcement. '' In September 2015, World Rugby approved the Japan Rugby 2019 organizing committee 's revised roadmap for the 2019 Rugby World Cup, which sought to resolve the venue inadequacies caused by the floundering development of the National Stadium. It was agreed that the originally proposed National Stadium fixtures will be borne by the Ajinomoto Stadium in Chōfu (a suburb of Tokyo), which will host the opening ceremony and opening match, and the Yokohama Stadium, which will host the final. The complete revised list of Rugby World Cup 2019 venues are: Eighteen teams have currently secured their place in the 2019 tournament. They are the top three teams in each of the four pools at the 2015 Rugby World Cup who thereby automatically qualify for the next tournament. Japan finished third in Pool B during the 2015 Rugby World Cup and so finished in a qualifying position -- however, by virtue of hosting the tournament, Japan were assured qualification for the tournament before the 2015 Rugby World Cup took place. The remaining eight spaces are decided by regional slots and cross regional play - offs. The below table shows the qualified teams with their World Rankings as of first tournament date (20 September 2019): The pool draw took place on 10 May 2017 in Kyoto. The draw was moved from its traditional place of December in the year following the previous World Cup, after the November internationals, so that nations had a longer period of time to increase their World Rankings ahead of the draw. The seeding system from previous Rugby World Cup 's was retained with the 12 automatic qualifiers from 2015 being allocated to their respective bands based on their World Rugby Rankings on the day of the draw: The remaining two bands were made up of the eight qualifying teams, with allocation to each band being based on the previous Rugby World Cup playing strength: This meant the 20 teams, qualified and qualifiers, were seeded thus (World Ranking as of 10 May 2017): Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4 Band 5 The draw saw a representative randomly draw a ball from a pot, the first drawn ball goes to Pool A, the second Pool B, the third Pool C and the fourth Pool D. The draw began with Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe draw the pool of which hosts Japan will be allocated to. The draw continued on to Band 5, drawn by Japanese Olympian Saori Yoshida, followed by Band 4, drawn by former Japanese rugby international Yoshihiro Sakata, then Band 3, drawn by All Blacks Head Coach Steve Hansen with the first team being drawn being allocated to Pool B, Band 2, drawn by Mayor of Yokohama Fumiko Hayashi and finally Band 1, drawn by World Rugby chairman Bill Beaumont. In the first round, or pool stage, the twenty teams are divided into four pools of five teams. Each pool will be a single round - robin of ten games, in which each team plays one match against each of the other teams in the same pool. Teams are awarded four league points for a win, two for a draw and none for a defeat by eight or more points. A team scoring four tries in one match is awarded a bonus point, as is a team that loses by fewer than eight points -- both bonus points are awarded if both situations apply. Ireland Scotland Japan Russia Samoa New Zealand South Africa Italy Africa 1 Repechage Winner England France Argentina United States Tonga Australia Wales Georgia Fiji Uruguay The teams finishing in the top two of each pool would advance to the quarter - finals. The top three teams of each pool received automatic qualification to the 2023 Rugby World Cup. If two or more teams were tied on match points, the following tiebreakers would apply: If three teams were tied on points, the above criteria would be used to decide first place in the Pool, and then the criteria would be used again (starting from criteria 1) to decide second place in the Pool. Pld = Number of games played; W = Number of games won; D = Number of games drawn; L = Number of games lost; TF = Number of tries scored (Tries For); PF = Number of points scored in the game (Points For); PA = Number of points scored against the team (Points Against); + / -- = The difference, PF -- PA; BP = Bonus (pool) points; Pts = Total number of (pool) points.

who is the winner of bigg boss 4

Bigg Boss 4 - wikipedia Bigg Boss 4 in 2010 was the fourth season of Indian reality TV show Bigg Boss, which aired on Colors from 3 October 2010. This season was longer than its predecessor, Bigg Boss 3 and lasted for 14 weeks (96 days) ending on 8 January 2011. The show was hosted by Salman Khan. During the launch on 3 October, fourteen hand - picked housemates entered the house located in Lonavla, a hill station, about 100 kilometres east of Mumbai in the Indian state of Maharashtra. Two additional wild card entries were made during the second and third weeks, taking the number of contestants to sixteen. The housemates, considered strangers to each other, spent 96 days (14 weeks) locked up together under the supervision of 32 cameras fitted around the house. Four of the housemates, Ashmit Patel, Dolly Bindra, The Great Khali and Shweta Tiwari, reached the final week, facing public vote. The show ended on 8 January 2011 with the grand finale. Shweta Tiwari emerged as the winner, going away with a prize money of ₹ 10 million, while The Great Khali was announced as the runner - up. Throughout the series various guests may appear from time to time for a visit. During the first week of the show 's airing, activists of Shiv Sena, a political party, started protesting against the inclusion of Pakistani housemates in the show. After being evicted from the house, Rahul Bhatt claimed that Bigg Boss is scripted. In November 2010, the Information and Broadcasting Ministry served a notice on Colors, due to complaints of indecent exposure aired on national television, asking the channel to change the timings of the show from 9: 00 pm to 11: 30 pm. The channel later got a stay order from Bombay High Court allowing them to continue the telecast of the show during prime time.

who announced the partition of india in hindi

Partition of India - Wikipedia The Partition of India was the division of British India in 1947 which accompanied the creation of two independent dominions, India and Pakistan. The Dominion of India is today the Republic of India, and the Dominion of Pakistan is today the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People 's Republic of Bangladesh. The partition involved the division of two provinces, Bengal and the Punjab, based on district-wise Hindu or Muslim majorities. The boundary demarcating India and Pakistan became known as the Radcliffe Line. It also involved the division of the British Indian Army, the Royal Indian Navy, the Indian Civil Service, the railways, and the central treasury, between the two new dominions. The partition was set forth in the Indian Independence Act 1947 and resulted in the dissolution of the British Raj, as the British government there was called. The two self - governing countries of Pakistan and India legally came into existence at midnight on 14 -- 15 August 1947. The partition displaced between 10 and 12 million people along religious lines, creating overwhelming refugee crises in the newly constituted dominions; there was large - scale violence, with estimates of loss of life accompanying or preceding the partition disputed and varying between several hundred thousand and two million. The violent nature of the partition created an atmosphere of hostility and suspicion between India and Pakistan that plagues their relationship to the present. The term partition of India does not cover the secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971, nor the earlier separations of Burma (now Myanmar) and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) from the administration of British India. The term also does not cover the political integration of princely states into the two new dominions, nor the disputes of annexation or division arising in the princely states of Hyderabad, Junagadh, and Jammu and Kashmir, though violence along religious lines did break out in some princely states at the time of the partition. It does not cover the incorporation of the enclaves of French India into India during the period 1947 -- 1954, nor the annexation of Goa and other districts of Portuguese India by India in 1961. Other contemporaneous political entities in the region in 1947, Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and the Maldives were unaffected by the partition. 1909 Percentage of Hindus. 1909 Percentage of Muslims. 1909 Percentage of Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains. In 1905, the viceroy, Lord Curzon, in his second term, divided the largest administrative subdivision in British India, the Bengal Presidency, into the Muslim - majority province of East Bengal and Assam and the Hindu - majority province of Bengal (present - day Indian states of West Bengal, Bihār, Jharkhand and Odisha). Curzon 's act, the Partition of Bengal -- which some considered administratively felicitous, and, which had been contemplated by various colonial administrations since the time of Lord William Bentinck, but never acted upon -- was to transform nationalist politics as nothing else before it. The Hindu elite of Bengal, among them many who owned land in East Bengal that was leased out to Muslim peasants, protested fervidly. The large Bengali Hindu middle - class (the Bhadralok), upset at the prospect of Bengalis being outnumbered in the new Bengal province by Biharis and Oriyas, felt that Curzon 's act was punishment for their political assertiveness. The pervasive protests against Curzon 's decision took the form predominantly of the Swadeshi ("buy Indian '') campaign led by two - time Congress president, Surendranath Banerjee, and involved a boycott of British goods. Sporadically -- but flagrantly -- the protesters also took to political violence that involved attacks on civilians. The violence, however, was not effective, as most planned attacks were either preempted by the British or failed. The rallying cry for both types of protest was the slogan Bande Mataram (Bengali, lit: "Hail to the Mother ''), the title of a song by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, which invoked a mother goddess, who stood variously for Bengal, India, and the Hindu goddess Kali. The unrest spread from Calcutta to the surrounding regions of Bengal when Calcutta 's English - educated students returned home to their villages and towns. The religious stirrings of the slogan and the political outrage over the partition were combined as young men, in groups such as Jugantar, took to bombing public buildings, staging armed robberies, and assassinating British officials. Since Calcutta was the imperial capital, both the outrage and the slogan soon became nationally known. The overwhelming, but predominantly Hindu, protest against the partition of Bengal and the fear, in its wake, of reforms favouring the Hindu majority, now led the Muslim elite in India, in 1906, to meet with the new viceroy, Lord Minto, and to ask for separate electorates for Muslims. In conjunction, they demanded proportional legislative representation reflecting both their status as former rulers and their record of cooperating with the British. This led, in December 1906, to the founding of the All - India Muslim League in Dacca. Although Curzon, by now, had resigned his position over a dispute with his military chief Lord Kitchener and returned to England, the League was in favour of his partition plan. The Muslim elite 's position, which was reflected in the League 's position, had crystallized gradually over the previous three decades, beginning with the 1871 Census of British India, which had first estimated the populations in regions of Muslim majority. (For his part, Curzon 's desire to court the Muslims of East Bengal had arisen from British anxieties ever since the 1871 census, the first comprehensive census there -- and in light of the history of Muslims fighting them in the 1857 Mutiny and the Second Anglo - Afghan War -- about Indian Muslims rebelling against the Crown.) In the three decades since that census, Muslim leaders across northern India, had intermittently experienced public animosity from some of the new Hindu political and social groups. The Arya Samaj, for example, had not only supported Cow Protection Societies in their agitation, but also -- distraught at the 1871 Census 's Muslim numbers -- organized "reconversion '' events for the purpose of welcoming Muslims back to the Hindu fold. In the United Provinces, Muslims became anxious when, in the late 19th century, political representation increased, giving more power to Hindus, and Hindus were politically mobilized in the Hindi - Urdu controversy and the anti-cow - killing riots of 1893. In 1905, when Tilak and Lajpat Rai attempted to rise to leadership positions in the Congress, and the Congress itself rallied around symbolism of Kali, Muslim fears increased. It was not lost on many Muslims, for example, that the rallying cry, "Bande Mataram '', had first appeared in the novel Anand Math in which Hindus had battled their Muslim oppressors. Lastly, the Muslim elite, and among it Dacca Nawab, Khwaja Salimullah, who hosted the League 's first meeting in his mansion in Shahbag, was aware that a new province with a Muslim majority would directly benefit Muslims aspiring to political power. Indian medical orderlies attending to wounded soldiers with the Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force in Mesopotamia during World War I. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (seated in carriage, on the right, eyes downcast, with black flat - top hat) receives a big welcome in Karachi in 1916 after his return to India from South Africa. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, seated, third from the left, was a supporter of the Lucknow Pact, which, in 1916, ended the three - way rift between the Extremists, the Moderates and the League. World War I would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. 1.4 million Indian and British soldiers of the British Indian Army would take part in the war and their participation would have a wider cultural fallout: news of Indian soldiers fighting and dying with British soldiers, as well as soldiers from dominions like Canada and Australia, would travel to distant corners of the world both in newsprint and by the new medium of the radio. India 's international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s. It was to lead, among other things, to India, under its own name, becoming a founding member of the League of Nations in 1920 and participating, under the name, "Les Indes Anglaises '' (British India), in the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. Back in India, especially among the leaders of the Indian National Congress, it would lead to calls for greater self - government for Indians. The 1916 Lucknow Session of the Congress was also the venue of an unanticipated mutual effort by the Congress and the Muslim League, the occasion for which was provided by the wartime partnership between Germany and Turkey. Since the Turkish Sultan, or Khalifah, had also sporadically claimed guardianship of the Islamic holy sites of Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem, and since the British and their allies were now in conflict with Turkey, doubts began to increase among some Indian Muslims about the "religious neutrality '' of the British, doubts that had already surfaced as a result of the reunification of Bengal in 1911, a decision that was seen as ill - disposed to Muslims. In the Lucknow Pact, the League joined the Congress in the proposal for greater self - government that was campaigned for by Tilak and his supporters; in return, the Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims in the provincial legislatures as well as the Imperial Legislative Council. In 1916, the Muslim League had anywhere between 500 and 800 members and did not yet have its wider following among Indian Muslims of later years; in the League itself, the pact did not have unanimous backing, having largely been negotiated by a group of "Young Party '' Muslims from the United Provinces (UP), most prominently, two brothers Mohammad and Shaukat Ali, who had embraced the Pan-Islamic cause; however, it did have the support of a young lawyer from Bombay, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who was later to rise to leadership roles in both the League and the Indian independence movement. In later years, as the full ramifications of the pact unfolded, it was seen as benefiting the Muslim minority élites of provinces like UP and Bihar more than the Muslim majorities of Punjab and Bengal; nonetheless, at the time, the "Lucknow Pact '', was an important milestone in nationalistic agitation and was seen so by the British. Secretary of State for India, Montagu and Viceroy Lord Chelmsford presented a report in July 1918 after a long fact - finding trip through India the previous winter. After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee for the purpose of identifying who among the Indian population could vote in future elections, the Government of India Act of 1919 (also known as the Montagu -- Chelmsford Reforms) was passed in December 1919. The new Act enlarged both the provincial and Imperial legislative councils and repealed the Government of India 's recourse to the "official majority '' in unfavorable votes. Although departments like defence, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications, and income - tax were retained by the Viceroy and the central government in New Delhi, other departments like public health, education, land - revenue, local self - government were transferred to the provinces. The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new dyarchical system, whereby some areas like education, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self - government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land - revenue, police, prisons, and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council. The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil service and the army officer corps. A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted only 10 % of the total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate. In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts. Seats were also reserved for non-Brahmins, landowners, businessmen, and college graduates. The principle of "communal representation '', an integral part of the Minto - Morley Reforms, and more recently of the Congress - Muslim League Lucknow Pact, was reaffirmed, with seats being reserved for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo - Indians, and domiciled Europeans, in both provincial and Imperial legislative councils. The Montagu - Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant opportunity yet for exercising legislative power, especially at the provincial level; however, that opportunity was also restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control. The two - nation is the ideology that the primary identity and unifying denominator of Muslims in the Indian subcontinent is their religion, rather than their language or ethnicity, and therefore Indian Hindus and Muslims are two distinct nations, regardless of ethnic or other commonalities. The two - nation theory was a founding principle of the Pakistan Movement (i.e. the ideology of Pakistan as a Muslim nation - state in South Asia), and the partition of India in 1947. The ideology that religion is the determining factor in defining the nationality of Indian Muslims was undertaken by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who termed it as the awakening of Muslims for the creation of Pakistan. It is also a source of inspiration to several Hindu nationalist organizations, with causes as varied as the redefinition of Indian Muslims as non-Indian foreigners and second - class citizens in India, the expulsion of all Muslims from India, establishment of a legally Hindu state in India, prohibition of conversions to Islam, and the promotion of conversions or reconversions of Indian Muslims to Hinduism. There are varying interpretations of the two - nation theory, based on whether the two postulated nationalities can coexist in one territory or not, with radically different implications. One interpretation argued for sovereign autonomy, including the right to secede, for Muslim - majority areas of the Indian subcontinent, but without any transfer of populations (i.e. Hindus and Muslims would continue to live together). A different interpretation contends that Hindus and Muslims constitute "two distinct, and frequently antagonistic ways of life, and that therefore they can not coexist in one nation. '' In this version, a transfer of populations (i.e. the total removal of Hindus from Muslim - majority areas and the total removal of Muslims from Hindu - majority areas) is a desirable step towards a complete separation of two incompatible nations that "can not coexist in a harmonious relationship ''. Opposition to the theory has come from two sources. The first is the concept of a single Indian nation, of which Hindus and Muslims are two intertwined communities. This is a founding principle of the modern, officially secular, Republic of India. Even after the formation of Pakistan, debates on whether Muslims and Hindus are distinct nationalities or not continued in that country as well. The second source of opposition is the concept that while Indians are not one nation, neither are the Muslims or Hindus of the subcontinent, and it is instead the relatively homogeneous provincial units of the subcontinent which are true nations and deserving of sovereignty; this view has been presented by the Baloch, Sindhi, and Pashtun sub-nationalities of Pakistan and the Assamese and Punjabi sub-nationalities of India. Allama Muhammad Iqbal, fifth from left, arriving at the 1930 session of the All India Muslim League, where he delivered his presidential address outlining his plan for a homeland for the Muslims of British India. Jawaharlal Nehru, Sarojini Naidu, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, and Maulana Azad at the 1940 Ramgarh session of the Congress in which Azad was elected president for the second time. Chaudhari Khaliquzzaman (left) seconding the 1940 Lahore Resolution of the All - India Muslim League with Jinnah (right) presiding, and Liaquat Ali Khan centre. Although Choudhry Rahmat Ali had in 1933 produced a pamphlet, Now or never, in which the term "Pakistan '', "the land of the pure '', comprising the Punjab, North West Frontier Province (Afghania), Kashmir, Sindh, and Balochistan, was coined for the first time, the pamphlet did not attract political attention. A little later, a Muslim delegation to the Parliamentary Committee on Indian Constitutional Reforms gave short shrift to the Pakistan idea, calling it "chimerical and impracticable ''. Two years later, the Government of India Act 1935 introduced provincial autonomy, increasing the number of voters in India to 35 million. More significantly, law and order issues were for the first time devolved from British authority to provincial governments headed by Indians. This increased Muslim anxieties about eventual Hindu domination. In the Indian provincial elections, 1937, the Muslim League turned out its best performance in Muslim - minority provinces such as the United Provinces, where it won 29 of the 64 reserved Muslim seats. However, in the Muslim - majority regions of the Punjab and Bengal regional parties outperformed the League. In the Punjab, the Unionist Part of Sikandar Hayat Khan, won the elections and formed a government, with the support of the Indian National Congress and the Shiromani Akali Dal, which lasted five years. In Bengal, the League had to share power in a coalition headed by A.K. Fazlul Huq, the leader of the Krishak Praja Party. The Congress, on the other hand, with 716 wins in the total of 1585 provincial assemblies seats, was able to form governments in 7 out of the 11 provinces of British India. In its manifesto the Congress maintained that religious issues were of lesser importance to the masses than economic and social issues, however, the election revealed that the Congress had contested just 58 out of the total 482 Muslim seats, and of these, it won in only 26. In UP, where the Congress won, it offered to share power with the League on condition that the League stop functioning as a representative only of Muslims, which the League refused. This proved to be a mistake as it alienated the Congress further from the Muslim masses. In addition, the new UP provincial administration promulgated cow protection and the use of Hindi. The Muslim elite in UP was further alienated, when they saw chaotic scenes of the new Congress Raj, in which rural people who sometimes turned up in large numbers in Government buildings, were indistinguishable from the administrators and the law enforcement personnel. The Muslim League conducted its own investigation into the conditions of Muslims under Congress - governed provinces. The findings of such investigations increased fear among the Muslim masses of future Hindu domination. The view that Muslims would be unfairly treated in an independent India dominated by the Congress was now a part of the public discourse of Muslims. With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, declared war on India 's behalf without consulting Indian leaders, leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in protest. The Muslim League, which functioned under state patronage, in contrast, organized "Deliverance Day '', celebrations (from Congress dominance) and supported Britain in the war effort. When Linlithgow, met with nationalist leaders, he gave the same status to Jinnah as he did to Gandhi, and a month later described the Congress as a "Hindu organization. '' In March 1940, in the League 's annual three - day session in Lahore, Jinnah gave a two - hour speech in English, in which were laid out the arguments of the Two - nation theory, stating, in the words of historians Talbot and Singh, that "Muslims and Hindus... were irreconcilably opposed monolithic religious communities and as such no settlement could be imposed that did not satisfy the aspirations of the former. '' On the last day of its session, the League passed, what came to be known as the Lahore Resolution, sometimes also "Pakistan Resolution '', demanding that "the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North - Western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign. '' Though it had been founded more than three decades earlier, the League would gather support among South Asian Muslims only during the Second World War. In March 1942, with the Japanese fast moving up the Malayan Peninsula after the Fall of Singapore, and with the Americans supporting independence for India, Winston Churchill, the wartime Prime Minister of Britain, sent Sir Stafford Cripps, the leader of the House of Commons, with an offer of dominion status to India at the end of the war in return for the Congress 's support for the war effort. Not wishing to lose the support of the allies they had already secured -- the Muslim League, Unionists of the Punjab, and the Princes -- the Cripps offer included a clause stating that no part of the British Indian Empire would be forced to join the post-war Dominion. As a result of the proviso, the proposals were rejected by the Congress, which, since its founding as a polite group of lawyers in 1885, saw itself as the representative of all Indians of all faiths. After the arrival in 1920 of Gandhi, the preeminent strategist of Indian nationalism, the Congress had been transformed into a mass nationalist movement of millions. In August 1942, the Congress launched the Quit India Resolution which asked for drastic constitutional changes, which the British saw as the most serious threat to their rule since the Indian rebellion of 1857. With their resources and attention already spread thin by a global war, the nervous British immediately jailed the Congress leaders and kept them in jail until August 1945, whereas the Muslim League was now free for the next three years to spread its message. Consequently, the Muslim League 's ranks surged during the war, with Jinnah himself admitting, "The war which nobody welcomed proved to be a blessing in disguise. '' Although there were other important national Muslim politicians such as Congress leader Abul Kalam Azad, and influential regional Muslim politicians such as A.K. Fazlul Huq of the leftist Krishak Praja Party in Bengal, Sikander Hyat Khan of the landlord - dominated Punjab Unionist Party, and Abd al - Ghaffar Khan of the pro-Congress Khudai Khidmatgar (popularly, "red shirts '') in the North West Frontier Province, the British were to increasingly see the League as the main representative of Muslim India. The Muslim League 's demand for Pakistan pitted it against the British and Congress. Members of the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India meeting Muhammad Ali Jinnah. On the extreme left is Lord Pethick Lawrence; on the extreme right, Sir Stafford Cripps. An aged and abandoned Muslim couple and their grand children sitting by the roadside on this arduous journey. "The old man is dying of exhaustion. The caravan has gone on, '' wrote Bourke - White. An old Sikh man carrying his wife. Over 10 million people were uprooted from their homeland and travelled on foot, bullock carts and trains to their promised new home. Gandhi in Bela, Bihar, after attacks on Muslims, 28 March 1947. Labour Prime Minister Clement Attlee had been deeply interested in Indian independence since the 1920s, and for years had supported independence. He now took charge of the government position and gave the issue highest priority. Some Indian writers assume that localised mutinies in the Royal Indian Navy in 1946 prompted his actions, but historians find little evidence from the British records. The mutiny was repressed with force by British troops and Royal Navy warships. The total number of casualties was 8 mutineers dead and 33 other mutineers wounded. Only the Communist Party supported the strikers; the Congress and the Muslim League condemned it. Attlee sent a Cabinet Mission to India which was led by the Secretary of State for India, Lord Pethick Lawrence, and it included Sir Stafford Cripps, who had visited India four years before. It failed because Congress and the Muslim League could not agree. In early 1946, new elections were held in India. With the announcement of the elections the line had been drawn for Muslim voters to choose between a united Indian state or Partition. Earlier, at the end of the war in 1945, the colonial government had announced the public trial of three senior officers of Subhas Chandra Bose 's defeated Indian National Army who stood accused of treason. Now as the trials began, the Congress leadership, although it never supported the INA, chose to defend the accused officers. The subsequent convictions of the officers, the public outcry against the convictions, and the eventual remission of the sentences created positive propaganda for the Congress, which enabled it to win the party 's subsequent electoral victories in eight of the eleven provinces. The negotiations between the Congress and the Muslim League, however, stumbled over the issue of the partition. British rule had lost its legitimacy for most Hindus and conclusive proof of this came in the form of the 1946 elections with the Congress winning 91 percent of the vote among non-Muslim constituencies, thereby gaining a majority in the Central Legislature and forming governments in eight provinces, and becoming the legitimate successor to the British government for most Hindus. The Muslim League won the majority of the Muslim vote as well as most reserved Muslim seats in the provincial assemblies and it also secured all the Muslim seats in the Central Assembly. Recovering from its performance in the 1937 elections, the Muslim League was finally able to make good on the claim that it and Jinnah alone represented India 's Muslims and Jinnah quickly interpreted this vote as a popular demand for a separate homeland. However, tensions heightened while the Muslim League was unable to form ministries outside the two provinces of Sind and Bengal, with the Congress forming a ministry in the NFWP and the key Punjab province coming under a coalition ministry of the Congress, Sikhs and Unionists. Britain wanted India and its army to remain united for the purpose of keeping India in its system of ' imperial defence '. With India 's two political parties unable to come to an agreement, Britain devised the Cabinet Mission Plan. Through this mission, Britain hoped to preserve the united India which they and the Congress desired, while concurrently securing the essence of Jinnah 's demand for a Pakistan through ' groupings '. The Cabinet Mission was composed of three Cabinet ministers from England. The Cabinet Mission engaged with various Indian political parties for three weeks but could not reach an agreement. Finally, the mission released its own recommendations on May 16, 1946. In its recommendations the Cabinet Mission rejected the idea of a separate Pakistan and favoured an undivided, although decentralized, India. The Cabinet Mission recommended groupings of Muslim - majority provinces, separate from Hindu - majority provinces, which were to be provided almost complete autonomy. The Congress, having wanted a strong centre, rejected the proposals concerning decentralization. After the Cabinet Mission broke down, Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946 Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of peacefully highlighting the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India. However, on the morning of the 16th, armed Muslim gangs gathered at the Ochterlony Monument in Calcutta to hear Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, the League 's Chief Minister of Bengal, who, in the words of historian Yasmin Khan, "if he did not explicitly incite violence certainly gave the crowd the impression that they could act with impunity, that neither the police nor the military would be called out and that the ministry would turn a blind eye to any action they unleashed in the city. '' That very evening, in Calcutta, Hindus were attacked by returning Muslim celebrants, who carried pamphlets distributed earlier which showed a clear connection between violence and the demand for Pakistan, and directly implicated the celebration of Direct Action Day with the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would later be called the "Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946 ''. The next day, Hindus struck back and the violence continued for three days in which approximately 4,000 people died (according to official accounts), Hindus and Muslims in equal numbers. Although India had had outbreaks of religious violence between Hindus and Muslims before, the Calcutta killings were the first to display elements of "ethnic cleansing '', in modern parlance. Violence was not confined to the public sphere, but homes were entered and destroyed and women and children were attacked. Although the Government of India and the Congress were both shaken by the course of events, in September, a Congress - led interim government was installed, with Jawaharlal Nehru as united India 's prime minister. The communal violence spread to Bihar (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus), to Noakhali in Bengal (where Hindus were targeted by Muslims), to Garhmukteshwar in the United Provinces (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus), and on to Rawalpindi in March 1947 in which Hindus were attacked or driven out by Muslims. Vallabhbhai Patel was one of the first Congress leaders to accept the partition of India as a solution to the rising Muslim separatist movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. He had been outraged by Jinnah 's Direct Action campaign, which had provoked communal violence across India and by the viceroy 's vetoes of his home department 's plans to stop the violence on the grounds of constitutionality. Patel severely criticised the viceroy 's induction of League ministers into the government, and the revalidation of the grouping scheme by the British without Congress approval. Although further outraged at the League 's boycott of the assembly and non-acceptance of the plan of 16 May despite entering government, he was also aware that Jinnah did enjoy popular support amongst Muslims, and that an open conflict between him and the nationalists could degenerate into a Hindu - Muslim civil war of disastrous consequences. The continuation of a divided and weak central government would in Patel 's mind, result in the wider fragmentation of India by encouraging more than 600 princely states towards independence. Between the months of December 1946 and January 1947, Patel worked with civil servant V.P. Menon on the latter 's suggestion for a separate dominion of Pakistan created out of Muslim - majority provinces. Communal violence in Bengal and Punjab in January and March 1947 further convinced Patel of the soundness of partition. Patel, a fierce critic of Jinnah 's demand that the Hindu - majority areas of Punjab and Bengal be included in a Muslim state, obtained the partition of those provinces, thus blocking any possibility of their inclusion in Pakistan. Patel 's decisiveness on the partition of Punjab and Bengal had won him many supporters and admirers amongst the Indian public, which had tired of the League 's tactics, but he was criticised by Gandhi, Nehru, secular Muslims and socialists for a perceived eagerness to do so. When Lord Louis Mountbatten formally proposed the plan on 3 June 1947, Patel gave his approval and lobbied Nehru and other Congress leaders to accept the proposal. Knowing Gandhi 's deep anguish regarding proposals of partition, Patel engaged him in frank discussion in private meetings over the perceived practical unworkability of any Congress - League coalition, the rising violence and the threat of civil war. At the All India Congress Committee meeting called to vote on the proposal, Patel said: I fully appreciate the fears of our brothers from (the Muslim - majority areas). Nobody likes the division of India and my heart is heavy. But the choice is between one division and many divisions. We must face facts. We can not give way to emotionalism and sentimentality. The Working Committee has not acted out of fear. But I am afraid of one thing, that all our toil and hard work of these many years might go waste or prove unfruitful. My nine months in office has completely disillusioned me regarding the supposed merits of the Cabinet Mission Plan. Except for a few honorable exceptions, Muslim officials from the top down to the chaprasis (peons or servants) are working for the League. The communal veto given to the League in the Mission Plan would have blocked India 's progress at every stage. Whether we like it or not, de facto Pakistan already exists in the Punjab and Bengal. Under the circumstances I would prefer a de jure Pakistan, which may make the League more responsible. Freedom is coming. We have 75 to 80 percent of India, which we can make strong with our own genius. The League can develop the rest of the country. Following Gandhi 's denial but Congress ' approval of the plan, Patel represented India on the Partition Council, where he oversaw the division of public assets, and selected the Indian council of ministers with Nehru. However, neither he nor any other Indian leader had foreseen the intense violence and population transfer that would take place with partition. Late in 1946, the Labour government in Britain, its exchequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War II, decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948. However, with the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the new viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, advanced the date for the transfer of power, allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for independence. In June 1947, the nationalist leaders, including Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad on behalf of the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League, B.R. Ambedkar representing the Untouchable community, and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs, agreed to a partition of the country along religious lines in stark opposition to Gandhi 's views. The predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to the new India and predominantly Muslim areas to the new nation of Pakistan; the plan included a partition of the Muslim - majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal. The communal violence that accompanied the announcement of the Radcliffe Line, the line of partition, was even more horrific. Describing the violence that accompanied the Partition of India, historians Ian Talbot and Gurharpal Singh write: There are numerous eyewitness accounts of the maiming and mutilation of victims. The catalogue of horrors includes the disembowelling of pregnant women, the slamming of babies ' heads against brick walls, the cutting off of victims limbs and genitalia and the displaying of heads and corpses. While previous communal riots had been deadly, the scale and level of brutality during the Partition massacres was unprecedented. Although some scholars question the use of the term ' genocide ' with respect to the Partition massacres, much of the violence was manifested with genocidal tendencies. It was designed to cleanse an existing generation and prevent its future reproduction. '' On 14 August 1947, the new Dominion of Pakistan came into being, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah sworn in as its first Governor General in Karachi. The following day, 15 August 1947, India, now a smaller Union of India, became an independent country with official ceremonies taking place in New Delhi, and with Jawaharlal Nehru assuming the office of prime minister, and the viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, staying on as its first Governor General; Gandhi, however, remained in Bengal, preferring instead to work with the new refugees from the partitioned subcontinent. The actual division of British India between the two new dominions was accomplished according to what has come to be known as the 3 June Plan or Mountbatten Plan. It was announced at a press conference by Mountbatten on 3 June 1947, when the date of independence was also announced -- 15 August 1947. The plan 's main points were: The Indian political leaders accepted the Plan on 2 June. It did not deal with the question of the princely states, but on 3 June Mountbatten advised them against remaining independent and urged them to join one of the two new dominions. The Muslim League 's demands for a separate state were thus conceded. The Congress ' position on unity was also taken into account while making Pakistan as small as possible. Mountbatten 's formula was to divide India and at the same time retain maximum possible unity. Abul Kalam Azad expressed concern over the likelihood of violent riots, to which Mountbatten replied: At least on this question I shall give you complete assurance. I shall see to it that there is no bloodshed and riot. I am a soldier and not a civilian. Once partition is accepted in principle, I shall issue orders to see that there are no communal disturbances anywhere in the country. If there should be the slightest agitation, I shall adopt the sternest measures to nip the trouble in the bud. Jagmohan has stated that this and what followed shows the "glaring '' "failure of the government machinery ''. On 3 June 1947, the partition plan was accepted by the Congress Working Committee. Boloji states that in Punjab there were no riots but there was communal tension, while Gandhi was reportedly isolated by Nehru and Patel and observed maun vrat (day of silence). Mountbatten visited Gandhi and said he hoped that he would not oppose the partition, to which Gandhi wrote the reply: "Have I ever opposed you? '' Within British India, the border between India and Pakistan (the Radcliffe Line) was determined by a British Government - commissioned report prepared under the chairmanship of a London barrister, Sir Cyril Radcliffe. Pakistan came into being with two non-contiguous enclaves, East Pakistan (today Bangladesh) and West Pakistan, separated geographically by India. India was formed out of the majority Hindu regions of British India, and Pakistan from the majority Muslim areas. On 18 July 1947, the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act that finalized the arrangements for partition and abandoned British suzerainty over the princely states, of which there were several hundred, leaving them free to choose whether to accede to one of the new dominions. The Government of India Act 1935 was adapted to provide a legal framework for the new dominions. Following its creation as a new country in August 1947, Pakistan applied for membership of the United Nations and was accepted by the General Assembly on 30 September 1947. The Dominion of India continued to have the existing seat as India had been a founding member of the United Nations since 1945. The Punjab -- the region of the five rivers east of Indus: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej -- consists of interfluvial doabs, or tracts of land lying between two confluent rivers. These are the Sind - Sagar doab (between Indus and Jhelum), the Jech doab (Jhelum / Chenab), the Rechna doab (Chenab / Ravi), the Bari doab (Ravi / Beas), and the Bist doab (Beas / Sutlej) (see map on the right). In early 1947, in the months leading up to the deliberations of the Punjab Boundary Commission, the main disputed areas appeared to be in the Bari and Bist doabs, although some areas in the Rechna doab were claimed by the Congress and Sikhs. In the Bari doab, the districts of Gurdaspur, Amritsar, Lahore, and Montgomery were all disputed. All districts (other than Amritsar, which was 46.5 % Muslim) had Muslim majorities; albeit, in Gurdaspur, the Muslim majority, at 51.1 %, was slender. At a smaller area - scale, only three tehsils (sub-units of a district) in the Bari doab had non-Muslim majorities. These were: Pathankot (in the extreme north of Gurdaspur, which was not in dispute), and Amritsar and Tarn Taran in Amritsar district. In addition, there were four Muslim - majority tehsils east of Beas - Sutlej (with two where Muslims outnumbered Hindus and Sikhs together). Before the Boundary Commission began formal hearings, governments were set up for the East and the West Punjab regions. Their territories were provisionally divided by "notional division '' based on simple district majorities. In both the Punjab and Bengal, the Boundary Commission consisted of two Muslim and two non-Muslim judges with Sir Cyril Radcliffe as a common chairman. The mission of the Punjab commission was worded generally as: "To demarcate the boundaries of the two parts of the Punjab, on the basis of ascertaining the contiguous majority areas of Muslims and non-Muslims. In doing so, it will take into account other factors. '' Each side (the Muslims and the Congress / Sikhs) presented its claim through counsel with no liberty to bargain. The judges too had no mandate to compromise and on all major issues they "divided two and two, leaving Sir Cyril Radcliffe the invidious task of making the actual decisions. '' Train to Pakistan being given an honour - guard send - off. New Delhi railway station, 1947 Rural Sikhs in a long oxcart train headed towards India. 1947. Two Muslim men (in a rural refugee train headed towards Pakistan) carrying an old woman in a makeshift doli or palanquin. 1947. A refugee train on its way to Punjab, Pakistan Massive population exchanges occurred between the two newly formed states in the months immediately following the Partition. "The population of undivided India in 1947 was approx 390 million. After partition, there were 330 million people in India, 30 million in West Pakistan, and 30 million people in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). '' Once the lines were established, about 14.5 million people crossed the borders to what they hoped was the relative safety of religious majority. The 1951 Census of Pakistan identified the number of displaced persons in Pakistan at 7,226,600, presumably all Muslims who had entered Pakistan from India. Similarly, the 1951 Census of India enumerated 7,295,870 displaced persons, apparently all Hindus and Sikhs who had moved to India from Pakistan immediately after the Partition. The two numbers add up to 14.5 million. Since both censuses were held about 3.6 years after the Partition, the enumeration included net population increase after the mass migration. About 11.2 million (77.4 % of the displaced persons) were in the west, with the Punjab accounting for most of it: 6.5 million Muslims moved from India to West Pakistan, and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from West Pakistan to India; thus the net migration in the west from India to West Pakistan (now Pakistan) was 1.8 million. The remaining 3.3 million (22.6 % of the displaced persons) were in the east: 2.6 million moved from East Pakistan to India and 0.7 million moved from India to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh); thus net migration in the east was 1.9 million into India. The Partition of British India split the former British province of Punjab between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The mostly Muslim western part of the province became Pakistan 's Punjab province; the mostly Sikh and Hindu eastern part became India 's East Punjab state (later divided into Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh). Many Hindus and Sikhs lived in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and the fears of all such minorities were so great that the Partition saw many people displaced and much intercommunal violence. Some have described the violence in Punjab as a retributive genocide. The newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border. Estimates of the number of deaths vary, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 2,000,000. Virtually no Muslim survived in East Punjab (except in Malerkotla) and virtually no Hindu or Sikh survived in West Punjab. Lawrence James observed that "' Sir Francis Mudie, the governor of West Punjab, estimated that 500,000 Muslims died trying to enter his province, while the British high commissioner in Karachi put the full total at 800,000... This makes nonsense of the claim by Mountbatten and his partisans that only 200,000 were killed ' (James 1998: 636) ''. According to political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmed, "in March 1947 the Muslims started large - scale violence, mainly against Sikhs but also against Hindus, in the Muslim - majority districts of northern Punjab. Yet at the end of that year more Muslims had been killed in East Punjab than Hindus and Sikhs together in West Punjab. '' The province of Bengal was divided into the two separate entities of West Bengal, awarded to the Dominion of India, and East Bengal, awarded to the Dominion of Pakistan. East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan in 1955, and later became the independent nation of Bangladesh after the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971. While the Muslim majority districts of Murshidabad and Malda were given to India, the Hindu majority district of Khulna and the Buddhist majority, but sparsely populated, Chittagong Hill Tracts were given to Pakistan by the Radcliffe award. Thousands of Hindus, located in the districts of East Bengal which were awarded to Pakistan, found themselves being attacked and this religious persecution forced hundreds of thousands of Hindus from East Bengal to seek refuge in India. The huge influx of Hindu refugees into Calcutta affected the demographics of the city. Many Muslims left the city for East Pakistan and some of their homes and properties were occupied by the refugee families. Most of Sindh 's prosperous middle class at the time of Partition was Hindu. At the time of Partition there were 1,400,000 Hindu Sindhis, though most were concentrated in cities such as Hyderabad, Karachi, Shikarpur, and Sukkur. Hundreds of Hindus residing in Sindh were forced to migrate. Some anti-Hindu violence in Sindh was precipitated by the arrival of Muslim refugees from India with minimal local Muslim support for the rioters. Sindhi Hindus faced low scale rioting unlike the Punjabi Hindus and Sikhs who had to migrate from West Punjab. On 6 December 1947, communal violence broke out in Ajmer in India, precipitated by an argument between Sindhi Hindu refugees and local Muslims in the Dargah Bazaar. Violence in Ajmer again broke out in the middle of December with stabbings, looting and arson resulting in mostly Muslim casualties. Many Muslims fled across the Thar Desert to Sindh in Pakistan. This sparked further anti-Hindu riots in Hyderabad, Sindh. On 6 January anti-Hindu riots broke out in Karachi, leading to an estimate of 1100 casualties. 776,000 Sindhi Hindus fled to India. The arrival of Sindhi Hindu refugees in North Gujarat 's town of Godhra sparked the March 1948 riots there which led to an emigration of Muslims from Godhra to Pakistan. Despite the migration, a significant Sindhi Hindu population still resides in Pakistan 's Sindh province where they number at around 2.28 million as per Pakistan 's 1998 census; the Sindhi Hindus in India were at 2.57 million as per India 's 2001 Census. Some bordering districts in Sindh had a Hindu majority like Tharparkar District, Umerkot, Mirpurkhas, Sanghar and Badin, but their population is decreasing and they consider themselves a minority in decline. In fact, only Umerkot still has a majority of Hindus in the district. The Sindhi community did not face large scale violence, but felt deprivation of homeland and culture. For centuries Delhi had been the capital of the Mughal Empire and of previous Turkic Muslim rulers of North India. The series of Islamic rulers keeping Delhi as a stronghold of their empires left a vast array of Islamic architecture in Delhi and a strong Islamic culture permeated the city. The 1941 Census listed Delhi 's population as being 33.22 % Muslim. However thousands of Hindu and Sikh refugees from Punjab poured into the city. This created an atmosphere of upheavals as anti-Muslim pogroms rocked the historical stronghold of Indo - Islamic culture and politics. Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru estimated 1000 casualties in the city. However other sources claimed that the casualty rate had been 20 times higher. Gyanendra Pandey 's more recent account of the Delhi violence puts the figure of Muslim casualties in Delhi as being between 20,000 -- 25,000. Tens of thousands of Muslims were driven to refugee camps regardless of their political affiliations and numerous historic sites in Delhi such as the Purana Qila, Idgah and Nizamuddin were transformed into refugee camps. At the culmination of the tensions in Delhi 330,000 Muslims were forced to flee the city to Pakistan. The 1951 Census registered a drop of the Muslim population in the city from 33.22 % in 1941 to 5.33 % in 1951. Alwar and Bharatpur were two princely states of Rajputana (modern day Rajasthan) which were the scene of a bloody confrontation between the dominant, land - holding community of Hindu Jats and the cultivating community of Muslim Meos from May 1947 onwards. Well - organised bands of Hindu Jats, Ahirs and Gujars started attacking Muslim Meos in April 1947. By June more than fifty Muslim villages had been destroyed after attacks by all sides. The Muslim League was outraged and demanded that the Viceroy provide Muslim troops. Accusations emerged in June of the involvement of Indian State Forces from Alwar and Bharatpur in the destruction of Muslim villages both inside their states and in British India. In the wake of unprecedented violent attacks unleashed against them in 1947, 100,000 Muslim Meos from Alwar and Bharatpur was forced to flee their homes and an estimated 30,000 Meos are said to have been massacred. On 17 November, a column of 80,000 Meo refugees went on their way to Pakistan. However, 10,000 stopped travelling due to the risk of trying to reach and settle in Pakistan. In September -- November 1947 in the Jammu region of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, a large number of Muslims were massacred and others driven away to West Punjab. The impetus for this violence was partly provided by the influx of a large number of Hindu and Sikh refugees since March 1947, who brought with them "harrowing stories of Muslim atrocities '', to Jammu from West Punjab. The killings were carried out by extremist Hindus and Sikhs, aided and abetted by the forces of the Dogra State headed by the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir Hari Singh. Observers state that Hari Singh 's aim was to alter the demographics of the region by eliminating the Muslim population, in order to ensure a Hindu majority in the region. According to the 1951 Census of India, 2 % of India 's population were refugees (1.3 % from West Pakistan and 0.7 % from East Pakistan). Delhi received the largest number of refugees for a single city -- the population of Delhi grew rapidly in 1947 from under 1 million (917,939) to a little less than 2 million (1,744,072) during the period 1941 -- 1951. The refugees were housed in various historical and military locations such as the Purana Qila, Red Fort, and military barracks in Kingsway Camp (around the present Delhi University). The latter became the site of one of the largest refugee camps in northern India with more than 35,000 refugees at any given time besides Kurukshetra camp near Panipat. The camp sites were later converted into permanent housing through extensive building projects undertaken by the Government of India from 1948 onwards. A number of housing colonies in Delhi came up around this period like Lajpat Nagar, Rajinder Nagar, Nizamuddin East, Punjabi Bagh, Rehgar Pura, Jangpura and Kingsway Camp. A number of schemes such as the provision of education, employment opportunities, and easy loans to start businesses were provided for the refugees at the all - India level. Many Sikhs and Hindu Punjabis came from West Punjab and settled in East Punjab (which then also included Haryana and Himachal Pradesh) and Delhi. Hindus fleeing from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) settled across Eastern India and Northeastern India, many ending up in neighbouring Indian states such as West Bengal, Assam, and Tripura. Some migrants were sent to the Andaman islands where Bengalis today form the largest linguistic group. Sindhi Hindus settled predominantly in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Some, however, settled further afield in Madhya Pradesh. A new township was established for Sindhi Hindu refugees in Maharashtra. The Governor - General of India, Sir Rajagopalachari, laid the foundation for this township and named it Ulhasnagar (namely ' city of joy '). The 1951 Census of Pakistan recorded that the largest number of Muslim refugees came from the East Punjab and nearby Rajputana states (Alwar and Bharatpur). They were a number of 5,783,100 and constituted 80.1 % of Pakistan 's total refugee population. This was the effect of the retributive ethnic cleansing on both sides of the Punjab where the Muslim population of East Punjab was forcibly expelled like the Hindu / Sikh population in West Punjab. Migration from other regions of India were as follows: Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa, 700,300 or 9.8 %; UP and Delhi 464,200 or 2.4 %; Gujarat and Bombay, 160,400 or 2.2 %; Bhopal and Hyderabad 95,200 or 1.2 %; and Madras and Mysore 18,000 or 0.2 %. So far as their settlement in Pakistan is concerned, 97.4 % of the refugees from East Punjab and its contiguous areas went to West Punjab; 95.9 % from Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa to the erstwhile East Pakistan; 95.5 % from UP and Delhi to West Pakistan, mainly Karachi and Sind; 97.2 % from Bhopal and Hyderabad to West Pakistan, mainly Karachi; and 98.9 % from Bombay and Gujarat to West Pakistan, largely to Karachi; and 98.9 % from Madras and Mysore went to West Pakistan, mainly Karachi. West Punjab received the largest number of refugees (73.1 %), mainly from East Punjab and its contiguous areas. East Bengal received the second largest number of refugees, 699,100, who constituted 9.7 % of the total Muslim refugee population in Pakistan. 66.69 % of the refugees in East Bengal originated from West Bengal, 14.50 % from Bihar and 11.84 % from Assam. Karachi received 8.5 % of the total migrant population while Sind received 7.6 %. NWFP and Baluchistan received the lowest number of migrants. NWFP received 51,100 migrants (0.7 % of the migrant population) while Baluchistan received 28,000 (0.4 % of the migrant population). The Government undertook a census of refugees in West Punjab in 1948, which displayed their place of origin in India. Data on the Number of Muslim refugees in West Punjab from the Districts of East Punjab and Neighbouring Regions Data on the Number of Muslim refugees in West Punjab from the Princely states in East Punjab and Rajputana A study of the total population inflows and outflows in the districts of the Punjab, using the data provided by the 1931 and 1951 Census has led to an estimate of 1.26 million missing Muslims who left western India but did not reach Pakistan. The corresponding number of missing Hindus / Sikhs along the western border is estimated to be approximately 0.84 million. This puts the total of missing people, due to Partition - related migration along the Punjab border, to around 2.23 million. Both sides promised each other that they would try to restore women abducted and raped during the riots. The Indian government claimed that 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women were abducted, and the Pakistani government claimed that 50,000 Muslim women were abducted during riots. By 1949, there were governmental claims that 12,000 women had been recovered in India and 6,000 in Pakistan. By 1954, there were 20,728 Muslim women recovered from India and 9,032 Hindu and Sikh women recovered from Pakistan. Most of the Hindu and Sikh women refused to go back to India, fearing that they would never be accepted by their family, a fear mirrored by Muslim women. Even after the 1951 Census many Muslim families from India continued migrating to Pakistan throughout the 1950s and the early 1960s. According to historian Omar Khalidi the Indian Muslim migration to West Pakistan between December 1947 and December 1971 was from U.P., Delhi, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The next stage of migration, which lasted between 1973 and the 1990s, was when the migration of Indian Muslims to Pakistan was reduced to its lowest levels since 1947. The primary destination for these migrants was Karachi and other urban centers in Sindh. In 1959, the International Labour Organisation (ILO) published a report stating that from 1951 to 1956, a total of 650,000 Muslims from India relocated to West Pakistan. However, Visaria (1969) raised doubts about the authenticity of the claims about Indian Muslim migration to Pakistan, since the 1961 Census of Pakistan did not corroborate these figures. However, the 1961 Census of Pakistan did incorporate a statement suggesting that there had been a migration of 800,000 people from India to Pakistan throughout the previous decade. Of those who had left for Pakistan, most never came back. Indian Muslim migration to Pakistan declined drastically in the 1970s, a trend noticed by the Pakistani authorities. On June 1995, Pakistan 's interior minister, Naseerullah Babar, informed the National Assembly that between the period of 1973 -- 1994, as many as 800,000 visitors came from India on valid travel documents. Of these only 3,393 stayed. In a related trend, intermarriages between Indian and Pakistani Muslims have declined sharply. According to a November 1995 statement of Riaz Khokhar, the Pakistani High Commissioner in New Delhi, the number of cross-border marriages has declined from 40,000 a year in the 1950s and 1960s to barely 300 annually. In the aftermath of the Indo - Pakistani War of 1965, 3,500 Muslim families migrated from the Indian part of the Thar Desert to the Pakistani section of the Thar Desert. 400 families were settled in Nagar after the 1965 war and an additional 3000 settled in the Chachro taluka in Sind province of West Pakistan. The government of Pakistan provided each family with 12 acres of land. According to government records this land totalled 42,000 acres. The 1951 census in Pakistan recorded 671,000 refugees in East Pakistan, the majority of which came from West Bengal. The rest were from Bihar. According to the ILO in the period 1951 -- 1956, half a million Indian Muslims migrated to East Pakistan. By 1961 the numbers reached 850,000. In the aftermath of the riots in Ranchi and Jamshedpur, Biharis continued to migrate to East Pakistan well into the late sixties and added up to around a million. Crude estimates suggest that about 1.5 million Muslims migrated from West Bengal and Bihar to East Bengal in the two decades after partition. Due to religious persecution in Pakistan, Hindus continue to flee to India. Most of them tend to settle in the state of Rajasthan in India. According to the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan data, just around 1,000 Hindu families fled to India in 2013. In May 2014, a member of the ruling Pakistan Muslim League - Nawaz (PML - N), Dr Ramesh Kumar Vankwani, revealed in the National Assembly of Pakistan that around 5,000 Hindus are migrating from Pakistan to India every year. Since India is not a signatory to the 1951 United Nations Refugee Convention it refuses to recognise Pakistani Hindu migrants as refugees. The population in the Tharparkar district in the Sind province of West Pakistan was 80 % Hindu and 20 % Muslim at the time of independence in 1947. During the Indo - Pakistani wars of 1965 and 1971, the Hindu upper castes and their retainers fled to India. This led to a massive demographic shift in the district. In 1978 India gave citizenship to 55,000 Pakistanis. By the time of the 1998 census of Pakistan, Muslims made up 64.42 % of the population and Hindus 35.58 % of the population in Tharparkar. The migration of Hindus from East Pakistan to India continued unabated after partition. The 1951 census in India recorded that 2.523 million refugees arrived from East Pakistan, of which 2.061 million migrated to West Bengal while the rest migrated to Assam, Tripura and other states. These refugees arrived in waves and did not come solely at partition. By 1973 their number reached over 6 million. The following data displays the major waves of refugees from East Pakistan and the incidents which precipitated the migrations. The Partition was a highly controversial arrangement, and remains a cause of much tension on the Indian subcontinent today. According to Allen McGrath many British leaders including the British Viceroy, Mountbatten, were unhappy over the partition of India. Lord Mountbatten of Burma had not only been accused of rushing the process through, but also is alleged to have influenced the Radcliffe Line in India 's favour. The commission took longer to decide on a final boundary than on the partition itself. Thus the two nations were granted their independence even before there was a defined boundary between them. Some critics allege that British haste led to increased cruelties during the Partition. Because independence was declared prior to the actual Partition, it was up to the new governments of India and Pakistan to keep public order. No large population movements were contemplated; the plan called for safeguards for minorities on both sides of the new border. It was a task at which both states failed. There was a complete breakdown of law and order; many died in riots, massacre, or just from the hardships of their flight to safety. What ensued was one of the largest population movements in recorded history. According to Richard Symonds, at the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless. However, many argue that the British were forced to expedite the Partition by events on the ground. Once in office, Mountbatten quickly became aware that if Britain were to avoid involvement in a civil war, which seemed increasingly likely, there was no alternative to partition and a hasty exit from India. Law and order had broken down many times before Partition, with much bloodshed on both sides. A massive civil war was looming by the time Mountbatten became Viceroy. After the Second World War, Britain had limited resources, perhaps insufficient to the task of keeping order. Another viewpoint is that while Mountbatten may have been too hasty he had no real options left and achieved the best he could under difficult circumstances. The historian Lawrence James concurs that in 1947 Mountbatten was left with no option but to cut and run. The alternative seemed to be involvement in a potentially bloody civil war from which it would be difficult to get out. Conservative elements in England consider the partition of India to be the moment that the British Empire ceased to be a world power, following Curzon 's dictum: "the loss of India would mean that Britain drop straight away to a third rate power. '' Venkat Dhulipala rejects the idea that the British divide and rule policy was responsible for partition and elaborates on the perspective that Pakistan was popularly imagined as a sovereign Islamic state or a ' New Medina ', as a potential successor to the defunct Turkish caliphate and as a leader and protector of the entire Islamic world. Islamic scholars debated over creating Pakistan and its potential to become a true Islamic state The majority of Barelvis supported the creation of Pakistan and believed that any co-operation with Hindus would be counter productive. Most Deobandis, who were led by Maulana Husain Ahmad Madani, were opposed to the creation of Pakistan and the two - nation theory. According to them Muslims and Hindus could be one nation. In their authoritative study of the partition, Ian Talbot and Gurharpal Singh have shown that the partition was not the inevitable end of the so - called British ' divide and rule policy ' nor was it the inevitable end of Hindu - Muslim differences. A cross-border student initiative, The History Project, was launched in 2014 to explore the differences in perception of the events during the British era which led to the partition. The project resulted in a book that explains both interpretations of the shared history in Pakistan and India. Berkeley, California based non-profit organization The 1947 Partition Archive collects oral histories from people who lived through the Partition and consolidates the interviews into an archive. The partition of India and the associated bloody riots inspired many in India and Pakistan to create literary / cinematic depictions of this event. While some creations depicted the massacres during the refugee migration, others concentrated on the aftermath of the partition in terms of difficulties faced by the refugees in both side of the border. Even now, more than 60 years after the partition, works of fiction and films are made that relate to the events of partition. The early members of the Progressive Artist 's Group of Bombay cite "The Partition '' of India and Pakistan as a key reason for its founding in December 1947. They included FN Souza, MF Husain, SH Raza, SK Bakre, HA Gade and KH Ara, who went on to become some of the most important and influential Indian artists of the 20th Century. Literature describing the human cost of independence and partition comprises Bal K. Gupta 's memoirs Forgotten Atrocities (2012), Khushwant Singh 's Train to Pakistan (1956), several short stories such as Toba Tek Singh (1955) by Saadat Hassan Manto, Urdu poems such as Subh - e-Azadi (Freedom 's Dawn, 1947) by Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Bhisham Sahni 's Tamas (1974), Manohar Malgonkar 's A Bend in the Ganges (1965), and Bapsi Sidhwa 's Ice - Candy Man (1988), among others. Salman Rushdie 's novel Midnight 's Children (1980), which won the Booker Prize and The Best of the Booker, wove its narrative based on the children born with magical abilities on midnight of 14 August 1947. Freedom at Midnight (1975) is a non-fiction work by Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre that chronicled the events surrounding the first Independence Day celebrations in 1947. There is a paucity of films related to the independence and partition. Early films relating to the circumstances of the independence, partition and the aftermath include Nemai Ghosh 's Chinnamul (Bengali) (1950), Dharmputra (1961) Lahore (1948), Chhalia (1956), Nastik (1953). George Cukor 's Bhowani Junction (1956), Ritwik Ghatak 's trilogy of Meghe Dhaka Tara (Bengali) (1960) / Komal Gandhar (Bengali) (1961) / Subarnarekha (Bengali) (1962); later films include Garm Hava (1973) and Tamas (1987). From the late 1990s onwards, more films on this theme were made, including several mainstream ones, such as Earth (1998), Train to Pakistan (1998) (based on the aforementined book), Hey Ram (2000), Gadar: Ek Prem Katha (2001), Khamosh Pani (2003), Pinjar (2003), Partition (2007), Madrasapattinam (2010) and Viceroy 's House (2017). The biographical films Gandhi (1982), Jinnah (1998) and Sardar (1993) also feature independence and partition as significant events in their screenplay. A Pakistani drama Daastan, based on the novel Bano, highlights the plight of Muslim girls who were abducted and raped during partition. The novel Lost Generations (2013) by Manjit Sachdeva describes the March 1947 massacre in rural areas of Rawalpindi by the Muslim League, followed by massacres on both sides of the new border in August 1947 seen through the eyes of an escaping Sikh family, their settlement and partial rehabilitation in Delhi, and ending in ruin (including death), for the second time in 1984, at the hands of mobs after a Sikh assassinated the prime minister. The 2013 Google India advertisement Reunion (about the Partition of India) has had a strong impact in India and Pakistan, leading to hope for the easing of travel restrictions between the two countries. It went viral and was viewed more than 1.6 million times before officially debuting on television on 15 November 2013.

when did hacksaw ridge happen in real life

Desmond Doss - wikipedia World War II Desmond Thomas Doss (February 7, 1919 -- March 23, 2006) was a United States Army corporal who served as a combat medic with an infantry company in World War II. He was twice awarded the Bronze Star Medal for actions in Guam and the Philippines. Doss further distinguished himself for service above and beyond the call of duty in the Battle of Okinawa by saving 75 men at considerable personal risk, becoming the only conscientious objector to receive the Medal of Honor during World War II. His life has been the subject of books, the documentary The Conscientious Objector, and the critically acclaimed 2016 film Hacksaw Ridge. Desmond Doss was born in Lynchburg, Virginia, to William Thomas Doss (1893 -- 1989), a carpenter, and Bertha Edward Doss (née Oliver) (1899 -- 1983), a homemaker and shoe factory worker. His mother raised him as a devout Seventh - day Adventist and instilled Sabbath - keeping, nonviolence, and a vegetarian lifestyle in his upbringing. He grew up in the Fairview Heights area of Lynchburg, Virginia, alongside his older sister Audrey and younger brother Harold. Doss attended the Park Avenue Seventh - day Adventist Church school until the eighth grade, and subsequently found a job at the Lynchburg Lumber Company to support his family during the Great Depression. Before the outbreak of World War II, Doss was employed as a joiner at a shipyard in Newport News, Virginia. Doss entered military service, despite being offered a deferment for his shipyard work, on April 1, 1942, at Camp Lee, Virginia. He was sent to Fort Jackson in South Carolina for training with the reactivated 77th Infantry Division. Meanwhile, his brother Harold served aboard the USS Lindsey. Doss refused to kill an enemy soldier or carry a weapon into combat because of his personal beliefs as a Seventh - day Adventist. He consequently became a medic assigned to 2nd Platoon, B Company, 1st Battalion, 307th Infantry, 77th Infantry Division. While serving with his platoon in 1944 on Guam and the Philippines, he was awarded two Bronze Star Medals with a "V '' device, for exceptional valor in aiding wounded soldiers under fire. During the Battle of Okinawa, he saved the lives of 75 wounded infantrymen atop the area known by the 96th Division as the Maeda Escarpment or Hacksaw Ridge. Doss was wounded four times in Okinawa, and was evacuated on May 21, 1945, aboard the USS Mercy. Doss suffered a left arm fracture from a sniper 's bullet and at one point had seventeen pieces of shrapnel embedded in his body. He was subsequently awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions in Okinawa. After the war, Doss initially planned to continue his career in carpentry, but extensive damage to his arm left him unable to do so. In 1946, Doss was diagnosed with tuberculosis, which he had contracted on Leyte. He subsequently underwent treatment for five and a half years -- which cost him a lung and five ribs -- before being discharged from the hospital in August 1951 with 90 % disability. Doss continued to receive treatment from the military, but after an overdose of antibiotics rendered him completely deaf in 1976, he was given 100 % disability; he was able to regain his hearing after receiving a cochlear implant in 1988. Despite the severity of his injuries, Doss managed to raise a family on a small farm in Rising Fawn, Georgia. Doss married Dorothy Pauline Schutte on August 17, 1942, and they had one child, Desmond "Tommy '' Doss Jr., born in 1946. Dorothy died on November 17, 1991, from a car accident. Doss remarried on July 1, 1993, to Frances May Duman. After being hospitalized for difficulty breathing, Doss died on March 23, 2006, at his home in Piedmont, Alabama. He was buried on April 3, 2006, in the National Cemetery in Chattanooga, Tennessee. Doss ' awards include: Rank and organization: Private First Class, United States Army, Medical Detachment, 307th Infantry, 77th Infantry Division. Place and date: Near Urasoe Mura, Okinawa, Ryukyu Islands, April 29, 1945 -- May 21, 1945. Entered service at: Lynchburg, Virginia Birth: Lynchburg, Virginia G.O. No.: 97, November 1, 1945. The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, March 3, 1863, has awarded in the name of The Congress the MEDAL OF HONOR to PRIVATE FIRST CLASS DESMOND T. DOSS UNITED STATES ARMY for service as set forth in the following Citation: Private First Class Desmond T. Doss, United States Army, Medical Detachment, 307th Infantry, 77th Infantry Division. Near Urasoe - Mura, Okinawa, Ryukyu Islands, 29 April -- 21 May 1945. He was a company aid man when the 1st Battalion assaulted a jagged escarpment 400 feet high. As our troops gained the summit, a heavy concentration of artillery, mortar and machinegun fire crashed into them, inflicting approximately 75 casualties and driving the others back. Private First Class Doss refused to seek cover and remained in the fire - swept area with the many stricken, carrying them one by one to the edge of the escarpment and there lowering them on a rope - supported litter down the face of a cliff to friendly hands. On 2 May, he exposed himself to heavy rifle and mortar fire in rescuing a wounded man 200 yards forward of the lines on the same escarpment; and two days later he treated four men who had been cut down while assaulting a strongly defended cave, advancing through a shower of grenades to within eight yards of enemy forces in a cave 's mouth, where he dressed his comrades ' wounds before making four separate trips under fire to evacuate them to safety. On 5 May, he unhesitatingly braved enemy shelling and small arms fire to assist an artillery officer. He applied bandages, moved his patient to a spot that offered protection from small - arms fire and, while artillery and mortar shells fell close by, painstakingly administered plasma. Later that day, when an American was severely wounded by fire from a cave, Private First Class Doss crawled to him where he had fallen 25 feet from the enemy position, rendered aid, and carried him 100 yards to safety while continually exposed to enemy fire. On 21 May, in a night attack on high ground near Shuri, he remained in exposed territory while the rest of his company took cover, fearlessly risking the chance that he would be mistaken for an infiltrating Japanese and giving aid to the injured until he was himself seriously wounded in the legs by the explosion of a grenade. Rather than call another aid man from cover, he cared for his own injuries and waited five hours before litter bearers reached him and started carrying him to cover. The trio was caught in an enemy tank attack and Private First Class Doss, seeing a more critically wounded man nearby, crawled off the litter and directed the bearers to give their first attention to the other man. Awaiting the litter bearers ' return, he was again struck, this time suffering a compound fracture of one arm. With magnificent fortitude he bound a rifle stock to his shattered arm as a splint and then crawled 300 yards over rough terrain to the aid station. Through his outstanding bravery and unflinching determination in the face of desperately dangerous conditions Private First Class Doss saved the lives of many soldiers. His name became a symbol throughout the 77th Infantry Division for outstanding gallantry far above and beyond the call of duty. October 12, 1945 THE WHITE HOUSE On February 18, 1959, Doss appeared on the Ralph Edwards NBC TV show This Is Your Life. Doss is the subject of The Conscientious Objector, an award - winning documentary by Terry Benedict in 2004. The feature film Hacksaw Ridge, based on his life, was produced by Terry Benedict and directed by Mel Gibson. The film was released nationwide in the U.S. on November 4, 2016 to positive reviews. Doss is portrayed by Andrew Garfield, who was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance. Desmond 's wife, Dorothy, is played by Teresa Palmer. Doss was profiled in a three part TV series by It Is Written in November 2016. Doss was featured in the Medal of Honor Special comic written by Doug Murray and published by Dark Horse Comics. The comic was a special edition of the series Medal of Honor, published April 1, 1994. The title was sanctioned by the United States Congressional Medal of Honor Society. The issue features Corporal Desmond Doss along with another Medal of Honor recipient, Lieutenant Charles Q. Williams. Doss is the subject of four biographical books: Doss has been featured in major publications and media including:

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Leatherface - wikipedia Leatherface is a character in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre series of horror films and spin - offs. He wears masks made of human skin (hence his name) and engages in murder and cannibalism, alongside his insane family. Leatherface appeared in the first film in the series (1974) and in its six subsequent continuations and remakes. Wisconsin killer Ed Gein, who wore a mask made of human skin, was reportedly the inspiration for elements in the original film. He is considered to be the main antagonist of the franchise because he drives most of the plots and appears in all of the films even though he takes orders from his older family members. The original film never showed Leatherface without one of his human - hide faces on. Leatherface used to work as a butcher at the meat factory alongside his brother, presumably "The Cook '' (referred to as "Drayton Sawyer '' in further films), as "The Hitchhiker '' (Nubbins in part 2, following his death in part 1) claims he did n't work at the slaughterhouse, but he states, "My BROTHER worked there. My grandfather, too! My family 's ALWAYS been in meat. '' Gunnar Hansen, who portrayed Leatherface in the original 1974 film, sees Leatherface as "completely under the control of his family. He 'll do whatever they tell him to do. He 's a little bit afraid of them. '' In the documentary The Shocking Truth, Tobe Hooper portrays Leatherface as a "big baby '' who kills in self - defense because he feels threatened. In the first film, Leatherface shows fear when new people enter his home. Leatherface 's family uses the bones of the people he kills, along with some animal bones for decoration, and human skin to upholster bone - based furniture similar to a leather couch, to build the inside of their house. They process the victims ' flesh into barbecue and chili, which Drayton Sawyer, a skilled chef, sells at his restaurant / gas station, "Last Chance Gas. '' Drayton also enters the human flesh chili dishes the brothers prepare at cook - offs, feeding it to unsuspecting customers and judges without telling them what they 're eating, past the point of saying it 's "prime meat, '' and that the key to his recipe is to "never shirk on the meat '' (according to the sequel, Drayton has won two cooking awards doing this). As previously stated above, aside from Leatherface and Drayton, the Sawyer clan includes several more brothers, a hitchhiker named Nubbins Sawyer, Nubbins ' twin brother, a Vietnam vet known as Chop Top or Plate Head, a hitchhiking cowboy named Eddie / Tex, a hook - handed man named Tech / Tinker, a deranged pervert named Alfredo / Fred, a tow - truck driver named Vilmer and a redneck know - it - all named W.E. Apart from the brothers, the Sawyer clan includes the supercentenarian Grandpa, the dead Grandma / Great - Grandma Sawyer (whose corpse has been poorly preserved), a wheelchair - bound mother called Mama who claims to have mutilated and promptly removed her own genitalia as well as those of the family patriarch a number of years ago, and Leatherface 's daughter (first names unknown). In the first film, The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974), siblings Sally and Franklin Hardesty go out with their friends to investigate the robbing of a local cemetery in order to make sure their grandfather 's grave has not been violated. They run afoul of Nubbins and eventually the rest of the Sawyer family, culminating in Leatherface 's killing everyone in the group except Sally. Leatherface and Drayton bring Sally into their home, intent on killing and eating her. She escapes by jumping out of the window, with Leatherface and Nubbins in hot pursuit. She manages to elude Nubbins, who is run over by a passing truck. When Leatherface arrives on the scene, the trucker throws a pipe wrench at him, causing him to fall backwards and cut into his leg with his own chainsaw. The driver panics and runs off, and Sally dives into the bed of a pickup truck, narrowly avoiding Leatherface 's chainsaw as the truck drives away. Enraged, he swings his running chainsaw around in all directions in a macabre dance. The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2, a direct sequel to the 1974 film, featured a more campy and over-the - top atmosphere than the original. Tobe Hooper stated on The Shocking Truth that he wanted to expand on the dark comedy in the original film, as he felt no one truly picked up on this element. In this film, the Hitchhiker is replaced by his hippy twin brother Chop Top (who transforms his dead twin 's corpse into a puppet), while the cook, Drayton, has become an award - winning chef. Leatherface develops a "crush '' on one of his victims, and in one scene, removes the skin from the face of her still - living friend and places it on her to hide her from the rest of his family. At the end of the film, he apparently dies in an explosion after being impaled with a chainsaw in a fight with the uncle of his previous victims from the first film. Leatherface 's clan 's last name of Sawyer is also revealed in the film when brother Drayton wins a local cook - off. Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III became the second sequel in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre film series. The filmmakers attempted to make the series darker and grittier (much as the filmmakers of the original had intended), but they had to tone it down and change the ending after interventions from the MPAA. New Line released an uncut version to the home - video market in 2003. In this film, Leatherface has an extended family and a daughter, possibly the product of a rape. A four - issue comic series based on the film, entitled Leatherface, was created; portions of the comics are narrated by and shown from Leatherface 's point of view. Note that horror actor Kane Hodder choreographed the stunts and played the stunt - double Leatherface in the Texas Chainsaw Massacre 3. Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Next Generation 's prologue describes the second and third films as "two minor, yet apparently related incidents ''. The film features Leatherface as a yelping, pizza - eating transvestite involved in an Illuminati conspiracy to provide society a source of horror, and, again, with a different family. Texas Chainsaw 3D, Leatherface returned in the direct sequel to the original The Texas Chain Saw Massacre. The films picks up directly where the original 1974 film ended, thus ignoring the events of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2, as Sally escapes and flees to the local Sheriff of Newt, Texas, who then drives out to the Sawyer property to arrest Leatherface. However, during the negotiation between the sheriff and the Sawyer clan, a rowdy group of local citizens arrive, intent on vigilante justice, and soon the townspeople toss a molotov cocktail onto the Sawyer house, setting it on fire, as a large shoot - out begins between the angry mob and the Sawyers, in which all but three Sawyer family members die, the survivors being Leatherface, his apparent sister and her baby daughter. Later that night, the mortally - wounded Sawyer female is found by one of the vigilantes, who promptly kicks her to death and steals her baby, which he gives to his childless wife as a gift. Several years later, the surviving Sawyer baby, the young adult Heather, learns of her true parentage via news of her natural grandmother 's recent death. Heather is then invited to go to Newt, Texas, because she was left a large estate in her grandmother 's will. Heather 's boyfriend Ryan and a couple of friends accompany her to give her support. However, they soon discover that Heather was not the only Sawyer to survive the 1973 house fire, because living in the basement of the large family home is her cousin, Leatherface, who, once again misinterpreting the situation, soon begins another killing spree. In this film, Leatherface is identified as Jedidiah Sawyer. In a post-credits scene, Heather 's adoptive parents arrive at the mansion, greedily discussing how they plan to split the assets Heather now owns. Leatherface then shocks them as he answers the door, chainsaw in hand. The 2017 film Leatherface is a prequel to The Texas Chain Saw Massacre that deals with Leatherface in his teenage years. Marcus Nispel directed a remake of The Texas Chain Saw Massacre in 2003. Its success greenlit a prequel, released in 2006, which delved into the origins of Leatherface and of his family. In this continuity, Leatherface 's real name is Thomas Brown Hewitt; his mother Sloane dies giving birth to him in August 1939 at the Blair Meat Co., a slaughterhouse where she works, and her uncaring boss leaves the infant to die in a dumpster. Luda Mae Hewitt finds him and takes him home to raise him. The Hewitts worked at the Blair Meat Co., but after losing their jobs they switched to kidnapping people, murdering them (often by chainsaw or shotgun) and butchering their flesh, as family member Charlie claims that he got the idea from eating human flesh in the Korean War after he became a prisoner of war. The prequel reveals that they do eat the meat of their victims; the remake only implies this. Leatherface in this continuity suffers from a facial disfigurement and a skin disease that caused severe deformities and tumors to his face. Due to this disfigurement, his muteness and mental retardation (carried over from the first series), other children bullied the boy. He wore a small leather mask to cover up his deformity, and worked at the same meat factory where he was born, for the same boss as his mother - the same man who had left him for dead. He also had a tendency toward self - mutilation, and a doctor diagnosed him as suffering from a type of neurodegeneration at age 12. After health inspectors shut the factory down, Hewitt 's boss and a reluctant co-worker ordered him to leave. When Hewitt did n't, the boss and the co-worker bullied him, calling him a "retard '' and a "dumb animal ''. Acting on long - burning rage, Hewitt killed his boss with a sledgehammer. He later discovered the chainsaw he would use as a weapon after searching the now abandoned factory. When Winston Hoyt, the local sheriff, tried to apprehend him, Thomas ' uncle, Charlie Hewitt came to his aid and killed the sheriff with his own gun. Charlie later assumed the sheriff 's identity. Hewitt later made masks of human skin by slicing off the faces of his victims. Although Leatherface 's family still manipulate him in this interpretation, they do show themselves to be somewhat more caring towards him and less abusive than in the original film. Before killing the sheriff, his uncle Charlie even defends him by saying, "He 's not retarded, he 's misunderstood. '' The cruelty he suffers at the hands of his peers, in part, inspires his murderous behavior, however it 's his uncle, Charlie, who encourages his anti-social behaviour and impulses. At the climax of the remake, protagonist Erin Hardesty cuts off Leatherface 's chainsaw - wielding arm with a meat cleaver, and Erin is able to escape him, though Leatherface survives the cleaver attack. Leatherface escapes after police discover his ranch house and find the remains of 33 people. The police fail to secure the crime scene properly, allowing Leatherface to attack and kill two officers. Leatherface then escapes and disappears, and the case remains open. Andrew Bryniarski, who portrayed Leatherface in the remake, states: "In my estimation, Leatherface is like a beaten dog -- he was ostracized and ridiculed, and treated harshly by his peers. The psychological damage they inflicted was immense -- there 's no chance for him. '' Terrence Evans, who played Leatherface 's uncle Old Monty, says, "I think there was a chance Thomas ' life could have been different. But the teasing he suffered, coupled with a bad temper, and following Hoyt around like a puppy dog, left room for Hoyt to get absolute control. '' Writer Mort Castle based the 1991 Leatherface miniseries loosely on the third Texas Chainsaw Massacre film. He stated: "The series was very loosely based on Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III. I worked from the original script by David Schow and the heavily edited theatrical release of director Jeff Burr, but had more or less free rein to write the story the way it should have been told. The first issue sold 30,000 copies. '' Kirk Jarvinen drew the first issue, and Guy Burwell finished the rest of the series. The comics, not having the same restrictions from the MPAA, featured much more gore than the finished film. The ending, as well as the fates of several characters, also changed. The roles of the Sawyer family members and their personal backgrounds are also elaborated on, for instance Mama reveals that Grandpa was adopted into the family, Tinker is revealed to be a former hippy and Tex is seen to be the more sane family member, actually showing some signs of remorse. Much of the story takes place from Leatherface 's point of view. In 1995, Topps Comics released the three - issue miniseries Jason vs. Leatherface, a non-canonical crossover between the Friday the 13th and Texas Chainsaw Massacre franchises, written by Nancy A. Collins with art by Jeff Butler. The series premise involves accidentally placing Jason Voorhees, the main antagonist of Friday the 13th, on a train headed for a dumping ground in Mexico when Crystal Lake is drained of radioactive waste by a company. Running amok on the train, Jason kills its crew and causes the vehicle to crash in Texas, where he meets and befriends Leatherface and his inbred family (consisting of Cook, Hitchhiker, Grandpa and several other original relatives, all of them dead). After he lives with the family for a day, relations between them and Jason ultimately sour due to a series of misunderstandings (including Jason seeing a maskless Leatherface 's badly deformed face, which greatly angers Leatherface, who is self - conscious), which result in Leatherface and Jason battling. In the end, Hitchhiker apparently kills Jason with a sledgehammer and the family dumps him in a nearby lake. But Jason arises several hours later and decides to begin trekking back "home '' to Camp Crystal Lake, away from the place that encouraged dangerous things such as friendship. In 2005, Avatar Press began to release Texas Chainsaw Massacre comics, set in the continuity of the 2003 remake of the original film, but serving as prequels to the film. The comics had a multitude of variant covers, such as "Gore '', "Terror '' and "Die Cut ''. The final release by Avatar Press, the one - shot The Texas Chainsaw Massacre Fearbook, had text written by Antony Johnston with art by Daniel HDR and Mauricio Dias. The premise of this one - shot involves a quartet of friends in the midst of a cross-country trip who run afoul of Sheriff Hoyt, who forcibly takes them to the Hewitt house, where Leatherface kills them all except one, a girl named Lucy, whom he knocks unconscious; Leatherface, when Lucy awakens, puts on a mask created from her boyfriend 's face and hammers one of his own masks onto her before forcing her to dance with him as she succumbs to her injuries. Leatherface became a prominent character in Wildstorm Comics 's continuation of the remakes. With the family exposed after the events of the first film, the comics show the Hewitt family living in a series of tunnels in the sewers of Travis County. As at the end of the remake, Leatherface in the comics has only one arm. Halfway through the first story arc, Leatherface 's uncle Monty helps Leatherface build a "prosthetic arm '' (consisting of a hook attached to a bone and tied to Leatherface 's arm with a belt) to assist with his nephew 's handicap. Leatherface later uses this hook in addition to his chainsaw on victims, at one point spearing a man 's leg to prevent him from escaping. The comics also imply that the other people in the town, while perhaps not involved with the Hewitts ' cannibalism, at least know of it and have agreed to help them deal with outsiders. In one scene, when a potential victim runs into a bar looking for help, she is stopped from calling the police by the owner and patrons, who tell her that they "do n't want no Hewitt trouble. '' They later reprimand Leatherface for not looking after his "livestock. '' Later one - shot comics published by Wildstorm also dealt with Leatherface. One of them, About a Boy, focused on parts of Leatherface 's childhood that The Beginning did not reveal. It shows that bullies severely picked on Thomas Hewitt as a child, and thus he spent most of his time alone drawing in his notebook, hunting and skinning animals, and later making clothing out of them. A foreshadowing of his future as Leatherface takes place when, after the book 's antagonist, Chris, the leader of the bullies, throws rocks at him at a swimming - hole, Thomas attacks Chris and skins off his face while he is still alive. About a Boy also details how the Hewitt family remain for the most part apathetic towards Thomas 's actions. His brother / uncle Charlie (the future Hoyt) helps him get rid of Chris 's body (his only criticism stating that Thomas needs to "learn how to fix ' em proper '', after putting the faceless victim out of his misery with a shotgun). Later, after Thomas 's teacher Mr. Hanson questions Luda May about her son 's behavior and tells her that he plans to file a report with the city to get him some help, Luda May bashes his head in with a shovel and kills him, stating, "There is nothing wrong with my boy. '' In the original film, Leatherface wore three different masks: the "Killing Mask '', "Old Lady Mask '' and "Pretty Woman Mask ''. Gunnar Hansen commented: "The reason he wore a mask, according to Tobe and Kim, was that the mask really determined his personality. Who he wanted to be that day determined what mask he put on. So when Drayton comes home with Sally, Leatherface is wearing the ' Old Lady Mask ' and he 's wearing an apron and carrying a wooden spoon, he wants to be domestic, helpful in the kitchen. At dinner he wears a different face, the ' Pretty Woman, ' which has makeup. '' The "Pretty Woman '' outfit consists of a female wig and a black suit, as Leatherface is "dressing up '' for dinner, an old deep south tradition which stems from his southern upbringing, and the "Killing Mask '' is the skin mask he wears while chasing and murdering captives. Hansen later added, "The idea of the mask is that there is no personality under the mask. That was the idea in talking with Tobe and Kim. When they created the character, they said he has to put on masks to express himself because he himself ca n't do it. The way we tried to create him, there is nothing under the mask, which is what makes him so frightening. '' The remake offered a different as to why Leatherface wore masks. As a child, a severe facial deformity ate away most of his nose and made him subject to cruel ridicule from his peers. Prior to killing people, he wore animal hides, cloths and leather masks that covered up the bottom of his face. Later he began to skin some of the people he killed and wore their faces as masks. In contrast to the original film, Leatherface does not seem to have different masks for different purposes, although he does change masks occasionally. He appears briefly without his mask on in one scene of remake, his face suffers badly from deterioration and he is missing a portion of his nose. The Wildstorm comics that took place in the remake 's continuity had Leatherface taking off his mask when alone with his family, something that did not occur in any of the original films. Leatherface is featured as a guest character in the 2015 fighting game Mortal Kombat X. Leatherface is available in three different variations; a ' Killer ' outfit based off his standard appearance in the original 1974 film, a ' Pretty Lady ' outfit based off his appearance at the end of the original film and a ' Butcher ' outfit which is similar to his appearance in the 2003 remake. Each variation comes with different abilities and fighting styles. He is able to use both his chainsaw and his hammer as weapons. Leatherface 's story involves him killing various combatants in a quest to impress Cassie Cage. After Leatherface kills Shinnok, he cuts off his face and presents it to Cage after murdering several of her friends to get to her. She reacts with condemnation, so Leatherface kills her as well and cuts her up into "tiny pieces '' for use in Drayton 's chili. The story concludes with Leatherface removing Cage 's face and setting to work on it for a new mask, deciding that "if she would n't be his girlfriend, she could still be his... in other ways ''. The character is also featured as a killer in the 2016 survival horror game Dead by Daylight.

where is the blarney stone in ireland located

Blarney stone - wikipedia The Blarney Stone (Irish: Cloch na Blarnan) is a block of Carboniferous limestone built into the battlements of Blarney Castle, Blarney, about 8 kilometres (5 miles) from Cork, Ireland. According to legend, kissing the stone endows the kisser with the gift of the gab (great eloquence or skill at flattery). The stone was set into a tower of the castle in 1446. The castle is a popular tourist site in Ireland, attracting visitors from all over the world to kiss the stone and tour the castle and its gardens. The word blarney has come to mean "clever, flattering, or coaxing talk ''. Irish politician John O'Connor Power defined it this way: "Blarney is something more than mere flattery. It is flattery sweetened by humour and flavoured by wit. Those who mix with Irish folk have many examples of it in their everyday experience. '' Letitia Elizabeth Landon described its contemporary meaning in an article entitled ' Blarney Castle ' in 1832. A number of stories attempt to explain the origin of the stone and surrounding legend. An early story involves the goddess Clíodhna. Cormac Laidir McCarthy, the builder of Blarney Castle, being involved in a lawsuit in the 15th century, appealed to Clíodhna for her assistance. She told McCarthy to kiss the first stone he found in the morning on his way to court, and he did so, with the result that he pleaded his case with great eloquence and won. Thus the Blarney Stone is said to impart "the ability to deceive without offending ''. MacCarthy then incorporated it into the parapet of the castle. The proprietors of Blarney Castle list several other explanations of the origins of the stone on their website. Many of these suppose that the stone had previously been in Ireland, was taken to Scotland and then returned to Ireland in 1314. The stories listed include one suggesting that the stone was presented to Cormac McCarthy by Robert the Bruce in 1314 in recognition of his support in the Battle of Bannockburn. This legend holds that this was a piece of the Stone of Scone and was installed at McCarthy 's castle of Blarney. Although colourful, this folk legend does not account for the fact that it supposes that the stone was removed from Scotland 18 years before Bannockburn, and modern analysis suggests that the stone is not related to the Stone of Scone. The ritual of kissing the Blarney Stone, according to the castle 's proprietors, has been performed by "millions of people '', including "world statesmen, literary giants (and) legends of the silver screen ''. The kiss, however, is not casually achieved. To touch the stone with one 's lips, the participant must ascend to the castle 's peak, then lean over backwards on the parapet 's edge. This is traditionally achieved with the help of an assistant. Although the parapet is now fitted with wrought - iron guide rails and protective crossbars, the ritual can still trigger attacks of acrophobia, an extreme or irrational fear of heights. Before the safeguards were installed, the kiss was performed with real risk to life and limb, as participants were grasped by the ankles and dangled bodily from the height. In the Sherlock Holmes radio dramatisation "The Adventure of the Blarney Stone '' (first broadcast on 18 March 1946), a man attempting to kiss the Blarney Stone falls to his death. Holmes ' investigation reveals this as a murder as the man 's boots having been surreptitiously greased before the attempt. William Henry Hurlbert wrote in 1888 that the legend of the stone seemed to be less than a hundred years old at that time, suggesting the tradition began late in the 18th century. The legend of the Blarney Stone was described in A classical dictionary of the vulgar tongue by Francis Grose, printed 1785. It is claimed that the synonymy of "blarney '' with "empty flattery '' or "beguiling talk '' derives from one of two sources. One story involves the goddess Clíodhna and Cormac Laidir MacCarthy (see "Origins '' above). Another legend suggests that Queen Elizabeth I requested Cormac Teige McCarthy, the Lord of Blarney, be deprived of his traditional land rights. Cormac travelled to see the queen, but was certain he would not persuade her to change her mind as he was n't an effective speaker. He met an old woman on the way who told him that anyone who kissed a particular stone in Blarney Castle would be given the gift of eloquent speech. Cormac went on to persuade the queen that he should not be deprived of his land. He never misses to grow eloquent; ' Tis he may clamber to a lady 's chamber, Or become a member of Parliament. "A noble spouter he 'll sure turn out, or An out and outer to be let alone; Do n't try to hinder him, or to bewilder him, Francis Sylvester Mahony Echoing the supposed power of the stone, an Irish bard of the early 19th century, Francis Sylvester Mahony, added a number of (humorous) lines to Richard Alfred Millikin 's "The Groves of Blarney '' (right). According to tradition at Texas Tech University, a stone fragment on display since 1939 outside the old Electrical Engineering Building is a missing piece of the Blarney Stone. How this was determined is unknown. Coordinates: 51 ° 55 ′ 45 '' N 8 ° 34 ′ 14 '' W  /  51.929091 ° N 8.570564 ° W  / 51.929091; - 8.570564

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David Eigenberg - wikipedia David Eigenberg (born May 17, 1964) is an American actor. Eigenberg is best known for his long - running role as Steve Brady on the HBO sit - com, Sex and the City, and for his role as a firefighter, Christopher Herrmann, on NBC 's Chicago Fire. Eigenberg was born in Manhasset, New York, on Long Island, and grew up in Naperville, Illinois, the only boy in a family of six children. A younger sister is named Betsy, and an older sister is Helen. Their mother, Beverly, owns pre-schools, and their father, Harry Eigenberg, is a retired Certified Public Accountant. Eigenberg was raised in his mother 's Episcopalian religion (Eigenberg 's father was Jewish). The family moved to Illinois when Eigenberg was four. His first acting job was at age 12 in a community theater production of Kurt Vonnegut 's Happy Birthday, Wanda June. While playing football at Naperville Central High School, the quarterback on his team was Sean Payton, who became the coach of the New Orleans Saints. After graduating from high school in 1982, Eigenberg enlisted in the United States Marine Corps Reserve, serving for three years (1982 -- 1986), and was Honorably Discharged at the rank of Lance Corporal. Eigenberg 's first recurring role was on Homicide: Life on the Street, where he portrayed a copycat sniper, before acting in The Practice. He voiced the role of Nermal in the movie, Garfield. He made an appearance on an episode of ER during the show 's final season, and he made an appearance in the movie, Daybreak. He appeared in the American TV show, The King of Queens, the episode entitled Flash Photography, where he portrayed the groom of Carrie 's annoying friend. He appeared in an episode of Ghost Whisperer alongside Jennifer Love Hewitt, and in CBS 's NCIS as Ted Bankston, a former NSA Analyst who was suspected of mishandling classified information which was eventually proved to be true. His character, Bankston who had kidnapped Lee 's daughter / sister, Amanda and had forced her to work for him was killed off during a stand - off between himself, Michelle Lee (Liza Lapira) and Leroy Jethro Gibbs (Mark Harmon) in the Season 6 episode, "Dagger. '' Eigenberg had a recurring role in HBO series Sex and The City as Steve Brady, Miranda Hobbs 's on and off again boyfriend and eventually husband. Eigenberg appeared as a suspect in the 6th episode called Inner Child of the TV series Raines which first aired on April 20, 2007. In 2010, he appeared as Agent Russell Goldman in the Season 5 episode "Parasite '' of Criminal Minds. In March 2011, he appeared in Season 3 of Castle as Peter Connelly in the episode One Life to Lose. July 2004, DE appeared in The 4400, Pilot Part 2, sci - fi series, as Carl Morrissey, entitled The New and Improved Carl Morrissey. He appeared in the May 16, 2012 episode of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit entitled Strange Beauty. In 2002, Eigenberg starred as the short - lived Officer Ross in the Season 3 episode of "Third Watch '' entitled "Superheroes: Part 1. '' In the fall of 2012, Eigenberg joined the cast of NBC 's Chicago Fire as firefighter Christopher Herrmann. Eigenberg and his wife Chrysti (née Kotik) have a son, Louie Steven (born January 19, 2009) and a daughter, Myrna Belle (born January 31, 2014).

a mere watan ke logo song in hindi written

Aye mere watan ke logo - Wikipedia "Aye Mere Watan Ke Logo '' (Hindi: ऐ मेरे वतन के लोगों; "O ' people of my country '') is a Hindi patriotic song written by Kavi Pradeep, composed by C. Ramchandra, and performed by Lata Mangeshkar. The song commemorates Indian soldiers who died during the Sino - Indian War in 1962. The song was first performed live by Mangeshkar on 27 January 1963 at the National Stadium in New Delhi in the presence of President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, on account of Republic Day (26 January) 1963, which was just two months after the end of the war. The song is often rendered at patriotic occasions in India, and is one of the most prominent patriotic songs alongside Jana Gana Mana (the national anthem), Vande Mataram (the national song), and Sare Jahan se Accha. Aye Mere Watan Ke Logo was written by Kavi Pradeep to commemorate the Indian soldiers who died during the Sino - Indian War. Pradeep was deeply moved by accounts of casualties of the war. In late 1962, while taking a walk along Mahim beach in Mumbai, Pradeep received a sudden bout of inspiration. He borrowed a pen from a fellow walker, and wrote the opening stanza of the song on a foil that he ripped out from his cigarette pack. A few weeks later, Pradeep was approached by producer Mehboob Khan to write a song for a fund - raiser scheduled to be held at the National Stadium in New Delhi. Pradeep accepted the offer, but did not reveal any details about the song he intended to write. He recruited music director C. Ramchandra to write the music, and Lata Mangeshkar to perform the song. According to Pradeep 's daughter, Mitul, "Due to some misunderstanding between Ramchandra and Lata - didi, it was to be sung by Asha Bhosale. However, my father felt nobody except Lata - didi could do justice to it. He even personally convinced her and she agreed to sing it. But with a rider - Mr Pradeep must be present at the rehearsals! '' According to Mangeshkar, "I suggested we format the song into a duet with me and my sister Asha (Bhosle). Pradeepji wanted it to be a solo. I insisted that we do it as a duet. In fact, Asha had even rehearsed for the song. Then, days before we were to fly to Delhi, she came to me and said, ' Didi, I 'm not coming to Delhi. ' I tried to convince her to change her mind arguing that her name had even been printed in the newspapers as one of the singers. But she was adamant. Composer - singer Hemant Kumar had actually orchestrated the whole project. I told Hemantda about Asha 's decision to not accompany us to Delhi to perform the song. Hemantda also tried to convince Asha. Lekin who nahin manee (But she did n't relent). Then it was left to me to rehearse alone for the song. '' In January 2013, Lata Mangeshkar told a TV channel that initially she had declined to sing the song as she had not enough time to rehearse it. "It was Pradeepji, (Kavi Pradeep) the poet, who wrote the immortal lyrics, who came to me and asked me to sing the song. I declined, because there was no time to rehearse. You see, at that time I was working round - the - clock. To give special attention to one song seemed impossible. But Pradeepji insisted, '' Lata said, admitting that she was very nervous before the performance. Kavi Pradeep, the man who penned lyrics of the song, could n't witness the event. "My regret is that Pradeepji had not been called for the Republic Day function where I sang the song. If he was there, he would have seen with his own eyes what impact ' Ae mere watan ke logo ' had, '' Lata told. The song was first performed live on 27 January 1963, by Lata Mangeshkar at an event at the National Stadium in New Delhi in the presence of President S. Radhakrishnan and Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, on account of Republic Day (26 January) 1963, which was just two months after the end of the war. Mangeshkar sang two songs at the event, opening with the bhajan (devotional song) Allah tero naam followed by Ae mere watan ke logon. The performance of the latter song moved Nehru to tears. "Those who do n't feel inspired by Aye mere watan ke logo do n't deserve to be called a Hindustani '', said Nehru, who was visibly moved by the song. The event raised ₹ 2 lakh (equivalent to ₹ 1.2 crore or US $170,000 in 2017) for the Army Welfare Fund. The song 's lyricist, Pradeep, was not invited to the performance. Pradeep performed the song for Nehru on 21 March 1963 at a function at R.M. High School in Mumbai. He also presented Nehru with the original handwritten lyrics of the song. The song received rave appreciation from across the country. All of the artists and technicians involved with the song -- including singers, musicians, music director, lyricist, recording studio, sound recordist -- pledged the royalty of the song in perpetuity to the War Widows Fund. Per Pradeep 's last wishes, royalties for sale of records of the song were to be donated to war widows. In 2005, the Bombay High Court asked the music company HMV to indicate a lump sum payable to the Army Welfare Fund for the disabled and war widows from the song 's royalty proceeds. Brigadier Chitranjan Sawant, who served in the Sino - Indian War, stated that the song inspired soldiers to withstand the difficult situations they were in. Recalling the song in 2013, Mangeshkar stated that she never expected the song to be so successful saying, "Since it was not part of a film, I thought it would have a limited impact. Ae mere watan ke logon became my signature tune. No show of mine, no concert or event is complete until I sing it. '' She also stated that Pradeep was always sure of the song 's success saying, "Only Pradeepji had faith in the song. He had prophesied to me, ' Lata, tum dekhna yeh gaana bahot chalega. Log hamesha ke liye issey yaad rakhenge (You 'll see this song will endure. People will always remember it). Ae mere watan ke logon, tum khub lagaa lo naara Yeh shubh din hai hum sab kaa, lehra lo tiranga pyara Par mat bhulo seema par, viron ne hai praan gavaye Kuchh yaad unhe bhi kar lo Kuchh yaad unhe bhi kar lo Jo laut ke ghar naa aaye - (2) Ae mere watan ke logon, zara aankh me bhar lo paani, Jo shaheed huye hain unki, zara yaad karo qurbaani (x2) Tum bhool naa jao unko, isliye suno ye kahaani Jo shaheed huye hain unki, zara yaad karo qurbaani Jab ghayal huwa himalaya, khatre me padi azaadi Jab tak thi saans lade woh - (2), phir apni lash bichha di, Sangeen pe dhar kar maatha, so gaye amar balidaani Jo shaheed huye hain unki, zara yaad karo qurbaani Jab desh me thi diwali, who khel rahe the holi Jab hum baithe the gharo me - (2), who jhel rahe the goli The dhanya jawan who aapane, thee dhanya who unaki jawani Jo shaheed huye hain unaki, zara yaad karo qurbaani Koi Sikh koi jaath maratha - 2, koi Gurkha koyi madrasi (x2) Sarhad par marnewala - 2, har veer tha bharatvasi Jo khoon gira parvat par, who khoon tha Hindustani Jo shaheed huye hain unaki, zara yaad karo qurbaani Thi khun se lat - pat kaya, phir bhi banduk uthaake Das das ko ek ne maara, phir gir gaye hosh gawake Jab anth samay aaya toh - 2, keh gaye ke ab marte hain Khush rehna desh ke pyaro - 2, ab hum toh safar karte hain (x2) Kya log the who diwaane, kya log the who abhimani Jo shaheed huye hain unaki, zara yaad karo qurbaani Tum bhul naa jaao unko, iss liye kahi yeh kahani Jo shaheed huye hain unaki, zara yaad karo qurbaani Jay hind, jay hind ki sena - (2) Jay hind, jay hind, jay hind O people of my country! Let us shout slogans! This auspicious day belongs to all of us, so hoist our beloved Tiranga! But let us not forget, that at the border, brave warriors, have lost their lives. Give a thought to them Let us also remember Those who did not return home. (x2) (O ' people of my country! Fill your eyes with tears! Remember the sacrifice, of those who became martyrs!) (x2) And lest you forget them, listen to this story: Remember the sacrifice, of those who became martyrs! When the Himalayas were injured and our freedom was threatened, They fought until their last breath (x2), and then they laid down their bodies. With their faces on their bayonets, the immortal martyrs went to sleep. Remember the sacrifice, of those who became martyrs! When our country was celebrating Diwali, they were playing Holi (with their blood). While we sat safely in our homes, they were braving bullets. Blessed were those young men, blessed was their youth! Remember the sacrifice, of those who became martyrs! Some were Sikh, some Jaat, and Maratha, (x2), some were Gurkhas, some Madrasi (x2)! All those who died at the front (x2), each one of them was Indian! (x2) The blood shed on the mountains, that blood was Indian. Remember the sacrifice, of those who became martyrs! Their bodies were drenched in blood, yet, they picked up their guns. And each killed ten, then they fell unconscious. And in their final moments (x2), they said: "We are dying now. (Be happy, beloved countrymen! We 're going on our journey! ") (x2) How wonderful were those warriors! How great were those people! Remember the sacrifice, of those who became martyrs! And so I told you this story, for you must not forget them. Remember the sacrifice, of those who became martyrs! Jai Hind! Glory to the Indian Army! (x2) Jai Hind! (x3)

who makes the diesel engine in the chevy cruze

Chevrolet Cruze - wikipedia The Chevrolet Cruze is a compact car that has been made by the Chevrolet division of General Motors since 2008. The nameplate has been used previously in Japan, for a version of a subcompact hatchback car produced under a joint venture with Suzuki from 2001 to 2007, and was based on the Suzuki Ignis. Since 2009, the Cruze nameplate has designated a globally developed, designed, and manufactured four - door compact sedan -- complemented by a five - door hatchback body variant (in 2010 it also replaced the Chevy Cobalt) from 2011, and a station wagon in 2012. The Cruze was actually released earlier in 2008 to the South Korean market under the name Daewoo Lacetti Premiere until the phasing out of the Daewoo brand in favor of Chevrolet in 2011. In Australia, the model has been on sale since 2009 as the Holden Cruze. This new generation Cruze does not serve as a replacement for the Suzuki - derived Japanese market predecessor. Instead, it replaces three other compact models: the Chevrolet Optra sold internationally under various names (such as the Suzuki Forenza in North America, Chevrolet Optra in Latin America, Chevrolet / Daewoo Lacetti in Europe and Asia), the Chevrolet Cobalt, sold exclusively in North America, and the Opel - sourced, Australia - market Holden Cruze (later returning in 2012 briefly as an Opel until the next year, and again in 2015 as a Holden). The Cruze was then built in 2016 as a Holden Cruze. It then completed production in 2016. Before the release of the global Chevrolet Cruze compact sedan in 2008, General Motors made use of the name "Cruze '' between 2001 and 2008 in Japan. Announced as the Chevrolet YGM1 concept car at the Tokyo Motor Show in 1999, the original Cruze was derived from the subcompact Suzuki Ignis five - door hatchback (known as the Suzuki Swift in Japan). Despite the Chevrolet branding, the YGM1, like the production car, was the work of GM 's Australian arm, Holden. Along with the styling, Holden executed most of the engineering work and were responsible for devising the "Cruze '' nameplate. The Cruze came either with a 1.3 - or 1.5 - liter engine coupled to either five - speed manual or four - speed automatic transmissions. Manufactured by Suzuki in Japan, GM revealed the production Chevrolet Cruze in October 2001, with Japanese sales commencing the following month. This version of the Cruze was also sold in Australia and in New Zealand from 2002 through to 2006 as the Holden Cruze. The production Cruze had standard front - wheel drive, with all - wheel drive optional. Chevrolet pursued a marketing strategy that positioned the high - riding Cruze as a light - duty sport utility vehicle (SUV). This contrasted with Suzuki 's approach with the Ignis marketed as a conventional passenger model. From 2003, Suzuki of Europe began manufacturing the Cruze as the Suzuki Ignis -- representing a facelift of the original Ignis, but only for European markets. In 2008, GM introduced the Cruze compact car, carrying the "J300 '' internal designation. This J300 iteration serves as a replacement for the Chevrolet Cobalt, Daewoo Lacetti and Holden Astra -- all unrelated cars. GM phased out production of the Cobalt and its badge engineered counterpart, the Pontiac G5 in 2010, just prior to the manufacturing of the Chevrolet Cruze was to commence. The first renderings of the Cruze were revealed by GM at a press conference on July 15, 2008, with the first official images released on August 21, 2008. Cruze production sites include Gunsan, Jeonbuk, South Korea; Saint Petersburg, Russia; Shenyang, China; and Halol, India; Hanoi, Vietnam since April 2010 in complete knock - down (CKD) form, Ust - Kamenogorsk, Kazakhstan from May 2010; Rayong, Thailand after December 2010, and São Caetano do Sul, Brazil from 2011. Holden 's localized hatchback version of the Cruze built at the Elizabeth, South Australia factory from late 2011 joined the Cruze sedan manufactured there since March 2011. GM in the United States has upgraded the existing plant in Lordstown, Ohio to manufacture the Cruze, investing more than US $350 million. At the ceremony of the start of production of Cruze at Ohio, Mark Reuss, the president of GM 's North American operations said, "This is everything for us ''. It is described as GM 's most significant new vehicle introduction into North America since the Chapter 11 reorganization in 2009, and is GM 's latest attempt to build a small size car that North American consumers would "buy because they like it -- not simply because it is cheap ''. Underpinned by the front - wheel drive GM Delta II platform, GM has confirmed the Cruze development program occurred under a global design and engineering team. GM Daewoo in South Korea played a leading role in the design and engineering of the Cruze, along with GM 's German - based Opel division. This development program spanned over 27 months at a cost of US $ 4 billion. A total of 221 prototypes were tested in Australia, Canada, China, South Korea, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States. According to GM, the Cruze 's body structure is 65 percent high - strength steel. MacPherson struts are utilized in the front suspension with a solid torsion beam axle for the rear, avoiding the cost and complexity needed for a modern multi-link independent rear suspension used by some more expensive rivals. According to GM 's global product development chief Mark Reuss, the North America version Cruze is modified from the global platform as it requires reinforcements to the engine compartment because it offers a bigger engine than in other markets and uses torsion beam suspension. Hydraulically - assisted (electric for North American market) rack and pinion steering gives for a 10.9 - meter (36 ft) turning circle. Braking-wise, ventilated front, and solid rear disc brakes are employed, both using piston steel calipers. To counteract noise, vibration, and harshness, engineers have designed the Cruze with an isolated four - point engine mount and implemented sound damping material in areas including the front - of - dashboard panel, luggage compartment, decklid internals, doors, carpet and headlining. Further noise suppression through the use of a triple - layer sealing system in the doors has also been employed. A five - door Cruze hatchback was unveiled as a concept car at the 2010 Paris Motor Show on October 1, 2010. Cruze hatchback sales began in Europe in mid-2011. Holden in Australia were responsible for the design and development of the hatchback body variant. GM unveiled the Chevrolet Cruze station wagon in February 2012 at the Geneva Motor Show. Load space ranges from about 500 litres (20 cu ft) up to the window line in the rear, to nearly 1,500 litres (50 cu ft) up to the roof top with the rear seats folded down. The Australasian New Car Assessment Program (ANCAP) announced in May 2009 that it has awarded the Cruze a full five stars in their independent crash safety test, with 35.04 out of a possible 37 points. The following July, the China New Car Assessment Program (C - NCAP) awarded the Cruze a maximum five stars in their independent crash safety test. The Cruze SE 1.6 - liter tested scored a maximum of 16 points in side - impact collision, 14.44 in front - end collision, and 15.73 in the 40 percent frontal offset collision. Euro NCAP released its rating in November, with the Chevrolet Cruze again receiving the full five - star grading. While the Cruze scored 96 percent for adult protection, and 84 percent for child occupant protection, Euro NCAP 's figure for pedestrian protection is quoted at significantly lower 34 percent. In December 2009, the South Korean - specification Cruze -- the Daewoo Lacetti Premiere -- received the top rating of five stars from the Korean New Car Assessment Program (KNCAP). According to KNCAP, the Lacetti Premiere received the five - star rating in the frontal, offset frontal, side, and whiplash tests. In the United States, the Cruze received the highest possible ratings of "good '' in front, side, rear and rollover crash protection tests by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS), which has recognized the Cruze as a 2011 Top Safety Pick. Moreover, The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has awarded the Cruze its highest five - star rating for safety. The score is broken down into maximum five - star results for frontal impact (driver and passenger), side impact (driver and passenger), and for the side pole test (driver). The NHTSA certified the Cruze 's rollover rating at four out of five stars. GM announced in April 2011 that 2,100 North American - market Cruze models would be recalled following a report of the steering wheel breaking away from the steering column during motion. According to Consumer Reports, during its first year, the Cruze scored the lowest in reliability among compact sedans. General Motors ordered a recall on June 22, 2012, for 413,418 Cruze models, manufactured at the Lordstown, Ohio plant United States, due to a risk of engine compartment fires. The recall covered 2011 and 2012 model year Cruze sedans from September 2010 through May 2012 and affected vehicles sold in the United States, Canada and Israel. The problem can result when liquids become trapped near the engine and catch fire. In Australia 9,547 Australian - built Cruzes were also recalled but there were no cases of engine fires reported in Australia. General Motors (GM) ordered a recall on August 16, 2013, for 292,879 model year 2011 and 2012 Cruze models, manufactured at the Lordstown, Ohio plant United States. General Motors told the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration the recall was due to a potential intermittent loss of brake assist in Cruze models featuring the combination of the 1.4 - liter dual overhead cam gasoline turbo engine and the 6T40 FWD automatic transmission. GM said it was aware of 27 alleged low - speed crashes due to brake issues that may include this particular issue, but it reported no injuries. To address the issue, GM said dealers will replace a micro-switch in the power brake vacuum pipe assembly. As of March 28, 2014, GM has halted the sale of 2013 and 2014 Chevrolet Cruze compacts with 1.4 - liter engines -- models that account for about 60 % of Cruze sales -- but GM originally did n't say why it issued the order. GM later announced that the cars were being recalled due to a faulty right - side axle shaft. The Cruze was given a mild facelift for 2013 and unveiled by GM at the 2012 Busan Motor Show, South Korea. The Cruze received an updated front fascia, with the air vents around the foglamps being redesigned entirely, and the grille and headlights also receiving minor updates. New alloy wheels have also been designed for the Cruze. GM 's optional MyLink entertainment system is now offered as well. This model was first sold in Korea, then Malaysia. It will be later sold in other markets. 2012 facelift (wagon) 2012 facelift (wagon) 2012 facelift (sedan) 2012 facelift (hatch) On April 12, 2014, Chevrolet announced that it would unveil a refreshed Chevrolet Cruze at the 2014 New York Auto Show as a 2015 model, with an updated grille and a more angular shape from the Malibu. 2014 facelift (sedan; Asia) 2014 facelift (sedan; Asia) 2014 facelift (sedan; US) 2014 facelift (hatch) Engines fitted to the Cruze are the 1.6 - liter Family 1 inline - four, a 1.8 - liter version of the same, and a 2.0 - liter VM Motori RA 420 SOHC turbocharged common rail diesel, marketed as VCDi. All three engines are coupled to a five - speed manual or optional six - speed automatic transmission featuring Active Select. When the Cruze launched in the United States in 2010, a new 1.4 - liter Family 0 turbocharged gasoline engine was introduced. North American models fitted with the 1.8 - liter gasoline engine have also been upgraded to a standard six - speed manual. In 2011, a new 2.0 - liter Family Z diesel engine marketed as VCDi replaced the previous VM Motori VCDi unit of equal displacement. Since late 2011, Chinese market models have been available with a turbocharged 1.6 - liter engine with a six - speed manual transmission. The Chevrolet Cruze was launched in the Egyptian market during mid-2009. South African sales of the Cruze commenced in September 2009. South Korean - market versions of the Cruze entered production there in 2008 as the "Daewoo Lacetti Premiere ''. The Lacetti debuted on October 30, 2008, featuring the 1.6 - liter naturally aspirated engine. On January 30, 2009, GM Daewoo introduced the turbodiesel engine variant. Inline with the February 2011 renaming of "GM Daewoo '' to "GM Korea '', the Lacetti Premiere adopted the international "Chevrolet Cruze '' name from March 2, 2011. For the owners of the previous model, Lacetti, GM Korea decided to replace the old emblem to that of Chevrolet for free. The Chevrolet Cruze was launched in the Chinese market on April 18, 2009 as a sedan manufactured at GM India 's Halol factory. Transmission choices were a five - speed manual or a six - speed automatic along with 1.6 - or 1.8 - liter engines. The sedan range consisted of the 1.6 SL, 1.6 SE, 1.8 SE (automatic only) and 1.8 SX (automatic only). Hatchback models were introduced in 2013 available with the 1.6 - liter or 1.6 - liter turbo engines. The Chevrolet Cruze was released in India on October 12, 2009. It was offered in only two versions: LT and LTZ in diesel form only (VCDi). During 2009, there were reports that the Cruze was to become available in Malaysia with the 1.6 and a 1.8 - liter engines. The Naza automotive group in Malaysia has announced that it 's expecting to launch the Cruze in the Malaysian market for the first time in the second quarter of 2010 and they are expecting to sell 1,200 to 1,500 units in 2010. In Thailand, the car launch in December 2010, built at GM 's Rayong facility. Specification levels comprised: Base (1.6 - liter), LS (1.6 - and 1.8 - liter), LT and LTZ (1.8 - liter), 6 - speed automatic are standard in all models except 1.6 Base used 5 - speed manual, with an optional 2.0 - liter VCDi available on LTZ variant with 6 - speed automatic. The Australian arm of GM, Holden, announced at the Melbourne International Motor Show on February 27, 2009 that sales of the South Korean - produced Cruze would begin under the Holden brand. Replacing the Holden Viva, the Cruze reached dealerships on June 1. The Cruze also became the replacement for the Holden Astra, dropped from the Holden lineup the following August. Given the model designation JG, the Holden Cruze was launched with the 1.8 - liter petrol engine and optional 2.0 - liter turbodiesel. Both engines are mated to the five - speed manual transmission or optional six - speed automatic. Electronic stability control (ESC), seat belt pretensioners and six airbags were standard fitment across the range. Specification-wise, the "CD '' opened up the range, finished off with a more upmarket "CDX ''. The "CD '' equipment list comprised 16 - inch steel wheels, air conditioning, cruise control, a trip computer, power windows and automatic headlamps. "CDX '' versions add 17 - inch alloy wheels, front fog lamps, a leather - wrapped steering wheel and upholstery, heated front seats and rear parking sensors. Initially a petrol - only model, diesel availability was expanded to the "CDX '' trim in early 2010. On March 18, 2010, Holden issued a recall for 9,098 petrol - engined 2010 model year Cruzes in Australia and a further 485 in New Zealand over a faulty fuel hose. According to Holden, some hoses on 1.8 - liter cars had developed a leakage, although no accidents or injuries had been reported prior to the recall. The recall followed a stop - delivery notice issued by Holden to its dealers on March 3 while the automaker conducted an investigation into the matter. Holden announced on December 22, 2008 that its Elizabeth, South Australia production line would be split to commence local production of the Cruze sedan and the Australian - developed hatchback. Production was originally scheduled to start by September 2010. However, it was confirmed in January 2010 that production would in fact begin in March 2011. The announcement to assemble the car came as a response to the slowing sales of the larger, locally produced Holden Commodore range. The Australian Government committed A $ 149 million to the program from its $6.2 billion Green Car Innovation Fund, with a further $30 million given by the State Government of South Australia. GM Holden matched both amounts, but the then chairman and managing director Mark Reuss would not reveal Holden 's total investment. Reuss announced his firm would be considering the utilization of liquid petroleum gas (LPG), compressed natural gas (CNG), ethanol (E85) flexible - fuel and petrol / electric hybrid start - stop system powertrain technologies. These technologies, if materialized, would supplement the four - cylinder petrol and diesel powertrain offerings already confirmed by Holden at the time of the announcement. At a media event on February 28, 2011, Holden unveiled the Australian assembled Cruze sedan in facelifted "Series II '' guise, otherwise known as the JH series. Prime Minister Julia Gillard attended the February launch to drive the first example off Holden 's production line before full - scale production commenced in March. Holden has confirmed an initial local content level of between 40 and 50 percent if assessed by retail value, with an aim of increasing Cruze localization over time. Series II styling revisions to the grille, lower air intake, and bumper have softened the front - end to bear a closer resemblance to Holden 's larger VE II Commodore. Further differentiation from the original has been achieved via the fitment of amber front indicator lights, jewelled bezel headlamps, remodelled wheel trims, and through adjustments to the lower portion of the rear bumper. Carrying over largely unchanged is the 1.8 - liter petrol inline - four, tweaked to yield slight enhancements in drivability. When automatic transmission is specified, the 1.8 - liter is now teamed with GM 's six - speed 6T30 unit, lighter and more compact than the previous 6T40. Diesel remains optional for "CD '' and "CDX '' specifications over the standard 1.8 - liter petrol. Alterations to the 2.0 - liter turbodiesel have resulted in an additional 10 kilowatts (13 hp) and 40 newton metres (30 lb ⋅ ft) and a slight reduction in fuel consumption for the manual variant, now a six - speed unit. However, the headline change is the release of the turbocharged 1.4 - liter engine, dubbed iTi by Holden for intelligent turbo induction. The inclusion of the 1.4 also brings an upgrade to electric (as opposed to hydraulic) power steering and affixes a Watt 's linkage to the torsion beam rear suspension. Linked with six - speed manual or automatic transmissions, the 1.4 is fitted as standard to the new "SRi '' and "SRi - V '' sports - oriented trims, but is available at extra cost on the base "CD ''. The new "SRi '' and "SRi - V '' models have their respective badges embossed onto the grille insert, are fitted with their own front bumper design, and feature side skirts, chrome exterior door handles, a rear lip spoiler, and five - spoke 17 - inch alloy wheels. Over the "CD '', "SRi '' gains a leather - covered steering wheel rim and shift lever, with the "SRi - V '' extending this upholstering to the seating. A heat function for the front seats, keyless entry with push - button engine start, reversing sensors, and seven - inch LCD multimedia unit are also part of the "SRi - V '' equipment list. This multimedia system integrates satellite navigation, the CD and DVD players, and a 10 GB internal hard disk drive. In mid-November 2011, Holden released the MY12 update to the Series II Cruze. This update coincided with the release of the hatchback body variant and saw Bluetooth telephone connectivity standard across the range. In April 2013 the Series II Cruze received an update and price drops. The update included rear - parking sensors, a 7 - inch touch - screen, suspension adjustments and improved automatic gearboxes across the range along with many other new extras such as a larger 1.6 - liter turbocharged engine as standard on the SRi and SRi - V, replacing the 1.4 - liter turbo. Holden ended manufacturing of the Cruze at its Elizabeth plant on October 7, 2016, replaced by the Astra hatchback and new generation Cruze sedan -- both imported. European specification variants of the Cruze are offered with 1.6 - and 1.8 - litre petrol engines, and 2.0 - litre and (from 2012) 1.7 - litre diesel engines. In mid-2011, with the arrival of the five - door hatchback variant, the 1.6 - litre petrol engine received an upgrade from 113 bhp to 122 bhp. Exports from the South Korean factory began on February 24, 2009. Mexico became the first North American country to receive the car, going on sale for the 2010 model year in late 2009. Imported from South Korea, the Chevrolet Cruze in Mexico replaces both the Chevrolet Astra (last sold in 2008) and Optra as the compact offering there. The US and Canadian version of the Chevrolet Cruze entered limited production at Lordstown, Ohio, in July 2010 as a 2011 model, replacing the Chevrolet Cobalt. Full production began September 8, 2010. For these markets, the Cruze utilizes a more advanced Watts Z - link rear suspension from the Opel Astra (J). Offered in LS, LT, LTZ, and Eco trim lines, both the 1.8 - liter and the turbocharged 1.4 - liter engines are offered, coupled with either a six - speed manual or automatic transmission. With a starting price slightly higher than most compact competitors, the base model Cruze LS is equipped with the 1.8 - liter gasoline engine and comes with air - conditioning and power locks, the higher - level LT and LTZ models is fitted with the 1.4 - liter turbocharged gasoline engine. For the Eco model, aerodynamic improvements have been made such as an electronically controlled air shutter that adjusts air flow to the engine depending on the temperature, wind speed and tow weight. To save weight, Chevrolet replaces the space saving spare tire and jack on the Eco model with a tire inflator kit, reducing weight by 12 kilograms (26 lb). Standard safety equipment includes electronic stability control and ten airbags, including side rear - seat and front knee airbags not fitted on models produced in the original South Korea facility. The Cobalt 's badge engineered twin, the Pontiac G5, has not been replaced by a Cruze - based equivalent, due to the Pontiac brand being phased out during 2010. The Cruze is built on the production lines that were used to build the Cobalt and Pontiac G5 in Lordstown, Ohio. Cobalt production ended in June 2010 and the Cruze started production in July 2010. GM has allocated three shifts to produce the Cruze and it arrived to dealers in September 2010, giving all dealers time to deplete their inventories of Cobalts. Changes to the North American - built Cruze for model year 2012 include the availability of the six - speed manual transmission for the 1.4 - litre turbocharged engine, plus models not equipped with power front seats no longer have the front seat cushion tilt option. Starting with the 2014 model year, Chevrolet offered the Cruze with the clean diesel engine option for North America. With a starting price of $25,695, the Cruze diesel 2.0 - liter Multijet engine got 44 mpg on the highway and 27 mpg in the city, while producing 148 hp (110 kW) and 258 lb ⋅ ft (350 N ⋅ m), mated to a six - speed automatic transmission. The 2014 Chevy Cruze Clean Turbo Diesel, direct from the factory, will be rated for up to B20 (blend of 20 % biodiesel / 80 % regular diesel) biodiesel compatibility. The Cruze diesel was the first GM passenger car in the US equipped with a diesel engine in 28 years, however sales were weaker than expected with 2 % of US models. For 2016, the first generation Cruze continued as a fleet and rental exclusive model in the United States, billed as Cruze Limited. The diesel model was discontinued, but a new chrome appearance package was offered. Between 2011 and 2016, the first - generation Chevrolet Cruze was available in several different trim levels: L: The L, introduced in 2015, was positioned below the previously - base LS. Offering identical standard equipment as the LS described below, the base L omitted the standard front and rear carpeted floor mats that were standard equipment on the LS, and was only offered with a six - speed manual transmission. LS: Between 2011 and 2014, the LS was the base Cruze trim level, until the base L was added in 2015. Standard features of the LS included fifteen - inch black - painted steel wheels with full wheel covers, air conditioning, power windows and door locks, keyless entry, premium cloth seating surfaces, dual manually - adjustable front bucket seats, an A / M-F / M stereo with single - disc CD / MP3 player and auxiliary audio input jack with a six - speaker audio system, front and rear carpeted floor mats, tilt - and - telescopic vinyl - wrapped steering wheel with integrated audio system controls, a 1.8 L EcoTec Inline Four - Cylinder (I4) gasoline engine, a six - speed manual transmission, and a split - folding rear bench seat. Options included Bluetooth for hands - free telephone calls (no streaming audio capabilities), a six - speed automatic transmission, and SiriusXM Satellite Radio. 1LT: Between 2011 and 2016, the 1LT was the value - oriented Cruze model. It added the following equipment to the base LS: sixteen - inch aluminum - alloy wheels, SiriusXM Satellite Radio, cruise control, and the OnStar in - vehicle telematics system. Options included the 1.4 L Turbocharged EcoTec Inline Four - Cylinder (I4) gasoline engine, a six - speed automatic transmission, Chevrolet MyLink seven - inch touch - screen infotainment system (2013 + models only), Bluetooth for hands - free telephone calls (no streaming audio capabilities) (later standard equipment in 2013 + models), a 290 - watt premium amplified Pioneer audio system, a power - adjustable front driver 's bucket seat, a power sunroof, a leather - wrapped steering wheel, and the RS Package. Eco: The Eco trim level, offered between 2011 and 2016 and based on the 1LT, was geared towards consumers who wanted a Cruze with higher fuel economy ratings. It added the following equipment to the 1LT: active front grille shutters, Bluetooth for hands - free telephone calls (no streaming audio capabilities - for 2011 - 2013 models only), Chevrolet MyLink touch - screen infotainment system (2013 + models only), a 1.4 L Turbocharged EcoTec Inline Four - Cylinder (I4) gasoline engine, a power - adjustable front driver 's bucket seat, a leather - wrapped steering wheel, and a rear - mounted spoiler. Additional options were identical to that of the 1LT, though the Eco also offered luxury leather - trimmed seating surfaces with dual heated front bucket seats as part of an optional package. 2LT: The 2LT trim level, offered between 2011 and 2016, added additional luxury and convenience features to the 1LT: a 1.4 L Turbocharged EcoTec Inline Four - Cylinder (I4) gasoline engine, seventeen - inch aluminum - alloy wheels, Chevrolet MyLink seven - inch color touch - screen infotainment system (2013 + models only), luxury leather - trimmed seating surfaces with dual heated front bucket seats, a leather - wrapped steering wheel, power sunroof, and a security system. Options included a six - speed automatic transmission, a 290 - watt premium amplified Pioneer audio system, side blind zone alert with rear cross-traffic alert (2014 + models only), the RS Package, and GPS navigation. LTZ: The LTZ trim level, offered between 2011 and 2016, was the top - of - the - line Cruze trim level. It added additional luxury features to the 2LT, such as: premium aluminum - alloy wheels, remote start, a six - speed automatic transmission, and a 290 - watt premium amplified Pioneer audio system. Options included GPS navigation and the RS Package. Diesel: The Diesel was a diesel - powered version of the 2LT trim level of the Cruze, available for 2014 and 2015 only. It added unique seventeen - inch aluminum - alloy wheels, a six - speed automatic transmission, remote start, and a 2.0 L Turbocharged Inline Four - Cylinder (I4) diesel engine to the 2LT trim level. Options were identical to that of the 2LT trim level, though the RS Package was not available on the Diesel. The car was launched and began production for South America in 2011. In 2013, Chevrolet had announced a launch for the second generation Cruze in late 2015, after originally being scheduled to debut in late 2014. The delay is reportedly caused by engineering modifications. The model had been spotted covered in camouflage while being tested in February, and October 2013. Its supposed interior was also spotted, while graphical renders were presented by the Carscoops website. The model will be slightly longer than the first generation. The new model was first announced for the Chinese market on the 2014 Beijing Auto Show and went on sale in August 2014. The four - door sedan has a fastback - like sloping roofline and a low drag coefficient of 0.28 comes with a choice of a 1.4 L (1,399 cc) turbocharged direct injection engine with a power of 110 kW (150 hp) @ 5600 RPM and torque of 235 N ⋅ m (173 lb ⋅ ft) @ 1600 -- 4000 RPM, which can be mated with a six - speed manual transmission or seven - speed Start / Stop enabled dual - clutch gearbox, or a 1.5 L (1,490 cc) direct injection engine with a power of 84 kW (113 hp) @ 5600 RPM and torque of 146 N ⋅ m (108 lb ⋅ ft) @ 6000 RPM mated to a six - speed Start / Stop - capable automatic transmission. Both engines come from the new GM Small Gasoline Engine family. Weight reduction of 10 % is achieved by using very high - strength steels and aluminum alloys. Watt 's link torsion beam rear suspension, first used on the Opel Astra (J), comes as standard. The car comes equipped with a 4.2 '' color screen radio or MyLink 2.0 infotainment system with a 8 '' screen, and can be configured with OnStar Gen10 offering 4G LTE Internet connection with a built - in Wi - Fi hotspot. The 2016 North American - market Cruze has a new external design with a new split grille front and a fastback - like sloping roofline from the Chinese version of the fastback. This second generation Cruze has a slightly longer length and wheelbase than the one designed for the Chinese market, with different styling cues. The North American Cruze is also powered by the 1.4 - liter turbocharged four - cylinder engine producing 153 hp (114 kW) and 177 lb ⋅ ft (240 N ⋅ m) torque. The 2016 Cruze comes equipped with both Apple CarPlay and Android Auto Capability features. However, only one of their phone brands at any one time can be used. In January 2016, Chevrolet unveiled the five - door hatchback version of the North American Cruze, it will go on sale in late 2016 as a 2017 model. Trim levels continue to be L, LS, LT (now combined into one trim level, as opposed to the previous 1LT and 2LT designations), and Premier (replacing the previous LTZ trim level as the top - of - the - line Cruze trim level). Discontinued are the Eco and Diesel trim levels (at least for the time being). All trim levels include a seven - inch MyLink touch - screen infotainment system with A / M-F / M radio, USB integration, a 3.5 - millimeter auxiliary audio input jack, optional SiriusXM satellite radio, voice control, and CarPlay and Android Auto capabilities, keyless entry, power windows, power door locks, OnStar with 4G / LTE / Wi - Fi Hotspot connectivity for multiple devices and RemoteLink via an app on the consumer 's smartphone, air conditioning, and a 1.4 - liter EcoTec inline - four engine. Higher trim levels (LT and Premier) also offer features such as the "RS Sport Package '', alloy wheels, remote start, keyless access with push - button ignition, a premium sound system by Bose with external amplifier and subwoofer, an eight - inch MyLink infotainment system with GPS navigation, a power tilt - and - sliding sunroof, and power seats. However, only the top - of - the - line Premier trim level offers heated leather seating surfaces, premium alloy wheels, and other luxury features. The base L only offers a six - speed manual transmission, while the Premier, on the other end of the spectrum, offers only a six - speed automatic transmission. The LS and LT trim levels offer either a six - speed manual transmission, or a six - speed automatic transmission. A new diesel - powered Cruze will be available in 2017. It will have the 1.6 L turbodiesel also found in the 2018 Equinox, paired to either a nine - speed automatic or six - speed manual transmission. Before launching the Chevrolet Cruze as the Holden Astra in Australia, Holden engineers spent 100,000 hours tuning the suspension and steering for Australian roads on the Lang Lang Proving Ground near Melbourne, Australia. A firmer more compliant ride and more responsive steering tune is the result. Other major changes over the international model included revised front and rear bumpers, which aim to give it a similar look to the Holden Astra Hatch. Unlike the Hatch, the sedan is offered in LS, LS+, LT and LTZ trim levels. All models are powered by a 1.4 L (1,399 cc) turbocharged direct injection engine with a power of 110 kW (150 hp) @ 5600 RPM and torque of 235 N ⋅ m (173 lb ⋅ ft) @ 1600 -- 4000 RPM mated to a 6 speed manual or 6 - speed automatic. For 2019, the Chevrolet Cruze will receive a mid-cycle facelift, which made its debut in April of 2018, along with restyled versions of the 2019 Chevrolet Camaro, Chevrolet Spark, and Chevrolet Malibu. Main changes for the Cruze for 2019 include the addition of a lower - priced LS model for the Cruze Hatchback, the deletion of the six - speed manual transmission option (all Cruze models, including the previous manual - only L, will come equipped with an automatic transmission), all - new third - generation Chevrolet MyLink Systems, and a revised RS Package for LT and Premier models. The restyled 2019 Chevrolet Cruze will go on sale in the fall of 2018, though pricing has not yet been announced. The Chevrolet Cruze first entered the World Touring Car Championship in 2009 with a 2.0 - litre naturally aspirated engine, taking six wins in its debut season. The car has proved successful since its entry, with Yvan Muller winning the championship in 2010 and again in 2011 using the new 1.6 - litre turbocharged engine. Chevrolet placed first, second and third in 2011, with Muller finishing ahead of teammates Rob Huff and Alain Menu. Chevrolet finished 1 -- 2 -- 3 again in 2012, this time, Huff becoming champion ahead of Menu and Muller. The Cruze also entered the British Touring Car Championship for 2010 and 2011. Jason Plato won the championship for Chevrolet in 2010 and finished 3rd in 2011. The BTCC Cruze used the 2.0 - liter naturally aspirated engine found in the original variant of the WTCC Cruze. The Cruze won the Scandinavian Touring Car Championship in 2011, being run by NIKA Racing under the banner of ' Chevrolet Motorsport Sweden ' with Rickard Rydell driving. Rydell and teammate Michel Nykjær finished second and third in 2012. Chevrolet pulled their sponsorship at the end of 2011 from the BTCC to support the Chevrolet team in the World Touring Car Championship for 2012. Chevrolet then announced they would not enter a works team for the 2013 WTCC season. For 2013 RML, the original builders of the Cruzes, continued to compete without the support of Chevrolet. Cars were also entered by Bamboo Engineering, NIKA Racing and Tuenti Racing Team. Despite no funding from the manufacturer, the Cruze remained the car to beat, even against works teams from Honda and Lada. Muller won his fourth WTCC title, his third in a Cruze and James Nash won the Yokohama Drivers ' Trophy for independent entries, ahead of fellow Cruze drivers Alex MacDowall and Michel Nykjær. RML have confirmed they will build Cruzes to the new set of WTCC regulations for 2014, which sees the cars increase in power and feature greater aerodynamics. RML aim to build up to six cars. Confirmed recipients include Tom Chilton who has yet to announce a team to run his car, Bamboo Engineering who will run two cars and Campos Racing who will enter a car for Hugo Valente. The Cruze returned to the BTCC in 2013 in the hands of Joe Girling and Tech - Speed Motorsport, who loaned the car from Finesse Motorsport. The increase in performance of the Next Generation Touring Car entries meant the older Super 2000 specification cars like the Cruze were now too uncompetitive to compete for wins but were provided with their own category. Now running a 2.0 - litre turbocharged NGTC - specification engine, Girling took one class win at Donington Park but missed the second half of the season. The car returned to Finesse Motorsport who entered the Knockhill round of the championship with Aiden Moffat driving. At sixteen years old, Moffat became the BTCC 's youngest driver at 16 years, 10 months and 28 days. This was to be the S2000 Cruze 's final appearance in the BTCC, as S2000 cars are to be abolished from 2014. Andy Neate entered the 2013 season with a new NGTC - specification Cruze, built by his own team, IP Tech Race Engineering and used an engine built by RML. The car made its debut at Snetterton and competed at several rounds towards the end of the season. The car has since been sold to Aiden Moffat, who will run the car with his own team for 2014. BTC Racing will enter a hatchback variant of the Cruze for 2014, driven by Chris Stockton. The car was originally intended to be used by Jason Plato in 2012 but RML and Chevrolet withdrew from the BTCC and mothballed the shell. BTC Racing acquired it and were initially included on the entry list for 2013 but the car was not finished in time and never appeared all season. The first - generation Chevrolet Cruze debuted in the Argentine TC 2000 in 2011, and the second - generation in 2016. Agustín Canapino won the 2016 championship. The Cruze diesel was the first GM passenger car equipped with a diesel engine in the American market in 28 years; however, sales were weaker than expected with 2 % of U.S. models. In August 2014, Cruze sales reached the milestone of 3 million units sold worldwide, 16 months after passing the 2 million mark. The following table shows the top selling markets as of August 2014.

what is the title of the wife of an earl

Courtesy titles in the United Kingdom - wikipedia A courtesy title is a form of address in systems of nobility used for children, former wives and other close relatives of a peer, and by certain officials such as some judges. These styles are used ' by courtesy ' in the sense that the relatives or officials do not themselves hold substantive titles. There are several different kinds of courtesy titles in the British peerage. If a peer of one of the top three ranks (a duke, marquess or earl) has more than one title, his eldest son - himself not a peer - may use one of his father 's lesser titles "by courtesy ''. However, the father continues to be the substantive holder of the peerage title and the son using the title by courtesy legally subordinate unless issued a writ of acceleration. If the eldest son of a duke or marquess has an eldest son, he may use a still lower title, if one exists. For example, the Duke of Norfolk is also Earl of Arundel and Baron Maltravers. His eldest son is therefore styled "Earl of Arundel '' (without the definite article "The '' which indicates a substantive title). Lord Arundel 's eldest son (should he have one during his father 's lifetime) would be styled "Lord Maltravers ''. However, only The Duke of Norfolk is actually a peer; his son Lord Arundel and his hypothetical grandson Lord Maltravers are not. Courtesy titles are only used by the peer 's eldest living son, and the eldest son 's eldest living son, and so forth. Other descendants are not permitted to use the peer 's subsidiary titles. Only the heir apparent (and heir apparent to the heir apparent, and so on) may use them. An heir presumptive (e.g., a brother, nephew, or cousin) does not use a courtesy title. However, Scottish practice allows the style Master / Mistress of X to an heir presumptive as well as to an heir apparent; for example, the brother of the present Marquess of Tweeddale has the title Master of Tweeddale. Wives are entitled to use the feminine form of their husbands ' courtesy titles. Thus, the wife of an Earl of Arundel would be styled "Countess of Arundel '' (again, without the article). Holders of courtesy titles do not, at the Court of St James 's, have their title preceded by the definite article "The '' (which is always written with the capital letter "T ''): e.g., ' Earl of Arundel ' rather than ' The Earl of Arundel '. The actual courtesy title which is used is a matter of family tradition. For instance, the eldest son of The Duke of Buccleuch and Queensberry is styled "Earl of Dalkeith '', even though the duke is also the Marquess of Dumfriesshire, a title which outranks the earldom. Similarly, the eldest son of The Marquess of Londonderry is styled "Viscount Castlereagh '', even though the marquess is also the Earl Vane. Titles with the same name as a peer 's main title are also not used as courtesy titles. For instance, The Duke of Westminster is also The Marquess of Westminster and The Earl Grosvenor (amongst other titles). The duke 's eldest son is not styled "Marquess of Westminster '' (which would cause confusion between the son and the father), and so is styled "Earl Grosvenor '' instead. The title used does not have to be exactly equivalent to the actual peerage: the eldest son of the current Duke of Wellington is styled Marquess of Douro, although the actual peerage possessed by his father is Marquess Douro (not of Douro). If a peer of the rank of earl or above does not have any subsidiary titles of a name different from his main title, his eldest son usually uses an invented courtesy title of "Lord (Surname) ''. For instance, the eldest son of The Earl of Devon is styled "Lord Courtenay '', even though the Earl has no barony of that name, and similarly the eldest son of The Earl of Guilford is styled "Lord North ''. The eldest son of The Earl of Huntingdon, who has no subsidiary titles, is styled "Viscount Hastings '' to avoid confusion with the substantive peer The Lord Hastings. The Earl Castle Stewart 's heir uses the style Viscount Stewart in order to avoid confusion with Lord Stewart, the eldest son of Viscount Castlereagh (the eldest son of The Marquess of Londonderry). Another form of courtesy title is the honorific prefix of "Lord '' before the name. This non-peerage title is accorded to younger sons of dukes and marquesses. The courtesy title is added before the person 's given name and surname, as in the example of Lord Randolph Churchill, although conversational usage drops the surname on secondary reference. The title persists after the death of the holder 's father, but is not inherited by any of his children. The wife of the holder is entitled to the feminine form of her husband 's title, which takes the form of "Lady '', followed by her husband 's given name and surname, as in the example of Lady Randolph Churchill. The holder is addressed as "Lord Randolph '' and his wife as "Lady Randolph ''. The honorific prefix of "Lady '' is used for the daughters of dukes, marquesses and earls. The courtesy title is added before the person 's given name, as in the example Lady Diana Spencer. Because it is merely a courtesy with no legal implications, the honorific persists after the death of the holder 's father but it is not inherited by her children. The spouse of a woman with an honorific title does not hold any courtesy title in right of their spouse. Neither does the husband of a man with any title (including the husband of a peer). The younger sons of earls, along with all sons and daughters of viscounts, barons and lords of parliament are accorded the courtesy style of "The Honourable '' before their name. This is usually abbreviated to "The Hon. '' The title persists after the death of the holder 's father, but it may not be inherited by the holder 's children. It is used only in third person reference, not in speaking to the person. The daughter of a duke, marquess, or earl who marries an untitled man becomes "The Lady (Given name) (Husband 's surname) ''. The daughter of a viscount or baron who marries a commoner is styled "The Honourable (Given name) (Husband 's surname) '' (the given name is dropped and Mrs is substituted if the husband 's right to the style derives from office or appointment rather than from ancestral peerage). Any woman who marries a peer uses the feminine version of his peerage title, even if her own precedence is higher than his, as in the case of a duke 's daughter marrying a baron, because a peerage is a substantive title, the usage of which is preferred to any courtesy style - unless she marries into the Royal Family. If a woman marries the younger son of a duke or marquess, she becomes "The Lady (Husband 's given name) (Husband 's surname). '' If she marries the younger son of an earl, viscount or baron, she becomes "The Hon. Mrs (Husband 's given name) (Husband 's surname). '' In case of a divorce, she may keep the same style as during marriage or she may choose to assume the style "Mrs (Given name) (Husband 's surname). '' Regardless of what she chooses, she loses all precedence acquired from marriage and because of the former option, there can be multiple Lady John Smiths. Until 2004, children who had been adopted by peers had no right to any courtesy title. Pursuant to a Royal Warrant dated 30 April 2004, these children are now automatically entitled to the same styles and courtesy titles as their siblings. However, unlike biological children, they can not inherit peerages from their parent (and thus, since they can not be heirs, if a peer adopts a son and he is the oldest son, he would use the styles of younger sons). For example, actress Nimmy March, the daughter of The Duke and Duchess of Richmond, was immediately elevated to Lady Naomi Gordon - Lennox on 30 April 2004. Note that Scottish peerages ' rules for courtesy titles and styles differ. Occasionally a peer succeeds to a peerage upon the death of a relative who is not one of his or her parents. When this happens, the relatives of the new peer may be allowed to use the courtesy titles or styles which would have been accorded them if the new peer had succeeded a parent or grandparent in the title. For instance, Rupert Ponsonby, 7th Baron de Mauley, succeeded his uncle in 2002. His brother Ashley had no title, as their father was only the younger son of a peer and was never actually Baron de Mauley. However, in 2003, Ashley was granted, by Warrant of Precedence from Queen Elizabeth II, the style and precedence that would have been his had his father survived to inherit the barony, becoming The Honourable Ashley Ponsonby. Precedence in such circumstances is usually granted but is not automatic. The wife of a substantive peer is legally entitled to the privileges of peerage: she is said to have a "life estate '' in her husband 's dignity. Thus a duke 's wife is titled a "duchess '', a marquess 's wife a "marchioness '', an earl 's wife a "countess '', a viscount 's wife a "viscountess '' and a baron 's wife a "baroness ''. Despite being referred to as a "peeress '', she is not a peer in her own right: this is a ' style ' and not a substantive title. However, this is considered a legal title, unlike the social titles of a peer 's children. The wives of eldest sons of peers hold their titles on the same basis as their husbands, i.e. by courtesy. Thus the wife of the Marquess of Douro is known as the "Marchioness of Douro ''. In the case of a woman who is a substantive peer in her own right, by succession or by first creation (i.e. ennoblement, most commonly in recent times under the Life Peerages Act 1958), her husband acquires no distinction in right of his wife. Thus, the husband of The Baroness Bottomley of Nettlestone has no courtesy title; he was simply called "Mr Peter Bottomley '' until he was knighted and became "Sir Peter Bottomley ''. In 2013, there was a private member 's bill in the House of Lords to allow the spouse of a woman who holds an honour, if he or she enters civil partnership or marriage, to assume the title The Honourable. This bill stalled, and was not passed by the end of the Parliament. A peeress retains her legal right to the peerage style following divorce and even upon her remarriage to a non-peer. A convention has developed whereby her Christian name is added in front of her title to distinguish her from any subsequent wife of her former husband. Hence, "Her Grace The Duchess of London '' becomes "Mary, Duchess of London ''. In written forms, she is not entitled to the use of the address "Her Grace... '' but may be addressed as "Duchess ''. "The Rt Hon. The Lady London '' becomes "Mary, Lady London '' and may be addressed as "Lady London, '' or "My Lady ''. On 21 August 1996 letters patent changed titles of divorced wives of British princes, depriving their former wives of the style of Royal Highness. For this reason Her Royal Highness The Princess of Wales after divorce became Diana, Princess of Wales. The same happened to Her Royal Highness The Duchess of York who became Sarah, Duchess of York. If a prince or peer dies, his wife 's style does not change unless the new peer is a married man (or a woman, if the succession permits); traditionally the widowed peeress puts "Dowager '' in her style, i.e. "The Most Hon. The Marchioness of London '' becomes "The Most Hon. The Dowager Marchioness of London. '' If a widowed peeress 's son predeceases her, her daughter - in - law does not use the title of Dowager, but is styled, e.g. "The Most Hon. Mary, Marchioness of London '', until her mother - in - law dies, at which point she may use the title of "Dowager Marchioness ''. In more recent times, some widows choose to be styled with their Christian names, instead of as Dowager, e.g. "Olave, Lady Baden - Powell '' ("The Lady Olave Baden - Powell '' would incorrectly imply she was the daughter of a duke, marquess or earl). It used to be customary for women with higher titles from one marriage to retain them even on subsequent remarriage. As Lord Macnaughten put it in the case of Earl Cowley v Countess Cowley (1901) AC 450: "... everybody knows that it is a very common practice for peeresses (not being peeresses in their own right) after marrying commoners to retain the title lost by such marriage. It is not a matter of right. It is merely a matter of courtesy, and allowed by the usages of society. '' The divorce court, in the above case, granted the earl an injunction preventing his former wife from using his title; however this was overturned by the Court of Appeal, whose decision was confirmed by the House of Lords, on the grounds that ordinary courts of law lacked any jurisdiction in matters of honour. The same practice was followed by widows who remarried. A prominent example was Catherine Parr, the last wife of Henry VIII, who continued to be known as Queen Catherine even after her marriage to The Lord Seymour of Sudeley (and, indeed, she disputed precedence with the wife of her brother - in - law the Duke of Somerset on this basis). This usage died out later in the twentieth century, and women who remarry now ordinarily take a new married name and do not retain their former title. If a peer or knight enters into a civil partnership, his or her partner is not entitled to a courtesy title. Laird is a courtesy title which applies to the owner of certain long - established Scottish estates; the title being attached to the estate. Traditionally, a laird is formally styled in the manner evident on the 1730 tombstone in a Scottish churchyard. It reads: "The Much Honoured (Forename (John)) (Surname (Grant)) Laird of (Lairdship (Glenmoriston)) ''. The section titled Scottish Feudal Baronies in Debrett 's states that the use of the prefix "The Much Hon. '' is "correct '', but that "most lairds prefer the unadorned name and territorial designation ''. The wife of a Laird is traditionally accorded the courtesy title of Lady. A form of courtesy title granted is the suffix of "Younger '' at the end of the name. This title is granted to the Heir Apparent of a Laird (Lord) and is placed at the end of his or her name (example - Mr John Smith of Edinburgh, Younger). The wife of a Younger may herself place the title at the end of her name. The holder is addressed as the younger (example - The Younger of Edinburgh). The courtesy prefix of "Maid '' is granted to the eldest daughter of a Laird (Lord). If the eldest daughter is also the heir presumptive she may either hold the title "Younger '' or the title "Maid ''. The title is customary and not automatically given. The title is placed at the end of the name (example - Miss Ali Joy, Maid of Newcastle). The holder is addressed as "The Maid of Lairdship ''. The courtesy titles and styles of children of peers are social, not legal. For this reason, in official documents, The Lord John Smith is often referred to as John Smith, Esq., commonly called Lord John Smith; The Hon. Mrs. Smith would be called Mary Jane, Mrs. Smith, commonly called The Hon. Mary Jane Smith. Only peers in attendance at Parliament enjoy statutory precedence. There is, however, official precedence accorded at the Court of St. James 's that results from being the wife or child of a peer, and to which social styles are attached. The wives of peers, however, are peeresses and legally enjoy their titles in exactly the same manner as peeresses in their own right. Children of peers can outrank certain actual peers. For instance, the daughter of a duke outranks a countess. However, if the daughter of a duke marries an earl, she drops to the rank of countess, because her courtesy title is subsumed in his substantive title. But, if that same daughter marries a commoner, she retains her rank. If that daughter marries the eldest son of an earl, though he may be a courtesy peer, she may keep her rank until the son inherits the earldom, when she must drop to the rank of countess. Following the creation of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, the first Justices of that Court held life peerages, and continued to hold them. However, the Government has announced that future appointees will not be created peers, and the first non-peer appointed to the Court was Sir John Dyson. In order to avoid any distinction between the Scottish Justices of the Court (who receive a judicial title), by Royal Warrant dated 10 December 2010 all Justices of the Supreme Court not holding a peerage are entitled to a judicial title, and retain the style (a courtesy title) for life. Thus, Sir John Dyson is now styled as Lord Dyson (instead of The Lord Dyson). Wives of male justices not holding a peerage are styled as if they were wives of peers. In Scotland, Senators of the College of Justice (judges who sit in the Court of Session) use the title Lord or Lady along with a surname or a territorial name. All Senators of the College have the honorific, The Honourable, before their titles, while those who are also Privy Counsellors or peers have the honorific, The Right Honourable. Senators are made Privy Counsellors upon promotion to the Inner House. For example, Alexander Wylie is known as The Honourable Lord Kinclaven, whilst Ronald Mackay is known as The Right Honourable Lord Eassie. Some Senators also hold peerage titles, such as The Rt Hon. The Lady Clark of Calton, and these would be used in place of judicial titles. The title of "Doctor '' (or the abbreviation "Dr '') is used as a courtesy title in a number of fields by professionals who do not hold doctoral degrees. It is commonly used in this manner by qualified medical practitioners (except surgeons) and by qualified dentists. The Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons also allows the use of "Doctor '' as a courtesy title by its members. The title of Captain is used as a courtesy title by shipmasters in the merchant navy who do not hold the military rank of captain. It is also used in oral address for naval officers below the rank of captain who are in command of a ship.

what is the giving of alms to the poor and needy called

Alms - wikipedia Alms (/ ɑː mz /, / ɑː lmz /) or almsgiving involves giving to others as an act of virtue, either materially or in the sense of providing capabilities (e.g. education) free. It exists in a number of religions and regions. The word, in the modern English language, comes from the Old English ælmesse, ælmes, from Late Latin eleemosyna, from Greek ἐλεημοσύνη eleēmosynē ("pity, alms ''), from ἐλεήμων, eleēmōn ("merciful ''), from ἔλεος, eleos ("pity ''). In Judaism, tzedakah - a Hebrew term literally meaning righteousness but commonly used to signify charity - refers to the religious obligation to do what is right and just. Contemporary tzedakah is regarded as a continuation of the Biblical Maaser Ani, or poor - tithe, as well as Biblical practices including permitting the poor to glean the corners of a field, harvest during the Shmita (Sabbatical year), and other practices. Tzedakah, along with prayer and repentance, is regarded as ameliorating the consequences of bad acts. In Judaism, Tzedakah (charity) is seen as one of the greatest deeds that man can do. Jewish farmers are commanded to leave the corners of their fields for the starving to harvest for food and are forbidden to pick up any grain that has been dropped during harvesting, as such food shall be left for the starving as well. Famous Jewish scholar and sage Maimonides has been noted for creating a list of charity, with the most righteous form being allowing an individual to become self - sustaining and capable of giving others charity. 1) Enabling the recipient to become self - reliant 2) Giving when neither party knows the other 's identity 3) Giving when you know the recipient 's identity, but the recipient does n't know your identity 4) Giving when you do not know the recipient 's identity, but the recipient knows your identity 5) Giving before being asked 6) Giving after being asked 7) Giving less than you should, but giving it cheerfully 8) Giving begrudgingly In Islam, the concept of charitable giving is generally divided into voluntary giving, or Sadaqah, and the Zakat, an obligatory practice governed by a specific set of rules within Islamic jurisprudence, and intended to fulfill a well defined set of theological and social requirements. For that reason, while Zakat plays a much larger role within Islamic charity, Sadaqah is possibly a better translation of Christian influenced formulations of the notion of ' alms '. Zakat is the third of the five pillars of Islam. Various rules attach to the practice but, in general terms, it is obligatory to give 2.5 % of one 's savings and business revenue and 5 -- 10 % of one 's harvest to the poor. Possible recipients include the destitute, the working poor, those who are unable to pay off their own debts, stranded travelers and others who need assistance, with the general principle of zakaah always being that the rich should pay it to the poor. One of the most important principles of Islam is that all things belong to God and, therefore, wealth is held by human beings in trust. The literal meaning of the word Zakat is "to purify '', "to develop '' and "cause to grow ''. According to Shariah it is an act of worship. Our possessions are purified by setting aside a proportion for those in need. This cutting back, like the pruning of plants, balances and encourages new growth. Zakat is the amount of money that every adult, mentally stable, free, and financially able Muslim, male or female, has to pay to support specific categories of people. This category of people is defined in surah at - Taubah (9) verse 60: "The alms are only for the poor and the needy, and those who collect them, and those whose hearts are to be reconciled, and to free the captives and the debtors, and for the cause of Allah, and (for) the wayfarers; a duty imposed by Allah. Allah is knower, Wise. '' (The Holy Qur'an 9: 60). The obligatory nature of Zakat is firmly established in the Qur'an, the Sunnah (or hadith), and the consensus of the companions and the Muslim scholars. Allah states in Surah at - Taubah verses 34 -- 35: "O ye who believe! there are indeed many among the priests and anchorites, who in Falsehood devour the substance of men and hinder (them) from the way of Allah. And there are those who bury gold and silver and spend it not in the way of Allah. announce unto them a most grievous penalty -- On the Day when heat will be produced out of that (wealth) in the fire of Hell, and with it will be branded their foreheads, their flanks, and their backs, their flanks, and their backs. - "This is the (treasure) which ye buried for yourselves: taste ye, then, the (treasures) ye buried! '' (The Holy Qur'an 9: 34 -- 35). Muslims of each era have agreed upon the obligatory nature of paying Zakat for gold and silver, and from those the other kinds of currency. Zakat is obligatory when a certain amount of money, called the nisab is reached or exceeded. Zakat is not obligatory if the amount owned is less than this nisab. The nisab (or minimum amount) of gold and golden currency is 20 mithqal, approximately 85 grams of pure gold. One mithqal is approximately 4.25 grams. The nisab of silver and silver currency is 200 dirhams, which is approximately 595 grams of pure silver. The nisab of other kinds of money and currency is to be scaled to that of gold; the nisab of money is equivalent to the price of 85 grams of 999 - type (pure) gold, on the day in which Zakat is paid. Zakat is obligatory after the money has been in the control of its owner for the span of one lunar year. Then the owner needs to pay 2.5 % (or 1 / 40) of the money as Zakat. (A lunar year is approximately 355 days). The owner should deduct any amount of money he or she borrowed from others; then check if the rest reaches the necessary nisab, then pays Zakat for it. If the owner had enough money to satisfy the nisab at the beginning of the year, but his wealth in any form increased, the owner needs to add the increase to the nisab amount owned at the beginning of the year, then pay Zakat, 2.5 %, of the total at the end of the lunar year. There are minor differences between fiqh school on how this is to be calculated. Each Muslim calculates his or her own Zakat individually. For most purposes, this involves the payment each year of two and a half percent of one 's capital. A pious person may also give as much as he or she pleases as sadaqa, and does so preferably in secret. Although this word can be translated as ' voluntary charity ' it has a wider meaning. The Prophet said ' Even meeting your brother with a cheerful face is charity. ' The Prophet said: ' Charity is a necessity for every Muslim. ' He was asked: ' What if a person has nothing? ' The Prophet replied: ' He should work with his own hands for his benefit and then give something out of such earnings in charity. ' The Companions asked: ' What if he is not able to work? ' The Prophet said: ' He should help poor and needy persons. ' The Companions further asked ' What if he can not do even that? ' The Prophet said ' He should urge others to do good. ' The Companions said ' What if he lacks that also? ' The Prophet said ' He should check himself from doing evil. That is also charity. ' In Buddhism, alms or almsgiving is the respect given by a lay Buddhist to a Buddhist monk, nun, spiritually - developed person or other sentient being. It is not charity as presumed by Western interpreters. It is closer to a symbolic connection to the spiritual realm and to show humbleness and respect in the presence of the secular society. The act of alms giving assists in connecting the human to the monk or nun and what he / she represents. As the Buddha has stated: Householders & the homeless or charity (monastics) in mutual dependence both reach the true Dhamma... In Theravada Buddhism, nuns (Pāli: bhikkhunis) and monks (Pāli: bhikkhus) go on a daily almsround (pindacara) to collect food (piṇḍapāta). This is often perceived as giving the laypeople the opportunity to make merit (Pāli: puñña). Money can not be accepted by a Theravadan Buddhist monk or nun in lieu of or in addition to food, as the Patimokkha training rules make it an offence worth forfeiture and confession. In countries that follow Mahayana Buddhism, the practice of a daily alms round has mostly died out. In China, Korea and Japan, local cultures resisted the idea of giving food to ' begging ' clerics, and there was no tradition of gaining ' merit ' by donating to practitioners. After periods of persecution, monasteries were situated in remote mountain areas in which the distance between the monastery and the nearest towns would make a daily alms round impossible. In Japan, the practice of a weekly or monthly takuhatsu replaced the daily round. In the Himalayan countries, the large number of bikshus would have made an almsround a heavy burden on families. Competition with other religions for support also made daily almsrounds difficult and even dangerous; the first Buddhist monks in the Silla dynasty of Korea were said to be beaten due to their minority at the time. In Buddhism, both "almsgiving '' and, more generally, "giving '' are called "dāna '' (Pāli). Such giving is one of the three elements of the path of practice as formulated by the Buddha for laypeople. This path of practice for laypeople is: dāna, sīla, bhāvanā. The paradox in Buddhism is that the more a person gives -- and the more one gives without seeking something in return -- the wealthier (in the broadest sense of the word) one will become. By giving one destroys those acquisitive impulses that ultimately lead to further suffering. Generosity is also expressed towards other sentient beings as both a cause for merit and to aid the receiver of the gift. In Mahayana Tradition it is accepted that although the three jewels of refuge are the basis of the greatest merit, by seeing other sentient beings as having Buddhanature and making offerings towards the aspirational Buddha to be within them is of equal benefit. Generosity towards other sentient beings is greatly emphasised in Mahayana as one of the perfections (paramita) as shown in Lama Tsong Khapa 's ' The Abbreviated Points of the Graded Path ' (Tibetan: lam - rim bsdus - don): Total willingness to give is the wish - granting gem for fulfilling the hopes of wandering beings. It is the sharpest weapon to sever the knot of stinginess. It leads to bodhisattva conduct that enhances self - confidence and courage, And is the basis for universal proclamation of your fame and repute. Realizing this, the wise rely, in a healthy manner, on the outstanding path Of (being ever - willing) to offer completely their bodies, possessions, and positive potentials. The ever - vigilant lama has practiced like that. If you too would seek liberation, Please cultivate yourself in the same way. In Buddhism, giving of alms is the beginning of one 's journey to Nirvana (Pali: nibbana). In practice, one can give anything with or without thought for Nibbana. This would lead to faith (Pali: saddha), one key power (Pali: bala) that one should generate within oneself for the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. The motives behind giving play an important role in developing spiritual qualities. The suttas record various motives for exercising generosity. For example, the Anguttara Nikaya (A. iv, 236) enumerates the following eight motives: According to the Pali canon: Of all gifts (alms), the gift of Dhamma is the highest. The giving of alms is an act of charity toward those less fortunate. In the Apostolic age, Christians were taught that giving alms was an expression of love which was first expressed by God to them in that Jesus sacrificed himself as an act of love for the salvation of believers. The offertory is the traditional moment in Roman Catholic Mass, Anglican Eucharist, and Lutheran Divine Services when alms are collected. Some Protestant groups, such as Baptists or Methodists, also engage in alms, although it is more commonly referred to as "tithes and offerings '' by the church. Some fellowships practice regular giving for special purposes called Love Offerings for the poor, destitute or victims of catastrophic loss such as home fires or medical expenses. Traditionally, Deacons and Deaconesses are responsible for distributing these gifts among widows, orphans, and others in need. Many Christians support a plethora of charitable organizations not all of which claim a Christian religious affiliation. Many American Educational and Medical Institutions were founded by Christian fellowships giving alms. In the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches, the collection of alms and tithes has not been formally united to the offertory in any liturgical action. However, either having a collection plate in the narthex or passing it unobtrusively during the service is not uncommon. In Orthodox theology, almsgiving is an important part of the spiritual life, and fasting should always be accompanied by increased prayer and almsgiving. Almsgiving in the name of the deceased also frequently accompanies prayer for the dead. Those whose financial circumstances do not permit the giving of monetary alms may give alms in other ways, such as intercessory prayer and acts of mercy. In the majority of Christian forms of worship and denominations, a collection of "tithes and offerings '' is given for the support of the church 's mission, budget, ministry, and for its relief of the poor, as an important act of Christian charity, united to communal prayer. In some churches the "offering plate '' or "offering basket '' is placed upon the altar, as a sign that the offering is made to God, and a sign of the bond of Christian love. In addition, private acts of charity, considered virtuous only if not done for others to admire, are seen as a Christian duty. Be careful not to do your ' acts of righteousness ' in front of others, to be seen by them. If you do, you will have no reward from your Father in heaven. The outward and an inward giving of alms: Here Jesus places the primary focus on the motives behind such acts, which should be love. Rather, give as alms what is inside, and then everything will be clean for you! Giving of the rich versus the poor: Here Jesus contrasts the giving of the rich and the poor He looked up and saw the rich putting their gifts into the treasury. And He saw a poor widow putting in two small copper coins. And He said, ' Truly I say to you, this poor widow put in more than all of them; for they all out of their surplus put into the offering; but she out of her poverty put in all that she had to live on. ' Giving out of Love and not out of duty: He will reply, ' I tell you the truth, whatever you did not do for one of the least of these, you did not do for me. ' Dāna (Sanskrit: दान) is an ancient concept of alms - giving dating to the Vedic period of Hinduism. The word for alms in Vedic literature is Bhiksha (भिक्षा). The Rigveda has the earliest discussion of dāna in the Vedas and offers reasons for the virtue of alms - giving. The Gods have not ordained hunger to be our death: even to the well - fed man comes death in varied shape, The riches of the liberal never waste away, while he who will not give finds none to comfort him, The man with food in store who, when the needy comes in miserable case begging for bread to eat, Hardens his heart against him, when of old finds not one to comfort him. Bounteous is he who gives unto the beggar who comes to him in want of food, and the feeble, Success attends him in the shout of battle. He makes a friend of him in future troubles, No friend is he who to his friend and comrade who comes imploring food, will offer nothing. Let the rich satisfy the poor implorer, and bend his eye upon a longer pathway, Riches come now to one, now to another, and like the wheels of cars are ever rolling, The foolish man wins food with fruitless labour: that food -- I speak the truth -- shall be his ruin, He feeds no trusty friend, no man to love him. All guilt is he who eats with no partaker. The early Upanishads, those composed before 500 BCE, also discuss the virtue of alms - giving. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, in verse 5.2. 3 for example, states that three characteristics of a good, developed person are self - restraint (damah), compassion or love for all sentient life (daya), and charity (dāna). Chandogya Upanishad, Book III, similarly, states that a virtuous life requires: tapas (meditation, asceticism), dāna (charity), arjava (straightforwardness, non-hypocrisy), ahimsa (non-violence, non-injury to all sentinent beings) and satyavacana (truthfulness). Bhagavad Gita describes the right and wrong forms of dāna in verses 17.20 through 17.22. The Adi Parva of the Hindu Epic Mahabharata, in Chapter 91, states that a person must first acquire wealth by honest means, then embark on charity; be hospitable to those who come to him; never inflict pain on any living being; and share a portion with others whatever he consumes. In the Vana Parva, Chapter 194, the Mahabharata recommends that one must, "conquer the mean by charity, the untruthful by truth, the wicked by forgiveness, and dishonesty by honesty ''. The Bhagavata Purana discusses when dāna is proper and when it is improper. In Book 8, Chapter 19, verse 36 it states that charity is inappropriate if it endangers and cripples modest livelihood of one 's biological dependents or of one 's own. Charity from surplus income above that required for modest living is recommended in the Puranas. Dāna has been defined in traditional texts as any action of relinquishing the ownership of what one considered or identified as one 's own, and investing the same in a recipient without expecting anything in return. While dāna is typically given to one person or family, Hinduism also discusses charity or giving aimed at public benefit, sometimes called utsarga. This aims at larger projects such as building a rest house, school, drinking water or irrigation well, planting trees, and building care facility among others. Abū Rayḥān al - Bīrūnī, the 11th century Persian historian, who visited and lived in India for 16 years from about 1017 CE, mentions the practice of charity and almsgiving among Hindus as he observed during his stay. He wrote, "It is obligatory with them (Hindus) every day to give alms as much as possible. '' After the taxes, there are different opinions on how to spend their income. Some destine one - ninth of it for alms. Others divide this income (after taxes) into four portions. One fourth is destined for common expenses, the second for liberal works of a noble mind, the third for alms, and the fourth for being kept in reserve. Alms - giving is held as a noble deed in Hinduism, to be done without expectation of any return from those who receive the charity. Some texts reason, referring to the nature of social life, that charity is a form of good karma that affects one 's future circumstances and environment, and that good charitable deeds leads to good future life because of the reciprocity principle. Other Hindu texts, such as Vyasa Samhita, state that reciprocity may be innate in human nature and social functions but dāna is a virtue in itself, as doing good lifts the nature of one who gives. The texts do not recommend charity to unworthy recipients or where charity may harm or encourage injury to or by the recipient. Dāna, thus, is a dharmic act, requires idealistic - normative approach, and has spiritual and philosophical context. Some medieval era authors state that dāna is best done with shraddha (faith), which is defined as being in good will, cheerful, welcoming the recipient of the charity and giving without anasuya (finding faults in the recipient). These scholars of Hinduism, states Kohler, suggest that charity is most effective when it is done with delight, a sense of "unquestioning hospitality '', where the dāna ignores the short term weaknesses as well as the circumstances of the recipient and takes a long term view. Satrams, also called Dharamsala or Chathrams in parts of India, have been one means of alms - giving in Hinduism. Satrams are shelters (rest house) for travelers and the poor, with many serving water and free food. These were usually established along the roads connecting major Hindu temple sites in south Asia, as well as near major temples. Hindu temples have served as institutions for alms - giving. The dāna the temples received from Hindus were used to feed people in distress as well as fund public projects such as irrigation and land reclamation. Other forms of alms - giving in Hinduism includes donating means of economic activity and food source. For example, Go Dāna (donation of a cow), Bhu Dāna (भू दान) (donation of land), and Vidya Dāna or Jňana Dāna (विद्या दान, ज्ञान दान): gift of knowledge and skills, Aushadhā Dāna: Charity of care for the sick and diseased, Abhay Dāna: Giving freedom from fear (asylum, protection to someone facing imminent injury), and Anna Dāna (अन्ना दान): Giving food to the poor, needy and all visitors. Between giving food and giving knowledge, Hindu texts suggest the gift of knowledge is superior. A gift of Dhamma conquers all gifts; the taste of Dhamma, all tastes; a delight in Dhamma, all delights; the ending of craving, all suffering & stress.

which of the following describes a belief shared by followers of all forms of islam

Belief - wikipedia Related concepts and fundamentals: Belief is the state of mind in which a person thinks something to be the case with or without there being empirical evidence to prove that something is the case with factual certainty. Another way of defining belief sees it as a mental representation of an attitude positively oriented towards the likelihood of something being true. In the context of Ancient Greek thought, two related concepts were identified with regards to the concept of belief: pistis and doxa. Simplified, we may say that pistis refers to "trust '' and "confidence '', while doxa refers to "opinion '' and "acceptance ''. The English word "orthodoxy '' derives from doxa. Jonathan Leicester suggests that belief has the purpose of guiding action rather than indicating truth. In epistemology, philosophers use the term "belief '' to refer to personal attitudes associated with true or false ideas and concepts. However, "belief '' does not require active introspection and circumspection. For example, we never ponder whether or not the sun will rise. We simply assume the sun will rise. Since "belief '' is an important aspect of mundane life, according to Eric Schwitzgebel in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, a related question asks: "how a physical organism can have beliefs? '' Epistemology is concerned with delineating the boundary between justified belief and opinion, and involved generally with a theoretical philosophical study of knowledge. The primary problem in epistemology is to understand exactly what is needed in order for us to have knowledge. In a notion derived from Plato 's dialogue Theaetetus, where the epistemology of Socrates (Platon) most clearly departs from that of the sophists, who at the time of Plato seem to have defined knowledge as what is here expressed as "justified true belief ''. The tendency to translate from belief (here: doxa - common opinion) to knowledge (here: episteme), which Plato (e.g. Socrates of the dialogue) utterly dismisses, results from failing to distinguish a dispositive belief (gr. ' doxa ', not ' pistis ') from knowledge (episteme) when the opinion is regarded true (here: orthé), in terms of right, and juristically so (according to the premises of the dialogue), which was the task of the rhetors to prove. Plato dismisses this possibility of an affirmative relation between belief (i.e. opinion) and knowledge even when the one who opines grounds his belief on the rule, and is able to add justification (gr. logos: reasonable and necessarily plausible assertions / evidence / guidance) to it (2). It is important to keep in mind that the sort of belief in the context of Theaetetus is not derived from the theological concept of belief, which is pistis, but doxa, which in theological terms refers to acceptance in the form of praise and glory. Strangely, or not, Plato has been credited for the "justified true belief '' theory of knowledge, even though Plato in the Theaetetus (dialogue) elegantly dismisses it, and even posits this argument of Socrates as a cause for his death penalty. Among American epistemologists, Gettier (1963) and Goldman (1967), have questioned the "justified true belief '' definition, and challenged the "sophists '' of their time. Mainstream psychology and related disciplines have traditionally treated belief as if it were the simplest form of mental representation and therefore one of the building blocks of conscious thought. Philosophers have tended to be more abstract in their analysis, and much of the work examining the viability of the belief concept stems from philosophical analysis. The concept of belief presumes a subject (the believer) and an object of belief (the proposition). So, like other propositional attitudes, belief implies the existence of mental states and intentionality, both of which are hotly debated topics in the philosophy of mind, whose foundations and relation to brain states are still controversial. Beliefs are sometimes divided into core beliefs (that are actively thought about) and dispositional beliefs (that may be ascribed to someone who has not thought about the issue). For example, if asked "do you believe tigers wear pink pajamas? '' a person might answer that they do not, despite the fact they may never have thought about this situation before. This has important implications for understanding the neuropsychology and neuroscience of belief. If the concept of belief is incoherent, then any attempt to find the underlying neural processes that support it will fail. Philosopher Lynne Rudder Baker has outlined four main contemporary approaches to belief in her controversial book Saving Belief: Strategic approaches make a distinction between rules, norms and beliefs as follows: (1) Rules. Explicit regulative processes such as policies, laws, inspection routines, or incentives. Rules function as a coercive regulator of behavior and are dependent upon the imposing entity 's ability to enforce them. (2) Norms. Regulative mechanisms accepted by the social collective. Norms are enforced by normative mechanisms within the organization and are not strictly dependent upon law or regulation. (3) Beliefs. The collective perception of fundamental truths governing behavior. The adherence to accepted and shared beliefs by members of a social system will likely persist and be difficult to change over time. Strong beliefs about determinant factors (i.e., security, survival, or honor) are likely to cause a social entity or group to accept rules and norms. Historically belief - in belonged in the realm of religious thought, belief - that instead belonged to epistemological considerations. To "believe in '' someone or something is a distinct concept from "believing - that. '' There are at least these types of belief - in: Economic beliefs are beliefs which are reasonably and necessarily contrary to the tenet of rational choice or instrumental rationality. Studies of the Austrian tradition of the economic thought, in the context of analysis of the influence and subsequent degree of change resulting from existing economic knowledge and belief, has contributed the most to the subsequent holistic collective analysis. Insofar as the truth of belief is expressed in sentential and propositional form we are using the sense of belief - that rather than belief - in. Delusion arises when the truth value of the form is clearly nil. Delusions are defined as beliefs in psychiatric diagnostic criteria (for example in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders). Psychiatrist and historian G.E. Berrios has challenged the view that delusions are genuine beliefs and instead labels them as "empty speech acts, '' where affected persons are motivated to express false or bizarre belief statements due to an underlying psychological disturbance. However, the majority of mental health professionals and researchers treat delusions as if they were genuine beliefs. In Lewis Carroll 's Through the Looking - Glass the White Queen says, "Why, sometimes I 've believed as many as six impossible things before breakfast. '' This is often quoted in mockery of the common ability of people to entertain beliefs contrary to fact. Psychologists study belief formation and the relationship between beliefs and actions. Three models of belief formation and change have been proposed: When people are asked to estimate the likelihood that a statement is true, they search their memory for information that has implications for the validity of this statement. Once this information has been identified, they estimate a) the likelihood that the statement would be true if the information were true, and b) the likelihood that the statement would be true if the information were false. If their estimates for these two probabilities differ, people average them, weighting each by the likelihood that the information is true and false (respectively). Thus, information bears directly on beliefs of another, related statement. Unlike the previous model, this one takes into consideration the possibility of multiple factors influencing belief formation. Using regression procedures, this model predicts belief formation on the basis of several different pieces of information, with weights assigned to each piece on the basis of their relative importance. These models address the fact that the responses people have to belief - relevant information is unlikely to be predicted from the objective basis of the information that they can recall at the time their beliefs are reported. Instead, these responses reflect the number and meaning of the thoughts that people have about the message at the time that they encounter it. Some influences on people 's belief formation include: However, even educated people, well aware of the process by which beliefs form, still strongly cling to their beliefs, and act on those beliefs even against their own self - interest. In Anna Rowley 's book, Leadership Therapy, she states "You want your beliefs to change. It 's proof that you are keeping your eyes open, living fully, and welcoming everything that the world and people around you can teach you. '' This means that peoples ' beliefs should evolve as they gain new experiences. Justified true belief is a definition of knowledge that gained approval during the Enlightenment, ' justified ' standing in contrast to ' revealed '. There have been attempts to trace it back to Plato and his dialogues. The concept of justified true belief states that in order to know that a given proposition is true, one must not only believe the relevant true proposition, but also have justification for doing so. In more formal terms, an agent S (\ displaystyle S) knows that a proposition P (\ displaystyle P) is true if and only if: This theory of knowledge suffered a significant setback with the discovery of Gettier problems, situations in which the above conditions were seemingly met but that many philosophers disagree that anything is known. Robert Nozick suggested a clarification of "justification '' which he believed eliminates the problem: the justification has to be such that were the justification false, the knowledge would be false. Bernecker and Dretske (2000) argue that "no epistemologist since Gettier has seriously and successfully defended the traditional view. ''. On the other hand, Paul Boghossian argues that the Justified True Belief account is the "standard, widely accepted '' definition of knowledge An extensive amount of scientific research and philosophical discussion exists around the modification of beliefs, which is commonly referred to as belief revision. Generally speaking, the process of belief revision entails the believer weighing the set of truths and / or evidence, and the dominance of a set of truths or evidence on an alternative to a held belief can lead to revision. One process of belief revision is Bayesian updating and is often referenced for its mathematical basis and conceptual simplicity. However, such a process may not be representative for individuals whose beliefs are not easily characterized as probabilistic. There are several techniques for individuals or groups to change the beliefs of others; these methods generally fall under the umbrella of persuasion. Persuasion can take on more specific forms such as consciousness raising when considered in an activist or political context. Belief modification may also occur as a result of the experience of outcomes. Because goals are based, in part on beliefs, the success or failure at a particular goal may contribute to modification of beliefs that supported the original goal. Whether or not belief modification actually occurs is dependent not only on the extent of truths or evidence for the alternative belief, but also characteristics outside the specific truths or evidence. This includes, but is not limited to: the source characteristics of the message, such as credibility; social pressures; the anticipated consequences of a modification; or the ability of the individual or group to act on the modification. Therefore, individuals seeking to achieve belief modification in themselves or others need to consider all possible forms of resistance to belief revision. Without qualification, "belief '' normally implies a lack of doubt, especially insofar as it is a designation of a life stance. In practical everyday use however, belief is normally partial and retractable with varying degrees of certainty. A copious literature exists in multiple disciplines to accommodate this reality. In mathematics probability, fuzzy logic, fuzzy set theory, and other topics are largely directed to this. Different psychological models have tried to predict people 's beliefs and some of them try to estimate the exact probabilities of beliefs. For example, Robert Wyer developed a model of subjective probabilities. When people rate the likelihood of a certain statement (e.g., "It will rain tomorrow ''), this rating can be seen as a subjective probability value. The subjective probability model posits that these subjective probabilities follow the same rules as objective probabilities. For example, the law of total probability might be applied to predict a subjective probability value. Wyer found that this model produces relatively accurate predictions for probabilities of single events and for changes in these probabilities, but that the probabilities of several beliefs linked by "and '' or "or '' do not follow the model as well. Religious belief refers to attitudes towards mythological, supernatural, or spiritual aspects of a religion. Religious belief is distinct from religious practice and from religious behaviours - with some believers not practicing religion and some practitioners not believing religion. Religious beliefs, being derived from ideas that are exclusive to religion, often relate to the existence, characteristics and worship of a deity or deities, to divine intervention in the universe and in human life, or to the deontological explanations for the values and practices centered on the teachings of a spiritual leader or of a spiritual group. In contrast to other belief systems, religious beliefs are usually codified. While it is popularly conceived that religions each have identifiable and exclusive sets of beliefs or creeds, surveys of religious belief have often found that the official doctrine and descriptions of the beliefs offered by religious authorities do not always agree with the privately held beliefs of those who identify as members of a particular religion. For a broad classification of the kinds of religious belief, see below. First self - applied as a term to the conservative doctrine outlined by anti-modernist Protestants in the United States of America, "fundamentalism '' in religious terms denotes strict adherence to an interpretation of scriptures that are generally associated with theologically conservative positions or traditional understandings of the text and are distrustful of innovative readings, new revelation, or alternate interpretations. Religious fundamentalism has been identified in the media as being associated with fanatical or zealous political movements around the world that have used a strict adherence to a particular religious doctrine as a means to establish political identity and to enforce societal norms. First used in the context of Early Christianity, the term "orthodoxy '' relates to religious belief that closely follows the edicts, apologies, and hermeneutics of a prevailing religious authority. In the case of Early Christianity, this authority was the communion of bishops, and is often referred to by the term "Magisterium ''. The term orthodox was applied almost as an epithet to a group of Jewish believers who held to pre-Enlightenment understanding of Judaism - now known as Orthodox Judaism. The Eastern Orthodox Church of Christianity and the Catholic Church each consider themselves to be the true heir to Early Christian belief and practice. The antonym of "orthodox '' is "heterodox '', and those adhering to orthodoxy often accuse the heterodox of apostasy, schism, or heresy. The Renaissance and later the Enlightenment in Europe exhibited varying degrees of religious tolerance and intolerance towards new and old religious ideas. The Philosophes took particular exception to many of the more fantastical claims of religions and directly challenged religious authority and the prevailing beliefs associated with the established churches. In response to the liberalizing political and social movements, some religious groups attempted to integrate Enlightenment ideals of rationality, equality, and individual liberty into their belief systems, especially in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Reform Judaism and Liberal Christianity offer two examples of such religious associations. A term signifying derogation that is used by the religious and non-religious alike, "superstition '' is the deprecated belief in supernatural causation. Those who deny the existence of the supernatural generally attribute all beliefs associated with it to be superstitious, while a typical religious critique of superstition holds that it either encompasses beliefs in non-existent supernatural activity or that the supernatural activity is inappropriately feared or held in improper regard (see idolatry). Christian Churches strongly condemned occultism, animism, paganism, and other folk religions as mean forms of superstition, though such condemnation did not necessarily eliminate the beliefs among the common people and many such religious beliefs persist today. In Buddhism, practice and progress along the spiritual path happens when one follows the system of Buddhist practice. Any religion which follows (parts of) the fundamentals of this system has, according to the teachings of Buddha, good aspects to the extent it accords with this system. Any religion which goes against (parts of) the fundamentals of this system includes bad aspects too. Any religion which does not teach certain parts of this system, is not because of this a ' bad ' religion; it just lacks those teachings and is to that extent incomplete. A question by the monk Subhadda to the Buddha: "O Gotama, there are Samanas (wandering monks) and Brahmanas (religious leaders) who are leaders of their sects, who are well - esteemed by many people, such as Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala, Ajita Kesakambala, Pakudha Kaccayana, Sancaya Belatthaputta and Nigantha Nataputta. Do all of them have knowledge and understanding as they themselves have declared? Or do all of them have no knowledge and understanding? '' The Buddha replied: "Subhadda, in whatever teaching is not found the Noble Eightfold Path, neither in it is there found a Samana of the first stage, nor a Samana of the second stage, nor a Samana of the third stage, nor a Samana of the fourth stage. '' As a religious tradition, Hinduism has experienced many attempts at systemization. In medieval times, Shankara advocated for the Advaita system of philosophy. In recent times, Tamala Krishna Gosvami has researched the systemization of Krishna theology as expounded by Srila Prabhupada. (See Krishnology) Some believe that religion can not be separated from other aspects of life, or believe that certain cultures did not or do not separate their religious activities from other activities in the same way that some people in modern Western cultures do. Some anthropologists report cultures in which gods are involved in every aspect of life - if a cow goes dry, a god has caused this, and must be propitiated, when the sun rises in the morning, a god has caused this, and must be thanked. Even in modern Western cultures, many people see supernatural forces behind every event, as described by Carl Sagan in his 1995 book The Demon - Haunted World. People with this worldview often regard the influence of Western culture as inimical. Others with this worldview resist the influence of science, and believe that science (or "so - called science '') should be guided by religion. Still others with this worldview believe that all political decisions and laws should be guided by religion. This last belief is written into the constitutions of many Islamic nations, and is shared by some fundamentalist Christians. In addition, beliefs about the supernatural or metaphysical may not presuppose a difference between any such thing as nature and non-nature, nor between science and what the most educated people believe. In the view of some historians, the pre-Socratic Athenians saw science, political tradition, culture and religion as not easily distinguishable, but as all part of the same body of knowledge and wisdom available to a community. Adherents of particular religions deal with the differing doctrines and practices espoused by other religions in a variety of ways. All strains of thought appear in different segments of all major world religions. People with exclusivist beliefs typically explain other religions as either in error, or as corruptions or counterfeits of the true faith. This approach is a fairly consistent feature among smaller new religious movements that often rely on doctrine that claims a unique revelation by the founder or leaders, and consider it a matter of faith that the religion has a monopoly on truth. All three major Abrahamic monotheistic religions have passages in their holy scriptures that attest to the primacy of the scriptural testimony, and indeed monotheism itself is often vouched as an innovation characterized specifically by its explicit rejection of earlier polytheistic faiths. Some exclusivist faiths incorporate a specific element of proselytization. This is a strongly - held belief in the Christian tradition which follows the doctrine of the Great Commission, and is less emphasized by the Islamic faith where the Quranic edict "There shall be no compulsion in religion '' (2: 256) is often quoted as a justification for toleration of alternative beliefs, while the Jewish tradition does not actively seek out converts. Exclusivism correlates with conservative, fundamentalist, and orthodox approaches of many religions while pluralistic and syncretist approaches either explicitly downplay or reject the exclusivist tendencies of the religion. People with inclusivist beliefs recognize some truth in all faith systems, highlighting agreements and minimizing differences. This attitude is sometimes associated with Interfaith dialogue or with the Christian Ecumenical movement, though in principle such attempts at pluralism are not necessarily inclusivist and many actors in such interactions (for example, the Roman Catholic Church) still hold to exclusivist dogma while participating in inter-religious organizations. Explicitly inclusivist religions include many that are associated with the New Age movement as well as modern reinterpretations of Hinduism and Buddhism. The Bahá'í Faith considers it doctrine that there is truth in all faith - systems. People with pluralist beliefs make no distinction between faith systems, viewing each one as valid within a particular culture. Examples include: People with syncretistic views blend the views of a variety of different religions or traditional beliefs into a unique fusion which suits their particular experiences and context (see eclecticism). Unitarian Universalism is an example of a syncretistic faith. Typical reasons for adherence to religion include the following: Typical reasons for rejection of religion include: A belief system is a set of mutually supportive beliefs. The beliefs of any such system can be classified as religious, philosophical, political, ideological, or a combination of these. Philosopher Jonathan Glover says that beliefs are always part of a belief system, and that tenanted belief systems are difficult for the tenants to completely revise or reject. A collective belief is referred to when people speak of what ' we ' believe when this is not simply elliptical for what ' we all ' believe. Sociologist Émile Durkheim wrote of collective beliefs and proposed that they, like all ' social facts ', ' inhered in ' social groups as opposed to individual persons. Durkheim 's discussion of collective belief, though suggestive, is relatively obscure. Philosopher Margaret Gilbert has offered a related account in terms of the joint commitment of a number of persons to accept a certain belief as a body. According to this account, individuals who together collectively believe something need not personally believe it themselves. Gilbert 's work on the topic has stimulated a developing literature among philosophers. One question that has arisen is whether and how philosophical accounts of belief in general need to be sensitive to the possibility of collective belief. Jonathan Glover believes that he and other philosophers ought to play some role in starting dialogues between people with deeply held, opposing beliefs, especially if there is risk of violence. Glover also believes that philosophy can offer insights about beliefs that would be relevant to such dialogue. Glover suggests that beliefs have to be considered holistically, and that no belief exists in isolation in the mind of the believer. It always implicates and relates to other beliefs. Glover provides the example of a patient with an illness who returns to a doctor, but the doctor says that the prescribed medicine is not working. At that point, the patient has a great deal of flexibility in choosing what beliefs to keep or reject: the patient could believe that the doctor is incompetent, that the doctor 's assistants made a mistake, that the patient 's own body is unique in some unexpected way, that Western medicine is ineffective, or even that Western science is entirely unable to discover truths about ailments. Glover maintains that any person can continue to hold any belief if they would really like to (e.g., with help from ad hoc hypotheses). One belief can be held fixed, and other beliefs will be altered around it. Glover warns that some beliefs may not be entirely explicitly believed (e.g., some people may not realize they have racist belief systems adopted from their environment as a child). Glover believes that people tend to first realize that beliefs can change, and may be contingent on their upbringing, around age 12 or 15. Glover emphasizes that beliefs are difficult to change. He says that one may try to rebuild one 's beliefs on more secure foundations (axioms), like building a new house, but warns that this may not be possible. Glover offers the example of René Descartes, saying about Descartes that "(h) e starts off with the characteristic beliefs of a 17th - century Frenchman; he then junks the lot, he rebuilds the system, and somehow it looks a lot like the beliefs of a 17th - century Frenchman. '' To Glover, belief systems are not like houses but are instead like boats. As Glover puts it: "Maybe the whole thing needs rebuilding, but inevitably at any point you have to keep enough of it intact to keep floating. '' Glover 's final message is that if people talk about their beliefs, they may find more deep, relevant, philosophical ways in which they disagree (e.g., less obvious beliefs, or more deeply held beliefs). Glover thinks that people often manage to find agreements and consensus through philosophy. He says that at the very least, if people do not convert each other, they will hold their own beliefs more openmindedly and will be less likely to go to war over conflicting beliefs. The British philosopher Stephen Law has described some belief systems (including belief in homeopathy, psychic powers, and alien abduction) as "claptrap '' and said that they "draw people in and hold them captive so they become willing slaves to victory... if you get sucked in, it can be extremely difficult to think your way clear again ''.

who sings look at what you made me do

Look What You Made Me Do - wikipedia "Look What You Made Me Do '' is a song recorded by American singer - songwriter Taylor Swift, released on August 24, 2017 by Big Machine Records as the lead single from her sixth studio album Reputation (2017). Swift wrote the song with her producer Jack Antonoff. "Look What You Made Me Do '' is a electroclash and pop song, and lyrics that portrays various issues that built her reputation. Right Said Fred band members Fred Fairbrass, Richard Fairbrass, and Rob Manzoli are also credited as songwriters since it samples the melody of their song "I 'm Too Sexy ''. The song broke a string of records, including the record for the most plays in a single day on Spotify. Commercially, "Look What You Made Me Do '' has topped the charts in Australia, Canada, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Ireland, Israel, Lebanon, Malaysia, the Netherlands, the Philippines, Slovakia, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It has received a Double Platinum certification in Canada and Platinum certifications in the United States and Australia. The song received a mixed response from music critics, with division over Swift 's stylistic change. The music video was directed by Joseph Kahn and became the most - watched music video within 24 hours. On August 23, 2017, Swift announced that the first single of her upcoming sixth album, titled Reputation, would come out the following night. The song was released to streaming services on August 24, and earned over eight million streams within twenty - four hours of its Spotify release, breaking the record for the highest first - day streaming for a single track. "Look What You Made Me Do '' was then released the next day onto iTunes for digital download through Big Machine Records and onto Italian contemporary hit radio before a United Kingdom radio release on August 26, 2017. It impacted American contemporary hit radio three days afterwards. A CD single release followed in Germany on October 27, 2017. A lyric video heavily based on the Saul Bass imagery used in the film Vertigo was released through Swift 's official Vevo account on August 25, 2017. The video was produced by Swift and Joseph Kahn. It gained more than 19 million views during its first 24 hours on YouTube, surpassing "Something Just like This '' by The Chainsmokers and Coldplay as the most viewed lyric video within that time period. As of November 2017, the lyric video on YouTube has amassed over 88 million views. "Look What You Made Me Do '' runs for 3 minutes and 31 seconds. Music critics have described the track as a hybrid of electroclash and pop, as well as a dance - pop and an electro - pop song. It emphasizes the blame that is placed on an enemy, in particular the line "I 've got a list of names and yours is in red, underlined ''. The middle eight of the song features Swift saying, "I 'm sorry, the old Taylor ca n't come to the phone right now / Why? / Oh, ' cause she 's dead! '' "Look What You Made Me Do '' is performed in the key of A minor with a tempo of 128 beats per minute. Swift 's vocals span from G to F. Critic Brittany Spanos of Rolling Stone noted a "nightmarish aesthetic '' present in the song, and believed it to be a continuation of the "antagonistic persona '' from "Bad Blood ''. Richard Fairbrass, Fred Fairbrass and Rob Manzoli, the members of the British dance - pop group Right Said Fred, are credited as songwriters because the song interpolates the melody of their song "I 'm Too Sexy ''. According to Fred Fairbrass, he and his brother were contacted one week before the release of "Look What You Made Me Do '' and were asked whether a "big, contemporary female artist who has n't released anything for a while '' -- whose identity they were not told -- would be able to use a portion of their song for her latest single. Although the brothers agreed to a deal, they did not officially find out that the artist in question was Swift until the morning after the song was released, but had deduced that it was her based on the description they were given. Both of the Fairbrass brothers said that they enjoyed "Look What You Made Me Do ''; Fred Fairbrass told Rolling Stone, "I like the cynical aspect of the lyric, because ' I 'm Too Sexy ' is a cynical song, and I think she channeled that quite well. '' A representative for Swift confirmed that the song interpolated the melody from "I 'm Too Sexy '', but did not include sampled audio from the earlier song. "Look What You Made Me Do '' received polarized reviews from critics. USA Today said that the polarizing reaction to the song illustrated Swift 's position as a "ubiquitous cultural force ''. The Telegraph Randy Lewis praised the song, deeming Swift and Antonoff 's work as "blow (ing) past the production clichés of clap tracks and hiccuped syllabic hooks that have proliferated across Top 40 fare in recent years with boldly inventive textures and fresh melodic, rhythmic and sonic accents ''. He also added how the track musically and sonically shifted alongside the lyrics. Sarah Carson of the Los Angeles Times wrote a positive review of the song, saying: "The reverberating crescendo builds and ever more delicious is the wickedness of Swift 's menacing protagonist '', praising Swift for her successful embrace of the villain character the media has portrayed her as previous to the song 's release. Variety 's Chris Willman also praised Swift 's embrace of a darker - styled pop music and the stylistic conflict between the song 's pre-chorus and chorus. Mark Harris, in New York magazine 's pop culture blog, thought of Swift 's song as a pop art anthem for the Trump era in how she reappropriates her public feuds as empowering badges of honor without acknowledging her own responsibility or blame. However, Maura Johnston of The Guardian wrote a negative review of the song, faulting the "sloppy '' lyrics and blaming Swift for not giving a clear context in the lyrics. Brittany Spanos of Rolling Stone believed that the song marked a continuation of the feud between Swift and rapper Kanye West; the latter had previously name - dropped Swift in his song "Famous '' by using the line, "I feel like me and Taylor might still have sex / Why? / I made that bitch famous ''. The single was noted as being a darker, angrier work than what Swift had done before. Hugh McIntye of Forbes was critical of the change in style, saying that it "did n't sound like (Swift) '' and that it "may have some kinks to work out ''. Meaghan Garvey from Pitchfork referred to it in a review as "a hardcore self - own '' track. In the United States, "Look What You Made Me Do '' debuted at number seventy - seven on the Billboard Hot 100, powered by its first three days of airplay. It also sold slightly under 200,000 digital copies within its first day of sales in the country, where it became the fastest selling download since Ed Sheeran 's "Shape of You ''. One week later, the song ascended from # 77 to # 1 on the Hot 100 after its first full week of tracking, becoming the fifth largest rise to the top position and Swift 's fifth number - one single in the United States. It also topped the nation 's Streaming Songs chart with 84.4 million streams, becoming its most streamed song within a week by a female artist and second overall behind the 103 million that Baauer 's "Harlem Shake '' gained in 2013. The track also had more weekly streams in the US than any other song in 2017. With 353,000 copies sold in its first week, "Look What You Made Me Do '' opened atop the US Digital Songs chart and had the country 's biggest sales opening since Justin Timberlake 's "Ca n't Stop the Feeling! '' in 2016 as well as the best weekly sales for a song by a female artist since Adele 's "Hello '' in 2015. The track also became the country 's first number - one song with a female artist since Halsey was featured on "Closer '' by The Chainsmokers and the first song with a female lead artist since Sia 's "Cheap Thrills '' with Sean Paul (both in 2016). It additionally was the first solo song by a female to top the US charts since Adele 's "Hello ''. It remained atop the Hot 100 and Streaming Songs charts for a second week with 114,000 copies sold and 61.2 million streams, though descended to number two on the Digital Songs chart when another Reputation track titled "... Ready for It? '' debuted at number one with 135,000 digital copies sold and opened at number four on the Hot 100. As a result, Swift became the first artist to have two tracks sell over 100,000 digital copies in the nation within a week since Sheeran with "Shape of You '' and "Castle on the Hill ''. It also became the first time a female had two songs within the top five of the Hot 100 since 2015 when Swift 's previous tracks "Blank Space '' and "Shake It Off '' respectively were at numbers four and five on the chart. The single also topped the Mainstream Top 40 chart, becoming Swift 's eighth single to do so. However, a week after reaching number one on the Mainstream Top 40, it moved to number 7, being the largest fall from the top in the chart 's history; and from number 5 to number 20 on the all - format Radio Songs chart, the biggest drop from the top five in that chart 's 27 - year history. In the United Kingdom, "Look What You Made Me Do '' sold 20,000 copies and was streamed 2.4 million times in less than a week. The song debuted at the top the UK Singles Chart on September 1, 2017 -- for the week ending date September 7, 2017 -- with opening sales of 30,000 copies and 5.3 million streams within the week and becoming Swift 's first chart - topping song in Britain. After two weeks at the top spot, it was displaced by Sam Smith 's "Too Good at Goodbyes ''. "Look What You Made Me Do '' also debuted at number one in the Republic of Ireland on September 1, 2017 and became Swift 's first song to top the Irish Singles Chart. In doing so, it surpassed the number three peaks of her singles "Love Story '' (in 2009) and "Shake It Off '' (in 2014). "Look What You Made Me Do '' opened at number one in Australia on September 2, 2017, becoming her fifth track to top the ARIA Charts. It spent another week at the nation 's summit before "Too Good at Goodbyes '' took the top position there as well. The song has been certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 70,000 units. After debuting at number one on the Canadian Hot 100, "Look What You Made Me Do '' was also certified Platinum by Music Canada for shipments of 80,000 units on September 14, 2017. In New Zealand, "Look What You Made Me Do '' entered at the number one spot on September 1, 2017, becoming Swift 's fourth chart - topping single there. In the Philippines, "Look What You Made Me Do '' debuted at number 7 spot on the Philippine Hot 100 on its first week. A week later, it soared to the number 1 spot, ending the 10 - week reign of "Despacito '' by Luis Fonsi & Daddy Yankee featuring Justin Bieber. It descended to the runner - up position the following week, as the latter song reclaimed the top spot for an 11th week. The official music video premiered on August 27, 2017 at the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards. The song 's music video broke the record for most - watched video within 24 hours by achieving 43.2 million views on YouTube in its first day. It topped the 27.7 million Vevo views Adele 's "Hello '' attracted in that timeframe, as well as the 36 million YouTube views of Psy 's "Gentleman '' video. It was viewed at an average 30,000 times per minute in its first 24 hours, with views reaching over 3 million views per hour. Preparation for the music video began in January, while the shooting took place in May. The dance was choreographed by Tyce Diorio, who had worked with Swift on "Shake It Off '' before. Swift 's make - up as a zombie was done by Bill Corso. Post-production of the video lasted until the morning of its release. A 20 - second music video teaser was released on Good Morning America on August 25. It was also revealed that the diamonds used in a scene were authentic. The diamonds, loaned from celebrity jeweler Neil Lane, were said to be worth over $10 million, hence triggering tight security measures. As of November 2017, the video has over 703 million views and broke the record for the fastest video to reach 200, 300 and 400 million views on YouTube. It is the 19th most liked video on YouTube with over 6.55 million likes. Swift has said that part of the premise of the video is rooted in the idea that, "If everything you write about me was true, this is how ridiculous it would look. '' The video begins with a zombie Swift crawling out of a grave, where the headstone reads "Here Lies Taylor Swift 's reputation '', and digging another grave for her Met Gala 2014 self. The next scene shows Swift in a bathtub filled with diamonds. She is then seen seated on a throne while snakes surround her and serve tea. Swift later crashes her golden Bugatti Veyron on a post and sings the song 's chorus holding a Grammy as the paparazzi take photos. She is also seen swinging inside a cage, robbing a streaming company in a cat mask, and leading a motorcycle gang. Afterwards, she gathers a group of women at "Squad U '' and dances with a group of men in another room. At the video 's climax, Swift is seen standing in a T - shaped throne while clones of herself fight each other trying to reach her. At the end of the video, the clones bicker with one another, describing each other as "so fake '' and "playing the victim '', ending with one saying "I would very much like to be excluded from this narrative '' after which the other Taylors yell at her to "shut up! '' in unison, while the version of Swift in the background watches in silence. The video contains numerous hidden meanings and references. In the opening scene, there is a subtle "Nils Sjöberg '' tombstone shown when Swift is digging up a grave, referencing the pseudonym she used for a songwriting credit on Calvin Harris ' 2016 single "This Is What You Came For ''. Similarly, Swift -- masked as a cadaveric version of herself in the "Out of the Woods '' music video -- was shown digging a grave for herself in a 2014 Met Gala gown, an event that characterized her first public appearance with short hair. A single dollar bill in the bathtub full of diamonds that she bathes in was also speculated to symbolize the dollar she was awarded for winning a sexual assault trial earlier in 2017. Interpretations for the bathtub scene were contrasting. Some believe that it is a response to media statement teasing that she "cries in a marble bathtub surrounded by pearls. In a separate scene, Swift is shown sitting atop a golden throne, where a carving of a phrase "Et tu, Brute? '' could be seen on the armrest, a reference to Shakespeare 's drama Julius Caesar. Swift 's infamous title as a "snake '' during her hiatus was also represented when a snake slithers onto the throne to serve Swift some tea. When Swift 's car crashes, some speculated that it may be a jab at Katy Perry as Swift 's hairdo is similar to Perry 's in the scene. The sports car is also reminiscent of a car in Perry 's "Waking Up in Vegas '' video. She is also holding a Grammy Award in the scene, a possible reference to the fact that Perry has never won any Grammys despite multiple nominations. Swift 's withdrawal of her entire music catalog from streaming services were hinted when Swift and her crew walked out of a streaming company in the video. Swift gathering at "Squad U '' was also said to be a reply to the media dubbing her close friends as a "squad ''. During the second chorus, Swift can be seen with eight men, each of which revealed an "I Heart TS '' crop top after unbuttoning a jacket. This scene is an apparent tribute to her ex-boyfriend Tom Hiddleston, who was seen wearing an "I Heart TS '' tank top when they were a couple. The eight backup dancers may also have been a possible reference to the idea that Swift has had eight ex-boyfriends during her career. Swift was also seen standing on a pile of clones of herself, reiterating the idea that she is leaving her past self behind. The shirt that one of the clones wore in the "You Belong with Me '' video was also different, with her close friends ' names scribbled on it this time. In June 2016, discussing the relationship between her and Kanye West after West 's song "Famous '', Swift wrote on Instagram, "I would very much like to be excluded from this narrative. '' The same line is spoken by one of Swift 's iterations at the end of the video. She is wearing the same outfit Swift had worn during the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, when West interrupted her award - winning speech for Best Female Video. The song was nominated for "Best Music Video '' at the 2017 MTV Europe Music Awards and 2017 NRJ Music Awards. ABC used the song in a promotional video for its Shonda Rhimes ' Thursday line - up an hour after its release. Sister network ESPN used it in its college football telecast advertisements for the season opening game between Alabama and Florida State, which was aired on ABC on September 2 along with her other song... Ready For It?. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone

who has lay in state at the us capitol

Lying in state - wikipedia Lying in state is the tradition in which the body of a dead official is placed in a state building, either outside or inside a coffin, to allow the public to pay their respects. It traditionally takes place in the principal government building of a country, state, or city. While the practice differs among countries, a viewing in a location other than the principal government building may be referred to as lying in repose. In Canada, official lying in state is a part of a state funeral, an honor generally reserved for former Governors General and former Prime Ministers. It is held in the Centre Block of Parliament Hill, in the national capital, Ottawa, Ontario. Ex-governors general lie in state in the Senate Chamber while former prime ministers lie in the Hall of Honour. During the period of lying in state, the coffins are flanked at each corner by a Guard of honour, made up of four members drawn from the Canadian Forces and Royal Canadian Mounted Police, as well as members of the Governor General 's Foot Guards for former governors general, and guards from the parliamentary security forces for former prime ministers. Guards stand at each corner with heads bowed and weapons inverted (resting on Arms reversed) with their backs turned towards the casket. Provinces may also mount state funerals and have a lying in state for a distinguished former resident. For instance, Maurice Richard, nationally known hockey player, was given a state funeral by the province of Quebec when he died in 2000; his coffin lay in state at the Molson Centre. This process was repeated for fellow Canadiens legend Jean Béliveau in December 2014. Municipalities may offer civic funerals to prominent deceased current or former politicians. In North Korea, the body of the late leader Kim Jong - il was displayed in a glass coffin surrounded with red flowers at the Kumsusan Memorial Palace in Pyongyang prior to his funeral, which began and ended at the palace. An honor guard armed with AK - 47s was present. Jong - il 's father Kim Il - sung, the founding president, is on display elsewhere in the palace. In Russia, during the time of the Soviet Union (1917 -- 1991), the state funerals of the most senior political and military leaders, such as Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Andropov, and Konstantin Chernenko all followed the same basic outline. They took place in Moscow, beginning with a public lying in state of the deceased in the House of the Unions, and ending with an interment at Red Square. For the lying in state at the House of the Unions, the coffin would be placed on display in the Column Hall, which would be decorated by flowers, numerous red flags and other communist symbols. The mourners, which usually would be brought in by the thousands, shuffled up a marble staircase beneath chandeliers draped in black gauze. On the stage at the left side of the Column Hall, a full orchestra in black tailcoats played classical music. The deceased 's embalmed body, dressed in a black suit, white shirt and a tie, was displayed in an open coffin on a catafalque banked with carnations, red roses and tulips, facing the queue of mourners. A small guard of honour would be in attendance in the background. At the right side of the hall, seats were placed for guests of honour, with the front row reserved for the dead leader 's family. On the day of the funeral, a military funeral parade would take place during which the coffin would be conveyed from the House of the Unions to Red Square where burial would take place. Lenin and Stalin were placed inside the Lenin Mausoleum, while Brezhnev, Andropov, and Chernenko were interred in individual graves in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis. At state funerals in Singapore, the national flag is put on the coffin. The vigil guard may be deployed during the public lying in state of the deceased person at Parliament House. The deployment of the vigil guard is the highest form of respect accorded by the nation to the deceased. Similar to British traditions, the vigil guard is composed of groups of five commissioned officers from the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) and Singapore Police Force (SPF) who stand guard around the clock in shifts of 30 minutes. One of the five officers stands facing outward at each of the four corners of the casket, while the fifth and most senior one stands in front and faces inward. Their heads are bowed and their ceremonial swords are inverted. Vigil guards were stationed at the public lying in state of Goh Keng Swee in May 2010, Lee Kuan Yew in March 2015 as well as SR Nathan in August 2016. Nelson Mandela was the first democratically elected president to lie in state in South Africa. The event took place at the Union Buildings, the same site where he was inaugurated as the President of South Africa on May 10, 1994. The body of Mandela was lying in State for three days, starting on Wednesday, December 11, 2013 and ending Friday, December 13. The body was viewed by thousands of South Africans before it was airlifted to Qunu in the Eastern Cape where Mandela was buried on December 15, 2013. In state and ceremonial funerals in the United Kingdom, the lying - in - state takes place in Westminster Hall. The coffin is placed on a catafalque and is guarded, around the clock, by detachments, each of four men, from the following units: Each unit mans the guard for a total of six hours, with each detachment standing post for twenty minutes. The four men stand at each corner with heads bowed and weapons inverted; their backs are turned towards the coffin. On two occasions, the guard has been mounted by four male members of the Royal Family. At the lying in state of King George V in 1936, the guard was mounted by his four sons King Edward VIII, the Duke of York (George VI), the Duke of Gloucester and the Duke of Kent. For Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother 's lying - in - state in 2002, the guard was mounted by her four grandsons, the Prince of Wales, the Duke of York, the Earl of Wessex, and Viscount Linley. Lying in state is the rare honor granted by the United States to a deceased official whereby his or her remains are placed in the rotunda of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C., for public viewing. The casket is guarded by members of the armed forces. By regulation and custom, only Presidents, military commanders, and members of Congress are granted the honor of lying in state. Except for Presidents and former Presidents, the honor is not automatic. Not all those entitled to the honor have it accepted by their survivors. The first leader to receive this honor was Henry Clay, former Speaker of the House of Representatives, when he died in 1852. Since then, the honor has been extended to 29 people, including eleven Presidents. The process of lying in state at the Capitol is as follows. The coffin or casket is usually placed on a catafalque, usually the Lincoln catafalque, so named as it was constructed for lying in state upon the death of Abraham Lincoln, after his assassination in 1865. The casket is guarded at each of its corners by a serviceperson from each of the branches of the armed forces. In contrast to the practice in the United Kingdom and other countries of the Commonwealth, guards at the Capitol face the casket, hold their rifles with their right hand, and keep the rifle butt resting on the floor. After the viewing and ceremony at the Capitol, the remains are taken to the burial location. The United States Congress has created a similar -- though not identical -- privilege for distinguished Americans who do not qualify for a lying in state designation. In the process of "lying in honor, '' the honor guard in the Rotunda is provided by the Capitol Police or another suitable source. In 1998, Chestnut and Gibson were killed while defending the Capitol against Russell Eugene Weston Jr. Congress approved their remains to lie in honor in the Rotunda. Chestnut was the first African American to lie in honor. In 2005, upon the death of civil rights activist Rosa Parks, Congress authorized her remains to lie in honor at the Rotunda; Parks was the second African American and the first woman to lie in honor in the Capitol Rotunda. Graham was the first religious leader to be honored in this way. Supreme Court Justices "lie in repose '' in the Great Hall of the United States Supreme Court Building. Some U.S. states and cities extend similar honors. For example, in the state of Hawaii, three people have been laid in state at the Hawaii State Capitol, among which include famous Hawaiian singer Israel Kamakawiwoʻole upon his death in 1997, and the aforementioned Daniel Inouye, President pro tempore of the U.S. Senate and Senator from Hawaii. In the City of San Francisco, California, Mayor Ed Lee laid in state at the Rotunda of San Francisco City Hall after his death in office in 2017. A deceased pope customarily lies in state in the chapel of the Apostolic Palace and then in St. Peter 's Basilica, between the holding of a Mass of Visitation and a Mass of Requiem. The funeral of Pope John Paul II was an example of this custom. The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria has a tradition of mummifying the deceased pope and placing his body on his throne to enable church followers to have a farewell look at him for a short period of time. This tradition is one of the ways that ancient Egyptian rituals have survived in the Egyptian church.

how old was piper when she had wyatt

Piper Halliwell - wikipedia Piper Halliwell is a fictional character from the American television series Charmed, played by Holly Marie Combs from October 7, 1998 until May 21, 2006. The character was created by Constance M. Burge, who based Piper on her second - oldest sister. Piper is introduced into the series as the middle sister to Prue (Shannen Doherty) and Phoebe Halliwell (Alyssa Milano). She is one of the original featured leads and, more specifically, a Charmed One -- one of the most powerful witches of all time. Piper initially possesses the power to freeze her surrounding environment. As the series progresses, she also receives the power to cause evil beings or objects to spontaneously explode using her hands. During the first three seasons, Piper is portrayed as the "sweet '', "sensitive middle sister '', and peacemaker of the group as she often attempts to keep the peace between her two sisters. She later develops a more aggressive and protective personality when she becomes the eldest sister from season four onwards, following Prue 's death and the introduction of their younger half - sister Paige Matthews (Rose McGowan). Piper 's storylines have often revolved around her protecting innocents and defeating the forces of evil in San Francisco with her sisters, as well as leading a normal life as a chef for a restaurant and later as the owner of a nightclub. Piper 's central love interest throughout the series is Leo Wyatt (Brian Krause), the sisters ' Whitelighter -- a guardian angel for good witches. After the pair temporarily split in season two, a love triangle forms between Piper, Leo, and her neighbor Dan Gordon (Greg Vaughan). Piper and Leo eventually marry in season three, and later have a son named Wyatt in season five. They separate again at the end of season five, and Piper starts dating other men in the subsequent season. However, Piper and Leo reconnect towards the end of season six, resulting in a second son named Chris. The character received a positive reception from television critics, who praised Combs ' performance as Piper and her relationship with Leo. Combs garnered various awards and nominations for her portrayal of Piper. In 2007 and 2008, AOL TV ranked Piper third on their list of the Top TV Witches, behind Samantha Stephens from Bewitched and Willow Rosenberg from Buffy the Vampire Slayer. She was ranked both sixth on E! Online 's 2011 list of the "Top 10 Most Bitchin ' Witches '', and The Huffington Post 's 2016 list of "The Top 10 Greatest Witches of All Time ''. In addition to the television series, the character has also appeared in numerous expanded universe material, such as the Charmed novels and its comic book adaptation. In 1998, The WB began searching for a drama series, and looked to Spelling Television, which had produced the network 's most successful series 7th Heaven, to create it. Expanding on the popularity of supernatural - themed dramas, the production company explored forms of mythology to find mythological characters they could focus on with contemporary storytelling. In order to create the series, Constance M. Burge was hired as the creator as she was under contract with 20th Century Fox and Spelling Television after conceiving the drama Savannah. The character of Piper Halliwell was conceived by Burge, who wrote the pilot script for Charmed. The pilot script was based around three mismatched sisters who are initially based on Burge and her two older sisters, Laura and Edie Burge. Piper is based on Burge 's second - oldest sister Edie. On creating Piper, Burge stated "The middle sibling typically tends to be a real people pleaser and very funny, tends to deal with life with a lot of humour. That really applied to my sister, Edie and so I could see the character of Piper (through her). '' Executive producer Brad Kern stated that Piper was written into the series as "the middle sister just trying to keep the peace, trying to find love, trying to find her career, and trying to keep Prue and Phoebe from killing each other. '' When the series was in its first development stages, executive producer Aaron Spelling had always known who he wanted for the role of Prue, Shannen Doherty, an actress from a previous Spelling Television series, Beverly Hills, 90210. Doherty already devoted to the project pitched the idea of her best friend for the role of Piper Halliwell, former Picket Fences actress Holly Marie Combs. Doherty played the role of Prue in a 28 - minute test pilot (the "unaired pilot '', never aired on television) alongside Combs and actress Lori Rom who played the youngest sister Phoebe Halliwell. Rom quit the series and a new pilot was filmed with former Who 's the Boss actress Alyssa Milano, who took over the role of Phoebe. Piper is the second eldest Halliwell sister and is portrayed by Holly Marie Combs in all of the show 's aired 178 episodes as well as the unaired pilot, making Combs the only cast member to appear in the complete series and the first pilot. At the start of season one (1998 -- 99), six months have passed since the death of her Grams, Penny Halliwell (Jennifer Rhodes). Piper having already moved back into her family 's Victorian Manor with her eldest sister Prue (Shannen Doherty), is later joined by their youngest sister Phoebe (Alyssa Milano). On the night of Phoebe 's return, she finds a book called the Book of Shadows within the Manor 's attic. After Phoebe unknowingly recites aloud what turns out to be an incantation from the book, the three sisters each receive a magical power and discover their destiny as The Charmed Ones -- the most powerful good witches the world has ever known. Initially Piper receives the power to "freeze '' her surrounding environment, beginning as she freezes her chef boss in a timed situation. A major plot for the first episode of the series focuses on Piper realizing that her boyfriend, Jeremy (Eric Scott Woods), is a warlock, when he seizes upon the opportunity to kill her for her powers, forcing Piper and her sisters to vanquish him. Due to her role as the middle sister, Piper is often regarded as the peacemaker of the group as she often attempts to keep the peace between the headstrong Prue and free - spirited Phoebe. During this season, Piper works at the restaurant Quake as a chef and later as its manager. She develops an on - again off - again relationship with the handy - man Leo Wyatt (Brian Krause) who she later discovers to be her whitelighter -- a guardian angel for good witches. In the second season (1999 -- 2000), Piper has quit her job at Quake and has ventured into running her own business in the form of the nightclub P3. After her split with Leo, due to the strenuous nature his Whitelighter duties place on their romantic relationship, Piper begins to date her neighbor Dan Gordon (Greg Vaughan) in an attempt at a normal relationship. This causes major conflict as Leo and Piper retain lingering feelings for one another resulting in a love triangle between the three characters. As Piper hones her skills as a witch and a business owner, she eventually comes to the conclusion that despite her love for Dan, her heart will always belong to Leo. Piper later breaks up with Dan and reconciles with Leo. In the season two finale, Piper and her sisters discover that the many attacks on their lives by evil beings have been orchestrated by a demonic force known as The Council. Piper also desires to learn more about Leo 's life as a whitelighter and asks him to take her to meet The Elders, senior whitelighters who act as the authoritative council for all of good magic. The couple are last seen orbing off to The Elders ' heavenly realm. In season three (2000 -- 01), after being detained "Up There '' for a month, Piper and Leo are told by The Elders to end their relationship or Leo will no longer be the sisters ' whitelighter. Leo subsequently proposes marriage to Piper claiming that once married The Elders will not have the power to break them apart. Leo and Piper attempt to wed in secret during a solar eclipse, a phenomenon which prevents those "Up There '' from looking down on Earth, but are caught in the act when The Elders are informed of the wedding by The Triad (who have replaced The Council), who in turn learned of the wedding through their demonic spy Cole Turner (Julian McMahon). Leo is taken into captivity by The Elders as punishment for breaking their rules and Piper is left heartbroken. After Piper makes the choice to continue to protect innocents despite losing Leo, The Elders return Leo to Earth. The Elders allow the couple to prove that their relationship will not interfere with their greater calling. Leo and Piper are finally allowed to wed in mid-season three. Piper and her sisters eventually learn that The Triad work for an even greater evil, The Source of All Evil who is the leader of the demonic realm known as The Underworld. Before the season 's end, Piper acquires her second magical ability, the power to cause explosions. During the season three finale, Prue and Piper unwittingly expose themselves as witches to the world after being caught on camera by a local news crew fighting with The Source 's personal assassin Shax. In the aftermath of the exposure, Piper is shot by a crazed Wiccan fanatic who wanted to join the sisters ' coven and dies in the arms of Prue. In order to save her sister 's life, Prue orders Leo to find Phoebe and pass on a deal to The Source to turn back time. This would reset the exposure of magic and save Piper 's life. The Source agrees, knowing that he plans to double cross her in the end as Phoebe will be immune to the time reset while in The Underworld. In the end Phoebe will not be able to warn her sisters ' of the assassin attack and he will kill her himself. Time is reversed to the sisters ' first encounter with Shax, however Phoebe no longer answers when Prue calls for help, as she was never sent back. The season ends on a cliffhanger with Piper and Prue left for dead after losing in the fight against Shax. Meanwhile, Phoebe remains trapped in The Underworld. In the opening episode of the fourth season (2001 -- 02), "Charmed Again (Part 1) '', it is revealed Piper has been healed of her injuries from the season three finale and Prue was unable to be saved. Piper attempts numerous spells to resurrect Prue to no avail, and when she comes into contact with her Grams, it is revealed that Prue is still struggling to adjust to being in the afterlife and that she is being helped to process her actual death by both Penny and the girls ' mother Patty Halliwell (Finola Hughes). Penny also reveals to Piper that Prue can not be summoned back to Earth because seeing Prue would not allow the sisters to grieve and move on to continue their destiny. This leads to Piper being broken and outraged towards everyone around her, especially to Leo which she states "saved the wrong sister ''. Finally accepting Prue is really gone, she attends the funeral of her big sister. This results in Phoebe having a premonition to save a young girl at the funeral and later discovering her identity as their younger half - sister Paige Matthews (Rose McGowan). A love child between their mother and her whitelighter, who was kept secret because of her whitelighter heritage. Piper struggles to accept the new sister and role of the now eldest sibling as she and Paige initially butt heads, but eventually grow to have a mutual respect for each other. With the addition of Paige, Piper and Phoebe are able to reconstitute the Power of Three and avenge Prue 's death in vanquishing her murderer Shax and The Source himself twice -- both in his original incarnation and that of his next incarnation, Cole. The sisters are later visited by the Angel of Destiny (Dakin Matthews) and given an offer to live a normal life without magical powers or the threat of demons. After Piper declines alongside her sisters, the Angel informs her that she is pregnant with her first child. In season five (2002 -- 03), the powers of her unborn child makes Piper indestructible. Initially, the baby makes her self - healing, and later protects her with a force field. When the child is born, to everyone 's surprise, a boy -- in a trip to the future she had only seen a daughter -- Piper names him Wyatt Matthew Halliwell. Piper 's son is discovered to be The Twice - Blessed Child, the most powerful magical being of all time, which attracts even more demons into the sisters ' lives. In the fifth - season finale, a whitelighter from the future named Chris (Drew Fuller) arrives to assist the sisters against the ancient Titans of mythology. After the Elders are forced into hiding by the Titans, Chris manipulates events so that Leo has to become an Elder, causing him to separate from Piper. Piper is so angry that she initially refuses to give up her temporary powers (those of Demeter, Goddess of Earth), though Leo uses his newfound powers to artificially alleviate her pain. In season six (2003 -- 04), Piper again clings to goddess powers when she finds temporarily becoming a valkyrie a better alternative than living with the pain of Leo leaving her. Her sisters use a spell to bring back Piper 's feelings of loss. She begins to recover from her separation from Leo and date again, though Chris (in reality, Piper 's second son from the future) tries to stop this from happening. Chris is able to temporarily reunite Piper and Leo in the episode "The Courtship of Wyatt 's Father '' in order to ensure his conception. After gaining the sisters ' trust, Chris informs them that his true mission is to prevent Wyatt from growing up to be the evil dictator he becomes in the future. Unlike her pregnancy with Wyatt, the pregnancy with Chris offers Piper no protection and she is forced to relocate to Magic School, with Wyatt, for her own protection. The Elder Gideon (Gildart Jackson), also headmaster of Magic School, attempts to kill baby Wyatt in order to prevent this future but is killed by Leo in the season six finale, the same episode in which future Chris dies and present - day Chris is born. Season seven (2004 -- 05) starts with Piper and Leo attending two Indian friends ' wedding, where they are possessed by the spirits of two passing Hindu deities, Shakti and Shiva. Piper uses these powers to defend herself from demons dispatched to kill her by old enemy Barbas (Billy Drago). In the episode "Someone to Witch Over Me '', Leo concedes to the offer of membership extended by The Avatars (powerful neutral beings who seek to create a Utopian reality). He informs Piper of his decision in the episode "There 's Something About Leo '' and later urges the sisters to join sides with The Avatars in their plan to turn the world into a utopia against the warnings of Paige 's boyfriend Kyle Brody (Kerr Smith) and The Elders. Realising the Utopia robs people of their free will, Leo sacrifices himself. Piper realises her children 's pain over their father 's loss and allies with The Underworld 's new leader, Zankou (Oded Fehr), to force The Avatars to rewind time to before the change took place. Leo later chooses to return to Piper in the 150th episode, "The Seven Year Witch '', at the expense of his magical abilities, becoming mortal. Piper and Leo encounter evil Future Wyatt (Wes Ramsey) for themselves in the episode "Imaginary Fiends '', but are able to stop the last impediment to his becoming a power for good. In the season seven finale, the sisters are forced to fake their deaths after they destroy Zankou and escape the constant threat of demon attacks, as well as police and government investigations. The eighth and final season (2005 -- 06) begins with the sisters assuming new identities (those of their fictitious cousins), with Piper assuming the identity of Jenny Bennett (Beatrice Rosen) and later Jamie Bennett (Regan Nicole Wallake). The sisters also take on neophyte witch Billie Jenkins (Kaley Cuoco) to do some of their magical legwork for them when she discovers who they really are. They later resume their real identities in the episode "Rewitched '' with the help of federal agent Murphy (Brandon Quinn) in exchange for helping the FBI handle supernatural investigations. An Angel of Destiny (Denise Dowse) seizes Leo in the episode "Vaya Con Leos '' to motivate Piper against their final threat as Charmed Ones. This turns out to be Billie and her sister, Christy (Marnette Patterson), who believe the sisters have stopped using their powers for good. In the penultimate episode, "Kill Billie, Vol. 2 '', the two sets of sisters undertake an all - out battle, which destroys the Halliwell Manor, and only Piper and Billie survive. In the series finale, "Forever Charmed '', Piper uses cupid Coop 's (Victor Webster) time - traveling ring to call upon her mother and grandmother and save the lives of her sisters. After Christy is defeated, Piper and her sisters write about their lives in the Book of Shadows. An epilogue depicts Piper with her three children including the addition of a daughter who she calls Melinda, and then living to old age (played by Ellen Geer) and being surrounded by children and grandchildren. As one of the central characters throughout the entire series, Piper appears in the majority of Charmed literature. These appearances first began in the series of novels. The novels follow no strict continuity with the series or each other, and are often considered to be non-canon. However, the television series producers have final approval of everything in the novels, which could indicate the literature fitting into the established canon of the series and the so - called "Charmed universe ''. Piper 's first appearance in Charmed literature takes place within the novel The Power of Three by Eliza Willard on November 1, 1999, which acts as a novelised version of the series premiere episode. Her last appearance in a Charmed novel takes place within Trickery Treat by Diana G. Gallagher on January 1, 2008. In 2010, Charmed gained an officially licensed continuation in the form of a comic book, which is often billed as Charmed: Season 9. The series is published monthly by Zenescope Entertainment. Set eighteen - months after the series finale, the sisters are seen living happy demon free lives and have each entered into motherhood. Piper has had a third child, a girl named Prudence Melinda and is planning on opening her own restaurant. In Issue # 4, Mortal Enemies, Piper develops a new power in the form of distorting the molecules of objects when she melts the ground to trap the resurrected Source of All Evil. In Charmed it is revealed that magical witches can develop and master a variety of magical skills and powers which include scrying, spell casting, and brewing potent potions. As a magical witch Piper can utilize scrying, a divination art form that allows one to locate a missing object or person. Piper can also cast spells, often written in iambic pentameter or as a rhyming couplet, to influence others or the world around her. She can also brew potions, most often used to vanquish foes or to achieve other magical feats similar to the effects of a spell. As a witch and Charmed One, Piper has also developed a number of magical powers which include molecular immobilization, molecular combustion, and molecular acceleration. As Piper first comes into her powers, the first power she develops is the ability to slow down molecular motion so that objects, people, and even energy discharges instantly freeze in place. In the Charmed series, certain magical powers are attached to emotional triggers, although all powers can be affected by the user 's emotions. For Piper, the emotional trigger for her freezing power is panic induced situations which enact a fear response. At first Piper would freeze everything in the immediate area whenever startled. Gradually, Piper learned to control this ability and freeze everything in the immediate area by a conscious act of will and gesturing. She must be able to gesture to activate her freezing power and can not do so without using her hands. Piper also learns to selectively freeze specific objects of her choosing, rather than everything in the entire area. She can even specify a particular type of entity to be frozen, as shown in Season 3, episode 1 ("The Honeymoon 's Over '') when she intentionally caused only the innocents to freeze in a courtroom, even without knowing which beings present were innocents and which were demons. When Piper was new to her powers, objects she froze would eventually regain their mobility on their own, usually after several seconds. She later learns to unfreeze at will, even freezing an entire object, then unfreezing only part of it. This can be seen in the season three episode, "Sleuthing with the Enemy '', at which point Piper freezes a Zohtar demon named Krell (Scott MacDonald) in midair, then unfreezes his head in order to interrogate him. The mass of an object seems to be no restriction on her power. Instead, the limitation of her freezing power appears to be determined by the size of the area, and she can freeze anything (except those entities immune to her powers) in the area of effect. The exact limitation has never been determined. Indoors, however, Piper is limited by the room she is in. She can freeze objects in the same room and can not freeze anything outside the room, unless she has an unobstructed path to those objects, such as through an open door or window. Certain entities have proven resistant or immune to her freezing ability, such as ghosts, furies, and certain demons and warlocks. However, as the series progresses, less and less enemies are immune to her power as it grows to the point that even The Triad, very powerful upper - level demons are frozen by it during the Charmed Ones final confrontation with their physical selves. Notably, unlike how one proved vulnerable to her combustion power, this was while the Triad was still at full power though they were seen to be starting to unfreeze before Piper unfroze them herself. In the season two episode, "Morality Bites '', Piper travels ten years into the future from the year 1999 and inhabits her future self 's body. In the episode, Piper discovers that in ten years time, her freezing power becomes ten times stronger allowing her to instantly freeze an entire city block. After returning to the present, Piper never realizes the growth of this level of power before the series comes to an end. In late season three, Piper gains the ability to cause objects or evil beings to spontaneously explode using her hands. As explained by Leo in the episode "Exit Strategy '', "(Piper 's) powers work by slowing down molecules, and apparently now (she) can speed them up as well. '' Unlike her freezing power, this new ability is triggered by anger and frustration, but is also controllable by conscious act of will and hand gestures. She also proves able to cause magical energy discharges and even living entities to explode. However, the limitations on her explosive power are even less clear than those of her freezing ability, but appear to be determined by an object 's size and durability. The largest object she ever caused to explode was a truck door entrance to a warehouse. It once took her four tries to break down a much smaller gate, although this object was magically reinforced. Over the course of the series, Piper 's power grows to the point that even the most powerful demons are affected by it; she is able to vanquish Jeric, an Egyptian demon so powerful that in the past his enemies were only able to mummify him. She was also able to vanquish one of The Triad, three very powerful demons who had no known way of vanquishing them with just three hits from the power, albeit after he was weakened by the vanquish of one of his comrades. In later seasons, she also displayed the ability to deflect enemy attacks back at them in a similar way to telekinesis. In the Charmed comics, specifically in Issue # 4, Mortal Enemies, Piper develops a new power in the form of distorting the molecules of objects when she melts the ground to trap the resurrected Source of All Evil. This power allows Piper to reverberate molecules at a speed which causes them to become disordered, resulting in either melting or burning. Heat and fire can be created with the power also, as seen in Issue # 9, The All or Nothing. Piper is proven to be a skilled chef, a talent which lends itself to her potion - making. While Piper has shown some gymnastic and athletic ability, unlike her sisters Phoebe and Prue, neither she nor Paige are particularly adept at conventional means of hand - to - hand combat. In 2001, Combs was nominated for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Science Fiction Series at the RATTY Awards for her portrayal of Piper. She was nominated for Best Science Fiction Lead Actress at the same awards ceremony in 2002 and won that category in 2003. In his review of the first season, Terry Kelleher of People magazine described Piper as "the sweet one '' out of the three Halliwell sisters. PopMatters ' Michael Abernethy wrote that Combs was "the most enjoyable to watch '' and noted that her character Piper played "the role of compassionate mediator between her two sisters '' in Charmed 's first three seasons. While reviewing the first season, Brett Cullum of DVD Verdict wrote, "Piper is the most sensitive middle sister who seems to bridge the gap between the oldest and youngest -- the diplomat. She could handle the drama handily, and anchored the show with her acting chops and Neve Campbell-esque brunette good looks. '' A writer for Film.com described Piper as "the moral compass and voice of reason for the ' Charmed Ones '. '' Rachel Day of Geek Speak magazine praised Combs ' acting on Charmed, noting that the scenes of Piper grieving over the loss of Prue in the season four episode "Hell Hath No Fury '' was "superbly done '' and showcased her "anger and pain at Pru (e) 's death. '' Day also praised Piper and Leo 's relationship as "the most successful depiction '' throughout the series. She wrote, "The relationship traveled the course from forbidden love to marriage to separation to reconciliation and a happy ending. Personally, a lot of the charm about Charmed for me was the way the show really showcased this relationship with all its up and downs. '' CNN 's Joshua Levs called Piper "the show 's solid foundation '' and commended the writers for making Piper and Leo 's relationship "interesting throughout the entire run by throwing in major wrenches left and right. I ca n't think of another series that 's pulled that off. '' In reviewing the fourth season, Leigh H. Edwards of PopMatters felt that Piper and Leo provided "engaging, often funny material '' when they were "navigating the equally momentous shoals of domesticity. '' Gillian Flynn of Entertainment Weekly commented that when it came to the comedy moments in the sixth season, Combs ' acting was the best one out of the show 's three lead actresses. Flynn described Piper as a "pert little mother '' and "purse - lipped precision underplayer. '' In his mixed review of the eighth and final season, DVD Verdict 's Ryan Keefer praised Piper 's "incredibly emotional goodbye to Leo '' in the episode "Vaya Con Leos '' and felt that she was "the saving grace for this season. '' In 2007, Piper was ranked third on AOL TV 's list of Top TV Witches, behind Samantha Stephens from Bewitched and Willow Rosenberg from Buffy the Vampire Slayer. She also ranked third on the same list the following year. In 2011, E! Online ranked Piper at number six on their list of the Top 10 Most Bitchin ' Witches, writing "You do n't have to be evil to be bitchin '. Not only does Holly Marie Combs ' witch possess... the ability to freeze time and to make objects spontaneously explode, but Piper is driven by the desire to protect her family and wo n't let anything get in her way. '' In 2016, Piper was also ranked sixth in The Huffington Post 's list of "The Top 10 Greatest Witches of All Time '', adding that "Piper is the true MVP of the Charmed Ones; over eight years she stepped into the role of family matriarch and proved that witches really can have it all, becoming a wife, mother and successful businesswoman, but never forgetting that sisterhood is everything. '' Both the show and character were referenced in the episode "Sorry for Your Loss '' of the sci - fi series The Tomorrow People, when Piper Nichols (Aeriél Miranda) introduces herself to Russell Kwon (Aaron Yoo), and he responds by saying "Charmed, Piper '' In his review of the television series Witches of East End being too similar to Charmed, Christian Cintron of Hollywood.com noted that Rachel Boston 's "high - strung but well meaning '' character Ingrid Beauchamp "could be a carbon - copy of Piper. ''

who sang it's better to burn out than fade away

Hey Hey, My My (into the black) - wikipedia "Hey Hey, My My (Into the Black) '' is a song written by Canadian musician Neil Young. Combined with its acoustic counterpart "My My, Hey Hey (Out of the Blue) '', it bookends Young 's successful 1979 album Rust Never Sleeps. Inspired by electropunk group Devo, the rise of punk and what Young viewed as his own growing irrelevance, the song significantly revitalized Young 's career at the time, and today crosses generations, inspiring admirers from punk to grunge. The song is about the alternatives of continuing to produce similar music ("to rust '' or -- in "My My, Hey Hey (Out of the Blue) '' -- "to fade away '') or to burn out. A line from the acoustic version of the song, "it 's better to burn out than to fade away, '' became infamous after being quoted in Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain 's suicide note. Young later said that he was so shaken that he dedicated his 1994 album Sleeps with Angels to Cobain. The song "Hey, Hey, My, My... '' and the title phrase of the album, "rust never sleeps '' on which it was featured sprang from Young 's encounters with Devo and in particular Mark Mothersbaugh. Devo was asked by Young in 1977 to participate in the creating of his film Human Highway. A scene in the film shows Young playing the song in its entirety with Devo, who clearly want little to do with anything "radio - friendly '' (of note is Mothersbaugh changing "Johnny Rotten '' to "Johnny Spud ''). The famous line "It 's better to burn out than it is to rust '' is often credited to Young 's friend Jeff Blackburn of The Ducks. Some reviewers viewed Young 's career as skidding after the release of American Stars ' N Bars and Comes a Time. With the explosion of punk in 1977, some punks felt that Young and his contemporaries were becoming obsolete. Young worried that they were right. The death of Elvis Presley that same year seemed to sound a death knell for rock, as The Clash cried, "No Elvis, Beatles or The Rolling Stones in 1977! '' in the song "1977 ''. From Young 's fear of becoming obsolete sprang an appreciation of the punk ethic, and the song was born, initially an acoustic lament that became "My My, Hey Hey (Out of the Blue) ''. Upon embarking on a tour with his backing band Crazy Horse, the song took on new life in a rock arrangement, punctuated by Young 's guitar solos that would go on to inspire players of the proto - grunge scene, including Sonic Youth, The Meat Puppets, Pixies and Dinosaur Jr. Upon its release, Rust Never Sleeps was hailed as a commercial and critical revitalization for Young, and the successful, bizarre tour (featuring oversized amps, road crews dressed as Jawas from the then - new film Star Wars (called Road - eyes), sound technicians in lab coats, audio recordings from Woodstock played from disintegrating tapes, etc.) earned him a new generation of fans and good will, buoyed mainly by "Hey Hey, My My ''. As Young 's commercial popularity waned in the 1980s, an underground rock movement began to embrace the artist. At a time when glam metal and bubblegum pop saturated commercial airwaves, disaffected bands used Young as a prime example of the perfect blend of noise and melody, braggadocio and vulnerability, folk and hard rock. A collection of Neil Young covers titled The Bridge emerged in the late ' 80s, featuring a veritable who 's - who of the pre-Nirvana grunge scene. When Nirvana appeared on the national stage with Nevermind, Cobain and Young took to acknowledging one another in the press. "Hey Hey, My My 's '' most memorable influence on modern rock comes from the line "It 's better to burn out than to fade away '' (actually only spoken in full in the acoustic "My My, Hey Hey '' and the Human Highway film recording). Kurt Cobain 's suicide note ended with the same line, shaking Young and inadvertently cementing his place as the so - called "Godfather of Grunge ''. Ex-Beatle John Lennon commented on the message of the song in a 1980 interview with David Sheff from Playboy: Sheff: You disagree with Neil Young 's lyric in Rust Never Sleeps: "It 's better to burn out than to fade away... '' Lennon: I hate it. It 's better to fade away like an old soldier than to burn out. If he was talking about burning out like Sid Vicious, forget it. I do n't appreciate the worship of dead Sid Vicious or of dead James Dean or dead John Wayne. It 's the same thing. Making Sid Vicious a hero, Jim Morrison -- it 's garbage to me. I worship the people who survive -- Gloria Swanson, Greta Garbo. They 're saying John Wayne conquered cancer -- he whipped it like a man. You know, I 'm sorry that he died and all that -- I 'm sorry for his family -- but he did n't whip cancer. It whipped him. I do n't want Sean worshiping John Wayne or Johnny Rotten or Sid Vicious. What do they teach you? Nothing. Death. Sid Vicious died for what? So that we might rock? I mean, it 's garbage you know. If Neil Young admires that sentiment so much, why does n't he do it? Because he sure as hell faded away and came back many times, like all of us. No, thank you. I 'll take the living and the healthy. Young would reply two years later when asked to respond to Lennon 's comments: The rock'n'roll spirit is not survival. Of course the people who play rock'n'roll should survive. But the essence of the rock'n'roll spirit to me, is that it 's better to burn out really bright than to sort of decay off into infinity. Even though if you look at it in a mature way, you 'll think, "well, yes... you should decay off into infinity, and keep going along ''. Rock'n'roll does n't look that far ahead. Rock'n'roll is right now. What 's happening right this second. Is it bright? Or is it dim because it 's waiting for tomorrow -- that 's what people want to know. And that 's why I say that. The song also influenced Britpop artists. Oasis covered the song on their 2000 world tour, including it on their live album and DVD Familiar to Millions. Not coincidentally, the band acknowledged Cobain 's attachment to the song by dedicating it to him when they played it in Seattle on the sixth anniversary of his death. Scottish band Big Country recorded a version, which can be heard on their Under Covers album, and the remastered edition of their live album Without the Aid of a Safety Net. It is also used as live - intro to System of a Down 's "Kill Rock ' n Roll '' in some live performances. The song still appears frequently on FM radio today, most often on "classic rock '' stations. Young 's penchant for "bookending '' an album with the same song in different renditions, first seen on Tonight 's the Night, returned on his second "comeback '' album, Freedom, in 1989, with "Rockin ' in the Free World ''. Young performs the song at nearly every concert in one form or another. It is included on his Greatest Hits. Many other bands and singers have played or recorded covers of this song: System of a Down (Festival of Hurricane in 2005), Dave Matthews Band, Cross Canadian Ragweed, Battleme (closing track of the Sons of Anarchy Season 3 finale), Rick Derringer, Nomeansno (FUBAR soundtrack), Mexican rock & roll band El Tri, Finnish glam rock band Negative, Argentine rock band La Renga, Chromatics, Jake Bugg (played live at the 2013 Glastonbury Festival), Axel Rudi Pell on his 2014 album Into the Storm. Romanian act Fjord covered the song for their 2016 album Textures. Brazilian doom metal band HellLight recorded a version for an album of covers (The Light That Brought Darkness in 2012). Blixa Bargeld and Teho Teardo covered the song on their 2017 album Fall. The song is the title theme of Dennis Hopper 's movie Out of the Blue. The song was included at # 93 in Bob Mersereau 's book The Top 100 Canadian Singles (2010). Peter Buck of R.E.M. has acknowledged in interviews that his band 's first hit, "The One I Love '', is actually a rewriting on Neil Young 's "Hey Hey, My My ''. Courtney Love, singer for Hole and Cobain 's widow, alludes both to this song and her husband 's suicide note in the song "Reasons To Be Beautiful '' from the album Celebrity Skin. In "Reasons To Be Beautiful, '' she changes the verse to "It 's better to rise than fade away. '' Def Leppard begins their song "Rock of Ages '' with the lines "I got something to say / It 's better to burn out than fade away ''; the same lines were used in the movie Highlander by The Kurgan and used in the Queen song "Gimme The Prize (Kurgan 's Theme) '' on their A Kind Of Magic album. Metalcore band Killswitch Engage have quoted the line in their song "New Awakening ''. The lyrics of the song, in particular "out of the blue and into the black '', are an epigraph and also a prominent feature in Stephen King 's It. Lana Del Rey mentions the song through the lyrics "out of the black, into the blue '' on her song "Get Free '' from her fifth studio album Lust for Life (Lana Del Rey album).

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Miraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir - Wikipedia Miraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir (French: Miraculous, les aventures de Ladybug et Chat Noir; also known as Miraculous Ladybug or Miraculous) is a CGI superhero animated series produced by French studios Zagtoon and Method Animation in collaboration with De Agostini Editore in Italy, Toei Animation in Japan and SAMG Animation in South Korea. The series features two Parisian teenagers, Marinette Dupain - Cheng and Adrien Agreste, who transform into the superheroes Ladybug and Cat Noir, respectively, to protect the city from supervillains. Prior to its debut in France on 19 October 2015 on TF1, the series was first shown in South Korea on 1 September 2015 on EBS1. In the United States, the series debuted on Nickelodeon on 6 December. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the show premiered on 30 January 2016 on Disney Channel. A Christmas special was released in 2016 and the second season premiered in French on TF1 and in English on Disney Channel UK in 2017. Netflix acquired the U.S. video - on - demand streaming rights and further seasons are in production. Set in modern - day Paris, the series focuses on teenagers Marinette Dupain - Cheng and Adrien Agreste. When evil arises, Marinette transforms into her secret superhero persona Ladybug, while Adrien transforms into his superhero persona Cat Noir, using magical jewels known as the Miraculous. Oblivious to each other 's true identities, the two work together to protect Paris from the mysterious villain Hawk Moth, who covets and attempts to steal their powers by using his akuma, butterflies infused with negative energy, to transform everyday citizens into supervillains. The series is based on an original concept created by French animator Thomas Astruc, who was inspired by a meeting with a certain lady, Japanese anime, and "decades of comics binge reading ''. In an interview with Nolife, Astruc said he was working as an animator on the show W.I.T.C.H. when he met a woman who had a T - shirt with a ladybug on it. They began to share drawings, some of which were ladybug - themed. Astruc also noted that Marinette 's hair was styled after the woman. They also worked on the cartoon A.T.O.M. around 2004 -- 05. Astruc first drew Ladybug on sticky notes and remarked how strong the Ladybug character was, but despite this, he had no memory of seeing any ladybug - themed superheroes in comics. Astruc had intended to make Ladybug a comic book series until he met Jeremy Zag, who loved the project and wanted to produce it as a cartoon; Zag was 25 at the time and not originally from the cartoon industry. In developing Cat Noir, Astruc said that ladybugs represented good luck, so it was natural to partner her with a black cat character with bad luck powers. Cat Noir was a tribute to comics characters like Catwoman, so it was like having Catwoman and Spider - Man in the same show but reversed genders. In 2010, the show was announced at Cannes ' MIPCOM with French production groups Univergroup Pictures and Onyx Films heading the project and working with Method Animation and Zagtoon. Aton Soumache of Onyx and Method said that they want "to create a glamourous superhero character with a real European flair with Paris as (the) backdrop. '' The producers had also planned to animate it in stereoscopic 3D. (which they did in CGI animation now.) A character named Félix was originally going to have the role of Cat Noir, but he was later scrapped in favor of Adrien because the creative team felt that Félix was a cliché of a male anime protagonist, and that Adrien would allow them to tell more interesting stories. In September 2015, Astruc indicated that he was open to revisiting the character of Félix, but he abandoned it by February 2016, writing that the character was a poor idea. In June 2012, Toei Animation, the animation studio branch owned by Toei Company in Japan, was announced as a co-producer. Two years before 2012, Toei Animation had released a Pretty Cure film that was set in Paris, France and was very interested in expanding their international audience. Even after the production was moved to CGI animation, Toei is still remained as co-producer, with the executive producers from the company being credited. On 21 November 2012, a memorandum of understanding between Zagtoon, Method Animation, SAMG Animation and SK Broadband was announced: together, the companies would invest $50 million USD through 2017 into five projects. The first of these projects developed into Miraculous, which received an investment of $10 million. As a part of the deal, SK Broadband would have exclusive rights in South Korea for video on demand release, available to the subscribers of the company 's IPTV platform B TV. When Toei Animation joined as a co-producer in June 2012, it was also announced that the show would be drawn in a colourful manga - like style. Later in September, Zagtoon, Method, & Toei released a traditionally - animated promotional video for Ladybug. The video featured Marinette as Ladybug, and a (now - scrapped) different character named Félix as Cat Noir, Marinette & Félix 's Kwamis, Tikki and Plagg, Hawk Moth (without the mask and a different outfit and look, also his lair looks different than in the current series), The Mime, and Mr. Pigeon. And also, their transformation sequences into Ladybug & Cat Noir (their transformation sequences are different than the one in the current TV series). Also, their Miraculouses had a different look in the promotional video than the Miraculous in the current series. The song from the promotional video was performed by Noam. The anime concept was a complete success; but however, there were concerns about the marketability of traditional 2D animation, and the difficulty in animating Ladybug 's costume of red with black spots, as it caused some strobing effects. Executive producer Jared Wolfson said that Zag wanted the animation to be cinematic and epic, unique and different, and said that they are continuing to partner with Toei as it brings in the Asian inspiration and that a 2D version might be a potential product. The aforementioned problem with 2D animation was resolved by moving to CGI animation; the switch also allowed for easier implementation of mobile camera angles. SAMG Animation, a CGI animation studio located in South Korea which officially joined in the production in November 2012, produced modeling and animation. Astruc and assistant director Wilfried Pain instructed the animators not to improvise scenes so that they could keep things consistent and understandable. Pain estimated about 350 -- 400 shots are used in a typical 20 - minute episode; with 10 panels per shot, that makes up to 4000 panels an episode. Wolfson said that the show 's animation brings dynamic camera angles and texturing. A trailer with the new CGI - animated style was released in October 2013. The concept for the show originally dealt with political themes, geared towards teens and young adults. However, after failing to gain traction with networks, it was retooled for a younger target audience. Astruc said that he is delighted that the show is able to reach younger and older people. Each episode takes around 3 months to write, from scratch to final validation of broadcasters. Assistant director Wilfried Pain said that each episode is composed of two parts: a sitcom aspect where the characters have to speak for themselves, and an action element where the camera is always moving. The music was done by Noam Kaniel, who had also worked on shows such as Code Lyoko and Power Rangers. The theme song was written by Kaniel and Zag. The English lyrics were done by Alain Garcia and performed by Wendy Child and Cash Callaway. The French version was performed by Marily and Noam. Astruc has said that the show has reached over 120 countries. Disney Channel has had broadcasting rights in Europe, the Middle East and Africa, having to do with participation from The Walt Disney Company France: specifically, it acquired cable and satellite television rights in Europe, Eastern Europe and Scandinavia, and free - to - air rights in Spain, Germany, Russia and Turkey. South Korea was the first country to premiere Ladybug, with girl group Fiestar to sing its translated theme song. It aired on 1 September 2015 on EBS1, and ran for 13 episodes until November 2015, with repeats through February 2016, and its second half of the season airing from 1 March 2016. SK Broadband, having participated in the production, provided the episodes on video on demand exclusively to subscribers of their IPTV platform B TV, about a half - hour following the South Korean broadcast of each one on EBS1. Disney Channel in South Korea has also aired the series as of 7 December 2015. In France, the series premiered on 19 October 2015 on the Tfou programming block on TF1. In the United States, the series debuted on Nickelodeon on 6 December 2015 The KidsClick programming block would later broadcast the series on 3 July 2017. In Canada, the French version of the series was premiered on 9 January 2016 on Télé - Québec, a provincial public service television network in Quebec. In English Canada, the series premiered on Family Channel on 1 November 2016. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the show premiered on 30 January 2016 on Disney Channel The first series was also made available to Netflix subscribers in the UK. Among the free - to - air terrestrial television broadcasters in the Republic of Ireland, Raidió Teilifís Éireann premiered the show in 2018 on RTÉ2 's teenage programming block, TRTÉ. In Australia, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation released the show on its ABC iview streaming service on 1 January 2016, and premiered the show on its linear channel ABC3 on 22 March 2016. In New Zealand, the show premiered on 27 April 2016 on TVNZ 's TV2. In Japan, Disney Channel streamed the episode "Stormy Weather '' through its mobile application on 1 July 2018, before the official premiere on 23 July in the same year. The second season premiere is scheduled for a global launch around September -- November 2017 in Europe, At a panel at San Diego Comic - Con 2017, it was announced that the second season would have its North American release on Netflix in December 2017, with 13 episodes to be released. KidsClick will start airing season 2 of this show in the US starting 30 August 2018, marking the first time that Season 2 of this show airing on American over-the - air television. A third season is also in development. On 22 January 2018, Zag posted on Instagram that the crew was working on a fourth and fifth season. Kimberly Cooper, a blog writer who has contributed to news media such as The Huffington Post, wrote that the show has inspired teens and adults to create and propagate Miraculous remixes, and liked that the show featured multiracial characters as with the film Big Hero 6 which had won an Oscar. She "quickly realized there was a far cooler and broader Miraculous movement underway ''. Caitlin Donovan of entertainment website Epicstream listed it as one of her top 10 animated series of 2015. She wrote that "The characters are so charming that the tropey aspects of the show are merely a lot of fun, rather than irritating. '' with creative fights and good CGI animation. She wrote that "Marinette is an adorable lead who is genuinely awkward as a civilian, but confident as a superhero, which makes for an interesting contrast. '' Ella Anders of BSCKids wrote that the show stands out because of "how it meshes both the magical girl and superhero genera together ''. Robert Lloyd of the Los Angeles Times described the show as "clever, romantic, fun, the way some of us prefer our superhero stories ''. He found the characters to "have the look of extruded plastic common to CGI cartoons '', but "within these limits the design is lovely and the animation elegant, and a lot of work has gone into the staging and execution of the action scenes ''. The North American Precis Syndicate called the show "authentic and aspirational -- a story of today 's modern everygirl superhero who comes to life. The series, about a young girl who taps into her superhero powers and innocent optimism to save Paris from the evil Hawk Moth, will no doubt inspire today 's youth to try to save the day, each and every day in their own way ''. Andrea Reiher of Zap2It wrote that the "storylines are rich with family, friends, adventure, intrigue, villains, creativity and more, delivering themes that are relatable and relevant to kids and preteens '' and anticipated it would be a huge hit on Nickelodeon. Several media reviewers have anticipated Miraculous - brand toys to be among the hot superheroine properties for 2016. Zag has partnered with Bandai to release Miraculous - based toys, as well as deals to make Miraculous - brand clothing and other merchandise. An endless runner video game was developed by TabTale and released in April 2018 as a mobile app. A live - action film is in development with Astruc writing the script and Zag as director. It is licensed by EuropaCorp and Lionsgate and slated to be released on 2020.

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Seth Curry - wikipedia Seth Adham Curry (born August 23, 1990) is an American professional basketball player for the Dallas Mavericks of the National Basketball Association (NBA). A native of Charlotte, North Carolina, Curry played collegiately for one year at Liberty University before transferring to Duke. He is the son of former NBA player Dell Curry and the younger brother of current NBA player Stephen Curry. Curry grew up in Charlotte, North Carolina, while his father, Dell, played for the Charlotte Hornets. As a child, Curry 's father would take him and his older brother, Stephen, to his games where they would often shoot around with the team in warm - ups. Curry is a 2008 graduate of Charlotte Christian School where he was a three - year starter for the Knights ' basketball team. His senior year, Curry averaged 22.3 points, 5.0 rebounds, and 5.0 assists while shooting 52 percent from the field. At the end of the season, he earned all - conference, all - state, and first team SAA All - American accolades. In his three years on varsity, Charlotte Christian amassed a 105 -- 24 overall record including a state final appearance in 2006. Curry was also on the Charlotte Christian academic honor roll all four years. Sources: After high school, Curry chose to attend Liberty University. In his freshman season at Liberty, he led all freshmen nationally in average points per game scored with 20.2 a game. Curry broke the Big South Conference single - season scoring record for a freshman. He wore the number 30 jersey at Liberty; the same number his dad and older brother wore in their careers. Curry transferred from Liberty University to Duke after the 2008 -- 09 season. Per transfer rules, Curry sat out the 2009 -- 10 basketball season. At Duke, he also chose to wear his family number 30. As a redshirt sophomore, Curry was named a starter after a toe injury sidelined Kyrie Irving. In a game against Miami (Ohio), Curry led the team with 17 points on 57 % shooting. He scored a season high 22 points against North Carolina on February 9, 2011. On December 29, 2012, he scored a career - high 31 against Santa Clara. At the end of his senior year, Curry was named to the All - ACC first team and was named a second team All - American by Sporting News. Curry went undrafted in the 2013 NBA draft. On August 23, 2013, he signed a non-guaranteed contract with the Golden State Warriors. He was, however, later waived by Golden State on October 25, 2013, after appearing in six preseason games. On November 1, 2013, Curry was acquired by the Santa Cruz Warriors of the NBA Development League as an affiliate player. On November 22, in his D - League debut, Curry recorded 36 points on 12 - of - 19 shooting, as well as 6 assists and 3 rebounds. On December 24, he signed with the Memphis Grizzlies. On January 5, 2014, Curry both made his NBA debut and was waived by the Grizzlies. Four days later, he was reacquired by the Santa Cruz Warriors. On February 3, 2014, Curry was named to the Futures All - Star roster for the 2014 NBA D - League All - Star Game. On March 21, 2014, Curry signed a 10 - day contract with the Cleveland Cavaliers. The next day, he appeared in his second NBA game, recording three points in nine minutes of action against the Houston Rockets. The Cavaliers decided not to offer Curry a second 10 - day contract, and he returned to Santa Cruz the following day. Curry finished the 2013 -- 14 NBA D - League season with averages of 19.7 points, 3.1 rebounds, 5.8 assists and 1.4 steals in 38 games. During his time at Santa Cruz, Curry played in the back court with Mychel Thompson. At the same time their respective brothers, Stephen and Klay, were playing together in the Golden State backcourt in a tandem nicknamed the "Splash Brothers. '' In July 2014, Curry joined the Orlando Magic for the Orlando Summer League and the Phoenix Suns for the Las Vegas Summer League. On September 29, 2014, he signed with the Magic. On October 7, 2014, Curry 's D - League rights were acquired by the Magic 's affiliated team, the Erie BayHawks, in a trade with the Santa Cruz Warriors. This was done in preparation for Curry returning to the D - League following training camp, as the Magic were now able to send him to their affiliated team instead of Curry returning to Santa Cruz. As anticipated the Magic waived Curry at the conclusion of training camp on October 25, and five days later he was acquired by the Erie BayHawks for the start of D - League training camp. In his debut for Erie in the team 's season opener on November 14, Curry scored 23 points on 9 - of - 24 shooting in a win over the Idaho Stampede. On February 4, 2015, he was named to the Futures All - Star team for the 2015 NBA D - League All - Star Game for the second time in his career. On March 11, 2015, Curry signed a 10 - day contract with the Phoenix Suns. He made his Suns debut later that day in a 106 -- 97 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. He was not offered a second 10 - day contract by the Suns following the expiration of his first on March 21, and subsequently returned to the BayHawks. In 43 games for Erie in 2014 -- 15, he averaged 23.8 points, 3.9 rebounds, 4.2 assists and 1.4 steals per game. In July 2015, Curry joined the New Orleans Pelicans for the 2015 NBA Summer League. After averaging 24.3 points per game in Las Vegas, Curry earned All - NBA Summer League first team honors. On July 22, he signed a two - year, $2 million guaranteed deal with the Sacramento Kings. Considered a "shooting guard trapped in a point guard 's body '', Curry 's three - point shooting was a key reason the Kings signed him, as outside shooting has long been the Kings ' Achilles heel. He made his debut for the Kings on October 30, recording two points, one rebound and one assist in a 132 -- 114 win over the Los Angeles Lakers. On November 28, he scored a then career - high 9 points on 3 - of - 4 shooting and 3 - of - 3 from three - point range in a loss to the Golden State Warriors. On February 26, 2016, Curry played extended minutes in the Kings ' 117 -- 107 loss to the Los Angeles Clippers due to starting point guard Rajon Rondo sitting out with an injury. In 26 minutes of action off the bench, he recorded a then career - high 19 points and 4 rebounds. On March 25, he made his first career start, scoring 12 points in 26 minutes against the Phoenix Suns. Three days later, in just his third NBA start, Curry scored a career - high 21 points in a 105 -- 93 loss to the Portland Trail Blazers. He matched his career high on April 1, scoring 21 points against the Miami Heat. On April 9, he made a career - high six three - pointers and scored 20 points on 6 - of - 10 shooting off the bench in a 114 -- 112 win over the Oklahoma City Thunder. Two days later, he recorded his first career double - double with 20 points and a career - high 15 assists in a career - high 38 minutes of action as the starting point guard, helping the Kings defeat the Phoenix Suns 105 -- 101. After the 2015 -- 16 season, Curry declined his $1 million player option for the 2016 -- 17 season in order to become a restricted free agent. On June 27, 2016, the Kings tendered a qualifying offer to Curry, but on July 3, the team rescinded their qualifying offer, making Curry an unrestricted free agent. On July 15, 2016, Curry signed with the Dallas Mavericks. He made his debut for the Mavericks in their season opener on October 26 against the Indiana Pacers. In 16 minutes off the bench, he recorded seven points, three rebounds, one assist and three steals in a 130 -- 121 overtime loss. On November 8, he scored a then career - high 23 points in a 109 -- 97 win over the Los Angeles Lakers. He tied that mark on November 21, scoring 23 points with five three - pointers as a starter in a 96 -- 91 loss to the San Antonio Spurs. Curry missed four games in early December with a right knee sprain. On January 29, 2017, he had career highs of 24 points and 10 rebounds to lead the Mavericks to a 105 -- 101 win over San Antonio. On February 24, 2017, he set a new career high with 31 points in a 97 -- 84 loss to the Minnesota Timberwolves. Three days later, he had a 29 - point effort to go with five three - pointers in a 96 -- 89 win over the Miami Heat. On October 7, 2017, Curry was ruled out indefinitely after being diagnosed with a stress reaction of his left tibia. On February 6, 2018, he was ruled out for the entire season after it was determined he required surgery on his left tibia. Curry competed for the United States in the 2009 FIBA Under - 19 World Championship in New Zealand, winning the tournament by defeating Greece 88 -- 80 in the final. For the tournament, Curry averaged 9.0 points, 2.2 rebounds and 1.1 assists per game. Curry 's father, Dell, is a former professional basketball player in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Both of his parents were athletes at Virginia Tech; Dell played basketball and Curry 's mother, Sonya, played volleyball. His older brother, Stephen, is the starting point guard for the Golden State Warriors and a two - time NBA MVP, while his younger sister, Sydel, plays college volleyball at Elon University.

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The Chronicles of Narnia: the Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (soundtrack) - wikipedia The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe is the soundtrack of the film of the same name. Harry Gregson - Williams composed the soundtrack, which was released on December 13, 2005 by Walt Disney Records. Gregson - Williams was the first composer whom director Andrew Adamson approached for the film because they had worked together on Shrek (2001) and Shrek 2 (2004). Because Adamson had to shoot the film in New Zealand for an extended period and Gregson - Williams was working on scores for films such as Kingdom of Heaven, he initially only prepared for the project by re-reading the book and reading the film script. It was n't until he saw the first cut of the film that, as he put it, "I could see the look of it, the look of the characters. I found that what I felt emotionally, when compared to the book, was quite different and it was then at that point that I could really ' get under the skin ' of the project. '' He said that although re-reading the book helped him enter "that headspace '', the script also provided "a lot of good information '' because it included several scenes that were n't in the book. During the recording process, Gregson - Williams employed the 75 - piece Hollywood Studio Symphony Orchestra, along with a 140 - member choir (from Abbey Road Studios, London, England; mostly members of the Bach Choir) and numerous other solo musicians such as electric violinist Hugh Marsh and vocalist Lisbeth Scott (at his Wavecrest Studio). He composed the original score and then spent late September through early November 2005 conducting the Hollywood Orchestra and overseeing the recording of the English choir. For "color '', he employed instruments used in ancient folk music, and to underscore critical dramatic moments, he added choral textures and, occasionally, a solo voice. The score includes instances of electronic music. Though frequent comparisons were made between it and Howard Shore 's score for The Lord of the Rings film trilogy (2001 -- 03), Gregson - Williams said he was not influenced by Shore during the scoring of The Chronicles of Narnia. He also said he composed over 100 minutes of music for the original score, although less than sixty minutes made the final cut. There is a bootleg copy of the complete recordings circulating on the internet, although no official version of this soundtrack has been released. The complete recordings comprises all music composed by Williams for the movie. The score features many uses of themes or leitmotifs, the most prominent of which are a motif for the Pevensie children, a motif for Narnia itself, and the "Heroic motif ''. The heroic motif, however, is not heard until track nine ("To Aslan 's Camp ''). Gregson - Williams co-wrote a song with Imogen Heap, "Ca n't Take It In '', which Heap recorded for the soundtrack. Originally, Dido submitted a song for the soundtrack, but it was considered unsatisfactory. Heap was approached after a suggestion from the soundtrack 's supervisor, who managed a band with whom Heap had toured. The song was written, recorded, produced and mixed in a week; Heap said she needed "like a year more than I got '' and considered the experience of handing in the song an hour after completing it "(p) retty scary ''. According to her, the creation of the song was difficult because The Chronicles of Narnia is a family film, so she "had to be quite descriptive and not too electronic '' when making the song. The soundtrack includes the song "Wunderkind '', which Alanis Morissette wrote and recorded in three days; it was produced by Mike Elizondo. According to her, after watching a rough cut of the film the song "seemed to flow from (me) '', and that it "really touches me deeply ''. Also included is "Winter Light '', written and recorded by Tim Finn. Evanescence lead singer Amy Lee claimed she had been approached to write music for the film, both of which were rejected. However, the producers of the film stated that they had never approached Lee about penning music for the film, and that it was "news to them ''. No Evanescence music had ever been planned for the score of the film. The album debuted on the U.S. Billboard 200 at number 43, selling 20,000 copies in its first week. In its second week on the chart it dropped to number 65 before moving to number 57 in its third week after the holiday box office success of the film. It descended to number 59 in week four. "Wunderkind '' was issued as a radio single in some parts of Asia. The album received 3 stars out of a possible 5 from Filmtracks, 3 stars out of a possible 5 from Allmusic and 3 stars out of a possible 4 from MovieMusic UK. The soundtrack received two Golden Globe award nominations: "Best Original Score '' and "Best Original Song '' (for "Wunderkind ''). A special edition was released the same day that includes a bonus DVD with the following features: Musicians that were involved in the making of the soundtrack.

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Apple Music - Wikipedia Apple Music is a music and video streaming service developed by Apple Inc. Users select music to stream to their device on - demand, or they can listen to existing, curated playlists. The service also includes the Internet radio station Beats 1, that broadcasts live to over 100 countries 24 hours a day. The service was announced on June 8, 2015, and launched on June 30, in over 100 countries worldwide. New subscribers get a three - month free trial period before the service becomes paid - only. Originally strictly a music service, Apple Music began expanding into video in 2016. Executive Jimmy Iovine has stated that the intention for the service is to become a "cultural platform '', and Apple reportedly wants the service to be a "one - stop shop for pop culture ''. The company is actively investing heavily in the production and purchasing of video content, both in terms of music videos and concert footage that support music releases, as well as web series and feature films. The original iOS version of Apple Music received mixed reviews, with criticism directed towards a user interface deemed "not intuitive '' and a "mess ''. It received praise for playlist curation. In iOS 10, the app received a significant redesign, which received mostly positive reviews for an updated interface with less clutter, improved navigation, and bigger emphasis on users ' libraries. Apple Music 's use of iCloud for a technology that attempts to match uploaded songs to those found on the service caused significant issues for some users, with duplicate songs, missing tracks, and synchronization problems, to which Apple offered no comment or acknowledgement. It also received criticism for reportedly deleting users ' local music, though publications have disagreed on the cause. In its first year, there were reports of user - uploaded content being replaced by versions locked with digital rights management, an issue later fixed. Additionally, Apple Music 's use of album exclusives caused backlash and criticism from record labels, prompting the company to scale back its exclusivity efforts. Apple Music rapidly gained popularity after its launch, passing the milestone of 10 million subscribers after only six months. There were 40 million subscribers as of April 2018. Apple Music lets users select music to stream to their device on demand. They can also listen to playlists curated by "music experts ''. Beats 1, the service 's 24 - hour radio station led by DJ Zane Lowe, broadcasts in over 100 countries. This service is free for all users, even without an Apple Music subscription. In iOS 10, the Apple Music app has several tabs. "Library '' shows the user 's music collection, with options to view songs by "Playlists '', "Artists '', "Albums '', "Songs '', or "Downloaded Music ''. The tab also shows music recently added to the library. The "For You '' section recommends music for the user. Human expert selections supplement the algorithmic curation. "Browse '' shows new album releases from popular artists, as well as different categories, including "New Music '', "Curated Playlists '', "Videos '', "Top Charts '', and "Genres ''. The "Radio '' tab incorporates some aspects of iTunes Radio, such as ad - supported stations that play genre - specific or artist - related music, depending on the user 's preferences. The "Search '' tab features a search box, as well as a list of recent user searches and overall trending searches happening on the service. In iOS 11, Apple Music users can create profiles and share music with their friends. A dedicated "friends are listening to '' section aims to create a social environment, and a new shared "up next '' list allows other users to control upcoming music to be played. The service is compatible with iOS devices running version 8.4 or later, iTunes version 12.2 or later on macOS or Windows PCs, on Apple Watch, and Apple TV. It is also available for Android devices. Before Apple Music, the company 's iPod and iTunes were known for having "revolutionized digital music ''. Former Apple CEO Steve Jobs was known to be opposed to the idea of music subscription services. When Apple bought audio equipment maker Beats Electronics in 2014, Apple gained ownership of Beats ' own service Beats Music, and made Beats Music CEO Ian Rogers responsible for the iTunes Radio service. Business Insider later reported that Apple was planning to merge the two services together. Apple also hired noted British radio DJ Zane Lowe to serve as a music curator. After a period of rumors and anticipation, Sony Music CEO Doug Morris confirmed on June 7, 2015, that Apple had plans to announce a music streaming service, saying "It 's happening tomorrow '', with launch later in the month. Morris emphasized several times that he prefers paid streaming as opposed to ad - supported, from a financial perspective. Furthermore, Morris said he expects the service to be the "tipping point '' to accelerate the growth of streaming, along with arguing that Apple has "$178 billion dollars in the bank. And they have 800 million credit cards in iTunes. '' as opposed to Spotify, which "never really advertised because it 's never been profitable ''. Morris further argued that "Apple will promote this like crazy and I think that will have a halo effect on the streaming business. A rising tide will lift all boats. It 's the beginning of an amazing moment for our industry ''. Shortly before Apple Music was released, singer - songwriter Taylor Swift wrote an open letter publicly criticizing Apple 's decision to not reimburse artists during a user 's three - month free trial period and announced that she would be holding back her album 1989 from the service. She said the policy was "unfair '' as "Apple Music will not be paying writers, producers, or artists for those three months ''. UK independent record label Beggars Group also criticized the three - month trial period, saying it struggled "to see why rights owners and artists should bear this aspect of Apple 's customer acquisition costs ''. The day after Swift 's letter, Apple 's Senior Vice President of Internet Software and Services Eddy Cue announced on Twitter that Apple had changed its policy, and that Apple Music "will pay artist for streaming, even during customer 's free trial period ''. On Twitter, Swift wrote "After the events of this week, I 've decided to put 1989 on Apple Music... And happily so ''. She concluded saying it was "the first time it 's felt right in my gut to stream my album ''. In negotiations with record labels for the new service, Apple allegedly attempted to encourage record labels to pull their content from the free, ad - supported tiers of competing services such as Spotify in order to drive adoption of Apple Music, and offered an incentive to Universal Music Group to pull its content from YouTube. The U.S. Department of Justice and Federal Trade Commission launched an investigation into this alleged cartel in May 2015. The announcement happened as the signature "one more thing... '' reveal at Apple 's conference. Hip hop artist Drake appeared onstage at the announcement event to elaborate on how he used the Connect platform, and Apple subsequently emphasized how "unsigned artists can share their music on Connect, too '', in contrast to the iTunes Store, where small, independent artists were finding it difficult to participate. Apple Music launched on June 30, 2015, in 100 countries. New users receive a three - month free trial subscription, which changes to a monthly fee after three months. A family plan allows six users to share a subscription at a reduced rate. Apple originally sought to enter the market at a lower price point for the service, but the music industry rejected the plan. The service debuted as an updated Music app on the iOS 8.4 update. Apple TV and Android device support was planned for a "fall '' 2015 launch. A previously unreleased song by Pharrell Williams, entitled "Freedom '', was used in promotional material and announced as an exclusive release on the launch of the service. The "History of Sound '' advert for the launch of the Apple Music service was soundtracked by the tune There Is No Light by Wildbirds & Peacedrums, from their 2009 album The Snake. Upon its launch, Beats Music subscriptions and playlists were migrated to Apple Music, and the service was discontinued. In May 2016, a student membership was announced, that discounted the regular price of a subscription by 50 %. The student plan was initially only available for eligible students in the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, Denmark, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand, but was expanded to an additional 25 countries in November 2016. In February 2016, Music Business Worldwide reported that, with Apple Music having launched in Turkey and Taiwan in the previous week, the service was available in 113 countries. The publication further wrote that those countries accounted for 59 regions that competing service Spotify did not. In August 2016, Apple Music was launched in Israel and South Korea. In January 2016, Fortune reported that, six months after launching, Apple Music had reached 10 million paying subscribers, having spent six months reaching the same customer base that took competing music streaming service Spotify six years. This customer base increased to 11 million subscribers in February, 13 million in April, 15 million in June, 17 million in September, 20 million in December, 27 million in June 2017, and ultimately 36 million in February 2018. And as of March 2018, 38 million paying subscribers, just five weeks after it previous milestone As of April 2018, the service surpassed 40 million subscribers; adding 2 million subscribers in just about a month. In October 2015, Drake and Apple signed a deal to release the music video for "Hotline Bling '' exclusively on Apple Music. In December, Apple released an exclusive Taylor Swift tour documentary, called the 1989 World Tour, on Apple Music. In February 2016, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Dr. Dre would be starring in and executive producing a "dark semi-autobiographical drama '' called Vital Signs. The production was described as "Apple 's first scripted television series ''. Recode subsequently reported a few days later that the announcement of Dr. Dre 's production was an effort to "extend Apple Music '' in promotional ways rather than Apple actively exploring original television content. Citing Apple 's deals with Drake and Swift in October and December 2015, respectively, the report referenced a Twitter user describing Apple 's efforts as "content marketing ''. In July 2016, Apple bought Carpool Karaoke from The Late Late Show with James Corden, with Variety writing that Apple was planning to distribute the series through Apple Music. Apple 's adaptation of the series was originally supposed to premiere in April 2017, but was delayed without explanation. The series instead premiered on August 8, 2017. In January 2017, The Wall Street Journal reported that Apple was exploring original video content, including its own television series and movies. A few days later, Apple Music executive Jimmy Iovine confirmed the reports about the move towards video, and in February, he announced that Apple Music would launch its first two television - style series in 2017, with the aim to turn Apple Music into a "cultural platform ''. In March, The Information reported that Apple had recently hired several people to help evolve its video platform, including YouTube product manager Shiva Rajaraman. In April, it was announced that Apple Music would be the exclusive home to Sean Combs 's documentary "Ca n't Stop, Wo n't Stop: A Bad Boy Story '', which premiered June 25. On the same day, Bloomberg Businessweek reported that artist Will.i.am would make a reality show for Apple Music, in an effort to turn the service into a "one - stop shop for pop culture ''. The reality show was later revealed to be called Planet of the Apps, and will focus on the "app economy ''. The series has cast 100 developers, and premiered on June 6, 2017. In June 2017, Apple hired two television executives from Sony, specifically Jamie Erlicht and Zack Van Amburg. The two have jointly held the title of "President '' at Sony, and have helped develop shows including Breaking Bad and Shark Tank. The hiring was noted by the media as another significant effort by Apple to expand into original video productions. In early December 2017, Apple hired Michelle Lee, a programming veteran, as a creative executive of Apple 's original video team, and a few days later, also hired Philip Matthys and Jennifer Wang Grazier from Hulu and Legendary Entertainment, respectively. In November 2015, Apple launched the Android version of Apple Music, touted by reporters as Apple 's first "real '' or "user - centric '' Android app. The app was updated in April 2017 to match the service 's iOS 10 design. In August 2016, Bloomberg announced that its Bloomberg Radio service would be available on Apple Music in over 100 countries around the world. The radio channel features global business and financial news coverage from Bloomberg journalists 24 hours a day. Apple has added personalized music playlists to the service, with the September 2016 launch of "My New Music Mix '', and the June 2017 launch of "My Chill Mix ''. Apple Music received mixed reviews at launch. Among the criticism, reviewers wrote that the user interface was "not intuitive '', and an "embarrassing and confusing mess ''. They also wrote about battery life problems. However, the service was praised for its smart functions. Christina Warren of Mashable noted the emphasis on human curation in Apple Music, pointing out the various human - curated radio stations and the accuracy of the curated playlists recommended to users in the "For Me '' section. The author concluded saying "(The) For Me section alone has made me excited about music for the first time in a long time. '' Sam Machkovech of Ars Technica wrote that Apple 's emphasis on unsigned artist participation in the Connect feature could be an effort to restore the company 's former reputation as a "tastemaker '' in the mid-2000s. Apple Music 's major redesign in iOS 10 received more positive reviews. Caitlin McGarry of Macworld praised Apple for having "cleaned up the clutter, reconsidered the navigation tools, put your library front and center, and added algorithmically created playlists to rival Spotify 's. '' She noted bigger fonts, large amounts of white space, and she welcomed changes to various functionalities, concluding with the statement that "Apple Music 's redesign is a huge improvement over its previous incarnation, and a clear sign that Apple is listening to its customers ''. However, another Macworld editor, Oscar Raymundo, criticized the new design, writing that "Apple Music in iOS 10 is not as elegant or intuitive as Apple promised. The music service added more needless options, key actions like repeat got buried, and the For You section leaves a lot to be desired ''. Jordan Novet of VentureBeat wrote positively about the changes, stating "Apple has improved the overall design, as well as the experience ''. In December 2017, singer - songwriter Neil Young released a new archive as part of his Neil Young Archives project, and criticized Apple for the audio quality offered by its Apple Music streaming service, stating: "Apple Music controls the audio quality that is served to the masses and chooses to not make high quality available, reducing audio quality to between 5 percent and 20 percent of the master I made in studio in all cases. So, the people hear 5 percent to 20 percent of what I created... Apple not offering a top - quality tier has led labels to stop making quality products available to the masses ''. The implementation of iCloud Music Library caused significant issues for users. There were reports about music libraries being impacted by issues such as tracks moved to other albums, album art not matching the music, duplicate artists and songs, missing tracks, and synchronization problems. Mashable wrote that "Apple has not yet publicly acknowledged the problem or responded to our request for comment ''. iCloud Music Library has also been reported to delete music from users ' local storage, though this has been disputed by other publications as caused by user error or another application. Additionally, the feature was reported to have replaced uploaded content with a version locked with digital rights management. In July 2016, Apple switched the matching technology to incorporate features identical to iTunes Match, specifically the use of "audio fingerprints '' to scan sound data. The new technology also removed DRM from downloaded matched songs. In August 2016, Frank Ocean released Blonde exclusively on Apple Music. The decision was made by Ocean independently, without Def Jam Recordings, his former label, being a part of the deal. The exclusive deal reportedly "ignited a music streaming war ''. The move followed in the footsteps of other artists, including Adele, Coldplay, Future, Drake, Beyoncé, Rihanna, and Kanye West, who released albums on exclusive terms with music streaming competitors of leading service Spotify. Jonathan Prince, Spotify 's head of communications, told The Verge that "We 're not really in the business of paying for exclusives, because we think they 're bad for artists and they 're bad for fans. Artists want as many fans as possible to hear their music, and fans want to be able to hear whatever they 're excited about or interested in -- exclusives get in the way of that for both sides. Of course, we understand that short promotional exclusives are common and we do n't have an absolute policy against them, but we definitely think the best practice for everybody is wide release ''. Ocean 's independent move to Apple Music exclusivity caused "a major fight in the music industry '', and Universal Music Group reportedly banned the practice of exclusive releases for its signed artists. Soon after, several major record labels followed Universal, marking a significant change in the industry. According to unnamed label executives, Spotify had also introduced a new policy that said that the service would not give the same level of promotion once an album arrives on Spotify after other services, including not being prominently featured in playlists. Rolling Stone wrote in October 2016 that "if you wanted to keep up with new albums by Beyoncé, Drake, Frank Ocean and Kanye West, among many others, you would have had to subscribe to not one but two streaming services '', adding that "But over the past few months, a backlash has developed against this new reality ''. Lady Gaga told Apple Music 's Beats 1 radio that "I told my label that if they signed those contracts with Apple Music and Tidal, I 'd leak all my own new music ''. In May 2017, Apple Music executive Jimmy Iovine told Music Business Worldwide that "We tried it. We 'll still do some stuff with the occasional artist. The labels do n't seem to like it and ultimately it 's their content. ''

who played dr corday's mother on er

List of supporting characters in ER - wikipedia This is a list of supporting fictional characters in the medical drama ER. Shiri Appleby Season 1, Episode 1 - Teen with etopic pregnancy

where does the name mountbatten windsor come from

Mountbatten - Windsor - wikipedia Mountbatten - Windsor is the personal surname used by some of the male - line descendants of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Under a declaration made in Privy Council in 1960, the name Mountbatten - Windsor applies to male - line descendants of the Queen without royal styles and titles. Individuals with royal styles do not usually use a surname, but some descendants of the Queen with royal styles have used Mountbatten - Windsor when a surname was required. The British monarchy now asserts that the name Mountbatten - Windsor is used by members of the Royal Family who do not have a surname, when a surname is required. For example, Prince Andrew, Duke of York, and Princess Anne, Princess Royal, children of the Queen, used the surname Mountbatten - Windsor in official marriage registry entries. Likewise, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, used the name when filing a French lawsuit related to the pictures of his topless wife published by the French magazine Closer. At the time of the 1960 declaration, palace officials claimed in private communications that it created a hidden surname that would emerge several generations later when some of Elizabeth II 's descendants were further removed from the throne. On the wedding of Prince Edward and Sophie Rhys - Jones in 1999, the Queen decided, with their agreement, that any children they might have should not be styled His or Her Royal Highness. Consequently, the birth of their daughter in 2003 marked the first emergence of the Mountbatten - Windsor surname. Their daughter was named Louise Alice Elizabeth Mary Mountbatten - Windsor, although she goes by the courtesy title of Lady Louise Windsor as her father is the Earl of Wessex. Mountbatten - Windsor differs from the official name of the British royal family or Royal House, which remains Windsor. The adoption of the Mountbatten - Windsor surname applies only to members of the British royal family who are descended from the Queen through the male line, including daughters of the male line. The family tree is based on the current line of succession to the British throne. Forthcoming:

10 acts with the biggest selling albums in the uk

List of best - selling albums in the United Kingdom - wikipedia The best - selling album in the United Kingdom is Greatest Hits, a compilation album by British band Queen that was first released in 1981. As of July 2016, it has sold more than 6.12 million copies, of which approximately 124,000 have been from downloads. Queen 's second greatest hits album, Greatest Hits II, has sold approximately 4 million copies since being released in 1991, and is the tenth biggest - selling album in the UK. These sales figures include 50 % of sales of box sets containing both these albums and 33 % of sales of box sets of all three Queen Greatest Hits albums. Of the UK 's top 60 best - selling albums, more than half are by British artists. Fourteen are by American artists, with the rest being from Ireland, Canada, Sweden and Jamaica. Ten acts feature on the chart with more than one album, with Queen and Michael Jackson both featuring twice within the top ten. The only acts to feature more than twice are Coldplay, Take That and Robbie Williams; Williams features on the chart four times, more than any other artist. The most - represented record label is Parlophone with seven entries, while the decade that appears the most is the 2000s, with 20 of the entries having been released during that period, despite its "general background of declining sales and internet piracy ''. According to the Official Charts Company (OCC), which collects album sales data in the UK, an album is defined as being a type of music release that features more than four tracks or is longer than 25 minutes in duration. Sales of albums in the UK were first published by the music magazine Record Mirror, who compiled a weekly chart of the country 's five biggest - selling records for the week of 22 July 1956. Record Mirror 's first number one was Songs for Swingin ' Lovers! by Frank Sinatra. Since then, four albums have gone on to sell more than five million copies each: Greatest Hits by Queen, Gold: Greatest Hits by ABBA, Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band by the Beatles and 21 by Adele. The top nine best - selling albums have each sold at least four million copies. Since 1994, sales of albums have been monitored by the OCC, who took over compiling the weekly UK Albums Chart. Sales certifications for albums are awarded by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments, physical sales and downloads of albums, and, as of June 2015, streaming of album tracks. The BPI began awarding certifications soon after it was founded in April 1973. Initially, certifications were based on the revenue received by the album manufacturers -- records that generated revenue of GB £ 75,000 were awarded silver certification, £ 150,000 represented gold and £ 1 million was platinum. Over the following six years, the thresholds for silver and gold certifications both grew twice -- the threshold for platinum certification remained at £ 1 million. In January 1979, this method of certifying sales was abolished, and certifications were instead based on unit sales to retail outlets: sales of 60,000 were awarded silver, gold for 100,000 and platinum for 300,000. Multi-platinum awards were introduced in February 1987; digital downloads have been counted towards unit sales since 2004. Certifications for albums released before April 1973 were retroactively awarded in August 2013 for sales from 1994 onwards, and then again in February 2016 for all previous sales. The highest - certified album is Greatest Hits, which has been awarded platinum certification 20 times, representing 6,000,000 units. Positions are as of July 2016; sales, where shown, are from the reference given, which may be at a different date, and can not be used to infer changes in position. General (chart positions) Specific

untouchability practice in india was among which community

Untouchability - wikipedia Untouchability is the practice of ostracising a group by segregating them from the mainstream by social custom or legal mandate. The excluded group could be one that did not accept the norms of the excluding group and historically included foreigners, nomadic tribes, law - breakers and criminals and those suffering from a contagious disease. It could also be a group that did not accept the change of customs enforced by a certain group. This exclusion was a method of punishing law - breakers and also protecting traditional societies against contagion from strangers and the infected. A member of the excluded group is known as an Untouchable. The term is commonly associated with treatment of the Dalit communities, who are considered "polluting '' among the people of the Indian subcontinent, but the term has been used for other groups as well, such as the Burakumin of Japan, Cagots in Europe, or the Al - Akhdam in Yemen. Untouchability has been made illegal in post-independence India, and Dalits substantially empowered, and attempts have been continuously made to end the hostilities. According to Sarah Pinto, an anthropologist, untouchability in India applies to people whose work relates to "death, bodies, meat, and bodily fluids ''. In the name of untouchability, Dalits have faced work and descent - based discrimination at the hands of the dominant castes. Instances of caste discrimination at different places and times included: Exact origins of Untouchability are unknown. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, untouchability was born about 400 AD, due to the struggle for supremacy between Buddhism and Brahmanism (an ancient term for Brahmanical Hinduism). But this view of Ambedkar has been successfully refuted by Vivekanand Jha on cognet grounds. During the time of Indian independence, Dalit activists began calling for separate electorates for untouchables in India to allow for fair representation. Officially labeled the Minorities Act, it would guarantee representation for Sikhs, Muslims, Christian, and Untouchables in the newly formed Indian government. The Act was supported by British representatives such as Ramsay MacDonald. A separation within Hindu society was opposed by national leaders at the time such as Mahatma Gandhi, although he took no exception with the demands of the other minorities. He began a hunger strike to protest this type of affirmative action, citing that it would create an unhealthy divide within the religion. At the Round Table Conferences, he provided this explanation for his reasoning: I do n't mind untouchables if they so desire, being converted to Islam or Christianity. I should tolerate that, but I can not possibly tolerate what is in store for Hinduism if there are two divisions set forth in the villages. Those who speak of the political rights of the untouchables do n't know their India, do n't know how Indian society is today constituted and therefore I want to say with all the emphasis that I can command that if I was the only person to resist this thing that I would resist it with my life. Mahatma Gandhi achieved some success through his hunger strike. Dalit activists faced pressure from the Hindu population at large to end his protest at the risk of his ailing health. The two sides eventually came to a compromise where the number of guaranteed seats for Untouchables would be reduced, but not totally eliminated. The 1950 national constitution of India legally abolished the practice of untouchability and provided measures for positive discrimination in both educational institutions and public services for Dalits and other social groups who lie within the caste system. These are supplemented by official bodies such as the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Despite this, instances of prejudice against Dalits still occur in some rural areas, as evidenced by events such as the Kherlanji massacre. Cagot are historically untouchable groups of France. Burakumin jobs were those designated as "unclean '' by Buddhist and Shinto standards. They worked as butchers, tanners, and executioners. The Buraku people were forced to live in segregated neighborhoods, and could not mingle with any of the higher classes of people. The buraku was universally looked down upon, and their children were denied an education. Baekjeong in Korea are an "untouchable '' group of Korea who traditionally performed jobs of executioner and butcher.

what is the age of supreme court justices

Supreme Court of the United States - wikipedia The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. Established pursuant to Article Three of the United States Constitution in 1789, it has ultimate (and largely discretionary) appellate jurisdiction over all federal courts and state court cases involving issues of federal law plus original jurisdiction over a small range of cases. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is generally the final interpreter of federal law including the United States Constitution, but it may act only within the context of a case, in which it has jurisdiction. The Court does not have power to decide political questions, and its enforcement arm is in the executive rather than judicial branch of government. According to federal statute, the Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight associate justices who are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Once appointed, justices have lifetime tenure unless they resign, retire, or are removed after impeachment (though no justice has ever been removed). In modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and it is worth noting while a far greater number of cases in recent history have been decided unanimously, decisions in cases of the highest profile have come down to just one single vote, thereby exposing the justices ' ideological beliefs that track with those philosophical or political categories. The Court meets in the Supreme Court Building in Washington, D.C. The Supreme Court is sometimes colloquially referred to as SCOTUS (Supreme Court of the United States) similar to and in line with other acronyms such as POTUS (President of the United States). The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789. Its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court was the only court specifically established by the Constitution while all other federal courts were created by Congress. Congress is also responsible for conferring the title of "justice '' to its members, who are known to scold lawyers for inaccurately referring to them as "judge '', even though it is the term used in the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2, 1790 with six judges where only five of its six initial positions were filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session: "(T) he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street, a few steps from Federal Hall. Symbolically, the moment was pregnant with promise for the republic, this birth of a new national institution whose future power, admittedly, still existed only in the eyes and minds of just a few visionary Americans. Impressively bewigged and swathed in their robes of office, Chief Justice John Jay and three associate justices -- William Cushing of Massachusetts, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, and John Blair of Virginia -- sat augustly before a throng of spectators and waited for something to happen. Nothing did. They had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, and everyone went home. '' The sixth member, James Iredell, was not confirmed until May 12, 1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was also made by two - thirds (voting four to two). However, Congress has always allowed less than the Court 's full membership to make decisions, starting with a quorum of four justices in 1789. Under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth (1789 -- 1801), the Court heard few cases; its first decision was West v. Barnes (1791), a case involving a procedural issue. The Court lacked a home of its own and had little prestige, a situation not helped by the highest - profile case of the era, Chisholm v. Georgia (1793), which was reversed within two years by the adoption of the Eleventh Amendment. The Court 's power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court (1801 -- 35). Under Marshall, the Court established the power of judicial review over acts of Congress, including specifying itself as the supreme expositor of the Constitution (Marbury v. Madison) and made several important constitutional rulings giving shape and substance to the balance of power between the federal government and the states (prominently, Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee, McCulloch v. Maryland and Gibbons v. Ogden). The Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshall 's tenure, although beyond the Court 's control, the impeachment and acquittal of Justice Samuel Chase in 1804 -- 05 helped cement the principle of judicial independence. The Taney Court (1836 -- 64) made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Sill, which held that while Congress may not limit the subjects the Supreme Court may hear, it may limit the jurisdiction of the lower federal courts to prevent them from hearing cases dealing with certain subjects. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts (1864 -- 1910) interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution and developed the doctrine of substantive due process (Lochner v. New York; Adair v. United States). Under the White and Taft Courts (1910 -- 30), the Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment had incorporated some guarantees of the Bill of Rights against the states (Gitlow v. New York), grappled with the new antitrust statutes (Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States), upheld the constitutionality of military conscription (Selective Draft Law Cases) and brought the substantive due process doctrine to its first apogee (Adkins v. Children 's Hospital). During the Hughes, Stone, and Vinson Courts (1930 -- 53), the Court gained its own accommodation in 1935 and changed its interpretation of the Constitution, giving a broader reading to the powers of the federal government to facilitate President Franklin Roosevelt 's New Deal (most prominently West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, Wickard v. Filburn, United States v. Darby and United States v. Butler). During World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens (Korematsu v. United States) and the mandatory pledge of allegiance (Minersville School District v. Gobitis). Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated (West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette), and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend. The Warren Court (1953 -- 69) dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection (Brown v. Board of Education, Bolling v. Sharpe and Green v. County School Bd.) and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote (Reynolds v. Sims). It created a general right to privacy (Griswold v. Connecticut), limited the role of religion in public school (most prominently Engel v. Vitale and Abington School District v. Schempp), incorporated most guarantees of the Bill of Rights against the States -- prominently Mapp v. Ohio (the exclusionary rule) and Gideon v. Wainwright (right to appointed counsel), -- and required that criminal suspects be apprised of all these rights by police (Miranda v. Arizona); At the same time, however, the Court limited defamation suits by public figures (New York Times v. Sullivan) and supplied the government with an unbroken run of antitrust victories. The Burger Court (1969 -- 86) marked a conservative shift. It also expanded Griswold 's right to privacy to strike down abortion laws (Roe v. Wade), but divided deeply on affirmative action (Regents of the University of California v. Bakke) and campaign finance regulation (Buckley v. Valeo), and dithered on the death penalty, ruling first that most applications were defective (Furman v. Georgia), then that the death penalty itself was not unconstitutional (Gregg v. Georgia). The Rehnquist Court (1986 -- 2005) was noted for its revival of judicial enforcement of federalism, emphasizing the limits of the Constitution 's affirmative grants of power (United States v. Lopez) and the force of its restrictions on those powers (Seminole Tribe v. Florida, City of Boerne v. Flores). It struck down single - sex state schools as a violation of equal protection (United States v. Virginia), laws against sodomy as violations of substantive due process (Lawrence v. Texas), and the line item veto (Clinton v. New York), but upheld school vouchers (Zelman v. Simmons - Harris) and reaffirmed Roe 's restrictions on abortion laws (Planned Parenthood v. Casey). The Court 's decision in Bush v. Gore, which ended the electoral recount during the presidential election of 2000, was especially controversial. The Roberts Court (2005 -- present) is regarded by some as more conservative than the Rehnquist Court. Some of its major rulings have concerned federal preemption (Wyeth v. Levine), civil procedure (Twombly - Iqbal), abortion (Gonzales v. Carhart), climate change (Massachusetts v. EPA), same - sex marriage (United States v. Windsor and Obergefell v. Hodges) and the Bill of Rights, notably in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (First Amendment), Heller - McDonald (Second Amendment) and Baze v. Rees (Eighth Amendment). Article III of the United States Constitution does not specify the number of justices. The Judiciary Act of 1789 called for the appointment of six "judges ''. Although an 1801 act would have reduced the size of the court to five members upon its next vacancy, an 1802 act promptly negated the 1801 act, legally restoring the court 's size to six members before any such vacancy occurred. As the nation 's boundaries grew, Congress added justices to correspond with the growing number of judicial circuits: seven in 1807, nine in 1837, and ten in 1863. In 1866, at the behest of Chief Justice Chase, Congress passed an act providing that the next three justices to retire would not be replaced, which would thin the bench to seven justices by attrition. Consequently, one seat was removed in 1866 and a second in 1867. In 1869, however, the Circuit Judges Act returned the number of justices to nine, where it has since remained. President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to expand the Court in 1937. His proposal envisioned appointment of one additional justice for each incumbent justice who reached the age of 70 years 6 months and refused retirement, up to a maximum bench of 15 justices. The proposal was ostensibly to ease the burden of the docket on elderly judges, but the actual purpose was widely understood as an effort to "pack '' the Court with justices who would support Roosevelt 's New Deal. The plan, usually called the "court - packing plan '', failed in Congress. Nevertheless, the Court 's balance began to shift within months when Justice van Devanter retired and was replaced by Senator Hugo Black. By the end of 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven justices and elevated Harlan Fiske Stone to Chief Justice. The U.S. Constitution states that the President "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Judges of the Supreme Court. '' Most presidents nominate candidates who broadly share their ideological views, although a justice 's decisions may end up being contrary to a president 's expectations. Because the Constitution sets no qualifications for service as a justice, a president may nominate anyone to serve, subject to Senate confirmation. In modern times, the confirmation process has attracted considerable attention from the press and advocacy groups, which lobby senators to confirm or to reject a nominee depending on whether their track record aligns with the group 's views. The Senate Judiciary Committee conducts hearings and votes on whether the nomination should go to the full Senate with a positive, negative or neutral report. The committee 's practice of personally interviewing nominees is relatively recent. The first nominee to appear before the committee was Harlan Fiske Stone in 1925, who sought to quell concerns about his links to Wall Street, and the modern practice of questioning began with John Marshall Harlan II in 1955. Once the committee reports out the nomination, the full Senate considers it. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected twelve Supreme Court nominees, most recently Robert Bork, nominated by President Ronald Reagan in 1987. Although Senate rules do not necessarily allow a negative vote in committee to block a nomination, prior to 2017 a nomination could be blocked by filibuster once debate had begun in the full Senate. President Lyndon Johnson 's nomination of sitting Associate Justice Abe Fortas to succeed Earl Warren as Chief Justice in 1968 was the first successful filibuster of a Supreme Court nominee. It included both Republican and Democratic senators concerned with Fortas 's ethics. President Donald Trump 's nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the seat vacated by Antonin Scalia was the second. Unlike the Fortas filibuster, however, only Democratic Senators voted against cloture on the Gorsuch nomination, citing his perceived conservative judicial philosophy, and the Republican majority 's prior refusal to take up President Barack Obama 's nomination of Merrick Garland to fill the vacancy. This led the Republican majority to change the rules and eliminate the filibuster for Supreme Court nominations. Not every Supreme Court nominee has received a floor vote in the Senate. A president may withdraw a nomination before an actual confirmation vote occurs, typically because it is clear that the Senate will reject the nominee; this occurred most recently with the nomination of Harriet Miers in 2006. The Senate may also fail to act on a nomination, which expires at the end of the session. For example, President Dwight Eisenhower 's first nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in November, 1954 was not acted on by the Senate; Eisenhower re-nominated Harlan in January 1955, and Harlan was confirmed two months later. Most recently, as previously noted, the Senate failed to act on the March 2016 nomination of Merrick Garland; the nomination expired in January 2017, and the vacancy was later filled by President Trump 's appointment of Neil Gorsuch. Once the Senate confirms a nomination, the president must prepare and sign a commission, to which the Seal of the Department of Justice must be affixed, before the new justice can take office. The seniority of an associate justice is based on the commissioning date, not the confirmation or swearing - in date. Before 1981, the approval process of justices was usually rapid. From the Truman through Nixon administrations, justices were typically approved within one month. From the Reagan administration to the present, however, the process has taken much longer. Some believe this is because Congress sees justices as playing a more political role than in the past. According to the Congressional Research Service, the average number of days from nomination to final Senate vote since 1975 is 67 days (2.2 months), while the median is 71 days (or 2.3 months). When the Senate is in recess, a president may make temporary appointments to fill vacancies. Recess appointees hold office only until the end of the next Senate session (less than two years). The Senate must confirm the nominee for them to continue serving; of the two chief justices and eleven associate justices who have received recess appointments, only Chief Justice John Rutledge was not subsequently confirmed. No president since Dwight D. Eisenhower has made a recess appointment to the Court, and the practice has become rare and controversial even in lower federal courts. In 1960, after Eisenhower had made three such appointments, the Senate passed a "sense of the Senate '' resolution that recess appointments to the Court should only be made in "unusual circumstances. '' Such resolutions are not legally binding but are an expression of Congress 's views in the hope of guiding executive action. The 2014 Supreme Court ruling in National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning limited the ability of the President to make recess appointments (including appointments to the Supreme Court), ruling that the Senate decides when the Senate is in session (or in recess). Justice Breyer writing for the Court, stated, "We hold that, for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business. '' This ruling allows the Senate to prevent recess appointments through the use of pro-forma sessions. The Constitution provides that justices "shall hold their offices during good behavior '' (unless appointed during a Senate recess). The term "good behavior '' is understood to mean justices may serve for the remainder of their lives, unless they are impeached and convicted by Congress, resign, or retire. Only one justice has been impeached by the House of Representatives (Samuel Chase, March 1804), but he was acquitted in the Senate (March 1805). Moves to impeach sitting justices have occurred more recently (for example, William O. Douglas was the subject of hearings twice, in 1953 and again in 1970; and Abe Fortas resigned while hearings were being organized in 1969), but they did not reach a vote in the House. No mechanism exists for removing a justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, but unable (or unwilling) to resign. Because justices have indefinite tenure, timing of vacancies can be unpredictable. Sometimes vacancies arise in quick succession, as in the early 1970s when Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. and William Rehnquist were nominated to replace Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II, who retired within a week of each other. Sometimes a great length of time passes between nominations, such as the eleven years between Stephen Breyer 's nomination in 1994 to succeed Harry Blackmun and the nomination of John Roberts in 2005 to fill the seat of Sandra Day O'Connor (though Roberts ' nomination was withdrawn and resubmitted for the role of Chief Justice after Rehnquist died). Despite the variability, all but four presidents have been able to appoint at least one justice. William Henry Harrison died a month after taking office, though his successor (John Tyler) made an appointment during that presidential term. Likewise, Zachary Taylor died 16 months after taking office, but his successor (Millard Fillmore) also made a Supreme Court nomination before the end of that term. Andrew Johnson, who became president after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, was denied the opportunity to appoint a justice by a reduction in the size of the Court. Jimmy Carter is the only person elected president to have left office after at least one full term without having the opportunity to appoint a justice. Somewhat similarly, presidents James Monroe, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and George W. Bush each served a full term without an opportunity to appoint a justice, but made appointments during their subsequent terms in office. No president who has served more than one full term has gone without at least one opportunity to make an appointment. Three presidents have appointed justices who together served more than a century. Andrew Jackson, Abraham Lincoln, and Franklin D. Roosevelt. The court is currently filled with nine justices. The most recent justice to join to the court was Neil Gorsuch, who was nominated by President Donald Trump on January 31, 2017, and confirmed on April 7, 2017, by the Senate. Roberts, John John Roberts (Chief Justice) Kennedy, Anthony Anthony Kennedy Thomas, Clarence Clarence Thomas Ginsburg, Ruth Bader Ruth Bader Ginsburg Breyer, Stephen Stephen Breyer Alito, Samuel Samuel Alito Sotomayor, Sonia Sonia Sotomayor Kagan, Elena Elena Kagan Gorsuch, Neil Neil Gorsuch The Court currently has six men and three women justices. Among the nine justices, there is one African - American (Justice Thomas) and one Hispanic (Justice Sotomayor). Two of the justices were born to at least one immigrant parent: Justice Alito 's parents were born in Italy, and Justice Ginsburg 's father was born in Russia. At least five justices are Roman Catholics and three are Jewish; it is unclear whether Neil Gorsuch considers himself a Catholic or an Episcopalian. The average age is 67 years and 4 months. Every current justice has an Ivy League background. Four justices are from the state of New York, two from California, one from New Jersey, one from Georgia, and one from Colorado. In the 19th century, every justice was a man of European descent (usually Northern European), and almost always Protestant. Concerns about diversity focused on geography, to represent all regions of the country, rather than religious, ethnic, or gender diversity. Most justices have been Protestants, including 36 Episcopalians, 19 Presbyterians, 10 Unitarians, 5 Methodists, and 3 Baptists. The first Catholic justice was Roger Taney in 1836, and 1916 saw the appointment of the first Jewish justice, Louis Brandeis. Several Catholic and Jewish justices have since been appointed, and in recent years the situation has reversed. The Court currently has at least five Catholic justices and three Jewish justices. Racial, ethnic, and gender diversity began to increase in the late 20th century. Thurgood Marshall became the first African American justice in 1967. Sandra Day O'Connor became the first female justice in 1981. Marshall was succeeded by African - American Clarence Thomas in 1991. O'Connor was joined by Ruth Bader Ginsburg in 1993. After O'Connor's retirement Ginsburg was joined in 2009 by Sonia Sotomayor, the first Latina justice; and in 2010 by Elena Kagan, for a total of four female justices in the Court 's history. There have been six foreign - born justices in the Court 's history: James Wilson (1789 -- 1798), born in Caskardy, Scotland; James Iredell (1790 -- 1799), born in Lewes, England; William Paterson (1793 -- 1806), born in County Antrim, Ireland; David Brewer (1889 -- 1910), born in Smyrna, Turkey; George Sutherland (1922 -- 1939), born in Buckinghamshire, England; and Felix Frankfurter (1939 -- 1962), born in Vienna, Austria. There are currently three living retired justices of the Supreme Court of the United States: John Paul Stevens, Sandra Day O'Connor and David Souter. As retired justices, they no longer participate in the work of the Supreme Court, but may be designated for temporary assignments to sit on lower federal courts, usually the United States Courts of Appeals. Such assignments are formally made by the Chief Justice, on request of the chief judge of the lower court and with the consent of the retired justice. In recent years, Justice O'Connor has sat with several Courts of Appeals around the country, and Justice Souter has frequently sat on the First Circuit, the court of which he was briefly a member before joining the Supreme Court. The status of a retired justice is analogous to that of a circuit or district court judge who has taken senior status, and eligibility of a supreme court justice to assume retired status (rather than simply resign from the bench) is governed by the same age and service criteria. In recent times, justices tend to strategically plan their decisions to leave the bench with personal, institutional, ideological, partisan and sometimes even political factors playing a role. The fear of mental decline and death often motivates justices to step down. The desire to maximize the Court 's strength and legitimacy through one retirement at a time, when the Court is in recess, and during non-presidential election years suggests a concern for institutional health. Finally, especially in recent decades, many justices have timed their departure to coincide with a philosophically compatible president holding office, to ensure that a like - minded successor would be appointed. John Paul Stevens Sandra Day O'Connor David Souter Many of the internal operations of the Court are organized by seniority of justices; the chief justice is considered the most senior member of the court, regardless of the length of his or her service. The associate justices are then ranked by the length of their service. During Court sessions, the justices sit according to seniority, with the Chief Justice in the center, and the Associate Justices on alternating sides, with the most senior Associate Justice on the Chief Justice 's immediate right, and the most junior Associate Justice seated on the left farthest away from the Chief Justice. Therefore, the current court sits as follows from left to right, from the perspective of those facing the Court: Kagan, Alito, Ginsburg, Kennedy (most senior Associate Justice), Roberts (Chief Justice), Thomas, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Gorsuch. In the official yearly Court photograph, justices are arranged similarly, with the five most senior members sitting in the front row in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (The most recent photograph includes Ginsburg, Kennedy, Roberts, Thomas, Breyer), and the four most junior justices standing behind them, again in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (Kagan, Alito, Sotomayor, Gorsuch). In the justices ' private conferences, current practice is for them to speak and vote in order of seniority to begin with the chief justice first and end with the most junior associate justice. The most junior associate justice in these conferences charged with any menial tasks the justices may require as they convene alone, such as answering the door of their conference room, serving beverages and transmitting orders of the court to the clerk. Justice Joseph Story served the longest as junior justice, from February 3, 1812, to September 1, 1823, for a total of 4,228 days. Justice Stephen Breyer follows very closely behind with less than a month or just 29 days less at 4,199 days when Justice Samuel Alito was confirmed to the court on January 31, 2006. As of 2017, associate justices are paid $251,800 and the chief justice $263,300. Article III, Section 1 of the U.S. Constitution prohibits Congress from reducing the pay for incumbent justices. Once a justice meets age and service requirements, the justice may retire. Judicial pensions are based on the same formula used for federal employees, but a justice 's pension, as with other federal courts judges, can never be less than their salary at the time of retirement. Although justices are nominated by the president in power, justices do not represent or receive official endorsements from political parties, as is accepted practice in the legislative and executive branches. Jurists are, however, informally categorized in legal and political circles as being judicial conservatives, moderates, or liberals. Such leanings, however, generally refer to legal outlook rather than a political or legislative one. The nominations of justices are endorsed by individual politicians in the legislative branch who vote their approval or disapproval of the nominated justice. Following the confirmation of Neil Gorsuch in 2017, the Court consists of five justices appointed by Republican presidents and four appointed by Democratic presidents. It is popularly accepted that Chief Justice Roberts and associate justices Thomas and Alito (appointed by Republican presidents) comprise the Court 's conservative wing. Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan (appointed by Democratic presidents) comprise the Court 's liberal wing. Justice Kennedy (appointed by President Reagan) is generally considered "a conservative who has occasionally voted with liberals '', and up until Justice Scalia 's death, he was often the swing vote that determined the outcome of cases divided between the conservative and liberal wings. Gorsuch had a track record as a reliably conservative judge in the 10th circuit. Tom Goldstein argued in an article in SCOTUSblog in 2010, that the popular view of the Supreme Court as sharply divided along ideological lines and each side pushing an agenda at every turn is "in significant part a caricature designed to fit certain preconceptions. '' He pointed out that in the 2009 term, almost half the cases were decided unanimously, and only about 20 % were decided by a 5 - to - 4 vote. Barely one in ten cases involved the narrow liberal / conservative divide (fewer if the cases where Sotomayor recused herself are not included). He also pointed to several cases that defied the popular conception of the ideological lines of the Court. Goldstein further argued that the large number of pro-criminal - defendant summary dismissals (usually cases where the justices decide that the lower courts significantly misapplied precedent and reverse the case without briefing or argument) were an illustration that the conservative justices had not been aggressively ideological. Likewise, Goldstein stated that the critique that the liberal justices are more likely to invalidate acts of Congress, show inadequate deference to the political process, and be disrespectful of precedent, also lacked merit: Thomas has most often called for overruling prior precedent (even if long standing) that he views as having been wrongly decided, and during the 2009 term Scalia and Thomas voted most often to invalidate legislation. According to statistics compiled by SCOTUSblog, in the twelve terms from 2000 to 2011, an average of 19 of the opinions on major issues (22 %) were decided by a 5 -- 4 vote, with an average of 70 % of those split opinions decided by a Court divided along the traditionally perceived ideological lines (about 15 % of all opinions issued). Over that period, the conservative bloc has been in the majority about 62 % of the time that the Court has divided along ideological lines, which represents about 44 % of all the 5 -- 4 decisions. In the October 2010 term, the Court decided 86 cases, including 75 signed opinions and 5 summary reversals (where the Court reverses a lower court without arguments and without issuing an opinion on the case). Four were decided with unsigned opinions, two cases affirmed by an equally divided Court, and two cases were dismissed as improvidently granted. Justice Kagan recused herself from 26 of the cases due to her prior role as United States Solicitor General. Of the 80 cases, 38 (about 48 %, the highest percentage since the October 2005 term) were decided unanimously (9 -- 0 or 8 -- 0), and 16 decisions were made by a 5 -- 4 vote (about 20 %, compared to 18 % in the October 2009 term, and 29 % in the October 2008 term). However, in fourteen of the sixteen 5 -- 4 decisions, the Court divided along the traditional ideological lines (with Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Kagan on the liberal side, and Roberts, Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on the conservative, and Kennedy providing the "swing vote ''). This represents 87 % of those 16 cases, the highest rate in the past 10 years. The conservative bloc, joined by Kennedy, formed the majority in 63 % of the 5 -- 4 decisions, the highest cohesion rate of that bloc in the Roberts court. In the October 2011 term, the Court decided 75 cases. Of these, 33 (44 %) were decided unanimously, and 15 (20 %, the same percentage as in the previous term) were decided by a vote of 5 -- 4. Of the latter 15, the Court divided along the perceived ideological lines 10 times with Justice Kennedy joining the conservative justices (Roberts, Scalia, Thomas and Alito) five times and with the liberal justices (Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan) five times. In the October 2012 term, the Court decided 78 cases. Five of them were decided in unsigned opinions. 38 out of the 78 decisions (representing 49 % of the decisions) were unanimous in judgement, with 24 decisions being completely unanimous (a single opinion with every justice that participated joining it). This was the largest percentage of unanimous decisions that the Court had in ten years, since the October 2002 term (when 51 % of the decisions handed down were unanimous). The Court split 5 -- 4 in 23 cases (29 % of the total); of these, 16 broke down along the traditionally perceived ideological lines, with Chief Justice Roberts and Justices Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on one side, Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan on the other, and Justice Kennedy holding the balance. Of these 16 cases, Justice Kennedy sided with the conservatives on 10 cases, and with the liberals on 6. Three cases were decided by an interesting alignment of justices, with Chief Justice Roberts joined by Justices Kennedy, Thomas, Breyer and Alito in the majority, with Justices Scalia, Ginsburg, Sotomayor, and Kagan in the minority. The greatest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Kagan, who agreed on 72 of the 75 (96 %) cases, in which both voted; the lowest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Alito, who agreed only on 45 out of 77 (54 %) cases, in which they both participated. Justice Kennedy was in the majority of 5 -- 4 decisions on 20 out of 24 (83 %) cases, and in 71 of 78 (91 %) cases during the term, in line with his position as the "swing vote '' of the Court. The Supreme Court first met on February 1, 1790, at the Merchants ' Exchange Building in New York City. When Philadelphia became the capital, the Court met briefly in Independence Hall before settling in Old City Hall from 1791 until 1800. After the government moved to Washington, D.C., the Court occupied various spaces in the United States Capitol building until 1935, when it moved into its own purpose - built home. The four - story building was designed by Cass Gilbert in a classical style sympathetic to the surrounding buildings of the Capitol and Library of Congress, and is clad in marble. The building includes the courtroom, justices ' chambers, an extensive law library, various meeting spaces, and auxiliary services including a gymnasium. The Supreme Court building is within the ambit of the Architect of the Capitol, but maintains its own police force separate from the Capitol Police. Located across First Street from the United States Capitol at One First Street NE and Maryland Avenue, the building is open to the public from 9 am to 4: 30 pm weekdays but closed on weekends and holidays. Visitors may not tour the actual courtroom unaccompanied. There is a cafeteria, a gift shop, exhibits, and a half - hour informational film. When the Court is not in session, lectures about the courtroom are held hourly from 9: 30 am to 3: 30 pm and reservations are not necessary. When the Court is in session the public may attend oral arguments, which are held twice each morning (and sometimes afternoons) on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays in two - week intervals from October through late April, with breaks during December and February. Visitors are seated on a first - come first - served basis. One estimate is there are about 250 seats available. The number of open seats varies from case to case; for important cases, some visitors arrive the day before and wait through the night. From mid-May until the end of June, the court releases orders and opinions beginning at 10 am, and these 15 to 30 - minute sessions are open to the public on a similar basis. Supreme Court Police are available to answer questions. Congress is authorized by Article III of the federal Constitution to regulate the Supreme Court 's appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has original and exclusive jurisdiction over cases between two or more states, but may decline to hear such cases. It also possesses original, but not exclusive, jurisdiction to hear "all actions or proceedings to which ambassadors, other public ministers, consuls, or vice consuls of foreign states are parties; all controversies between the United States and a State; and all actions or proceedings by a State against the citizens of another State or against aliens. '' In 1906, the Court asserted its original jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for contempt of court in United States v. Shipp. The resulting proceeding remains the only contempt proceeding and only criminal trial in the Court 's history. The contempt proceeding arose from the lynching of Ed Johnson in Chattanooga, Tennessee the evening after Justice John Marshall Harlan granted Johnson a stay of execution to allow his lawyers to file an appeal. Johnson was removed from his jail cell by a lynch mob -- aided by the local sheriff who left the prison virtually unguarded -- and hung from a bridge, after which a deputy sheriff pinned a note on Johnson 's body reading: "To Justice Harlan. Come get your nigger now. '' The local sheriff, John Shipp, cited the Supreme Court 's intervention as the rationale for the lynching. The Court appointed its deputy clerk as special master to preside over the trial in Chattanooga with closing arguments made in Washington before the Supreme Court justices, who found nine individuals guilty of contempt, sentencing three to 90 days in jail and the rest to 60 days in jail. In all other cases, however, the Court has only appellate jurisdiction, including the ability to issue writs of mandamus and writs of prohibition to lower courts. It considers cases based on its original jurisdiction very rarely; almost all cases are brought to the Supreme Court on appeal. In practice, the only original jurisdiction cases heard by the Court are disputes between two or more states. The Court 's appellate jurisdiction consists of appeals from federal courts of appeal (through certiorari, certiorari before judgment, and certified questions), the United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces (through certiorari), the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico (through certiorari), the Supreme Court of the Virgin Islands (through certiorari), the District of Columbia Court of Appeals (through certiorari), and "final judgments or decrees rendered by the highest court of a State in which a decision could be had '' (through certiorari). In the last case, an appeal may be made to the Supreme Court from a lower state court if the state 's highest court declined to hear an appeal or lacks jurisdiction to hear an appeal. For example, a decision rendered by one of the Florida District Courts of Appeal can be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court if (a) the Supreme Court of Florida declined to grant certiorari, e.g. Florida Star v. B.J.F., or (b) the district court of appeal issued a per curiam decision simply affirming the lower court 's decision without discussing the merits of the case, since the Supreme Court of Florida lacks jurisdiction to hear appeals of such decisions. The power of the Supreme Court to consider appeals from state courts, rather than just federal courts, was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789 and upheld early in the Court 's history, by its rulings in Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee (1816) and Cohens v. Virginia (1821). The Supreme Court is the only federal court that has jurisdiction over direct appeals from state court decisions, although there are several devices that permit so - called "collateral review '' of state cases. It has to be noted that this "collateral review '' often only applies to individuals on death row and not through the regular judicial system. Since Article Three of the United States Constitution stipulates that federal courts may only entertain "cases '' or "controversies '', the Supreme Court can not decide cases that are moot and it does not render advisory opinions, as the supreme courts of some states may do. For example, in DeFunis v. Odegaard, 416 U.S. 312 (1974), the Court dismissed a lawsuit challenging the constitutionality of a law school affirmative action policy because the plaintiff student had graduated since he began the lawsuit, and a decision from the Court on his claim would not be able to redress any injury he had suffered. However, the Court recognizes some circumstances where it is appropriate to hear a case that is seemingly moot. If an issue is "capable of repetition yet evading review '', the Court will address it even though the party before the Court would not himself be made whole by a favorable result. In Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973), and other abortion cases, the Court addresses the merits of claims pressed by pregnant women seeking abortions even if they are no longer pregnant because it takes longer than the typical human gestation period to appeal a case through the lower courts to the Supreme Court. Another mootness exception is voluntary cessation of unlawful conduct, in which the Court considers the probability of recurrence and plaintiff 's need for relief. The United States is divided into thirteen circuit courts of appeals, each of which is assigned a "circuit justice '' from the Supreme Court. Although this concept has been in continuous existence throughout the history of the republic, its meaning has changed through time. Under the Judiciary Act of 1789, each justice was required to "ride circuit '', or to travel within the assigned circuit and consider cases alongside local judges. This practice encountered opposition from many justices, who cited the difficulty of travel. Moreover, there was a potential for a conflict of interest on the Court if a justice had previously decided the same case while riding circuit. Circuit riding was abolished in 1891. Today, the circuit justice for each circuit is responsible for dealing with certain types of applications that, under the Court 's rules, may be addressed by a single justice. These include applications for emergency stays (including stays of execution in death - penalty cases) and injunctions pursuant to the All Writs Act arising from cases within that circuit, as well as routine requests such as requests for extensions of time. In the past, circuit justices also sometimes ruled on motions for bail in criminal cases, writs of habeas corpus, and applications for writs of error granting permission to appeal. Ordinarily, a justice will resolve such an application by simply endorsing it "granted '' or "denied '' or entering a standard form of order. However, the justice may elect to write an opinion -- referred to as an in - chambers opinion -- in such matters if he or she wishes. A circuit justice may sit as a judge on the Court of Appeals of that circuit, but over the past hundred years, this has rarely occurred. A circuit justice sitting with the Court of Appeals has seniority over the chief judge of the circuit. The chief justice has traditionally been assigned to the District of Columbia Circuit, the Fourth Circuit (which includes Maryland and Virginia, the states surrounding the District of Columbia), and since it was established, the Federal Circuit. Each associate justice is assigned to one or two judicial circuits. As of June 27, 2017, the allotment of the justices among the circuits is: Four of the current justices are assigned to circuits on which they previously sat as circuit judges: Chief Justice Roberts (D.C. Circuit), Justice Breyer (First Circuit), Justice Alito (Third Circuit), and Justice Kennedy (Ninth Circuit). A term of the Supreme Court commences on the first Monday of each October, and continues until June or early July of the following year. Each term consists of alternating periods of around two weeks known as "sittings '' and "recesses. '' Justices hear cases and deliver rulings during sittings; they discuss cases and write opinions during recesses. Nearly all cases come before the court by way of petitions for writs of certiorari, commonly referred to as "cert ''. The Court may review any case in the federal courts of appeals "by writ of certiorari granted upon the petition of any party to any civil or criminal case. '' The Court may only review "final judgments rendered by the highest court of a state in which a decision could be had '' if those judgments involve a question of federal statutory or constitutional law. The party that appealed to the Court is the petitioner and the non-mover is the respondent. All case names before the Court are styled petitioner v. respondent, regardless of which party initiated the lawsuit in the trial court. For example, criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the state and against an individual, as in State of Arizona v. Ernesto Miranda. If the defendant is convicted, and his conviction then is affirmed on appeal in the state supreme court, when he petitions for cert the name of the case becomes Miranda v. Arizona. There are situations where the Court has original jurisdiction, such as when two states have a dispute against each other, or when there is a dispute between the United States and a state. In such instances, a case is filed with the Supreme Court directly. Examples of such cases include United States v. Texas, a case to determine whether a parcel of land belonged to the United States or to Texas, and Virginia v. Tennessee, a case turning on whether an incorrectly drawn boundary between two states can be changed by a state court, and whether the setting of the correct boundary requires Congressional approval. Although it has not happened since 1794 in the case of Georgia v. Brailsford, parties in an action at law in which the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction may request that a jury determine issues of fact. Two other original jurisdiction cases involve colonial era borders and rights under navigable waters in New Jersey v. Delaware, and water rights between riparian states upstream of navigable waters in Kansas v. Colorado. A cert petition is voted on at a session of the court called a conference. A conference is a private meeting of the nine Justices by themselves; the public and the Justices ' clerks are excluded. If four Justices vote to grant the petition, the case proceeds to the briefing stage; otherwise, the case ends. Except in death penalty cases and other cases in which the Court orders briefing from the respondent, the respondent may, but is not required to, file a response to the cert petition. The court grants a petition for cert only for "compelling reasons '', spelled out in the court 's Rule 10. Such reasons include: When a conflict of interpretations arises from differing interpretations of the same law or constitutional provision issued by different federal circuit courts of appeals, lawyers call this situation a "circuit split. '' If the court votes to deny a cert petition, as it does in the vast majority of such petitions that come before it, it does so typically without comment. A denial of a cert petition is not a judgment on the merits of a case, and the decision of the lower court stands as the final ruling in the case. To manage the high volume of cert petitions received by the Court each year (of the more than 7,000 petitions the Court receives each year, it will usually request briefing and hear oral argument in 100 or fewer), the Court employs an internal case management tool known as the "cert pool. '' Currently, all justices except for Justices Alito and Gorsuch participate in the cert pool. When the Court grants a cert petition, the case is set for oral argument. Both parties will file briefs on the merits of the case, as distinct from the reasons they may have argued for granting or denying the cert petition. With the consent of the parties or approval of the Court, amici curiae, or "friends of the court '', may also file briefs. The Court holds two - week oral argument sessions each month from October through April. Each side has thirty minutes to present its argument (the Court may choose to give more time, though this is rare), and during that time, the Justices may interrupt the advocate and ask questions. The petitioner gives the first presentation, and may reserve some time to rebut the respondent 's arguments after the respondent has concluded. Amici curiae may also present oral argument on behalf of one party if that party agrees. The Court advises counsel to assume that the Justices are familiar with and have read the briefs filed in a case. In order to plead before the court, an attorney must first be admitted to the court 's bar. Approximately 4,000 lawyers join the bar each year. The bar contains an estimated 230,000 members. In reality, pleading is limited to several hundred attorneys. The rest join for a one - time fee of $200, earning the court about $750,000 annually. Attorneys can be admitted as either individuals or as groups. The group admission is held before the current justices of the Supreme Court, wherein the Chief Justice approves a motion to admit the new attorneys. Lawyers commonly apply for the cosmetic value of a certificate to display in their office or on their resume. They also receive access to better seating if they wish to attend an oral argument. Members of the Supreme Court Bar are also granted access to the collections of the Supreme Court Library. At the conclusion of oral argument, the case is submitted for decision. Cases are decided by majority vote of the Justices. It is the Court 's practice to issue decisions in all cases argued in a particular Term by the end of that Term. Within that Term, however, the Court is under no obligation to release a decision within any set time after oral argument. At the conclusion of oral argument, the Justices retire to another conference at which the preliminary votes are tallied, and the most senior Justice in the majority assigns the initial draft of the Court 's opinion to a Justice on his or her side. Drafts of the Court 's opinion, as well as any concurring or dissenting opinions, circulate among the Justices until the Court is prepared to announce the judgment in a particular case. Since recording devices are banned inside the courtroom of the United States Supreme Court Building, the delivery of the decision to the media is done via paper copies and is known as the Running of the Interns. It is possible that, through recusals or vacancies, the Court divides evenly on a case. If that occurs, then the decision of the court below is affirmed, but does not establish binding precedent. In effect, it results in a return to the status quo ante. For a case to be heard, there must be a quorum of at least six justices. If a quorum is not available to hear a case and a majority of qualified justices believes that the case can not be heard and determined in the next term, then the judgment of the court below is affirmed as if the Court had been evenly divided. For cases brought to the Supreme Court by direct appeal from a United States District Court, the Chief Justice may order the case remanded to the appropriate U.S. Court of Appeals for a final decision there. This has only occurred once in U.S. history, in the case of United States v. Alcoa (1945). The Court 's opinions are published in three stages. First, a slip opinion is made available on the Court 's web site and through other outlets. Next, several opinions and lists of the court 's orders are bound together in paperback form, called a preliminary print of United States Reports, the official series of books in which the final version of the Court 's opinions appears. About a year after the preliminary prints are issued, a final bound volume of U.S. Reports is issued. The individual volumes of U.S. Reports are numbered so that users may cite this set of reports -- or a competing version published by another commercial legal publisher but containing parallel citations -- to allow those who read their pleadings and other briefs to find the cases quickly and easily. As of the beginning of October Term 2016, there are: As of March 2012, the U.S. Reports have published a total of 30,161 Supreme Court opinions, covering the decisions handed down from February 1790 to March 2012. This figure does not reflect the number of cases the Court has taken up, as several cases can be addressed by a single opinion (see, for example, Parents v. Seattle, where Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education was also decided in the same opinion; by a similar logic, Miranda v. Arizona actually decided not only Miranda but also three other cases: Vignera v. New York, Westover v. United States, and California v. Stewart). A more unusual example is The Telephone Cases, which comprise a single set of interlinked opinions that take up the entire 126th volume of the U.S. Reports. Opinions are also collected and published in two unofficial, parallel reporters: Supreme Court Reporter, published by West (now a part of Thomson Reuters), and United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers ' Edition (simply known as Lawyers ' Edition), published by LexisNexis. In court documents, legal periodicals and other legal media, case citations generally contain cites from each of the three reporters; for example, citation to Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission is presented as Citizens United v. Federal Election Com'n, 585 U.S. 50, 130 S. Ct. 876, 175 L. Ed. 2d 753 (2010), with "S. Ct. '' representing the Supreme Court Reporter, and "L. Ed. '' representing the Lawyers ' Edition. Lawyers use an abbreviated format to cite cases, in the form "vol U.S. page, pin (year) '', where vol is the volume number, page is the page number on which the opinion begins, and year is the year in which the case was decided. Optionally, pin is used to "pinpoint '' to a specific page number within the opinion. For instance, the citation for Roe v. Wade is 410 U.S. 113 (1973), which means the case was decided in 1973 and appears on page 113 of volume 410 of U.S. Reports. For opinions or orders that have not yet been published in the preliminary print, the volume and page numbers may be replaced with "___ ''. The Federal court system and the judicial authority to interpret the Constitution received little attention in the debates over the drafting and ratification of the Constitution. The power of judicial review, in fact, is nowhere mentioned in it. Over the ensuing years, the question of whether the power of judicial review was even intended by the drafters of the Constitution was quickly frustrated by the lack of evidence bearing on the question either way. Nevertheless, the power of judiciary to overturn laws and executive actions it determines are unlawful or unconstitutional is a well - established precedent. Many of the Founding Fathers accepted the notion of judicial review; in Federalist No. 78, Alexander Hamilton wrote: "A Constitution is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between the two, that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the Constitution ought to be preferred to the statute. '' The Supreme Court firmly established its power to declare laws unconstitutional in Marbury v. Madison (1803), consummating the American system of checks and balances. In explaining the power of judicial review, Chief Justice John Marshall stated that the authority to interpret the law was the particular province of the courts, part of the duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. His contention was not that the Court had privileged insight into constitutional requirements, but that it was the constitutional duty of the judiciary, as well as the other branches of government, to read and obey the dictates of the Constitution. Since the founding of the republic, there has been a tension between the practice of judicial review and the democratic ideals of egalitarianism, self - government, self - determination and freedom of conscience. At one pole are those who view the Federal Judiciary and especially the Supreme Court as being "the most separated and least checked of all branches of government. '' Indeed, federal judges and justices on the Supreme Court are not required to stand for election by virtue of their tenure "during good behavior '', and their pay may "not be diminished '' while they hold their position (Section 1 of Article Three). Though subject to the process of impeachment, only one Justice has ever been impeached and no Supreme Court Justice has been removed from office. At the other pole are those who view the judiciary as the least dangerous branch, with little ability to resist the exhortations of the other branches of government. The Supreme Court, it is noted, can not directly enforce its rulings; instead, it relies on respect for the Constitution and for the law for adherence to its judgments. One notable instance of nonacquiescence came in 1832, when the state of Georgia ignored the Supreme Court 's decision in Worcester v. Georgia. President Andrew Jackson, who sided with the Georgia courts, is supposed to have remarked, "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it! ''; however, this alleged quotation has been disputed. Some state governments in the South also resisted the desegregation of public schools after the 1954 judgment Brown v. Board of Education. More recently, many feared that President Nixon would refuse to comply with the Court 's order in United States v. Nixon (1974) to surrender the Watergate tapes. Nixon, however, ultimately complied with the Supreme Court 's ruling. Supreme Court decisions can be (and have been) purposefully overturned by constitutional amendment, which has happened on five occasions: When the Court rules on matters involving the interpretation of laws rather than of the Constitution, simple legislative action can reverse the decisions (for example, in 2009 Congress passed the Lilly Ledbetter act, superseding the limitations given in Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. in 2007). Also, the Supreme Court is not immune from political and institutional consideration: lower federal courts and state courts sometimes resist doctrinal innovations, as do law enforcement officials. In addition, the other two branches can restrain the Court through other mechanisms. Congress can increase the number of justices, giving the President power to influence future decisions by appointments (as in Roosevelt 's Court Packing Plan discussed above). Congress can pass legislation that restricts the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and other federal courts over certain topics and cases: this is suggested by language in Section 2 of Article Three, where the appellate jurisdiction is granted "with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make. '' The Court sanctioned such congressional action in the Reconstruction case ex parte McCardle (1869), though it rejected Congress ' power to dictate how particular cases must be decided in United States v. Klein (1871). On the other hand, through its power of judicial review, the Supreme Court has defined the scope and nature of the powers and separation between the legislative and executive branches of the federal government; for example, in United States v. Curtiss - Wright Export Corp. (1936), Dames & Moore v. Regan (1981), and notably in Goldwater v. Carter (1979), (where it effectively gave the Presidency the power to terminate ratified treaties without the consent of Congress or the Senate). The Court 's decisions can also impose limitations on the scope of Executive authority, as in Humphrey 's Executor v. United States (1935), the Steel Seizure Case (1952), and United States v. Nixon (1974). Each Supreme Court justice hires several law Clerks to review petitions for writ of certiorari, research them, prepare bench memorandums, and draft opinions. Associate justices are allowed four clerks. The chief justice is allowed five clerks, but Chief Justice Rehnquist hired only three per year, and Chief Justice Roberts usually hires only four. Generally, law clerks serve a term of one to two years. The first law clerk was hired by Associate Justice Horace Gray in 1882. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. and Louis Brandeis were the first Supreme Court justices to use recent law school graduates as clerks, rather than hiring a "stenographer - secretary ''. Most law clerks are recent law school graduates. The first female clerk was Lucile Lomen, hired in 1944 by Justice William O. Douglas. The first African - American, William T. Coleman, Jr., was hired in 1948 by Justice Felix Frankfurter. A disproportionately large number of law clerks have obtained law degrees from elite law schools, especially Harvard, Yale, the University of Chicago, Columbia, and Stanford. From 1882 to 1940, 62 % of law clerks were graduates of Harvard Law School. Those chosen to be Supreme Court law clerks usually have graduated in the top of their law school class and were often an editor of the law review or a member of the moot court board. By the mid-1970s, clerking previously for a judge in a federal court of appeals had also become a prerequisite to clerking for a Supreme Court justice. Seven Supreme Court justices previously clerked for other justices: Byron White for Frederick M. Vinson, John Paul Stevens for Wiley Rutledge, William H. Rehnquist for Robert H. Jackson, Stephen Breyer for Arthur Goldberg, John G. Roberts, Jr. for William H. Rehnquist, Elena Kagan for Thurgood Marshall and Neil Gorsuch for both Byron White and Anthony Kennedy. Gorsuch is the first justice to serve alongside a justice for whom he or she clerked. Several current Supreme Court justices have also clerked in the federal courts of appeals: John G. Roberts, Jr. for Judge Henry Friendly of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, Justice Samuel Alito for Judge Leonard I. Garth of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, Elena Kagan for Judge Abner J. Mikva of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, and Neil Gorsuch for Judge David B. Sentelle of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia. Clerks hired by each of the justices of the Supreme Court are often given considerable leeway in the opinions they draft. "Supreme Court clerkship appeared to be a nonpartisan institution from the 1940s into the 1980s '', according to a study published in 2009 by the law review of Vanderbilt University Law School. "As law has moved closer to mere politics, political affiliations have naturally and predictably become proxies for the different political agendas that have been pressed in and through the courts '', former federal court of appeals judge J. Michael Luttig said. David J. Garrow, professor of history at the University of Cambridge, stated that the Court had thus begun to mirror the political branches of government. "We are getting a composition of the clerk workforce that is getting to be like the House of Representatives '', Professor Garrow said. "Each side is putting forward only ideological purists. '' According to the Vanderbilt Law Review study, this politicized hiring trend reinforces the impression that the Supreme Court is "a superlegislature responding to ideological arguments rather than a legal institution responding to concerns grounded in the rule of law. '' A poll conducted in June 2012 by The New York Times and CBS News showed just 44 % of Americans approve of the job the Supreme Court is doing. Three - quarters said justices ' decisions are sometimes influenced by their political or personal views. The court has been the object of criticisms on a range of issues. Among them: The Supreme Court has been criticized for not keeping within Constitutional bounds by engaging in judicial activism, rather than merely interpreting law and exercising judicial restraint. Claims of judicial activism are not confined to any particular ideology. An often cited example of conservative judicial activism is the 1905 decision in Lochner v. New York, which has been criticized by many prominent thinkers, including Robert Bork, Justice Antonin Scalia, and Chief Justice John Roberts, and which was reversed in the 1930s. An often cited example of liberal judicial activism is Roe v. Wade (1973), which legalized abortion in part on the basis of the "right to privacy '' inferred from the Fourteenth Amendment, a reasoning that some critics argued was circuitous. Legal scholars, justices, and presidential candidates have criticized the Roe decision. The progressive Brown v. Board of Education decision has been criticized by conservatives such as Patrick Buchanan and former presidential contender Barry Goldwater. More recently, Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission was criticized for expanding upon the precedent in First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti (1978) that the First Amendment applies to corporations. Lincoln warned, referring to the Dred Scott decision, that if government policy became "irrevocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme Court... the people will have ceased to be their own rulers. '' Former justice Thurgood Marshall justified judicial activism with these words: "You do what you think is right and let the law catch up. '' During different historical periods, the Court has leaned in different directions. Critics from both sides complain that activist - judges abandon the Constitution and substitute their own views instead. Critics include writers such as Andrew Napolitano, Phyllis Schlafly, Mark R. Levin, Mark I. Sutherland, and James MacGregor Burns. Past presidents from both parties have attacked judicial activism, including Franklin D. Roosevelt, Richard Nixon, and Ronald Reagan. Failed Supreme Court nominee Robert Bork wrote: "What judges have wrought is a coup d'état, -- slow - moving and genteel, but a coup d'état nonetheless. '' Senator Al Franken quipped that when politicians talk about judicial activism, "their definition of an activist judge is one who votes differently than they would like. '' One law professor claimed in a 1978 article that the Supreme Court is in some respects "certainly a legislative body. '' Court decisions have been criticized for failing to protect individual rights: the Dred Scott (1857) decision upheld slavery; Plessy v Ferguson (1896) upheld segregation under the doctrine of separate but equal; Kelo v. City of New London (2005) was criticized by prominent politicians, including New Jersey governor Jon Corzine, as undermining property rights. Some critics suggest the 2009 bench with a conservative majority has "become increasingly hostile to voters '' by siding with Indiana 's voter identification laws which tend to "disenfranchise large numbers of people without driver 's licenses, especially poor and minority voters '', according to one report. Senator Al Franken criticized the Court for "eroding individual rights. '' However, others argue that the Court is too protective of some individual rights, particularly those of people accused of crimes or in detention. For example, Chief Justice Warren Burger was an outspoken critic of the exclusionary rule, and Justice Scalia criticized the Court 's decision in Boumediene v. Bush for being too protective of the rights of Guantanamo detainees, on the grounds that habeas corpus was "limited '' to sovereign territory. This criticism is related to complaints about judicial activism. George Will wrote that the Court has an "increasingly central role in American governance. '' It was criticized for intervening in bankruptcy proceedings regarding ailing carmaker Chrysler Corporation in 2009. A reporter wrote that "Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg 's intervention in the Chrysler bankruptcy '' left open the "possibility of further judicial review '' but argued overall that the intervention was a proper use of Supreme Court power to check the executive branch. Warren E. Burger, before becoming Chief Justice, argued that since the Supreme Court has such "unreviewable power '' it is likely to "self - indulge itself '' and unlikely to "engage in dispassionate analysis ''. Larry Sabato wrote "excessive authority has accrued to the federal courts, especially the Supreme Court. '' British constitutional scholar Adam Tomkins sees flaws in the American system of having courts (and specifically the Supreme Court) act as checks on the Executive and Legislative branches; he argues that because the courts must wait, sometimes for years, for cases to navigate their way through the system, their ability to restrain other branches is severely weakened. In contrast, the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany for example, can directly declare a law unconstitutional upon request. There has been debate throughout American history about the boundary between federal and state power. While Framers such as James Madison and Alexander Hamilton argued in The Federalist Papers that their then - proposed Constitution would not infringe on the power of state governments, others argue that expansive federal power is good and consistent with the Framers ' wishes. The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution explicitly grants "powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. '' The Supreme Court has been criticized for giving the federal government too much power to interfere with state authority. One criticism is that it has allowed the federal government to misuse the Commerce Clause by upholding regulations and legislation which have little to do with interstate commerce, but that were enacted under the guise of regulating interstate commerce; and by voiding state legislation for allegedly interfering with interstate commerce. For example, the Commerce Clause was used by the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals to uphold the Endangered Species Act, thus protecting six endemic species of insect near Austin, Texas, despite the fact that the insects had no commercial value and did not travel across state lines; the Supreme Court let that ruling stand without comment in 2005. Chief Justice John Marshall asserted Congress 's power over interstate commerce was "complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations, other than are prescribed in the Constitution. '' Justice Alito said congressional authority under the Commerce Clause is "quite broad. '' Modern day theorist Robert B. Reich suggests debate over the Commerce Clause continues today. Advocates of states ' rights such as constitutional scholar Kevin Gutzman have also criticized the Court, saying it has misused the Fourteenth Amendment to undermine state authority. Justice Brandeis, in arguing for allowing the states to operate without federal interference, suggested that states should be laboratories of democracy. One critic wrote "the great majority of Supreme Court rulings of unconstitutionality involve state, not federal, law. '' However, others see the Fourteenth Amendment as a positive force that extends "protection of those rights and guarantees to the state level. '' The Court has been criticized for keeping its deliberations hidden from public view. According to a review of Jeffrey Toobin 's expose The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court; "Its inner workings are difficult for reporters to cover, like a closed "cartel '', only revealing itself through "public events and printed releases, with nothing about its inner workings ''. The reviewer writes: "few (reporters) dig deeply into court affairs. It all works very neatly; the only ones hurt are the American people, who know little about nine individuals with enormous power over their lives. '' Larry Sabato complains about the Court 's "insularity. '' A Fairleigh Dickinson University poll conducted in 2010 found that 61 % of American voters agreed that televising Court hearings would "be good for democracy '', and 50 % of voters stated they would watch Court proceedings if they were televised. In recent years, many justices have appeared on television, written books and made public statements to journalists. In a 2009 interview on C - SPAN, journalists Joan Biskupic (of USA Today) and Lyle Denniston (of SCOTUSblog) argued that the Court is a "very open '' institution with only the justices ' private conferences inaccessible to others. In October 2010, the Court began the practice of posting on its website recordings and transcripts of oral arguments on the Friday after they occur. Some Court decisions have been criticized for injecting the Court into the political arena, and deciding questions that are the purview of the other two branches of government. The Bush v. Gore decision, in which the Supreme Court intervened in the 2000 presidential election and effectively chose George W. Bush over Al Gore, has been criticized extensively, particularly by liberals. Another example are Court decisions on apportionment and re-districting: in Baker v. Carr, the court decided it could rule on apportionment questions; Justice Frankfurter in a "scathing dissent '' argued against the court wading into so - called political questions. Senator Arlen Specter said the Court should "decide more cases ''. On the other hand, although Justice Scalia acknowledged in a 2009 interview that the number of cases that the Court hears now is smaller today than when he first joined the Supreme Court, he also stated that he has not changed his standards for deciding whether to review a case, nor does he believe his colleagues have changed their standards. He attributed the high volume of cases in the late 1980s, at least in part, to an earlier flurry of new federal legislation that was making its way through the courts. Critic Larry Sabato wrote: "The insularity of lifetime tenure, combined with the appointments of relatively young attorneys who give long service on the bench, produces senior judges representing the views of past generations better than views of the current day. '' Sanford Levinson has been critical of justices who stayed in office despite medical deterioration based on longevity. James MacGregor Burns stated lifelong tenure has "produced a critical time lag, with the Supreme Court institutionally almost always behind the times. '' Proposals to solve these problems include term limits for justices, as proposed by Levinson and Sabato as well as a mandatory retirement age proposed by Richard Epstein, among others. However, others suggest lifetime tenure brings substantial benefits, such as impartiality and freedom from political pressure. Alexander Hamilton in Federalist 78 wrote "nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office. '' The 21st century has seen increased scrutiny of justices accepting expensive gifts and travel. All of the members of the Roberts Court have accepted travel or gifts. In 2012, Justice Sonia Sotomayor received $1.9 million in advances from her publisher Knopf Doubleday. Justice Scalia and others took dozens of expensive trips to exotic locations paid for by private donors. Private events sponsored by partisan groups that are attended by both the justices and those who have an interest in their decisions have raised concerns about access and inappropriate communications. Stephen Spaulding, the legal director at Common Cause, said: "There are fair questions raised by some of these trips about their commitment to being impartial. ''

what was on the top of the world trade center

World Trade Center (1973 -- 2001) - wikipedia Port Authority of New York and New Jersey The original World Trade Center was a large complex of seven buildings in Lower Manhattan, New York City, United States. It featured the landmark twin towers, which opened on April 4, 1973, and were destroyed as a result of the September 11 attacks in 2001. At the time of their completion, the "Twin Towers '' -- the original 1 World Trade Center, at 1,368 feet (417 m); and 2 World Trade Center, at 1,362 feet (415.1 m) -- were the tallest buildings in the world. The other buildings in the complex included the Marriott World Trade Center (3 WTC), 4 WTC, 5 WTC, 6 WTC, and 7 WTC. All these buildings were built between 1975 and 1985, with a construction cost of $400 million ($2,300,000,000 in 2014 dollars). The complex was located in New York City 's Financial District and contained 13,400,000 square feet (1,240,000 m) of office space. The World Trade Center experienced a fire on February 13, 1975, a bombing on February 26, 1993, and a robbery on January 14, 1998. In 1998, the Port Authority decided to privatize the World Trade Center, leasing the buildings to a private company to manage, and awarded the lease to Silverstein Properties in July 2001. On the morning of September 11, 2001, Al - Qaeda - affiliated hijackers flew two Boeing 767 jets into the North and South Towers within minutes of each other; two hours later, both had collapsed. The attacks killed 2,606 people in and within the vicinity of the towers, as well as all 157 on board the two aircraft. Falling debris from the towers, combined with fires that the debris initiated in several surrounding buildings, led to the partial or complete collapse of all the other buildings in the complex and caused catastrophic damage to ten other large structures in the surrounding area. The cleanup and recovery process at the World Trade Center site took eight months, during which time what remained of the other World Trade Center buildings was demolished. The World Trade Center complex was rebuilt over a span of more than a decade. The site is being rebuilt with six new skyscrapers, while a memorial to those killed in the attacks and a new rapid transit hub have both opened. One World Trade Center, the tallest building in the United States, is the lead building for the new complex, reaching more than 100 stories upon its completion in November 2014. The western portion of the World Trade Center site was originally under the Hudson River, with the shoreline in the vicinity of Greenwich Street. It was on this shoreline close to the intersection of Greenwich and the former Dey Street that Dutch explorer Adriaen Block 's ship, the Tyger, burned to the waterline in November 1613, stranding Block and his crew and forcing them to overwinter on the island. They built the first European settlement in Manhattan. The remains of the ship were buried under landfill when the shoreline was extended starting in 1797, and were discovered during excavation work in 1916. The remains of a second ship from the eighteenth century were discovered in 2010 during excavation work at the site. The ship, believed to be a Hudson River sloop, was found just south of where the Twin Towers used to stand, about 20 feet below the surface. Later, the area became Radio Row. New York City 's Radio Row, which existed from 1921 to 1966, was a warehouse district on the Lower West Side in the Financial District. Harry Schneck opened City Radio on Cortlandt Street in 1921, and eventually the area held several blocks of electronics stores, with Cortlandt Street as its central axis. The used radios, war surplus electronics (e.g., ARC - 5 radios), junk, and parts often piled so high they would spill out onto the street, attracting collectors and scroungers. According to a business writer, it also was the origin of the electronic component distribution business. The idea of establishing a World Trade Center in New York City was first proposed in 1943. The New York State Legislature passed a bill authorizing New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey to begin developing plans for the project but the plans were put on hold in 1949. During the late 1940s and 1950s, economic growth in New York City was concentrated in Midtown Manhattan. To help stimulate urban renewal in Lower Manhattan, David Rockefeller suggested that the Port Authority build a World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan. Plans for the use of eminent domain to remove the shops in Radio Row bounded by Vesey, Church, Liberty, and West Streets began in 1961 when the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was deciding to build the world 's first world trade center. They had two choices: the east side of Lower Manhattan, near the South Street Seaport; and the west side, near the H&M station, Hudson Terminal. Initial plans, made public in 1961, identified a site along the East River for the World Trade Center. As a bi-state agency, the Port Authority required approval for new projects from the governors of both New York and New Jersey. New Jersey Governor Robert B. Meyner objected to New York getting a $335 million project. Toward the end of 1961, negotiations with outgoing New Jersey Governor Meyner reached a stalemate. At the time, ridership on New Jersey 's Hudson and Manhattan Railroad (H&M) had declined substantially from a high of 113 million riders in 1927 to 26 million in 1958 after new automobile tunnels and bridges had opened across the Hudson River. In a December 1961 meeting between Port Authority director Austin J. Tobin and newly elected New Jersey Governor Richard J. Hughes, the Port Authority offered to take over the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad to have it become the Port Authority Trans - Hudson (PATH). The Port Authority also decided to move the World Trade Center project to the Hudson Terminal building site on the west side of Lower Manhattan, a more convenient location for New Jersey commuters arriving via PATH. With the new location and Port Authority acquisition of the H&M Railroad, New Jersey agreed to support the World Trade Center project. In compensation for Radio Row business owners ' displacement, the PANYNJ gave each business $3,000 each, without regard to how long the business had been there or how prosperous the business was. After the area had been purchased for the World Trade Center in March 1964, Radio Row was demolished starting in March 1965. It was completely demolished by 1966. Approval was also needed from New York City Mayor John Lindsay and the New York City Council. Disagreements with the city centered on tax issues. On August 3, 1966, an agreement was reached that the Port Authority would make annual payments to the City in lieu of taxes for the portion of the World Trade Center leased to private tenants. In subsequent years, the payments would rise as the real estate tax rate increased. On September 20, 1962, the Port Authority announced the selection of Minoru Yamasaki as lead architect and Emery Roth & Sons as associate architects. Yamasaki devised the plan to incorporate twin towers; Yamasaki 's original plan called for the towers to be 80 stories tall, but to meet the Port Authority 's requirement for 10,000,000 square feet (930,000 m) of office space, the buildings would each have to be 110 stories tall. Yamasaki 's design for the World Trade Center, unveiled to the public on January 18, 1964, called for a square plan approximately 208 feet (63 m) in dimension on each side. The buildings were designed with narrow office windows 18 inches (46 cm) wide, which reflected Yamasaki 's fear of heights as well as his desire to make building occupants feel secure. Yamasaki 's design included building facades sheathed in aluminum - alloy. The World Trade Center was one of the most - striking American implementations of the architectural ethic of Le Corbusier, and it was the seminal expression of Yamasaki 's gothic modernist tendencies. A major limiting factor in building height is the issue of elevators; the taller the building, the more elevators are needed to service the building, requiring more space - consuming elevator banks. Yamasaki and the engineers decided to use a new system with two "sky lobbies '' -- floors where people could switch from a large - capacity express elevator to a local elevator that goes to each floor in a section. This system, inspired by the local - express train operation that the New York City Subway system used, allowed the design to stack local elevators within the same elevator shaft. Located on the 44th and 78th floors of each tower, the sky lobbies enabled the elevators to be used efficiently, increasing the amount of usable space on each floor from 62 to 75 percent by reducing the number of elevator shafts. Altogether, the World Trade Center had 95 express and local elevators. The structural engineering firm Worthington, Skilling, Helle & Jackson worked to implement Yamasaki 's design, developing the tube - frame structural system used in the twin towers. The Port Authority 's Engineering Department served as foundation engineers, Joseph R. Loring & Associates as electrical engineers, and Jaros, Baum & Bolles (JB&B) as mechanical engineers. Tishman Realty & Construction Company was the general contractor on the World Trade Center project. Guy F. Tozzoli, director of the World Trade Department at the Port Authority, and Rino M. Monti, the Port Authority 's Chief Engineer, oversaw the project. As an interstate agency, the Port Authority was not subject to local laws and regulations of the City of New York, including building codes. Nonetheless, the structural engineers of the World Trade Center ended up following draft versions of the new 1968 building codes. The tube - frame design, earlier introduced by Fazlur Khan, was a new approach that allowed more open floor plans than the traditional design that distributed columns throughout the interior to support building loads. The World Trade Center towers used high - strength, load - bearing perimeter steel columns called Vierendeel trusses that were spaced closely together to form a strong, rigid wall structure, supporting virtually all lateral loads such as wind loads, and sharing the gravity load with the core columns. The perimeter structure containing 59 columns per side was constructed with extensive use of prefabricated modular pieces, each consisting of three columns, three stories tall, connected by spandrel plates. The spandrel plates were welded to the columns to create the modular pieces off - site at the fabrication shop. Adjacent modules were bolted together with the splices occurring at mid-span of the columns and spandrels. The spandrel plates were located at each floor, transmitting shear stress between columns, allowing them to work together in resisting lateral loads. The joints between modules were staggered vertically, so that the column splices between adjacent modules were not at the same floor. The core of the towers housed the elevator and utility shafts, restrooms, three stairwells, and other support spaces. The core of each tower was a rectangular area 87 by 135 feet (27 by 41 m) and contained 47 steel columns running from the bedrock to the top of the tower. The large, column - free space between the perimeter and core was bridged by prefabricated floor trusses. The floors supported their own weight as well as live loads, providing lateral stability to the exterior walls and distributing wind loads among the exterior walls. The floors consisted of 4 inches (10 cm) thick lightweight concrete slabs laid on a fluted steel deck. A grid of lightweight bridging trusses and main trusses supported the floors. The trusses connected to the perimeter at alternate columns and were on 6 foot 8 inch (2.03 m) centers. The top chords of the trusses were bolted to seats welded to the spandrels on the exterior side and a channel welded to the core columns on the interior side. The floors were connected to the perimeter spandrel plates with viscoelastic dampers that helped reduce the amount of sway felt by building occupants. Hat trusses (or "outrigger truss '') located from the 107th floor to the top of the buildings were designed to support a tall communication antenna on top of each building. Only 1 WTC (north tower) actually had an antenna fitted; it was added in 1978. The truss system consisted of six trusses along the long axis of the core and four along the short axis. This truss system allowed some load redistribution between the perimeter and core columns and supported the transmission tower. The tube frame design, using steel core and perimeter columns protected with sprayed - on fire resistant material, created a relatively lightweight structure that would sway more in response to the wind compared to traditional structures, such as the Empire State Building that have thick, heavy masonry for fireproofing of steel structural elements. During the design process, wind tunnel tests were done to establish design wind pressures that the World Trade Center towers could be subjected to and structural response to those forces. Experiments also were done to evaluate how much sway occupants could comfortably tolerate; however, many subjects experienced dizziness and other ill effects. One of the chief engineers Leslie Robertson worked with Canadian engineer Alan G. Davenport to develop viscoelastic dampers to absorb some of the sway. These viscoelastic dampers, used throughout the structures at the joints between floor trusses and perimeter columns along with some other structural modifications, reduced the building sway to an acceptable level. In March 1965, the Port Authority began acquiring property at the World Trade Center site. Demolition work began on March 21, 1966, to clear thirteen square blocks of low rise buildings in Radio Row for construction of the World Trade Center. Groundbreaking for the construction of the World Trade Center took place on August 5, 1966. The site of the World Trade Center was located on landfill with the bedrock located 65 feet (20 m) below. To construct the World Trade Center, it was necessary to build a "bathtub '' with a slurry wall around the West Street side of the site, to keep water from the Hudson River out. The slurry method selected by Port Authority 's chief engineer, John M. Kyle, Jr., involved digging a trench, and as excavation proceeded, filling the space with a "slurry '' mixture composed of bentonite and water, which plugged holes and kept groundwater out. When the trench was dug out, a steel cage was inserted and concrete was poured in, forcing the "slurry '' out. It took fourteen months for the slurry wall to be completed. It was necessary before excavation of material from the interior of the site could begin. The 1,200,000 cubic yards (920,000 m) of material excavated were used (along with other fill and dredge material) to expand the Manhattan shoreline across West Street to form Battery Park City. In January 1967, the Port Authority awarded $74 million in contracts to various steel suppliers, and Karl Koch was hired to erect the steel. Tishman Realty & Construction was hired in February 1967 to oversee construction of the project. Construction work began on the North Tower in August 1968; construction on the South Tower was under way by January 1969. The original Hudson Tubes, carrying PATH trains into Hudson Terminal, remained in service as elevated tunnels during the construction process until 1971 when a new PATH station opened. The topping out ceremony of 1 WTC (North Tower) took place on December 23, 1970, while 2 WTC 's ceremony (South Tower) occurred later on July 19, 1971. The first tenants moved into the North Tower on December 15, 1970; the South Tower accepted tenants in January 1972. When the World Trade Center twin towers were completed, the total costs to the Port Authority had reached $900 million. The ribbon cutting ceremony was on April 4, 1973. In addition to the twin towers, the plan for the World Trade Center complex included four other low - rise buildings, which were built in the early 1970s. The 47 - story 7 World Trade Center building was added in the 1980s, to the north of the main complex. Altogether, the main World Trade Center complex occupied a 16 - acre (65,000 m) superblock. Plans to build the World Trade Center were controversial. The site for the World Trade Center was the location of Radio Row, home to hundreds of commercial and industrial tenants, property owners, small businesses, and approximately 100 residents, many of whom fiercely resisted forced relocation. A group of small businesses affected sought an injunction challenging the Port Authority 's power of eminent domain. The case made its way through the court system to the United States Supreme Court; the Court refused to accept the case. Private real estate developers and members of the Real Estate Board of New York, led by Empire State Building owner Lawrence A. Wien, expressed concerns about this much "subsidized '' office space going on the open market, competing with the private sector when there was already a glut of vacancies. The World Trade Center itself was not rented out completely until after 1979 and then only due to the fact that the complex 's subsidy by the Port Authority made rents charged for its office space relatively cheaper than that of comparable office space in other buildings. Others questioned whether the Port Authority should have taken on a project described by some as a "mistaken social priority ''. The World Trade Center design brought criticism of its aesthetics from the American Institute of Architects and other groups. Lewis Mumford, author of The City in History and other works on urban planning, criticized the project and described it and other new skyscrapers as "just glass - and - metal filing cabinets ''. The Twin Towers were described as looking similar to "the boxes that the Empire State Building and the Chrysler Building came in ''. The twin towers ' narrow office windows, only 18 inches (46 cm) wide and framed by pillars that restricted views on each side to narrow slots, were disliked by many. Activist and sociologist Jane Jacobs also criticized plans for the WTC 's construction, arguing that the waterfront should be kept open for New Yorkers to enjoy. The trade center 's "superblock '', replacing a more traditional, dense neighborhood, was regarded by some critics as an inhospitable environment that disrupted the complicated traffic network typical of Manhattan. For example, in his book The Pentagon of Power, Lewis Mumford denounced the center as an "example of the purposeless giantism and technological exhibitionism that are now eviscerating the living tissue of every great city ''. For many years, the immense Austin J. Tobin Plaza was often beset by brisk winds at ground level owing to the Venturi effect between the two towers. In fact, some gusts were so high that pedestrian travel had to be aided by ropes. In 1999, the outdoor plaza reopened after undergoing $12 million renovations, which involved replacing marble pavers with gray and pink granite stones, adding new benches, planters, new restaurants, food kiosks and outdoor dining areas. On a typical weekday 50,000 people worked in the towers with another 200,000 passing through as visitors. The complex was so large that it had its own zip code: 10048. The towers offered expansive views from the observation deck atop the South Tower and the Windows on the World restaurant on top of the North Tower. The Twin Towers became known worldwide, appearing in numerous movies and television shows as well as on postcards and other merchandise, and became seen as a New York icon, in the same league as the Empire State Building, Chrysler Building and the Statue of Liberty. One World Trade Center and Two World Trade Center, commonly the Twin Towers, the idea of which was brought up by Minoru Yamasaki, were designed as framed tube structures, which provided tenants with open floor plans, uninterrupted by columns or walls. They were the main buildings of the World Trade Center. The North Tower (One World Trade Center), the tallest building in the world at 1,368 feet (417 m) by the time of its completion, began construction in 1966 with the South Tower (2 World Trade Center); extensive use of prefabricated components helped to speed up the construction process, and the first tenants moved into the North Tower in December 1970, while it was still under construction. When completed in 1973, the South Tower, Two World Trade Center (the South Tower) became the second tallest building in the world at 1,362 feet (415 m); the South Tower 's rooftop observation deck was 1,362 ft (415 m) high and its indoor observation deck was 1,310 ft (400 m) high. Each tower stood over 1,350 feet (410 m) high, and occupied about 1 acre (4,000 m) of the total 16 acres (65,000 m) of the site 's land. During a press conference in 1973, Yamasaki was asked, "Why two 110 - story buildings? Why not one 220 - story building? '' His tongue - in - cheek response was: "I did n't want to lose the human scale. '' When completed in 1972, 1 World Trade Center became the tallest building in the world for two years, surpassing the Empire State Building after a 40 - year reign. The North Tower stood 1,368 feet (417 m) tall and featured a telecommunications antenna or mast that was added at the top of the roof in 1978 and stood 362 feet (110 m) tall. With the 362 - foot (110 m) - tall antenna / mast, the highest point of the North Tower reached 1,730 feet (530 m). Chicago 's Sears Tower, finished in May 1973, reached 1,450 feet (440 m) at the rooftop. Throughout their existence, the WTC towers had more floors (at 110) than any other building. This number was not surpassed until the advent of the Burj Khalifa, which opened in 2010. Although most of the space in the World Trade Center complex was off - limits to the public, the South Tower featured an indoor and outdoor public observation area called Top of the World Trade Center Observatories on its 107th and 110th floors. Visitors would pass through security checks added after the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, then were sent to the 107th floor indoor observatory at a height of 1,310 feet (400 m). The columns on each face of the building were narrowed on this level to allow 28 inches of glass between them. The Port Authority renovated the observatory in 1995, then leased it to Ogden Entertainment to operate. Attractions added to the observation deck included a simulated helicopter ride around the city. The 107th floor food court was designed with a subway car theme and featured Sbarro and Nathan 's Famous Hot Dogs. Weather permitting, visitors could take two short escalator rides up from the 107th floor viewing area to an outdoor viewing platform on the 110th floor at a height of 1,377 ft (420 m). On a clear day, visitors could see up to 50 miles (80 km). An anti-suicide fence was placed on the roof itself, with the viewing platform set back and elevated above it, requiring only an ordinary railing and leaving the view unobstructed, unlike the observation deck of the Empire State Building. The North Tower had a restaurant on its 106th and 107th floors called Windows on the World, which opened in April 1976. The restaurant was developed by Joe Baum at a cost of more than $17 million. Aside from the main restaurant, two offshoots were located at the top of the North Tower: "Hors d'Oeuvrerie '' (offered a Danish smorgasbord during the day and sushi in the evening) and "Cellar in the Sky '' (a small wine bar). Windows on the World also had a wine school program run by Kevin Zraly. Windows on the World was closed following the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. Upon reopening in 1996, Hors d'Oeuvrerie and Cellar in the Sky were replaced with the "Greatest Bar on Earth '' and "Wild Blue ''. In 2000, its last full year of operation, Windows on the World reported revenues of $37 million, making it the highest - grossing restaurant in the United States. The Skydive Restaurant, opened in 1976 on the 44th floor of the North Tower, was also operated by Windows on the World restaurant, but served only lunch. Five smaller buildings stood around the 16 acres (65,000 m) block. One was the 22 - floor hotel, which opened in 1981 as the Vista Hotel, and in 1995 became the Marriott World Trade Center (3 WTC) at the southwest corner of the site. Three low - rise buildings (4 WTC, 5 WTC, and 6 WTC) in the same hollow tube design as the towers also stood around the plaza. 6 World Trade Center, at the northwest corner, housed the United States Customs Service and the U.S. Commodities Exchange. 5 World Trade Center was located at the northeast corner above the PATH station and 4 World Trade Center was at the southeast corner. In 1987, a 47 - floor office building called 7 World Trade Center was built north of the block. Beneath the World Trade Center complex was an underground shopping mall, which in turn had connections to various mass transit facilities including the New York City Subway system and the Port Authority 's own PATH trains connecting Manhattan to New Jersey. One of the world 's largest gold depositories was stored underneath the World Trade Center, owned by a group of commercial banks. The 1993 bombing detonated close to the vault. Seven weeks after the September 11 attacks, $230 million in precious metals was removed from basement vaults of 4 WTC, which included 3,800 100 - Troy - ounce 24 carat gold bars and 30,000 1,000 - ounce silver bars. On February 13, 1975, a three - alarm fire broke out on the 11th floor of the North Tower. Fire spread through the tower to the 9th and 14th floors by igniting the insulation of telephone cables in a utility shaft that ran vertically between floors. Areas at the furthest extent of the fire were extinguished almost immediately and the original fire was put out in a few hours. Most of the damage was concentrated on the 11th floor, fueled by cabinets filled with paper, alcohol - based fluid for office machines, and other office equipment. Fireproofing protected the steel and there was no structural damage to the tower. In addition to damage caused by the fire on the 9th -- 14th floors, water from the extinguishing of the fires damaged a few floors below. At that time, the World Trade Center had no fire sprinkler systems. The first terrorist attack on the World Trade Center occurred on February 26, 1993, at 12: 17 p.m. A Ryder truck filled with 1,500 pounds (680 kg) of explosives, planted by Ramzi Yousef, detonated in the underground garage of the North Tower. The blast opened a 100 foot (30 m) hole through five sublevels with the greatest damage occurring on levels B1 and B2 and significant structural damage on level B3. Six people were killed and 1,042 others were injured during escape attempts complicated by smoke infiltration from the base of the building up to the 93rd floor of both towers. Many people inside the North Tower were forced to walk down darkened stairwells that contained no emergency lighting, some taking two hours or more to reach safety. Yousef fled to Pakistan after the bombing but was arrested in Islamabad in February 1995, and was extradited back to the United States to face trial. Sheikh Omar Abdel Rahman was convicted in 1996 for involvement in the bombing and other plots. Yousef and Eyad Ismoil were convicted in November 1997 for their carrying out the bombing. Four others had been convicted in May 1994 for their involvement in the 1993 bombing. According to a presiding judge, the conspirators ' chief aim at the time of the attack was to destabilize the north tower and send it crashing into the south tower, toppling both landmarks. Following the bombing, floors that were blown out needed to be repaired to restore the structural support they provided to columns. The slurry wall was in peril following the bombing and loss of the floor slabs that provided lateral support against pressure from Hudson River water on the other side. The refrigeration plant on sublevel B5, which provided air conditioning to the entire World Trade Center complex, was heavily damaged. After the bombing, the Port Authority installed photoluminescent markings in the stairwells. The fire alarm system for the entire complex needed to be replaced because critical wiring and signaling in the original system was destroyed. As a memorial to the victims of the bombing of the tower, a reflecting pool was installed with the names of those who had been killed in the blast. However, the memorial was destroyed following the September 11 attacks. Names of the victims of the 1993 bombing are included in the National September 11 Memorial & Museum. In January 1998, Mafia member Ralph Guarino, who had gained maintenance access to the World Trade Center, arranged a three - man crew for a heist that netted over $2 million from a Brinks delivery to the eleventh floor of the World Trade Center. In 1974, French high wire acrobatic performer Philippe Petit walked between the towers on a tightrope, as shown in the documentary film Man on Wire (2008), based on Petit 's book To Reach the Clouds: My High Wire Walk Between the Twin Towers (2002) (released in paperback with the title Man on Wire (2008)) and depicted in the feature film The Walk (2015). Petit walked between the towers eight times on a steel cable. In 1977, Brooklyn toymaker George Willig scaled the exterior of the South Tower (2 WTC). In 1983, on Memorial Day, high - rise firefighting and rescue advocate Dan Goodwin successfully climbed the outside of the North Tower (1 WTC). His stunt was meant to call attention to the inability to rescue people potentially trapped in the upper floors of skyscrapers. The 1995 PCA world chess championship was played on the 107th floor of the South Tower. In 1998, the Port Authority approved plans to privatize the World Trade Center. In 2001, the Port Authority sought to lease the World Trade Center to a private entity. Bids for the lease came from Vornado Realty Trust, a joint bid between Brookfield Properties Corporation and Boston Properties, and a joint bid by Silverstein Properties and The Westfield Group. By privatizing the World Trade Center, it would be added to the city 's tax rolls and provide funds for other Port Authority projects. On February 15, 2001, the Port Authority announced that Vornado Realty Trust had won the lease for the World Trade Center, paying $3.25 billion for the 99 - year lease. Vornado outbid Silverstein by $600 million though Silverstein upped his offer to $3.22 billion. However, Vornado insisted on last minute changes to the deal, including a shorter 39 - year lease, which the Port Authority considered nonnegotiable. Vornado later withdrew and Silverstein 's bid for the lease to the World Trade Center was accepted on April 26, 2001, and closed on July 24, 2001. On September 11, 2001, Islamist terrorists hijacked American Airlines Flight 11 and crashed it into the northern façade of the North Tower at 8: 46: 40 a.m., the aircraft striking between the 93rd and 99th floors. Seventeen minutes later, at 9: 03: 11 a.m., a second group crashed the similarly hijacked United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern facade of the South Tower, striking it between the 77th and 85th floors. The damage caused to the North Tower by Flight 11 destroyed any means of escape from above the impact zone, trapping 1,344 people. Flight 175 had a much more off - centered impact compared to Flight 11, and a single stairwell was left intact; however, only a few people managed to pass through it successfully before the tower collapsed. Although the South Tower was struck lower than the North Tower, thus affecting more floors, a smaller number, fewer than 700, were killed instantly or trapped. At 9: 59 a.m., the South Tower collapsed after burning for approximately 56 minutes. The fire caused steel structural elements, already weakened from the plane impact, to fail. The North Tower collapsed at 10: 28 a.m., after burning for approximately 102 minutes. At 5: 20 p.m. on September 11, 2001, 7 World Trade Center started to collapse with the crumble of the east penthouse, and it collapsed completely at 5: 21 p.m. owing to uncontrolled fires causing structural failure. The Marriott World Trade Center, a hotel, was destroyed during the collapse of the two towers. The three remaining buildings in the WTC plaza were extensively damaged by debris and later were demolished. The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned owing to the uninhabitable toxic conditions inside; it was deconstructed, with work completed in early 2011. The Borough of Manhattan Community College 's Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was also condemned owing to extensive damage in the attacks and is slated for deconstruction. In the immediate aftermath of the attacks, media reports suggested that tens of thousands might have been killed in the attacks, as over 50,000 people could be inside the World Trade Center, although the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) estimated that approximately 17,400 occupants were in the towers at the time of the attacks. Ultimately, 2,753 death certificates (excluding those for hijackers) were filed relating to the 9 / 11 attacks in New York City, including one filed for Felicia Dunn - Jones, who was added to the official death toll in May 2007; Dunn - Jones died five months later from a lung condition linked to exposure to dust during the collapse of the World Trade Center. Three other victims were then added to the official death toll by the city medical examiner 's office: Dr. Sneha Anne Philip, who was last seen the day before the attacks; Leon Heyward, a man who developed lymphoma and subsequently died in 2008 as a result of dust ingestion during the events following the attacks to the Twin Towers; and Jerry Borg, who died in December 2010 of pulmonary sarcoidosis determined in June 2011 to be the result of dust from the attacks. 2,192 civilians died in and around the World Trade Center, including 658 employees of Cantor Fitzgerald L.P. (an investment bank on the 101st -- 105th floors of One World Trade Center), 295 employees of Marsh & McLennan Companies (which was located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93 -- 101, the location of Flight 11 's impact), and 175 employees of Aon Corporation. In addition to the civilian deaths, 343 New York City Fire Department (FDNY) firefighters were killed in the attacks, as well as 71 law enforcement officers, including 37 members of the Port Authority Police Department (PAPD) and 23 members of the New York City Police Department (NYPD). Ten years after the attacks, remains of only 1,629 victims had been identified. Of all the people who were still in the towers when they collapsed, only 20 were pulled out alive. Over the following years, plans were created for the reconstruction of the World Trade Center. The Lower Manhattan Development Corporation (LMDC), established in November 2001 to oversee the rebuilding process, organized competitions to select a site plan and memorial design. Memory Foundations, designed by Daniel Libeskind, was selected as the master plan; however, substantial changes were made to the design. The first new building at the site was 7 WTC, which opened in May 2006. The memorial section of the National September 11 Memorial & Museum opened on September 11, 2011 and the museum opened in May 2014. 1 WTC opened on November 3, 2014; 4 WTC opened on November 13, 2013; and 3 WTC is under construction and expected to open in 2017. As of November 2013, according to an agreement made with Silverstein Properties Inc., the new 2 WTC will not be built to its full height until sufficient leasing is established to make the building financially viable. In Summer 2015, Silverstein Properties revealed plans for a redesigned Tower 2 with News Corp as the core tenant; the Bjarke Ingels - designed structure was expected to be finished by 2020. 5 WTC will be developed by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, but, as of February 2014, a schedule was not confirmed.

eight levels of taxonomy from largest to smallest

Taxonomic rank - wikipedia In biological classification, taxonomic rank is the relative level of a group of organisms (a taxon) in a taxonomic hierarchy. Examples of taxonomic ranks are species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain, etc. A given rank subsumes under it less general categories, that is, more specific descriptions of life forms. Above it, each rank is classified within more general categories of organisms and groups of organisms related to each other through inheritance of traits or features from common ancestors. The rank of any species and the description of its genus is basic; which means that to identify a particular organism, it is usually not necessary to specify ranks other than these first two. Consider a particular species, the red fox, Vulpes vulpes: its next rank, the genus Vulpes, comprises all the ' true foxes '. Their closest relatives are in the immediately higher rank, the family Canidae, which includes dogs, wolves, jackals, all foxes, and other caniforms such as bears, badgers and seals; the next higher rank, the order Carnivora, includes feliforms and caniforms (lions, tigers, hyenas, wolverines, and all those mentioned above), plus other carnivorous mammals. As one group of the class Mammalia, all of the above are classified among those with backbones in the Chordata phylum rank, and with them among all the animals in the Animalia kingdom rank. Finally, all of the above will find their earliest relatives somewhere in their domain rank Eukarya. The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature defines rank as: In his landmark publications, such as the Systema Naturae, Carl Linnaeus used a ranking scale limited to: kingdom, class, order, genus, species, and one rank below species. Today, nomenclature is regulated by the nomenclature codes. There are seven main taxonomic ranks: kingdom, phylum or division, class, order, family, genus, species. In addition, the domain (proposed by Carl Woese) is now widely used as one of the fundamental ranks, although it is not mentioned in any of the nomenclature codes. Also, this term represents a synonym for the category of dominion (lat. dominium), introduced by Moore in 1974. Unlike Moore, Whoese et al. (1990) did not suggest a Latin term for this category, which represents a further argument supporting the accurately introduced term dominion. A taxon is usually assigned a rank when it is given its formal name. The basic ranks are species and genus. When an organism is given a species name it is assigned to a genus, and the genus name is part of the species name. The species name is also called a binomial, that is, a two - term name. For example, the zoological name for the human species is Homo sapiens. This is usually italicized in print and underlined when italics are not available. In this case, Homo is the generic name and it is capitalized; sapiens indicates the species and it is not capitalized. There are definitions of the following taxonomic ranks in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature: superfamily, family, subfamily, tribe, subtribe, genus, subgenus, species, subspecies. The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature divides names into "family - group names '', "genus - group names '' and "species - group names ''. The Code explicitly mentions: Family Genus Species The rules in the Code apply to the ranks of superfamily to subspecies, and only to some extent to those above the rank of superfamily. In the "genus group '' and "species group '' no further ranks are allowed. Among zoologists, additional terms such as species group, species subgroup, species complex and superspecies are sometimes used for convenience as extra, but unofficial, ranks between the subgenus and species levels in taxa with many species (e.g. the genus Drosophila). At higher ranks (family and above) a lower level may be denoted by adding the prefix "infra '', meaning lower, to the rank. For example, infraorder (below suborder) or infrafamily (below subfamily). According to Art 3.1 of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) the most important ranks of taxa are: kingdom, division or phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. According to Art 4.1 the secondary ranks of taxa are tribe, section, series, variety and form. There is an indeterminate number of ranks. The ICN explicitly mentions: primary ranks kingdom (regnum) division or phylum (divisio, phylum) class (classis) order (ordo) family (familia) genus (genus) species (species) There are definitions of the following taxonomic categories in the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants: cultivar group, cultivar, grex. The rules in the ICN apply primarily to the ranks of family and below, and only to some extent to those above the rank of family. Also see descriptive botanical names. Taxa at the rank of genus and above have a botanical name in one part (unitary name); those at the rank of species and above (but below genus) have a botanical name in two parts (binary name); all taxa below the rank of species have a botanical name in three parts (an infraspecific name). To indicate the rank of the infraspecific name, a "connecting term '' is needed. Thus Poa secunda subsp. juncifolia, where "subsp. '' is an abbreviation for "subspecies '', is the name of a subspecies of Poa secunda. Hybrids can be specified either by a "hybrid formula '' that specifies the parentage, or may be given a name. For hybrids getting a hybrid name, the same ranks apply, prefixed with notho (Greek: ' bastard '), with nothogenus as the highest permitted rank. If a different term for the rank was used in an old publication, but the intention is clear, botanical nomenclature specifies certain substitutions: Classifications of five species follow: the fruit fly so familiar in genetics laboratories (Drosophila melanogaster), humans (Homo sapiens), the peas used by Gregor Mendel in his discovery of genetics (Pisum sativum), the "fly agaric '' mushroom Amanita muscaria, and the bacterium Escherichia coli. The eight major ranks are given in bold; a selection of minor ranks are given as well. Taxa above the genus level are often given names based on the type genus, with a standard termination. The terminations used in forming these names depend on the kingdom (and sometimes the phylum and class) as set out in the table below. Pronunciations given are the most Anglicized. More Latinate pronunciations are also common, particularly / ɑː / rather than / eɪ / for stressed a. There is an indeterminate number of ranks, as a taxonomist may invent a new rank at will, at any time, if they feel this is necessary. In doing so, there are some restrictions, which will vary with the nomenclature code which applies. The following is an artificial synthesis, solely for purposes of demonstration of relative rank (but see notes), from most general to most specific: Ranks are assigned based on subjective dissimilarity, and do not fully reflect the gradational nature of variation within nature. In most cases, higher taxonomic groupings arise further back in time: not because the rate of diversification was higher in the past, but because each subsequent diversification event results in an increase of diversity and thus increases the taxonomic rank assigned by present - day taxonomists. Furthermore, some groups have many described species not because they are more diverse than other species, but because they are more easily sampled and studied than other group. Of these many ranks, the most basic is species. However, this is not to say that a taxon at any other rank may not be sharply defined, or that any species is guaranteed to be sharply defined. It varies from case to case. Ideally, a taxon is intended to represent a clade, that is, the phylogeny of the organisms under discussion, but this is not a requirement. Classification, in which all taxa have formal ranks, can not adequately reflect knowledge about phylogeny; at the same time, if taxon names are dependent on ranks, rank - free taxa ca n't be supplied with names. This problem is dissolved in cladoendesis, where the specially elaborated rank - free nomenclatures are used. There are no rules for how many species should make a genus, a family, or any other higher taxon (that is, a taxon in a category above the species level). It should be a natural group (that is, non-artificial, non-polyphyletic), as judged by a biologist, using all the information available to them. Equally ranked higher taxa in different phyla are not necessarily equivalent (e.g., it is incorrect to assume that families of insects are in some way evolutionarily comparable to families of mollusks). For animals, at least the phylum rank is usually associated with a certain body plan, which is also, however, an arbitrary criterion.

where are the rail coaches made in india

Rail Coach factory, Kapurthala - Wikipedia Rail Coach Factory at Kapurthala in the Indian state of the Punjab is located on the Jalandhar - Firozpur line. Established in 1986, RCF is a coach manufacturing unit of Indian Railways. It has manufactured more than 30000 passenger coaches of different types including Self Propelled passenger vehicles which constitute over 50 % of the total population of coaches on Indian Railways. Some of them are: This output constitutes over 35 % of the total population of coaches on Indian Railways. The Rail Coach Factory (RCF) has produced record number of coaches in the financial year 2013 - 14, as it reached the mark of 1701 coaches against installed capacity of 1500 per annum. During the year RCF produced 23 different variants of coaches for high - speed trains like Rajdhani, Shatabdi, double decker and other trains. The factory in association with DRDE also developed a highly cost - effective indigenous technology for treatment of bio waste in coaches. Around 2096 bio-toilets have been fitted in 2013 - 14. 1. Broad Gauge Air Conditioned 2. Broad Gauge Non Air Conditioned 3. Stainless Steel BG Coaches 4. Meter Gauge Air Conditioned Coaches 5. Self Propelled Coaches 6. Special Purpose Coaches The factory is also manufacturing 120 Linke - Hofmann - Busch (LHB) coaches to be exported to Bangladesh at an estimated cost of Rs 367 crore, with the first consignment of 40 set to be dispatched in March 2016. The factory has already exported coaches to South East Asian and African countries which have Metre Gauge rail networks and Indian Railways ' past experience in Meter Gauge rolling stock has proves handy in serving these markets. A 65 - bed Hospital supplies free medicine and free check - up to railway staff and their family members. The township has two Kendriya Vidhyalaya 's, one Government Elementary School (Punjabi medium), one Government Senior Secondary School (Punjabi medium), two Jack ' N ' Jill schools run by RCF Women 's Welfare Organization, of which one handles up to UKG and other up to 6th Standard. A Lake complex in with boating channel and a park in the memory of martyr of The War of Kargil in 1999, which have ' Lakshman Jhula ' tied with metal ropes between two hills. Apart from these it has stadiums and courts for indoor and outdoor games. There are 3 clubs in R.C.F. namely worker club, supervisor club, officer club in which there are facilities of outdoor and indoor games. The township also has Shopping complexes, Banks, Post office, Staff canteen, Karamchari Kalyan Kosh, Handicraft Centre, Creche and a RCF / WWO -- run Computer Centre. Coordinates: 31 ° 19 ′ 42 '' N 75 ° 21 ′ 04 '' E  /  31.32827 ° N 75.35108 ° E  / 31.32827; 75.35108

who plays edward mordrake in ahs freak show

Edward Mordrake - wikipedia "Edward Mordrake '' is a two - part episode, consisting of the third and fourth episodes of the fourth season of the anthology television series American Horror Story. The first part aired on October 22, 2014, and the second on October 29, 2014 on the cable network FX. The first part was written by James Wong and directed by Michael Uppendahl and the second part was written by Jennifer Salt and directed by Howard Deutch. The episode 's first part introduces the main characters of Stanley (Denis O'Hare) and Maggie Esmerelda (Emma Roberts), it also stars Wes Bentley as the title character of the episode. The second part of the episode deals with the backstories of several characters including Twisty the Clown (John Carroll Lynch). At the American Morbidity Museum, Stanley (Denis O'Hare), disguised as Dr. Sylvester Mansfield, and his assistant Maggie (Emma Roberts), disguised as a Miss Rothschild, attempt to sell a specimen to the museum. The curator (Celia Weston) runs a background check on Stanley and determines his credentials are fraudulent. The museum guide says that they would pay handsomely for a legitimate specimen, some of which they get from freak shows. Learning that one of the two remaining freak shows is in Florida, the pair set out. Ethel (Kathy Bates) visits Dr. Myron Bonham (Jerry Leggio), who diagnoses her with cirrhosis of the liver. Her prognosis is dire: six months to a year. Back at the freak show, the carnies explain that they will not be performing on Halloween by telling the twins (Sarah Paulson) about the legend of Edward Mordrake (Wes Bentley): a noble Englishman with a second, whispering face on the back of his head. His failed attempts to kill the face drove him insane, and his family sent him to Bethlem Royal Hospital. He escaped to a freak show where one Halloween night, he murdered his entire troupe and then hanged himself. The legend says that if they perform on Halloween, he will appear and take a soul. When Jimmy (Evan Peters) criticizes Ethel, she corroborates that it happened to her former troupe. She has been drinking, which will accelerate her demise. Jimmy confronts her, but she waves him off. Maggie arrives at the freak show claiming to be a fortune teller in need of a job. Jimmy tries to convince Elsa (Jessica Lange) that Maggie is the real deal. Maggie begins a demonstration, using her observations to deduce who Elsa is and what she wants to know. Maggie claims to see a song from Elsa with thunderous applause and that further, a refined man with dark hair will guide Elsa to stardom. Elsa hires her. Later from a payphone, Maggie calls Stanley to tell him about the horror of working with the freaks. Stanley is excited about the prospective gold mine that she has found, though Maggie hedges about murdering them. In the trailer, Dell (Michael Chiklis) pumps iron while Desiree (Angela Bassett) tries to get his libido going. When she complains, Dell gets violent and demands respect. Desiree tells him to get off her or he will never see her again, then she leaves the trailer. Frustrated, Dell also leaves and passes Ethel. She first questions what the fight was about, then asks him questions about their past. He tells her that the love they had was n't real, but admits he should have been a better father to Jimmy. She demands that Dell never reveal to Jimmy that Dell is his father. Dell gets curious, and Ethel reveals she is dying. She asks Dell to guide and take care of Jimmy. Bette has a nightmare of surgical separation from Dot, who seems to relish the idea. Dot tells Bette she will find a doctor to separate them, even if one dies just so the other can have a shot at happiness. The girls go to rehearse, unafraid of the Mordrake legend. Paul (Mat Fraser) and Eve (Erika Ervin) try to stop them when Elsa enters, refusing to believe in superstitions. Dot asks Elsa to wait so they can rehearse first, but Elsa demands that the carnies get to their instruments. She sings Lana Del Rey 's "Gods and Monsters ''. As she sings, Edward Mordrake emerges in a green mist on the freak show grounds and, entranced by the music, enters the tent to watch Elsa. In Ethel 's trailer, Mordrake appears. He confirms the superstition is true. He says the second face is a lie detector, and asks for the story of how she ended up in her current predicament. In flashback, Ethel (Kathy Deitch) once had a popular burlesque show with Dell (Edward Gelhaus). When he told her to go solo as a classical actor, the show failed miserably. Mordrake 's whispering face tells of a darker, deeper shame: Ethel admits that, in order to make money, Dell charged tickets for admission to the birth of Jimmy and, as soon as Jimmy was born, Dell started charging people to hold the "freak '' baby. Mordrake is moved by her story. Ethel bows her head, saying she is ready to be taken, but Mordrake disappears. At Mott Manor, Dora (Patti LaBelle) is dressed in costume as Woody Woodpecker, Dandy (Finn Wittrock) throws a tantrum after Gloria (Frances Conroy) gives him a box containing a Howdy Doody costume. Dandy decides to craft the pieces into a clown costume. Later, Dandy dressed in the costume, threatens Dora with a knife. She tells him that she is aware of his animal kills, and that he does not "have the guts '' to kill a human. He tells her to mind her own business and that he hates her, he runs away and she mutters that the feeling is mutual. In a Palm Beach neighborhood, Jessie (Lauren Gobuzzi), is teased by her older brother Mike (Dalton E. Gray). Twisty (John Carroll Lynch) approaches from behind him. Mike screams, causing their mother to run upstairs. She asks where Mike went -- Jessie points to her bedroom 's open window. Dandy visits the bus captives and tries to lure them with candy so that he can stab them, but is interrupted when Twisty brings an unconscious Mike. Mordrake continues to seek a "pure freak '' for his spirit troupe. He visits Suzi (Rose Siggins) and Paul, who tell their respective stories. Suzi reveals she had a spinal condition which required doctors to remove her legs at age two. Her parents gave up hope soon after her operation and left her on the doorstep of a children 's home. She later stabbed a man she was street - begging with due to frustration. Paul was born with his condition, and reveals that he planned to have his entire body tattooed, but insisted on stopping before his face was covered - he has a handsome face that "could have ruled the world '' with a normal body. Mordrake passes on each one. He eventually reaches Elsa, who assumes he was awestruck by her singing performance, and insists that she needs "a new arranger '' for her music. Mordrake becomes frustrated, and has his spirit troupe forcefully remove her prosthetic legs while she pleads that she is "not one of them ''. Elsa eventually tells her story. She worked as a dominatrix in a German brothel that catered to extreme and violent fetishes. She was eventually abducted and drugged to participate in a snuff film, in which she had her legs amputated; she was rescued by one of her clients afterwards. Mordrake 's other face whispers that Elsa is "the one '', and he prepares to kill her, but stops as he hears music. Meanwhile, Jimmy and Maggie venture into the woods in the dark to avoid being arrested for a curfew violation, and they witness Twisty chasing one of his captives, who has escaped. Twisty catches her and carries her back into the woods. Jimmy insists on following, to Maggie 's dismay. They spy upon Twisty until they are beaten from behind by Dandy, dressed in the clown costume. They awaken to Dandy giving Twisty 's earlier captives a show, with Twisty excitedly playing a toy piano. Dandy puts Maggie in a box and prepares to saw her in half when Jimmy breaks free and knocks Dandy away. Jimmy yells for the captives to run for safety as Dandy angrily rises. As Twisty is about to kill Jimmy, Jimmy 's body disappears and Mordrake appears. Twisty is asked to tell his story, but first, he is ordered to remove his mask, to which he uncomfortably complies. He speaks slowly, and tells a story of how he was a regular clown in a traveling carnival entertaining children, but was constantly bullied by the carnies, who referred to him as "simpleton '' and accused him of sexually abusing young patrons. Twisty flees the circus and began crafting toys out of garbage. Upon trying to sell the toys, he had a run - in with a shop owner, who inadvertently triggers memories of Twisty 's abuse at the circus. Twisty attempted to commit suicide with a shotgun, but it is shown that he failed and mutilated his lower jaw. He later works at Elsa 's freak show, now wearing his signature grinning mask to cover his grotesque jaw. Twisty says all of the children forgot how much they loved him, so he had the idea to create his own audience. The girl was abducted to be a babysitter for the children he intended to collect. He justifies his actions to Mordrake by claiming he saved the children from their "mean '' parents, and calls himself a "good clown ''. Mordrake decides that Twisty is the one he wants, and stabs him to death as Jimmy watches while hiding. Twisty 's spirit awakens surrounded by Mordrake 's spirit troupe, who put their hands on him in acceptance. It is shown that Twisty 's jaw is now normal again. Dandy stumbles across Twisty 's dead body and dons his mask, implying that he plans to continue Twisty 's murderous spree. Jimmy and Maggie have escaped and notified the police, who call them heroes for saving the captives. Jimmy tell the officers that Meep was a hero, and says that someone will pay for his death. Back at the freak show, Jimmy tells Elsa that Mordrake has claimed his victim, though he does n't say who, and announces that the curfew has been lifted. A crowd has gathered to thank Jimmy for finding the children, and Elsa invites them to buy tickets to that evening 's show, to which they comply, selling out the show. Elsa tells Dot and Bette that their act has been demoted as Stanley introduces himself as Richard Spencer to Elsa. Dandy arrives home, still dressed in the clown outfit and wearing Twisty 's mask. Dora yells at him for still being dressed up, and he slashes her throat. "Edward Mordrake '' received positive reviews from critics. Reviewers praised Elsa and Twisty 's backstories and particularly John Carroll Lynch 's performance. Erik Adams of The A.V. Club gave the first part a B - rating, writing: "The love of a good shock often stands in for American Horror Story 's inability to scare: It 's much easier to fleetingly startle than suggest that any of the primary characters are in mortal danger. "Edward Mordrake (Part 1) '' reinforces that difficulty... Freak Show is succeeding at making us care for these people; if only it could make us fear for them as well. '' He gave the second part a C+ rating, criticising the idea to make Twisty the Clown into a origin story for Dandy, however he did praise the acting, particularly Finn Wittrock 's. Matt Fowler of IGN gave "Edward Mordrake (Part 2) '' a positive review, writing: "Freak Show, by dropping a few characters (like Dot / Bette, Dell, and Ethel), losing the obligatory song, and tightening its belt, got good this week. Mordrake was n't frightening but the backstories he brought out of both Elsa and Twisty were haunting and ghoulish. '' "Edward Mordrake (Part 1) '' was watched by 4.44 million viewers and was the highest rated cable broadcast of the night. The episode received a 2.2 ratings share among adults 18 -- 49, down 0.1 from the previous week 's episode. "Edward Mordrake (Part 2) '' was watched by 4.51 million viewers, a slight increase from the first part. Like the previous half, the episode was also the highest rated cable program for the night, with a 2.3 ratings share among adults 18 -- 49.

who should an audit report be addressed to

Auditor 's report - wikipedia The auditor 's report is a disclaimer thereof, issued by either an internal auditor or an independent external auditor as a result of an internal or external audit, as an assurance service in order for the user to make decisions based on the results of the audit. An auditor 's report is considered an essential tool when reporting financial information to users, particularly in business. Since many third - party users prefer, or even require financial information to be certified by an independent external auditor, many auditees rely on auditor reports to certify their information in order to attract investors, obtain loans, and improve public appearance. Some have even stated that financial information without an auditor 's report is "essentially worthless '' for investing purposes. It is important to note that auditor reports on financial statements are neither evaluations nor any other similar determination used to evaluate entities in order to make a decision. The report is only an opinion on whether the information presented is correct and free from material misstatements, whereas all other determinations are left for the user to decide. There are four common types of auditor 's reports, each one presenting a different situation encountered during the auditor 's work. The four reports are as follows: An opinion is said to be unqualified when he or she does not have any significant reservation in respect of matters contained in the Financial Statements. The most frequent type of report is referred to as the "Unqualified Opinion '', and is regarded by many as the equivalent of a "clean bill of health '' to a patient, which has led many to call it the "Clean Opinion '', but in reality it is not a clean bill of health, because the Auditor can only provide reasonable assurance regarding the Financial Statements, not the health of the company itself, or the integrity of company records not part of the foundation of the Financial Statements. This type of report is issued by an auditor when the financial statements are free of material misstatements and are presented fairly in accordance with the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), which in other words means that the company 's financial condition, position, and operations are fairly presented in the financial statements. It is the best type of report an auditee may receive from an external auditor. An Unqualified Opinion indicates the following -- (1) The Financial Statements have been prepared using the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles which have been consistently applied; (2) The Financial Statements comply with relevant statutory requirements and regulations; (3) There is adequate disclosure of all material matters relevant to the proper presentation of the financial information subject to statutory requirements, where applicable; (4) Any changes in the accounting principles or in the method of their application and the effects thereof have been properly determined and disclosed in the Financial Statements. The report consists of a title and header, a main body, the auditor 's signature and address, and the report 's issuance date. US auditing standards require that the title includes "independent '' to convey to the user that the report was unbiased in all respects. Traditionally, the main body of the unqualified report consists of three main paragraphs, each with distinct standard wording and individual purpose. Nonetheless, certain auditors (including PricewaterhouseCoopers (1)) have since modified the arrangement of the main body (but not the wording) in order to differentiate themselves from other audit firms, even though such modification is contrary to the clarified US AICPA standards on auditing. The first paragraph (commonly referred to as the introductory paragraph) states the audit work performed and identifies the responsibilities of the auditor and the auditee in relation to the financial statements. The second paragraph (commonly referred to as the scope paragraph) details the scope of audit work, provides a general description of the nature of the work, examples of procedures performed, and any limitations the audit faced based on the nature of the work. This paragraph also states that the audit was performed in accordance with the country 's prevailing generally accepted auditing standards and regulations. The third paragraph (commonly referred to as the opinion paragraph) simply states the auditor 's opinion on the financial statements and whether they are in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles. The following is an example of a standard unqualified auditor 's report on financial statements as it is used in most countries, using the name ABC Company as an auditee 's name. Note that this report is acceptable only for periods ending before December 15, 2012: Board of Directors, Stockholders, Owners, and / or Management of ABC Company, Inc. 123 Main St. Anytown, Any Country We have audited the accompanying balance sheet of ABC Company, Inc. (the "Company '') as of December 31, 20XX and the related statements of income, retained earnings, and cash flows for the year then ended. These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company 's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statements based on our audit. We conducted our audit in accordance with auditing standards generally accepted in (the country where the report is issued). Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall financial statement presentation. We believe that our audit provides a reasonable basis for our opinion. In our opinion, the financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of the Company as of December 31, 20XX, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles in (the country where the report is issued). AUDITOR 'S SIGNATURE Auditor 's name and address Date = Last day of any significant field work This date should not be dated earlier than when the auditor has sufficient audit evidence to support the opinion. Recently modifications have been made by the PCAOB to the opinion in the independent auditors report. These changes can be attributed to the introduction of SAS No. 122 and SAS No. 123. For periods ending after December 15, 2012, the following is an example of a standard unqualified auditor 's report on financial statements as it is used in most countries, using the name ABC Company, which was incorporated in California, as an auditee 's name: Board of Directors, Stockholders, Owners, and / or Management of ABC Company, Inc. 123 Main St. Anytown, Any Country We have audited the accompanying financial statements of ABC Company, Inc. (a California corporation), which comprise the balance sheet as of December 31, 20XX, and the related statements of income, retained earnings, and cash flows for the year then ended, and the related notes to the financial statements. Management 's Responsibility for the Financial Statements Management is responsible for the preparation and fair presentation of these consolidated financial statements in accordance with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles; this includes the design, implementation, and maintenance of internal control relevant to the preparation and fair presentation of consolidated financial statements that are free from material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error. Auditor 's Responsibility Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these consolidated financial statements based on our audit. We conducted our audit in accordance with U.S. generally accepted auditing standards. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the consolidated financial statements are free from material misstatement. An audit involves performing procedures to obtain audit evidence about the amounts and disclosures in the consolidated financial statements. The procedures selected depend on the auditors ' judgment, including the assessment of the risks of material misstatement of the consolidated financial statements, whether due to fraud or error. In making those risk assessments, the auditor considers internal control relevant to the entity 's preparation and fair presentation of the consolidated financial statements in order to design audit procedures that are appropriate in the circumstances, but not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of the entity 's internal control. Accordingly, we express no such opinion. An audit also includes evaluating the appropriateness of accounting policies used and the reasonableness of significant accounting estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall presentation of the consolidated financial statements. We believe that the audit evidence we have obtained is sufficient and appropriate to provide a basis for our audit opinion. Opinion In our opinion, the financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of ABC Company, Inc. as of December 31, 20XX, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles. AUDITOR 'S SIGNATURE Auditor 's name and address Date = Last day of any significant field work This date should not be dated earlier than when the auditor has sufficient audit evidence to support the opinion. Qualified report is given by the auditor in either of these two cases: The report is mostly like a Clear Opinion Report and only includes a paragraph viz. Basis for Qualification after Scope paragraph and before Opinion paragraph. Opinion paragraph in addition to its standard wording includes "except for the matter described in Basis for Qualification paragraph the financial statements give true and fair view. '' Detailed below: A Qualified Opinion report is issued when the auditor encountered one of the two types of situations which do not comply with generally accepted accounting principles, however the rest of the financial statements are fairly presented. This type of opinion is very similar to an unqualified or "clean opinion '', but the report states that the financial statements are fairly presented with a certain exception which is otherwise misstated. The two types of situations which would cause an auditor to issue this opinion over the Unqualified opinion are: The wording of the qualified report is very similar to the Unqualified opinion, but an explanatory paragraph is added to explain the reasons for the qualification after the scope paragraph but before the opinion paragraph. The introductory paragraph is left exactly the same as in the unqualified opinion, while the scope and the opinion paragraphs receive a slight modification in line with the qualification in the explanatory paragraph. The scope paragraph is edited to include the following phrase in the first sentence, so that the user may be immediately aware of the qualification. This placement also informs the user that, except for the qualification, the rest of the audit was performed without qualifications: The opinion paragraph is also edited to include an additional phrase in the first sentence, so that the user is reminded that the auditor 's opinion explicitly excludes the qualification expressed. Depending on the type of qualification, the phrase is edited to either state the qualification and the adjustments needed to correct it, or state the scope limitation and that adjustments could have but not necessarily been required in order to correct it. For a qualification arising from a deviation from GAAP, the following phrase is added to the opinion paragraph, using the depreciation example mentioned above: For a qualification arising from a scope of limitation, the following phrase is added to the opinion paragraph, using the inventory example mentioned above: An Adverse Opinion Report is issued on the financial statements of a company when the financial statements are materially misstated and such misstatements have pervasive effect on the financial statements. In Audit Report after Scope paragraph but before Opinion paragraph, Basis for Adverse Opinion paragraph is added. In Opinion paragraph the wording changes to, "Because of situations mentioned in Basis for Adverse Opinion paragraph, in our opinion the financial statements of XYZ Co. Ltd. as mentioned in first paragraph does not give true and fair view / are not free from material misstatements. '' An Adverse Opinion is issued when the auditor determines that the financial statements of an auditee are materially misstated and, when considered as a whole, do not conform with GAAP. It is considered the opposite of an unqualified or clean opinion, essentially stating that the information contained is materially incorrect, unreliable, and inaccurate in order to assess the auditee 's financial position and results of operations. Investors, lending institutions, and governments very rarely accept an auditee 's financial statements if the auditor issued an adverse opinion, and usually request the auditee to correct the financial statements and obtain another audit report. Generally, an adverse opinion is only given if the financial statements pervasively differ from GAAP. An example of such a situation would be failure of a company to consolidate a material subsidiary. The wording of the adverse report is similar to the qualified report. The scope paragraph is modified accordingly and an explanatory paragraph is added to explain the reason for the adverse opinion after the scope paragraph but before the opinion paragraph. However, the most significant change in the adverse report from the qualified report is in the opinion paragraph, where the auditor clearly states that the financial statements are not in accordance with GAAP, which means that they, as a whole, are unreliable, inaccurate, and do not present a fair view of the auditee 's position and operations. A Disclaimer of Opinion is issued in either of the following cases: The audit report changes significantly when there is Disclaimer of opinion. An additional paragraph "Basis for Disclaimer '' is added in audit report which is placed after Scope paragraph and before Opinion paragraph. In Scope paragraph the wording changes to "We were engaged to audit the financial statements of XYZ Co. Ltd. '' from "We have audited the financial statements of XYZ Co. Ltd. '' In Opinion paragraph wording changes to "We do not express an opinion on the financial statements of XYZ Co. Ltd. due to situations explained in Basis for Disclaimer paragraph '' A Disclaimer of Opinion, commonly referred to simply as a Disclaimer, is issued when the auditor could not form and consequently refuses to present an opinion on the financial statements. This type of report is issued when the auditor tried to audit an entity but could not complete the work due to various reasons and does not issue an opinion. The disclaimer of opinion report can be traced back to 1949, when the Statement on Auditing Procedure No. 23: Recommendation Made To Clarify Accountant 's Representations When Opinion Is Not Expressed was published in order to provide guidance to auditors in presenting a disclaimer. Statements on Auditing Standards (SAS) provide certain situations where a disclaimer of opinion may be appropriate: Although this type of opinion is rarely used, the most common examples where disclaimers are issued include audits where the auditee willfully hides or refuses to provide evidence and information to the auditor in significant areas of the financial statements, where the auditee is facing significant legal and litigation issues in which the outcome is uncertain (usually government investigations), and where the auditee has going concern issues (the auditee may not continue operating in the near future). Investors, lending institutions, and governments typically reject an auditee 's financial statements if the auditor disclaimed an opinion, and will request the auditee to correct the situations the auditor mentioned and obtain another audit report. A disclaimer of opinion differs substantially from the rest of the auditor 's reports because it provides very little information regarding the audit itself, and includes an explanatory paragraph stating the reasons for the disclaimer. Although the report still contains the letterhead, the auditee 's name and address, the auditor 's signature and address, and the report 's issuance date, every other paragraph is modified extensively, and the scope paragraph is entirely omitted since the auditor is basically stating that an audit could not be realized. In the introductory paragraph, the first phrase changes from "We have audited '' to "We were engaged to audit '' in order to let the user know that the auditee commissioned an audit, but does not mention that the auditor necessarily completed the audit. Additionally, since the audit was not completely and / or adequately performed, the auditor refuses to accept any responsibility by omitting the last sentence of the paragraph. The scope paragraph is omitted in its entirety since, effectively, no audit was performed. Similar to the qualified and the adverse opinions, the auditor must briefly discuss the situations for the disclaimer in an explanatory paragraph. Finally, the opinion paragraph changes completely, stating that an opinion could not be formed and is not expressed because of the situations mentioned in the previous paragraphs. The following is a draft of the three main paragraphs of a disclaimer of opinion because of inadequate accounting records of an auditee, which is considered a significant scope of limitation: We were engaged to audit the accompanying balance sheet of ABC Company, Inc. (the "Company '') as of December 31, 20XX and the related statements of income and cash flows for the year then ended. These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company 's management. The Company does not maintain adequate accounting records to provide sufficient information for the preparation of the basic financial statements. The Company 's accounting records do not constitute a double - entry system which can produce financial statements. Because of the significance of the matters discussed in the preceding paragraphs, the scope of our work was not sufficient to enable us to express, and we do not express, an opinion of the financial statements referred to in the first paragraph. Following the enactment of the Sarbanes - Oxley Act of 2002, the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) was established in order to monitor, regulate, inspect, and discipline audit and public accounting firms of public companies. The PCAOB Auditing Standards No. 2 now requires auditors of public companies to include an additional disclosure in the opinion report regarding the auditee 's internal controls, and to opine about the company 's and auditor 's assessment on the company 's internal controls over financial reporting. These new requirements are commonly referred to as the COSO Opinion. The auditor 's report is modified to include all necessary disclosures by either presenting the report subsequent to the report on the financial statements, or combining both reports into one auditor 's report. The following is an example of the former version of adding a separate report immediately after the auditor 's report on financial statements. Internal control over financial reporting We have also audited management 's assessment, included in the accompanying Management 's Annual Report on Internal Control Over Financial Reporting, that the Company maintained effective internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 20XX, based on criteria established in Internal Control -- Integrated Framework issued by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission ("COSO ''). The Company 's management is responsible for maintaining effective internal control over financial reporting and for its assessment of the effectiveness of internal control over financial reporting. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on management 's assessment and on the effectiveness of the Company 's internal control over financial reporting based on our audit. We conducted our audits in accordance with the standards of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States). Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether effective internal control over financial reporting was maintained in all material respects. Our audit of internal control over financial reporting included obtaining an understanding of internal control over financial reporting, evaluating management 's assessment, testing and evaluating the design and operating effectiveness of internal control, and performing such other procedures as we considered necessary in the circumstances. We believe that our audit provides a reasonable basis for our opinion. A company 's internal control over financial reporting is a process designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding the reliability of financial reporting and the preparation of financial statements for external purposes in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles. A company 's internal control over financial reporting includes those policies and procedures that (1) pertain to the maintenance of records that, in reasonable detail, accurately and fairly reflect the transactions and dispositions of the assets of the company; (2) provide reasonable assurance that transactions are recorded as necessary to permit preparation of financial statements in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles, and that receipts and expenditures of the company are being made only in accordance with authorizations of management and directors of the company; and (3) provide reasonable assurance regarding prevention or timely detection of unauthorized acquisition, use, or disposition of the company 's assets that could have a material effect on the financial statements. Because of its inherent limitations, internal control over financial reporting may not prevent or detect misstatements. Also, projections of any evaluation of effectiveness to future periods are subject to the risk that controls may become inadequate because of changes in conditions, or that the degree of compliance with the policies or procedures may deteriorate. In our opinion, management 's assessment that ABC Company maintained effective internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 20XX, is fairly stated, in all material respects, based on criteria established in Internal Control -- Integrated Framework issued by COSO. Furthermore, in our opinion, ABC Company maintained, in all material respects, effective internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 20XX, based on criteria established in Internal Control -- Integrated Framework issued by COSO. Going concern is a term (2) which means that an entity will continue to operate in the near future which is generally more than next 12 months, so long as it generates or obtains enough resources to operate. If the auditee is not a going concern, it means that the entity might not be able to sustain itself within the next twelve months. Auditors are required to consider the going concern of an auditee before issuing a report. If the auditee is a going concern, the auditor does not modify his / her report in any way. However, if the auditor considers that the auditee is not a going concern, or will not be a going concern in the near future, then the auditor is required to include an explanatory paragraph before the opinion paragraph or following the opinion papragraph, in the audit report explaining the situation, which is commonly referred to as the going concern disclosure. Such an opinion is called an "unqualified modified opinion ''. Unfortunately, many auditors are increasingly reluctant to include this disclosure in their opinions, since it is considered a "self - fulfilling prophecy '' by some. This is because a disclosure for a lack of going concern is viewed negatively by investors, lending institutions, and credit agencies, and therefore reduces the chance that the auditee may obtain the capital or borrowing it needs to survive once the disclosure is made. If this situation occurs, the auditee is more likely to stop being a going concern while the auditor loses potential future audit engagements, and so the auditor may be pressured to avoid including a going concern disclosure. In a study performed on 2001 bankruptcies, nearly half (48 %) of selected public companies who faced bankruptcy in 2001 did not have a "going concern disclosure '' in the previous auditor 's reports. Additionally, 12 of the 20 largest bankruptcies in U.S. history occurred between 2001 and 2002 and none of them had a "going concern disclosure '' in their previous auditor 's report. As for the actual wording of the auditor 's report, when a lack of going concern is determined by the auditor, the disclosure paragraph should state the situation, state the auditor 's determination, and state the auditee 's plan to correct the situation. The disclosure paragraph should immediately follow the opinion paragraph. The following is the most widely used format of the paragraph which, in this case, deals with a company that has recurring losses: The accompanying financial statements have been prepared assuming that the Company will continue as a going concern. As discussed in Note (X) to the financial statements, the Company has suffered recurring losses and has a net capital deficiency. These conditions raise substantial doubt about its ability to continue as a going concern. Management 's plans in regard to these matters are also described in Note (X). The financial statements do not include any adjustments relating to the recoverability and classification of asset carrying amounts or the amount and classification of liabilities that might result should the Company be unable to continue as a going concern. Although the auditor reports mentioned above are the standard reports for financial statement audits, the auditor may add additional information to the report if it is deemed necessary without changing the overall opinion of the report. Usually, this additional information is included after the opinion paragraph, although some situations require that the additional information be included in paragraphs before the opinion paragraph. The most frequent paragraphs include: The auditor 's report usually does not vary from country to country, although some countries do require either additional or less wording. In the United States, auditors are required to include in the scope paragraphs a phrase stating that they conducted their audit "in accordance with generally accepted auditing standards in the United States of America '', and, in the opinion paragraph, state whether the financial statements are presented "in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles in the United States of America ''. Some countries, such as the Philippines, use similar reports to those issued in the United States, with the exception that second paragraph would state that the audit was conducted in accordance with Philippine Standards on Auditing, and that the financial statements are in accordance with Philippine Financial Reporting Standards. Opinion shopping is a term used by external auditors and, after the Enron and Arthur Andersen accounting scandals, the media and general public refer to auditees who contract or reject auditors based on the type of opinion report they will issue on the auditee. The underlying principles of this concept are that auditees determine the compensation to auditors for their work (called "audit fees '') as well as awarding future audit engagements; that such fees are the auditor 's main source of income; that certain auditees may try to contract auditors that will issue audit opinions based on the auditees ' needs; and that certain auditors are willing to comply with such demands so long as they are assured future audit engagements. The most common example is an auditee that knows that the current auditor is going to issue a qualified, adverse, or disclaimer of opinion report, who then rescinds the audit engagement before the opinion is issued, and subsequently "shops '' for another auditor who is willing to issue an "unqualified '' opinion, regardless of any qualifying situations mentioned in the previous sections. However, opinion shopping is not limited to auditees contracting auditors based on issuing opinions. It also includes auditors who are over-pleasing to auditees by issuing unqualified reports without properly auditing, or by simply overlooking material issues affecting the audit. These auditors ' objective is to appear much more attractive and easy - going than other auditors in order to secure future audit engagements and fees. Although the great majority of auditors are not willing to jeopardize their profession and reputation for guaranteed audit fees, there are some that will issue opinions solely based on obtaining or maintaining audit engagements. This includes auditors who knowingly emit unmodified unqualified opinions for auditees who are engaged in illegal activities, auditees who have caused a material limitation of scope, auditees that have a lack of going concern, or auditees who present fraudulent financial statements (e.g. Enron and Arthur Andersen). This situation is a clear conflict of interest which should hinder an auditor 's independence and the ability to audit (AICPA Code of Ethics), but some auditors willingly ignore this statute. Recent laws and industry standards have been implemented in order to correct this situation, which include the Sarbanes - Oxley Act and the AICPA 's practice - monitoring program and Peer Review Program, which are in some cases voluntary, and in other cases, required. There are various other audits and evaluations which an external auditor performs in addition to the engagements mentioned in the previous sections, each with their respective standard report (s): The auditor 's report on the financial statements typically provides very limited details on the procedures and findings of the audit. In contrast, auditors provide much more detail to the board of directors or to the audit committee of the board. Beginning in 2002, many countries have tasked the audit committee with primary responsibility over the audit. For example, in the United States, section 204 of the Sarbanes - Oxley Act passed in 2002 required auditors to communicate certain information to audit committees, which were required to be entirely independent, and also made the audit committee responsible for the auditor 's hiring. In August 2012, the U.S. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board finalized Auditing Standard No. 16, which requires additional communications to the audit committee. The Independent Auditor 's Report on a Complete Set of General Purpose Financial Statements (3)

who gave the presidential address in the resolution of lahore

Lahore resolution - wikipedia The Lahore Resolution (Urdu: قرارداد لاہور ‬ ‎, Karardad - e-Lahore; Bengali: লাহোর প্রস্তাব, Lahor Prostab), was drafted by the working committee of All - India Muslim League and presented by A.K. Fazlul Huq, the Prime Minister of Bengal was a formal political statement adopted by the All - India Muslim League on the occasion of its three - day general session in Lahore on 22 -- 24 March 1940. The resolution called for independent states as seen by the statement: That geographically contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be constituted, with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary that the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in a majority as in the North Western and Eastern Zones of (British) India should be grouped to constitute ' independent states ' in which the constituent units should be autonomous and sovereign. Although the name "Pakistan '' had been proposed by Choudhary Rahmat Ali in his Pakistan Declaration, it was not until after the resolution that it began to be widely used. According to Stanley Wolpert, this was the moment when Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the former ambassador of Hindu - Muslim unity, totally transformed himself into Pakistan 's great leader. Until mid-1930's the Muslim Leaders were trying to ensure maximum political safeguards for Muslims within the framework of Federation of India in terms of seeking maximum autonomy for Muslim majority provinces. They got some safeguards through a system of separate electorate on communal basis in the Government of India Act, 1935. As a result of elections held under this Act, Indian National Congress formed government in six out of eight provinces. During Congress rule from 1937 - 39, its "High Command whose iron control over its own provinces clearly hinted at what lay ahead for the Muslim majority provinces once it came to dominate the center. Much of the League 's propaganda at this stage was directed against the Congress ministries and their alleged attacks on Muslim culture; the heightened activity of Hindu Mahasabha, the hoisting of Congress tricolor, the singing of bandemataram, the Vidya Mandir scheme in the Central Provinces and the Wardha scheme of education, all were interpreted as proof of ' Congress atrocities '. So, Congress was clearly incapable of representing Muslim interests, yet it was trying to annihilate every other party. '' Therefore by 1938 - 39, for most of the Muslim Leaders, in or out of Muslim League, the idea of separation was strongly gaining the ground. The Sindh Provincial Muslim League Conference held its first session at Karachi in October 1938, adopted a resolution which recommended to the All India Muslim League to devise a scheme of constitution under which Muslims may attain full independence. The Premiers of other Muslim majority provinces e.g. A.K. Fazal - ul - Haque (Bengal) and Sir Sikander Hayat Khan (Punjab), who were not in Muslim League, also were quite convinced towards the idea of separation. The idea was more vividly expressed by M.A. Jinnah in an article in a London Weekly Time and Tide on 9th March 1940. Jinnah wrote: Democratic systems based on the concept of homogeneous nation such as England are very definitely not applicable to heterogeneous countries such as India, and this simple fact is the root cause of all of India 's constitutional ills...... If, therefore, it is accepted that there is in India a major and a minor nation, it follows that a parliamentary system based on the majority principle must inevitably mean the rule of major nation. Experience has proved that, whatever the economic and political programme of any political Party, the Hindu, as a general rule, will vote for his caste - fellow, the Muslim for his co-religionist. About the Congress - led provincial governments, he wrote: An India - wide attack on the Muslims was launched. In the five Muslim provinces every attempt was made to defeat the Muslim - led - coalition Ministries,... In the six Hindu provinces a "Kulturkampf '' was inaugurated. Attempts were made to have Bande Mataram, the Congress Party song, recognized as the national anthem, the Party flag, and the real national language, Urdu, supplanted by Hindi. Everywhere oppression commenced and complaints poured in such force... that the Muslims, despairing of the Viceroy and Governors ever taking action to protect them, have already been forced to ask for a Royal Commission to investigate their grievances. Furthermore he added: Is it the desire (of British people) that India should become a totalitarian Hindu State....?...... and I feel certain that Muslim India will never submit to such a position and will be forced to resist it with every means in their power. In his concluding remarks he wrote: While Muslim League irrevocably opposed to any Federal objective which must necessarily result in a majority community rule under the guise of Democracy and Parliamentary system of Government... To conclude, a constitution must be evolved that recognizes that there are in India two nations who both must share the governance of their common motherland. The British Government was against any kind of division in India and they did not want Muslim League to pass a resolution for separation. Lord Linlithgow, the Viceroy, tried to influence through Muhammad Zafarullah Khan, a Member of Viceroy 's Executive Council, who prepared a Note against the proposal of Pakistan or any other kind of separation and supported with arguments in favor of a united Federation of India as a Dominion. This Note was sent to Lord Zetland, Secretary of State for India, as referred in a letter by Linlithgow dated 12th March, 1940. A copy of this Note was sent to Jinnah with the intention that his proposal of a united Indian Federation be adopted by Muslim League in the forthcoming Session at Lahore 22 - 24 March. The Note unequivocally opposed Pakistan stating: There is for instance the Pakistan scheme which broadly speaking, seeks to divide India into Muslim and non-Muslim parts, the Muslim part being described as Pakistan.... One has only to contemplate the expense, misery, suffering and horror involved in any such attempt on the scale on which it would be necessary in India, to discard the scheme at once....... we are convinced that the scheme is utterly impracticable and would result in nothing but misery and suffering and can therefore make no contribution towards the solution of India 's problems...... Another very serious objection to the scheme is that it seeks to confine the progress of Muslim faith and culture in India within certain geographical limits, than which no greater disservice could be done to Islam.... any critical examination of it carried out by those who are responsible for putting it forward will be sufficient to demonstrate to them the utter impracticality of this scheme. Against the Separation Scheme i.e. without involving exchange of population, Zafarullah wrote: We are not in a position at this stage to measure the support which a scheme of this kind might succeed in securing from the other communities in India and from Britain. We recognize that the devotion to the principal of All - India unity may in the end prove too strong to permit wisdom and foresight to govern the situation. However, as opposed to this Note, Jinnah and majority of other Muslim Leaders, including both the Leaguers and Non-Leaguers, by that time had already reached to a common consensus of demanding separate sovereign states for Muslim majority areas in the subcontinent for reasons described by Jinnah in his essay of 9th March referred above. The session was held between 22 and 24 March 1940, at Iqbal Park, Lahore. The welcome address was made by Sir Shah Nawaz Khan of Mamdot, as the chairman of the local reception committee. The various draft texts for the final resolution / draft were deliberated over by the Special Working Committee of the All India Muslim League Later on, A.K. Fazlul Huq presented the resolution before the public and the AIML General Assembly. The resolution text unanimously accepted the concept of a united homeland for Muslims on the grounds of growing inter-communal violence and recommended the creation of an independent Muslim state. After the presentation of the annual report by Liaquat Ali Khan, the resolution was moved in the general session by A.K. Fazlul Huq, the chief minister of undivided Bengal, and was seconded by Choudhury Khaliquzzaman who explained his views on the causes which led to the demand for partition. Subsequently, Maulana Zafar Ali Khan from Punjab, Mohammad Abdul Ghafoor Hazarvi from North - West Frontier Province, Sir Abdullah Haroon from Sindh, Qazi Esa from Baluchistan, and other leaders announced their support. In the same session, Jinnah also presented a resolution to condemn the Khaksar massacre of 19 March, owing to a clash between the Khaksars and the police, that had resulted in the loss of 32 lives. The resolution for the establishment of a separate homeland for the Muslims of British India passed in the annual session of the All India Muslim League held in Lahore on 22 -- 24 March 1940 is a landmark document of Pakistan 's history. In 1946, it formed the basis for the decision of Muslim League to struggle for one state (later named Pakistan) for the Muslims. The statement declared: No constitutional plan would be workable or acceptable to the Muslims unless geographical contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be so constituted with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary. The Hindu press and leaders were quick to describe the resolution as the demand for the creation of Pakistan; some people began to call it the Pakistan Resolution soon after the Lahore session of the Muslim League. It is landmark document in history of Pakistan. Additionally, it stated: That adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards shall be specifically provided in the constitution for minorities in the units and in the regions for the protection of their religious, cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights of the minorities. Most importantly, to convince smaller provinces such as Sindh to join, it provided a guarantee: That geographically contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be constituted, with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary that the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in a majority as in the North Western and Eastern Zones of (British) India should be grouped to constitute ' independent states ' in which the constituent units should be autonomous and sovereign. The unity was important to British interests even in an independent India. Lord Zetland, Secretary of State for India, reacted to this Resolution in his telegram to Viceroy terming the unity as something "which we aim to perpetuate after British rule ceases ''; the League 's Resolution was a "council of despair '' and added up to a "Silly.... scheme for partition ''. Viceroy Linlithgow responded to Lord Zetland in his telegram "my impression is that... the partition scheme will be much criticised and rightly so... ''. There remains a debate on whether the resolution envisaged two sovereign states in the eastern and western parts of British India. Abdul Hashim of the Bengal Muslim League interpreted the text as a demand for two separate countries. In 1946, Prime Minister H.S. Suhrawardy of Bengal, a member of the All India Muslim League, mooted the United Bengal proposal with the support of Muslim and Hindu leaders, as well as the Governor of Bengal. However, it was opposed by Lord Mountbatten, the Muslim League, the Congress and the Hindu Mahasabha. Although there were and continue to be disagreements on the interpretation of the resolution, it was widely accepted that it called for a separate Muslim state. Opposing opinions focus on the phrase "independent states '' claiming this means Muslim majority provinces, i.e. Punjab, Sindh, etc. would be independent of each other. They ignore the phrase "geographically contiguous units. '' They also rely on the claims of certain Bengali nationalists who did not agree with one state. They accuse their opponents of diverting the "spirit '' of the resolution. The majority of the Muslim League leadership contended that it was intended for not only the separation of India but into only 2 states (Muslim majority and Hindu majority). Therefore, it is indeed a statement calling for independence and one Muslim state. Eventually, the name "Pakistan '' was used for the envisioned state. The Sindh assembly was the first British Indian legislature to pass the resolution in favour of Pakistan. G.M. Syed, an influential Sindhi activist, revolutionary and Sufi and later one of the important leaders in the forefront of the Sindh independence movement, joined the Muslim League in 1938 and presented the Pakistan resolution in the Sindh Assembly. A key motivating factor was the promise of "autonomy and sovereignty for constituent units ''. This text was buried under the Minar - e-Pakistan during its building in the Ayub regime. In this session the political situation was analysed in detail and Muslim demanded a separate homeland only to maintain their identification and to safeguard their rights. Pakistan resolution was the landmark in the history of Muslim of South - Asia. It determined for the Muslims a true goal and their homeland in north - east and north - west. The acceptance of the Pakistan resolution accelerated the pace of freedom movement. It gave new energy and courage to the Muslims who gathered around Muhammad Ali Jinnah for struggle for freedom. Wikimedia Atlas of Pakistan

who's been on i'm a celebrity twice

List of i 'm a celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! contestants (uk) - wikipedia I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! is a British reality television show in which celebrity contestants live together in a jungle environment for a few weeks, with no luxuries or contact from the outside world. The celebrities have to complete Bushtucker Trials to earn food for camp; else they have to survive off of basic rations. The first series aired in 2002, and seventeen complete series have aired on ITV up to the end of the latest series in December 2017. All series have been filmed in Queensland, Australia. During each series, contestants are progressively eliminated on the basis of public voting, with the eventual winner being crowned either King or Queen of the Jungle. As of series 17, 197 celebrities have competed. Television personality and former model Katie Price is the only celebrity to have competed in two separate series, whilst Sex Pistols manager Malcolm McLaren is the only person to withdraw from the show before even entering the jungle. In the show 's history, eighteen celebrities have withdrawn or walked, before being voted out. In total, there have been ten Kings and seven Queens of the Jungle. Coordinates: 28 ° 15 ′ 42.75 '' S 153 ° 21 ′ 1.79 '' E  /  28.2618750 ° S 153.3504972 ° E  / - 28.2618750; 153.3504972

who sang the song let the music play

Let the Music Play (song) - wikipedia 4: 37 "Let The Music Play '' is a song by American singer Shannon. The song was the first of Shannon 's four # 1s on the US Dance chart, reaching the top spot in October 1983. The song also became a huge crossover hit, peaking at # 2 on the soul chart (behind "If Only You Knew '' by Patti LaBelle ") and # 8 on the US Singles Chart in February 1984. Some mark this as the beginning of the dance - pop era. "Let the Music Play '' was Shannon 's only US Top 40 hit. It was ranked 43rd on the 2009 VH1 Special 100 Greatest One - Hit Wonders of the 1980s. This song appears in video games Dance Central 3 and Scarface: The World Is Yours. The original version of the record was produced by Mark Liggett and Chris Barbosa. By the early 1980s, the backlash against disco had driven dance music off mainstream radio stations in the US. The rhythmic ingenuity of "Let the Music Play '' was largely due to Chris Barbosa, who wrote and arranged the original demo track. Rob Kilgore played all the instruments on this seminal track. It featured a series of keyboard chords and drum patterns produced by gating a Roland TR - 808 drum machine. Specifically, a reverb was placed across the kick and snare and hard gated to change the sounds. Further, it was one of the first tracks to sync together a TR - 808 and a Roland TB - 303 bassline, notorious in later years for the instrument responsible for creating acid house. The TB - 303 plays the bassline for the entire song; however, in this case, the filter is not adjusted, which was typical for acid house music. This technical achievement made the production even more groundbreaking, and it also resulted in a unique sound, called "The Shannon Sound, '' which in time came to be known as freestyle. The Prophet - 5 is used for the hookline and sound effects. The vocal on the chorus is sung by session guitarist / vocalist, Jimi Tunnell, who was uncredited. Shannon sings the answering line but it is Tunnell who sings the "Let the music play '' hook. "Let the Music Play '' is a freestyle dance song with synthesizer and drum machine - produced rim shot percussion sounds and kick - drum / snare - drum interaction. Critic and journalist Peter Shapiro described the song as a "cross between Gary Numan and Tito Puente. '' The song has a tempo of 116 beats per minute. The music video of the song was directed by British music video director Nigel Dick and premiered in November 1983. The video shows Shannon in a dressing room applying make - up as if she is getting ready for a performance. She then makes her way to the stage of an empty theater where she proceeds to dance and sing the song. Interspersed throughout these scenes are shots of male and female dancers fashioned in dress shirts and bow ties warming up. The dancers join Shannon by the second chorus of the song, and, near the end, one of the dancers proceeds to take her in his arms and dance with her. The video ends with the dancers doing a choreographed routine while Shannon continues singing. Slant Magazine ranked the song # 54 in its 100 Greatest Dance Songs - list in 2006, adding: "Alongside Madonna 's "Holiday, '' D.C. - born Jazz vocalist Brenda Shannon Greene 's "Let the Music Play '' helped redefine dance music in the anti-disco early - ' 80s, setting the stage for the troubled genre for the next decade. Producers Mark Liggett and Chris Barbosa, considered one of the founding fathers of Latin freestyle, merged the then - hip electro - funk sound with Latin rhythms, unwittingly creating the world 's first freestyle song. '' shipments figures based on certification alone In 1996, Mary Kiani covered "Let the Music Play '' as her third solo single. The song was remixed in a variety of styles, notably by Paul Oakenfold of Perfecto and Steve Rodway of Motiv8. A video of the song was also released. These are the main formats and track listings of the single release of Mary Kiani 's "Let the Music Play. ''

who is exempt from eating meat on ash wednesday

Fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church - wikipedia The Catholic Church historically observes the disciplines of fasting and abstinence at various times each year. For Catholics, fasting is the reduction of one 's intake of food, while abstinence refers to refraining from meat (or another type of food). The Catholic Church teaches that all people are obliged by God to perform some penance for their sins, and that these acts of penance are both personal and corporeal. The purpose of fasting is spiritual focus, self - discipline, imitation of Christ, and performing penance. Contemporary Vatican legislation, which is followed by Catholics of the Latin Rite (who comprise most Catholics) is rooted in the 1966 Apostolic Constitution of Pope Paul VI, Paenitemini, and codified in the 1983 Code of Canon Law (in Canons 1249 -- 1253). According to Paenitemini and the 1983 Code of Canon Law, on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, both abstinence and fasting are required of Catholics who are not exempted for various reasons. All Fridays of the year are days are bound by the law of abstinence on all Fridays that are not Solemnities, while the law of fasting binds all Catholics who are aged between eighteen and sixty on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday. Nevertheless, both Paenitemini and the 1983 Code of Canon Law permitted the Episcopal Conferences to propose adjustments of the laws on fasting and abstinence for their home territories, and most have done so. For example, in some countries, the Bishops ' Conferences have obtained from Rome the substitution of pious or charitable acts for abstinence from meat on all Fridays of the year (including Fridays of Lent) except Good Friday. Others continue to abstain from eating meat on Lenten Fridays, but not on Fridays outside of Lent. Still others voluntarily abstain from meat on however, fasting may be less stringent on Holy Saturday than on Good Friday. Members of the Eastern Catholic Churches are obliged to follow the discipline of their own particular church. While some Eastern Catholics try to follow the stricter rules of their Orthodox counterparts, the actual canonical obligations of Eastern Catholics to fast and abstain are usually much more lenient than those of the Orthodox. The Personal Ordinariates for former Anglicans reconciled to the Catholic Church follow the discipline of the Latin Rite (of which they are a part) including the norms established by the Council of Catholic Bishops in whose territories they are erected and of which their Ordinaries are members. Thus in England the norm is abstinence on all Fridays of the year. The Bishop in the United States has emphasized the statements in the USCCB norms "Friday itself remains a special day of penitential observance throughout the year, '' and "we give first place to abstinence from flesh meat. '' The Rogation Days have been re-establised in the Calendar of the Ordinariates, and as long as a Solemnity does not take precedence, the Fridays in September and Advent are days of obligatory abstinence. Obligatory abstinence on Ember Friday in Lent is included in the universal Lenten discipline, and abstinence on Ember Friday on Whitsuntide is not required, as all days of the Octave of Pentecost are Solemnities. The Catholic practice of abstaining from meat on Fridays popularized the Friday fish fry and inspired the creation of the Filet - O - Fish sandwich at McDonald 's. Rules relating to fasting pertain to the quantity of food allowed on days of fasting, while those regulating abstinence refer to the quality or type of food. The Christian tradition of fasts and abstinence developed from Old Testament practices, and were an integral part of the early church community. Louis Duchesne observed that Monday and Thursday were days of fasting among pious Jews. Early Christians practiced regular weekly fasts on Wednesdays and Fridays. There has always been a close connection between fasting and almsgiving; the money saved on food should be given to the poor. The habit of fasting before Easter developed gradually, and with considerable diversity of practice regarding duration. As late as the latter part of the second century there were differing opinions not only regarding the manner of the paschal fast, but also the proper time for keeping Easter. In 331 St. Athanasius enjoined upon his flock a period of forty days of fasting preliminary to, but not inclusive of, the stricter fast of Holy Week, and in 339, after having traveled to Rome and over the greater part of Europe, wrote in the strongest terms to urge this observance upon the people of Alexandria as one that was universally practiced, "to the end that while all the world is fasting, we who are in Egypt should not become a laughing - stock as the only people who do not fast but take our pleasure in those days ''. In the time of Gregory the Great (590 -- 604) there were apparently at Rome six weeks of six days each, making thirty - six fast days in all, which St. Gregory, who is followed therein by many medieval writers, describes as the spiritual tithing of the year, thirty - six days being approximately the tenth part of three hundred and sixty - five. At a later date the wish to realize the exact number of forty days led to the practice of beginning Lent on Ash Wednesday. The ordinary rule on fasting days was to take but one meal a day and that only in the evening, white meat and, in the early centuries, wine were entirely forbidden. These days were at one time observed with a Black Fast of strictly no more than one meal, without meat, dairy, oil, or wine. This Lenten fast was traditionally broken at sunset. In the 10th century the custom of taking the only meal of the day at three o'clock was introduced. In the 14th century the meal was allowed at mid-day, and soon the practice of an evening collation (snack) became common. A morning collation was introduced in the early 19th century. In the early 20th century, Church law prescribed fasting throughout Lent, with abstinence only on Friday and Saturday. Some countries received dispensations: Rome in 1918 allowed the bishops of Ireland to transfer the Saturday obligation to Wednesday; in the United States, abstinence was not required on Saturday. The other weekdays were simply days of "fasting without abstinence. '' A similar practice (common in the United States) was called "partial abstinence '', which allowed meat only once during the day at the main meal. (There is nothing in current Catholic Canon Law which corresponds to "partial abstinence ''.) The countries of the former Spanish empire also had their own extensive dispensations from the Roman rules of fasting and abstinence, based on the "Crusader privileges '' of the Spanish dominions as codified in the Bull of the Crusade. In some European colonies, the obligation to fast and abstain differed by race, with natives often having more lenient rules than Europeans or mestizos. While the rules of abstinence generally only allow seafood, there are a few exceptions. In parts of South America, especially in Venezuela, capybara meat is popular during Lent and Holy Week; in response to a question posed by French settlers in Quebec in the 17th century, beaver was classified as an exception; and the Archbishop of New Orleans said that "alligator is considered in the fish family '' in 2010. The legal basis for the classification of beaver as fish probably rests with the Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas, which bases animal classification as much on habit as anatomy. Besides Lent, there were other penitential times customarily accompanied by fasting or abstinence. These included Advent, the Ember Days, the Rogation Days, Fridays throughout the year, and vigils of important feast days. Advent is considered a time of special self - examination, humility, and spiritual preparation in anticipation of the birth of Christ. Fridays and Saturdays in Advent were days of abstinence, and until early in the 20th century, the Fridays of Advent were also days of fasting. The vigils observed included the Saturday before Pentecost, October 31 (the vigil of All Saints), December 24 (Christmas Eve), December 7 (the vigil of the Immaculate Conception) and August 14 (the vigil of the Assumption). These vigils all required fasting; some also required abstinence. If any of these fell on a Sunday, the vigil, but not the obligation of fasting, was moved to the Saturday before. (Some other liturgical days were also known as vigils but neither fasting nor abstinence was required, particularly the vigils of feasts of the Apostles and the Vigil of the Epiphany.) By 1959 in the United States, the fast for the vigil of Christmas was moved to December 23. Ember days occurred four times a year. The Wednesday, Friday and Saturday of the ember week were days of fast and abstinence, though the Wednesday and Saturday were often only days of partial abstinence. In addition, Roman Catholics were required to abstain from meat (but not fast) on all other Fridays, unless the Friday coincided with a holy day of obligation. The former regulations on abstinence obliged Roman Catholics starting as young as age seven, but there were many exceptions. Large classes of people were considered exempt from fasting and abstinence, not only the sick and those with physically demanding jobs, but also people traveling and students. The regulations were adapted to each nation, and so in most dioceses in America abstinence from meat was not required on the Friday after Thanksgiving, to accommodate any meat left over from that US national holiday. On the eve of Vatican II, fasting and abstinence requirements in numerous Catholic countries were already greatly relaxed compared to the beginning of the 20th century, with fasting often reduced to just 4 days of the year (Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, the vigil of Christmas or the day before, and the vigil either of the Immaculate Conception or of the Assumption). Some controversy has arisen over whether Catholics should continue to fast and abstain from the things they voluntarily gave up for Lent on the Sundays of Lent. Questions include whether the "forty days '' of Lent are limited to weekdays or whether they include Sundays, and if every Sunday is like Easter. The Latin word for Lent is Quadragesima which literally means "forty ''. The term imitates many biblical images of fasting for forty days (e.g. Exodus 24: 18; Matthew 4: 2; Luke 4: 2). While all of this is true, Lenten and Easter practices varied in the East and the West as both traditions developed over time. The various Lenten fasts which developed did not always last forty days. In the fourth century, the council of Nicaea referred to Lent as "the forty '' before the Paschal feast. Although it is not entirely clear, the grammar of this phrase could be read to imply that one should prepare for forty days for the coming of Easter. One thing that is clear from the council of Nicaea is the fact that whatever the length of this penance, it did not include Sundays, since this council forbade even kneeling on Sunday. Sundays were treated differently by the early Christians and penitential kneeling on Sundays was strictly forbidden. This early discipline later evolved in the Western Church as our understanding of various gestures in worship shifted. Eventually in the Western tradition kneeling became a sign of reverence not of penance. In the history of the development of Lenten traditions in the western Church there were actually two different focuses. One was on the Baptismal liturgy of catechumens who were journeying towards the Easter Vigil to be baptized and received in to the Church. The second tradition involved a rite for reconciling adult penitents. Initially these penitents were those who were excommunicated and were in the process of being reconciled to the Church. In 1091 AD, Pope Urban II changed this and required all the faithful to receive ashes in what became Ash Wednesday. Over time the penitential aspect alone became the focus of Lent. The Second Vatican council wished to restore the original double focus on baptism and penance. The fathers note, "The season of Lent has a twofold character: primarily by recalling or preparing for baptism and by penance, it disposes the faithful, who more diligently hear the word of God and devote themselves to prayer, to celebrate the paschal mystery. This twofold character is to be brought into greater prominence both in the liturgy and by liturgical catechesis. '' (Sacrosanctum concilium 109). What are the implications for the Sundays in Lent? Can we solve this with Math? According to the modern General Norms for the Liturgical Year and the Calendar (2011), "The forty days of Lent run from Ash Wednesday up to but excluding the Mass of the Lord 's Supper exclusive. '' If you get a calendar out you would see that this year there are 20 days of Lent in February but only 24 days (23.5?) of Lent in March for a total of 44 days. There are 6 Sundays in Lent. Using these numbers you would not achieve the ' biblical number ' forty by subtracting the six Sundays that occur within Lenten session. Does this prove that we should fast and abstain on Sunday 's? Or perhaps two of the Sundays? Several points need to be noted. First the definition of Lent as excluding half of Holy Thursday, the whole of Good Friday and Holy Saturday only came about in 1969. These three days are now called the Triduum and are no longer considered part of the session of Lent. In other words, the numbers did actually work until this recent change. But now is the number ' forty, ' merely figurative? Notice that even in the current definition of Lent, Easter waits for us to complete the Triduum, and there are two more days of serious penance in the Triduum which still brings the total to forty days of penance excluding Sundays. The penitential disciple of Lent is still forty days even if the season of Lent is now shorten by the Triduum. We must not confuse the season on Lent with the penitential disciple of Lent. The tradition of the Church did not require equal penances on each day of Lent, and no penance was required on Sunday. Someone might say that the Sundays of Lent are part of the season of Lent and, therefore, must continue to have a penitential meaning. This is certainly partly true. We do worship in a more reserved and sober manner on the Sundays of Lent. But the fact remains that the penitential discipline of Lent always excluded these Sundays. We might also point out that the lectionary readings of the Sundays of Lent all focus on the catechumenal journey towards the Easter Vigil and not exclusively on penance. As was pointed out above, Lenten tradiations have developed over time. One consistent feature has been that the penitential discipline of Lent excluded Sundays. This point is especially evident in the writings of St. Augustine. In St. Augustine 's Letter 36, he refutes a rigorist who insists that Christians should fast on the Sabbath (Saturday). This might initially sound tangential but it leads Augustine to our question. Augustine, by the way, argues that we are free to fast or not fast on the Sabbath, and as Christians we are not bound by the Jewish Sabbath keeping regulations. Augustine also tells us that in his time Christians regularly fasted on Wednesdays and Fridays throughout the year and not just in Lent (36.30) and that some Churches fasted as well on the Sabbath. By comparison, fasting on the Lord 's Day (Sunday) "would be a cause of no small scandal to the Church '' (36.2, cf. 36.10, 29). He notes, "For in these questions on which the divine scripture has determined nothing certain, the custom of the people of God or the practices of our ancestors are to be taken as law '' (36.2). He makes it clear that not fasting on the Lord 's Day was the standard practice for the Church in Rome, in Africa and in Millan. He also points out that fasting or abstaining on the Lord 's Day was a practice of the followers of the heresy of the Manichees (36.27) and Priscillianist (36.28) which the Church universally rejected. Fasting on the Lord 's Day is a ' scandal ' and ' abominable ' (36.27) though Augustine allows one exception, "unless perhaps someone might be able to extend a fast beyond a week without taking any meal in order to approximate a fast of forty days '' (36.27). He does not seem to have in mind someone who is merely, for example, not eating meat for forty days, but an epic fast of biblical proportions. (e.g. "without taking any meal ''). Again the point is that the penitential discipline of Lent always excluded Sundays and further St. Augustine says that fasting on Sundays is a scandal and abominable. Finally someone might add one more layer to this discussion. The person who is asking about drinking their latte on Sundays in Lent, is really taking about their own self - imposed private devotion. It is interesting to learn about the history of this practice of private devotion. Prior to Second Vatican Council the 1917 Code of Canon Law, the Roman Pontifical and the approved regulations for the United States (Uniform Norms 1951, Modification 1956) required a rigorous scheme of fasting by all the faithful 21 - 59 - years - old. Abstinence could be complete or partial, and fasting allowed one full meal plus partial meals. All week days of Lent had either a fast or a fast and abstinence attached to them. It is very clear in these documents that we were discussing the weekdays of Lent, excluding Sundays. During World War II special permission was given to local ordinaries to dispense the faithful from these rigorous daily requirements and this permission was extended again in 1949. In light of these dispensations the Uniform Norms 1951, and Modification 1956 for the US included a paragraph which exhorted the faithful to be generous in performing additional voluntary works of Christian perfection. It seems the wide spread custom of taking on voluntary penance began in the 1950s. Prior to this people were satisfied fulfilling the demanding norms of Lent. Since these new voluntary acts are not required, it would seem the faithful can do whatever they want, but choosing to do penance on a Sunday is clearly not in the spirit of Catholic Tradition. Contemporary legislation is rooted in the 1966 Apostolic Constitution of Pope Paul VI, Paenitemini. He recommended that fasting be appropriate to the local economic situation, and that all Catholics voluntarily fast and abstain. He also allowed that fasting and abstinence might be substituted with prayer and works of charity, although the norms for doing so were to be set down by the Episcopal Conferences. Current practice of fast and abstinence is regulated by Canons 1250 -- 1253 of the 1983 code. They specify that all Fridays throughout the year, and the time of Lent are penitential times throughout the entire Church. All adults (those who have attained the ' age of majority ', which is 18 years in canon law) are bound by law to fast on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday until the beginning of their sixtieth year. All persons who have completed their fourteenth year are bound by the law of abstinence on all Fridays unless they are solemnities, and again on Ash Wednesday; but in practice this requirement has been greatly reduced by the Episcopal Conferences because under Canon 1253, it is these Conferences that have the authority to set down the local norms for fasting and abstinence in their territories. (However, the precept to both fast and abstain on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday is usually not dispensed from.) Absent any specification of the nature of "fasting '' in the current Canon Law, the traditional definition is obviously applicable here which is that on the days of mandatory fasting, Catholics may eat only one full meal during the day. Additionally, they may eat up to two small meals or snacks, known as "collations ''. Church requirements on fasting only relate to solid food, not to drink, so Church law does not restrict the amount of water or other beverages -- even alcoholic drinks -- which may be consumed. In some Western countries, Catholics have been encouraged to adopt non-dietary forms of abstinence during Lent. For example, in 2009 Monsignor Benito Cocchi, Archbishop of Modena, urged young Catholics to give up text messaging for Lent. In addition to the fasts mentioned above, Roman Catholics must also observe the Eucharistic Fast, which involves taking nothing but water and medicines into the body for some time before receiving the Eucharist. The earliest recorded regular practice was to eat at home before the Lord 's Supper if one was hungry (I Corinthians 11: 34). The next known ancient practice was to fast from midnight until Mass that day. As Masses after noon and in the evening became common in the West, this was soon modified to fasting for three hours. The latest Code of Canon Law reduced the Eucharistic Fast to the current one - hour requirement for the Roman Rite. Particular law in some Eastern Catholic Churches also requires a one - hour Eucharistic fast. The Australian Catholic Bishops ' Conference decreed on Friday 4 October 1985 that Fridays throughout the year, including in Lent (other than Good Friday) are not obligatory days of abstinence from meat, provided an alternative form of penance is practised. Although this remains the case to this day, support for the return of obligatory Friday abstinence has been gradually increasing since England and Wales returned to Friday abstinence in 2011, with some Australian bishops expressing interest. The Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops decrees that the days of fast and abstinence in Canada are Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, and specifies that Fridays are days of abstinence. This includes all Fridays year round, not just Fridays of Lent. Catholics, however, can substitute special acts of charity or piety on these days. Current norms for England and Wales, issued by the Bishops ' Conference in May 2011, re-introduced the expectation that all Catholics able to do so should abstain from meat on all Fridays of the year, effective Friday, September 16, 2011. On 25 November 2010 the Irish Bishops ' Conference published the resource leaflet Friday Penance. It followed from the March 2010 Pastoral Letter to the Catholics of Ireland from Pope Benedict XVI suggesting initiatives to support renewal in the Church in Ireland. He asked that Irish Catholics offer their Friday Penances "for an outpouring of God 's mercy and the Holy Spirit 's gifts of holiness and strength, '' and that fasting, prayer, reading of Scripture and works of mercy be offered in order to obtain healing and renewal for the Church in Ireland. The leaflet states that Penance "arises from the Lord 's call to conversion and repentance '' and describes that it is an "essential part of all genuine Christian living '': Friday Penance also explains why penance is important: "Declaring some days throughout the year as days of fast and abstinence (Ash Wednesday and Good Friday) is meant to intensify penances of the Christian. Lent is the traditional season for renewal and penance but Catholics also observe each Friday of the year as days of penance. The link between Friday and penance is extremely ancient and is even reflected in the Irish language word for Friday: An Aoine (The Fast). '' The leaflet suggests ways of fulfilling Friday penance such as abstaining from meat or alcohol, visiting the Blessed Sacrament or helping the poor, sick and lonely as well as other suggestions. The U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB) produced a statement in 1966 called Pastoral Statement on Penance and Abstinence, which was modified slightly in 1983. One writer has summarized the U.S. rules as follows: In the United States, the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB) has declared that "the age of fasting is from the completion of the eighteenth year to the beginning of the sixtieth. '' The USCCB also allows the substitution of some other form of penance for abstinence on all of the Fridays of the year, except for those Fridays in Lent. Thus, the rules for fasting and abstinence in the United States are: According to the USCCB: Abstinence laws consider that meat comes only from animals such as chickens, cows, sheep or pigs -- - all of which live on land. Birds are also considered meat. Abstinence does not include meat juices and liquid foods made from meat. Thus, such foods as chicken broth, consomme, soups cooked or flavored with meat, meat gravies or sauces, as well as seasonings or condiments made from animal fat are technically not forbidden. However, moral theologians have traditionally taught that we should abstain from all animal - derived products (except foods such as gelatin, butter, cheese and eggs, which do not have any meat taste). Fish are a different category of animal. Salt and freshwater species of fish, amphibians, reptiles, (cold - blooded animals) and shellfish are permitted. Because of this, some Catholic parishes in the United States sponsor a fish fry during Lent. In predominantly Roman Catholic areas, restaurants may adjust their menus during Lent by adding seafood items to the menu in an attempt to appeal to Roman Catholics. However, the same USCCB website says that: While fish, lobster and other shellfish are not considered meat and can be consumed on days of abstinence, indulging in the lavish buffet at your favorite seafood place sort of misses the point. Abstaining from meat and other indulgences during Lent is a penitential practice. The USCCB also states that: Those that are excused from fast and abstinence outside the age limits include the physically or mentally ill including individuals suffering from chronic illnesses such as diabetes. Also excluded are pregnant or nursing women. In all cases, common sense should prevail, and ill persons should not further jeopardize their health by fasting. In 2010, Archbishop of New Orleans Gregory Michael Aymond clarified that alligator is also considered seafood, saying "Yes, the alligator 's considered in the fish family, and I agree with you -- God has created a magnificent creature that is important to the state of Louisiana, and it is considered seafood. '' This was in response to a letter from a local alligator wrangler. To fast customarily means to only eat one meal during the day, and to avoid animal products. Eastern Christians view fasting as one part of repentance and supporting a spiritual change of heart. Eastern Christians observe two major times of fasting, the "Great Fast '' before Easter, and "Phillip 's Fast '' before the Nativity. During the Great Fast, meat, eggs, dairy products, fish and oil are avoided. The fast period before Christmas is called "Philip 's Fast '' because it begins after the feast day of St. Philip. Specific practices vary, but on some days during the week meat, dairy products and (in some countries) oil are avoided, while on other days there is no restriction. During approximately the last week before the Nativity, typically meat, dairy, eggs and oil are avoided on all days, meals are moderate in quantity, and no food is taken between meals. Notes Further reading

when does the new season of the colbert report start

The Colbert Report - wikipedia The Colbert Report (/ koʊlˈbɛr rəˈpɔːr /) is an American late - night talk and news satire television program hosted by Stephen Colbert that aired four days a week on Comedy Central from October 17, 2005 to December 18, 2014 for 1,447 episodes. The show focused on a fictional anchorman character named Stephen Colbert, played by his real - life namesake. The character, described by Colbert as a "well - intentioned, poorly informed, high - status idiot '', is a caricature of televised political pundits. Furthermore, the show satirized conservative personality - driven political talk programs, particularly Fox News 's The O'Reilly Factor. The Colbert Report is a spin - off of Comedy Central 's The Daily Show, where he acted as a correspondent for the program for several years while developing the character. The program was created by Colbert, Jon Stewart, and Ben Karlin. The show 's writing was grounded in improvisation, and often lampooned current events stories. The show 's structure also included a guest interview, in which the Colbert character attempts to deconstruct his opponent 's argument. The show was taped in New York City 's Hell 's Kitchen neighborhood, and the program 's set is "hyper - American '', epitomizing the character 's ego. The show was taped and broadcast Monday through Thursday, with weeks taken off at multiple points in a given year for breaks. The Colbert Report saw immediate critical and ratings successes, leading to various awards, including two prestigious Peabody Awards. The show 's cultural influence -- which occasionally would require a fair degree of participation from the show 's audience, dubbed the Colbert Nation -- extended beyond the program a number of times. This impact included the character running for U.S. President twice, co-hosting a rally at the National Mall, presenting a controversial performance at the White House Correspondents ' Dinner, and establishing a real Super PAC that raised a million dollars. In addition, the show inspired various forms of multimedia, including music and multiple best - selling books. The Colbert Report satirized conservative personality - driven political pundit programs, and focused on a fictional anchorman character named Stephen Colbert, played by his real - life namesake. The character first made appearances on the short - lived sketch comedy series The Dana Carvey Show in 1996, described as "a self - important, trench - coated reporter who does on - location stories in a way that suggests his own presence is the real scoop. '' Colbert joined Comedy Central 's The Daily Show in 1997, a year following its launch, then hosted by Craig Kilborn. When Jon Stewart became the program 's host in 1999, The Daily Show developed a markedly different style, bringing a sharper political focus to the humor than the show previously exhibited. Colbert recalled that Stewart specifically asked him to have a political viewpoint, and to allow his passion for issues to carry through into his comedy. Colbert became a fixture on The Daily Show, occasionally hosting in Stewart 's absence. In 2003, the program began running advertisements for a fictional program titled The Colbert Réport, starring Colbert as a parody of cable news pundits. When fellow Daily Show star Steve Carell left to pursue a film and television career, Comedy Central made attempts to keep Colbert at the network. He pitched The Colbert Report to the channel in 2004. Stewart pushed Comedy Central to pick up the show, and Colbert was given an eight - week tryout. Following the show 's immediate success, the show "quickly became a fixture in the late - night lineup. '' At its peak, the show averaged 1.5 million viewers each evening. The fictional Colbert anchorman character became gradually toned down over the course of the show 's run, as the host believed he would eventually need to move beyond it. He began to regard it as an act of discipline to perform as the character; he later remarked, "to model behavior, you have to consume that behavior on a regular basis. It became very hard to watch punditry of any kind, of whatever political stripe. '' With his contract set to end in December 2014, he had already decided to leave the show when he was contacted by CBS to replace David Letterman as the host of its Late Show franchise. The show 's ending was announced concurrently with Colbert 's jump to CBS in April 2014. The last episode aired on December 18, 2014. The show was replaced on Comedy Central 's late - night lineup by The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore, another spinoff of The Daily Show. The character first made appearances on the short - lived sketch comedy series The Dana Carvey Show in 1996, described as "a self - important, trench - coated reporter who does on - location stories in a way that suggests his own presence is the real scoop. '' When The Daily Show ran short on time, a short piece starring Colbert, advertising a fictional program titled The Colbert Réport, was added into the program. In these sketches, Colbert began to amplify his character to parody news pundits. Colbert anchored many sketches in his persona, including "Even Stepvhen '', in which he debated current issues with fellow correspondent Steve Carell, often devolving into petty name - calling and insults. Colbert and Carell were viewed as potential breakout stars by staff, and when Carell left the series in 2004 to start a US version of The Office, Comedy Central made attempts to keep Colbert at the network. Stewart and Karlin were already looking to expand the Daily Show franchise and their production company, Busboy. The duo supposedly came up with the idea for The Colbert Report after watching coverage of the sexual harassment lawsuit filed against Bill O'Reilly. Colbert met with network president Doug Herzog the day following the 2004 Emmy Awards to first discuss the concept. The one - line pitch Colbert, Karlin and Stewart developed was "Our version of the O'Reilly Factor with Stephen Colbert. '' Herzog committed to an eight - week tryout period without a pilot. By the time of the 2004 election, the character was fully developed. In creating the character, which is designed to be repellant but entertaining, Colbert conferred with Stewart and Karlin. In expressing his hope that his character not be "an asshole, '' Stewart remarked, "You 're not an asshole. You 're an idiot. There 's a difference. '' Head writer Allison Silverman reiterated this trait in a later interview, commenting, "There is an essential innocence to his character. '' Colbert initially felt the character might not be sustainable in a longer format. Despite this, The Colbert Report was designed as an extension of the satiric goals of The Daily Show, combining it with general silliness and character - driven humor. To make sure there was no overlap in subject matter with The Daily Show, Karlin made trips between the studios during the show 's early days to supervise scripts. For the first several years of the program, Colbert made an appearance at the end of each Daily Show in split - screen, having a short discussion with Stewart preceding his show. The show 's writing was grounded in improv, employing a "yes to everything '' mentality. Much of the humor derived from extended improv games with the show 's studio and at - home audience, such as Colbert 's poll to name a bridge in Hungary after himself. Many of the writers had improv training and at one point put together "improv evenings '' at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre once a month. Writers on The Colbert Report were predominantly male and white; Colbert acknowledged this lack of diversity, but he contended he had hired writers based solely on the quality of their material and had never looked at the names on writing packets submitted for employment. Subjects considered too dark were not even considered for comedic material; for example, the show would poke fun at press coverage of a tragedy, rather than the tragedy itself. Issues discussed on the show were later reported on actual newscasts, in turn allowing the show to comment on its own impact, creating an echo chamber of sorts. This led Colbert to describe his show, "at its purest expression, (as) a pebble that we throw into the puddle of the news, and then we report on our own ripples. '' Ideas for each show were considered in the morning pitch meeting, which could range from "harrowing '' to smooth. Described as having "demanding standards '', Colbert is quoted as remarking, "Let 's make it perfect and then cut it. '' Although dozens of ideas were either chosen for the show or deleted, other ideas, saved for a later date, were often forgotten because of the pace of news. Ideas with considerable potential were put in the "hopper '' to be developed and rewritten, while more fully formed ideas were placed in the "pantry. '' Good jokes would still be sacrificed if they did not fit the character 's specific point of view, which was deemed the inverse of what "any logical person '' feels. At least one writer has described the job as "all - consuming '', leaving no time for outside activities. Colbert himself eventually became withdrawn from morning meetings as the show continued on and he mulled a decision to leave. Usually by 11 a.m., a rough outline for the show was completed and writers sent off in pairs to create scripts that would be polished throughout the day. First, writers would scan news articles for ideas and partner together in pairs, with one "keeping track of possible jokes. '' During an appearance at the New York Comedy Festival in 2013, some writers admitted to procrastinating until the last hour before rehearsal to complete their sections; Colbert confirmed that, in the program 's early days, segments such as "'' The Word '' were scripted entirely during the rewrite before rehearsal. Both writers read their dialogue aloud to see whether they thought the Colbert character would say it. As writers were working on their respective scripts, the show 's production and graphics team compiled music, footage, and props needed for the show. To collect video clips, the show cross-referenced transcripts of hours and hours of archived TiVo recordings of news programs. In 2011, the show switched to Snapstream software, which streamlined the TV clip search and compilation process, allowing for searching closed captioning for select words. In addition, a group of staff coders and independent contractors developed Scripto software to collaborate on scripts in real time. By 1 p.m., the show held a second production meeting to go over scripts and determine which pieces to edit. Scripts were "hopefully '' completed around 4 p.m., and a rehearsal with the entire staff would begin at 5: 30 p.m. or occasionally earlier. Afterward, final changes were made to the script. The final rewrite would take place in a "small, red, poorly ventilated room '' until 6: 45 p.m. Before interviewing his guests, Colbert met with them in the green room and acknowledged that he was playing a character, noting that the persona is "willfully ignorant of what you know and care about '' and urging the guest to "honestly disabuse me of what you see as my ignorance. '' Emily Lazar, a producer for the interview segments, advised guests to talk with Colbert as though he were a "harmless drunk at the next bar stool. '' Guests would typically take their seats around 7 p.m., when a warm - up comedian (perhaps Jared Logan or Paul Mercurio) delivered jokes. Colbert, out of character, held a brief question and answer session with the audience prior to taping. Taping lasted as long as three hours but usually ended around 9 p.m., at which point the show was edited and sent to Comedy Central for broadcast. As the show was being edited, the staff met one last time to work through details for the next show. The Colbert Report was taped and broadcast four nights a week, Monday -- Thursday. The show 's taping studio, at 513 W. 54th Street in New York City 's Hell 's Kitchen neighborhood, was used for The Daily Show until July 2005, and has a capacity of 150. NEP Studio 54 on 54th Street is owned by NEP Broadcasting which is New York City 's largest production facility and also owns The Daily Show set at NEP Studio 52 two blocks south on 52nd Street. Aside from the set, the show 's production offices have been described as "loft - like '' and "all overhead pipes and exposed brick. '' Following the show 's conclusion, the building was used for The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore. The set for The Colbert Report was called "The Eagle 's Nest '' and reflects and facilitates Colbert 's self - aggrandizing style. It was designed by Jim Fenhagen, and was intended to both capture the character 's ego and be "hyper - American. '' Elements incorporated into the set included architectural lines converged to Colbert 's desk, and radial beams coming out from behind his chair. Colbert 's main influence for the set was Leonardo da Vinci 's The Last Supper, with the Colbert character as Jesus Christ. In the set, "virtually every inch emblazoned with Colbert 's name or the initial C ''; his name, initials and the name of the show appear on the desk 's plasma screen, on the rafters above the desk, and the desk itself is shaped like a giant "C ''. The background includes faux artifacts from the character 's backstory, which are seldom seen by viewers. "I kept saying, ' People might not really notice this. ' But when you 're working with a comedy team, they really get into it. They could n't help themselves, '' said Fenhagen. Among these touches are the United States Constitution, a miniature Ten Commandments, and a CliffNotes guide to American government. The set was described as "part Riefenstahlesque homage to the star, part symbologic gallery -- where alert viewers are rewarded with snarky jokes at every turn. '' Above a fireplace is a portrait of Colbert; it originally showed Colbert standing in front of the same mantel with another portrait of himself. On the show 's first anniversary, the portrait was replaced by one of Colbert standing in front of the mantel with the first portrait above it, and with each successive year, it became Colbert standing in front of the previous year 's painting. The graphics used throughout the show and the studio itself are saturated with American flags, bald eagles, Captain America 's shield, and other patriotic imagery. Typically, Colbert starts with the audience cheering and teasers regarding the show 's topics and guest; each headline is structured to be a deliberate pun. The series of puns are followed by a verbal metaphor that promotes the show and is almost always finished with, "This is the Colbert Report. '' The show 's original opening title sequence began with an eagle diving past the host, following by images of Americana, stock footage of Colbert, and words describing Colbert flying by (some of which have been used as The Word). The first word used was "Grippy '', and has changed to include, among others, "Megamerican '', "Lincolnish '', "Superstantial '', "Flagaphile '', and "Factose Intolerant ''. The May 4 episode in 2009 featured hints planted by J.J. Abrams about when and where Colbert would be in the Persian Gulf, and "Farewellison '' for the final episode of former producer Allison Silverman. The show 's opening credits depict the Colbert character clutching an American flag. On January 4, 2010, a new opening debuted. The opening begins and ends with an eagle as before, but features new background renderings, new shots of Stephen Colbert, and is now colored in an American, red white and blue motif. The show 's theme music is "Baby Mumbles '' by Cheap Trick. Colbert phoned guitarist Rick Nielsen during development of the show to discuss the theme, noting that he loved the band 's song "I Want You to Want Me ''; the show 's theme music is largely that song 's melody backwards. Following the opening sequence, Colbert most often proceeds with a run - through of recent headlines in a manner parodying traditional news broadcasts; this is similar to The Daily Show but with a faux - right - wing spin. The program typically continues with Colbert addressing a specific topic. Colbert often calls to "Jimmy '', a reference to program director Jim Hoskinson, to roll video clips. That topic will often lead into a "The Word '' segment, which juxtaposes Colbert 's commentary with satirical bullet points on - screen, a parody of The O'Reilly Factor 's "Talking Points Memo ''. On occasion he will conduct a short interview with someone having to do with the topic. The format of the middle segment varies, but it is normally a visual presentation or skit. Often, these skits are parts of recurring segments, which may include "Better Know a District '', in which Colbert interviews a U.S. Representative from a certain district of the United States; "Tip of the Hat / Wag of the Finger '', in which Colbert voices his approval or disapproval of prominent people and news items; "Cheating Death with Dr. Stephen T. Colbert, D.F.A. '', a health segment; "The Sport Report '' with the "t '' in both Sport and Report silent, a sports segment; and "The ThreatDown '', in which Colbert lists the five greatest threats to America, and others. His newest segment, "Thought for Food '' deals with the consumption of specific foods across the world. Sometimes, there is a "Colbert Report Special Repor - t '' (the final ' t ' pronounced with special emphasis), or even a "Colbert Report, Sport Report, Special Repor - t '', in which Colbert devotes a section of an episode, and sometimes the entire episode to a special subject. The third segment is almost always an interview with a celebrity guest, often an author or government official. Unlike the late night talk show standard of the guest walking out to the host 's desk, Colbert instead runs to a separate area of the set to interview his guest, basking in the applause and glory meant for the guest. On the interview segment of the show, Colbert frequently attempts to nail his guest by using various rhetorical devices and fallacies to prove them wrong. The real - life Colbert once remarked that his personal favorite segment of the program were the interviews, which involved more listening on his end in order for the character to "ignorantly deconstruct '' his opponent 's argument. The third segment of the show is on occasion a musical guest. Prominent musical guests have included Metallica, Paul McCartney, Rush, Green Day, Paul Simon, Crosby Stills & Nash, Pavement, Cat Stevens, Yo - Yo Ma, Radiohead and Black Star. Afterwards, Colbert ends the show by giving some parting words to the audience or, if short for time, a simple "that 's it for the report everybody, good night ''. The host of The Colbert Report is Stephen Colbert, a "self - important right - wing commentator '', portrayed by his real - life namesake. The character incorporates aspects of Colbert 's real life, but is primarily a parody of cable news pundits, particularly Bill O'Reilly of Fox News ' The O'Reilly Factor, whom he refers to as "Papa Bear ''. To this end, the character even incorporates O'Reilly's mannerisms, described as his "pen - wielding, hand - stabbing gestures. '' O'Reilly's use of "talking points '' -- illustrated onscreen graphics reflecting the host 's opinions -- are parodied on The Colbert Report with the segment "The Word ''. He initially incorporated long - winded, verbose metaphors to parody CNN correspondent Aaron Brown. In addition, the character was also heavily inspired by Stone Phillips, Bill Kurtis and "especially '' Geraldo Rivera. "I loved the way Geraldo made reporting a story seem like an act of courage, '' Colbert told a reporter in 2012. The core principle of The Colbert Report is that Colbert is a "well - intentioned, poorly informed, high - status idiot. '' The character believes that he himself is the news: rather than a vessel to deliver the news to the audience, or a general member of the media, the character sees himself as more important than the news. He is veracious in his approach, while often ridiculously overblown in his statements. The character is egomaniacal, fact - averse ("factose intolerant ''), God - fearing, and hyper - patriotic. He claims to be an independent who is often mistaken for a Republican, but uniformly despises liberals and generally agrees with the actions and decisions of the Republican Party. Colbert 's character has been described as a "caustic right - wing bully ''. The character exists not in opposition to political leaders, but to common ignorances; for example, his insistence that then - presidential candidate Barack Obama had Socialist leanings was based on public misconceptions. In parodying the cult of personality, the Colbert character also developed a real - life equivalent, creating what was dubbed the "Colbert Nation ''. While giving the character a certain mythos was part of the show 's inception, show producers did not set out to create a loyal following; the joke was that the character thought he had an influence, but that was a figment of his ego - riddled imagination. Despite his appearance of always being in charge, Colbert is vulnerable: he feels deeply threatened by those wielding more power than he, and he suffers from "arctophobia '', the fear of bears, which he refers to as "giant, marauding, godless killing machines ''. He will alert the audience to what he perceives as the latest national threat (the subject of a recurring bit, "ThreatDown ''), only to justify his own fears and impose those onto his audience. As the show progressed, Colbert gradually began to tone down the character, allowing guests in interviews to "get his or her own message across. '' The show 's longevity created what The New York Times described as "a winking quality to the act, a sense that we 're all in on the joke. '' Colbert himself acknowledged that he "rarely hit it as hard as I used to, '' noting that "You have to be vigilant to stay ignorant. '' He noted that his own personal opinions can occasionally align with his character 's, when liberal guests ' agendas appeared based on dislike rather than logical argument. Politician and former vice president Al Gore accidentally referred to the persona as a "character '' in a 2011 interview on the show, and in 2013, Colbert further blurred lines when he spoke regarding the death of his mother on the program. In doing so, many commentators referred the show 's longevity and the development of a "third '' Colbert -- one a faux pundit and one informed by the performer 's own life. In the show 's credits, Colbert was credited with a title, which became increasingly long and humorous as the show progressed: Her Excellency The Rev. Sir Doctor Stephen Tyrone Mos Def Colbert, D.F.A., Heavyweight Champion of the World ✱ ✱ featuring Flo Rida La Premiere Dame De France. When O'Reilly appeared on The Daily Show before the second episode of The Colbert Report aired, he commented, "Before we get started, somebody told me walking in here, you got some French guy on after you making fun of me? '', and made several references in the following interview to ' the French Guy '. In a subsequent Newsweek interview, O'Reilly said that he "feels it 's a compliment '' to have Colbert parody him because Colbert "is n't mean - spirited '' and does not "use (his) platform to injure people ''. Later, Colbert replied on - air, "I like you too. In fact, if it was n't for you, this show would n't exist. '' Colbert disagreed that the show 's emphasis on politics represented a liberal bias, noting that he himself was uninterested in modern politics. He believed that political issues reflect basic human behavior, which he viewed as his satirical specialty, noting, "If I thought I had a political point, I 'd be in big trouble. '' In another interview, Colbert remarked, "I 'm not someone with a particular political ax to grind. I 'm a comedian. I love hypocrisy. '' The Colbert Report premiered in October 2005. The first guest was Stone Phillips, a partial influence on the character. In the debut episode, Colbert coined the word truthiness, defined as "a quality characterizing a "truth '' that a person making an argument or assertion claims to know intuitively "from the gut '' or because it "feels right '' without regard to evidence, logic, intellectual examination, or facts. '' Truthiness was named Word of the Year for 2005 by the American Dialect Society and for 2006 by Merriam - Webster. The character 's forceful nature confused some in the program 's early days. During an appearance on the segment "Better Know a District '' in the show 's first season, a frustrated Barney Frank declined to continue, deeming the conversation too dumb. In one early episode, the Colbert character purported to be a former member of a 1980s new wave group, Stephen & the Colberts, and released a fictional music video from the band for the song "Charlene (I 'm Right Behind You) ''. The show 's popularity resulted in Colbert headlining the 2006 White House Correspondents ' Dinner, which he performed in character. The controversial, searing routine targeted President George W. Bush and the media, and was greeted with chilly reception from the audience. Although President Bush shook Colbert 's hand after his presentation, several of Bush 's aides and supporters walked out during Colbert 's speech, and one former aide commented that the President had "that look that he 's ready to blow ''. Colbert 's performance quickly became an Internet and media sensation. According to Vanity Fair, the speech transformed Colbert as a "folk hero '' for liberals, and was later described by Frank Rich as the "defining moment '' of the 2006 midterm elections. Adam Sternbergh of New York, a year after the show 's debut, deemed the character "something very close to what he 's parodying, a kind of Bill O'Reilly for the angry left. '' In 2006, Colbert encouraged fans to vote for his name to be the new name of a bridge in Hungary, which was being decided via an online poll; he beat the runner - up by more than 14 million votes. He was, however, disqualified, as the name of the bridge was intended to be a memoriam. Later that year, he began a mock feud with indie rock group the Decemberists over the subject of who was the first to challenge fans to create a green screen video; the fake conflict culminated in a guitar solo competition on the show 's final episode of the year, featuring guest appearances from guitarist Peter Frampton and Dr. Henry Kissinger. Colbert later recalled it as the show 's "craziest '' moment, changing the way the staff viewed the program: "Because you realize the character believes anything he thinks, says, (or) cares about is important, anything fits on the show. (...) That is the show where we said, oh, there is unlimited open field running. '' In February 2007, Ben & Jerry 's unveiled a new ice cream flavor in honor of Stephen Colbert, named Stephen Colbert 's AmeriCone Dream. All proceeds were donated to charity through the Stephen Colbert AmeriCone Dream Fund, which distributed the money to various causes. In June 2007, Colbert broke his left wrist while performing his warm - up for the show. It was the subject of an extended bit on the program, including the creation of the "Wriststrong '' wrist band, based on Lance Armstrong 's "Livestrong '' wrist band, which donated all proceeds to the Yellow Ribbon Fund. Colbert remained on the air without writers during the Writers Guild of America strike in 2007 -- 08. Colbert modified the pronunciation of the show 's name, pronouncing both of the formerly elided final "t '' s (/ ˈkoʊlbərt rəpɔrt /); a similar move was made by The Daily Show which returned to air as A Daily Show. During this period, he staged a mock feud between himself, Jon Stewart, and Late Night host Conan O'Brien. In 2008, Colbert made a series of jokes directed at various towns in the United States named "Canton '', with many attracting negative responses from each respective area 's local government and residents. The same year, the show filmed a tongue - in - cheek Christmas special titled A Colbert Christmas: The Greatest Gift of All!. In 2009, Colbert filmed a series of four episodes for the troops in Baghdad, Iraq. He had a suit tailored for him in the Army Combat Uniform pattern and went through an abbreviated version of the Army 's basic training regimen. On the first of the four episodes, Colbert had his head shaved on stage by General Ray Odierno who was jokingly "ordered '' to do so by President Barack Obama, who appeared on the episode via a pre-recorded segment from the White House. In 2010, while in character, Colbert appeared before judiciary subcommittee hearing on the issue of farm workers and immigration. The New Yorker used Colbert 's testimony before Congress as an example of the "third '' Colbert: "Colbert was thoughtful and sincere -- and had ruined the whole thing. By speaking honestly, he had become the very thing he was mocking, a celebrity testifying before Congress. '' Beginning in June 2011, the show created a long - running gag that involved Colbert starting his own actual super PAC, Americans for a Better Tomorrow, Tomorrow, described by the character as "100 percent legal and at least 10 percent ethical. '' In 2012, Colbert interviewed illustrator / author Maurice Sendak, who managed to get him to break character; show staff and Colbert himself retrospectively labeled the segment one of the show 's more memorable moments. The Los Angeles Times called the September 2013 interview with intelligence official Philip Mudd his "most awkward interview '', stating Mudd "could barely disguise his contempt '' for Colbert. President Barack Obama guested during the show 's final month, in a show taped from George Washington University in Washington, D.C.; Obama sat in Colbert 's seat and presided over "The Wørd '' segment. The final episode aired on December 18, 2014. In the episode Stephen becomes immortal after accidentally killing "Grimmy '' during the opening of the segment of "Cheating Death with Dr. Stephen T. Colbert, D.F.A. ''. This leads to Stephen singing "We 'll Meet Again '' in its entirety along with a large crowd of several recognizable figures, before meeting with Santa Claus, Abraham Lincoln, and Alex Trebek on the roof of the studio. As they ride off together in Santa 's sleigh, Stephen bids a final farewell to his viewers and tosses back to Jon Stewart at the desk of The Daily Show, who thanks Stephen for his report. Reviews of The Colbert Report upon its 2005 premiere were positive, although critics were generally skeptical that the character could extend beyond one season without growing tiresome. While positively reviewing the program as a whole, Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune echoed these sentiments: "The biggest question hanging over The Colbert Report is whether the show 's sendup of the pomposity and fear - mongering of cable news blowhards will be as appealing in the long term. '' Melanie McFarland of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer summarized the show 's early reaction: "Critics and bloggers either loved the premiere or declared themselves to be unmoved, but that 's the standard reaction after any late - night program 's debut. A truer measure will be seen in coming weeks, after the hype wears off and the ratings lose their exuberance. '' Gilbert Cruz of Entertainment Weekly noted that "Colbert proves that the line between serious TV journalism and utter nonsense is a very thin one indeed. '' Heather Havrilesky of Salon was effusive, remarking, "Not only does Colbert maintain his persona without skipping a beat throughout the entire show, but he 's got great comic timing, the show 's writers are brilliant, and the whole thing is pure foolish, bizarre, idiotic fun. '' Barry Garron of The Hollywood Reporter dubbed it an "auspicious debut '', writing, "The new show dovetails nicely with its lead - in to present a solid hour of skewered news and punctured pomposity. '' Variety 's Brian Lowry commented that the show had an "impressive start with a topnotch premiere followed by a respectable second outing. '' Paul Brownfield of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "In the run - up to the show it all sounded a bit hard to get your head around, but in the flesh the show zinged, at least this first week. '' The Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert praised the show 's wordplay, summarizing, "Colbert 's a clever creation, and a necessary one, and he deserves an opportunity to offend as many people as possible with his pompous blather. '' Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times commented that the show was a welcome addition to the Comedy Central lineup, remarking, "What puts Mr. Colbert over the top is that he is not just impersonating well known television personalities, he also uses parody to score larger points about politics and the press. '' Nevertheless, there were more negative reviews: USA Today 's Robert Bianco opined that the show "tried too hard '', writing, "Unfortunately, in just two weeks on the air, this half - hour spoof of a no - spin - zone type show has already stretched Colbert 's character and the artifice that supports it past its natural breaking point. '' The New Yorker remarked that the show remained funny throughout its entire run. The Colbert Report currently scores favorable reviews, with 65 / 100 on Metacritic (first season), while its viewers ' ranking on the site is higher at 8.7 / 10. The ratings of The Colbert Report, from its premiere, benefited from the lead - in The Daily Show provides, which at the time of the show 's debut averaged 1.3 million viewers per night. Comedy Central had previously struggled to produce a hit program on par with The Daily Show, and were counting on Colbert after a string of failures. The Colbert Report drew 1.13 million viewers for its premiere episode, 47 percent greater than the average for that time slot over the previous four weeks, and 98 percent of the viewership of The Daily Show, which had Comedy Central 's second - largest viewership. Averaged over its opening week, The Report had 1.2 million viewers per episode, more than double the average for the same time the previous year, when the time slot was occupied by Too Late with Adam Carolla. The show regularly began attracting over one million viewers with near immediacy. The show also drew more young men, a powerful demographic, than other late - night hosts (at that time, Jay Leno, David Letterman, and Conan O'Brien). Within a year, The Colbert Report began averaging 1.5 million viewers per night. In early 2008, in the midst of the writer 's strike, Colbert posted an eleven - percent gain over its averages from the following fall. From 2012 to 2013, viewership decreased from 1.2 million to 1.1 million. In 2013, The Colbert Report was the second most - watched late - night talk show (behind The Daily Show) among the demographic of adults 18 - 49, beating competition The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in that demographic for the first time. That year, The Colbert Report attracted $52.1 million in advertising for an audience whose median age was 39.4, about a year younger than The Daily Show. In 2014, the final year of the show 's run, ratings were down three percent (coinciding with a general ratings slide for cable television). The series finale on December 18, 2014 was watched by 2.4 million viewers, making it the most watched episode ever in the show 's history. The finale was the most watched cable program of the night in its time slot, beating The Daily Show which was seen by two million viewers. The Colbert Report received numerous awards and accolades throughout its run. The show was nominated for four Emmy Awards in its inaugural year, but lost to The Daily Show. The show was nominated each year for the rest of its run for Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series, but lost each time to The Daily Show until 2013, when it broke the latter program 's winning streak, dubbed the longest in Emmy history. Colbert subsequently referenced his win on his program as the conclusion of Stewart 's "reign of terror. '' It also won the award the following year, and is nominated in the same category in 2015. The show received two Peabody Awards, recognizing its excellence in news and entertainment. It also won two Grammy Awards, one for Best Comedy Album for the soundtrack to the special A Colbert Christmas, and later for Best Spoken Word Album for the audiobook to America Again. Colbert and Stewart 's Rally to Restore Sanity and / or Fear was nominated for four Daytime Emmy awards in 2011, including the Outstanding Special Class Special category and the Outstanding Special Class Writing category. The Colbert Report on occasion created controversy. In March 2014, the show attracted controversy when Colbert used a "fatuously fake parody stereotype character, ' Ching - Chong Ding - Dong, ' '' to "satirize knee - jerk mockery '' of Asian dialect. The name had been used before without incident, but the show 's official Twitter account -- run by an unknown individual -- tweeted the remarks without context, leading to wide outrage over social media, including a hashtag campaign, "# CancelColbert '', that was a worldwide trending topic for over 24 hours, thanks in - part by Colbert himself helping make it go viral for his show. The New Yorker wrote that "Colbert has made vital observations about the American political system, particularly about the sordid role that money plays within it. The Colbert Report and the Daily Show (...) have changed the way that young liberals of a certain class think and talk about civic culture. '' The show also coined another word, wikiality, that means "reality as decided on majority rule. '' Viewers of the show also coined a word, freem, based on its inclusion in the show 's opening sequence; the word refers to "' freedom ' without having to ' do ' anything -- without any responsibility or action. '' In response to the "Better Know a District '' segment, Rahm Emanuel, then the Democratic Caucus chair, instructed incoming freshmen not to do appearances on the show in 2007. In 2008, East Carolina University associate professor Jason Bond named a species of trapdoor spider Aptostichus stephencolberti in honor of Stephen Colbert. The "Colbert Bump '' is defined, connotatively by the Report, as an increase in popularity of a person (author, musician, politician, etc.) or thing (website, etc.) as a result of appearing as a guest on or (in the case of a thing) being mentioned on the show. For example, if a politician appears on The Colbert Report, they may become more popular with certain voters and thus are more likely to be elected. According to the American Political Science Association, contributions to Democratic politicians rose 40 % for 30 days after an appearance on the show. Magazines such as GQ, Newsweek, and Sports Illustrated have all had sales spikes when Colbert appeared on their covers. Viewers of The Colbert Report were on numerous occasions cited as being more knowledgeable about current events than traditional news viewers. In April 2007, a Pew Research Center report cited both Colbert and The Daily Show viewers as more well - informed than those who gathered their information via newspapers, television news and radio. Colbert 's Super PAC coverage was widely lauded, and studies later found that this coverage was more effective than traditional news programs at educating the audience on campaign finance. He was awarded a Peabody Award for the parody, which was described as an "innovative means of teaching American viewers about the landmark court decision ''. The Annenberg Public Policy Center reported in 2014 that the Colbert Super PAC segments increased viewers ' knowledge of PAC and 501 (c) (4) campaign finance regulation more successfully than other types of news media. Outside the United States, The Colbert Report has been shown in Canada on The Comedy Network, simultaneously with its original U.S. broadcast, since shortly after its debut. On September 22, 2014, due to The Comedy Network 's acquisition of Canadian rights to Jimmy Kimmel Live!, the program began airing on M3 and did so for the remainder of the show 's run. It airs on The Comedy Channel in Australia, Comedy Central in New Zealand, and on Maxxx in the Philippines. As of 2012, The Colbert Report has also been broadcast in Africa on DSTV 's version of Comedy Central. It aired on FX in the United Kingdom until they decided not to renew their contract in May 2009. In Portugal, it airs on Sic Radical. Beginning June 3, 2008, The Colbert Report also aired on the ShowComedy channel of Showtime Arabia (Currently OSN First HD), a channel which broadcasts in the Middle East and North Africa. The show is transmitted on a one - day delay from original transmission in the US. The show was shown during prime time on Australia 's free - to - air ABC2 in 2010, however the channel was outbid for rights for 2011. The show was available directly on the colbernation.com website for part of 2011, with Australian advertisements; however, Australian access is now blocked. Several international markets also air The Colbert Report Global Edition, which shows highlights from the previous week 's shows and includes a special introduction by Stephen Colbert at the start of the program. This means a new or newly repackaged episode can be screened every weekday. In addition, most recent episodes (usually 3 weeks back) are available in full length on colbertnation.com. However, some international audiences are unable to view the videos or episodes. The show spawned various merchandise and multimedia related to the show. Three books were released to accompany the show 's humor, the first being I Am America (And So Can You!), released both in print and as an audiobook in 2007. In 2012, two spinoff books of the show were released. America Again is a sequel to the show 's first book, and addresses topics including Wall Street, campaign finance, energy policy, healthcare, eating on the campaign trail, and the United States Constitution. Another book, I Am a Pole (And So Can You!), was released the same year and purports to be a children 's book telling the story of a fictional pole finding its purpose in life. Segments from the show were also released on DVD during its run. The Best of The Colbert Report, released in 2007, contains several of the show 's most memorable early moments. The show 's Christmas special, A Colbert Christmas: The Greatest Gift of All!, was also released on DVD the following year. The soundtrack of that special also saw a digital release on the iTunes Store after its broadcast, and contains music from Feist, John Legend, Willie Nelson, Toby Keith, Jon Stewart, Elvis Costello, and Colbert himself. In 2011, Jack White 's record label Third Man Records released a 7 '' vinyl single of Stephen Colbert and The Black Belles performing "Charlene II (I 'm Over You) '', which they also performed together on the show.

which indian state is popularly known as the land of spices

List of cities and towns in India by nicknames - Wikipedia This partial list of city nicknames in India compiles the aliases, sobriquets and slogans that cities in India are known by (or have been known by) historically, officially, or unofficially, to locals, outsiders, or their tourism chambers of commerce. Chickmagalur (Chickamagaluru) Gold capital of India Bhilwara Textile City of India

who played elf in lord of the rings

Figwit - wikipedia Figwit is a fan - created name for an unnamed Elven escort in Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, played by actor and musician Bret McKenzie of Flight of the Conchords fame. The name Figwit derives from an acronym for "Frodo is great... who is THAT?!? '' (sic). Bret McKenzie, half of the musical comedy duo Flight of the Conchords and a Wellington native, first landed a small role as an extra in The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring. He appears sitting next to Aragorn during the council in Rivendell scene. When it is decided that the Ring must be destroyed, Frodo offers to take the Ring to Mordor, and Elrond proclaims the formation of the Fellowship of the Ring. The elf was dubbed "Figwit '' by Tolkien fan Iris Hadad; after seeing Frodo agree to take the ring, saying "I will take it '', the film switches to a shot where Figwit can be seen standing on the far right, and Hadad 's initial reaction was "Frodo is grea... who is THAT?!? '' Later, Hadad corresponded with her university friend Sherry de Andres, and the two created the first Figwit fan website, www.figwitlives.net, calling him "Legolas for the thinking woman ''. McKenzie appeared as Figwit again in the third film, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, where he was credited as "Elf Escort ''. He appears in the scene where Arwen is leaving for the Grey Havens and has a vision of her future son, Eldarion, this time with two lines warning her to not delay and then exclaiming as she turns around. Director Peter Jackson stated in the DVD commentary for The Return of the King that Figwit was called back and given dialogue in the third film "just for fun for the fans '' because "so much fuss has been made about him over the last couple of years ''. In the film version of The Hobbit, McKenzie was cast as Lindir, an elf of Rivendell who appeared briefly in J.R.R. Tolkien 's novel, The Fellowship of the Ring. Though he only appeared for about three seconds in the first film, Figwit 's popularity soon blossomed, with Hadad stating that "(the fan site) got a lot of e-mails from people who thought they were the only ones who had noticed that handsome, dark - haired elf ''. Figwit 's physical appearance and demeanor are the source of much of his popularity: he has been noted for his "lithe and graceful '' movement, "enigmatic broodiness '', "haughty demeanor '', and "pouty '' looks. His fan website proclaims him "in a word, gorgeous. Or another, stunning... hypnotic... stupendous... captivating... take your pick. '' McKenzie has stated that the Figwit obsession is "weird, '' though he is "flattered. '' He has remarked that "it 's so hilarious because it 's been propelled by so little... I 'm famous for doing nothing. '' Figwit does not appear in Tolkien 's writings and was created exclusively for the films; thus there is little authentic information regarding him, save that he was an escort. The only "official '' place where the name Figwit is used is on several Topps trading cards, including a The Return of the King series card, titled "Return to Rivendell, '' and an Authentic Autographs card featuring the signature of actor Bret McKenzie. In The Lord of the Rings Trading Card Game he was assigned the name of Aegnor, one of Galadriel 's brothers in The Silmarillion. A Figwit action figure was also created, though it was named "Elven Escort, '' as in the film. Figwit has been a subject of poetry, art, and fiction. He is also a subject in slash fan fiction, where he is named "Melpomaen '', a rough, literal Elvish translation of "fig '' and "wit, '' derived from melpo, the Quenya word for fruit (fig), and maen, the Noldorin word for clever or skilled. In 2004, a 57 - minute documentary on the Figwit phenomenon was created by McKenzie 's fiancée (and now wife) Hannah Clarke and friends Stan Alley and Nick Booth. Entitled Frodo Is Great... Who Is That?!!, it premiered at the Auckland International Film Festival on July 23. Meant to "(unravel) Bret 's identity '', it follows McKenzie to the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, where he meets the fans of his trademark pout and "elvish good looks '', and features extensive interviews with fans behind various Figwit fan sites as well as with Peter Jackson, Barrie Osborne, Mark Ordesky, Ian McKellen, and other cast members. Booth stated that their film was "much more irreverent and strange '' compared to other behind - the - scenes documentaries of the film trilogy, which were "very much driven around the production and the cast and Tolkien ''.

who owned the 13 colonies before the us

Thirteen colonies - wikipedia The Thirteen Colonies were a group of British colonies on the east coast of North America founded in the 17th and 18th centuries that declared independence in 1776 and formed the United States of America. The Thirteen Colonies had very similar political, constitutional, and legal systems and were dominated by Protestant English - speakers. They were part of Britain 's possessions in the New World, which also included colonies in Canada and the Caribbean, as well as East and West Florida. Between 1625 and 1775, the colonist population of the Thirteen Colonies grew from roughly 2000 to over 2 million, often displacing Native Americans. In the 18th century, the British government operated its colonies under a policy of mercantilism, in which the central government administered its possessions for the economic benefit of the mother country. During this period, slavery was introduced. However, the Thirteen Colonies had a high degree of self - governance and active local elections, and they resisted London 's demands for more control. The French and Indian War (1754 -- 63) against France and its Indian allies led to greater tensions between Britain and the Thirteen Colonies. In the 1750s, the colonies began collaborating with one another instead of dealing directly with Britain. These inter-colonial activities cultivated a sense of shared American identity and led to calls for protection of the colonists ' "Rights as Englishmen '', especially the principle of "no taxation without representation ''. Grievances with the British government led to the American Revolution, in which the colonies collaborated in forming a Continental Congress which declared independence in 1776 and fought the American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 83) with the aid of France, the Dutch Republic, and Spain. In 1606, King James I of England granted charters to both the Plymouth Company and the London Company for the purpose of establishing permanent settlements in North America. The first permanently settled English colony on the North American continent was the Colony and Dominion of Virginia, established 1607. The Plymouth Company did found the Popham Colony on the Kennebec River, but it was short - lived. The Plymouth Council for New England sponsored several colonization projects, culminating with Plymouth Colony, which was settled by the English Puritans who are known today as the Pilgrims. The Dutch, Swedish, and French also established successful North American colonies at roughly the same time as the English, but they eventually came under the English crown. The 13 colonies were complete with the establishment of the Province of Georgia in 1732, although the term "Thirteen Colonies '' became current only in the context of the American Revolution. The first successful English colony was Jamestown, established May 14, 1607 near Chesapeake Bay. The business venture was financed and coordinated by the London Virginia Company, a joint stock company looking for gold. Its first years were extremely difficult, with very high death rates from disease and starvation, wars with local Indians, and little gold. The colony survived and flourished by turning to tobacco as a cash crop. In 1632, King Charles I granted the charter for Province of Maryland to Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore. Calvert 's father had been a prominent Catholic official who encouraged Catholic immigration to the English colonies. The charter offered no guidelines on religion. The Province of Carolina was the second attempted English settlement south of Virginia, the first being the failed attempt at Roanoke. It was a private venture, financed by a group of English Lords Proprietors who obtained a Royal Charter to the Carolinas in 1663, hoping that a new colony in the south would become profitable like Jamestown. Carolina was not settled until 1670, and even then the first attempt failed because there was no incentive for emigration to that area. Eventually, however, the Lords combined their remaining capital and financed a settlement mission to the area led by Sir John Colleton. The expedition located fertile and defensible ground at what became Charleston, originally Charles Town for Charles II of England. The Pilgrims were a small group of Puritan separatists who felt that they needed to physically distance themselves from the corrupt Church of England. After initially moving to the Netherlands, they decided to re-establish themselves in America. The initial Pilgrim settlers sailed to North America in 1620 on the Mayflower. Upon their arrival, they drew up the Mayflower Compact, by which they bound themselves together as a united community, thus establishing the small Plymouth Colony. William Bradford was their main leader. After its founding, other settlers traveled from England to join the colony. The non-separatist Puritans constituted a much larger group than the Pilgrims, and they established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 with 400 settlers. They sought to reform the Church of England by creating a new, pure church in the New World. By 1640, 20,000 had arrived; many died soon after arrival, but the others found a healthy climate and an ample food supply. The Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies together spawned other Puritan colonies in New England, including the New Haven, Saybrook, and Connecticut colonies. During the 17th century, the New Haven and Saybrook colonies were absorbed by Connecticut. Providence Plantation was founded in 1636 by Roger Williams on land provided by Narragansett sachem Canonicus. Williams was a Puritan who preached religious tolerance, separation of Church and State, and a complete break with the Church of England. He was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony over theological disagreements, and he and other settlers founded Providence Plantation based on an egalitarian constitution providing for majority rule "in civil things '' and "liberty of conscience '' in religious matters. In 1637, a second group including Anne Hutchinson established a second settlement on Aquidneck Island, also known as Rhode Island. Other colonists settled to the north, mingling with adventurers and profit - oriented settlers to establish more religiously diverse colonies in New Hampshire and Maine. These small settlements were absorbed by Massachusetts when it made significant land claims in the 1640s and 1650s, but New Hampshire was eventually given a separate charter in 1679. Maine remained a part of Massachusetts until achieving statehood in 1820. In 1685, King James II of England closed the legislatures and consolidated the New England colonies into the Dominion of New England, putting the region under firm royal control of Governor Edmund Andros. In 1688, the colonies of New York, West Jersey, and East Jersey were added to the dominion. Andros was overthrown and the dominion was closed in 1689, after the Glorious Revolution deposed King James II; the former colonies were re-established. According to Guy Miller: Beginning in 1609, Dutch traders explored and established fur trading posts on the Hudson River, Delaware River, and Connecticut River, seeking to protect their interests in the fur trade. The Dutch West India Company established permanent settlements on the Hudson River, creating the Dutch colony of New Netherland. In 1626, Peter Minuit purchased the island of Manhattan from the Lenape Indians and established the outpost of New Amsterdam. Relatively few Dutch settled in New Netherland, but the colony came to dominate the regional fur trade. It also served as the base for extensive trade with the English colonies, and many products from New England and Virginia were carried to Europe on Dutch ships. The Dutch also engaged in the burgeoning Atlantic slave trade, supplying enslaved Africans to the English colonies in North America and Barbados. The West India Company desired to grow New Netherland as it became commercially successful, yet the colony failed to attract the same level of settlement as the English colonies did. Many of those who did immigrate to the colony were English, German, Walloon, or Sephardim. In 1638, Sweden established the colony of New Sweden in the Delaware Valley. The operation was led by former members of the Dutch West India Company, including Peter Minuit. New Sweden established extensive trading contacts with English colonies to the south, and shipped much of the tobacco produced in Virginia. The colony was conquered by the Dutch in 1655, while Sweden was engaged in the Second Northern War. Beginning in the 1650s, the English and Dutch engaged in a series of wars, and the English sought to conquer New Netherland. Richard Nicolls captured the lightly defended New Amsterdam in 1664, and his subordinates quickly captured the remainder of New Netherland. The 1667 Treaty of Breda ended the Second Anglo - Dutch War and confirmed English control of the region. The Dutch briefly regained control of parts of New Netherland in the Third Anglo - Dutch War, but surrendered claim to the territory in the 1674 Treaty of Westminster, ending the Dutch colonial presence in North America. After the Second Anglo - Dutch War, the British renamed the colony "York City '' or "New York ''. Large numbers of Dutch remained in the colony, dominating the rural areas between New York City and Albany, while people from New England started moving in as well as immigrants from Germany. New York City attracted a large polyglot population, including a large black slave population. In 1674, the proprietary colonies of East Jersey and West Jersey were created from lands formerly part of New York. Pennsylvania was founded in 1681 as a proprietary colony of Quaker William Penn. The main population elements included Quaker population based in Philadelphia, a Scotch Irish population on the Western frontier, and numerous German colonies in between. Philadelphia became the largest city in the colonies with its central location, excellent port, and a population of about 30,000. In 1702, East and West Jersey were combined to form the Province of New Jersey. The northern and southern sections of the Carolina colony operated more or less independently until 1691, when Philip Ludwell was appointed governor of the entire province. From that time until 1708, the northern and southern settlements remained under one government. However, during this period, the two halves of the province began increasingly to be known as North Carolina and South Carolina, as the descendants of the colony 's proprietors fought over the direction of the colony. The colonists of Charles Town finally deposed their governor and elected their own government. This marked the start of separate governments in the Province of North Carolina and the Province of South Carolina. In 1729, the king formally revoked Carolina 's colonial charter and established both North Carolina and South Carolina as crown colonies. In the 1730s, Parliamentarian James Oglethorpe proposed that the area south of the Carolinas be colonized with the "worthy poor '' of England to provide an alternative to the overcrowded debtors ' prisons. Oglethorpe and other English philanthropists secured a royal charter as the Trustees of the colony of Georgia on June 9, 1732. Oglethorpe and his compatriots hoped to establish a utopian colony that banned slavery and recruited only the most worthy settlers, but by 1750 the colony remained sparsely populated. The proprietors gave up their charter in 1752, at which point Georgia became a crown colony. The colonial population of Thirteen Colonies grew immensely in the 18th century. According to historian Alan Taylor, the population of the Thirteen Colonies stood at 1.5 million in 1750, which represented four - fifths of the population of British North America. More than 90 percent of the colonists lived as farmers, though some seaports also flourished. In 1760, the cities of Philadelphia, New York, and Boston had a population in excess of 16,000, which was small by European standards. By 1770, the economic output of the Thirteen Colonies made up forty percent of the gross domestic product of the British Empire. As the 18th century progressed, colonists began to settle far from the Atlantic coast. Pennsylvania, Virginia, Connecticut, and Maryland all laid claim to the land in the Ohio River valley. The colonies engaged in a scramble to purchase land from Indian tribes, as the British insisted that claims to land should rest on legitimate purchases. Virginia was particularly intent on western expansion, and most of the elite Virginia families invested in the Ohio Company to promote the settlement of Ohio Country. The British colonies in North America became part of the global British trading network, as the value tripled for exports from British North America to Britain between 1700 and 1754. The colonists were restricted in trading with other European powers, but they found profitable trade partners in the other British colonies, particularly in the Caribbean. The colonists traded foodstuffs, wood, tobacco, and various other resources for Asian tea, West Indian coffee, and West Indian sugar, among other items. American Indians far from the Atlantic coast supplied the Atlantic market with beaver fur and deerskins. British North America had an advantage in natural resources and established its own thriving shipbuilding industry, and many North American merchants engaged in the transatlantic trade. Improved economic conditions and easing of religious persecution in Europe made it more difficult to recruit labor to the colonies, and many colonies became increasingly reliant on slave labor, particularly in the South. The population of slaves in British North America grew dramatically between 1680 and 1750, and the growth was driven by a mixture of forced immigration and the reproduction of slaves. Slaves supported vast plantation economies in the South, while slaves in the North worked in a variety of occupations. There were some slave revolts, such as the Stono Rebellion and the New York Conspiracy of 1741, but these uprisings were suppressed. A small proportion of the English population migrated to British North America after 1700, but the colonies attracted new immigrants from other European countries. These immigrants traveled to all of the colonies, but the Middle Colonies attracted the most and continued to be more ethically diverse than the other colonies. Numerous settlers immigrated from Ireland, both Catholic and Protestant -- particularly "New Light '' Ulster Presbyterians. Protestant Germans also migrated in large numbers, particularly to Pennsylvania. In the 1740s, the Thirteen Colonies underwent the First Great Awakening. In 1738, an incident involving a Welsh mariner named Robert Jenkins sparked the War of Jenkins ' Ear between Britain and Spain. Hundreds of North Americans volunteered for Admiral Edward Vernon 's assault on Cartegena de Indias, a Spanish city in South America. The war against Spain merged into a broader conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession, but most colonists called it King George 's War. In 1745, British and colonial forces captured the town of Louisbourg, and the war came to an end with the 1748 Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle. However, many colonists were angered when Britain returned Louisbourg to France in return for Madras and other territories. In the aftermath of the war, both the British and French sought to expand into the Ohio River valley. The French and Indian War (1754 -- 63) was the American extension of the general European conflict known as the Seven Years ' War. Previous colonial wars in North America had started in Europe and then spread to the colonies, but the French and Indian War is notable for having started in North America and spread to Europe. One of the primary causes of the war was increasing competition between Britain and France, especially in the Great Lakes and Ohio valley. The French and Indian War took on a new significance for the British North American colonists when William Pitt the Elder decided that major military resources needed to be devoted to North America in order to win the war against France. For the first time, the continent became one of the main theaters of what could be termed a "world war ''. During the war, it became increasingly apparent to American colonists that they were under the authority of the British Empire, as British military and civilian officials took on an increased presence in their lives. The war also increased a sense of American unity in other ways. It caused men to travel across the continent who might otherwise have never left their own colony, fighting alongside men from decidedly different backgrounds who were nonetheless still American. Throughout the course of the war, British officers trained Americans for battle, most notably George Washington, which benefited the American cause during the Revolution. Also, colonial legislatures and officials had to cooperate intensively in pursuit of the continent - wide military effort. The relations were not always positive between the British military establishment and the colonists, setting the stage for later distrust and dislike of British troops. At the 1754 Albany Congress, Pennsylvania colonist Benjamin Franklin proposed the Albany Plan which would have created a unified government of the Thirteen Colonies for coordination of defense and other matters, but the plan was rejected by the leaders of most colonies. In the Treaty of Paris (1763), France formally ceded to Britain the eastern part of its vast North American empire, having secretly given to Spain the territory of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River the previous year. Before the war, Britain held the thirteen American colonies, most of present - day Nova Scotia, and most of the Hudson Bay watershed. Following the war, Britain gained all French territory east of the Mississippi River, including Quebec, the Great Lakes, and the Ohio River valley. Britain also gained Spanish Florida, from which it formed the colonies of East and West Florida. In removing a major foreign threat to the thirteen colonies, the war also largely removed the colonists ' need of colonial protection. The British and colonists triumphed jointly over a common foe. The colonists ' loyalty to the mother country was stronger than ever before. However, disunity was beginning to form. British Prime Minister William Pitt the Elder had decided to wage the war in the colonies with the use of troops from the colonies and tax funds from Britain itself. This was a successful wartime strategy but, after the war was over, each side believed that it had borne a greater burden than the other. The British elite, the most heavily taxed of any in Europe, pointed out angrily that the colonists paid little to the royal coffers. The colonists replied that their sons had fought and died in a war that served European interests more than their own. This dispute was a link in the chain of events that soon brought about the American Revolution. The British were left with large debts following the French and Indian War, so British leaders decided to increase taxation and control of the Thirteen Colonies. They imposed several new taxes, beginning with the Sugar Act of 1764. Later acts included the Currency Act of 1764, the Stamp Act of 1765, and the Townshend Acts of 1767. The British also sought to maintain peaceful relations with those Indian tribes that had allied with the French by keeping them separated from the American frontiersmen. To this end, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 restricted settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, as this was designated an Indian Reserve. Some groups of settlers disregarded the proclamation, however, and continued to move west and establish farms. The proclamation was soon modified and was no longer a hindrance to settlement, but the fact angered the colonists that it had been promulgated without their prior consultation. Parliament had directly levied duties and excise taxes on the colonies, bypassing the colonial legislatures, and Americans began to insist on the principle of "no taxation without representation '' with intense protests over the Stamp Act of 1765. They argued that the colonies had no representation in the British Parliament, so it was a violation of their rights as Englishmen for taxes to be imposed upon them. Parliament rejected the colonial protests and asserted its authority by passing new taxes. Colonial discontentment grew with the passage of the 1773 Tea Act, which reduced taxes on tea sold by the East India Company in an effort to undercut competition, and Prime Minister North 's ministry hoped that this would establish a precedent of colonists accepting British taxation policies. Trouble escalated over the tea tax, as Americans in each colony boycotted the tea, and those in Boston dumped the tea in the harbor during the Boston Tea Party in 1773 when the Sons of Liberty dumped thousands of pounds of tea into the water. Tensions escalated in 1774 as Parliament passed the laws known as the Intolerable Acts, which greatly restricted self - government in the colony of Massachusetts. These laws also allowed British military commanders to claim colonial homes for the quartering of soldiers, regardless whether the American civilians were willing or not to have soldiers in their homes. The laws further revoked colonial rights to hold trials in cases involving soldiers or crown officials, forcing such trials to be held in England rather than in America. Parliament also sent Thomas Gage to serve as Governor of Massachusetts and as the commander of British forces in North America. By 1774, colonists still hoped to remain part of the British Empire, but discontentment was widespread concerning British rule throughout the Thirteen Colonies. Colonists elected delegates to the First Continental Congress which convened in Philadelphia in September 1774. In the aftermath of the Intolerable Acts, the delegates asserted that the colonies owed allegiance only to the king; they would accept royal governors as agents of the king, but they were no longer willing to recognize Parliament 's right to pass legislation affecting the colonies. Most delegates opposed an attack on the British position in Boston, and the Continental Congress instead agreed to the imposition of a boycott known as the Continental Association. The boycott proved effective and the value of British imports dropped dramatically. The Thirteen Colonies became increasingly divided between Patriots opposed to British rule and Loyalists who supported it. In response, the colonies formed bodies of elected representatives known as Provincial Congresses, and Colonists began to boycott imported British merchandise. Later in 1774, 12 colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. During the Second Continental Congress, the remaining colony of Georgia sent delegates, as well. Massachusetts Governor Thomas Gage feared a confrontation with the colonists; he requested reinforcements from Britain, but the British government was not willing to pay for the expense of stationing tens of thousands of soldiers in the Thirteen Colonies. Gage was instead ordered to seize Patriot arsenals. He dispatched a force to march on the arsenal at Concord, Massachusetts, but the Patriots learned about it and blocked their advance. The Patriots repulsed the British force at the April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord, then lay siege to Boston. By spring 1775, all royal officials had been expelled, and the Continental Congress hosted a convention of delegates for the 13 colonies. It raised an army to fight the British and named George Washington its commander, made treaties, declared independence, and recommended that the colonies write constitutions and become states. The Second Continental Congress assembled in May 1775 and began to coordinate armed resistance against Britain. It established a government that recruited soldiers and printed its own money. General Washington took command of the Patriot soldiers in New England and forced the British to withdraw from Boston. In 1776, the Thirteen Colonies declared their independence from Britain. With the help of France and Spain, they defeated the British in the American Revolutionary War. In the Treaty of Paris (1783), Britain officially recognized the independence of the United States of America. The colonial population rose to a quarter of a million during the 17th century, and to nearly 2.5 million on the eve of the American revolution. Perkins (1988) notes the importance of good health for the growth of the colonies: "Fewer deaths among the young meant that a higher proportion of the population reached reproductive age, and that fact alone helps to explain why the colonies grew so rapidly. '' There were many other reasons for the population growth besides good health, such as the Great Migration. By 1776, about 85 % of the white population 's ancestry originated in the British Isles (English, Irish, Scottish, Welsh), 9 % of German origin, 4 % Dutch and 2 % Huguenot French and other minorities. Over 90 % were farmers, with several small cities that were also seaports linking the colonial economy to the larger British Empire. These populations continued to grow at a rapid rate during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, primarily because of high birth rates and relatively low death rates. Immigration was a minor factor from 1774 to 1830. Slavery was legal and practiced in many of the Thirteen Colonies. In most places, it involved house servants or farm workers. It was of economic importance in the export - oriented tobacco plantations of Virginia and Maryland and on the rice and indigo plantations of South Carolina. About 287,000 slaves were imported into the Thirteen Colonies over a period of 160 years, or 2 % of the estimated 12 million taken from Africa to the Americas via the Atlantic slave trade. The great majority went to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished. By the mid-18th century, life expectancy was much higher in the American colonies. The numbers grew rapidly through a very high birth rate and low mortality rate, reaching nearly four million by the 1860 census. From 1770 until 1860, the rate of natural growth of North American slaves was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and was nearly twice as rapid as that in England. Protestantism was the predominant religious affiliation in the Thirteen Colonies, although there were also Catholics, Jews, and deists, and a large fraction had no religious connection. The Anglican Church or Church of England was officially established in most of the South. The Puritan movement became the Congregational church, and it was the established religious affiliation in Massachusetts and Connecticut into the 18th century. In practice, this meant that tax revenues were allocated to church expenses. The Anglican parishes in the South were under the control of local vestries and had public functions, such as repair of the roads and relief of the poor. The colonies were religiously diverse, with Protestant denominations brought by British, German, Dutch, and other immigrants. The Reformed tradition was the foundation for Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Continental Reformed denominations. The Dutch Reformed Church was strong among Dutch Americans in New York and New Jersey, while Lutheranism was prevalent among German immigrants. Germans also brought diverse forms of Anabaptism, especially the Mennonite variety. Baptist preacher Roger Williams founded Providence Plantations which became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. Jews were clustered in a few port cities. The Baltimore family founded Maryland and brought in fellow Catholics from England. Presbyterians were chiefly immigrants from Scotland and Ulster who favored the back country and frontier districts. Quakers were well established in Pennsylvania, where they controlled the governorship and the legislature for many years. Quakers were also numerous in Rhode Island. Baptists and Methodists were growing rapidly during the First Great Awakening of the 1740s. Many of the denominations sponsored missions to the local Indians. Higher education was available for young men in the North, and most students were aspiring Protestant ministers. The oldest colleges were Harvard College, College of New Jersey (Princeton), Yale College, and College of Rhode Island (Brown). Others were King 's College (Columbia), the College of Philadelphia (University of Pennsylvania), and Dartmouth College in New Hampshire. South of Philadelphia, there was only the College of William and Mary which trained the secular elite in Virginia, especially aspiring lawyers. Most New England towns sponsored public schools for boys, but public schooling was rare elsewhere. Girls were educated at home or by small local private schools, and they had no access to college. Aspiring physicians and lawyers typically learned as apprentices to an established practitioner, although some young men went to medical schools in Scotland. The three forms of colonial government in 1776 were provincial (royal colony), proprietary, and charter. These governments were all subordinate to the King of England with no representation in the Parliament of Great Britain. The administration of all British colonies was overseen by the Board of Trade in London beginning late in the 17th century. The provincial colony was governed by commissions created at pleasure of the king. A governor and his council were appointed by the crown. The governor was invested with general executive powers and authorized to call a locally elected assembly. The governor 's council would sit as an upper house when the assembly was in session, in addition to its role in advising the governor. Assemblies were made up of representatives elected by the freeholders and planters (landowners) of the province. The governor had the power of absolute veto and could prorogue (i.e., delay) and dissolve the assembly. The assembly 's role was to make all local laws and ordinances, ensuring that they were not inconsistent with the laws of England. In practice, this did not always occur, since many of the provincial assemblies sought to expand their powers and limit those of the governor and crown. Laws could be examined by the British Privy Council or Board of Trade, which also held veto power of legislation. New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia were crown colonies. Massachusetts became a crown colony at the end of the 17th century. Proprietary colonies were governed much as royal colonies, except that lord proprietors appointed the governor rather than the king. They were set up after the English Restoration of 1660 and typically enjoyed greater civil and religious liberty. Pennsylvania (which included Delaware), New Jersey, and Maryland were proprietary colonies. Charter governments were political corporations created by letters patent, giving the grantees control of the land and the powers of legislative government. The charters provided a fundamental constitution and divided powers among legislative, executive, and judicial functions, with those powers being vested in officials. Massachusetts, Providence Plantation, Rhode Island, Warwick, and Connecticut were charter colonies. The Massachusetts charter was revoked in 1684 and was replaced by a provincial charter that was issued in 1691. Providence Plantations merged with the settlements at Rhode Island and Warwick to form the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which also became a charter colony in 1636. After 1680, the royal government in London took an increasing interest in the affairs of the colonies, which were growing rapidly in population and wealth. In 1680, only Virginia was a royal colony; by 1720, half were under the control of royal governors. These governors were appointees closely tied to the government in London. Historians before the 1880s emphasized American nationalism. However, scholarship after that time was heavily influenced by the "Imperial school '' led by Herbert L. Osgood, George Louis Beer, Charles McLean Andrews, and Lawrence H. Gipson. This viewpoint dominated colonial historiography into the 1940s, and they emphasized and often praised the attention that London gave to all the colonies. In this view, there was never a threat (before the 1770s) that any colony would revolt or seek independence. British settlers did not come to the American colonies with the intention of creating a democratic system; yet they quickly created a broad electorate without a land - owning aristocracy, along with a pattern of free elections which put a strong emphasis on voter participation. The colonies offered a much freer degree of suffrage than England or indeed any other country. Any property owner could vote for members of the lower house of the legislature, and they could even vote for the governor in Connecticut and Rhode Island. Voters were required to hold an "interest '' in society; as the South Carolina legislature said in 1716, "it is necessary and reasonable, that none but such persons will have an interest in the Province should be capable to elect members of the Commons House of Assembly ''. The main legal criterion for having an "interest '' was ownership of real estate property, which was uncommon in Britain, where 19 out of 20 men were controlled politically by their landlords. (Women, children, indentured servants, and slaves were subsumed under the interest of the family head.) London insisted on this requirement for the colonies, telling governors to exclude from the ballot men who were not freeholders -- that is, those who did not own land. Nevertheless, land was so widely owned that 50 % to 80 % of the men were eligible to vote. The colonial political culture emphasized deference, so that local notables were the men who ran and were chosen. But sometimes they competed with each other and had to appeal to the common man for votes. There were no political parties, and would - be legislators formed ad - hoc coalitions of their families, friends, and neighbors. Outside of Puritan New England, election day brought in all the men from the countryside to the county seat to make merry, politick, shake hands with the grandees, meet old friends, and hear the speeches -- all the while toasting, eating, treating, tippling, and gambling. They voted by shouting their choice to the clerk, as supporters cheered or booed. Candidate George Washington spent £ 39 for treats for his supporters. The candidates knew that they had to "swill the planters with bumbo '' (rum). Elections were carnivals where all men were equal for one day and traditional restraints were relaxed. The actual rate of voting ranged from 20 % to 40 % of all adult white males. The rates were higher in Pennsylvania and New York, where long - standing factions based on ethnic and religious groups mobilized supporters at a higher rate. New York and Rhode Island developed long - lasting two - faction systems that held together for years at the colony level, but they did not reach into local affairs. The factions were based on the personalities of a few leaders and an array of family connections, and they had little basis in policy or ideology. Elsewhere the political scene was in a constant whirl, based on personality rather than long - lived factions or serious disputes on issues. The colonies were independent of one other long before 1774; indeed, all the colonies began as separate and unique settlements or plantations. Further, efforts had failed to form a colonial union through the Albany Congress of 1754 led by Benjamin Franklin. The thirteen all had well - established systems of self - government and elections based on the Rights of Englishmen which they were determined to protect from imperial interference. The British Empire at the time operated under the mercantile system, where all trade was concentrated inside the Empire, and trade with other empires was forbidden. The goal was to enrich Britain -- its merchants and its government. Whether the policy was good for the colonists was not an issue in London, but Americans became increasingly restive with mercantilist policies. Mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other empires. The government protected its merchants -- and kept others out -- by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to the realm. The government had to fight smuggling -- which became a favorite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish or Dutch. The tactic used by mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold and silver would pour into London. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on a superb Royal Navy, which not only protected the British colonies but threatened the colonies of the other empires, and sometimes seized them. Thus the British Navy captured New Amsterdam (New York) in 1664. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country. Britain implemented mercantilism by trying to block American trade with the French, Spanish, or Dutch empires using the Navigation Acts, which Americans avoided as often as they could. The royal officials responded to smuggling with open - ended search warrants (Writs of Assistance). In 1761, Boston lawyer James Otis argued that the writs violated the constitutional rights of the colonists. He lost the case, but John Adams later wrote, "Then and there the child Independence was born. '' However, the colonists took pains to argue that they did not oppose British regulation of their external trade; they only opposed legislation which affected them internally. Besides these thirteen colonies, Britain had another dozen in the New World. Those in the British West Indies, Newfoundland, the Province of Quebec, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Bermuda, and East and West Florida remained loyal to the crown throughout the war (although Spain reacquired Florida before the war was over, and later sold it to the United States). There was a certain degree of sympathy with the Patriot cause in several of the other colonies, but their geographical isolation and the dominance of British naval power precluded any effective participation. The British crown had only recently acquired those lands, and many of the issues facing the Thirteen Colonies did not apply to them, especially in the case of Quebec and Florida. At the time of the war Britain had seven other colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America: Newfoundland, Rupert 's Land (the area around the Hudson Bay), Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, East Florida, West Florida, and the Province of Quebec. There were other colonies in the Americas as well, largely in the British West Indies. These colonies remained loyal to the crown. Newfoundland stayed loyal to Britain without question. It was exempt from the Navigation Acts and shared none of the grievances of the continental colonies. It was tightly bound to Britain and controlled by the Royal Navy and had no assembly that could voice grievances. Nova Scotia had a large Yankee element that had recently arrived from New England, and shared the sentiments of the Americans about demanding the rights of the British men. The royal government in Halifax reluctantly allowed the Yankees of Nova Scotia a kind of "neutrality. '' In any case, the island - like geography and the presence of the major British naval base at Halifax made the thought of armed resistance impossible. Quebec was inhabited by French Catholic settlers who came under British control in the previous decade. The Quebec Act of 1774 gave them formal cultural autonomy within the empire, and many priests feared the intense Protestantism in New England. The American grievances over taxation had little relevance, and there was no assembly nor elections of any kind that could have mobilized any grievances. Even so, the Americans offered membership in the new nation and sent a military expedition that failed to capture Canada in 1775. Most Canadians remained neutral but some joined the American cause. In the West Indies the elected assemblies of Jamaica, Grenada, and Barbados formally declared their sympathies for the American cause and called for mediation, but the others were quite loyal. Britain carefully avoided antagonizing the rich owners of sugar plantations (many of whom lived in London); in turn the planters ' greater dependence on slavery made them recognize the need for British military protection from possible slave revolts. The possibilities for overt action were sharply limited by the overwhelming power of Royal Navy in the islands. During the war there was some opportunistic trading with American ships. In Bermuda and the Bahamas local leaders were angry at the food shortages caused by British blockade of American ports. There was increasing sympathy for the American cause, including smuggling, and both colonies were considered "passive allies '' of the United States throughout the war. When an American naval squadron arrived in the Bahamas to seize gunpowder, the colony gave no resistance at all. East Florida and West Florida were territories transferred from Spain to Britain after the French and Indian War by treaty. The few British colonists there needed protection from attacks by Indians and Spanish privateers. After 1775, East Florida became a major base for the British war effort in the South, especially in the invasions of Georgia and South Carolina. However, Spain seized Pensacola in West Florida in 1781, then recovered both territories in the Treaty of Paris that ended the war in 1783. Spain ultimately transferred the Florida provinces to the United States in 1819. The first British Empire centered on the Thirteen Colonies, which attracted large numbers of settlers from Britain. The "Imperial School '' in the 1900 -- 1930s took a favorable view of the benefits of empire, emphasizing its successful economic integration. The Imperial School included such historians as Herbert L. Osgood, George Louis Beer, Charles M. Andrews, and Lawrence Gipson. The shock of Britain 's defeat in 1783 caused a radical revision of British policies on colonialism, thereby producing what historians call the end of the First British Empire, even though Britain still controlled Canada and some islands in the West Indies. Ashley Jackson writes: The first British Empire was largely destroyed by the loss of the American colonies, followed by a "swing to the east '' and the foundation of a second British Empire based on commercial and territorial expansion in South Asia. Much of the historiography concerns the reasons why the Americans rebelled in the 1770s and successfully broke away. Since the 1960s, the mainstream of historiography has emphasized the growth of American consciousness and nationalism and the colonial republican value - system, in opposition to the aristocratic viewpoint of British leaders. Historians in recent decades have mostly used one of three approaches to analyze the American Revolution: Media related to Thirteen Colonies at Wikimedia Commons

the working depth of an involute gear is equal to addendum

Gear - wikipedia A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut like teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part to transmit torque. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source. Gears almost always produce a change in torque, creating a mechanical advantage, through their gear ratio, and thus may be considered a simple machine. The teeth on the two meshing gears all have the same shape. Two or more meshing gears, working in a sequence, are called a gear train or a transmission. A gear can mesh with a linear toothed part, called a rack, producing translation instead of rotation. The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a crossed, belt pulley system. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slippage. When two gears mesh, if one gear is bigger than the other, a mechanical advantage is produced, with the rotational speeds, and the torques, of the two gears differing in proportion to their diameters. In transmissions with multiple gear ratios -- such as bicycles, motorcycles, and cars -- the term "gear '' as in "first gear '' refers to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical gear. The term describes similar devices, even when the gear ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or when the device does not actually contain gears, as in a continuously variable transmission. Early examples of gears date from the 4th century BC in China (Zhan Guo times -- Late East Zhou dynasty), which have been preserved at the Luoyang Museum of Henan Province, China. The earliest preserved gears in Europe were found in the Antikythera mechanism, an example of a very early and intricate geared device, designed to calculate astronomical positions. Its time of construction is now estimated between 150 and 100 BC. Gears appear in works connected to Hero of Alexandria, in Roman Egypt circa AD 50, but can be traced back to the mechanics of the Alexandrian school in 3rd - century BC Ptolemaic Egypt, and were greatly developed by the Greek polymath Archimedes (287 -- 212 BC). The segmental gear, which receives / communicates reciprocating motion from / to a cogwheel, consisting of a sector of a circular gear / ring having cogs on the periphery, was invented by Arab engineer Al - Jazari in 1206. The worm gear was invented in the Indian subcontinent, for use in roller cotton gins, some time during the 13th -- 14th centuries. Differential gears may have been used in some of the Chinese south - pointing chariots, but the first verifiable use of differential gears was by the British clock maker Joseph Williamson in 1720. Examples of early gear applications include: The definite ratio that teeth give gears provides an advantage over other drives (such as traction drives and V - belts) in precision machines such as watches that depend upon an exact velocity ratio. In cases where driver and follower are proximal, gears also have an advantage over other drives in the reduced number of parts required. The downside is that gears are more expensive to manufacture and their lubrication requirements may impose a higher operating cost per hour. An external gear is one with the teeth formed on the outer surface of a cylinder or cone. Conversely, an internal gear is one with the teeth formed on the inner surface of a cylinder or cone. For bevel gears, an internal gear is one with the pitch angle exceeding 90 degrees. Internal gears do not cause output shaft direction reversal. Spur gears or straight - cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or disk with teeth projecting radially. Though the teeth are not straight - sided (but usually of special form to achieve a constant drive ratio, mainly involute but less commonly cycloidal), the edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears mesh together correctly only if fitted to parallel shafts. No axial thrust is created by the tooth loads. Spur gears are excellent at moderate speeds but tend to be noisy at high speeds. Helical or "dry fixed '' gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is curved, this angling makes the tooth shape a segment of a helix. Helical gears can be meshed in parallel or crossed orientations. The former refers to when the shafts are parallel to each other; this is the most common orientation. In the latter, the shafts are non-parallel, and in this configuration the gears are sometimes known as "skew gears ''. The angled teeth engage more gradually than do spur gear teeth, causing them to run more smoothly and quietly. With parallel helical gears, each pair of teeth first make contact at a single point at one side of the gear wheel; a moving curve of contact then grows gradually across the tooth face to a maximum, then recedes until the teeth break contact at a single point on the opposite side. In spur gears, teeth suddenly meet at a line contact across their entire width, causing stress and noise. Spur gears make a characteristic whine at high speeds. For this reason spur gears are used in low - speed applications and in situations where noise control is not a problem, and helical gears are used in high - speed applications, large power transmission, or where noise abatement is important. The speed is considered high when the pitch line velocity exceeds 25 m / s. A disadvantage of helical gears is a resultant thrust along the axis of the gear, which must be accommodated by appropriate thrust bearings, and a greater degree of sliding friction between the meshing teeth, often addressed with additives in the lubricant. For a "crossed '' or "skew '' configuration, the gears must have the same pressure angle and normal pitch; however, the helix angle and handedness can be different. The relationship between the two shafts is actually defined by the helix angle (s) of the two shafts and the handedness, as defined: where β (\ displaystyle \ beta) is the helix angle for the gear. The crossed configuration is less mechanically sound because there is only a point contact between the gears, whereas in the parallel configuration there is a line contact. Quite commonly, helical gears are used with the helix angle of one having the negative of the helix angle of the other; such a pair might also be referred to as having a right - handed helix and a left - handed helix of equal angles. The two equal but opposite angles add to zero: the angle between shafts is zero -- that is, the shafts are parallel. Where the sum or the difference (as described in the equations above) is not zero, the shafts are crossed. For shafts crossed at right angles, the helix angles are of the same hand because they must add to 90 degrees. (This is the case with the gears in the illustration above: they mesh correctly in the crossed configuration: for the parallel configuration, one of the helix angles should be reversed. The gears illustrated can not mesh with the shafts parallel.) Double helical gears overcome the problem of axial thrust presented by single helical gears by using a double set of teeth, slanted in opposite directions. A double helical gear can be thought of as two mirrored helical gears mounted closely together on a common axle. This arrangement cancels out the net axial thrust, since each half of the gear thrusts in the opposite direction, resulting in a net axial force of zero. This arrangement can also remove the need for thrust bearings. However, double helical gears are more difficult to manufacture due to their more complicated shape. Herringbone gears are a special type of helical gears. They do not have a groove in the middle like some other double helical gears do; the two mirrored helical gears are joined together so that their teeths form a V shape. This can also be applied to bevel gears, as in the final drive of the Citroën Type A. For both possible rotational directions, there exist two possible arrangements for the oppositely - oriented helical gears or gear faces. One arrangement is called stable, and the other unstable. In a stable arrangement, the helical gear faces are oriented so that each axial force is directed toward the center of the gear. In an unstable arrangement, both axial forces are directed away from the center of the gear. In either arrangement, the total (or net) axial force on each gear is zero when the gears are aligned correctly. If the gears become misaligned in the axial direction, the unstable arrangement generates a net force that may lead to disassembly of the gear train, while the stable arrangement generates a net corrective force. If the direction of rotation is reversed, the direction of the axial thrusts is also reversed, so a stable configuration becomes unstable, and conversely. Stable double helical gears can be directly interchanged with spur gears without any need for different bearings. A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off. When two bevel gears mesh, their imaginary vertices must occupy the same point. Their shaft axes also intersect at this point, forming an arbitrary non-straight angle between the shafts. The angle between the shafts can be anything except zero or 180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and shaft axes at 90 degrees are called miter gears. Spiral bevel gears can be manufactured as Gleason types (circular arc with non-constant tooth depth), Oerlikon and Curvex types (circular arc with constant tooth depth), Klingelnberg Cyclo - Palloid (Epicycloid with constant tooth depth) or Klingelnberg Palloid. Spiral bevel gears have the same advantages and disadvantages relative to their straight - cut cousins as helical gears do to spur gears. Straight bevel gears are generally used only at speeds below 5 m / s (1000 ft / min), or, for small gears, 1000 r.p.m. Note: The cylindrical gear tooth profile corresponds to an involute, but the bevel gear tooth profile to an octoid. All traditional bevel gear generators (like Gleason, Klingelnberg, Heidenreich & Harbeck, WMW Modul) manufacture bevel gears with an octoidal tooth profile. IMPORTANT: For 5 - axis milled bevel gear sets it is important to choose the same calculation / layout like the conventional manufacturing method. Simplified calculated bevel gears on the basis of an equivalent cylindrical gear in normal section with an involute tooth form show a deviant tooth form with reduced tooth strength by 10 - 28 % without offset and 45 % with offset (Diss. Hünecke, TU Dresden). Furthermore, the "involute bevel gear sets '' cause more noise. Hypoid gears resemble spiral bevel gears except the shaft axes do not intersect. The pitch surfaces appear conical but, to compensate for the offset shaft, are in fact hyperboloids of revolution. Hypoid gears are almost always designed to operate with shafts at 90 degrees. Depending on which side the shaft is offset to, relative to the angling of the teeth, contact between hypoid gear teeth may be even smoother and more gradual than with spiral bevel gear teeth, but also have a sliding action along the meshing teeth as it rotates and therefore usually require some of the most viscous types of gear oil to avoid it being extruded from the mating tooth faces, the oil is normally designated HP (for hypoid) followed by a number denoting the viscosity. Also, the pinion can be designed with fewer teeth than a spiral bevel pinion, with the result that gear ratios of 60: 1 and higher are feasible using a single set of hypoid gears. This style of gear is most common in motor vehicle drive trains, in concert with a differential. Whereas a regular (nonhypoid) ring - and - pinion gear set is suitable for many applications, it is not ideal for vehicle drive trains because it generates more noise and vibration than a hypoid does. Bringing hypoid gears to market for mass - production applications was an engineering improvement of the 1920s. Crown gears or contrate gears are a particular form of bevel gear whose teeth project at right angles to the plane of the wheel; in their orientation the teeth resemble the points on a crown. A crown gear can only mesh accurately with another bevel gear, although crown gears are sometimes seen meshing with spur gears. A crown gear is also sometimes meshed with an escapement such as found in mechanical clocks. Worms resemble screws. A worm is meshed with a worm wheel, which looks similar to a spur gear. Worm - and - gear sets are a simple and compact way to achieve a high torque, low speed gear ratio. For example, helical gears are normally limited to gear ratios of less than 10: 1 while worm - and - gear sets vary from 10: 1 to 500: 1. A disadvantage is the potential for considerable sliding action, leading to low efficiency. A worm gear is a species of helical gear, but its helix angle is usually somewhat large (close to 90 degrees) and its body is usually fairly long in the axial direction. These attributes give it screw like qualities. The distinction between a worm and a helical gear is that at least one tooth persists for a full rotation around the helix. If this occurs, it is a ' worm '; if not, it is a ' helical gear '. A worm may have as few as one tooth. If that tooth persists for several turns around the helix, the worm appears, superficially, to have more than one tooth, but what one in fact sees is the same tooth reappearing at intervals along the length of the worm. The usual screw nomenclature applies: a one - toothed worm is called single thread or single start; a worm with more than one tooth is called multiple thread or multiple start. The helix angle of a worm is not usually specified. Instead, the lead angle, which is equal to 90 degrees minus the helix angle, is given. In a worm - and - gear set, the worm can always drive the gear. However, if the gear attempts to drive the worm, it may or may not succeed. Particularly if the lead angle is small, the gear 's teeth may simply lock against the worm 's teeth, because the force component circumferential to the worm is not sufficient to overcome friction. In traditional music boxes, however, the gear drives the worm, which has a large helix angle. This mesh drives the speed - limiter vanes which are mounted on the worm shaft. Worm - and - gear sets that do lock are called self locking, which can be used to advantage, as when it is desired to set the position of a mechanism by turning the worm and then have the mechanism hold that position. An example is the machine head found on some types of stringed instruments. If the gear in a worm - and - gear set is an ordinary helical gear only a single point of contact is achieved. If medium to high power transmission is desired, the tooth shape of the gear is modified to achieve more intimate contact by making both gears partially envelop each other. This is done by making both concave and joining them at a saddle point; this is called a cone - drive or "Double enveloping ''. Worm gears can be right or left - handed, following the long - established practice for screw threads. Non-circular gears are designed for special purposes. While a regular gear is optimized to transmit torque to another engaged member with minimum noise and wear and maximum efficiency, a non-circular gear 's main objective might be ratio variations, axle displacement oscillations and more. Common applications include textile machines, potentiometers and continuously variable transmissions. A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with an infinitely large radius of curvature. Torque can be converted to linear force by meshing a rack with a pinion: the pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight line. Such a mechanism is used in automobiles to convert the rotation of the steering wheel into the left - to - right motion of the tie rod (s). Racks also feature in the theory of gear geometry, where, for instance, the tooth shape of an interchangeable set of gears may be specified for the rack, (infinite radius), and the tooth shapes for gears of particular actual radii are then derived from that. The rack and pinion gear type is employed in a rack railway. In epicyclic gearing one or more of the gear axes moves. Examples are sun and planet gearing (see below), cycloidal drive, and mechanical differentials. Sun and planet gearing is a method of converting reciprocating motion into rotary motion that was used in steam engines. James Watt used it on his early steam engines to get around the patent on the crank, but it also provided the advantage of increasing the flywheel speed so Watt could use a lighter flywheel. In the illustration, the sun is yellow, the planet red, the reciprocating arm is blue, the flywheel is green and the driveshaft is gray. A harmonic gear or strain wave gear is a specialized gearing mechanism often used in industrial motion control, robotics and aerospace for its advantages over traditional gearing systems, including lack of backlash, compactness and high gear ratios. A cage gear, also called a lantern gear or lantern pinion, has cylindrical rods for teeth, parallel to the axle and arranged in a circle around it, much as the bars on a round bird cage or lantern. The assembly is held together by disks at each end, into which the tooth rods and axle are set. Cage gears are more efficient than solid pinions, and dirt can fall through the rods rather than becoming trapped and increasing wear. They can be constructed with very simple tools as the teeth are not formed by cutting or milling, but rather by drilling holes and inserting rods. Sometimes used in clocks, the cage gear should always be driven by a gearwheel, not used as the driver. The cage gear was not initially favoured by conservative clock makers. It became popular in turret clocks where dirty working conditions were most commonplace. Domestic American clock movements often used them. All cogs of each gear component of magnetic gears act as a constant magnet with periodic alternation of opposite magnetic poles on mating surfaces. Gear components are mounted with a backlash capability similar to other mechanical gearings. Although they can not exert as much force as a traditional gear, such gears work without touching and so are immune to wear, have very low noise and can slip without damage making them very reliable. They can be used in configurations that are not possible for gears that must be physically touching and can operate with a non-metallic barrier completely separating the driving force from the load. The magnetic coupling can transmit force into a hermetically sealed enclosure without using a radial shaft seal, which may leak. Several other helix parameters can be viewed either in the normal or transverse planes. The subscript n usually indicates the normal. Subscript w denotes the worm, subscript g denotes the gear. Line of contact Path of action Line of action Plane of action Lines of contact (helical gear) Arc of action Length of action Limit diameter Face advance Zone of action Tooth thickness Thickness relationships Chordal thickness Tooth thickness measurement over pins Span measurement Long and short addendum teeth Pitch is the distance between a point on one tooth and the corresponding point on an adjacent tooth. It is a dimension measured along a line or curve in the transverse, normal, or axial directions. The use of the single word pitch without qualification may be ambiguous, and for this reason it is preferable to use specific designations such as transverse circular pitch, normal base pitch, axial pitch. Pitch Tooth pitch Base pitch relationships Principal pitches Backlash is the error in motion that occurs when gears change direction. It exists because there is always some gap between the trailing face of the driving tooth and the leading face of the tooth behind it on the driven gear, and that gap must be closed before force can be transferred in the new direction. The term "backlash '' can also be used to refer to the size of the gap, not just the phenomenon it causes; thus, one could speak of a pair of gears as having, for example, "0.1 mm of backlash. '' A pair of gears could be designed to have zero backlash, but this would presuppose perfection in manufacturing, uniform thermal expansion characteristics throughout the system, and no lubricant. Therefore, gear pairs are designed to have some backlash. It is usually provided by reducing the tooth thickness of each gear by half the desired gap distance. In the case of a large gear and a small pinion, however, the backlash is usually taken entirely off the gear and the pinion is given full sized teeth. Backlash can also be provided by moving the gears further apart. The backlash of a gear train equals the sum of the backlash of each pair of gears, so in long trains backlash can become a problem. For situations that require precision, such as instrumentation and control, backlash can be minimised through one of several techniques. For instance, the gear can be split along a plane perpendicular to the axis, one half fixed to the shaft in the usual manner, the other half placed alongside it, free to rotate about the shaft, but with springs between the two halves providing relative torque between them, so that one achieves, in effect, a single gear with expanding teeth. Another method involves tapering the teeth in the axial direction and letting the gear slide in the axial direction to take up slack. In some machines (e.g., automobiles) it is necessary to alter the gear ratio to suit the task, a process known as gear shifting or changing gear. There are several ways of shifting gears, for example: There are several outcomes of gear shifting in motor vehicles. In the case of vehicle noise emissions, there are higher sound levels emitted when the vehicle is engaged in lower gears. The design life of the lower ratio gears is shorter, so cheaper gears may be used, which tend to generate more noise due to smaller overlap ratio and a lower mesh stiffness etc. than the helical gears used for the high ratios. This fact has been used to analyze vehicle - generated sound since the late 1960s, and has been incorporated into the simulation of urban roadway noise and corresponding design of urban noise barriers along roadways. Profile of a spur gear Undercut A profile is one side of a tooth in a cross section between the outside circle and the root circle. Usually a profile is the curve of intersection of a tooth surface and a plane or surface normal to the pitch surface, such as the transverse, normal, or axial plane. The fillet curve (root fillet) is the concave portion of the tooth profile where it joins the bottom of the tooth space. As mentioned near the beginning of the article, the attainment of a nonfluctuating velocity ratio is dependent on the profile of the teeth. Friction and wear between two gears is also dependent on the tooth profile. There are a great many tooth profiles that provides a constant velocity ratio. In many cases, given an arbitrary tooth shape, it is possible to develop a tooth profile for the mating gear that provides a constant velocity ratio. However, two constant velocity tooth profiles are the most commonly used in modern times: the cycloid and the involute. The cycloid was more common until the late 1800s. Since then, the involute has largely superseded it, particularly in drive train applications. The cycloid is in some ways the more interesting and flexible shape; however the involute has two advantages: it is easier to manufacture, and it permits the center - to - center spacing of the gears to vary over some range without ruining the constancy of the velocity ratio. Cycloidal gears only work properly if the center spacing is exactly right. Cycloidal gears are still used in mechanical clocks. An undercut is a condition in generated gear teeth when any part of the fillet curve lies inside of a line drawn tangent to the working profile at its point of juncture with the fillet. Undercut may be deliberately introduced to facilitate finishing operations. With undercut the fillet curve intersects the working profile. Without undercut the fillet curve and the working profile have a common tangent. Numerous nonferrous alloys, cast irons, powder - metallurgy and plastics are used in the manufacture of gears. However, steels are most commonly used because of their high strength - to - weight ratio and low cost. Plastic is commonly used where cost or weight is a concern. A properly designed plastic gear can replace steel in many cases because it has many desirable properties, including dirt tolerance, low speed meshing, the ability to "skip '' quite well and the ability to be made with materials that do n't need additional lubrication. Manufacturers have used plastic gears to reduce costs in consumer items including copy machines, optical storage devices, cheap dynamos, consumer audio equipment, servo motors, and printers. Another advantage of the use of plastics, formerly (such as in the 1980s), was the reduction of repair costs for certain expensive machines. In cases of severe jamming (as of the paper in a printer), the plastic gear teeth would be torn free of their substrate, allowing the drive mechanism to then spin freely (instead of damaging itself by straining against the jam). This use of "sacrificial '' gear teeth avoided destroying the much more expensive motor and related parts. This method has been superseded, in more recent designs, by the use of clutches and torque - or current - limited motors. Although gears can be made with any pitch, for convenience and interchangeability standard pitches are frequently used. Pitch is a property associated with linear dimensions and so differs whether the standard values are in the imperial (inch) or metric systems. Using inch measurements, standard diametral pitch values with units of "per inch '' are chosen; the diametral pitch is the number of teeth on a gear of one inch pitch diameter. Common standard values for spur gears are 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 24, 32, 48, 64, 72, 80, 96, 100, 120, and 200. Certain standard pitches such as 1 / 10 and 1 / 20 in inch measurements, which mesh with linear rack, are actually (linear) circular pitch values with units of "inches '' When gear dimensions are in the metric system the pitch specification is generally in terms of module or modulus, which is effectively a length measurement across the pitch diameter. The term module is understood to mean the pitch diameter in millimeters divided by the number of teeth. When the module is based upon inch measurements, it is known as the English module to avoid confusion with the metric module. Module is a direct dimension, unlike diametral pitch, which is an inverse dimension ("threads per inch ''). Thus, if the pitch diameter of a gear is 40 mm and the number of teeth 20, the module is 2, which means that there are 2 mm of pitch diameter for each tooth. The preferred standard module values are 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.25, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40 and 50. As of 2014, an estimated 80 % of all gearing produced worldwide is produced by net shape molding. Molded gearing is usually either powder metallurgy or plastic. Many gears are done when they leave the mold (including injection molded plastic and die cast metal gears), but powdered metal gears require sintering and sand castings or investment castings require gear cutting or other machining to finish them. The most common form of gear cutting is hobbing, but gear shaping, milling, and broaching also exist. 3D printing as a production method is expanding rapidly. For metal gears in the transmissions of cars and trucks, the teeth are heat treated to make them hard and more wear resistant while leaving the core soft and tough. For large gears that are prone to warp, a quench press is used. Modern physics adopted the gear model in different ways. In the nineteenth century, James Clerk Maxwell developed a model of electromagnetism in which magnetic field lines were rotating tubes of incompressible fluid. Maxwell used a gear wheel and called it an "idle wheel '' to explain the electric current as a rotation of particles in opposite directions to that of the rotating field lines. More recently, quantum physics uses "quantum gears '' in their model. A group of gears can serve as a model for several different systems, such as an artificially constructed nanomechanical device or a group of ring molecules. The three wave hypothesis compares the wave -- particle duality to a bevel gear. The gear mechanism was previously considered exclusively artificial, but in 2013, scientists from the University of Cambridge announced their discovery that the juvenile form of a common insect Issus (species Issus coleoptratus), found in many European gardens, has a gear - like mechanism in its hind legs. Each leg has joints that form two 180 ° helix - shaped strips with 12 fully interlocking spur - type gear teeth, including filleted curves at the base of each tooth to reduce the risk of shearing. The joint rotates like mechanical gears and synchronizes Issus 's legs when it jumps. Bibliography

sino ang kasalukuyang kalihim ng department of education

Secretary of Education (Philippines) - wikipedia The Secretary of Education (Filipino: Kalihim ng Edukasyon) is the member of the Cabinet of the Philippines in charge of the Department of Education. The current Secretary is Leonor Briones, who assumed office on June 30, 2016. Notes:

major epochs in the history of the universe in order

Chronology of the universe - wikipedia The chronology of the universe describes the history and future of the universe according to Big Bang cosmology. The earliest stages of the universe 's existence are estimated as taking place 13.8 billion years ago, with an uncertainty of around 21 million years at the 68 % confidence level. For the purposes of this summary, it is convenient to divide the chronology of the universe since it originated, into five parts. It is generally considered meaningless or unclear whether time existed before this chronology: Earliest stages of chronology shown below (before neutrino decoupling) are an active area of research and based on ideas which are still speculative and subject to modification as scientific knowledge improves. "Time '' column is based on extrapolation of observed metric expansion of space back in the past. For the earliest stages of chronology this extrapolation may be invalid. To give one example, eternal inflation theories propose that inflation lasts forever throughout most of the universe, making the notion of "N seconds since Big Bang '' ill - defined. The radiation temperature refers to the cosmic background radiation and is given by 2.725 (1 + z), where z is the redshift. The Planck epoch is an era in traditional (non-inflationary) big bang cosmology immediately after the event which began our known universe. During this epoch, the temperature and average energies within the universe were so inconceivably high compared to any temperature we can observe today, that everyday subatomic particles could not form, and even the four fundamental forces that shape our universe -- electromagnetism, gravitation, weak nuclear interaction, and strong nuclear interaction -- were combined and formed one fundamental force. Little is understood about physics at this temperature; different hypotheses propose different scenarios. Traditional big bang cosmology predicts a gravitational singularity before this time, but this theory relies on the theory of general relativity, which is thought to break down for this epoch due to quantum effects. In inflationary models of cosmology, times before the end of inflation (roughly 10 second after the Big Bang) do not follow the same timeline as in traditional big bang cosmology. Models that aim to describe the universe and physics during the Planck epoch are generally speculative and fall under the umbrella of "New Physics ''. Examples include the Hartle -- Hawking initial state, string landscape, string gas cosmology, and the ekpyrotic universe. As the universe expanded and cooled, it crossed transition temperatures at which forces separated from each other. These phase transitions can be visualised as similar to condensation and freezing phase transitions of ordinary matter. At certain temperatures / energies, water molecules change their behaviour and structure, and they will behave completely differently. Like steam turning to water, the fields which define our universe 's fundamental forces and particles also completely change their behaviors and structures when the temperature / energy falls below a certain point. This is not apparent in everyday life, because it only happens at much, much, higher temperatures than we usually see in our present universe. These phase transitions are believed to be caused by a phenomenon of quantum fields called "symmetry breaking ''. In everyday terms, as the universe cools, it becomes possible for the quantum fields that create the forces and particles around us, to settle at lower energy levels and with higher levels of stability. In doing so, they completely shift how they interact. Forces and interactions arise due to these fields, so the universe can behave very differently above and below a phase transition. For example, in a later epoch, a side effect of one phase transition is that suddenly, many particles that had no mass at all acquire a mass (they begin to interact with the Higgs boson), and a single force begins to manifest as two separate forces. The grand unification epoch began with a phase transitions of this kind, when gravitation separated from the universal combined gauge force. This caused two forces to now exist: gravity, and an electrostrong interaction. There is no hard evidence yet, that such a combined force existed, but many physicists believe it did. The physics of this electrostrong interaction would be described by a so - called grand unified theory (GUT). The grand unification epoch ended with a second phase transition, as the electrostrong interaction in turn separated, and began to manifest as two separate interactions, called the strong and electroweak interactions. Depending on how epochs are defined, and the model being followed, the electroweak epoch may be considered to start before or after the inflationary epoch. In this article it is described as including the inflationary epoch. According to traditional big bang cosmology, the electroweak epoch began 10 seconds after the Big Bang, when the temperature of the universe was low enough (10 K) for the electrostrong interaction to begin to manifest as two separate interactions, called the strong and the electroweak interactions. (The electroweak interaction will also separate later, dividing into the electromagnetic and weak interactions). The exact point where electrostrong symmetry was broken is not certain, because of the very high energies of this event. In other models of the very early universe, known as inflationary cosmology, the electroweak epoch is said to begin after the inflationary epoch ended, at roughly 10 seconds. At this point, the very early universe suddenly and very rapidly expanded to at least 10 times its previous volume (and possibly much more). This is equivalent to a linear increase of at least 10 times in every spatial dimension -- equivalent to an object 1 nanometer (10 m, about half the width of a molecule of DNA) in length, expanding to one approximately 10.6 light years (about 62 trillion miles) long in a tiny fraction of a second. Although light and objects within spacetime can not travel faster than the speed of light, in this case it was the metric governing the size and geometry of spacetime itself that changed in scale. Changes to the metric are not limited by the speed of light. This change is known as inflation. It is thought to have been triggered by the separation of the strong and electroweak interactions which ended the grand unification epoch. One of the theoretical products of this phase transition was a scalar field called the inflaton field. As this field settled into its lowest energy state throughout the universe, it generated an enormous repulsive force that led to a rapid expansion of space itself. Inflation explains several observed properties of the current universe that are otherwise difficult to account for, including explaining how today 's universe has ended up so exceedingly homogeneous (similar) on a very large scale, even though it was highly disordered in its earliest stages. It is not known exactly when the inflationary epoch ended, but it is thought to have been between 10 and 10 seconds after the Big Bang. The rapid expansion of space meant that elementary particles remaining from the grand unification epoch were now distributed very thinly across the universe. However, the huge potential energy of the inflation field was released at the end of the inflationary epoch, as the inflaton field decayed into other particles, known as "reheating ''. This heating effect led to the universe being repopulated with a dense, hot mixture of quarks, anti-quarks and gluons. Reheating is often considered to mark the start of the electroweak epoch. In non-traditional versions of Big Bang theory (known as "inflationary '' models), inflation ended at a temperature corresponding to roughly 10 second after the Big Bang, but this does not imply that the inflationary era lasted less than 10 second. To explain the observed homogeneity of the universe, the duration in these models must be longer than 10 second. Therefore, in inflationary cosmology, the earliest meaningful time "after the Big Bang '' is the time of the end of inflation. After inflation ended, the universe continued to expand, but at a very slow rate. The slow expansion began to speed up after several billion years, believed to be due to dark energy, and is still expanding today. On March 17, 2014, astrophysicists of the BICEP2 collaboration announced the detection of inflationary gravitational waves in the B - mode power spectrum which was interpreted as clear experimental evidence for the theory of inflation. However, on June 19, 2014, lowered confidence in confirming the cosmic inflation findings was reported and finally, on February 2, 2015, a joint analysis of data from BICEP2 / Keck and Planck satellite concluded that the statistical "significance (of the data) is too low to be interpreted as a detection of primordial B - modes '' and can be attributed mainly to polarized dust in the Milky Way. Perhaps by 10 seconds. Baryons are subatomic particles such as protons and neutrons, that are composed of three quarks. It would be expected that both baryons, and particles known as antibaryons would have formed in equal numbers. However, this does not seem to be what happened -- as far as we know, the universe was left with far more baryons than antibaryons. Almost no antibaryons are observed in nature. Any explanation for this phenomenon must allow the Sakharov conditions to be satisfied at some time after the end of cosmological inflation. While particle physics suggests asymmetries under which these conditions are met, these asymmetries are too small empirically to account for the observed baryon - antibaryon asymmetry of the universe. If supersymmetry is a property of our universe, then it must be broken at an energy that is no lower than 1 TeV, the electroweak symmetry scale. The masses of particles and their superpartners would then no longer be equal. This very high energy could explain why no superpartners of known particles have ever been observed. As the universe 's temperature continued to fall below a certain very high energy level (known as the electroweak scale), a third symmetry breaking occurs. So far as we currently know, it was the final symmetry breaking event in the formation of our universe. It is believed that below energies of about 246 GeV, the Higgs field spontaneously acquires a vacuum expectation value. When this happens, it breaks electroweak gauge symmetry. This has two related effects: After electroweak symmetry breaking, the fundamental interactions we know of -- gravitation, electromagnetism, the strong interaction and the weak interaction -- have all taken their present forms, and fundamental particles have mass, but the temperature of the universe is still too high to allow the formation of many fundamental particles we now see in the universe. After cosmic inflation ends, the universe is filled with a quark -- gluon plasma. From this point onwards the physics of the early universe is much better understood, and the energies involved in the Quark epoch are directly amenable to experiment. The quark epoch began approximately 10 seconds after the Big Bang. This was the period in the evolution of the early universe immediately after electroweak symmetry breaking, when the fundamental interactions of gravitation, electromagnetism, the strong interaction and the weak interaction had taken their present forms, but the temperature of the universe was still too high to allow quarks to bind together to form hadrons. During the quark epoch the universe was filled with a dense, hot quark -- gluon plasma, containing quarks, leptons and their antiparticles. Collisions between particles were too energetic to allow quarks to combine into mesons or baryons. The quark epoch ended when the universe was about 10 seconds old, when the average energy of particle interactions had fallen below the binding energy of hadrons. The quark -- gluon plasma that composes the universe cools until hadrons, including baryons such as protons and neutrons, can form. At approximately 1 second after the Big Bang neutrinos decouple and begin traveling freely through space. As neutrinos rarely interact with matter, these neutrinos still exist today, analogous to the much later cosmic microwave background emitted during recombination, around 377,000 years after the Big Bang. The neutrinos from this event have a very low energy, around 10 times smaller than is possible with present - day direct detection. Even high energy neutrinos are notoriously difficult to detect, so this cosmic neutrino background (CNB) may not be directly observed in detail for many years, if at all. However, Big Bang cosmology makes many predictions about the CNB, and there is very strong indirect evidence that the cosmic neutrino background exists, both from Big Bang nucleosynthesis predictions of the helium abundance, and from anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background. One of these predictions is that neutrinos will have left a subtle imprint on the cosmic microwave background (CMB). It is well known that the CMB has irregularities. Some of the CMB fluctuations were roughly regularly spaced, because of the effect of baryonic acoustic oscillations. In theory, the decoupled neutrinos should have had a very slight effect on the phase of the various CMB fluctuations. In 2015, it was reported that such shifts had been detected in the CMB. Moreover, the fluctuations corresponded to neutrinos of almost exactly the temperature predicted by Big Bang theory (1.96 + / - 0.02 K compared to a prediction of 1.95 K), and exactly three types of neutrino, the same number of neutrino flavours currently predicted by the Standard Model. Primordial black holes are a hypothetical type of black hole proposed in 1966, that may have formed during the so - called radiation dominated era, due to the high densities and inhomogeneous conditions within the first second of cosmic time. Random fluctuations could lead to some regions becoming dense enough to undergo gravitational collapse, forming black holes. Current understandings and theories place tight limits on the abundance and mass of these objects. Typically, primordial black hole formation requires density contrasts (regional variations in the Universe 's density) of around δ ρ / ρ ∼ 0.1 (\ displaystyle \ delta \ rho / \ rho \ sim 0.1) (10 %), where ρ (\ displaystyle \ rho) is the average density of the Universe. Several mechanisms could produce dense regions meeting this criterion during the early universe, including reheating, cosmological phase transitions and (in so - called "hybrid inflation models '') axion inflation. Since primordial black holes did n't form from stellar gravitational collapse, their masses can be far below stellar mass (~ 2 × 10 g). Stephen Hawking calculated in 1971 that primordial black holes could weigh as little as 10 g. But they can have any size, so they could also be large, and may have contributed to the formation of galaxies. The majority of hadrons and anti-hadrons annihilate each other at the end of the hadron epoch, leaving leptons and anti-leptons dominating the mass of the universe. Approximately 10 seconds after the Big Bang the temperature of the universe falls to the point at which new lepton / anti-lepton pairs are no longer created and most leptons and anti-leptons are eliminated in annihilation reactions, leaving a small residue of leptons. After most leptons and anti-leptons are annihilated at the end of the lepton epoch the energy of the universe is dominated by photons. These photons are still interacting frequently with charged protons, electrons and (eventually) nuclei, and continue to do so for the next 380,000 years. Between about 3 and 20 minutes after the Big Bang, the temperature and pressure of the universe allow nuclear fusion to occur, giving rise to nuclei of a few light elements beyond hydrogen ("Big Bang nucleosynthesis ''). About 25 % of the protons, and all the neutrons fuse to form deuterium, a hydrogen isotope, and most of the deuterium quickly fuses to form helium - 4. The short duration and falling temperature means that only the simplest and fastest fusion processes can occur. Only tiny amounts of nuclei beyond helium are formed, because nucleosynthesis of heavier elements is difficult and requires thousands of years even in stars. Small amounts of tritium (another hydrogen isotope) and beryllium - 7 and - 8 are formed, but these are unstable and are quickly lost again. A small amount of deuterium is left unfused because of the very short duration. Therefore, the only stable nuclides created by the end of Big Bang nucleosynthesis are protium (single proton / hydrogen nucleus), deuterium, helium - 3, helium - 4, and lithium - 7. By mass, the resulting matter is about 75 % hydrogen nuclei, 25 % helium nuclei, and perhaps 10 by mass of Lithium - 7. The next most common stable isotopes produced are lithium - 6, beryllium - 9, boron - 11, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen ("CNO ''), but these have predicted abundances of between 5 and 30 parts in 10 by mass, making them essentially undetectable and negligible. The amounts of each light element in the early universe can be estimated from old galaxies, and is strong evidence for the Big Bang. For example, the Big Bang should produce about 1 neutron for every 7 protons, allowing for 25 % of all nucleons to be fused into helium - 4 (2 protons and 2 neutrons out of every 16 nucleons), and this is the amount we find today, and far more than can be easily explained by other processes. Similarly, deuterium fuses extremely easily; any alternative explanation must also explain how conditions existed for deuterium to form, but also left some of that deuterium unfused and not immediately fused again into helium. Any alternative must also explain the proportions of the various light elements and their isotopes. A few isotopes, such as lithium - 7, were found to be present in amounts that differed from theory, but over time, these differences have been resolved by better observations. Until now, the universe 's large scale dynamics and behavior have been determined mainly by radiation -- meaning, those constituents that move relativistically (at or near the speed of light), such as photons and neutrinos. As the universe cools, from around 47,000 years (z = 3600), the universe 's large scale behavior becomes dominated by matter instead. This occurs because the energy density of matter begins to exceed both the energy density of radiation and the vacuum energy density. Around or shortly after this time, the densities of non-relativistic matter (atomic nuclei) and relativistic radiation (photons) become equal, the Jeans length, which determines the smallest structures that can form (due to competition between gravitational attraction and pressure effects), begins to fall and perturbations, instead of being wiped out by free - streaming radiation, can begin to grow in amplitude. According to the Lambda - CDM model, by this stage, the matter in the universe is around 84.5 % cold dark matter and 15.5 % "ordinary '' matter. (However the total matter in the universe is only 31.7 %, much smaller than the 68.3 % of dark energy). There is overwhelming evidence that dark matter exists and dominates our universe, but since the exact nature of dark matter is still not understood, Big Bang theory does not presently cover any stages in its formation. From this point on, and for several billion years to come, the presence of dark matter accelerates the formation of structure in our universe. In the early universe, dark matter gradually gathers in huge filaments under the effects of gravity. This amplifies the tiny inhomogeneities (irregularities) in the density of the universe which was left by cosmic inflation. Over time, slightly denser regions become denser and slightly rarefied (emptier) regions become more rarefied. Ordinary matter eventually gathers together faster than it would otherwise do, because of the presence of these concentrations of dark matter. About 377,000 years after the Big Bang, two connected events occurred: recombination and photon decoupling. Recombination describes the ionized particles combining to form the first neutral atoms, and decoupling refers to the photons released ("decoupled '') as the newly formed atoms settle into more stable energy states. Just before recombination, the baryonic matter in the universe was at a temperature where it formed a hot ionized plasma. Most of the photons in the universe interacted with electrons and protons, and could not travel significant distances without interacting with ionized particles. As a result, the universe was opaque or "foggy ''. Although there was light, it was not possible to see, nor can we observe that light through telescopes. At around 377,000 years, the universe has cooled to a point where free electrons can combine with the hydrogen and helium nuclei to form neutral atoms. This process is relatively fast (and faster for the helium than for the hydrogen), and is known as recombination. The name is slightly inaccurate and is given for historical reasons: in fact the electrons and atomic nuclei were combining for the first time. Directly combining in a low energy state (ground state) is less efficient, so these hydrogen atoms generally form with the electrons still in a high energy state, and once combined, the electrons quickly release energy in the form of one or more photons as they transition to a low energy state. This release of photons is known as photon decoupling. Some of these decoupled photons are captured by other hydrogen atoms, the remainder remain free. By the end of recombination, most of the protons in the universe have formed neutral atoms. This change from charged to neutral particles means that the mean free path photons can travel before capture in effect becomes infinite, so any decoupled photons that have not been captured can travel freely over long distances (see Thomson scattering). The universe has become transparent to visible light, radio waves and other electromagnetic radiation for the first time in its history. The photons released by these newly formed hydrogen atoms initially had a temperature / energy of around ~ 4000 K (visible red light). Over billions of years since decoupling, as the universe has expanded, they have red - shifted from visible red light to radio waves (microwave radiation corresponding to a temperature of about 2.7 K). They can still be detected as radio waves today. They form the cosmic microwave background ("CMB ''), and they provide crucial evidence of the early universe and how it developed. Around the same time as recombination, existing pressure waves within the electron - baryon plasma -- known as baryon acoustic oscillations -- became embedded in the distribution of matter as it condensed, giving rise to a very slight preference in distribution of large - scale objects. Therefore, the cosmic microwave background is a picture of the universe at the end of this epoch including the tiny fluctuations generated during inflation (see diagram), and the spread of objects such as galaxies in the universe is an indication of the scale and size of the universe as it developed over time. After recombination and decoupling, the universe was transparent and had cooled enough to allow light to travel long distances, but there were no light - producing structures such as stars and galaxies. Stars and galaxies are formed when dense regions of gas form due to the action of gravity, and this takes a long time within a near - uniform density of gas and on the scale required, so it is estimated that stars did not exist for many millions of years after recombination. This period, known as the Dark Ages, began around 377,000 years after the Big Bang. During the Dark Ages, the temperature of the universe cooled from some 4000 K down to about 60 K, and only two sources of photons existed: the photons released during recombination / decoupling (as neutral hydrogen atoms formed), which we can still detect today as the cosmic microwave background (CMB), and photons occasionally released by neutral hydrogen atoms, known as the 21 cm spin line of neutral hydrogen. The October 2010 discovery of UDFy - 38135539, the first observed galaxy to have existed during the following reionization epoch, gives us a window into these times. The galaxy earliest in this period observed and thus also the most distant galaxy ever observed is currently on the record of Leiden University 's Richard J. Bouwens and Garth D. Illingsworth from UC Observatories / Lick Observatory. They found the galaxy UDFj - 39546284 to be at a time some 480 million years after the Big Bang or about halfway through the Cosmic Dark Ages at a distance of about 13.2 billion light - years. More recently, the UDFy - 38135539, EGSY8p7 and GN - z11 galaxies were found to be around 380 -- 550 million years after the Big Bang and at a distance of around 13.4 billion light - years. There is also currently an observational effort underway to detect the faint 21 cm spin line radiation, as it is in principle an even more powerful tool than the cosmic microwave background for studying the early universe. Structures may have begun to emerge from around 150 million years, and stars and early galaxies gradually emerged from around 400 to 700 million years. As they emerged, the Dark Ages gradually ended. Because this process was gradual, the Dark Ages only fully ended around 1 billion (1000 million) years, as the universe took its present appearance. For about 6.6 million years, between about 10 to 17 million years after the Big Bang (redshift 137 -- 100), the background temperature was between 373 K and 273 K, a temperature compatible with liquid water and common biological chemical reactions. Loeb (2014) speculated that primitive life might in principle have appeared during this window, which he called "the Habitable Epoch of the Early Universe ''. At this time, it is usual to say that the only atoms that existed were hydrogen, helium and small traces of other elements, mainly the next heaviest element, lithium. Water is made of hydrogen and oxygen, and all known forms of organic reaction and life require carbon and many other heavier elements than lithium. However it is not precisely correct to say that no other elements were created during the first minutes of the universe -- other atoms would have been formed in minuscule quantities. Similarly, there is also a small but non-zero possibility of locally dense concentrations of matter arising, including perhaps densities sufficient for solid planet - sized matter. Loeb therefore speculated that in an amount of matter the size of the universe, extreme statistical anomalies may have created regions where fusion processes by chance had left a concentration of heavier atoms, and discussed whether this might have allowed a window for rocky planets or even life. Warmth would have been available without need for stars such as the sun. The matter in the universe is around 84.5 % cold dark matter and 15.5 % "ordinary '' matter. Since the start of the matter - dominated era, the dark matter has gradually been gathering in huge spread out (diffuse) filaments under the effects of gravity. Ordinary matter eventually gathers together faster than it would otherwise do, because of the presence of these concentrations of dark matter. It is also slightly more dense at regular distances due to early baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO) which became embedded into the distribution of matter when photons decoupled. Unlike dark matter, ordinary matter can lose energy by many routes, which means that as it collapses, it can lose the energy which would otherwise hold it apart, and collapse more quickly, and into denser forms. Ordinary matter gathers where dark matter is denser, and in those places it collapses into clouds of mainly hydrogen gas. The first stars and galaxies form from these clouds. Where numerous galaxies have formed, galaxy clusters and superclusters will eventually arise. Large voids with few stars will develop between them, marking where dark matter became less common. Structure formation in the big bang model proceeds hierarchically, due to gravitational collapse, with smaller structures forming before larger ones. The earliest structures to form are the first stars (known as population III stars), dwarf galaxies, and quasars (which are thought to be bright, early active galaxies). Before this epoch, the evolution of the universe could be understood through linear cosmological perturbation theory: that is, all structures could be understood as small deviations from a perfect homogeneous universe. This is computationally relatively easy to study. At this point non-linear structures begin to form, and the computational problem becomes much more difficult, involving, for example, N - body simulations with billions of particles. The Bolshoi Cosmological Simulation is a high precision simulation of this era. These Population III stars are also responsible for turning the few light elements that were formed in the Big Bang (hydrogen, helium and small amounts of lithium) into many heavier elements. They can be huge as well as perhaps small -- and non-metallic (no elements except hydrogen and helium). The larger stars have very short lifetimes compared to most Main Sequence stars we see today, so they commonly finish burning their hydrogen fuel and explode as supernovae after mere millions of years, seeding the universe with heavier elements over repeated generations. They mark the start of the Stelliferous (starry) era. As yet, no Population III stars have been found, so our understanding of them is based on computational models of their formation and evolution. Fortunately, observations of the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation can be used to date when star formation began in earnest. Analysis of such observations made by the European Space Agency 's Planck telescope in 2016 concluded that the first generation of stars formed 700 million years after the Big Bang. Quasars provides some additional evidence of early structure formation. Their light shows evidence of elements such as carbon, magnesium, iron and oxygen. This is evidence that by the time quasars formed, a massive phase of star formation had already taken place, including sufficient generations of population III stars to give rise to these elements. As the first stars, dwarf galaxies and quasars gradually form, the intense radiation they emit reionizes much of the surrounding universe; splitting the neutral hydrogen atoms back into a plasma of free electrons and protons for the first time since recombination and decoupling. Reionization is evidenced from observations of quasars. Quasars are a form of active galaxy, and the most luminous objects observed in the universe. Electrons in neutral hydrogen have a specific patterns of absorbing photons, related to electron energy levels and called the Lyman series. Ionized hydrogen does not have electron energy levels of this kind. Therefore, light travelling through ionized hydrogen and neutral hydrogen shows different absorption lines. In addition, the light will have travelled for billions of years to reach us, so any absorption by neutral hydrogen will have been redshifted by varied amounts, rather than by one specific amount, indicating when it happened. These features make it possible to study the state of ionization at many different times in the past. They show that reionization began as "bubbles '' of ionized hydrogen which became larger over time. They also show that the absorption was due to the general state of the universe (the intergalactic medium) and not due to passing through galaxies or other dense areas. Reionization might have started as early as z = 16 (250 million years of cosmic time) and was complete by around z = 9 or 10 (500 million years). The epoch of reionization probably ended by around z = 5 or 6 (1 billion years) as the era of Population III stars and quasars -- and their intense radiation -- came to an end, and the ionized hydrogen gradually reverted to neutral atoms. These observations have narrowed down the period of time during which reionization took place, but the source of the photons that caused reionization is still not completely certain. To ionize neutral hydrogen, an energy larger than 13.6 eV is required, which corresponds to ultraviolet photons with a wavelength of 91.2 nm or shorter, implying that the sources must have produced significant amount of ultraviolet and higher energy. Protons and electrons will recombine if energy is not continuously provided to keep them apart, which also sets limits on how numerous the sources where and their longevity. With these constraints, it is expected that quasars and first generation stars and galaxies were the main sources of energy. The current leading candidates from most to least significant are currently believed to be population III stars (the earliest stars) (possibly 70 %), dwarf galaxies (very early small high - energy galaxies) (possibly 30 %), and a contribution from quasars (a class of active galactic nuclei). However, by this time, matter had become far more spread out due to the ongoing expansion of the universe. Although the neutral hydrogen atoms were again ionized, the plasma was much more thin and diffuse, and photons were much less likely to be scattered. Despite being reionized, the universe remained largely transparent during reionization. As the universe continued to cool and expand, reionization gradually ended. Matter continues to draw together under the influence of gravity, to form galaxies. The stars from this time period, known as Population II stars, are formed early on in this process, with Population I stars formed later. Gravitational attraction also gradually pulls galaxies towards each other to form groups, clusters and superclusters. The Hubble Ultra Deep Field observatory has identified a number of small galaxies merging to form larger ones, at 800 million years of cosmic time (13 billion years ago) (this age estimate is now believed to be slightly overstated). Johannes Schedler 's project has identified a quasar CFHQS 1641 + 3755 at 12.7 billion light - years away, when the universe was just 7 % of its present age. On July 11, 2007, using the 10 - metre Keck II telescope on Mauna Kea, Richard Ellis of the California Institute of Technology at Pasadena and his team found six star forming galaxies about 13.2 billion light years away and therefore created when the universe was only 500 million years old. Only about 10 of these extremely early objects are currently known. More recent observations have shown these ages to be shorter than previously indicated. The most distant galaxy observed as of October 2016, GN - z11, has been reported to be 32 billion light years away, a vast distance made possible through space - time expansion (redshift z = 11.1; comoving distance of 32 billion light - years; lookback time of 13.4 billion years). The universe has appeared much the same as it does now, for many billions of years. It will continue to look similar for many more billions of years into the future. Based upon the emerging science of nucleocosmochronology, the Galactic thin disk of the Milky Way is estimated to have been formed 8.8 ± 1.7 billion years ago. From about 9.8 billion years of cosmic time, the universe 's large - scale behavior is believed to have gradually changed for a third time. Previously it had been dominated by radiation (relativistic constituents) for the first 47,000 years, and then by matter. From this point, the expansion of the universe gradually begins to accelerate. Observation confirms the increasing expansion. While the precise cause is not known, by far the most accepted understanding is that this is due to an unknown form of energy called dark energy. Research is ongoing to understand this dark energy, which is believed to constitute about 68.3 % of the entire physical universe. Dark energy acts like a cosmological constant - a scalar field that exists throughout space. Therefore, unlike gravity, its effects do not diminish (or only diminish slowly) as the universe grows. By contrast, matter and gravity have a greater effect initially, but it diminishes quicker as the universe continues to expand. Over time, the deceleration and inward attraction due to gravity reduces more quickly. Eventually the outward and repulsive effect of dark energy increasingly dominates, and the expansion of space starts to slowly accelerate. The universe has existed for around 13.8 billion years, and we believe that we understand it well enough to predict its large - scale development for many billions of years into the future -- perhaps as much as 100 billion years of cosmic time (about 86 billion years from now). Beyond that, we need to better understand the universe to make any accurate predictions. Therefore, the universe could follow a variety of different paths beyond this time. There are several competing scenarios for the possible long - term evolution of the universe. Which of them will happen, if any, depends on the precise values of physical constants such as the cosmological constant, the possibility of proton decay, and the natural laws beyond the Standard Model. If the expansion of the universe continues and it stays in its present form, eventually all but the nearest galaxies will be carried away from us by the expansion of space at such a velocity that our observable universe will be limited to our own gravitationally bound local galactic cluster. In the very long term (after many trillions -- thousands of billions -- of years, cosmic time), the Stelliferous Era will end, as stars cease to be born and even the longest - lived stars gradually die. Beyond this, all objects in the universe will cool and (with the possible exception of protons) gradually decompose back to their constituent particles and then into subatomic particles and very low level photons and other fundamental particles, by a variety of possible processes. But this will take a duration of time that is almost inconceivable to most people, compared to which the entire 13.8 billion years of the universe would be a tiny instant in time. Ultimately, in the extreme future, the following scenarios have been proposed for the ultimate fate of the universe. The effect would be that the quantum fields that underpin all forces, particles and structures, would undergo a transition to a more stable form. New forces and particles would replace the present ones we know of, with the side effect that all current particles, forces and structures would be destroyed and subsequently (if able) reform into different particles, forces and structures. In this kind of extreme timescale, extremely rare quantum phenomenae may also occur that are extremely unlikely to be seen on a timescale smaller than trillions of years. These may also lead to unpredictable changes to the state of the universe which would not be likely to be significant on any smaller timescale. For example, on a timescale of millions of trillions of years, black holes might appear to evaporate almost instantly, uncommon quantum tunneling phenomenae would appear to be common, and quantum (or other) phenomenae so unlikely that they might occur just once in a trillion years may occur many, many times.

where is south korea located in the world

Geography of South Korea - wikipedia Coordinates: 36 ° N 128 ° E  /  36 ° N 128 ° E  / 36; 128 South Korea is located in East Asia, on the southern half of the Korean Peninsula jutting out from the far east of the Asian land mass. The only country with a land border to South Korea is North Korea, lying to the north with 238 kilometres (148 mi) of border running along the Korean Demilitarized Zone. South Korea is mostly surrounded by water and has 2,413 kilometres (1,499 mi) of coast line along three seas. To the west is the Yellow Sea, to the south is the East China Sea, and to the east is Ulleung - do and Liancourt Rocks in the (East Sea). Geographically, South Korea 's land mass is approximately 100,032 square kilometres (38,623 sq mi). 290 square kilometres (110 sq mi) of South Korea are occupied by water. The approximate coordinates are 37 ° North, 127 ° 30 East. The Korean Peninsula extends southward from the northeast part of the Asian continental landmass. The Japanese islands of Honshū and Kyūshū are located some 200 km (124 mi) to the southeast across the Korea Strait; the Shandong Peninsula of China lies 190 kilometers to the west. The west coast of the peninsula is bordered by the Korea Bay to the north and the Yellow Sea and Korea Strait to the south; the east coast is bordered by the Sea of Japan. The 8,640 - kilometer coastline is highly indented. Some 3,579 islands lie adjacent to the peninsula. Most of them are found along the south and west coasts. The line between the two Korean states was the thirty - eighth parallel of latitude. After the Korean War, the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) formed the boundary between the two. The DMZ is a heavily guarded, 4,000 - meter - wide strip of land that runs along the Demarcation line established by the Korean Armistice Agreement, from the east to the west coasts for a distance of 241 kilometers (238 kilometers of that line form the land boundary with North Korea). The total land area of the peninsula, including the islands, is 223,170 square kilometers. Some 44.8 percent (100 210 square kilometers) of this total, excluding the area within the DMZ, constitutes the territory of the Republic of Korea. The combined territories of North Korea and South Korea are about the same size as the U.S. state of Minnesota. South Korea alone is about the size of Portugal or Hungary. The largest island, Jeju - do, lies off the southwest corner of the peninsula and has a land area of 1,825 square kilometers. Other important islands include Ulleung and Liancourt Rocks in the East Sea and Ganghwa Island at the mouth of the Han River. Although the eastern coastline of South Korea is generally unindented, the southern and western coasts are jagged and irregular. The difference is caused by the fact that the eastern coast is gradually rising, while the southern and western coasts are subsiding. Early European visitors to Korea remarked that the land resembled "a sea in a heavy gale '' because of the large number of successive mountain ranges that crisscross the peninsula. The highest mountains are in North Korea. The highest mountain peak in South Korea is Hallasan (1,950 m), which is the cone of a volcanic formation constituting Jeju Island. There are three major mountain ranges within South Korea: the Taebaek Mountains, and Sobaek ranges, and the Jiri Massif. Unlike Japan or the northern provinces of China, the Korean Peninsula is geologically stable. There are no active volcanoes (aside from Baekdu Mountain on the border between North Korea and China, most recently active in 1903), and there have been no strong earthquakes. Historical records, however, describe volcanic activity on Mount Halla during the Goryeo Dynasty (918 -- 1392). South Korea has no extensive plains; its lowlands are the product of mountain erosion. Approximately 30 percent of the area of South Korea consists of lowlands, with the rest consisting of uplands and mountains. The great majority of the lowland area lies along the coasts, particularly the west coast, and along the major rivers. The most important lowlands are the Han River plain around Seoul, the Pyeongtaek coastal plain southwest of Seoul, the Geum River basin, the Nakdong River basin, and the Yeongsan River and the Honam plains in the southwest. A narrow littoral plain extends along the east coast. The Nakdong is South Korea 's longest river (521 kilometers). The Han River, which flows through Seoul, is 514 kilometers long, and the Geum River is 401 kilometers long. Other major rivers include the Imjin, which flows through both North Korea and South Korea and forms an estuary with the Han River; the Bukhan, a tributary of the Han that also flows out of North Korea; and the Somjin. The major rivers flow north to south or east to west and empty into the Yellow Sea or the Korea Strait. They tend to be broad and shallow and to have wide seasonal variations in water flow. In the early part of 20th century and especially the period during and after World War II and the Korean War, much of the existing Korean forests were cut down, which led to problems with flooding and soil erosion. Combination of reforestation efforts (e.g. Arbor day was celebrated as a national holiday starting in 1949) and policies designed to reduce use of firewood as a source of energy (e.g. restriction of inflow of firewood into Seoul and other major cities starting in 1958) helped to spark a recovery in the 1950s. Comprehensive reforestation programs starting in the 1970s and continuing into the late 1990s aided in an acceleration of forest volume increase, and the forest cover reached a peak of 65 % of national land area in 1980 as opposed to a low of 35 % in 1955. News that North Korea was constructing a huge multipurpose dam at the base of Geumgangsan (1,638 m) north of the DMZ caused considerable consternation in South Korea during the mid-1980s. South Korean authorities feared that once completed, a sudden release of the dam 's waters into the Pukhan River during north - south hostilities could flood Seoul and paralyze the capital region. During 1987 the Geumgangsan Dam was a major issue that Seoul sought to raise in talks with Pyongyang. Though Seoul completed a "Peace Dam '' on the Pukhan River to counteract the potential threat of Pyongyang 's dam project before the 1988 Olympics, the North Korean project apparently still was in its initial stages of construction in 1990. Maritime claims: territorial sea: 12 nmi (22.2 km; 13.8 mi); between 3 nmi (5.6 km; 3.5 mi) and 12 nmi (22.2 km; 13.8 mi) in the Korea Strait contiguous zone: 24 nmi (44.4 km; 27.6 mi) exclusive economic zone: 200 nmi (370.4 km; 230.2 mi) continental shelf: not specified Elevation extremes: lowest point: Sea level 0 m highest point: Hallasan 1,950 m Part of the East Asian Monsoon region, South Korea has a temperate climate with four distinct seasons. The movement of air masses from the Asian continent exerts greater influence on South Korea 's weather than does air movement from the Pacific Ocean. Winters are usually long, cold, and dry, whereas summers are short, hot, and humid. Spring and autumn are pleasant but short in duration. Seoul 's mean temperature in January is − 5 to − 2.5 ° C (23.0 to 27.5 ° F); in July the mean temperature is about 22.5 to 25 ° C (72.5 to 77.0 ° F). Because of its southern and seagirt location, Jeju Island has warmer and milder weather than other parts of South Korea. Mean temperatures on Jeju range from 2.5 ° C (36.5 ° F) in January to 25 ° C (77 ° F) in July. The country generally has sufficient rainfall to sustain its agriculture. Rarely does less than 750 millimeters (29.5 in) of rain fall in any given year; for the most part, rainfall is over 1,000 millimeters (39.4 in). Amounts of precipitation, however, can vary from year to year. Serious droughts occur about once every eight years, especially in the rice - producing southwestern part of the country. About two - thirds of the annual precipitation occurs between June and September. South Korea is less vulnerable to typhoons than Japan, Taiwan, the east coast of China, or the Philippines. From one to three typhoons can be expected per year. Typhoons usually pass over South Korea in late summer, especially in August, and bring torrential rains. Flooding occasionally causes considerable damage, as do landslides, given the country 's generally mountainous terrain. In September 1984, record floods caused the deaths of 190 people and left 200,000 homeless. This disaster prompted the North Korean government to make an unprecedented offer of humanitarian aid in the form of rice, medicine, clothes, and building materials. South Korea accepted these items and distributed them to flood victims. Graphically the seasons can be represented this way: Natural resources: South Korea produces coal, tungsten, graphite, molybdenum, lead, and has potential for hydropower. Land use: arable land: 15.3 % permanent crops: 2.2 % permanent pasture: 0.6 % forest: 63.9 % other: 18.0 % (2011) Irrigated land: 8,804 km2 (2003) Total renewable water resources: 69.7 km Freshwater withdrawal (domestic / industrial / agricultural) total: 25.47 km / yr (26 % / 12 % / 62 %) per capita: 548.7 m / yr (2003) Natural hazards: There are occasional typhoons that bring high winds and floods. There is also low - level seismic activity, which is common in the southwest. Volcanism: Hallasan (elev. 1,950 m) is considered historically active although it has not erupted in many centuries. Earthquake activity is minimal. Environment - current issues: Habitat loss and degradation, especially of wetlands, through coastal reclamation (e.g. Saemangeum, Shiwa, Song Do, Namyang Bay, Asan Bay, in the south - west, Gwangyang Bay and the Nakdong Estuary) have caused huge declines in fisheries and of biodiversity. Most riverine wetland in Korea is now threatened by the proposed Grand Korean Waterway project. There are also some problems air pollution in large cities; as well as water pollution from the discharge of sewage and industrial effluents. Drift netting is another issue. Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic - Environmental Protocol, Antarctic - Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change - Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution (MARPOL 73 / 78), Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements

who scored the most goals in a premier league game

Premier League records and Statistics - wikipedia The top tier of English football was renamed the Premier League for the start of the 1992 -- 93 season. The following page details the football records and statistics of the Premier League. Players currently playing in the Premier League are highlighted in bold. Players currently playing in the Premier League are highlighted in bold. This is a list of the top 10 youngest players to score a goal in the Premier League. The all - time Premier League table is a cumulative record of all match results, points and goals of every team that has played in the Premier League since its inception in 1992. The table that follows is accurate as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season. Teams in bold are part of the 2018 -- 19 Premier League. Numbers in bold are the record (highest either positive or negative) numbers in each column. League or status at 2018 -- 19:

the british established a protectorate over egypt to preserve the security of the

History of Egypt under the British - wikipedia The history of Egypt under the British lasts from 1882, when it was occupied by British forces during the Anglo - Egyptian War, until 1956, when the last British forces withdrew in accordance with the Anglo - Egyptian agreement of 1954 after the Suez Crisis. The first period of British rule (1882 -- 1914) is often called the "veiled protectorate ''. During this time the Khedivate of Egypt remained an autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire, and the British occupation had no legal basis but constituted a de facto protectorate over the country. This state of affairs lasted until the Ottoman Empire joined the First World War on the side of the Central Powers in November 1914 and Britain unilaterally declared a protectorate over Egypt. The ruling khedive was deposed and his successor, Hussein Kamel, compelled to declare himself Sultan of Egypt independent of the Ottomans in December 1914. The formal protectorate over Egypt did not long outlast the war. It was brought to an end by the unilateral declaration of Egyptian independence on 28 February 1922. Shortly afterwards, Sultan Fuad I declared himself King of Egypt, but the British occupation continued, in accordance with several reserve clauses in the declaration of independence. The situation was normalised in the Anglo - Egyptian treaty of 1936, which granted Britain the right to station troops in Egypt for the defence of the Suez Canal, its link with the Indian Empire. Britain also continued to control the training of the Egyptian Army. During the Second World War (1939 -- 45), Egypt came under attack from Italian Libya on account of the British presence there, although Egypt itself remained neutral until late in the war. After the war Egypt sought to modify the treaty, but it was abrogated in its entirety by an anti-British government in October 1951. After the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, the British agreed to withdraw their troops and by June 1956 had done so. Britain went to war against Egypt over the Suez Canal in late 1956, but with insufficient international support was forced to back down. Throughout the 19th century, the ruling dynasty of Egypt had spent vast sums of money on infrastructural development of Egypt. However, in keeping with its own military and foreign origin, the dynasty 's economic development was almost wholly oriented toward military dual use goals. Consequently, despite vast sums of European and other foreign capital, actual economic production and resulting revenues was insufficient toward repaying the loans. Consequently, the country teetered toward economic dissolution and implosion. In turn, European and foreign finances took control of the treasury of Egypt, forgave debt in return for taking control of the Suez Canal, and reoriented economic development toward capital gain. However, by 1882 Islamic and Arabic Nationalist opposition to European influence and settlement in the Middle East led to growing tension amongst notable natives, especially in Egypt which then as now was the most powerful, populous, and influential of Arab countries. The most dangerous opposition during this period was coming from the Albanian - and Mamluke - dominated Egyptian army which saw the reorientation of economic development away from their control as a threat to their privileges. A large military demonstration in September 1881 forced the Khedive Tewfiq to dismiss his Prime Minister and rule by decree. Many of the Europeans retreated to specially designed quarters suited for defence or heavily European settled cities such as Alexandria. Consequently, in April 1882 France and Great Britain sent warships to Alexandria to bolster the Khedive amidst a turbulent climate and protect European lives and property. In turn, Egyptian nationalists spread fear of invasion throughout the country to bolster Islamic and Arabian revolutionary action. Tawfiq moved to Alexandria for fear of his own safety as army officers led by Ahmed Urabi began to take control of the government. By June, Egypt was in the hands of nationalists opposed to European domination of the country and the new revolutionary government began nationalizing all assets in Egypt. Anti-European violence broke out in Alexandria, prompting a British naval bombardment of the city. Fearing the intervention of outside powers or the seizure of the canal by the Egyptians, in conjunction with an Islamic revolution in the Empire of India, the British led an Anglo - Indian expeditionary force at both ends of the Suez Canal in August 1882. Simultaneously, French forces landed in Alexandria and the northern end of the canal. Both joined together and manoeuvred to meet the Egyptian army. The combined Anglo - French - Indian army easily defeated the Egyptian Army at Tel El Kebir in September and took control of the country putting Tawfiq back in control. The purpose of the invasion had been to restore political stability to Egypt under a government of the Khedive and international controls which were in place to streamline Egyptian financing since 1876. It is unlikely that the British expected a long - term occupation from the outset; however, Lord Cromer, Britain 's Chief Representative in Egypt at the time, viewed Egypt 's financial reforms as part of a long - term objective. Cromer took the view that political stability needed financial stability, and embarked on a programme of long term investment in Egypt 's agricultural revenue sources, largest of which, cotton. To accomplish this, Cromer worked to improve the Nile 's irrigation system through multiple large projects such as, the construction of the Aswan Dam, the Nile Barrage, and an increase of canals available to agricultural focused lands. In 1906 the Denshawai Incident provoked a questioning of British rule in Egypt. This was exploited in turn by the German Empire which began re-organizing, funding, and expanding anti-British revolutionary nationalist movements. For the first quarter of the 20th century, Britain 's main goal in Egypt was penetrating these groups, neutralizing them, and attempting to form more pro-British nationalist groups with which to hand further control. However, after the end of World War One British colonial authorities attempted to legitimize their less radical opponents with entrance into the League of Nations including the peace treaty of Versailles. Thus, the Wafd Party was invited and promised full independence in the years ahead. British occupation ended nominally with the UK 's 1922 declaration of Egyptian independence, but British military domination of Egypt lasted until 1936. During British occupation and later control, Egypt developed into a regional commercial and trading destination. Immigrants from less stable parts of the region including Greeks, Jews and Armenians, began to flow into Egypt. The number of foreigners in the country rose from 10,000 in the 1840s to around 90,000 in the 1880s, and more than 1.5 million by the 1930s. In 1914 as a result of the declaration of war with the Ottoman Empire, of which Egypt was nominally a part, Britain declared a Protectorate over Egypt and deposed the Khedive, replacing him with a family member who was made Sultan of Egypt by the British. A group known as the Wafd Delegation attended the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 to demand Egypt 's independence. Included in the group was political leader, Saad Zaghlul, who would later become Prime Minister. When the group was arrested and deported to the island of Malta, a huge uprising occurred in Egypt. In the aftermath of World War One, the large British Imperial Army in Egypt which was the centre of operations against the Ottoman Empire was quickly reduced with demobilization and restructuring of garrisons. Free of the large British military presence, the incipient German backed revolutionary movements were able to more effectively launch their operations. Consequently, from March to April 1919, there were mass demonstrations that became uprisings. This is known in Egypt as the 1919 Revolution. Almost daily demonstrations and unrest continued throughout Egypt for the remainder of the Spring. To the surprise of the British authorities, Egyptian women also demonstrated, led by Huda Sha'rawi (1879 -- 1947), who would become the leading feminist voice in Egypt in the first half of the twentieth century. The first women 's demonstration was held on Sunday, 16 March 1919, and was followed by yet another one on Thursday, 20 March 1919. Egyptian women would continue to play an important and increasingly public nationalist role throughout the spring and summer of 1919 and beyond. The anticolonial riots and British suppression of them led to the death of some 800 people. In November 1919, the Milner Commission was sent to Egypt by the British to attempt to resolve the situation. In 1920, Lord Milner submitted his report to Lord Curzon, the British Foreign Secretary, recommending that the protectorate should be replaced by a treaty of alliance. As a result, Curzon agreed to receive an Egyptian mission headed by Zaghlul and Adli Pasha to discuss the proposals. The mission arrived in London in June 1920 and the agreement was concluded in August 1920. In February 1921, the British Parliament approved the agreement and Egypt was asked to send another mission to London with full powers to conclude a definitive treaty. Adli Pasha led this mission, which arrived in June 1921. However, the Dominion delegates at the 1921 Imperial Conference had stressed the importance of maintaining control over the Suez Canal Zone and Curzon could not persuade his Cabinet colleagues to agree to any terms that Adli Pasha was prepared to accept. The mission returned to Egypt in disgust. In December 1921, the British authorities in Cairo imposed martial law and once again deported Zaghlul. Demonstrations again led to violence. In deference to the growing nationalism and at the suggestion of the High Commissioner, Lord Allenby, the UK unilaterally declared Egyptian independence on 28 February 1922, abolishing the protectorate and establishing an independent Kingdom of Egypt. Sarwat Pasha became prime minister. British influence continued to dominate Egypt 's political life and fostered fiscal, administrative, and governmental reforms. Britain retained control of the Canal Zone, Sudan and Egypt 's external protection; protection of foreigners and separate courts for foreigners; the police forces, the army, the railways and the communications. British troops were stationed in cities and towns. King Fuad died in 1936 and Farouk inherited the throne at the age of sixteen. Alarmed by Italy 's recent invasion of Ethiopia, he signed the Anglo - Egyptian Treaty, requiring Britain to withdraw all troops from Egypt, except at the Suez Canal (agreed to be evacuated by 1949). During World War II, British troops used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the region. British troops were withdrawn to the Suez Canal area in 1947, but nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the war. The Egyptian Revolution of 1952 overthrew the Egyptian monarchy, eliminated the British military presence in Egypt, and established the modern Republic of Egypt. During the period of British colonization French was actually the lingua franca that was used among foreigners and between foreigners and Egyptians; the mixed French - Egyptian civil courts operated in French, and government notices from the royal family, taxi stand information, timetables of trains, and other legal documents were issued in French. This was partly because of the fact that many well - off Egyptians received their education in French, but also because of the prominent status of the French language internationally. Despite efforts from British legal personnel, English was never adopted as a language of the Egyptian civil courts during the period of British influence. Foreigners tried for civil offenses attended mixed Egyptian - foreigner courts; these courts used the French language as the medium of proceedings. Courts operated by embassies and consulates tried their respective citizens in regards to criminal matters.

motion of the plates of earths crust is thought to be due to

Plate tectonics - Wikipedia Plate tectonics (from the Late Latin tectonicus, from the Greek: τεκτονικός "pertaining to building '') is a scientific theory describing the large - scale motion of seven large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the Earth 's lithosphere, since tectonic processes began on Earth between 3 to 3.5 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted plate - tectonic theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (the crust and upper mantle), is broken into tectonic plates. The Earth 's lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of boundary: convergent, divergent, or transform. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain - building, and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate boundaries (or faults). The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually. Tectonic plates are composed of oceanic lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust. Along convergent boundaries, subduction, or one plate moving under another, carries the lower one down into the mantle; the material lost is roughly balanced by the formation of new (oceanic) crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading. In this way, the total surface of the lithosphere remains the same. This prediction of plate tectonics is also referred to as the conveyor belt principle. Earlier theories, since disproven, proposed gradual shrinking (contraction) or gradual expansion of the globe. Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth 's lithosphere has greater mechanical strength than the underlying asthenosphere. Lateral density variations in the mantle result in convection; that is, the slow creeping motion of Earth 's solid mantle. Plate movement is thought to be driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor away from the spreading ridge (due to variations in topography and density of the crust, which result in differences in gravitational forces) and drag, with downward suction, at the subduction zones. Another explanation lies in the different forces generated by tidal forces of the Sun and Moon. The relative importance of each of these factors and their relationship to each other is unclear, and still the subject of much debate. The outer layers of the Earth are divided into the lithosphere and asthenosphere. The division is based on differences in mechanical properties and in the method for the transfer of heat. The lithosphere is cooler and more rigid, while the asthenosphere is hotter and flows more easily. In terms of heat transfer, the lithosphere loses heat by conduction, whereas the asthenosphere also transfers heat by convection and has a nearly adiabatic temperature gradient. This division should not be confused with the chemical subdivision of these same layers into the mantle (comprising both the asthenosphere and the mantle portion of the lithosphere) and the crust: a given piece of mantle may be part of the lithosphere or the asthenosphere at different times depending on its temperature and pressure. The key principle of plate tectonics is that the lithosphere exists as separate and distinct tectonic plates, which ride on the fluid - like (visco - elastic solid) asthenosphere. Plate motions range up to a typical 10 -- 40 mm / year (Mid-Atlantic Ridge; about as fast as fingernails grow), to about 160 mm / year (Nazca Plate; about as fast as hair grows). The driving mechanism behind this movement is described below. Tectonic lithosphere plates consist of lithospheric mantle overlain by one or two types of crustal material: oceanic crust (in older texts called sima from silicon and magnesium) and continental crust (sial from silicon and aluminium). Average oceanic lithosphere is typically 100 km (62 mi) thick; its thickness is a function of its age: as time passes, it conductively cools and subjacent cooling mantle is added to its base. Because it is formed at mid-ocean ridges and spreads outwards, its thickness is therefore a function of its distance from the mid-ocean ridge where it was formed. For a typical distance that oceanic lithosphere must travel before being subducted, the thickness varies from about 6 km (4 mi) thick at mid-ocean ridges to greater than 100 km (62 mi) at subduction zones; for shorter or longer distances, the subduction zone (and therefore also the mean) thickness becomes smaller or larger, respectively. Continental lithosphere is typically about 200 km thick, though this varies considerably between basins, mountain ranges, and stable cratonic interiors of continents. The location where two plates meet is called a plate boundary. Plate boundaries are commonly associated with geological events such as earthquakes and the creation of topographic features such as mountains, volcanoes, mid-ocean ridges, and oceanic trenches. The majority of the world 's active volcanoes occur along plate boundaries, with the Pacific Plate 's Ring of Fire being the most active and widely known today. These boundaries are discussed in further detail below. Some volcanoes occur in the interiors of plates, and these have been variously attributed to internal plate deformation and to mantle plumes. As explained above, tectonic plates may include continental crust or oceanic crust, and most plates contain both. For example, the African Plate includes the continent and parts of the floor of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The distinction between oceanic crust and continental crust is based on their modes of formation. Oceanic crust is formed at sea - floor spreading centers, and continental crust is formed through arc volcanism and accretion of terranes through tectonic processes, though some of these terranes may contain ophiolite sequences, which are pieces of oceanic crust considered to be part of the continent when they exit the standard cycle of formation and spreading centers and subduction beneath continents. Oceanic crust is also denser than continental crust owing to their different compositions. Oceanic crust is denser because it has less silicon and more heavier elements ("mafic '') than continental crust ("felsic ''). As a result of this density stratification, oceanic crust generally lies below sea level (for example most of the Pacific Plate), while continental crust buoyantly projects above sea level (see the page isostasy for explanation of this principle). Three types of plate boundaries exist, with a fourth, mixed type, characterized by the way the plates move relative to each other. They are associated with different types of surface phenomena. The different types of plate boundaries are: It has generally been accepted that tectonic plates are able to move because of the relative density of oceanic lithosphere and the relative weakness of the asthenosphere. Dissipation of heat from the mantle is acknowledged to be the original source of the energy required to drive plate tectonics through convection or large scale upwelling and doming. The current view, though still a matter of some debate, asserts that as a consequence, a powerful source of plate motion is generated due to the excess density of the oceanic lithosphere sinking in subduction zones. When the new crust forms at mid-ocean ridges, this oceanic lithosphere is initially less dense than the underlying asthenosphere, but it becomes denser with age as it conductively cools and thickens. The greater density of old lithosphere relative to the underlying asthenosphere allows it to sink into the deep mantle at subduction zones, providing most of the driving force for plate movement. The weakness of the asthenosphere allows the tectonic plates to move easily towards a subduction zone. Although subduction is thought to be the strongest force driving plate motions, it can not be the only force since there are plates such as the North American Plate which are moving, yet are nowhere being subducted. The same is true for the enormous Eurasian Plate. The sources of plate motion are a matter of intensive research and discussion among scientists. One of the main points is that the kinematic pattern of the movement itself should be separated clearly from the possible geodynamic mechanism that is invoked as the driving force of the observed movement, as some patterns may be explained by more than one mechanism. In short, the driving forces advocated at the moment can be divided into three categories based on the relationship to the movement: mantle dynamics related, gravity related (mostly secondary forces), and earth rotation related. For much of the last quarter century, the leading theory of the driving force behind tectonic plate motions envisaged large scale convection currents in the upper mantle, which can be transmitted through the asthenosphere. This theory was launched by Arthur Holmes and some forerunners in the 1930s and was immediately recognized as the solution for the acceptance of the theory as originally discussed in the papers of Alfred Wegener in the early years of the century. However, despite its acceptance, it was long debated in the scientific community because the leading theory still envisaged a static Earth without moving continents up until the major breakthroughs of the early sixties. Two - and three - dimensional imaging of Earth 's interior (seismic tomography) shows a varying lateral density distribution throughout the mantle. Such density variations can be material (from rock chemistry), mineral (from variations in mineral structures), or thermal (through thermal expansion and contraction from heat energy). The manifestation of this varying lateral density is mantle convection from buoyancy forces. How mantle convection directly and indirectly relates to plate motion is a matter of ongoing study and discussion in geodynamics. Somehow, this energy must be transferred to the lithosphere for tectonic plates to move. There are essentially two main types of forces that are thought to influence plate motion: friction and gravity. Lately, the convection theory has been much debated, as modern techniques based on 3D seismic tomography still fail to recognize these predicted large scale convection cells; therefore, alternative views have been proposed: In the theory of plume tectonics developed during the 1990s, a modified concept of mantle convection currents is used. It asserts that super plumes rise from the deeper mantle and are the drivers or substitutes of the major convection cells. These ideas, which find their roots in the early 1930s with the so - called "fixistic '' ideas of the European and Russian Earth Science Schools, find resonance in the modern theories which envisage hot spots or mantle plumes which remain fixed and are overridden by oceanic and continental lithosphere plates over time and leave their traces in the geological record (though these phenomena are not invoked as real driving mechanisms, but rather as modulators). Modern theories that continue building on the older mantle doming concepts and see plate movements as a secondary phenomena are beyond the scope of this page and are discussed elsewhere (for example on the Plume tectonics page). Another theory is that the mantle flows neither in cells nor large plumes but rather as a series of channels just below the Earth 's crust, which then provide basal friction to the lithosphere. This theory, called "surge tectonics '', became quite popular in geophysics and geodynamics during the 1980s and 1990s. Recent research, based on three - dimensional computer modeling, suggests that plate geometry is governed by a feedback between mantle convection patterns and the strength of the lithosphere. Forces related to gravity are usually invoked as secondary phenomena within the framework of a more general driving mechanism such as the various forms of mantle dynamics described above. Gravitational sliding away from a spreading ridge: According to many authors, plate motion is driven by the higher elevation of plates at ocean ridges. As oceanic lithosphere is formed at spreading ridges from hot mantle material, it gradually cools and thickens with age (and thus adds distance from the ridge). Cool oceanic lithosphere is significantly denser than the hot mantle material from which it is derived and so with increasing thickness it gradually subsides into the mantle to compensate the greater load. The result is a slight lateral incline with increased distance from the ridge axis. This force is regarded as a secondary force and is often referred to as "ridge push ''. This is a misnomer as nothing is "pushing '' horizontally and tensional features are dominant along ridges. It is more accurate to refer to this mechanism as gravitational sliding as variable topography across the totality of the plate can vary considerably and the topography of spreading ridges is only the most prominent feature. Other mechanisms generating this gravitational secondary force include flexural bulging of the lithosphere before it dives underneath an adjacent plate which produces a clear topographical feature that can offset, or at least affect, the influence of topographical ocean ridges, and mantle plumes and hot spots, which are postulated to impinge on the underside of tectonic plates. Slab - pull: Current scientific opinion is that the asthenosphere is insufficiently competent or rigid to directly cause motion by friction along the base of the lithosphere. Slab pull is therefore most widely thought to be the greatest force acting on the plates. In this current understanding, plate motion is mostly driven by the weight of cold, dense plates sinking into the mantle at trenches. Recent models indicate that trench suction plays an important role as well. However, the fact that the North American Plate is nowhere being subducted, although it is in motion, presents a problem. The same holds for the African, Eurasian, and Antarctic plates. Gravitational sliding away from mantle doming: According to older theories, one of the driving mechanisms of the plates is the existence of large scale asthenosphere / mantle domes which cause the gravitational sliding of lithosphere plates away from them. This gravitational sliding represents a secondary phenomenon of this basically vertically oriented mechanism. This can act on various scales, from the small scale of one island arc up to the larger scale of an entire ocean basin. Alfred Wegener, being a meteorologist, had proposed tidal forces and pole flight force as the main driving mechanisms behind continental drift; however, these forces were considered far too small to cause continental motion as the concept then was of continents plowing through oceanic crust. Therefore, Wegener later changed his position and asserted that convection currents are the main driving force of plate tectonics in the last edition of his book in 1929. However, in the plate tectonics context (accepted since the seafloor spreading proposals of Heezen, Hess, Dietz, Morley, Vine, and Matthews (see below) during the early 1960s), the oceanic crust is suggested to be in motion with the continents which caused the proposals related to Earth rotation to be reconsidered. In more recent literature, these driving forces are: Forces that are small and generally negligible are: For these mechanisms to be overall valid, systematic relationships should exist all over the globe between the orientation and kinematics of deformation and the geographical latitudinal and longitudinal grid of the Earth itself. Ironically, these systematic relations studies in the second half of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century underline exactly the opposite: that the plates had not moved in time, that the deformation grid was fixed with respect to the Earth equator and axis, and that gravitational driving forces were generally acting vertically and caused only local horizontal movements (the so - called pre-plate tectonic, "fixist theories ''). Later studies (discussed below on this page), therefore, invoked many of the relationships recognized during this pre-plate tectonics period to support their theories (see the anticipations and reviews in the work of van Dijk and collaborators). Of the many forces discussed in this paragraph, tidal force is still highly debated and defended as a possible principle driving force of plate tectonics. The other forces are only used in global geodynamic models not using plate tectonics concepts (therefore beyond the discussions treated in this section) or proposed as minor modulations within the overall plate tectonics model. In 1973, George W. Moore of the USGS and R.C. Bostrom presented evidence for a general westward drift of the Earth 's lithosphere with respect to the mantle. He concluded that tidal forces (the tidal lag or "friction '') caused by the Earth 's rotation and the forces acting upon it by the Moon are a driving force for plate tectonics. As the Earth spins eastward beneath the moon, the moon 's gravity ever so slightly pulls the Earth 's surface layer back westward, just as proposed by Alfred Wegener (see above). In a more recent 2006 study, scientists reviewed and advocated these earlier proposed ideas. It has also been suggested recently in Lovett (2006) that this observation may also explain why Venus and Mars have no plate tectonics, as Venus has no moon and Mars ' moons are too small to have significant tidal effects on the planet. In a recent paper, it was suggested that, on the other hand, it can easily be observed that many plates are moving north and eastward, and that the dominantly westward motion of the Pacific Ocean basins derives simply from the eastward bias of the Pacific spreading center (which is not a predicted manifestation of such lunar forces). In the same paper the authors admit, however, that relative to the lower mantle, there is a slight westward component in the motions of all the plates. They demonstrated though that the westward drift, seen only for the past 30 Ma, is attributed to the increased dominance of the steadily growing and accelerating Pacific plate. The debate is still open. The vector of a plate 's motion is a function of all the forces acting on the plate; however, therein lies the problem regarding the degree to which each process contributes to the overall motion of each tectonic plate. The diversity of geodynamic settings and the properties of each plate result from the impact of the various processes actively driving each individual plate. One method of dealing with this problem is to consider the relative rate at which each plate is moving as well as the evidence related to the significance of each process to the overall driving force on the plate. One of the most significant correlations discovered to date is that lithospheric plates attached to downgoing (subducting) plates move much faster than plates not attached to subducting plates. The Pacific plate, for instance, is essentially surrounded by zones of subduction (the so - called Ring of Fire) and moves much faster than the plates of the Atlantic basin, which are attached (perhaps one could say ' welded ') to adjacent continents instead of subducting plates. It is thus thought that forces associated with the downgoing plate (slab pull and slab suction) are the driving forces which determine the motion of plates, except for those plates which are not being subducted. This view however has been contradicted by a recent study which found that the actual motions of the Pacific Plate and other plates associated with the East Pacific Rise do not correlate mainly with either slab pull or slab push, but rather with a mantle convection upwelling whose horizontal spreading along the bases of the various plates drives them along via viscosity - related traction forces. The driving forces of plate motion continue to be active subjects of on - going research within geophysics and tectonophysics. In line with other previous and contemporaneous proposals, in 1912 the meteorologist Alfred Wegener amply described what he called continental drift, expanded in his 1915 book The Origin of Continents and Oceans and the scientific debate started that would end up fifty years later in the theory of plate tectonics. Starting from the idea (also expressed by his forerunners) that the present continents once formed a single land mass (which was called Pangea later on) that drifted apart, thus releasing the continents from the Earth 's mantle and likening them to "icebergs '' of low density granite floating on a sea of denser basalt. Supporting evidence for the idea came from the dove - tailing outlines of South America 's east coast and Africa 's west coast, and from the matching of the rock formations along these edges. Confirmation of their previous contiguous nature also came from the fossil plants Glossopteris and Gangamopteris, and the therapsid or mammal - like reptile Lystrosaurus, all widely distributed over South America, Africa, Antarctica, India, and Australia. The evidence for such an erstwhile joining of these continents was patent to field geologists working in the southern hemisphere. The South African Alex du Toit put together a mass of such information in his 1937 publication Our Wandering Continents, and went further than Wegener in recognising the strong links between the Gondwana fragments. But without detailed evidence and a force sufficient to drive the movement, the theory was not generally accepted: the Earth might have a solid crust and mantle and a liquid core, but there seemed to be no way that portions of the crust could move around. Distinguished scientists, such as Harold Jeffreys and Charles Schuchert, were outspoken critics of continental drift. Despite much opposition, the view of continental drift gained support and a lively debate started between "drifters '' or "mobilists '' (proponents of the theory) and "fixists '' (opponents). During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, the former reached important milestones proposing that convection currents might have driven the plate movements, and that spreading may have occurred below the sea within the oceanic crust. Concepts close to the elements now incorporated in plate tectonics were proposed by geophysicists and geologists (both fixists and mobilists) like Vening - Meinesz, Holmes, and Umbgrove. One of the first pieces of geophysical evidence that was used to support the movement of lithospheric plates came from paleomagnetism. This is based on the fact that rocks of different ages show a variable magnetic field direction, evidenced by studies since the mid -- nineteenth century. The magnetic north and south poles reverse through time, and, especially important in paleotectonic studies, the relative position of the magnetic north pole varies through time. Initially, during the first half of the twentieth century, the latter phenomenon was explained by introducing what was called "polar wander '' (see apparent polar wander), i.e., it was assumed that the north pole location had been shifting through time. An alternative explanation, though, was that the continents had moved (shifted and rotated) relative to the north pole, and each continent, in fact, shows its own "polar wander path ''. During the late 1950s it was successfully shown on two occasions that these data could show the validity of continental drift: by Keith Runcorn in a paper in 1956, and by Warren Carey in a symposium held in March 1956. The second piece of evidence in support of continental drift came during the late 1950s and early 60s from data on the bathymetry of the deep ocean floors and the nature of the oceanic crust such as magnetic properties and, more generally, with the development of marine geology which gave evidence for the association of seafloor spreading along the mid-oceanic ridges and magnetic field reversals, published between 1959 and 1963 by Heezen, Dietz, Hess, Mason, Vine & Matthews, and Morley. Simultaneous advances in early seismic imaging techniques in and around Wadati -- Benioff zones along the trenches bounding many continental margins, together with many other geophysical (e.g. gravimetric) and geological observations, showed how the oceanic crust could disappear into the mantle, providing the mechanism to balance the extension of the ocean basins with shortening along its margins. All this evidence, both from the ocean floor and from the continental margins, made it clear around 1965 that continental drift was feasible and the theory of plate tectonics, which was defined in a series of papers between 1965 and 1967, was born, with all its extraordinary explanatory and predictive power. The theory revolutionized the Earth sciences, explaining a diverse range of geological phenomena and their implications in other studies such as paleogeography and paleobiology. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, geologists assumed that the Earth 's major features were fixed, and that most geologic features such as basin development and mountain ranges could be explained by vertical crustal movement, described in what is called the geosynclinal theory. Generally, this was placed in the context of a contracting planet Earth due to heat loss in the course of a relatively short geological time. It was observed as early as 1596 that the opposite coasts of the Atlantic Ocean -- or, more precisely, the edges of the continental shelves -- have similar shapes and seem to have once fitted together. Since that time many theories were proposed to explain this apparent complementarity, but the assumption of a solid Earth made these various proposals difficult to accept. The discovery of radioactivity and its associated heating properties in 1895 prompted a re-examination of the apparent age of the Earth. This had previously been estimated by its cooling rate under the assumption that the Earth 's surface radiated like a black body. Those calculations had implied that, even if it started at red heat, the Earth would have dropped to its present temperature in a few tens of millions of years. Armed with the knowledge of a new heat source, scientists realized that the Earth would be much older, and that its core was still sufficiently hot to be liquid. By 1915, after having published a first article in 1912, Alfred Wegener was making serious arguments for the idea of continental drift in the first edition of The Origin of Continents and Oceans. In that book (re-issued in four successive editions up to the final one in 1936), he noted how the east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa looked as if they were once attached. Wegener was not the first to note this (Abraham Ortelius, Antonio Snider - Pellegrini, Eduard Suess, Roberto Mantovani and Frank Bursley Taylor preceded him just to mention a few), but he was the first to marshal significant fossil and paleo - topographical and climatological evidence to support this simple observation (and was supported in this by researchers such as Alex du Toit). Furthermore, when the rock strata of the margins of separate continents are very similar it suggests that these rocks were formed in the same way, implying that they were joined initially. For instance, parts of Scotland and Ireland contain rocks very similar to those found in Newfoundland and New Brunswick. Furthermore, the Caledonian Mountains of Europe and parts of the Appalachian Mountains of North America are very similar in structure and lithology. However, his ideas were not taken seriously by many geologists, who pointed out that there was no apparent mechanism for continental drift. Specifically, they did not see how continental rock could plow through the much denser rock that makes up oceanic crust. Wegener could not explain the force that drove continental drift, and his vindication did not come until after his death in 1930. As it was observed early that although granite existed on continents, seafloor seemed to be composed of denser basalt, the prevailing concept during the first half of the twentieth century was that there were two types of crust, named "sial '' (continental type crust) and "sima '' (oceanic type crust). Furthermore, it was supposed that a static shell of strata was present under the continents. It therefore looked apparent that a layer of basalt (sial) underlies the continental rocks. However, based on abnormalities in plumb line deflection by the Andes in Peru, Pierre Bouguer had deduced that less - dense mountains must have a downward projection into the denser layer underneath. The concept that mountains had "roots '' was confirmed by George B. Airy a hundred years later, during study of Himalayan gravitation, and seismic studies detected corresponding density variations. Therefore, by the mid-1950s, the question remained unresolved as to whether mountain roots were clenched in surrounding basalt or were floating on it like an iceberg. During the 20th century, improvements in and greater use of seismic instruments such as seismographs enabled scientists to learn that earthquakes tend to be concentrated in specific areas, most notably along the oceanic trenches and spreading ridges. By the late 1920s, seismologists were beginning to identify several prominent earthquake zones parallel to the trenches that typically were inclined 40 -- 60 ° from the horizontal and extended several hundred kilometers into the Earth. These zones later became known as Wadati -- Benioff zones, or simply Benioff zones, in honor of the seismologists who first recognized them, Kiyoo Wadati of Japan and Hugo Benioff of the United States. The study of global seismicity greatly advanced in the 1960s with the establishment of the Worldwide Standardized Seismograph Network (WWSSN) to monitor the compliance of the 1963 treaty banning above - ground testing of nuclear weapons. The much improved data from the WWSSN instruments allowed seismologists to map precisely the zones of earthquake concentration worldwide. Meanwhile, debates developed around the phenomena of polar wander. Since the early debates of continental drift, scientists had discussed and used evidence that polar drift had occurred because continents seemed to have moved through different climatic zones during the past. Furthermore, paleomagnetic data had shown that the magnetic pole had also shifted during time. Reasoning in an opposite way, the continents might have shifted and rotated, while the pole remained relatively fixed. The first time the evidence of magnetic polar wander was used to support the movements of continents was in a paper by Keith Runcorn in 1956, and successive papers by him and his students Ted Irving (who was actually the first to be convinced of the fact that paleomagnetism supported continental drift) and Ken Creer. This was immediately followed by a symposium in Tasmania in March 1956. In this symposium, the evidence was used in the theory of an expansion of the global crust. In this hypothesis the shifting of the continents can be simply explained by a large increase in size of the Earth since its formation. However, this was unsatisfactory because its supporters could offer no convincing mechanism to produce a significant expansion of the Earth. Certainly there is no evidence that the moon has expanded in the past 3 billion years; other work would soon show that the evidence was equally in support of continental drift on a globe with a stable radius. During the thirties up to the late fifties, works by Vening - Meinesz, Holmes, Umbgrove, and numerous others outlined concepts that were close or nearly identical to modern plate tectonics theory. In particular, the English geologist Arthur Holmes proposed in 1920 that plate junctions might lie beneath the sea, and in 1928 that convection currents within the mantle might be the driving force. Often, these contributions are forgotten because: In 1947, a team of scientists led by Maurice Ewing utilizing the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 's research vessel Atlantis and an array of instruments, confirmed the existence of a rise in the central Atlantic Ocean, and found that the floor of the seabed beneath the layer of sediments consisted of basalt, not the granite which is the main constituent of continents. They also found that the oceanic crust was much thinner than continental crust. All these new findings raised important and intriguing questions. The new data that had been collected on the ocean basins also showed particular characteristics regarding the bathymetry. One of the major outcomes of these datasets was that all along the globe, a system of mid-oceanic ridges was detected. An important conclusion was that along this system, new ocean floor was being created, which led to the concept of the "Great Global Rift ''. This was described in the crucial paper of Bruce Heezen (1960), which would trigger a real revolution in thinking. A profound consequence of seafloor spreading is that new crust was, and still is, being continually created along the oceanic ridges. Therefore, Heezen advocated the so - called "expanding Earth '' hypothesis of S. Warren Carey (see above). So, still the question remained: how can new crust be continuously added along the oceanic ridges without increasing the size of the Earth? In reality, this question had been solved already by numerous scientists during the forties and the fifties, like Arthur Holmes, Vening - Meinesz, Coates and many others: The crust in excess disappeared along what were called the oceanic trenches, where so - called "subduction '' occurred. Therefore, when various scientists during the early sixties started to reason on the data at their disposal regarding the ocean floor, the pieces of the theory quickly fell into place. The question particularly intrigued Harry Hammond Hess, a Princeton University geologist and a Naval Reserve Rear Admiral, and Robert S. Dietz, a scientist with the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey who first coined the term seafloor spreading. Dietz and Hess (the former published the same idea one year earlier in Nature, but priority belongs to Hess who had already distributed an unpublished manuscript of his 1962 article by 1960) were among the small handful who really understood the broad implications of sea floor spreading and how it would eventually agree with the, at that time, unconventional and unaccepted ideas of continental drift and the elegant and mobilistic models proposed by previous workers like Holmes. In the same year, Robert R. Coats of the U.S. Geological Survey described the main features of island arc subduction in the Aleutian Islands. His paper, though little noted (and even ridiculed) at the time, has since been called "seminal '' and "prescient ''. In reality, it actually shows that the work by the European scientists on island arcs and mountain belts performed and published during the 1930s up until the 1950s was applied and appreciated also in the United States. If the Earth 's crust was expanding along the oceanic ridges, Hess and Dietz reasoned like Holmes and others before them, it must be shrinking elsewhere. Hess followed Heezen, suggesting that new oceanic crust continuously spreads away from the ridges in a conveyor belt -- like motion. And, using the mobilistic concepts developed before, he correctly concluded that many millions of years later, the oceanic crust eventually descends along the continental margins where oceanic trenches -- very deep, narrow canyons -- are formed, e.g. along the rim of the Pacific Ocean basin. The important step Hess made was that convection currents would be the driving force in this process, arriving at the same conclusions as Holmes had decades before with the only difference that the thinning of the ocean crust was performed using Heezen 's mechanism of spreading along the ridges. Hess therefore concluded that the Atlantic Ocean was expanding while the Pacific Ocean was shrinking. As old oceanic crust is "consumed '' in the trenches (like Holmes and others, he thought this was done by thickening of the continental lithosphere, not, as now understood, by underthrusting at a larger scale of the oceanic crust itself into the mantle), new magma rises and erupts along the spreading ridges to form new crust. In effect, the ocean basins are perpetually being "recycled, '' with the creation of new crust and the destruction of old oceanic lithosphere occurring simultaneously. Thus, the new mobilistic concepts neatly explained why the Earth does not get bigger with sea floor spreading, why there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean floor, and why oceanic rocks are much younger than continental rocks. Beginning in the 1950s, scientists like Victor Vacquier, using magnetic instruments (magnetometers) adapted from airborne devices developed during World War II to detect submarines, began recognizing odd magnetic variations across the ocean floor. This finding, though unexpected, was not entirely surprising because it was known that basalt -- the iron - rich, volcanic rock making up the ocean floor -- contains a strongly magnetic mineral (magnetite) and can locally distort compass readings. This distortion was recognized by Icelandic mariners as early as the late 18th century. More important, because the presence of magnetite gives the basalt measurable magnetic properties, these newly discovered magnetic variations provided another means to study the deep ocean floor. When newly formed rock cools, such magnetic materials recorded the Earth 's magnetic field at the time. As more and more of the seafloor was mapped during the 1950s, the magnetic variations turned out not to be random or isolated occurrences, but instead revealed recognizable patterns. When these magnetic patterns were mapped over a wide region, the ocean floor showed a zebra - like pattern: one stripe with normal polarity and the adjoining stripe with reversed polarity. The overall pattern, defined by these alternating bands of normally and reversely polarized rock, became known as magnetic striping, and was published by Ron G. Mason and co-workers in 1961, who did not find, though, an explanation for these data in terms of sea floor spreading, like Vine, Matthews and Morley a few years later. The discovery of magnetic striping called for an explanation. In the early 1960s scientists such as Heezen, Hess and Dietz had begun to theorise that mid-ocean ridges mark structurally weak zones where the ocean floor was being ripped in two lengthwise along the ridge crest (see the previous paragraph). New magma from deep within the Earth rises easily through these weak zones and eventually erupts along the crest of the ridges to create new oceanic crust. This process, at first denominated the "conveyer belt hypothesis '' and later called seafloor spreading, operating over many millions of years continues to form new ocean floor all across the 50,000 km - long system of mid-ocean ridges. Only four years after the maps with the "zebra pattern '' of magnetic stripes were published, the link between sea floor spreading and these patterns was correctly placed, independently by Lawrence Morley, and by Fred Vine and Drummond Matthews, in 1963, now called the Vine - Matthews - Morley hypothesis. This hypothesis linked these patterns to geomagnetic reversals and was supported by several lines of evidence: By explaining both the zebra - like magnetic striping and the construction of the mid-ocean ridge system, the seafloor spreading hypothesis (SFS) quickly gained converts and represented another major advance in the development of the plate - tectonics theory. Furthermore, the oceanic crust now came to be appreciated as a natural "tape recording '' of the history of the geomagnetic field reversals (GMFR) of the Earth 's magnetic field. Today, extensive studies are dedicated to the calibration of the normal - reversal patterns in the oceanic crust on one hand and known timescales derived from the dating of basalt layers in sedimentary sequences (magnetostratigraphy) on the other, to arrive at estimates of past spreading rates and plate reconstructions. After all these considerations, Plate Tectonics (or, as it was initially called "New Global Tectonics '') became quickly accepted in the scientific world, and numerous papers followed that defined the concepts: Continental drift theory helps biogeographers to explain the disjunct biogeographic distribution of present - day life found on different continents but having similar ancestors. In particular, it explains the Gondwanan distribution of ratites and the Antarctic flora. Reconstruction is used to establish past (and future) plate configurations, helping determine the shape and make - up of ancient supercontinents and providing a basis for paleogeography. Current plate boundaries are defined by their seismicity. Past plate boundaries within existing plates are identified from a variety of evidence, such as the presence of ophiolites that are indicative of vanished oceans. Tectonic motion is believed to have begun around 3 to 3.5 billion years ago. Various types of quantitative and semi-quantitative information are available to constrain past plate motions. The geometric fit between continents, such as between west Africa and South America is still an important part of plate reconstruction. Magnetic stripe patterns provide a reliable guide to relative plate motions going back into the Jurassic period. The tracks of hotspots give absolute reconstructions, but these are only available back to the Cretaceous. Older reconstructions rely mainly on paleomagnetic pole data, although these only constrain the latitude and rotation, but not the longitude. Combining poles of different ages in a particular plate to produce apparent polar wander paths provides a method for comparing the motions of different plates through time. Additional evidence comes from the distribution of certain sedimentary rock types, faunal provinces shown by particular fossil groups, and the position of orogenic belts. The movement of plates has caused the formation and break - up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a supercontinent that contains most or all of the continents. The supercontinent Columbia or Nuna formed during a period of 2,000 to 1,800 million years ago and broke up about 1,500 to 1,300 million years ago. The supercontinent Rodinia is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago and to have embodied most or all of Earth 's continents, and broken up into eight continents around 600 million years ago. The eight continents later re-assembled into another supercontinent called Pangaea; Pangaea broke up into Laurasia (which became North America and Eurasia) and Gondwana (which became the remaining continents). The Himalayas, the world 's tallest mountain range, are assumed to have been formed by the collision of two major plates. Before uplift, they were covered by the Tethys Ocean. Depending on how they are defined, there are usually seven or eight "major '' plates: African, Antarctic, Eurasian, North American, South American, Pacific, and Indo - Australian. The latter is sometimes subdivided into the Indian and Australian plates. There are dozens of smaller plates, the seven largest of which are the Arabian, Caribbean, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Nazca, Philippine Sea, and Scotia. The current motion of the tectonic plates is today determined by remote sensing satellite data sets, calibrated with ground station measurements. The appearance of plate tectonics on terrestrial planets is related to planetary mass, with more massive planets than Earth expected to exhibit plate tectonics. Earth may be a borderline case, owing its tectonic activity to abundant water (silica and water form a deep eutectic.) Venus shows no evidence of active plate tectonics. There is debatable evidence of active tectonics in the planet 's distant past; however, events taking place since then (such as the plausible and generally accepted hypothesis that the Venusian lithosphere has thickened greatly over the course of several hundred million years) has made constraining the course of its geologic record difficult. However, the numerous well - preserved impact craters have been utilized as a dating method to approximately date the Venusian surface (since there are thus far no known samples of Venusian rock to be dated by more reliable methods). Dates derived are dominantly in the range 500 to 750 million years ago, although ages of up to 1,200 million years ago have been calculated. This research has led to the fairly well accepted hypothesis that Venus has undergone an essentially complete volcanic resurfacing at least once in its distant past, with the last event taking place approximately within the range of estimated surface ages. While the mechanism of such an impressive thermal event remains a debated issue in Venusian geosciences, some scientists are advocates of processes involving plate motion to some extent. One explanation for Venus 's lack of plate tectonics is that on Venus temperatures are too high for significant water to be present. The Earth 's crust is soaked with water, and water plays an important role in the development of shear zones. Plate tectonics requires weak surfaces in the crust along which crustal slices can move, and it may well be that such weakening never took place on Venus because of the absence of water. However, some researchers remain convinced that plate tectonics is or was once active on this planet. Mars is considerably smaller than Earth and Venus, and there is evidence for ice on its surface and in its crust. In the 1990s, it was proposed that Martian Crustal Dichotomy was created by plate tectonic processes. Scientists today disagree, and think that it was created either by upwelling within the Martian mantle that thickened the crust of the Southern Highlands and formed Tharsis or by a giant impact that excavated the Northern Lowlands. Valles Marineris may be a tectonic boundary. Observations made of the magnetic field of Mars by the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft in 1999 showed patterns of magnetic striping discovered on this planet. Some scientists interpreted these as requiring plate tectonic processes, such as seafloor spreading. However, their data fail a "magnetic reversal test '', which is used to see if they were formed by flipping polarities of a global magnetic field. Some of the satellites of Jupiter have features that may be related to plate - tectonic style deformation, although the materials and specific mechanisms may be different from plate - tectonic activity on Earth. On 8 September 2014, NASA reported finding evidence of plate tectonics on Europa, a satellite of Jupiter -- the first sign of subduction activity on another world other than Earth. Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, was reported to show tectonic activity in images taken by the Huygens probe, which landed on Titan on January 14, 2005. On Earth - sized planets, plate tectonics is more likely if there are oceans of water. However, in 2007, two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger super-Earths with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-earths even if the planet is dry.

where do the toronto blue jays do spring training

Dunedin Stadium (Florida) - wikipedia Dunedin Stadium (originally Dunedin Stadium at Grant Field) is a baseball field located in Dunedin, Florida. The stadium was built in 1990 and holds 5,509 people. It is the spring training home of the Toronto Blue Jays, as well as home to the Dunedin Blue Jays of the Class A Florida State League and the Dunedin High School Falcons baseball team. The stadium has also been known as Knology Park (2004 -- 2008) and Florida Auto Exchange Stadium (2010 -- 2017). From 1977 to 1989, the Blue Jays played at Grant Field, which had a seating capacity of 3,417. Grant Field opened in 1930 and was named after the mayor of Dunedin Albert J. Grant, who had donated the land. The first Toronto Blue Jays game ever was played there on March 11, 1977 when the Blue Jays beat the New York Mets 3 -- 1. In 1990, at a cost of approximately $2.4 million, the City of Dunedin built a new stadium called Dunedin Stadium at the same location as Grant Field. It had a capacity of 6,106. The actual playing field and team clubhouses did not change. In the fall of 2000, the Toronto Blue Jays signed an agreement to remain in Dunedin for an additional 15 years pending a $12 - million renovation. The state of Florida paid $6 million, Pinellas County $3 million, and the Jays and Dunedin paid the remainder for the renovations. The agreement took effect in March 2002. Part of the renovations have included a new two - story building that includes a clubhouse, training room, weight room, and office space that was built next to the stadium. The most recent renovations at Dunedin Stadium include remodeled restrooms and replacement of the grandstand seats. In February 1995, during the Major League Baseball strike, the Blue Jays considered holding regular season games at Dunedin Stadium if the regular season began with replacement players. Ontario law forbade the Blue Jays from using replacement players in Toronto. American League officials inspected the ballpark on February 21, 1995 in response to the club 's request to host games in Dunedin. The strike ended in March 1995 and no regular season games were played at the park. Dunedin Stadium was once ranked by Sports Illustrated as one of the top five facilities to watch a Major League Baseball Spring training game. Dunedin has been the only spring home for the Toronto Blue Jays since their inception in 1977. The current park capacity is 5,509 individual seats and features include a press box level with air - conditioned skyboxes, three picnic areas, two air - conditioned rooms, a scoreboard with electronic message display, regulation - sized Major League playing field and lighting, two half - fields (one natural grass and one artificial turf), batting tunnels, and full concession capabilities. In addition, the administrative offices feature an executive boardroom, dining room and kitchen, classroom, clubhouse and workout and training facilities. The Jays lease of the facility runs through 2017, but they have the option to extend it by an additional five years twice. After investigating possible alternative sites to host their spring training facility, the Jays negotiated a $81 million renovation to the stadium ($33.3 million) and Englebert Complex ($47.8 million), which they would contribute $20 million to (plus any cost overruns) with the rest coming from the state ($13.7 million), county ($41.7 million) and city ($5.6 million) governments. The stadium capacity would be expanded from 5,500 to 8,500, with 6,500 fixed seats. The lease agreement for the stadium lasts for 25 years, with the option to renew for a further 2 years five times. The City Commission approved the deal in November 2017. The club retains all revenue from sales at concessions and parking at the stadium, while they share revenue from naming rights with the city. The county to approved a funding request for the project in April 2018, and construction is planned to begin by the end of 2018. Beginning in 2004 the stadium was known as Knology Park as part of a naming agreement with Knology, a southeastern United States communications and entertainment company. This agreement expired on September 30, 2008. On November 7, 2010, the City of Dunedin announced that it had reached a 7 - year, $181,000 agreement with the Florida Auto Exchange, a Dunedin car sales center, for the naming rights of Dunedin Stadium. The facility was renamed "Florida Auto Exchange Stadium '' until October 1, 2017 when the agreement expired.

when did we get an extra bank holiday

Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II - Wikipedia The Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II was a multinational celebration throughout 2012, that marked the 60th anniversary of the accession of Queen Elizabeth II on 6 February 1952. Queen Elizabeth is queen regnant of 16 sovereign states, known as Commonwealth realms, including the United Kingdom. The only other time in British history that a monarch celebrated a Diamond Jubilee was in 1897, when Queen Victoria celebrated hers. Commemorative events were held throughout the Commonwealth of Nations. Unlike the Queen 's Silver and Golden Jubilees, when the Queen toured most of her realms around the world, Elizabeth II and her husband Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, toured only the United Kingdom. Other parts of the Commonwealth were toured by her children and grandchildren as her representatives. At the 2011 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Perth, Australia, British Prime Minister David Cameron announced the creation of the Queen Elizabeth Diamond Jubilee Trust, which was officially launched in the UK on 6 February 2012. Chaired by former British prime minister Sir John Major, the trust is intended to support charitable organisations and projects across the Commonwealth of Nations, focusing on areas such as cures for diseases and the promotion of all types of culture and education. In early 2012, Prime Minister of Australia Julia Gillard announced the Australian Crown - in - Council would make an A $5.4 million contribution to the trust and the New Zealand Crown - in - Council later made a similar $1 million donation. The Canadian government announced in April that former prime minister Jean Chrétien would be Canada 's representative to the organisation. In February 2012, a senior advisor was quoted as saying the Queen set two guidelines for the planning of her jubilee: the use of public funds should be minimised and people should not "be forced to celebrate ''. The first major international event of the jubilee celebrations was the Diamond Jubilee Pageant, also branded The World Comes to Windsor, a cavalcade held at Windsor Castle to celebrate the Queen 's visits to and tours of over 250 countries, as well as her passion for horses. The show, which featured 550 horses and 1,100 performers from around the world, was performed in the evenings between 10 and 13 May, after the daytime events of the annual Royal Windsor Horse Show had taken place. The Queen attended the final night. On 18 May, the Queen hosted an informal lunch at Windsor Castle for more than twenty current or former monarchs from other countries. In the evening of the same day, the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall hosted a dinner that most of the monarchs also attended, although the Queen herself was not present. Criticism was directed at the presence of the King of Bahrain at the lunch, because of alleged repression of protests against the government of Bahrain in that country in 2011. In London, protesters against the King assembled outside Buckingham Palace during the dinner, although he did not attend that event. Google displayed a Google Doodle for the Diamond Jubilee on 2 June, featuring the Queen 's profile, corgis and diamonds. The following day, the Thames Diamond Jubilee Pageant was held; a maritime parade of 1,000 boats from around the Commonwealth -- the largest flotilla seen on the river in 350 years -- together with other celebrations along the river banks. Heavy rain started during the event and the commemorative airforce flyover at the end was cancelled due to very low cloud base and bad visibility at ground level. Along with almost all members of the Royal Family, various governors - general from the Commonwealth realms other than the UK were in attendance. Members of the Royal Family, governors - general, and prime ministers from the Commonwealth realms were present at various functions held on 4 and 5 June: A reception took place at Buckingham Palace before the Diamond Jubilee Concert and a service of thanksgiving was conducted the following day at St. Paul 's Cathedral, also attended by 2,000 other guests. Will Todd 's anthem "The Call of Wisdom '', commissioned specially for this event, was performed by the Diamond Choir, made up of about 40 children from around the UK. The Archbishop of Canterbury dedicated his sermon to the Queen, during which he noted her "lifelong dedication '' and stated that she "has made her ' public ' happy and all the signs are that she is herself happy, fulfilled and at home in these encounters. '' Another reception was held at London 's Guildhall and a luncheon took place at Lancaster House, hosted by the British Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs. A reception solely for governors - general was held by the Queen at Buckingham Palace. The lighting of thousands of beacons across the Commonwealth took place on 4 June. The number of beacons was originally set at 2,012; by the closing date for registrations, approximately 4,000 had been submitted in the United Kingdom alone. The first beacon of the Jubilee was lit on the grounds of Apifo'ou College in Nukuʻalofa, Tonga, by Tongan girl and Boy Scouts using coconut sheath torches. Other nations, including Kenya, Australia, New Zealand, India, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, and several Caribbean states, took part in the beacon lighting. The world 's most remote beacon was lit in Tristan da Cunha in the south Atlantic, using invasive, non-native plants to fuel the fire. In the United Kingdom, British servicemen and women wounded in battle and individuals representing charities carried beacons to the summits of the UK 's four highest peaks. One beacon was lit at Treetops Hotel in Aberdare National Park in Kenya, where the Queen was at the moment of her accession to the throne. The Queen lit the beacon outside Buckingham Palace at 10: 30 pm, by inserting a large, specially made, diamond - cut crystal into a receptacle. The lighting proceeded until the final beacon was lit in Canada eight hours later. The Queen 's husband, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, was hospitalised with a bladder infection on 4 June and thus was not able to attend any of the official events. In his speech given at the conclusion of the Diamond Jubilee Concert, the Prince of Wales commented on the sadness of his father 's absence and urged the crowd to cheer loud enough for the Duke to hear in hospital. Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, stated after visiting his father that the latter was watching the celebrations on television. The Queen visited the Duke the following day. That same evening, a pre-recorded message by the Queen was released and aired on television around the world. Elizabeth stated: "the events that I have attended to mark my Diamond Jubilee have been a humbling experience '' and also expressed her thanks to those who had organised the celebrations over the extended weekend, ending by saying: "I will continue to treasure and draw inspiration from the countless kindnesses shown to me in this country and throughout the Commonwealth. Thank you all. '' Quentin Bryce, the Governor - General of Australia, announced that the Diamond Jubilee would be celebrated "with a host of national and community events throughout the Commonwealth. '' In a similar vein, it was said in late 2011 that the government of Queensland was planning to declare a holiday in June 2012 to mark the jubilee. The Royal Australian Mint announced in August 2011 that it would be releasing a silver proof 50 - cent coin to celebrate the Queen 's Diamond Jubilee. Australia Post issued a series of special stamps to mark the occasion. Paying tribute to Elizabeth II as Queen of Australia in the House of Representatives on 6 February 2012, Prime Minister of Australia Julia Gillard stated the Queen was a revered figure in Australia. Gillard also announced that she would on 4 June light a beacon atop Parliament House and that a street in the parliamentary triangle in Canberra would be renamed Queen Elizabeth Terrace. Meanwhile, Western Australian Premier Colin Barnett announced on 28 May that a new waterfront development in Perth would be named Elizabeth Quay in the Queen 's honour. A detachment of the New South Wales Mounted Police performed at the Diamond Jubilee Pageant held at Windsor Castle in May 2012. At the end of the same month, Prince Charles presented Diamond Jubilee medals to those in the Victoria Cross and George Cross Association, including three Australian Victoria Cross recipients. A special ecumenical service was conducted in St James ' Church, Sydney, at which the invited preacher was Cardinal George Pell and the Governor of New South Wales, Marie Bashir, was the guest of honour. The Anglican Church of Australia also held a service of prayer and thanksgiving to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee at St John 's Cathedral in Brisbane, on 20 May 2012. The service was welcomed by Phillip Aspinall, Anglican Archbishop of Brisbane, and the Homily was given by Mark Coleridge, Catholic Archbishop of Brisbane. The guest of honour was the Governor of Queensland, Penelope Wensley, and Ian Walker represented the Queensland Cabinet. Between 5 and 10 November 2012, Charles, Prince of Wales, and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, toured the country, travelling to Queensland, Victoria, South Australia, New South Wales, and the Australian Capital Territory. They participated in community - led events celebrating the jubilee and ceremonies acknowledging the service of members of the Australian Defence Force, as well as attended the Melbourne Cup. Throughout, the couple met emergency services personnel, farmers, youth, and other Australians. Prince Harry toured The Bahamas. There, he attended a reception for youth leaders and met with Governor - General of the Bahamas Sir Arthur Foulkes. The Prince attended an outdoor ceremony where children 's schools, clubs, and associations presented themselves and delivered a speech at Government House, where he stated "I stand before you with a deep sense of pride at being asked to convey to you a message of good wishes from The Queen on the occasion of her Diamond Jubilee. '' He also took part in maritime exercises organised by the Royal Bahamas Defence Force and toured Harbour Island. To mark Elizabeth II 's 60 years as Barbados ' monarch -- as Queen of the United Kingdom between 1952 and 1966 and as Queen of Barbados thereafter -- the country hosted the Queen 's youngest son and his wife, the Earl and Countess of Wessex, between 23 and 24 February 2012. The tour began with Their Royal Highnesses arriving, aboard RFA Fort Rosalie, at the Deep Water Harbour of Bridgetown, where Barbadian military personnel were given inspection. To a joint sitting of the Parliament of Barbados, the Earl read a written message from the Queen, in which the monarch stated she has taken note of the level of development Barbados had achieved during its 45 years of independence and called the country a model small state for others around the world. Parliamentary officials responded with thanks to the Queen for her service to the country and Barbadians and invited her to the island to celebrate the 375th anniversary of the establishment of the Barbadian parliament in 2014. The visiting royal couple opened an exhibit at the University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus, and an official state dinner and reception was held at Government House in the evening. The following day, the Countess visited the Albert C. Graham Children 's Development Centre at Ladymeade Gardens, while the Earl presented eight Duke of Edinburgh 's Gold Awards to Barbadian youth at a dedication ceremony. Directly following, the couple travelled together to a ceremony to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee, where a plaque was unveiled at the Kensington Oval cricket stadium. Other events included Their Royal Highnesses lunching with Prime Minister Freundel Stuart at his residence, Ilaro Court, and touring several areas of Bridgetown that were added to UNESCO 's list of World Heritage Sites in 2011. As in other Commonwealth realms, a set of commemorative Diamond Jubilee stamps were released by the Barbados Postal Service. An ecumenical thanksgiving service was held at the St. Mary 's Anglican Church in Bridgetown on 3 June and a beacon lighting at the Garrison Savannah the following day, where an official Trooping of the Colour was performed by the Barbados Defence Force and military tattoo performed by the Royal Barbados Police Force. Members of the Barbados Boys Scout Association with high honours were chosen to aid in the actual beacon lighting. In Belize, the Governor - General - in - Council and the Belize Tourism Board organised a tour of the country by Prince Harry, between 2 and 3 March 2012, as part of the country 's celebrations of Elizabeth II 's 60th year as monarch of Belize, first as Queen of the United Kingdom and then, after 1981, as Queen of Belize. Harry visited Belmopan and San Ignacio where ceremonies and events had less emphasis on state protocol. In the capital, Harry unveiled a series of commemorative stamps issued by the Belize Postal Service, attended the city 's street festival, and dedicated a street as Queen Elizabeth II Boulevard, where he delivered a speech on the sovereign 's behalf. The following day, the Prince journeyed to the OAS Adjacency Zone on the Belize - Guatemala border, where he participated in a cultural programme and toured an immigration facility. He also visited Xunantunich and there met children involved with the Belize Special Olympics Programme and presented a canoe to the Ruta Maya Organization in commemoration of the diamond jubilee. Harry further visited the Price Barracks, where he met members of the Belize Coast Guard Service and Belize Defence Force and laid a wreath at the monument to British soldiers killed while on service in Belize. Forethought on the anniversary began as early as April 2007, when then - Secretary of State for Canadian Heritage Jason Kenney requested the various lieutenant governors begin preparations for the jubilee. Three years later, the question of a national holiday to mark the jubilee was raised in the media and a series of official announcements were made by the Minister of Canadian Heritage. The Secretary to the Queen, Kevin S. MacLeod, was charged by the Governor General - in - Council to head the Diamond Jubilee Committee (DJC) -- a 14 - member group of individuals drawn from the provincial and territorial governments, non-governmental organisations, officials from the Departments of Citizenship and Immigration, National Defence, and Canadian Heritage (DCH), and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police -- that oversaw the organisation of the country 's fêtes for Elizabeth II 's 60 years as Queen of Canada. Similarly, Premier of Alberta Ed Stelmach in February 2011 tasked the Alberta Chief of Protocol and the Private Secretary to the Lieutenant Governor of Alberta to form and head a committee to develop plans for the province 's Diamond Jubilee celebrations. As with other royal events, the DCH played a large role in organisation and planning. $7.5 million of resources, granted to the DCH in the previous budget approved by the federal parliament, was allocated for federal jubilee celebrations, education and awareness, and distribution to community groups; $2 million was for events in the Queen 's honour and $3.7 million was allocated for the Diamond Jubilee medal. The total amount was reduced by Minister of Canadian Heritage James Moore from the DJC 's original estimate of $8.8 million. The Queen, on 3 July 2010, dedicated the Queen Elizabeth II Gardens outside her official residence in Manitoba and there planted an Amber Jubilee Ninebark shrub, the cultivar having been created specifically for the Diamond Jubilee. At Rideau Hall in Ottawa, she also, on 30 June, unveiled a commemorative stained glass window depicting herself and Queen Victoria with their respective royal cyphers and renditions of the Centre Block of the Canadian parliament during the reign of each monarch. The window, a gift from the Canadian Senate, was installed above the Senate entrance to the Centre Block and dedicated by Governor General David Johnston on 7 February 2012. A corbel within the Sovereigns ' Arches of the Senate foyer was sculpted into a rendition of the Queen and unveiled on 9 December 2010 by the Governor General. The Royal Canadian Mint also issued an "extensive set '' of coins to mark the anniversary. Further, the Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery (RRCA) in 2011 presented the Queen, their captain - general since 1952, with a diamond and gold brooch, made by Birks & Mayors in the form of the regiment 's cap badge, and announced the creation of The Captain General 's Diamond Jubilee Bursary Award for educational activities of members of the RRCA and family. Diamond Jubilee Week began on Accession Day (6 February) 2012. That day, the monarch 's personal standard for Canada was unfurled at Rideau Hall and on Parliament Hill, as well as at provincial royal residences and legislatures across the country; permission was granted by the Queen to break the usual protocol of flying the banner only where the sovereign is physically present. At noon on the same day, the Peace Tower carillon played a tribute to Elizabeth II. The Prime Minister and the leader of the Liberal Party of Canada issued statements commending the Queen for her six decades of "dedicated service to our country, to the Commonwealth and to the world. '' Also on 6 and 7 February, the first of the 60,000 Canadian Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medals to be distributed to citizens and permanent residents were handed out by lieutenant governors, commissioners, and other dignitaries across the country; 60 individuals were given theirs personally by the Governor General at Rideau Hall. All federal Members of Parliament (MPs) received the award automatically and a few refused, some because they belonged to the Quebec separatist Bloc Québécois, and one because he felt the money being spent by the Crown on jubilee events and markers was a waste. Citizens for a Canadian Republic claimed that day that the government 's spending of money on the Queen 's jubilee was to be expected "from the personality cult dynasties of North Korea or Syria ''. The Saint - Jean - Baptiste Society claimed it would stage "counter-celebrations ''. In Nova Scotia, the provincial government announced the establishment of educational programmes related to the Queen and her role in Canadian government and the one - time award of the $2000 Diamond Jubilee Award Scholarship to 60 Grade 12 students in the province. There and in other provinces and territories, various events were held on Accession Day, other days during Diamond Jubilee Week, and past its end. The Speaker of the Senate, Noël Kinsella, and Speaker of the House of Commons, Andrew Scheer, were received by the Queen at Buckingham Palace on 21 February 2012, where they presented a loyal address to the sovereign. The Canadian Postal Museum also opened on 19 March the exhibition Designed for a Queen, which displayed 645 postal portraits of the Queen from Canada, other Commonwealth of Nations countries, and British Overseas Territories. Charles, Prince of Wales, and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, toured parts of the country in May, making stops in New Brunswick, Ontario, and Saskatchewan. In an editorial he wrote for The Globe and Mail, Charles stated he wanted his activities during the tour to reflect the jubilee 's "central theme of service to others '' and expressed that he was "returning to Canada in this special Jubilee year, to renew my own pledge of service and to encourage others to consider how they might contribute their own particular talent ''. In that vein, he in all three provinces visited with people associated with his organisation The Prince 's Charities Canada and presented Diamond Jubilee Medals to recipients. The couple arrived at Saint John Airport on the evening of 20 May. The following day, they were formally welcomed by the Governor General and met at Canadian Forces Base Gagetown with young Canadian Forces veterans and mentors involved in the Military Entrepreneurship program before moving on to Saint John. There, they undertook a walking tour of Prince William Street to observe heritage projects and meet the 2002 Committee for the Prince of Wales Municipal Heritage Leadership Prize, participated in a citizenship ceremony, attended Victoria Day events, and opened the Diamond Jubilee IT Centre at Hazen - White - St. Francis School. They then flew on to Toronto to meet with emergency workers and their families and observe the annual fireworks show at Ashbridges Bay that marks Victoria Day and the Queen 's official Canadian birthday. On 22 May, the couple attended an event hosted by the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario at Queen 's Park. After, the Duchess visited The Queen 's Own Rifles of Canada, of which she is colonel - in - chief, laying at the armoury a wreath in memory of fallen Canadian soldiers, while the Prince of Wales saw the Digital Media Zone at Ryerson University, toured the construction site of the athletes ' village for the 2015 Pan American Games (where Premier of Ontario Dalton McGuinty announced a portion of Front Street running through the village would be named Diamond Jubilee Promenade), visited the Yonge Street Mission, and met with the national leadership of the Assembly of First Nations. The couple also attended a luncheon hosted by the government of Ontario and participated in a Canadian Forces event at Fort York commemorating the 200th anniversary of the War of 1812, the Prince there wearing his uniform of a lieutenant - general of the Canadian Army. They arrived in Regina on 23 May and marked the centenary of Saskatchewan 's legislative building, participated in a reception held by the Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan at Government House, toured the First Nations University of Canada, and visited an environmentally friendly water purification plant. In the evening, the Prince and Duchess attended at the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) Depot Division Drill Hall a performance of the Regina Symphony Orchestra, of which Prince Charles is patron. There, the Prime Minister announced that Charles was to be appointed Honorary Commissioner of the RCMP, taking the post from his mother, the Queen, who became the RCMP 's Commissioner - in - Chief. New Democratic Party MP Pat Martin, an open anti-monarchist, stated in the House of Commons that the tour was "a bread - and - circuses routine '' intended to distract from cuts to the federal civil service. The Minister of Canadian Heritage, James Moore, said the tour would be the "least expensive for taxpayers '' of those that had taken place since 2009. At the Queen 's request, members of the RCMP 's Musical Ride, after performing in the Diamond Jubilee Pageant at Windsor Castle, took part in the Changing of the Guard on 23 May as they formed the Queen 's Life Guard outside Buckingham Palace for 24 hours. Said by the contingent 's commander to be a "way for Canada and the Mounties to salute her Majesty the Queen in her Diamond Jubilee year '', it was the second time the RCMP had performed the task since doing so as a part of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations for Queen Victoria in 1897. In the federal parliament on 31 May, a loyal address to the Queen was passed. The Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba held a Diamond Jubilee garden party at the province 's Government House on 26 May. The Royal British Columbia Museum on 1 June opened an exhibition of approximately 100 Cecil Beaton photographs of Elizabeth II throughout her life. A team of Canadian and British mountaineers reached the summit of Mount Barbeau, in Canada 's arctic, by 3 June and there held a tea party in celebration of the jubilee. From the summit, they sent a loyal greeting to the Queen via satellite, to which the monarch promised to reply. The next day, a group from the Royal Canadian Dragoons stationed in Afghanistan climbed with British soldiers to the peak of the 7,000 foot mountain Gharib Ghar, within the Kabul Military Training Center, "as part of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations for Queen Elizabeth II. '' In the United Kingdom, Canada House held a Big Jubilee Lunch on 3 June and two beacons were lit on the building 's roof the following evening, the night of the Diamond Jubilee Concert. Johnston attended both events and Harper was at the latter. Another reception was held at Canada House on the evening of 6 June, at which the Governor General and Prince Andrew, Duke of York, were present. Harper was granted an audience with the Queen at Buckingham Palace on 5 June. Also at the palace, the Governor General, the Prime Minister, and the Queen unveiled a new portrait of the sovereign commissioned by the federal Crown - in - Council. The creation of the portrait became the subject of a National Film Board of Canada (NFB) documentary directed by Hubert Davis and released in the fall of 2012 as part of the NFB 's Queen 's Diamond Jubilee Collector 's Edition. The painting was on 25 June installed in the ballroom at Rideau Hall. Dedicated at the same time by the Governor General were new bronze and glass handrails, with detailing evoking the Diamond Jubilee, flanking the ceremonial staircase in Rideau Hall 's main entrance foyer. On 12 June 2012, the government of the Northwest Territories (NWT) and the City of Yellowknife held at the Northern Arts and Cultural Centre a garden party with barbecue, concert, and other activities. On 14 June, Amber Jubilee Ninebark shrubs were planted on the grounds of the NWT legislative assembly. Four days later, a gala concert was held at Roy Thomson Hall in Toronto, at which 600 diamond jubilee medals were awarded to members of the Order of Canada and Order of Ontario. The event, hosted by the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario, was attended by the Governor General and his wife and performers included the Famous People Players, Susan Aglukark, Molly Johnson, Ben Heppner, and Gordon Lightfoot, who conceived the idea of the event. The Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan held a garden party at Government House on Canada Day and, in the Northwest Territories, the Canada Day parade was themed to celebrate the jubilee and numerous jubilee medal presentation ceremonies took place. Also on 1 July, the Canadian Museum of Civilization opened the exhibit A Queen and Her Country, showing artefacts from the Crown Collection relating to Queen Elizabeth II and her role as Queen of Canada, including the Queen 's Beasts from her coronation. At Rideau Hall on 11 September, a reception, attended by the Governor General; his wife; Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex; Sophie, Countess of Wessex; and others, was held for the Royal Victorian Order Association of Canada and to "honour of the 60th anniversary of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 's accession to the Throne. '' The Earl also distributed Diamond Jubilee Medals to recipients in Toronto and to members of the RCMP in Iqaluit, Nunavut. The government of the NWT held through September an essay contest for youth to explain "how the Queen is important to First Nations and Métis people. '' A conference on the Canadian Crown was conducted in Saskatchewan on 25 October. The Governor General the following day unveiled a plaque identifying the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Trail, a part of the Trans Canada Trail between the West Block on Parliament Hill and the Supreme Court of Canada. In Nova Scotia, highway 106 was renamed as Jubilee Highway. Communities across Canada also held events to mark the jubilee, as did the federal government until the jubilee celebration ended on Accession Day 2013. Prince Harry toured Jamaica between 5 and 8 March 2012, participating in various events marking his grandmother 's Diamond Jubilee as Jamaica 's queen regnant, first as Queen of the United Kingdom, between 1952 and 1962, and subsequently as Queen of Jamaica (Jamaica will also thus be concurrently celebrating 50 years of independence). During the tour, the Prince partook in military exercises with the Jamaica Defence Force, visited Bustamante Hospital for Children and, in Trelawny Parish, visited Water Square, Falmouth Pier, and the William Knibb Baptist Church, where he paid respect at the William Knibb memorial. The Prince attended an event for the charity Rise Life, ran with Usain Bolt at the latter 's training ground at the University of the West Indies, Mona. There, he was also named an Honorary Fellow of the university. A Jamaica Night reception was held at the Royal Caribbean Hotel in Montego Bay and Governor - General of Jamaica Sir Patrick Allen hosted a dinner at King 's House as a combined celebration of the Diamond Jubilee and Jamaica 's 50th anniversary of independence. The Prime Minister, Portia Simpson Miller, stated the tour was intended to "highlight the country 's tourism developments on the North Coast and the important work being done in the area of youth and children. '' The Governor - General and his wife travelled to London, United Kingdom (UK), to partake in various events there in June, including a reception held by the High Commissioner of Jamaica to the UK. Jamaica 's Diamond Jubilee celebrations proceeded despite Miller 's ongoing work to have the country become a republic. Sir Jerry Mateparae, the Governor - General of New Zealand, unveiled New Zealand 's Diamond Jubilee emblem on 27 November 2011 and announced at that time that a full programme would be forthcoming. New Zealand Post and the Reserve Bank of New Zealand stated in January 2012 the release a silver proof dollar coin to celebrate the Queen 's Diamond Jubilee and, the following month, the Ministry for Culture and Heritage added Crown - related entries to Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand and an essay on the jubilee to NZ.History.net.nz. The New Zealand post also issued sets of Diamond Jubilee stamps showing images of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip throughout her reign. Prime Minister John Key moved a motion in the House of Representatives congratulating the Queen on her Diamond Jubilee on 7 February. The Governor - General - in - Council also launched, two days later, via the Ministry of Health, the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Research Grant, "seeking to purchase research projects that transfer knowledge from initiatives with proven effectiveness, into practice in the health sector ''. The New Zealand Army Band took part in the Diamond Jubilee Pageant held at Windsor Castle and also took part in the changing of guard ceremony at Buckingham Palace. In New Zealand, New Zealand Herald opinion columnist Jim Hopkins was critical of the jubilee celebrations held over the Queen 's Birthday weekend, calling it a "missed opportunity ''. He was also critical of TVNZ 's lack of jubilee related content in its daily news broadcast. A royal tour was undertaken by Charles, Prince of Wales, and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, between 10 and 16 November 2012. travelling to Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Manawatu. Their programme is to focus on excellence and innovation in business, agriculture, community service, and sports, as well as children 's literacy and animal health. Charles, Prince of Wales, and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, toured Papua New Guinea between 3 and 5 November. During their time in the country, the couple met church, charity, and community volunteers, cultural groups, and members of the Papua New Guinea Defence Force in and near Port Moresby. Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge, visited the Solomon Islands and Tuvalu. The Queen 's realms throughout the Caribbean and West Indies planned a number of Diamond Jubilee events. Using RFA Fort Rosalie, Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, and Sophie, Countess of Wessex, visited other Caribbean realms, including: Antigua and Barbuda, Grenada, Montserrat and Saint Lucia. Historical re-enactments were put on in Saint Kitts and Nevis for the Earl and Countess of Wessex, who arrived on 3 March 2012. There, the couple met with Governor - General Sir Cuthbert Sebastian, Prime Minister Denzil Douglas, and other dignitaries, watched cultural shows (including the performance of a calypso song about the Queen), and the Earl unveiled a plaque commemorating the Diamond Jubilee and officially designated the Basseterre Valley Park as the Royal Basseterre Valley Park. They also visited Brimstone Hill Fortress National Park and the children 's ward of the JNF Hospital and the Children 's Home before attending a state dinner and fireworks display at Port Zante. The Earl and Countess of Wessex arrived in Saint Lucia on 21 February 2012 and there participated in Independence Day celebrations and attended receptions held by the Governor - General of Saint Lucia. They also visited the Association of Saint Lucia and the Saint Lucia School of Music. In Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, a Diamond Jubilee Celebrations Committee was established to oversee events staged to mark, between February and June 2012, the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II 's accession as queen regnant of the country, from 1952 to 1979 as Queen of the United Kingdom and thereafter as Queen of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. The committee head, former Minister of Culture Rene Baptiste, stated the aim was to "showcase what we have to offer, as well as our loyalty to the Parliament... '' The Earl and Countess of Wessex, aboard RFA Fort Rosalie, arrived for their tour of country on 25 February and visited the restored Botanic Gardens St. Vincent and planted a Pink Poui tree, attended an official lunch at Government House, and planted Royal Palms on the Grenadines. Trade unionist Noel Jackson said he heard displeasure expressed by Vincentians towards the royal tour and that "a lot of people were cursing. '' Senator Julian Francis, the General Secretary of the governing Unity Labour Party, stated the public reaction to the presence of the royal couple "confirmed to me that we could not have won the 2009 referendum on a republic. The outpouring of the people in St. Vincent to come and greet Prince Edward yesterday confirmed to me that people, in the majority in St. Vincent, still want the monarchy... It was like a carnival in town yesterday. '' A Diamond Jubilee Lecture was delivered in March, a flower show and tea party was held at Government House on 4 and 5 May, a stamp exhibition was mounted at the National Trust headquarters and an exhibition of photographs of the Queen in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines was displayed at the National Public Library. A Queen 's Birthday parade took place, as did a Diamond Jubilee Beacon Event on 4 June, part of the wider plan to light such beacons at the same time across the Commonwealth. In the United Kingdom, national and regional events to mark the Diamond Jubilee were coordinated by the Queen - in - Council and her Royal Household at Buckingham Palace. As with the Golden Jubilee in 2002, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport was responsible for coordinating the Cabinet - led aspects of the celebrations. Events were planned so as to keep the use of tax money to a minimum; most funds used to fund celebrations were drawn from private donors and sponsors. Only the cost of security was by Her Majesty 's Treasury. The British logo for the Diamond Jubilee was selected through a contest held by the BBC children 's programme Blue Peter; the winning design, announced in February 2011, was created by ten - year - old Katherine Dewar. Drupal, a free open - source content management system, was used for the official website. On 5 January 2010, the Lord President of the Council and Business Secretary Lord Mandelson announced that an extra bank holiday would take place on 5 June 2012. Moving the Spring Bank Holiday (the last Monday in May) to 4 June resulted in a four - day holiday in honour of the Diamond Jubilee. As national holidays are a devolved matter, Scotland 's first minister confirmed that the bank holiday would be held on 5 June in Scotland. Some economists later theorised that the holiday could reduce the country 's gross domestic product by 0.5 % in the second quarter of the year, though this would be partially offset by increased sales for the hospitality and merchandise sectors. Many events were staged in London during the bank holiday weekend. The River Thames Diamond Jubilee Pageant was held on 3 June. The Diamond Jubilee Concert, with a preceding afternoon picnic in the palace gardens for the 10,000 concert ticket holders, was held the following day, in front of Buckingham Palace, and featured acts representing each decade of the Queen 's 60 - year reign. Street parties were permitted to take place across the country. Special community lottery grants, called The Jubilee People 's Millions, are being offered by the Big Lottery Fund and ITV. On 5 June, the final day of the extended weekend of celebrations, the Queen attended a national service of thanksgiving at St Paul 's Cathedral. Also present were members of the Royal Family, governors - general and prime ministers of the Commonwealth realms, officers of state, and representatives of many faiths. Afterwards, a formal lunch was held in Westminster Hall. The Queen returned to Buckingham Palace at 2: 20 pm, in an open top carriage procession and escorted by The Household Cavalry Regiment. The King 's Horse, Royal Horse Artillery fired a 60 gun salute during the procession. The weekend of celebrations ended with a balcony appearance at Buckingham Palace. The Queen appeared on the balcony with the Prince of Wales, the Duchess of Cornwall, the Duke of Cambridge, the Duchess of Cambridge, and Prince Harry in front of cheering crowds outside the palace and along The Mall. There followed a feu de joie and a flypast by the Red Arrows and historic aircraft, including the last flying Lancaster bomber in Britain. Several media commentators commented on the significance of only senior members of the royal family appearing on the balcony. BBC royal correspondent Peter Hunt remarked that it "sent a message demonstrating both continuity and restraint at a time of austerity ''. To mark the jubilee, the Queen bestowed Royal Borough status on Greenwich, in southeast London. In addition, a competition was held to grant in 2012 city status to towns and either a lord mayoralty or lord provostship to one city. City status was awarded to Chelmsford in England, Perth in Scotland and St Asaph in Wales. Armagh, Northern Ireland, was awarded the Lord Mayoralty. The Olympic park in East London, created for the 2012 London Olympics, was named the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park following the Olympics. The Queen Elizabeth II Fields Challenge (Queen Elizabeth Fields Challenge in Scotland) was a project of the charity Fields in Trust to safeguard parks and green spaces as public recreation land in perpetuity for future generations to enjoy, and to provide a permanent legacy of the Diamond Jubilee and the Olympics. The Woodland Trust planned to establish 60 Jubilee woodlands during 2011 and 2012, one of almost 500 acres -- Flagship Diamond Wood, Leicestershire -- and the remainder 60 acres each. A stained glass window, paid for by MPs and members of the House of Lords, was unveiled in the Queen 's presence at Westminster Hall in March 2012. In addition, a majority of MPs endorsed the renaming of the clock tower of Westminster Palace that houses Big Ben, to the Elizabeth Tower. The Royal Jubilee Bells, made for the Jubilee and a feature of the Thames Diamond Jubilee Pageant, were delivered to the church of St James Garlickhythe in the City of London on 15 June 2012 and arranged along the central aisle. They were dedicated by the Rt Revd John Waine on Sunday 17 June and hanging commenced in the tower shortly thereafter. They were rung for the first time in the church on 4 July. The Royal Mint issued a number of coins including an official £ 5 coin, a 5oz coin and a kilo coin. A five - pound sterling silver coin was issued by the Government of Gibraltar to mark the occasion. In October 2012 it was announced that the Queen would bestow the honorary title of Regius Professorship to up to six university chairs in the United Kingdom, to recognise "excellence in teaching and research ''; the number was chosen to represent the decades of the Queen 's reign. The full list was announced on 29 January 2013 and comprised twelve new chairs, in recognition of the "exceptionally high quality '' of the departments considered. Kew Gardens announced that the Main Gate, the entrance to the gardens from Kew Green, was to be renamed Elizabeth Gate in honour of the Queen. Princess Alexandra attended the naming ceremony on 21 October 2012. On 18 December 2012, the British Foreign Office announced that a portion of the British Antarctic Territory was to be named Queen Elizabeth Land in honour of Her Majesty in her diamond jubilee year. A seemingly less permanent tribute that gained widespread popularity was a work provided by street artist Banksy. His "Slave Labour '' stencil on a north London wall offered pointed criticism of the jubilee celebrations and the conditions that support British nationalism. The mural 's removal and subsequent attempted sale at auction in February 2013 sparked international controversy, highlighting the piece 's worth to local and regional residents. Its title, perhaps coincidentally, conjured another contentious part of the celebrations where unemployed workers, bussed into London on an allegedly unpaid trial to staff security for the event, were made to work under what some described as "appalling '' conditions. On Accession Day, 6 February, a 62 - gun salute was mounted on the banks of the River Thames, near the Tower of London and the Queen made a visit to Norfolk, one of the first places the monarch visited after acceding to the throne. Later in the month, Queen Elizabeth attended a multi-faith (Bahá'í, Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Jain, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, and Zoroastrian) reception held at the residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Lambeth Palace, in honour of the jubilee. The Queen addressed both houses of parliament in Westminster Hall on 20 March 2012. Also in March, the Royal Commonwealth Society launched the Jubilee Time Capsule to mark the jubilee. The British Broadcasting Corporation and Andrew Marr created the television documentary The Diamond Queen, in which various members of the Royal Family and current and former politicians spoke about the Sovereign and her life. The documentary was criticised by the campaign group Republic, which argued that it breached BBC guidelines on impartiality. At Buckingham Palace, a display of the Queen 's diamonds was opened to the public. On 4 June, the bells in each of the 34 church bell towers along the River Welland valley rang in succession, ending with the ringing of the bell at Fosdyke 60 times. On 19 May, the Queen attended the Diamond Jubilee Armed Forces Parade and Muster, the British Armed Forces ' own tribute to the monarch, in Windsor Castle and nearby Home Park. The first time all three services had assembled for the Queen for such an event at the same time, it featured military reviews and a 2,500 strong military parade through the town, as well as a military flypast featuring 78 aircraft. On 18 November 2012, the first of 40,000 trees has been planted on Derbyshire 's Chatsworth Estate to mark the Queen 's Diamond Jubilee. The Jubilee Hour saw more than 2 million hours of community work pledged in honour of Her Majesty by individuals, organisations and businesses from throughout the UK and across the world as part of The Jubilee Hour initiative. The initiative was praised by Buckingham Palace. In a statement, it said: "It was the Queen 's hope that her Diamond Jubilee would provide an opportunity for communities, groups and individuals to come together in a way that they would not otherwise be able to do, and there is no doubt that your initiative has made a notable contribution to achieving this ambition ''. Senior politicians including the UK Prime Minister, the UK Deputy Prime Minister and the Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government also commended the scheme, which was set up at the start of the year with the support of HRH The Prince of Wales, who subsequently met Jubilee Hour volunteers in New Zealand as part of his Jubilee Tour. The campaign was designed to encourage people from all walks of life to donate at least 60 minutes of their time to help their local community, in tribute to the Queen 's 60 years of service. The initiative has also been backed by well - known figures including actress and author Joan Collins and former Olympic swimmer Sharron Davies who gave their own hours volunteering. To date, a total of over 2.3 million hours have been pledged, making this the biggest mobilisation of volunteer effort within the UK since the Second World War. Participants have included Members of Parliament, celebrities, businesses and young people, and people have volunteered from as far afield as India and New Zealand. Work carried out by those pledging has included activities such as raising money for charity, volunteering at local care homes and cleaning local community areas. John O'Brien, The Jubilee Hour founder, is a former British Army Officer and charity representative of the Prince of Wales. He has said: "I have been delighted at the overwhelming response to The Jubilee Hour, and by the fact that so many people and organisations honoured Her Majesty and recognised such a special year by actively engaging in their local communities. I hope that this initiative has inspired people across the UK to continue volunteering. '' Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester, toured the British Virgin Islands (BVI) in March 2012. On Montserrat, he met participants in the Sailability BVI programme, including Special Olympics medallists, and staff and associates of the Eslyn Henley Ritchie Learning Centre, BVI Technical and Vocational Institute, BVI Services, and the Department of Youth Affairs and Sports. Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, and Sophie, Countess of Wessex, visited the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar, between 11 -- 13 June 2012, and Montserrat. The Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation expressed "upset and concern '' about the couple 's tour of Gibraltar, which Spain claims as Spanish territory. Visits were planned by Princess Anne to Zambia and Mozambique, while the Duke of Gloucester made official visits to Uganda and Malta. In Asia, Prince Andrew, Duke of York, visited India, while Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge, visited Malaysia, Singapore, and the Solomon Islands. Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, and Sophie, Countess of Wessex, visited Trinidad and Tobago, as did Governor General of Canada David Johnston. The British Consulate in Cape Town, in conjunction with the Hout Bay and Llandudno Heritage Trust, hosted a firing of ancient muzzle - loading cannons at East Fort in Hout Bay. The Hout Bay and Llandudno Heritage Trust restored the Fort 's original Swedish made 18 pounder muzzle - loading cannons, dating from 1752, and fired two rolling salvo salutes, of six cannon shots each, in the Queen 's honour and in recognition of the bond of friendship between South Africa and Great Britain. The South African Navy Band was in attendance and the guns were fired by VIPs who were guided by gunners of the "Honourable Order of Hout Bay Artillerymen ''. At the Victoria and Alfred Waterfront of the Port of Cape Town, a flotilla from the Royal Cape Yacht Club sailed past the Hildebrand Ristorante and into - the Victoria Basin and the Cape Town Highlanders marched from Ferryman 's to Nobel Square. British Consul General Chris Trott lit a beacon, followed by a further six - gun salute and both South African national anthem and "God Save the Queen '', to mark the 60 years of Queen Elizabeth II 's service to her people and the people of the world. Hong Kong, a British dependent territory until 1997 and the most populous one, had The Big Jubilee Lunch on 3 June 2012, organised by the Royal Commonwealth Society in Hong Kong. On 5 June 2012, there was a service of thanksgiving at the territory 's Anglican Cathedral Church of St. John the Evangelist.

when does izzy find out about her tumor

Izzie Stevens - wikipedia Isobel Katherine "Izzie '' Stevens, M.D. is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy, which airs on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States. The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes, and was portrayed by actress Katherine Heigl from 2005 to 2010. Introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, Izzie worked her way up to resident level, while her relationships with her colleagues Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), George O'Malley (T.R. Knight) and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) formed a focal point of the series. Heigl garnered critical acclaim for her performance as Izzie and received numerous awards and nominations for her role, winning the "Outstanding Supporting Actress In A Drama Series '' at the 2007 Emmy Awards. She was critical of the character 's development during the show 's fourth season, particularly her romance with George. She declined to put herself forward for the 2008 Emmy Awards, citing insufficient material in the role. After speculation that Izzie would be killed off in the fifth season, the character was diagnosed with Stage 4 metastatic melanoma. She married Alex in the series ' one - hundredth episode, and afterwards, her tumor was successfully removed. Izzie made her final appearance in the sixth season, leaving Seattle after Alex ended their relationship. Heigl requested to be released from her contract 18 months early, in order to spend more time with her family. In January 2012, Heigl reported that she would like to return to Grey 's Anatomy to give closure to her character, however, Rhimes confirmed that there were no plans to have the character return at that time and has since stated that she has no plans to ever re-approach Izzie 's storyline again. Izzie appears in the first episode of Grey 's Anatomy, meeting fellow interns Meredith Grey, Cristina Yang, Alex Karev, and George O'Malley. She and George move in with Meredith and become best friends. Izzie 's boyfriend, hockey player Hank (Jonathan Scarfe), struggles to accept her new role as a surgeon, and the two break up. Izzie is hurt when Alex exposes her past as a lingerie model. However, the two later go on to begin a friendship and then a romance. Alex experiences sexual dysfunction with Izzie and cheats on her with nurse Olivia Harper (Sarah Utterback). When Izzie finds out, she breaks up with him, though they briefly reunite following a bomb incident at the hospital. Izzie reveals while treating a pregnant teenager that she had a daughter at the age of 16 and gave up for adoption. Izzie falls in love with cardiothoracic patient Denny Duquette (Jeffrey Dean Morgan), and the two become engaged. When Denny 's condition deteriorates, Izzie deliberately worsens his health further by cutting his LVAD wire to move him up the donor register. Although Denny receives a new heart, he has a stroke hours later and dies. Izzie is the sole beneficiary of Denny 's will, inheriting $8.7 million. She uses the money to open a free clinic at the hospital: the Denny Duquette Memorial Clinic. Izzie disapproves of George 's relationship and marriage to orthopedic resident Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez). She and George sleep together, and attempt to keep their liaison a secret. George and resident Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) are the only people aware that Izzie gave birth to a daughter at the age of sixteen; ultimately the child was given up for adoption. He supports Izzie when her daughter Hannah (Liv Hutchings), diagnosed with leukemia, arrives at Seattle Grace Hospital in need of a bone marrow transplant from Izzie. Izzie 's feelings for George grow, and she reveals that she has fallen in love with him. When Callie discovers George has been unfaithful, the two separate, and George and Izzie embark on a short - lived relationship, only to discover there is no real chemistry between them. Izzie supports Alex when he discovers his new girlfriend has psychiatric problems, and convinces him to have her committed. She is also handed primary responsibility for the clinic, as Bailey cuts back on her responsibilities. Izzie and Alex go on to rekindle their relationship, though Izzie is concerned when she begins hallucinating Denny. She discovers she has metastatic melanoma (Stage IV) which has spread to her liver, skin, and brain, causing the hallucinations. Her survival chances are estimated at only 5 %. She is admitted to Seattle Grace as a patient, and Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) successfully removes a tumor from her brain. Izzie spends her time in the hospital planning Meredith and Derek 's wedding, but when her condition worsens and Derek discovers a second brain tumor, they give the ceremony to Izzie and Alex, who marry in front of all their friends. The procedure to remove the second tumor from Izzie 's brain causes her to lose her short - term memory, and although she soon regains it, she flatlines moments later. The fifth season ends with her friends ignoring her DNR order and attempting to resuscitate her, transposed with images of Izzie in an elevator encountering George, who has been in an accident and is also currently flatlining. Though George dies, Izzie is resuscitated and recovers enough to return to work. Izzie makes a treatment error that endangers the life of a patient, and is fired from the hospital 's surgical program. Believing Alex is partially to blame, she writes him a Dear John letter and leaves. Izzie later learns that Alex was not responsible for her lost job, and returns to make amends with him, but Meredith informs her that Alex is moving on. Izzie informs Alex that she no longer has cancer. Although he is pleased, Alex officially breaks up with Izzie, telling her that he loves her but deserves better. She leaves Seattle to start fresh. Several episodes later, Alex informs Meredith that Izzie sent divorce papers, which he signs in the episode "How Insensitive ''. In the sixth - season finale, Alex is shot and asks for Izzie. Imagining that Meredith 's half - sister Lexie (Chyler Leigh) is Izzie, he apologizes and asks her never to leave him again. Izzie was created by Grey 's Anatomy producer Shonda Rhimes, with actress Katherine Heigl cast in the role. Heigl originally wanted to play Izzie as a brunette, but was requested to retain her natural blond for the part. Heigl 's comprehension of medical procedures and terminology is slight; the actress explained that while she has an admiration for doctors, she is not as fascinated by medicine as other cast members. When Kate Walsh 's character Addison Montgomery left Grey 's Anatomy to launch the spin - off show Private Practice, Heigl disclosed that she had hoped for a spin - off for Izzie. Heigl declined to put her name forward for consideration at the 2008 Emmy Awards, claiming that she had been given insufficient material on the series to warrant a nomination. Following Heigl 's statement, speculation arose that her character would suffer a brain tumor and be killed off Grey 's Anatomy, substantiated by the announcement Jeffrey Dean Morgan would return to the series as Denny, who died at the end of season two. ABC 's entertainment president Steve McPherson denied the rumor, stating: "There is an unbelievable storyline for her this year, which is really central to everything that 's going to go on this season ''. Speculation resumed, however, when Dean Morgan returned to the show for a second time in its fifth season. Cast member James Pickens, Jr. announced that both Heigl and T.R. Knight were set to depart from the show, but he later retracted his comment. During the course of the fifth season, Izzie was diagnosed with metastatic melanoma (Stage IV) which spread to her liver, skin and brain. Following the show 's one - hundredth episode wrap party, Heigl revealed she did not know if Izzie would survive, as no one on the production team would disclose her character 's fate to her. It was confirmed in June 2009 that Heigl would return as Izzie for the show 's sixth season. Heigl 's appearances in the season were sporadic, seeing Izzie depart and return twice. Although she was scheduled to appear in the final five episodes of the season, Heigl requested that she be released from her contract 18 months early, and made her final appearance on January 21, 2010. Heigl explained that she wanted to spend more time with her family, and did not think it would be respectful to Grey 's Anatomy viewers to have Izzie return and depart yet again. Michael Ausiello spoke further on Katherine Heigl 's perspective on Izzie 's departure. He said, "(Katherine) thinks her Jan. 21 farewell - while not originally intended to be her last episode - oddly works as a bookend to Izzie 's story. "Even though there 's a part of me that would like to go back and do the quick Izzie farewell, '' she says, "I also think that my last scene - where Meredith says to Izzie, ' Do n't go, we 're your family, ' and Izzie 's response was, ' No you 're not, you 're just a bunch of people I worked with, and I can find that anywhere ' - was kind of tragic and appropriate all at the same time. When I was playing the scene I was really trying to convey that, for Izzie, that was a lie that she had to tell herself to have the courage to have to move on. '' In August 2010, Rhimes stated that she did not feel Izzie 's character arc -- specifically her relationship with Alex -- had fully concluded, and hoped to give proper closure to their relationship in the seventh season. She later confirmed that she had intended to kill off Izzie off - screen, but opted against this a day later as she felt that it would destroy Alex, rather than give him closure. Instead, she concluded: "I 'm open to seeing Izzie again. So if she (Katherine) were to come back, we would be thrilled to (wrap up her story). But if she does n't, we 'll just move on. '' Heigl also went on to say in October 2010 that the character returning to show looks bleak because, "that chapter is closed, and it 's sad. And it 's hard. '' She also felt that Izzie coming back to the show would, "just feel manipulative. '' However, in January 2012, Heigl stated in an interview that she has asked the producers if she could return to the show to give closure to Izzie 's storyline: "I 've told them I want to (return), '' she said. "I really, really, really want to see where (Izzie) is. I just want to know what happened to her and where she went and what she 's doing now. My idea is that she actually like figures it out, and finds some success and does really well in a different hospital. She was always floundering you know, and so she was always one step behind the eight ball and I want to see that girl take some power back. '' She later went on to say that she regrets leaving the show, "Oh yeah, sometimes, yeah. You miss it. I miss my friends. It was a great work environment... and it becomes a family. I spent six years together with these people every day... you grow up together, in a way, '' and again commented on Izzie possibly returning to the show, "I always felt that if they wanted me to come back and sort of wrap up that storyline... I want them to know that I 'm down with it if they want me to, but I completely understand if it does n't necessarily work... They 've got a lot of story lines going on there. '' But in March 2012, Shonda Rhimes said that there are no plans at the moment for the character to return, "I think it was really nice to hear her appreciating the show. At the same time we are on a track we have been planning. The idea of changing that track is not something we are interested in right now. '' Three years later, Rhimes said she has completely moved on from the idea of Izzie coming back, "I 'm done with that story. I 've turned that idea over in my mind a thousand times and thought about how it would go. And I do n't think so. '' Heigl believes that the Grey 's Anatomy writers incorporate much of the actors ' personalities into their roles, and that Izzie is a "super moral '' version of herself. Episode "Bring the Pain '', which aired as the fifth episode of the second season, was originally intended to be the final episode of the first season. Rhimes explained that Izzie 's character in this episode came "full circle '' from her role in the pilot: "Izzie, so vulnerable and underestimated when we first meet her, is the girl who removes her heart from her sleeve in "Bring the Pain ''. '' Discussing Izzie 's personality in a 2006 Cosmopolitan interview, Heigl assessed that she is "immensely kind '' and patient. When Denny died in the season two episode "Losing My Religion '', Rhimes discussed the impact it had on Izzie, noting that Izzie is forced to abandon her idealism, which in turn leads to her letting go of medicine. In the aftermath of Denny 's death, Heigl came to believe that Izzie was not cut out to be a doctor. Executive producer Betsy Beers explained, however, that Denny 's death served to make Izzie more mature, and Heigl affirmed that "At the beginning of the (third) season they were trying to show how lost Izzie was. She lost her optimism. She realizes now that life is difficult, but she still tries very hard to see the best in people. '' In order to demonstrate Izzie 's dislike of George 's love - interest Callie, Rhimes penned a scene which she deemed one of her favorite moments on the show, in which Callie urinates in front of a stunned Izzie and Meredith. Rhimes assessed that: "I love that Mer and Izzie respond with all the trauma of having viewed a car crash (...) the point is Callie pees and Izzie tortures her a tiny bit about the hand washing and that made me overjoyed because that 's the kind of thing people do. '' Discussing Izzie 's relationship with Alex in a 2006 Cosmopolitan interview, Heigl assessed that "Even when Alex was a complete dirtbag to her (Izzie), she forgave him and gave him another chance. And he really screwed her over. (...) To go for a guy like that is to say I want to be damaged. ' '' Writer Stacy McKee deemed Izzie 's moving on from Alex to patient Denny Duquette "karma '', as Alex previously treated Izzie badly, yet as he begins to realize his true feelings, he is forced to watch her embark on a romance with "the undeniably handsome - and totally charming '' Denny. Series writer Blythe Robe commented on Izzie and Denny: "I love the way Izzie lights up when she 's around him. I love their relationship because it 's so pure and honest and completely game free. '' Writer Elizabeth Klaviter noted at this time the way Izzie "seems to be sacrificing her reputation because of her feelings for Denny. '' When Izzie deliberately worsened Denny 's condition to move him up the transplant list, series writer Mark Wilding questioned the morality of the actions, asking: "is Izzie bad for doing it? Is she tremendously irresponsible? She cut the LVAD wire for love so does that make her action understandable? '' Rhimes discussed costuming choices in the scene which saw the interns gather around Denny 's deathbed, explaining: "Meredith and George and Cristina and Callie and Alex are all dressed, not for a prom, but for a funeral. Everyone in dark colors, everyone dressed somberly. As if they were in mourning. Only Izzie is in happy pink. Only Izzie looks like she did n't know this was coming. '' Following Denny 's death, Heigl approached Rhimes to ask when her character would next have a romantic liaison. Rhimes explained that "Izzie does n't sleep around ''. Heigl expressed a desire for Izzie to reunite with Alex, explaining: "I believe on some level, there 's a connection between Izzie and Alex. He can do honorable things even though he 's cutting and sarcastic. I would like to ultimately see them together, if not this season, then next. '' Yahoo! Voices wrote that Stevens in the third season "has become more condescending and passive aggressive herself, more than anyone else. '' Heigl was critical of her character 's development in the show 's fourth season, particularly her affair with George, which she deemed "a ratings ploy ''. Heigl explained: "They really hurt somebody, and they did n't seem to be taking a lot of responsibility for it. I have a really hard time with that kind of thing. I 'm maybe a little too black and white about it. I do n't really know Izzie very well right now. She 's changed a lot. '' Attempting to rationalise Izzie 's actions, Heigl later assessed that: People who are so infallible, perfect and moral tend to be the first to slip and fall. But I would love to see how she deals with the consequences of what she 's done, because what 's interesting is when people make decisions that shake their world, they suddenly have to go, ' Woo, I did n't know I was capable of this. ' I 'd like to see Izzie take some culpability. Heigl was nominated for the "Best Supporting Actress in a TV Series '' award at the 2007 and 2008 Golden Globe Awards for her role as Izzie. She was named "Favorite Female TV Star '' at the 34th People 's Choice Awards, and awarded "Outstanding Supporting Actress In A Drama Series '' at the 2007 Emmy Awards. Prior to the ceremony, considering Heigl 's chances of winning the Emmy, Variety 's Stuart Levine assessed of her performance: "Heigl has little difficulty reaching Izzie 's highest highs and lowest lows. Showrunner Shonda Rhimes puts a lot of pressure on Heigl to carry many intense storylines, and she 's up to the challenge. '' Levine also noted, however: "There are times when Izzie becomes completely irrational during crisis situations, which may bother some. '' Fox News included Izzie in its list of "The Best TV Doctors For Surgeon General ''. The character was listed in Wetpaint 's "10 Hottest Female Doctors on TV '' and in BuzzFeed 's "16 Hottest Doctors On Television ''. During the show 's third season, the New York Post 's Robert Rorke deemed Izzie to be "the heart and soul '' of Grey 's Anatomy. He deemed her the show 's heroine, and wrote that: "Izzie is a welcome, calming presence, despite the devastation she experienced when she failed to save her patient and fiance Denny Duquette. (...) Besides the formidable Dr. Bailey (Chandra Wilson), Izzie seems to be the only adult intern at Seattle Grace; the character has achieved a depth lacking in her fellow interns. '' Eyder Peralta of The Houston Chronicle was critical of Izzie 's ethics in cutting Denny 's LVAD wire, writing that she "should not be practising medicine '' and stating: "That 's the reason I do n't watch Grey 's Anatomy, anymore, because the super hot blond chick can make an earth - shattering, fatal decision and she does n't get canned. '' The season four romance between Izzie and George proved unpopular with viewers, and resulted in a fan backlash among Alex and Izzie fans. The return of Izzie 's deceased fiancé Denny and the resumption of their romance during the show 's fifth season also proved unpopular with fans, and was deemed "the world 's worst storyline '' by Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times. McNamara was also critical of the episode "Now or Never '', which saw Izzie flatline following neurosurgery, opining that Izzie ought to die. The episode in which Izzie married long - term love Alex received 15.3 million viewers, the largest television audience of the night. Izzie 's cancer storyline received a mixed response from the medical community. Otis Brawley, chief medical officer at the American Cancer Society, commented that Izzie 's treatment options were unrealistic. Whereas in the show she was offered the drug interleukin - 2, in reality the drug is never recommended to patients when melanoma has spread to the brain, as it can cause bleeding and strokes. Brawley explained that such patients would instead be offered radiosurgery. Conversely however, Tim Turnham, executive director of the Melanoma Research Foundation, praised Grey 's Anatomy for bringing about greater public awareness of melanoma, stating: "We welcome the national spotlight Grey 's Anatomy has created for melanoma and its efforts to encourage viewers to learn more about the importance of prevention, early detection and research. '' Specific General

who made the baseball hall of fame this year

Baseball Hall of Fame balloting, 2017 - wikipedia Jeff Bagwell Tim Raines Iván Rodríguez John Schuerholz Bud Selig Elections to the Baseball Hall of Fame for 2017 proceeded according to rules most recently amended in 2016. As in the past, the Baseball Writers ' Association of America (BBWAA) voted by mail to select from a ballot of recently retired players, with results announced on January 18, 2017. The BBWAA elected Jeff Bagwell, Tim Raines, and Iván Rodríguez to the Hall of Fame. The three voting panels that replaced the more broadly defined Veterans Committee following a July 2010 rules change were replaced by a new set of four panels in July 2016. The newly created Today 's Game Committee convened early in December 2016 to select from a ballot of retired players and non-playing personnel who made their greatest contributions to the sport after 1987. John Schuerholz and Bud Selig were elected by this committee. On July 26, 2014, the Hall announced changes to the rules for election for recently retired players, reducing the number of years a player will be eligible to be on the ballot from fifteen years to ten. One candidate presently on the BBWAA ballot (Lee Smith) in years 10 - 15 was grandfathered into this system and retained his previous 15 years of eligibility. In addition, BBWAA members who were otherwise eligible to cast ballots were required to complete a registration form and sign a code of conduct before receiving their ballots, and the Hall made public the names of all members who cast ballots (but not their individual votes) when it announced the election results. The code of conduct specifically states that the ballot is non-transferable, a direct reaction to Dan Le Batard turning his 2014 Hall of Fame ballot over to the sports website Deadspin and allowing the site 's readers to make his Hall votes (an act that drew him a lifetime ban from future Hall voting). Violation of the code of conduct will result in a lifetime ban from BBWAA voting. A more recent rules change, announced on July 28, 2015, tightened the qualifications for the BBWAA electorate. Beginning with the 2016 election, eligible voters must not only have 10 years of continuous BBWAA membership, but also be currently active members, or have held active status within the 10 years prior to the election. A BBWAA member who has not been active for more than 10 years can regain voting status by covering MLB in the year preceding the election. As a result of the new rule, the vote total in 2016 decreased by 109 from the previous year, to 440. The ballot included two categories of players: Players who were eligible for the first time who were not included on the ballot were: Josh Bard, Danys Báez, Milton Bradley, Russell Branyan, Juan Castro, Ramon Castro, Alex Cora, Craig Counsell, Jack Cust, Doug Davis, Adam Everett, Ryan Franklin, Ross Gload, Wes Helms, Mark Hendrickson, Scott Linebrink, Felipe Lopez, Julio Lugo, Jason Michaels, Trever Miller, Corey Patterson, Joel Pineiro, Dennys Reyes, Aaron Rowand, Marcus Thames, Brett Tomko, Javier Vázquez, and Chris Woodward. Jeff Bagwell, Tim Raines and Iván Rodríguez were elected. Raines and Lee Smith were on the ballot for their final time; Smith dropped off the ballot, while Raines was the fifth player to be elected in his final ballot, after Red Ruffing, Joe Medwick, Ralph Kiner, and Jim Rice. Rodríguez was elected in his first year of eligibility. Voting results from 2017: On July 23, 2016, the Hall of Fame announced changes to the Era Committee system. The system 's timeframes were restructured to place a greater emphasis on the modern game, and to reduce the frequency at which individuals from the pre-1970 game (including Negro Leagues figures) will have their careers reviewed. Separate 16 - member subcommittees will continue to vote on individuals from different eras of baseball, with candidates still being classified by the time periods that cover their greatest contributions: All committees ' ballots will include 10 candidates. While there was previously a one - year waiting period after elimination from annual BBWAA consideration, there will now be no waiting period. At least one committee will convene every December, in the calendar year before the induction ceremony in July. The Early Baseball committee will convene only in years ending in 0, and the Golden Days committee will convene in years ending in 0 and 5. The Today 's Game and Modern Baseball committees will alternate their meetings in that order, skipping years in which the Golden Days and Early Baseball committees meet. Accordingly, the committees will meet in the following years as part of the elections for the next calendar year: Additionally, the Hall of Fame has modified the criteria for consideration of active executives. Previously, active executives 65 or older were eligible for consideration by era - based committees; the lower age limit has now been raised to 70. The new criteria explicitly state that for those who meet the age cutoff, neither their positions in an organization nor their currently active status will affect their election. On October 3, 2016, the Hall announced the 10 candidates to be considered when the Today 's Game Committee met at the 2016 winter meetings in National Harbor, Maryland on December 4; the voting results were announced immediately after the committee met. The cutoff for election and induction remained the standard 75 %, or 12 of 16 votes. All candidates except for Steinbrenner were alive when the ballot and the voting results were announced. The J.G. Taylor Spink Award has been presented by the BBWAA at the annual summer induction ceremonies since 1962. Through 2010, it was awarded during the main induction ceremony, but is now given the previous day at the Hall of Fame Awards Presentation. It recognizes a sportswriter "for meritorious contributions to baseball writing ''. The recipients are not members of the Hall of Fame but are featured in a permanent exhibit at the National Baseball Museum. The three finalists for the 2017 award were announced during the 2016 All - Star break. On December 6, during the 2016 winter meetings, Smith was named as the 2017 recipient. She received 272 of a possible 449 votes (with three ballots left blank). At the time of announcement, Smith was ESPN 's news editor for remote production, with chief responsibility for incorporating news and analysis in the network 's MLB - related broadcasts, as well as SportsCenter. She became the first African - American woman, and the first woman of any ethnicity, to regularly cover MLB for a newspaper when she began covering the New York Yankees for The Hartford Courant in 1983. Smith went from there to The New York Times and The Philadelphia Inquirer before joining ESPN. Various changes in July 2016 were also made to the annual Ford C. Frick Award elections, presented annually to a preeminent baseball broadcaster since 1978. According to the Hall, the new criteria for selection are "Commitment to excellence, quality of broadcasting abilities, reverence within the game, popularity with fans, and recognition by peers. '' Additionally, a ballot of eight candidates will now be set, down from 10 in years past. The three ballot slots previously determined by fan voting on Facebook will now be filled by a committee of historians. A new election cycle has been established, rotating annually between Current Major League Markets (team - specific announcers) with the 2017 Frick Award; National Voices (broadcasters whose contributions were realized on a national level) with the 2018 Frick Award; and Broadcasting Beginnings (early team voices and pioneers of baseball broadcasting) with the 2019 Frick Award. This cycle will repeat every three years. The Hall announced the ballot for the 2017 award on November 7, 2016, with voting to take place at the 2016 winter meetings on December 7. On December 7, it was announced that Bill King was the winner of the award. At the time the ballot was announced, all candidates were living except King and Martin. Another Hall of Fame honor, the Buck O'Neil Lifetime Achievement Award, was also presented at the 2017 Awards Presentation. The award was created in 2008 in honor of Buck O'Neil, a Negro leagues star who went on to become one of baseball 's leading ambassadors until his death in 2006. The first award was presented posthumously to O'Neil at the 2008 induction ceremony, and prior to 2017 had been presented two additional times. According to the Hall, The Buck O'Neil Lifetime Achievement Award is presented by the Hall of Fame 's Board of Directors not more than once every three years to honor an individual whose extraordinary efforts enhanced baseball 's positive impact on society, broadened the game 's appeal, and whose character, integrity and dignity are comparable to the qualities exhibited by O'Neil. As with the media awards, recipients are not members of the Hall of Fame but are permanently recognized by the Hall. In this case, the recipients are listed alongside a life - size statue of O'Neil that stands at the entrance to the museum. Written nominations for the award are accepted by mail at any time; the nomination must specifically state how the nominee meets the traits exemplified by O'Neil. On May 25, 2017, the Hall announced that Rachel Robinson, widow of Hall of Famer Jackie Robinson, would be the 2017 recipient. Before Jackie 's passing in 1972, the couple established the Jackie Robinson Development Corporation, which builds and manages affordable housing. The following year, she established the Jackie Robinson Foundation to provide college scholarships and leadership training. In announcing the award, Hall of Fame chair Jane Forbes Clark said, "Rachel Robinson has worked tirelessly to raise the level of equality not only in baseball, but throughout society. ''

who played kevin costner's wife in field of dreams

Field of Dreams - wikipedia Field of Dreams is a 1989 American fantasy - drama sports film directed by Phil Alden Robinson, who also wrote the screenplay, adapting W.P. Kinsella 's novel Shoeless Joe. It stars Kevin Costner, Amy Madigan, James Earl Jones, Ray Liotta and Burt Lancaster in his final role. It was nominated for three Academy Awards, including for Best Original Score, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Picture. In 2017, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. Ray Kinsella is a novice Iowa farmer who lives with his wife, Annie, and daughter, Karin. In the opening narration, he explains how he had a troubled relationship with his father, John Kinsella, who had been a devoted baseball fan. While walking through his cornfield one evening, he hears a voice whispering, "If you build it, he will come. '' He continues hearing this before finally seeing a vision of a baseball diamond in his field. Annie is skeptical, but she allows him to plow the corn under in order to build a baseball field. As he builds, he tells Karin the story of the 1919 Black Sox Scandal. Months pass and nothing happens; his family faces financial ruin until, one night, Karin spots a uniformed man on the field. Ray recognizes him as Shoeless Joe Jackson, a deceased baseball player idolized by John. Thrilled to be able to play baseball again, he asks to bring others to the field to play. He later returns with the seven other players banned as a result of the 1919 scandal. Ray 's brother - in - law, Mark, ca n't see the players and warns him that he will go bankrupt unless he replants his corn. While in the field, Ray hears the voice again, this time urging him to "ease his pain. '' Ray attends a PTA meeting at which the possible banning of books by radical author Terence Mann is discussed. He decides the voice was referring to Mann. He comes across a magazine interview dealing with Mann 's childhood dream of playing for the Brooklyn Dodgers. After Ray and Annie both dream about him and Mann attending a baseball game together at Fenway Park, he convinces her that he should seek out Mann. He heads to Boston and persuades a reluctant, embittered Mann to attend a game with him at Fenway Park. While there, he hears the voice again, this time urging him to "go the distance. '' At the same time, the scoreboard "shows '' statistics for a player named Archibald "Moonlight '' Graham, who played one game for the New York Giants in 1922, but never had a turn at bat. After the game, Mann eventually admits that he, too, saw it. Ray and Mann then travel to Chisholm, Minnesota where they learn that Graham had become a doctor and had died sixteen years earlier. During a late night walk, Ray finds himself back in 1972 and encounters the then - living Graham, who states that he had moved on from his baseball career. He also says that the greater disappointment would have been not having a medical career. He declines Ray 's invitation to fulfill his dream; however, during the drive back home, Ray picks up a young hitchhiker who introduces himself as Archie Graham. While Archie sleeps, Ray reveals to Mann that John had wanted him to live out his dream of being a baseball star. He stopped playing catch with him after reading one of Mann 's books at 14. At 17, he had denounced Shoeless Joe as a criminal to John and that was the reason for the rift between them. Ray expresses regret that he did n't get a chance to make things right before John died. When they arrive back at Ray 's farm, they find that enough players have arrived to field two teams. A game is played and Archie finally gets his turn at bat. The next morning, Mark returns and demands that Ray sell the farm. Karin says that they will not need to because people will pay to watch the ballgames. Mann agrees, saying that "people will come '' in order to relive their childhood innocence. Ray, after much thought, refuses and a frustrated Mark scuffles with him, during which Karin is accidentally knocked off the bleachers. The young Graham runs from the field to help, becoming old Graham, complete with Gladstone bag, the instant he steps off of it, and saves Karin from choking (she had been eating a hot dog when she fell). Ray realizes that Graham sacrificed his young self in order to save her. After reassuring Ray that his true calling was medicine and being commended by the other players, Graham leaves, disappearing into the corn. Suddenly, Mark is able to see the players and urges Ray not to sell the farm. After the game, Shoeless Joe invites Mann to enter the corn; he accepts and disappears into it. Ray is angry at not being invited, but Shoeless Joe rebukes him: if he really wants a reward for having sacrificed so much, then he had better stay on the field. Shoeless Joe then glances towards a player at home plate, saying "If you build it, he will come. '' The player then removes his mask, and Ray recognizes him to be John as a young man. Shocked, Ray realizes that "ease his pain '' referred to John, and believes that Shoeless Joe was the voice all along; however, Joe implies that the voice was Ray himself. Joe then disappears into the corn. Ray introduces John to Annie and Karin. As he heads towards the corn, Ray asks him if he wants to play a game of catch. They begin to play and Annie happily watches. Meanwhile, hundreds of cars can be seen approaching the baseball field, fulfilling Karin and Mann 's prophecy that people will come to watch baseball. Phil Alden Robinson read Shoeless Joe in 1981 and liked it so much that he brought it to producers Lawrence Gordon and Charles Gordon. Lawrence Gordon worked for 20th Century Fox, part of the time as its president, and repeatedly mentioned that the book should be adapted into a film. The studio, however, always turned down the suggestion because they felt the project was too esoteric and noncommercial. Meanwhile, Robinson went ahead with his script, frequently consulting W.P. Kinsella, the book 's author, for advice on the adaptation. Lawrence Gordon left Fox in 1986 and started pitching the adaptation to other studios. Universal Studios accepted the project in 1987 and hired USC coach Rod Dedeaux as baseball advisor. Dedeaux brought along World Series champion and USC alumnus Don Buford to coach the actors. The film was shot using the novel 's title; eventually, an executive decision was made to rename it Field of Dreams. Robinson did not like the idea saying he loved Shoeless Joe, and that the new title was better suited for one about dreams deferred. Later, Kinsella told Robinson that his originally chosen title for the book had been The Dream Field and that the title Shoeless Joe had been imposed by the publisher. Robinson and the producers did not originally consider Kevin Costner for the part of Ray because they did not think that he would want to follow Bull Durham with another baseball film. He, however, did end up reading the script and became interested in the project, stating that he felt it would be "this generation 's It 's a Wonderful Life ''. Since Robinson 's directing debut In the Mood had been a commercial failure, Costner also said that he would help him with the production. Amy Madigan, a fan of the book, joined the cast as Ray 's wife, Annie. In the book, the writer Ray seeks out is real - life author J.D. Salinger. When Salinger threatened the production with a lawsuit if his name was used, Robinson decided to rewrite the character as reclusive Terence Mann. He wrote with James Earl Jones in mind because he thought it would be fun to see Ray trying to kidnap such a big man. Robinson had originally envisioned Shoeless Joe Jackson as being played by an actor in his 40s, someone who would be older than Costner and who could thereby act as a father surrogate. Ray Liotta did not fit that criterion, but Robinson thought he would be a better fit for the part because he had the "sense of danger '' and ambiguity which Robinson wanted in the character. Burt Lancaster had originally turned down the part of Moonlight Graham, but changed his mind after a friend, who was also a baseball fan, told him that he had to work on the film. Filming began on May 25, 1988. The shooting schedule was built around Costner 's availability because he would be leaving in August to film Revenge. Except for some weather delays and other time constraints, production rolled six days a week. The interior scenes were the first ones shot because the cornfield planted by the filmmakers was taking too long to grow. Irrigation had to be used to quickly grow the corn to Costner 's height. Primary shot locations were in Dubuque County, Iowa; a farm near Dyersville was used for the Kinsella home; an empty warehouse in Dubuque was used to build various interior sets. Galena, Illinois served as Moonlight Graham 's Chisholm, Minnesota. One week was spent on location shots in Boston, most notably Fenway Park. Robinson, despite having a sufficient budget as well as the cast and crew he wanted, constantly felt tense and depressed during filming. He felt that he was under too much pressure to create an outstanding film, and that he was not doing justice to the original novel. Lawrence Gordon convinced him that the end product would be effective. During a lunch with the Iowa Chamber of Commerce, Robinson broached his idea of a final scene in which headlights could be seen for miles along the horizon. The Chamber folks replied that it could be done and the shooting of the final scene became a community event. The film crew was hidden on the farm to make sure the aerial shots did not reveal them. Dyersville was then blacked out and local extras drove their vehicles to the field. In order to give the illusion of movement, the drivers were instructed to continuously switch between their low and high beams. Scenes of the Kinsella farm were taken on the property of Don Lansing; some of the baseball field scenes were shot on the neighboring farm of Al Ameskamp. Because the shooting schedule was too short for grass to naturally grow, the experts on sod laying responsible for Dodger Stadium and the Rose Bowl were hired to create the baseball field. Part of the process involved painting the turf green. After shooting, Ameskamp again grew corn on his property; Lansing maintained his as a tourist destination. He did not charge for admission or parking, deriving revenue solely from the souvenir shop. By the film 's twentieth anniversary, approximately 65,000 people visited annually. In July 2010, the farm containing the "Field '' was listed as for sale. It was sold on October 31, 2011, to Go The Distance Baseball, LLC, for an undisclosed fee, believed to be around $5.4 million. In January 2018, a man went off - roading on the field, causing large tire gashes and damaging the sprinkler system. The following week, he turned himself in and was charged with felony mischief. At first, James Horner was unsure if he could work on the film due to scheduling restrictions. Then he watched a rough cut and was so moved that he accepted the job of scoring it. Robinson had created a temp track which was disliked by Universal executives. When the announcement of Horner as composer was made, they felt more positive because they expected a big orchestral score, similar to Horner 's work for An American Tail. Horner, in contrast, liked the temporary score, finding it "quiet and kind of ghostly. '' He decided to follow the idea of the temp track, creating an atmospheric soundtrack which would "focus on the emotions ''. In addition to Horner 's score, portions of several pop songs are heard during the film. They are listed in the following order in the closing credits: The character played by Burt Lancaster and Frank Whaley, Archibald "Moonlight '' Graham, is based on an actual baseball player with the same name. His character is largely true to life except for a few factual liberties taken for artistic reasons. For instance, the real Graham 's lone major league game occurred in June 1905, rather than on the final day of the 1922 season. The real Graham also died in 1965, as opposed to 1972 as the film depicts. In the film, Terence Mann interviews a number of people about Graham. The DVD special points out that the facts they gave him were taken from articles written about the real one. Universal scheduled the film to open in the U.S. on April 21, 1989.It debuted in just a few theaters and was gradually released to more screens so that it would have a spot among the summer blockbusters. It ended up playing until December. As of June 2017, review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes rates the film 86 %, based on 57 reviews with an average score of 7.9 out of 10. The consensus states: "Field of Dreams is sentimental, but in the best way; it 's a mix of fairy tale, baseball, and family togetherness. '' In June 2008, after having polled over 1,500 people in the creative community, AFI revealed its "Ten Top Ten '' -- the best ten films in ten "classic '' American film genres. The film was acknowledged as the sixth best one in the fantasy genre.

inside no 9 season 1 episode 4 cast

Inside No. 9 - wikipedia Inside No. 9 is a British dark comedy anthology television programme that first aired in 2014. It is written by Reece Shearsmith and Steve Pemberton and produced by the BBC. Each half - hour episode is a self - contained story with new characters and a new setting, and all star at least one (usually both) of Pemberton and Shearsmith. Aside from the writers, each episode has a new cast, allowing Inside No. 9 to attract a number of well - known actors. The stories are linked only by the number 9 in some way and a brass hare statue that is in the background of all episodes. Settings have included a suburban house, a gothic mansion and a barn. Pemberton and Shearsmith took inspiration for Inside No. 9 from an episode of Psychoville, a previous project, which was filmed in a single room. This episode was, in turn, inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's Rope. Inside No. 9 was also a reaction to Psychoville, which featured a long overarching story realised over multiple series. Themes and tone vary from episode to episode, but all have elements of comedy and horror. The first series, which first aired in February -- March 2014, contains six episodes -- "Sardines '', "A Quiet Night In '', "Tom & Gerri '', "Last Gasp '', "The Understudy '' and "The Harrowing '' -- as well as a special online - only episode called "The Inventors ''. The second series first aired in March -- April 2015, and contains six episodes: "La Couchette '', "The 12 Days of Christine '', "The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge '', "Cold Comfort '' "Nana 's Party '' and "Séance Time ''. The third series started in December 2016 with the Christmas special "The Devil of Christmas '', continuing in February -- March with "The Bill '', "The Riddle of the Sphinx '', "Empty Orchestra '', "Diddle Diddle Dumpling '' and "Private View ''. A fourth series was completed in April 2017 and began airing in January 2018 with "Zanzibar '', "Bernie Clifton 's Dressing Room '', "Once Removed '', "To Have and to Hold '', "And the Winner Is... '' and "Tempting Fate ''. A fifth series of the show was commissioned in January 2018 and will air in 2019. Inside No. 9 as a whole has been very well received by critics, who have praised the humour and creativity of the scripts, as well as the talent of the featured actors. Commentators have described it as "never less - than - captivating '' and "consistently compelling '', offering particularly strong praise for "A Quiet Night In '', "The 12 Days of Christine '' and "The Riddle of the Sphinx ''. Inside No. 9 won the Sketch and Comedy prize at the 35th annual Banff World Media Festival Rockie Awards, and won the comedy prize at the 2016 Rose d'Or ceremony. It was nominated for the Best TV Sitcom prize at the 2014 Freesat Awards, the Broadcast Award for Best Original Programme, and at the 2014 British Comedy Awards for both the Best New Comedy Programme and the Best Comedy Drama. In the Comedy.co.uk Awards it was voted "Best TV Comedy Drama '' in 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2017, and was named "Comedy of the Year '' in 2017. Inside No. 9 is an anthology series, with each episode featuring a new story, with a new setting and new characters. Episodes last around half an hour, with the self - contained story reaching a conclusion. The stories are linked primarily by the fact that each takes place in number 9, be that a mansion, a dressing room or a flat. Every episode stars at least one of Shearsmith or Pemberton, and normally both. Each episode is effectively a short play. Some episodes take place in real - time, following half an hour in the lives of the characters. Every episode of Inside No. 9 features an ornamental hare somewhere on - screen. According to Pemberton, "Because each episode is so wildly different there was nothing really linking them other than the fact they were all inside a Number Nine, I just thought it would be nice to have an object that you could hide and just have there on every set. '' There is, however, no particular significance to the hare itself. As is typical of Reece Shearsmith and Steve Pemberton 's work, the scripts address dark topics, with, for instance, the first episode touching upon incest, child sexual abuse and murder. The plotlines make use of twists and surprises of various sorts, though in some cases the surprise is the lack of twist. In an interview, Pemberton said that "there is always a desire to wrong - foot the viewer. That 's what you strive to do ''. The tone varies episode - by - episode. For example, while gothic horror was a major component in one case, other times slapstick comedy was used extensively; the humour, however, is typically dark and British. The episodes generally begin with scenes of "utter banality '', before the darker elements are revealed. Despite the various episodes featuring unrelated plots and characters, one reviewer said that they are all linked "by a mercurial synthesis of morbid comedy, wicked social commentary and a genuine creepiness ''. Inside No. 9 is somewhat more grounded and realistic than the writers ' previous work, such as Psychoville and The League of Gentlemen. Pemberton said that he and Shearsmith decided not to mix the worlds of Inside No. 9 and their previous projects, but nonetheless include the occasional reference; for example, a character called "Ollie '' is mentioned in one Inside No. 9 episode, and the writers imagined that this was Ollie Plimsoles of Legz Akimbo, a character from The League of Gentlemen. Similarly, Inside No. 9 was referenced in the 2017 reunion specials of The League of Gentlemen. Tubbs and Edward are seen living in flat number 9, and the Inside No. 9 hare is visible on their shop counter. In 2012, after the cancellation of their Psychoville, writers Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith were commissioned to produce two series for the BBC by controllers Janice Hadlow and Cheryl Taylor, partially in response to Sky beginning to produce comedy. At the time, it was unclear whether this would be two series of Inside No. 9, then known by the working title Happy Endings, or a series of Inside No. 9 and a series of some other programme. Inside No. 9 was to be produced by a BBC team, which was later revealed to be David Kerr (director), Jon Plowman (executive producer) and Adam Tandy (producer). Pemberton and Shearsmith took inspiration for Inside No. 9 from "David and Maureen '', episode 4 of the first series of Psychoville, which was in turn inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's Rope. This episode took place entirely in a single room, and was filmed in only two shots. The writers were keen to explore other stories in this bottle episode or TV play format, and Inside No. 9 allowed them to do this. At the same time, the concept of Inside No. 9 was a "reaction '' to Psychoville, with Shearsmith saying that the two of them had "been so involved with labyrinthine over-arcing, we thought it would be nice to do six different stories with a complete new house of people each week. That 's appealing, because as a viewer you might not like this story, but you 've got a different one next week. '' Elsewhere, Shearsmith explained that the pair returned to writing macabre stories as they "always feel slightly unfulfilled if (they) write something that 's purely comedic, (as) it just feels too frivolous and light ''. The first story that the pair wrote specifically for Inside No. 9 was about a birthday party. BBC producers felt that this story would work as the opening episode of a sitcom, but, given the script 's events, Pemberton and Shearsmith were not happy to develop the idea into its own programme. The script was consequently shelved and revisited during the planning process for the second series, becoming "Nana 's Party '', the fifth episode of the series and eleventh overall. During the filming Inside No. 9, Shearsmith professed excitement to be working on the programme, saying that "(b) eing in the middle of filming a third series of Psychoville would be utterly depressing ''. Pemberton and Shearsmith aimed for a simpler experience with Inside No. 9 than they had experienced with Psychoville, describing "Sardines '', Inside No. 9 's first episode, by saying that it was "just about some good actors in a wardrobe with a good story. '' At the time of Inside No. 9 's production, the anthology series was a rare genre for British television programmes. Previous horror anthologies include Tales of the Unexpected, The Twilight Zone and Alfred Hitchcock Presents; while these would sometimes use comedic elements, they are more prominent in Inside No. 9. Murder Most Horrid followed a similar format, but was far more comedic than horrific. Other anthology - like series on British television include Seven of One and Comedy Playhouse, though these programmes lacked horror elements, and, unlike Inside No. 9, served as pilots for potential series. However, the British anthology show Black Mirror, which also features elements of comedy and horror, was very popular around the time of Inside No. 9. For Pemberton, the 1970s and 1980s were "full of '' anthology shows; other examples included Play for Today, Beasts and Armchair Thriller. More recently, anthologies have become less popular with television executives, but the writers hope that they may be able to contribute to a "renaissance '' for the genre. According to journalist and broadcaster Mark Lawson, this is because anthologies can fail to motivate viewers to stay with a series, and, further, new sets and casts must be paid for each episode, meaning that a six - part anthology series will generally be more expensive than a six - part series in a more standard format. For Lawson, Inside No. 9 was able to overcome these problems through the "pleasing coherence '' offered by the fact each episode was set in a number 9, and "the wit and inventiveness '' of the opening episodes, which could sufficiently engage viewers. Pemberton and Shearsmith had originally considered alternative ways to link the stories, such as all the settings having a shared post man, but then decided that such a strong relationship between stories was not needed. Inspiration and production varied from instalment to instalment, and each was filmed separately, taking less than a week per episode. After Shearsmith and Pemberton had decided that each episode would be about confinement, and having written some of the later episodes, they were inspired by a wardrobe in their working space for "Sardines ''. The writers were keen to see how confined they could make the characters, aiming to induce feelings of claustrophobia in viewers. The anthology format allowed Pemberton and Shearsmith to revisit prior ideas, which is what they did with "A Quiet Night In '' and "Tom & Gerri ''. The former was inspired by the writers ' efforts to include a long segment without dialogue in an episode of Psychoville. Both episodes followed break - ins. The Pinteresque "Tom & Gerri '' was based upon a play written by Pemberton and Shearsmith while the pair were living together and job seeking. The setting was based upon their own flat, while the character Tom 's development evoked the experience of job - hunting. "Last Gasp '' was inspired by a person Pemberton had seen on Multi-Coloured Swap Shop who collected jars of air, as well as the death of Michael Jackson and the death of Amy Winehouse. "The Understudy '', the plot of which is partially based upon and concerns Macbeth, took longer to write than any other episode; the writers rewrote the script several times, as they were unsure of whether the characters should be amateur or professional actors. "The Harrowing '' was the writers ' attempt to produce a gothic horror episode. They made use of more horror tropes than previous episodes, but the setting allowed them to include modern elements. The BBC ordered a second series of Inside No. 9 before the first episode had aired. The second series was written in 2014, and then filmed from the end of 2014 into early 2015. The writers were permitted two sets for the second series, and so a fake train compartment and a fake flat (for "La Couchette '' and "The 12 Days of Christine '' respectively) were built at Twickenham Studios. The other episodes were filmed on location; for example, "The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge '' was filmed in a barn at the Chiltern Open Air Museum. David Kerr was unable to stay on as director for the second series. Guillem Morales and Dan Zeff each took on directorial duties for two episodes, and Pemberton and Shearsmith, in addition to continuing to write and star in the episodes, jointly directed the other two. The writers had hoped to direct for some time, and this represented a good opportunity to make their directorial debut. While writing for the series, the pair did not know which episodes they would be directing; in an interview, Shearsmith said that the pair had considered directing episodes in which they did not appear much, but scheduling concerns left them with "Cold Comfort '' and "Nana 's Party ''; the episodes feature the writers quite heavily. The six episodes of the second series derived inspiration from a variety of sources. "La Couchette '' aimed to explore the intimacy of sleeper carriages; specifically, the unusual problems associated with sleeping in close proximity to strangers. "The 12 Days of Christine '' follows a woman over the course of 12 years, with scenes displaying key moments in her life. "The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge '' was inspired by genuine witch trials, some transcripts of which Pemberton and Shearsmith had read as part of the writing process. "Cold Comfort '' began with the idea of a call centre, and was filmed in the style of a CCTV feed. With "Nana 's Party '', the writers aimed for a feeling of suburban darkness, reminiscent of the work of Alan Ayckbourn. "Séance Time '' began with the idea of a séance, an idea the writers had wanted to explore for some time. A third series began broadcasting in February 2017, with a Christmas special, "The Devil of Christmas '', airing on 27 December 2016. Settings for the third series include an art gallery, a restaurant and an alpine cabin, while guest stars include Keeley Hawes, Jessica Raine, Felicity Kendal, Tamzin Outhwaite, Fiona Shaw, Jason Watkins, Mathew Baynton, Rula Lenska, Philip Glenister, Sarah Hadland, Javone Prince, Montserrat Lombard, Morgana Robinson, and Alexandra Roach. A fourth series was confirmed after the airing of "The Devil of Christmas '', and began broadcast in 2018. Pemberton has said that he would be interested in an online spin - off, perhaps called No. 9A, with less experienced comedy writers. In an interview, he said "The format has so many opportunities and can incorporate so many styles, as long as you stick to the small cast, single location constraint. I think it 's really important to bring through fresh voices. '' The show 's fifth series was commissioned in February 2018, and will air in 2019. A special online - only episode of Inside No. 9, "The Inventors '', was launched by the BBC on 12 February 2014. "The Inventors '' stars Tom Verall and Dan Renton Skinner as brothers who lost their mother in the Great Storm of 1987. The story is told through a series of cinemagraphs with dialogue. The episode is interactive, advancing only with input from the viewer. "The Inventors '' was developed by media agency Kanoti, and produced by Jon Aird, who had previously produced BAFTA - winning online content for Psychoville, with executive producer Will Saunders. It was directed by Martin Stirling. As each episode of Inside No. 9 features new characters, the writers were able to attract actors who may have been unwilling to commit to an entire series. The writers ' reputation also helped attract actors, with journalist David Chater saying that they "have developed such a track record over the years that many of the finest actors in the country jump at the chance to appear in their dark imaginings ''. The fact that Pemberton and Shearsmith only played a single character in each story was a change for them; in The League of Gentlemen, the pair have played some 30 characters each, while, in Psychoville, they had played around five each. Though Pemberton and Shearsmith generally starred in each episode, they did not necessarily take on the main roles. Shearsmith explained this by saying that they "did n't write this for us to be in. We wrote the stories first then thought, could we be in them? '' Pemberton appears in all episodes other than "The Harrowing '', while Shearsmith appears in all episodes other than "Last Gasp ''. The first series of Inside No. 9 was shown in the UK on BBC Two (and BBC Two HD) between 5 February and 12 March 2014. It was aired in Australia on BBC First, premiering on 5 January 2015. The second series aired in the UK from 26 March to 29 April 2015, and aired in Australia from 27 July 2015. The first series was released on DVD on 17 March 2014. In addition to the six episodes, the DVD featured the making of feature "Inside Inside No. 9 '', including unseen interviews with Pemberton, Shearsmith and Kerr, and a photo gallery with previously unreleased photos. Published by 2 Entertain, the DVD was rated 18 by the British Board of Film Classification. To publicise the DVD, the writers appeared at the Oxford Street, London, branch of HMV for a signing event on 20 March. The DVD was reviewed by David Upton for webzine PopMatters, who gave the main feature an 8 / 10 rating, and the extras a 5 / 10 rating, and Ben Walsh for The Independent, who gave the DVD overall 4 / 5. Phelim O'Neill, reviewing the release for The Guardian, described the boxset as "very lendable '', suggesting that it would help Inside No. 9 reach a wider audience. South African newspapers The Sunday Times and The Star both published positive reviews of the DVD, with The Star 's anonymous review saying the DVD "makes a great prezzie for cynics, so if you know any lawyers or journalists... ''. The second series was released on DVD on 4 May 2015. A review in the Leicester Mercury awarded it four out of five stars. The advent of Series 3 saw Series 1&2 released on Blu - ray on 13 February 2017. Series 3 has a 27 March 2017 release on DVD and Blu - ray. Many critics responded very positively to Inside No. 9. After the final episode of the first series, the comedic critic Bruce Dessau said on his website that it had "really set an early benchmark to beat for comedy of the year. It has been consistently compelling as each week we entered an entirely different world. '' On the same day, David Chater, writing in The Times, said of the series as a whole that "(i) t 's hard to know which to admire more -- the rich and perverse imaginations of Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith or the extraordinary range of acting talent that has brought this strange and memorable series to life. '' Chater had previously described "A Quiet Night In '', the second episode of Inside No. 9, as "the funniest, cleverest, most imaginative and original television I have seen for as long as I can remember -- one of those fabulous programmes where time stands still and the world around you disappears ''. Mark Jones (The Guardian) considered the whole series, saying that the Inside No. 9 was "never less - than - captivating '', while a review in the Liverpool Echo described every episode as "intriguing and lovingly - crafted '', though it was felt that the first three episodes were stronger than the latter three. In December 2014, Metro television critic Keith Watson named Inside No. 9 the twentieth best television programme of 2014, and in January 2015, Daily Star Sunday columnist Garry Bushell named Inside No. 9 the best comedy TV programme of 2014. Writing before Inside No. 9 was televised, broadcaster and journalist Mark Lawson suggested that, among anthology series, the programme possessed "the potential to be remembered as a singular achievement ''. Commending both the acting and writing of Inside No. 9, New Statesman television critic Rachel Cooke offered a positive verdict of the programme after seeing the first half of the series. Cooke expressed particular admiration of Pemberton and Shearsmith 's ability to squeeze "perfectly formed narratives -- characters with proper backstories, scenarios that are complicated and unwind relatively slowly -- into just 30 minutes ''. Also writing mid-series, journalist Gareth Lightfoot called Inside No. 9 "hands down the best, freshest thing on (television) at the moment '' in the Evening Gazette, though he doubted whether it could truly be considered comedy. Donal Lynch, of Irish newspaper the Sunday Independent, suggested that, like the previous work of Pemberton and Shearsmith, Inside No. 9 may be something of "a cult hit / acquired taste ''. Barry Didcock, of The Herald, expressed a similar sentiment, calling Inside No. 9 "probably the most Marmitey programme on television ''. The Times published a response to a complaint received from a viewer, who was unhappy with Chater 's positive reviews of Inside No. 9, suggesting that "A Quiet Night In '' was more traumatic than humorous. Sam Wollaston, television critic for The Guardian, noted that humour is extremely personal, and though he could appreciate much about Inside No. 9, he had never liked Pemberton and Shearsmith 's work: "I 'm sure I 'll be crucified -- probably quite rightly -- but I do n't love Inside No 9. '' Some tabloid columnists also expressed dissatisfaction with the programme. Virginia Blackburn, of the Daily Express, wrote a highly critical review of "Last Gasp ''. Blackburn considered Inside No. 9 an example of the weakness of contemporary television comedy, saying that the episode is "not funny, it 's not clever and is so utterly, irredeemably, naffly silly that it ends up being incredibly irritating and nothing else ''. Another journalist unimpressed was the Daily Mirror columnist Kevin O'Sullivan, who dismissed the programme by saying simply "BBC2 's alleged comedy Inside No. 9: did n't even smile ''. Cooke observed the difficulty in reviewing Inside No. 9 as a whole due to the fact that each episode is different from the last. "Sardines '' was commended for its cast and acting, as well as the scripting, but critics had a mixed response to the twist ending. "A Quiet Night In '' was a change in approach, relying on physical comedy, but it was well received as funny, and inventive. "Tom & Gerri '' was less comedic but darker than previous episodes; critics commended the plot, but disagreed about the portrayal of mental illness in the episode. Less horrific than other episodes in the series, "Last Gasp '' dealt with themes of celebrity culture and fandom, and was considered a weaker instalment. Critics called "The Understudy '' a "return to form ''. While it was based upon Macbeth, a knowledge of the play was not necessary for enjoyment, and the plot 's divergence from the play was praised. "The Harrowing '' was the most horrific episode of the series, and was considered genuinely scary by critics. "La Couchette '' was characterised by critics as strong and funny, with praise directed at the cast and script. "The 12 Days of Christine '' was hailed as "masterpiece '' and "a quiet elegy, terse and polished, in many ways perfect ''. The emotional script, poignancy of the ending and performance of the cast, especially Smith, was highly praised. "The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge '' was compared unfavourably with the previous two episodes by some critics, though the writers were characterised as having displayed their versatility and ability with the atypical setting and language. Critics had a mixed response to the episode 's humour, but praised the performance of the cast. "Cold Comfort '' was generally praised, though also characterised as weaker than other episodes in the series. The unusual filming style was commended, but there was a mixed response to the episode 's ending. "Nana 's Party '' received high praise for its script and characters, and for the cast 's performances. "Séance Time '' was praised as well written and genuinely frightening, while Alison Steadman 's performance being picked out for commendation by many critics. In a 2018 article for Salon, American writer Mary Elizabeth Williams described the series as "the best show you 're not watching '' and "brilliant, black - humored, taut format horror for people who enjoy the occasional potty - joke ''. Despite the generally positive reception among critics and viewers, the viewing figures for the first series were poor. The average viewing figures for the series were 904,000 people, or 4.9 % of the audience, lower than the slot average of 970,000 (5.1 % of the audience). The series had a strong start, with 1.1 million viewers, which was 5.6 % of the audience, watching "Sardines ''. The series low was the fifth episode, "The Understudy '', which attracted 720,000 viewers (4.1 % of the audience). Thanks to their work on Inside No. 9, Pemberton and Shearsmith jointly won the 2014 / 2015 Royal Television Society Programme award for best comedy performance. The other nominees were Harry Enfield, for his performance in Harry and Paul 's Story of the Twos, and Sarah Hadland, for her performance in The Job Lot. The pair were also jointly nominated for the 2015 British Academy Television Craft Award for comedy writer for their work on Inside No. 9, but lost to Mackenzie Crook for his work on Detectorists. Arthur Matthews and Matt Berry (Toast of London) and Mathew Baynton and James Corden (The Wrong Mans) were the other nominees. The following year, Guillem Morales was nominated for the Television Craft Award for Breakthrough Talent for his work on "The 12 Days of Christine '', but lost to Michaela Coel, who wrote Chewing Gum. The other nominees were D.C. Moore (Not Safe for Work) and Marcus Plowright (Muslim Drag Queens). At the 2013 / 2014 Royal Television Society Craft and Design Awards, Lisa Cavalli - Green was nominated for the "Make Up Design -- Drama '' award for her work on Inside No. 9, but lost to Davy Jones, for his work on In the Flesh. Loz Schiavo (Peaky Blinders) was the other nominee. Due in part to her role in "The Harrowing '', Aimee - Ffion Edwards was shortlisted for WalesOnline 's "Daffta '' award for best actress, but lost to Eve Myles. The Dafftas celebrate Welsh television talent and prizes are awarded based on a public vote. At the 2018 Writers ' Guild Awards, administered by the Writers ' Guild of Great Britain, Shearsmith and Pemberton won the Best TV Situation Comedy award for their work on "The Bill ''. The award was presented by Brenda Gilhooly. The other nominees were Daisy May Cooper and Charlie Cooper, the writers of This Country, and Simon Blackwell, for his work on Back. Inside No. 9 won the award for "Best TV Comedy Drama '' at the Comedy.co.uk Awards in 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2017, beating Cold Feet, Flowers, Fresh Meat, Jonathan Creek and Stag in 2016, and Cold Feet, Doc Martin, Eric, Ernie and Me, Murder on the Blackpool Express and No Offence. In 2017, Inside No. 9 was named the Comedy.co.uk "Comedy of the Year ''. Inside No. 9 won the Sketch and Comedy prize at the 35th annual Banff World Media Festival Rockie Awards. The other nominees were Do I Have to Take Care of Everything?, It 's a Date, Tiny Plastic Men, Gangsta Granny and The Revolution Will Be Televised. In response to the nomination, Shearsmith tweeted that he was "(t) hrilled '', joking that the programme was "in ' Comedy '. I knew it was one ''. Inside No. 9 was also nominated for Best TV Sitcom at the 2014 Freesat Awards, which celebrate the best of free British television. The programme lost to BBC2 's The Wrong Mans, as determined by a panel made up of television experts and commentators. The other nominees were Birds of a Feather, Mrs. Brown 's Boys and Toast of London. In November 2014, it was announced that Inside No. 9 had been shortlisted for the 2015 Broadcast Award for Best Original Programme. The other nominees were Crackanory, Glasgow Girls, Release the Hounds, Suspects and The Island with Bear Grylls. At the award ceremony in London on 4 February 2015, Glasgow Girls was granted the award, but Inside No. 9 was highly commended. Inside No. 9 won the TV award at the 2015 Chortle Awards. The programme was longlisted for the Best Comedy prize in the 2015 TV Choice Awards. The programme won the 2016 comedy Rose d'Or, beating the Finnish Pyjama Party and the German Der Tatortreiniger. At the 2014 British Comedy Awards, Inside No. 9 was nominated in the Best New Comedy Programme and the Best Comedy Drama categories. In the former category, it lost to Toast of London. The other nominees were The Wrong Mans and Man Down. In the latter category, it lost to Rev, and the other nominees were The Wrong Mans and Uncle. For Chater (The Times), the comedy drama category was the strongest of the awards, but for Ben Williams (Time Out), Inside No. 9 should have won. Writing in The Independent, journalist Alice Jones said she was "sorry to see the relentlessly innovative Inside No 9 go unrewarded ''.

what are the names of the keys on a computer keyboard

Computer keyboard - wikipedia In computing, a computer keyboard is a typewriter - style device which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys to act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. Following the decline of punch cards and paper tape, interaction via teleprinter - style keyboards became the main input method for computers. Keyboard keys (buttons) typically have characters engraved or printed on them, and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol. However, producing some symbols may require pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters), other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or execute computer commands. In normal usage, the keyboard is used as a text entry interface for typing text and numbers into a word processor, text editor or any other program. In a modern computer, the interpretation of key presses is generally left to the software. A computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other key and reports all key presses to the controlling software. Keyboards are also used for computer gaming -- either regular keyboards or keyboards with special gaming features, which can expedite frequently used keystroke combinations. A keyboard is also used to give commands to the operating system of a computer, such as Windows ' Control - Alt - Delete combination, which brings up the system security options screen. A command - line interface is a type of user interface navigated entirely using a keyboard, or some other similar device that does the job of one. While typewriters are the definitive ancestor of all key - based text entry devices, the computer keyboard as a device for electromechanical data entry and communication derives largely from the utility of two devices: teleprinters (or teletypes) and keypunches. It was through such devices that modern computer keyboards inherited their layouts. As early as the 1870s, teleprinter - like devices were used to simultaneously type and transmit stock market text data from the keyboard across telegraph lines to stock ticker machines to be immediately copied and displayed onto ticker tape. The teleprinter, in its more contemporary form, was developed from 1907 to 1910 by American mechanical engineer Charles Krum and his son Howard, with early contributions by electrical engineer Frank Pearne. Earlier models were developed separately by individuals such as Royal Earl House and Frederick G. Creed. Earlier, Herman Hollerith developed the first keypunch devices, which soon evolved to include keys for text and number entry akin to normal typewriters by the 1930s. The keyboard on the teleprinter played a strong role in point - to - point and point - to - multipoint communication for most of the 20th century, while the keyboard on the keypunch device played a strong role in data entry and storage for just as long. The development of the earliest computers incorporated electric typewriter keyboards: the development of the ENIAC computer incorporated a keypunch device as both the input and paper - based output device, while the BINAC computer also made use of an electromechanically controlled typewriter for both data entry onto magnetic tape (instead of paper) and data output. The keyboard remained the primary, most integrated computer peripheral well into the era of personal computing until the introduction of the mouse as a consumer device in 1984. By this time, text - only user interfaces with sparse graphics gave way to comparatively graphics - rich icons on screen. However, keyboards remain central to human - computer interaction to the present, even as mobile personal computing devices such as smartphones and tablets adapt the keyboard as an optional virtual, touchscreen - based means of data entry. One factor determining the size of a keyboard is the presence of duplicate keys, such as a separate numeric keyboard, for convenience. Further the keyboard size depends on the extent to which a system is used where a single action is produced by a combination of subsequent or simultaneous keystrokes (with modifier keys), or multiple pressing of a single key. A keyboard with few keys is called a keypad. Another factor determining the size of a keyboard is the size and spacing of the keys. Reduction is limited by the practical consideration that the keys must be large enough to be easily pressed by fingers. Alternatively a tool is used for pressing small keys. Standard alphanumeric keyboards have keys that are on three - quarter inch centers (0.750 inches, 19.05 mm), and have a key travel of at least 0.150 inches (3.81 mm). Desktop computer keyboards, such as the 101 - key US traditional keyboards or the 104 - key Windows keyboards, include alphabetic characters, punctuation symbols, numbers and a variety of function keys. The internationally common 102 / 104 key keyboards have a smaller left shift key and an additional key with some more symbols between that and the letter to its right (usually Z or Y). Also the enter key is usually shaped differently. Computer keyboards are similar to electric - typewriter keyboards but contain additional keys, such as the command or Windows keys. There is no standard computer keyboard, although many manufacturers imitate the keyboard of PCs. There are actually three different PC keyboards: the original PC keyboard with 84 keys, the AT keyboard also with 84 keys and the enhanced keyboard with 101 keys. The three differ somewhat in the placement of function keys, the control keys, the return key, and the shift key. Keyboards on laptops and notebook computers usually have a shorter travel distance for the keystroke, shorter over travel distance, and a reduced set of keys. They may not have a numerical keypad, and the function keys may be placed in locations that differ from their placement on a standard, full - sized keyboard. The switch mechanism for a laptop keyboard is more likely to be a scissor switch than a rubber dome; this is opposite the trend for full - size keyboards. Flexible keyboards are a junction between normal type and laptop type keyboards: normal from the full arrangement of keys, and laptop from the short key distance. Additionally, the flexibility allows the user to fold / roll the keyboard for better storage and transfer. However, for typing the keyboard must be resting on a hard surface. The vast majority of flexible keyboards in the market are made from silicone; this material makes them water and dust proof, a very pleasant feature especially in hospitals where keyboards are subjected to frequent washing. For connection with the computer the keyboards use a USB cable, and operating system support reaches as far back as Windows 2000. Handheld ergonomic keyboards are designed to be held like a game controller, and can be used as such, instead of laid out flat on top of a table surface. Typically handheld keyboards hold all the alphanumeric keys and symbols that a standard keyboard would have, yet only be accessed by pressing two sets of keys at once; one acting as a function key similar to a ' Shift ' key that would allow for capital letters on a standard keyboard. Handheld keyboards allow the user the ability to move around a room or to lean back on a chair while also being able to type in front or away from the computer. Some variations of handheld ergonomic keyboards also include a trackball mouse that allow mouse movement and typing included in one handheld device. Smaller external keyboards have been introduced for devices without a built - in keyboard, such as PDAs, and smartphones. Small keyboards are also useful where there is a limited workspace. A thumb keyboard (thumb board) is used in some personal digital assistants such as the Palm Treo and BlackBerry and some Ultra-Mobile PCs such as the OQO. Numeric keyboards contain only numbers, mathematical symbols for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, a decimal point, and several function keys. They are often used to facilitate data entry with smaller keyboards that do not have a numeric keypad, commonly those of laptop computers. These keys are collectively known as a numeric pad, numeric keys, or a numeric keypad, and it can consist of the following types of keys: Arithmetic operators, numbers, arrow keys, Navigation keys, Num Lock and Enter key. Multifunctional keyboards provide additional function beyond the standard keyboard. Many are programmable, configurable computer keyboards and some control multiple PCs, workstations (incl. SUN) and other information sources (incl. Thomson Reuters FXT / Eikon, Bloomberg, EBS, etc.) usually in multi-screen work environments. Users have additional key functions as well as the standard functions and can typically use a single keyboard and mouse to access multiple sources. Multifunctional keyboards may feature customised keypads, fully programmable function or soft keys for macros / pre-sets, biometric or smart card readers, trackballs, etc. New generation multifunctional keyboards feature a touchscreen display to stream video, control audio visual media and alarms, execute application inputs, configure individual desktop environments, etc. Multifunctional keyboards may also permit users to share access to PCs and other information sources. Multiple interfaces (serial, USB, audio, Ethernet, etc.) are used to integrate external devices. Some multifunctional keyboards are also used to directly and intuitively control video walls. Common environments for multifunctional keyboards are complex, high - performance workplaces for financial traders and control room operators (emergency services, security, air traffic management; industry, utilities management, etc.). While other keyboards generally associate one action with each key, chorded keyboards associate actions with combinations of key presses. Since there are many combinations available, chorded keyboards can effectively produce more actions on a board with fewer keys. Court reporters ' stenotype machines use chorded keyboards to enable them to enter text much faster by typing a syllable with each stroke instead of one letter at a time. The fastest typists (as of 2007) use a stenograph, a kind of chorded keyboard used by most court reporters and closed - caption reporters. Some chorded keyboards are also made for use in situations where fewer keys are preferable, such as on devices that can be used with only one hand, and on small mobile devices that do n't have room for larger keyboards. Chorded keyboards are less desirable in many cases because it usually takes practice and memorization of the combinations to become proficient. Software keyboards or on - screen keyboards often take the form of computer programs that display an image of a keyboard on the screen. Another input device such as a mouse or a touchscreen can be used to operate each virtual key to enter text. Software keyboards have become very popular in touchscreen enabled cell phones, due to the additional cost and space requirements of other types of hardware keyboards. Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and some varieties of Linux include on - screen keyboards that can be controlled with the mouse. In software keyboards, the mouse has to be maneuvered onto the on - screen letters given by the software. On the click of a letter, the software writes the respective letter on the respective spot. Projection keyboards project an image of keys, usually with a laser, onto a flat surface. The device then uses a camera or infrared sensor to "watch '' where the user 's fingers move, and will count a key as being pressed when it "sees '' the user 's finger touch the projected image. Projection keyboards can simulate a full size keyboard from a very small projector. Because the "keys '' are simply projected images, they can not be felt when pressed. Users of projected keyboards often experience increased discomfort in their fingertips because of the lack of "give '' when typing. A flat, non-reflective surface is also required for the keys to be projected. Most projection keyboards are made for use with PDAs and smartphones due to their small form factor. Also known as photo - optical keyboard, light responsive keyboard, photo - electric keyboard and optical key actuation detection technology. An optical keyboard technology utilizes light emitting devices and photo sensors to optically detect actuated keys. Most commonly the emitters and sensors are located in the perimeter, mounted on a small PCB. The light is directed from side to side of the keyboard interior and it can only be blocked by the actuated keys. Most optical keyboards require at least 2 beams (most commonly vertical beam and horizontal beam) to determine the actuated key. Some optical keyboards use a special key structure that blocks the light in a certain pattern, allowing only one beam per row of keys (most commonly horizontal beam). There are a number of different arrangements of alphabetic, numeric, and punctuation symbols on keys. These different keyboard layouts arise mainly because different people need easy access to different symbols, either because they are inputting text in different languages, or because they need a specialized layout for mathematics, accounting, computer programming, or other purposes. The United States keyboard layout is used as default in the currently most popular operating systems: Windows, Mac OS X and Linux. The common QWERTY - based layout was designed early in the era of mechanical typewriters, so its ergonomics were compromised to allow for the mechanical limitations of the typewriter. As the letter - keys were attached to levers that needed to move freely, inventor Christopher Sholes developed the QWERTY layout to reduce the likelihood of jamming. With the advent of computers, lever jams are no longer an issue, but nevertheless, QWERTY layouts were adopted for electronic keyboards because they were widely used. Alternative layouts such as the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard are not in widespread use. The QWERTZ layout is widely used in Germany and much of Central Europe. The main difference between it and QWERTY is that Y and Z are swapped, and most special characters such as brackets are replaced by diacritical characters. Another situation takes place with "national '' layouts. Keyboards designed for typing in Spanish have some characters shifted, to release the space for Ñ ñ; similarly, those for Portuguese, French and other European languages may have a special key for the character Ç ç. The AZERTY layout is used in France, Belgium and some neighbouring countries. It differs from the QWERTY layout in that the A and Q are swapped, the Z and W are swapped, and the M is moved from the right of N to the right of L (where colon / semicolon is on a US keyboard). The digits 0 to 9 are on the same keys, but to be typed the shift key must be pressed. The unshifted positions are used for accented characters. Keyboards in many parts of Asia may have special keys to switch between the Latin character set and a completely different typing system. Japanese layout keyboards can be switched between various Japanese input methods and the Latin alphabet by signaling the operating system 's input interpreter of the change, and some operating systems (namely the Windows family) interpret the character "\ '' as "¥ '' for display purposes without changing the bytecode which has led some keyboard makers to mark "\ '' as "¥ '' or both. In the Arab world, keyboards can often be switched between Arabic and Latin characters. In bilingual regions of Canada and in the French - speaking province of Québec, keyboards can often be switched between an English and a French - language keyboard; while both keyboards share the same QWERTY alphabetic layout, the French - language keyboard enables the user to type accented vowels such as "é '' or "à '' with a single keystroke. Using keyboards for other languages leads to a conflict: the image on the key does not correspond to the character. In such cases, each new language may require an additional label on the keys, because the standard keyboard layouts do not share even similar characters of different languages (see the example in the figure above). Alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys are used in the same fashion as a typewriter keyboard to enter their respective symbol into a word processing program, text editor, data spreadsheet, or other program. Many of these keys will produce different symbols when modifier keys or shift keys are pressed. The alphabetic characters become uppercase when the shift key or Caps Lock key is depressed. The numeric characters become symbols or punctuation marks when the shift key is depressed. The alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys can also have other functions when they are pressed at the same time as some modifier keys. The Space bar is a horizontal bar in the lowermost row, which is significantly wider than other keys. Like the alphanumeric characters, it is also descended from the mechanical typewriter. Its main purpose is to enter the space between words during typing. It is large enough so that a thumb from either hand can use it easily. Depending on the operating system, when the space bar is used with a modifier key such as the control key, it may have functions such as resizing or closing the current window, half - spacing, or backspacing. In computer games and other applications the key has myriad uses in addition to its normal purpose in typing, such as jumping and adding marks to check boxes. In certain programs for playback of digital video, the space bar is used for pausing and resuming the playback. Modifier keys are special keys that modify the normal action of another key, when the two are pressed in combination. For example, Alt + F4 in Microsoft Windows will close the program in an active window. In contrast, pressing just F4 will probably do nothing, unless assigned a specific function in a particular program. By themselves, modifier keys usually do nothing. The most widely used modifier keys include the Control key, Shift key and the Alt key. The AltGr key is used to access additional symbols for keys that have three symbols printed on them. On the Macintosh and Apple keyboards, the modifier keys are the Option key and Command key, respectively. On MIT computer keyboards, the Meta key is used as a modifier and for Windows keyboards, there is a Windows key. Compact keyboard layouts often use a Fn key. "Dead keys '' allow placement of a diacritic mark, such as an accent, on the following letter (e.g., the Compose key). The Enter / Return key typically causes a command line, window form or dialog box to operate its default function, which is typically to finish an "entry '' and begin the desired process. In word processing applications, pressing the enter key ends a paragraph and starts a new one. Navigation keys or cursor keys include a variety of keys which move the cursor to different positions on the screen. Arrow keys are programmed to move the cursor in a specified direction; page scroll keys, such as the Page Up and Page Down keys, scroll the page up and down. The Home key is used to return the cursor to the beginning of the line where the cursor is located; the End key puts the cursor at the end of the line. The Tab key advances the cursor to the next tab stop. The Insert key is mainly used to switch between overtype mode, in which the cursor overwrites any text that is present on and after its current location, and insert mode, where the cursor inserts a character at its current position, forcing all characters past it one position further. The Delete key discards the character ahead of the cursor 's position, moving all following characters one position "back '' towards the freed place. On many notebook computer keyboards the key labeled Delete (sometimes Delete and Backspace are printed on the same key) serves the same purpose as a Backspace key. The Backspace key deletes the preceding character. Lock keys lock part of a keyboard, depending on the settings selected. The lock keys are scattered around the keyboard. Most styles of keyboards have three LEDs indicating which locks are enabled, in the upper right corner above the numeric pad. The lock keys include Scroll lock, Num lock (which allows the use of the numeric keypad), and Caps lock. The SysRq and Print screen commands often share the same key. SysRq was used in earlier computers as a "panic '' button to recover from crashes (and it is still used in this sense to some extent by the Linux kernel; see Magic SysRq key). The Print screen command used to capture the entire screen and send it to the printer, but in the present it usually puts a screenshot in the clipboard. The Break key / Pause key no longer has a well - defined purpose. Its origins go back to teleprinter users, who wanted a key that would temporarily interrupt the communications line. The Break key can be used by software in several different ways, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or to interrupt a modem connection. In programming, especially old DOS - style BASIC, Pascal and C, Break is used (in conjunction with Ctrl) to stop program execution. In addition to this, Linux and variants, as well as many DOS programs, treat this combination the same as Ctrl + C. On modern keyboards, the break key is usually labeled Pause / Break. In most Windows environments, the key combination Windows key + Pause brings up the system properties. The Escape key (often abbreviated Esc) is used to initiate an escape sequence. As most computer users no longer are concerned with the details of controlling their computer 's peripherals, the task for which the escape sequences were originally designed, the escape key was appropriated by application programmers, most often to "escape '' or back out of a mistaken command. This use continues today in Microsoft Windows 's use of escape as a shortcut in dialog boxes for No, Quit, Exit, Cancel, or Abort. A common application today of the Esc key is as a shortcut key for the Stop button in many web browsers. On machines running Microsoft Windows, prior to the implementation of the Windows key on keyboards, the typical practice for invoking the "start '' button was to hold down the control key and press escape. This process still works in Windows 95, 98, Me, NT 4, 2000, XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10. The Enter key is located: One in the alphanumeric keys and the other one is in the numeric keys. When one worked something on their computer and wanted to do something with their work, pressing the enter key would do the command they ordered. Another function is to create a space for next paragraph. When one typed and finished typing a paragraph and they wanted to have a second paragraph, they could press enter and it would do spacing. Shift key: when one presses shift and a letter, it will capitalize the letter pressed with the shift key. Another use is to type more symbols than appear to be available, for instance the apostrophe key is accompanied with a quotation mark on the top. If one wants to type the quotation mark but pressed that key alone, the symbol that would appear would be the apostrophe. The quotation mark will only appear if both the required key and the Shift key are pressed. The Menu key or Application key is a key found on Windows - oriented computer keyboards. It is used to launch a context menu with the keyboard rather than with the usual right mouse button. The key 's symbol is usually a small icon depicting a cursor hovering above a menu. On some Samsung keyboards the cursor in the icon is not present, showing the menu only. This key was created at the same time as the Windows key. This key is normally used when the right mouse button is not present on the mouse. Some Windows public terminals do not have a Menu key on their keyboard to prevent users from right - clicking (however, in many Windows applications, a similar functionality can be invoked with the Shift + F10 keyboard shortcut). Many, but not all, computer keyboards have a numeric keypad to the right of the alphabetic keyboard, often separated from the other groups of keys such as the function keys and system command keys, which contains numbers, basic mathematical symbols (e.g., addition, subtraction, etc.), and a few function keys. On Japanese / Korean keyboards, there may be Language input keys for changing the language to use. Some keyboards have power management keys (e.g., power key, sleep key and wake key); Internet keys to access a web browser or E-mail; and / or multimedia keys, such as volume controls; or keys that can be programmed by the user to launch a specified application or a command like minimizing all windows. When we calculate, we use these numeric keys to type numbers. Symbols concerned with calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division symbols are located in this group of keys. The enter key in this keys indicate the equal sign. It is possible to install multiple keyboard layouts within an operating system and switch between them, either through features implemented within the OS, or through an external application. Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Mac provide support to add keyboard layouts and choose from them. The character code produced by any key press is determined by the keyboard driver software. A key press generates a scancode which is interpreted as an alphanumeric character or control function. Depending on operating systems, various application programs are available to create, add and switch among keyboard layouts. Many programs are available, some of which are language specific. The arrangement of symbols of specific language can be customized. An existing keyboard layout can be edited, and a new layout can be created using this type of software. For example, Ukelele (sic) for Mac, The Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator and open - source Avro Keyboard for Windows provide the ability to customize the keyboard layout as desired. Keyboards and keypads may be illuminated from inside, especially on equipment for mobile use. Illumination facilitates the use of the keyboard or keypad in dark environments. Some gaming keyboards have lighted keys, to make it easier for gamers to find command keys while playing in a dark room. Some keyboards may have small LED lights in a few important function keys, to remind users that the function is activated (see photo). In the first electronic keyboards in the early 1970s, the key switches were individual switches inserted into holes in metal frames. These keyboards cost from 80 to 120 USD and were used in mainframe data terminals. The most popular switch types were reed switches (contacts enclosed in a vacuum in a glass capsule, affected by a magnet mounted on the switch plunger). In the mid-1970s, lower - cost direct - contact key switches were introduced, but their life in switch cycles was much shorter (rated ten million cycles) because they were open to the environment. This became more acceptable, however, for use in computer terminals at the time, which began to see increasingly shorter model lifespans as they advanced. In 1978, Key Tronic Corporation introduced keyboards with capacitive - based switches, one of the first keyboard technologies not to use self - contained switches. There was simply a sponge pad with a conductive - coated Mylar plastic sheet on the switch plunger, and two half - moon trace patterns on the printed circuit board below. As the key was depressed, the capacitance between the plunger pad and the patterns on the PCB below changed, which was detected by integrated circuits (IC). These keyboards were claimed to have the same reliability as the other "solid - state switch '' keyboards such as inductive and Hall - effect, but competitive with direct - contact keyboards. Prices of $60 for keyboards were achieved, and Key Tronic rapidly became the largest independent keyboard manufacturer. Meanwhile, IBM made their own keyboards, using their own patented technology: Keys on older IBM keyboards were made with a "buckling spring '' mechanism, in which a coil spring under the key buckles under pressure from the user 's finger, triggering a hammer that presses two plastic sheets (membranes) with conductive traces together, completing a circuit. This produces a clicking sound and gives physical feedback for the typist, indicating that the key has been depressed. The first electronic keyboards had a typewriter key travel distance of 0.187 inches (4.75 mm), keytops were a half - inch (12.7 mm) high, and keyboards were about two inches (5 cm) thick. Over time, less key travel was accepted in the market, finally landing on 0.110 inches (2.79 mm). Coincident with this, Key Tronic was the first company to introduce a keyboard that was only about one inch thick. And now keyboards measure only about a half - inch thick. Keytops are an important element of keyboards. In the beginning, keyboard keytops had a "dish shape '' on top, like typewriters before them. Keyboard key legends must be extremely durable over tens of millions of depressions, since they are subjected to extreme mechanical wear from fingers and fingernails, and subject to hand oils and creams, so engraving and filling key legends with paint, as was done previously for individual switches, was never acceptable. So, for the first electronic keyboards, the key legends were produced by two - shot (or double - shot, or two - color) molding, where either the key shell or the inside of the key with the key legend was molded first, and then the other color molded second. But, to save cost, other methods were explored, such as sublimation printing and laser engraving, both methods which could be used to print a whole keyboard at the same time. Initially, sublimation printing, where a special ink is printed onto the keycap surface and the application of heat causes the ink molecules to penetrate and commingle with the plastic modules, had a problem because finger oils caused the molecules to disperse, but then a necessarily very hard clear coating was applied to prevent this. Coincident with sublimation printing, which was first used in high volume by IBM on their keyboards, was the introduction by IBM of single - curved - dish keycaps to facilitate quality printing of key legends by having a consistently curved surface instead of a dish. But one problem with sublimation or laser printing was that the processes took too long and only dark legends could be printed on light - colored keys. On another note, IBM was unique in using separate shells, or "keycaps '', on keytop bases. This might have made their manufacturing of different keyboard layouts more flexible, but the reason for doing this was that the plastic material that needed to be used for sublimation printing was different from standard ABS keytop plastic material. Three final mechanical technologies brought keyboards to where they are today, driving the cost well under $10: Plastic materials played a very important part in the development and progress of electronic keyboards. Until "monoblocks '' came along, GE 's "self - lubricating '' Delrin was the only plastic material for keyboard switch plungers that could withstand the beating over tens of millions of cycles of lifetime use. Greasing or oiling switch plungers was undesirable because it would attract dirt over time which would eventually affect the feel and even bind the key switches (although keyboard manufacturers would sometimes sneak this into their keyboards, especially if they could not control the tolerances of the key plungers and housings well enough to have a smooth key depression feel or prevent binding). But Delrin was only available in black and white, and was not suitable for keytops (too soft), so keytops use ABS plastic. However, as plastic molding advanced in maintaining tight tolerances, and as key travel length reduced from 0.187 - inch to 0.110 - inch (4.75 mm to 2.79 mm), single - part keytop / plungers could be made of ABS, with the keyboard monolocks also made of ABS. Computer keyboards include control circuitry to convert key presses into key codes (usually scancodes) that the computer 's electronics can understand. The key switches are connected via the printed circuit board in an electrical X-Y matrix where a voltage is provided sequentially to the Y lines and, when a key is depressed, detected sequentially by scanning the X lines. The first computer keyboards were for mainframe computer data terminals and used discrete electronic parts. The first keyboard microprocessor was introduced in 1972 by General Instruments, but keyboards have been using the single - chip 8048 microcontroller variant since it became available in 1978. The keyboard switch matrix is wired to its inputs, it converts the keystrokes to key codes, and, for a detached keyboard, sends the codes down a serial cable (the keyboard cord) to the main processor on the computer motherboard. This serial keyboard cable communication is only bi-directional to the extent that the computer 's electronics controls the illumination of the caps lock, num lock and scroll lock lights. One test for whether the computer has crashed is pressing the caps lock key. The keyboard sends the key code to the keyboard driver running in the main computer; if the main computer is operating, it commands the light to turn on. All the other indicator lights work in a similar way. The keyboard driver also tracks the Shift, alt and control state of the keyboard. Some lower - quality keyboards have multiple or false key entries due to inadequate electrical designs. These are caused by inadequate keyswitch "debouncing '' or inadequate keyswitch matrix layout that do n't allow multiple keys to be depressed at the same time, both circumstances which are explained below: When pressing a keyboard key, the key contacts may "bounce '' against each other for several milliseconds before they settle into firm contact. When released, they bounce some more until they revert to the uncontacted state. If the computer were watching for each pulse, it would see many keystrokes for what the user thought was just one. To resolve this problem, the processor in a keyboard (or computer) "debounces '' the keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to produce one "confirmed '' keystroke. Some low - quality keyboards also suffer problems with rollover (that is, when multiple keys pressed at the same time, or when keys are pressed so fast that multiple keys are down within the same milliseconds). Early "solid - state '' keyswitch keyboards did not have this problem because the keyswitches are electrically isolated from each other, and early "direct - contact '' keyswitch keyboards avoided this problem by having isolation diodes for every keyswitch. These early keyboards had "n - key '' rollover, which means any number of keys can be depressed and the keyboard will still recognize the next key depressed. But when three keys are pressed (electrically closed) at the same time in a "direct contact '' keyswitch matrix that does n't have isolation diodes, the keyboard electronics can see a fourth "phantom '' key which is the intersection of the X and Y lines of the three keys. Some types of keyboard circuitry will register a maximum number of keys at one time. "Three - key '' rollover, also called "phantom key blocking '' or "phantom key lockout '', will only register three keys and ignore all others until one of the three keys is lifted. This is undesirable, especially for fast typing (hitting new keys before the fingers can release previous keys), and games (designed for multiple key presses). As direct - contact membrane keyboards became popular, the available rollover of keys was optimized by analyzing the most common key sequences and placing these keys so that they do not potentially produce phantom keys in the electrical key matrix (for example, simply placing three or four keys that might be depressed simultaneously on the same X or same Y line, so that a phantom key intersection / short can not happen), so that blocking a third key usually is n't a problem. But lower - quality keyboard designs and unknowledgeable engineers may not know these tricks, and it can still be a problem in games due to wildly different or configurable layouts in different games. There are several ways of connecting a keyboard to a system unit (more precisely, to its keyboard controller) using cables, including the standard AT connector commonly found on motherboards, which was eventually replaced by the PS / 2 and the USB connection. Prior to the iMac line of systems, Apple used the proprietary Apple Desktop Bus for its keyboard connector. Wireless keyboards have become popular for their increased user freedom. A wireless keyboard often includes a required combination transmitter and receiver unit that attaches to the computer 's keyboard port. The wireless aspect is achieved either by radio frequency (RF) or by infrared (IR) signals sent and received from both the keyboard and the unit attached to the computer. A wireless keyboard may use an industry standard RF, called Bluetooth. With Bluetooth, the transceiver may be built into the computer. However, a wireless keyboard needs batteries to work and may pose a security problem due to the risk of data "eavesdropping '' by hackers. Wireless solar keyboards charge their batteries from small solar panels using sunlight or standard artificial lighting. An early example of a consumer wireless keyboard is that of the Olivetti Envision. Optical character recognition (OCR) is preferable to rekeying for converting existing text that is already written down but not in machine - readable format (for example, a Linotype - composed book from the 1940s). In other words, to convert the text from an image to editable text (that is, a string of character codes), a person could re-type it, or a computer could look at the image and deduce what each character is. OCR technology has already reached an impressive state (for example, Google Book Search) and promises more for the future. Speech recognition converts speech into machine - readable text (that is, a string of character codes). This technology has also reached an advanced state and is implemented in various software products. For certain uses (e.g., transcription of medical or legal dictation; journalism; writing essays or novels) speech recognition is starting to replace the keyboard. However, the lack of privacy when issuing voice commands and dictation makes this kind of input unsuitable for many environments. Pointing devices can be used to enter text or characters in contexts where using a physical keyboard would be inappropriate or impossible. These accessories typically present characters on a display, in a layout that provides fast access to the more frequently used characters or character combinations. Popular examples of this kind of input are Graffiti, Dasher and on - screen virtual keyboards. Unencrypted wireless bluetooth keyboards are known to be vulnerable to signal theft by placing a covert listening devices in the same room as the keyboard to sniff and record bluetooth packets for the purpose of logging keys typed by the user. Microsoft wireless keyboards 2011 and earlier are documented to have this vulnerability. Keystroke logging (often called keylogging) is a method of capturing and recording user keystrokes. While it is used legally to measure employee productivity on certain clerical tasks, or by law enforcement agencies to find out about illegal activities, it is also used by hackers for various illegal or malicious acts. Hackers use keyloggers as a means to obtain passwords or encryption keys and thus bypass other security measures. Keystroke logging can be achieved by both hardware and software means. Hardware key loggers are attached to the keyboard cable or installed inside standard keyboards. Software keyloggers work on the target computer 's operating system and gain unauthorized access to the hardware, hook into the keyboard with functions provided by the OS, or use remote access software to transmit recorded data out of the target computer to a remote location. Some hackers also use wireless keylogger sniffers to collect packets of data being transferred from a wireless keyboard and its receiver, and then they crack the encryption key being used to secure wireless communications between the two devices. Anti-spyware applications are able to detect many keyloggers and cleanse them. Responsible vendors of monitoring software support detection by anti-spyware programs, thus preventing abuse of the software. Enabling a firewall does not stop keyloggers per se, but can possibly prevent transmission of the logged material over the net if properly configured. Network monitors (also known as reverse - firewalls) can be used to alert the user whenever an application attempts to make a network connection. This gives the user the chance to prevent the keylogger from "phoning home '' with his or her typed information. Automatic form - filling programs can prevent keylogging entirely by not using the keyboard at all. Most keyloggers can be fooled by alternating between typing the login credentials and typing characters somewhere else in the focus window. Keyboards are also known to emit electromagnetic signatures that can be detected using special spying equipment to reconstruct the keys pressed on the keyboard. Neal O'Farrell, executive director of the Identity Theft Council, revealed to InformationWeek that "More than 25 years ago, a couple of former spooks showed me how they could capture a user 's ATM PIN, from a van parked across the street, simply by capturing and decoding the electromagnetic signals generated by every keystroke, '' O'Farrell said. "They could even capture keystrokes from computers in nearby offices, but the technology was n't sophisticated enough to focus in on any specific computer. '' The use of any keyboard may cause serious injury (that is, carpal tunnel syndrome or other repetitive strain injury) to hands, wrists, arms, neck or back. The risks of injuries can be reduced by taking frequent short breaks to get up and walk around a couple of times every hour. As well, users should vary tasks throughout the day, to avoid overuse of the hands and wrists. When inputting at the keyboard, a person should keep the shoulders relaxed with the elbows at the side, with the keyboard and mouse positioned so that reaching is not necessary. The chair height and keyboard tray should be adjusted so that the wrists are straight, and the wrists should not be rested on sharp table edges. Wrist or palm rests should not be used while typing. Some adaptive technology ranging from special keyboards, mouse replacements and pen tablet interfaces to speech recognition software can reduce the risk of injury. Pause software reminds the user to pause frequently. Switching to a much more ergonomic mouse, such as a vertical mouse or joystick mouse may provide relief. Switching from using a mouse to using a stylus pen with graphic tablet or a touchpad can lessen the repetitive strain on the arms and hands. Some keyboards were found to contain five times more potentially harmful germs than a toilet seat. This can be a concern when using shared keyboards; the keyboards can serve as vectors for pathogens that cause the cold, flu, and other communicable diseases easily spread by indirect contact.

john williamson home among the gum trees album

Give Me a Home Among the Gumtrees - wikipedia Give Me a Home Among the Gumtrees (or Home Among the Gumtrees) is a popular Australian song written in 1974 by Wally Johnson and Bob Brown (aka Captain Rock). It was originally performed as a satirical number in Johnson and Brown 's comedy act at the Flying Trapeze Cafe in Fitzroy, Melbourne and was first recorded in 1975 on the Captain Rock album Buried Treasure on Mushroom Records. At that time the Australian Government had decided to scrap God Save the Queen as the national anthem and was running a contest called the Australian National Anthem Quest to find a replacement. The Gumtrees song was Johnson and Brown 's response (it did not win). the bands first roadie with the bands nickname THE EMU. had the cassette tape of capt'rock. and insisted that h.a.t g. was a tune was vey well suited too their sound and from the first night it was performed at the Port o Call. hotel Coolangatta it was a hit for the band In 1982, the (although this story is not confirmed by all members of the band). They recorded a cover version of Gumtrees, which then became a hit. The song was later recorded by popular Australian country music singer - songwriter John Williamson, thus increasing its popularity (many mistakenly believe Williamson to be the original composer). Bullamakanka made some changes to the lyrics, which were also retained in Williamson 's recording. These tended to water down the original tongue - in - cheek nature of the song. Bullamakanka 's version was later used as the theme song for a popular gardening and lifestyle television program called Burke 's Backyard, which ran on Australian television for 17 years. The program once held a competition for the best school video version of Home Among the Gumtress, and thousands of entries were submitted; one of the winners was an Aboriginal community school group who sang the song in their own language. Home Among the Gumtress has a set of mime actions accompanying the chorus which are familiar to people throughout Australia, although their exact origins are unknown. The song has become one of the most frequently recorded Australian compositions of all time and is a standard in Australian folk music. A variety of artists have covered it, ranging from bushbands like Paradiddle to international superstar violinist André Rieu, who included it on his 2008 album Waltzing Matilda. John Williamson performed Gumtrees at the 2006 memorial service to commemorate popular Australian wildlife expert and TV personality Steve Irwin; the program was followed by a worldwide television audience reputedly numbering 300 million viewers. Co-writer Wally Johnson died of pneumonia in 1995. Bob Brown has continued writing and performing tongue - in - cheek folk songs, which have been covered by artists including John Williamson and folk singer Slim Dusty. One of Brown 's numbers I 'm an Individual was recorded by cult Australian Rules footballer Mark ' Jacko ' Jackson, and became an Australia - wide hit. Brown has also recorded an album of children 's songs called Riding Round on Golf Balls. Lyrics of Give Me a Home Among the Gumtrees

how many us athletes in 2018 winter olympics

United States at the 2018 Winter Olympics - Wikipedia The United States of America competed at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea, from February 9 to 25, 2018. The United States had its worst showing at a Winter Olympics since the 1998 Nagano Games, ranking out of the top three in both the gold and total medal count with 9 and 23 medals respectively, and finished fourth in both rankings. However, there were some notable successes for the team. Jessica Diggins and Kikkan Randall won the first Olympic gold medal in cross-country skiing ever for the United States in the women 's team sprint event. Skip John Shuster led his team to the United States ' first - ever gold medal in curling, winning the men 's curling over Sweden. The United States earned medals in at least one event in 11 different sports, the most of any nation. These Games also witnessed the 100th Winter Olympic gold medal for the Americans. The following is the list of number of competitors participating at the Games per sport or discipline. * The United States qualified for 12 positions in curling, but two athletes are competing in both the 4 - person and mixed doubles tournament Jacqueline Wiles was initially named to the team but withdrew after suffering knee and leg injuries in a February 3 World Cup race, the quota spot was filled by Tricia Mangan. Steven Nyman was initially named to the team but withdrew after tearing his right ACL during a training run, the quota spot was filled by Alice Merryweather. * - Winner decided by total time of fastest male and female skiers Based on their Nations Cup rankings in the 2016 -- 17 Biathlon World Cup, the United States has qualified a team of 5 men and 5 women. Based on their rankings in the 2017 -- 18 Bobsleigh World Cup, the United States has qualified 8 sleds. * -- Denotes the driver of each sled Qualification legend: Q -- Qualify on position in heat; q -- Qualify on time in round Qualification legend: Q -- Qualify on position in heat; q -- Qualify on time in round Based on results from the 2016 World Men 's Curling Championship and the 2017 World Men 's Curling Championship, the United States has qualified a men 's team, consisting of five athletes, as one of the seven highest ranked nations. The United States men 's curling team curls out of the Duluth Curling Club in Duluth, Minnesota. They were selected by winning the 2017 United States Olympic Curling Trials. Final round robin standings The United States has a bye in draws 2, 6, and 10. Wednesday, February 14, 09: 05 Thursday, February 15, 14: 05 Friday, February 16, 09: 05 Friday, February 16, 20: 05 Sunday, February 18, 09: 05 Sunday, February 18, 20: 05 Monday, February 19, 14: 05 Tuesday, February 20, 20: 05 Wednesday, February 21, 14: 05 Thursday, February 22, 20: 05 Saturday, February 24, 15: 35 Based on results from the 2016 Ford World Women 's Curling Championship and the 2017 World Women 's Curling Championship, the United States has qualified a women 's team, consisting of five athletes, as one of the seven highest ranked nations. The United States women 's curling team curls out of the Four Seasons Curling Club in Blaine, Minnesota. They were selected by winning the 2017 United States Olympic Curling Trials. Final round robin standings The United States has a bye in draws 4, 7, and 11. Wednesday, February 14, 14: 05 Thursday, February 15, 09: 05 Thursday, February 15, 20: 05 Saturday, February 17, 09: 05 Saturday, February 17, 20: 05 Monday, February 19, 09: 05 Monday, February 19, 20: 05 Tuesday, February 20, 14: 05 Wednesday, February 21, 20: 05 Based on results from the 2016 World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship and the 2017 World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship, the United States has qualified a mixed doubles team, consisting of two athletes, as one of the seven highest ranked nations. The United States Hamilton / Hamilton pair curls out of the Madison Curling Club in Middleton, Wisconsin. They were selected by winning the 2017 United States Mixed Doubles Curling Olympic Trials. Final round robin standings Thursday, February 8, 9: 05 Thursday, February 8, 20: 04 Friday, February 9, 8: 35 Friday, February 9, 13: 35 Saturday, February 10, 9: 05 Saturday, February 10, 20: 04 Sunday, February 11, 9: 05 The United States qualified 14 figure skaters (seven male and seven female), based on its placement at the 2017 World Figure Skating Championships in Helsinki, Finland. The United States has qualified a men 's and women 's team for a total of 48 athletes (25 men and 23 women). Key: United States men 's national ice hockey team qualified by finishing 5th in the 2015 IIHF World Ranking. Following NHL 's decision to pull out of the Olympics, the US team relied heavily on professionals from European leagues and the American Hockey League. The team eventually lost in the quarterfinals; the Olympic Athletes from Russia (OAR) team, consisting primarily of SKA and CSKA players of a Russia - based KHL and featuring ex-NHL all - stars Pavel Datsyuk, Ilya Kovalchuk and Vyacheslav Voynov (all SKA), won the gold medal, defeating the German national team with a score of 4: 3 OT in the final. Canada won a bronze medal over the Czech Republic. The following is the American roster for the men 's ice hockey tournament at the 2018 Winter Olympics. Head coach: Tony Granato Assistant coaches: Keith Allain, Chris Chelios, Scott Young United States women 's national ice hockey team qualified by finishing 1st in the 2016 IIHF World Ranking. The following is the United States roster for the women 's ice hockey tournament at the 2018 Winter Olympics. Head coach: Robb Stauber Associate coaches: Brett Strot, Paul Mara Based on the results from the World Cups during the 2017 -- 18 Luge World Cup season, the United States qualified 8 sleds. On January 25 Ben Berend received news that he would be the fifth American qualifier. According to the ISU Special Olympic Qualification Rankings, United States has qualified 5 men and 3 women. Qualification legend: ADV -- Advanced due to being impeded by another skater; FA -- Qualify to medal round; FB -- Qualify to consolation round. Qualification legend: ADV -- Advanced due to being impeded by another skater; FA -- Qualify to medal round; FB -- Qualify to consolation round Based on the world rankings, the United States qualified 4 sleds. Qualification legend: FA -- Qualify to medal round; FB -- Qualify to consolation round Qualification legend: FA -- Qualify to gold medal final; FB -- Qualify to bronze medal final; FC -- Qualify to 5th place final; FD -- Qualify to 7th place final In early December 2017, United States Ambassador to the United Nations, Nikki Haley, told Fox News that it was an "open question '' whether the United States was going to participate in the games, citing security concerns in the region. However, days later the White House Press Secretary, Sarah Huckabee Sanders, stated that the United States "looks forward to participating '' and will attend. With the announcement that North Korea will participate in the Winter Olympics, there was talk about a possible Olympic boycott by the United States, after the administration of President Donald Trump, who has been at loggerheads with Kim Jong - un, has issued mixed messages. Concerns were assuaged when it was announced Vice President Mike Pence and wife Karen would attend the Opening Ceremony. Luge athlete Erin Hamlin carried the flag during the opening ceremony. Following a vote, which ended up in a 4 - 4 tie between Hamlin and speed skater Shani Davis, the winner was decided via a coin toss in accordance with the rules. Davis eventually skipped the opening ceremony, citing his training schedule.

list of british prime ministers and their parties

List of Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom - wikipedia The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of the Government of the United Kingdom, and chairs Cabinet meetings. There is no specific date for when the office of Prime Minister first appeared, as the role was not created but rather evolved over a period of time through a merger of duties. The term had been used in the House of Commons as early as 1805, and it was certainly in parliamentary use by the 1880s. In 1905 the post of Prime Minister was officially given recognition in the order of precedence. Modern historians generally consider Sir Robert Walpole, who led the government of Great Britain for over twenty years from 1721, as the first Prime Minister. Walpole is also the longest - serving British prime minister by this definition. However, Sir Henry Campbell - Bannerman was the first and Margaret Thatcher the longest - serving Prime Minister officially referred to as such in the order of precedence. The first to officially use the title was Benjamin Disraeli, who signed the Treaty of Berlin as "Prime Minister of her Britannic Majesty '' in 1878. Strictly, the first Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Ireland) was William Pitt the Younger. The first Prime Minister of the current United Kingdom, i.e. the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, was Bonar Law, although the country was not renamed officially until 1927, when Stanley Baldwin was the serving Prime Minister. Due to the gradual evolution of the post of Prime Minister, the title is applied to early prime ministers only retrospectively; this has sometimes given rise to academic dispute. Lord Bath and Lord Waldegrave are sometimes listed as prime ministers. Bath was invited to form a ministry by George II when Henry Pelham resigned in 1746, as was Waldegrave in 1757 after the dismissal of William Pitt the Elder, who dominated the affairs of government during the Seven Years ' War. Neither was able to command sufficient parliamentary support to form a government; Bath stepped down after two days, and Waldegrave after three. Modern academic consensus does not consider either man to have held office as Prime Minister, and they are therefore not listed. Prior to the Georgian era, the Treasury of England was led by the Lord High Treasurer. By the late Tudor period, the Lord High Treasurer was regarded as one of the Great Officers of State, and was often (though not always) the dominant figure in government: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset (Lord High Treasurer, 1547 -- 1549), served as Lord Protector to his prepubescent nephew Edward VI; William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley (Lord High Treasurer, 1572 -- 1598), was the dominant minister to Elizabeth I; Burghley 's son Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, succeeded his father as chief minister to Elizabeth I (1598 -- 1603) and was eventually appointed by James I as Lord High Treasurer (1608 -- 1612). By the late Stuart period, the Treasury was often run not by a single individual, i.e. Lord High Treasurer, but by a commission of Lords of the Treasury, led by the First Lord of the Treasury. The last Lords High Treasurer, Lord Godolphin (1702 -- 1710) and Lord Oxford (1711 -- 1714), ran the government of Queen Anne. After the succession of George I in 1714, the arrangement of a commission of Lords of the Treasury (as opposed to a single Lord High Treasurer) became permanent. For the next three years, the government was headed by Lord Townshend, who was appointed Secretary of State for the Northern Department. Subsequently, Lord Stanhope and Lord Sunderland ran the government jointly, with Stanhope managing foreign affairs and Sunderland domestic. Stanhope died in February 1721 and Sunderland resigned two months later; Townshend and Robert Walpole were then invited to form the next government. From that point, the holder of the office of First Lord also usually (albeit unofficially) held the status of Prime Minister. It was not until the Edwardian era that the title prime minister was constitutionally recognised. The Prime Minister still holds the office of First Lord by constitutional convention, the only exceptions being Lord Chatham (1766 -- 1768) and Lord Salisbury (1885 -- 1886, 1887 -- 1892, 1895 -- 1902).

preparation of benzoic acid from benzene diazonium chloride

Diazonium compound - wikipedia Diazonium compounds or diazonium salts are a group of organic compounds sharing a common functional group R − N X where R can be any organic group, such as an alkyl or an aryl, and X is an inorganic or organic anion, such as a halogen. Diazonium salts, especially those where R is an aryl group, are important intermediates in the organic synthesis of azo dyes. The process of forming diazonium compounds is called "diazotation '', "diazoniation '', or "diazotization ''. The reaction was first reported by Peter Griess in 1858, who subsequently discovered several reactions of this new class of compounds. Most commonly, diazonium salts are prepared by treatment of aromatic amines with nitrous acid and additional acid. Usually the nitrous acid is generated in situ (in the same flask) from sodium nitrite and the excess mineral acid (usually aqueous HCl, H SO, or HBF): Aqueous solutions of diazonium chloride salts, traditionally prepared from the aniline, sodium nitrite, and hydrochloric acid, are unstable above 5 ° C. However, one can isolate diazonium compounds as tetrafluoroborate or tosylate salts, which are stable solids at room temperature. It is often preferred that the diazonium salt remain in solutions, but they do tend to supersaturate. Operators have been injured or even killed by an unexpected crystallization of the salt followed by its detonation. Due to these hazards, diazonium compounds are usually not isolated. Instead they are used in situ. This approach is illustrated in the preparation of an arylsulfonyl compound: The most widely practiced reaction of diazonium salts is azo coupling. In this process, the diazonium compound is attacked by, i.e., coupled to, electron - rich substrates. When the coupling partners are arenes such as anilines and phenols, the process is an example of electrophilic aromatic substitution: Another commercially important class of coupling partners are acetoacetic amides, as illustrated by the preparation of Pigment Yellow 12, a diarylide pigment. The resulting azo compounds are often useful dyes and in fact are called azo dyes. The deep colors of the dyes reflects their extended conjugation. For example, the dye called aniline yellow is produced by mixing aniline and cold solution of diazonium salt and then shaking it vigorously. Aniline yellow is obtained as an yellow solid. Similarly, a cold basic solution of Naphthalen - 2 - ol (Β - naphthol) give the intensely orange - red precipitate. Methyl orange is an example of an azo dye that is used in the laboratory as a pH indicator. Arenediazonium cations undergo several reactions in which the N group is replaced by another group or ion. Some of the major ones are the following. Benzenediazonium chloride heated with cuprous chloride or cuprous bromide respectively dissolved in HCl or HBr yield chlorobenzene or bromobenzene, respectively. In the Gatterman reaction, benzenediazonium chloride is warmed with copper powder and HCl or HBr to produce chlorobenzene and bromobenzene respectively. It is named after the German chemist Ludwig Gattermann. Iodine is not easily introduced into the benzene ring directly. However it can be introduced by treating aryldiazonium cations with potassium iodide: Fluorobenzene is produced by thermal decomposition of benzenediazonium fluoroborate. The conversion is called the Balz - Schiemann reaction. Arenediazonium cations are reduced by hypophosphorous acid or sodium stannite gives benzene: Phenols are produced by heating aqueous solutions of aryldiazonium salts to 100 ° C. This reaction goes by the German name Phenolverkochung ("cooking down to yield phenols ''). The phenol formed may react with the diazonium salt and hence the reaction is carried in the presence of an acid which helps in suppressing this further reaction. Nitrobenzene can be obtained by treating benzenediazonium fluoroborate with sodium nitrite in presence of copper. Alternatively, the diazotisation of the aniline can be conducted in presence of cuprous oxide, which generates cuprous nitrite in situ: The cyano group usually can not be introduced by nucleophilic substitution of haloarenes, but such compounds can be easily prepared from diazonium salts. Illustrative is the preparation of benzonitrile using the reagent cuprous cyanide: This reaction is a special type of Sandmeyer reaction. Diazonium salts can be converted to thiols in a two - step procedure. Treatment of benzenediazonium chloride with potassium ethylxanthate followed by hydrolysis of the intermediate xanthate ester gives thiophenol: The aryl group can be coupled to another using aryldiazonium salts. For example, treatment of benzenediazonium chloride with benzene (an aromatic compound) in the presence of sodium hydroxide gives diphenyl: This reaction is known as the Gomberg -- Bachmann reaction. A similar conversion is also achieved by treating benzenediazonium chloride with ethanol and copper powder. Diazonium fluoroborates react with an aliphatic carboxylic acid yield the corresponding benzoic acid. This reaction provides a method to prepare aromatic carboxylic acids from aliphatic carboxylic acids: Benzenediazonium chloride reacts with compounds containing activated double bonds to produces phenylated products. The reaction is called the Meerwein arylation: In their reactions with metal complexes, diazonium cations behave similarly to NO. For example, low - valent metal complexes add with diazonium salts. Illustrative complexes are (Fe (CO) (PPh) (N Ph)) and the chiral - at - metal complex Fe (CO) (NO) (PPh) (N Ph). In a potential application in nanotechnology, the diazonium salts 4 - chlorobenzenediazonium tetrafluoroborate very efficiently functionalizes single wall nanotubes. In order to exfoliate the nanotubes, they are mixed with an ionic liquid in a mortar and pestle. The diazonium salt is added together with potassium carbonate, and after grinding the mixture at room temperature the surface of the nanotubes are covered with chlorophenyl groups with an efficiency of 1 in 44 carbon atoms. These added subsituents prevent the tubes from forming intimate bundles due to large cohesive forces between them, which is a recurring problem in nanotube technology. It is also possible to functionalize silicon wafers with diazonium salts forming an aryl monolayer. In one study, the silicon surface is washed with ammonium hydrogen fluoride leaving it covered with silicon -- hydrogen bonds (hydride passivation). The reaction of the surface with a solution of diazonium salt in acetonitrile for 2 hours in the dark is a spontaneous process through a free radical mechanism: So far grafting of diazonium salts on metals has been accomplished on iron, cobalt, nickel, platinum, palladium, zinc, copper and gold surfaces. Also grafting to diamond surfaces has been reported. One interesting question raised is the actual positioning on the aryl group on the surface. An in silico study demonstrates that in the period 4 elements from titanium to copper the binding energy decreases from left to right because the number of d - electrons increases. The metals to the left of iron are positioned tilted towards or flat on the surface favoring metal to carbon pi bond formation and those on the right of iron are positioned in an upright position, favoring metal to carbon sigma bond formation. This also explains why diazonium salt grafting thus far has been possible with those metals to right of iron in the periodic table. Diazonium salts can be reduced with stannous chloride (SnCl) to the corresponding hydrazine derivatives. This reaction is particularly useful in the Fischer indole synthesis of triptan compounds and indometacin. The use of sodium dithionite is an improvement over stannous chloride since it is a cheaper reducing agent with fewer environmental problems. The first use of diazonium salts was to produce water - fast dyed fabrics by immersing the fabric in an aqueous solution of the diazonium compound, followed by immersion in a solution of the coupler (the electron - rich ring that undergoes electrophilic substitution). The major applications of diazonium compounds remains in the dye and pigment industry. Diazonium compounds are standard reagents used in synthesis of organic compounds, especially aryl derivatives. Diazonium salts are light sensitive and break down under near UV or violet light. This property has led to their use in document reproduction. In this process, paper or film is coated with a diazonium salt. After contact exposure under light, the residual diazo is converted to a stable azo dye with an aqueous solution of coupler. A more common process uses a paper coated with diazo, coupler and an acid to inhibit coupling; after exposure the image is developed by a vapor mixture of ammonia and water which forces coupling. Solid diazonium halides are often dangerously explosive, and fatalities and injuries have been reported. The nature of the anions affects stability of the salt. Aryl diazonium perchlorates, such as nitrobenzenediazonium perchlorate, have been used to initiate explosives.

when was the fairtrade mark launched in the uk

The Fairtrade Foundation - wikipedia The Fairtrade Foundation is a charity based in the United Kingdom that works to empower disadvantaged producers in developing countries by tackling injustice in conventional trade, in particular by promoting and licensing the Fairtrade Mark, a guarantee that products retailed in the UK have been produced in accordance with internationally agreed Fairtrade standards. The Foundation is the British member of FLO International, which unites FLO - CERT, 25 National Fairtrade Organisations and 3 Producer Networks across Europe, Asia, Latin America, North America, Africa, Australia and New Zealand. The organisation is an independent non-profit organisation that licenses use of the Fairtrade Mark on products in the UK in accordance with internationally agreed Fairtrade standards. Its four key areas of activity include: The marketing system for Fairtrade and non-Fairtrade coffee is identical in the consuming countries, using mostly the same importing, packing, distributing and retailing firms. Some independent brands operate a virtual company, paying importers, packers and distributors and advertising agencies to handle their brand, for cost reasons. In the producing country Fairtrade is marketed only by Fairtrade cooperatives, while other coffee is marketed by Fairtrade cooperatives (as uncertified coffee), by other cooperatives and by ordinary traders. This mode of operation has led to criticism of the foundation. It is argued that, because retailers and cafes in the rich countries can sell Fairtrade coffee at any price they like, nearly all the extra price paid by consumers, 82 % to 99 %, is kept in the rich countries as increased profit. There is evidence that dishonest importers do not pay the full Fairtrade price, so an even smaller proportion reaches the Third World. Cooperative traders and exporters can sell coffee as Fairtrade certified if they meet the political standards of FLO and they pay them a certification and inspection fee. Other administration costs and production costs are incurred to meet these standards. The exporter (not the farmer) is paid a minimum price for Fairtrade certified coffee when the world market is oversupplied, and a Fairtrade premium of 15c per lb at other times. The cooperatives can, on average, sell only a third of their output as Fairtrade, because of lack of demand, and sell the rest at world prices. As the additional costs are incurred on all production, not just that sold as Fairtrade, cooperatives sometimes lose money on their Fairtrade membership. After the additional costs have been subtracted from the Fairtrade price, the rest goes on ' Social Projects ' such as clinics, women 's groups and baseball pitches. Critics therefore argue that farmers do not get any of the higher price under Fairtrade. Nor is there any evidence that they get higher prices as a result of better marketing: the cooperatives sometimes pay farmers a higher price than farmers do, sometimes less, but there is no evidence on which is more common. Farmers do, however, incur extra costs in producing Fairtrade, so they certainly do lose money from Fairtrade membership in some cases. There is little or no research on the extra costs incurred, or the effect of Fairtrade membership on the income of farmers. However, other economists have argued that the existence of a Fair Trade marketing route benefits producers by raising producer prices generally, and there is evidence of such an effect at least among coffee producers; according to Podhorsky, the critics of the Fairtrade Foundation err by assuming that fair trade producers receive the world price for coffee, when that is in general not so. To become certified Fairtrade producers, the primary cooperative and its member farmers must operate to certain Fairtrade standards, set by the organization. FLO - CERT, the for - profit side, handles producer certification, inspecting and certifying producer organisations in more than 50 countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. In the Fair trade debate there are many complaints of failure to enforce these standards, with Fairtrade cooperatives, importers and packers profiting by evading them. The Foundation was established in 1992 by CAFOD, Christian Aid, New Consumer, Oxfam, Traidcraft and the World Development Movement. These organisations were later joined by the Women 's Institute, Britain 's largest women 's organisation, and other organisations including Banana Link, Methodist Relief and Development Fund, Nicaragua Solidarity Campaign, People & Planet, SCIAF, Shared Interest Foundation, Soroptimist International, Tearfund and the United Reformed Church. The Fairtrade Foundation organises and coordinates promotional campaigns and events every year, such as the Fairtrade fortnight (typically in February / March), the British counterpart of Max Havelaar France 's Quinzaine du Commerce Équitable. The Foundation also coordinates the Fairtrade Town campaign, which designates areas and towns committed to the promotion of Fairtrade certified goods. The Fairtrade Foundation commissions professional photographers to take images of farmers and workers that belong to Fairtrade certified producer groups. Some of the photographers the Foundation and FLO has worked with are Simon Rawles, Peter Caton, Eduardo Martino, Richard Human, Didier Gentilhomme and Anette Kay. Since The Co-operative Food became the first supermarket to sell a Fairtrade product (Cafedirect coffee) in 1992, both the range and total sales of Fairtrade certified products in UK supermarkets has grown extensively. In 2013, there were over 4000 Fairtrade products available in the UK with estimated sales of over £ 1.7 bn. Products carrying the Fairtrade label can be found at vendors like Asda, Budgens, Booths, The Co-operative Food, Londis, Marks & Spencer, Morrisons Sainsbury 's, Spar, Tesco, Waitrose as well as in hundreds of coffee shops, small retailers and online merchants. In 2014, Fairtrade certified sales in the United Kingdom amounted to an estimated retail value of £ 1.68 billion, up from £ 273 million in 2006. Volumes of Fairtrade banana sales grew by 3 % in 2014, generating an estimated £ 7.9 million of Fairtrade premium. One in three bananas bought in the United Kingdom carries the Fairtrade label. Fairtrade sales of coffee, which remains Fairtrade 's best known product, rose 9 % generating an estimated £ 5 million of Fairtrade premium in 2014. It was estimated in 2014 that approximately 77 % of British adults could identify the Fairtrade Certification Mark, up from 25 % in 2003, 39 % in 2004, 50 % in 2005 and 57 % in 2007. In 2008, an estimated two in three UK households regularly bought at least one Fairtrade - labelled product. The Fairtrade Foundation is a registered charity (no. 1043886). It is also a company limited by guarantee, registered in England and Wales (no. 2733136).

when did mcdonald's first open in australia

History of McDonald 's - wikipedia This history of McDonald 's is an overview of the original restaurant and of the chain. The McDonald family moved from Manchester, New Hampshire to Hollywood, California in the late 1930s, where brothers Richard and Maurice McDonald began working as set movers and handymen at Motion - Picture studios. In 1937, their father Patrick McDonald opened "The Airdrome '', a food stand, on Huntington Drive (Route 66) near the Monrovia Airport in the Los Angeles County city of Monrovia, California with hot dogs being one of the first items sold. Hamburgers were later added to the menu at a cost of ten cents with all - you - can - drink orange juice at five cents. In 1940, Maurice and Richard ("Mac '' and "Dick '') moved the entire building 40 miles (64 km) east, to West 14th and 1398 North E Streets in San Bernardino, California. The restaurant was renamed "McDonald 's Bar - B - Que '' and had 25 menu items, mostly barbecue. In October 1948, after the McDonald brothers realized that most of their profits came from selling hamburgers, they closed down their successful carhop drive - in to establish a streamlined system with a simple menu which consisted of only hamburgers, cheeseburgers, potato chips, coffee, soft drinks, and apple pie. After the first year, potato chips and pie were swapped out for french fries and milkshakes. The carhops were eliminated, making the new restaurant a self - service operation. Richard and Maurice took great care in setting up their kitchen like an assembly line to ensure maximum efficiency. The restaurant 's name was changed again, this time to simply "McDonald 's, '' and reopened on December 12, 1948. In April 1952, the brothers decided they needed an entirely new building in order to achieve two goals: further efficiency improvements, and a more eye - catching appearance. They collected recommendations for an architect and interviewed at least four, finally choosing Stanley Clark Meston, an architect practicing in nearby Fontana. The brothers and Meston worked together closely in the design of their new building. They achieved the extra efficiencies they needed by, among other things, drawing the actual measurements of every piece of equipment in chalk on a tennis court behind the McDonald house (with Meston 's assistant Charles Fish). The new restaurant 's design achieved a high level of noticeability thanks to gleaming surfaces of red and white ceramic tile, stainless steel, brightly colored sheet metal, and glass; pulsing red, white, yellow, and green neon; and two 25 - foot yellow sheet - metal arches trimmed in neon, called "golden arches '' even at the design stage. A third, smaller arch sign at the roadside hosted a pudgy character in a chef 's hat, known as Speedee, striding across the top, trimmed in animated neon. Further marketing techniques were implemented to change McDonald 's from a sit down restaurant to a fast food chain. They used such things as turning off the heating to prevent people wanting to stay so long, fixed and angled seating so the customer would sit over their food promoting them to eat faster, spreading the seats further apart so being less of a sociable place to dine in, and giving their customers branded cone shaped cups forcing them to hold their drink whilst eating which would speed up the eating process. Many other companies followed McDonald 's strategies to turn their own restaurants into fast food establishments including Burger King, White Castle and Subway. In late 1953, with only a rendering of Meston 's design in hand, the brothers began seeking franchisees. Their first franchisee was Neil Fox, a distributor for General Petroleum Corporation. Fox 's stand, the first with Meston 's golden arches design, opened in May 1953 at Central Avenue and Indian School Road in Phoenix, Arizona. Their second franchisee was the team of Fox 's brother - in - law Roger Williams and Burdette "Bud '' Landon, both of whom also worked for General Petroleum. Williams and Landon opened their stand on August 18, 1953 at 10207 Lakewood Boulevard in Downey, California. The Downey stand has the distinction of being the oldest surviving McDonald 's restaurant. The Downey stand was never required to comply with the McDonald 's Corporation 's remodeling and updating requests over the years because it was franchised not by the McDonald 's Corporation, but by the McDonald brothers themselves to Williams and Landon. In 1954, Ray Kroc, a seller of Prince Castle brand Multimixer milkshake machines, learned that the McDonald brothers were using eight of his machines in their San Bernardino restaurant. His curiosity was piqued, and he went to take a look at the restaurant. He was joined by good friend Charles Lewis who had suggested to Kroc several improvements to the McDonald 's burger recipe. Believing the McDonald 's formula was a ticket to success, Kroc suggested they franchise their restaurants throughout the country. The brothers were skeptical, however, that the self - service approach could succeed in colder, rainier climates; furthermore, their thriving business in San Bernardino, and franchises already operating or planned, made them reluctant to risk a national venture. Kroc offered to take the major responsibility for setting up the new franchises elsewhere. He returned to his home outside of Chicago with rights to set up McDonald 's restaurants throughout the country, except in a handful of territories in California and Arizona already licensed by the McDonald brothers. The brothers were to receive one - half of one percent of gross sales. Kroc 's first McDonald 's restaurant opened on April 15, 1955, at 400 North Lee Street in Des Plaines, Illinois, near Chicago. The Des Plaines interior and exterior was painted by master painter Eugene Wright, who owned Wright 's Decorating Service. Eugene was asked to come up with a color scheme and he chose yellow and white, with dark brown and red being secondary trim colors. Those colors would go on to become the colors of all McDonald 's franchises. (Recognizing its historic and nostalgic value, in 1990 the McDonald 's Corporation acquired the stand and rehabilitated it to a modern but nearly original condition, and then built an adjacent museum and gift shop to commemorate the site.) Once the Des Plaines restaurant had become operational, Kroc sought franchisees for his McDonald 's chain. The first snag came quickly. In 1956 he discovered that the McDonald brothers had licensed the franchise rights for Cook County, Illinois to the Frejlach Ice Cream Company. Kroc was incensed that the McDonalds had not informed him of this arrangement. He purchased the rights back for $25,000 ($225,000 today), five times what the Frejlacks had originally paid, and pressed forward. McDonald 's grew slowly for its first three years. By 1958, there were 34 restaurants. In 1959, however, Kroc opened 68 new restaurants, bringing the total to 102 locations. In 1960, the McDonald 's advertising campaign "Look for the Golden Arches '' gave sales a big boost. Kroc believed that advertising was an investment that would in the end come back many times over, and advertising has always played a key role in the development of the McDonald 's Corporation. In 1962, McDonald 's introduced its now world - famous Golden Arches logo. A year later, the company sold its millionth hamburger and introduced Ronald McDonald, a red - haired clown designed to appeal to children. In the early 1960s, McDonald 's really began to take off. The growth in U.S. automobile use that came with suburbanization and the interstate highway system contributed heavily to McDonald 's success. In 1961 Kroc bought out the McDonald brothers for $2.7 million, aiming at making McDonald 's the number one fast - food chain in the country. On May 3, 1960, Kroc assisted Christopher Boulos in opening a McDonald 's franchise in DeKalb, Illinois. By 1965, the McDonald 's at 805 W. Lincoln Highway sold over 4 million burgers and 1,000,000 pounds (450,000 kg) of fries. Boulos was the first Greek - American McDonald 's franchise operator. In 1965, McDonald 's Corporation went public. Common shares were offered at $22.50 per share. By the end of the first day 's trading, the price had risen to $30. A block of 100 shares purchased for $2,250 in 1965 was worth, after 12 stock splits (increasing the number of shares to 74,360), over $5.7 million as of year - end market close on December 31, 2010. In 1980, McDonald 's Corporation became one of the 30 companies that make up the Dow Jones Industrial Average. McDonald 's success in the 1960s was in large part due to the company 's skillful marketing and flexible response to customer demand. In 1962, the Filet - O - Fish sandwich, billed as "the fish that catches people '', was introduced in McDonald 's restaurants. The new item had originally met with disapproval from Kroc, but after its successful test marketing, he eventually agreed to add it. Another item that Kroc had backed a year previously, a burger with a slice of pineapple and a slice of cheese, known as a "hulaburger '', had flopped (both it and the Filet - O - Fish were developed in Catholic neighborhoods where burger sales dropped off markedly on Fridays and during Lent). The market was not quite ready for Kroc 's taste; the hulaburger 's tenure on the McDonald 's menu board was short. In 1968 the now legendary Big Mac made its debut, and in 1969 McDonald 's sold its five billionth hamburger. Two years later, as it launched the "You Deserve a Break Today '' advertising campaign, McDonald 's restaurants had reached all 50 states. In 1968, McDonald 's opened its 1,000 th restaurant, and Fred L. Turner became the company 's president and chief administrative officer. Kroc became chairman and remained CEO until 1973. Turner had originally intended to open a McDonald 's franchise, but when he had problems with his backers over a location, he went to work as a grillman for Kroc in 1956. As operations vice president, Turner helped new franchisees get their stores up and running. He was constantly looking for new ways to perfect the McDonald 's system, experimenting, for example, to determine the maximum number of hamburger patties one could stack in a box without squashing them and pointing out that seconds could be saved if McDonald 's used buns that were presliced all the way through and were not stuck together in the package. Such attention to detail was one reason for the company 's extraordinary success. By the late 1960s, many of the candy - striped Golden Arches stores had been modified with enclosed walk - up order areas and limited indoor seating. In June 1969, McDonald 's introduced a new "mansard roof '' building design featuring indoor seating. The natural brick and cedar shake look mansards were a response to critics who berated McDonald 's architecture as too garish. It became the standard for McDonald 's restaurants, and franchise holders were ultimately required to demolish older restaurants and replace them with the new design. The first McDonald 's restaurant using the "mansard roof '' design opened that same year in the Chicago suburb of Matteson. McDonald 's spectacular growth continued in the 1970s. Americans were more on - the - go than ever, and fast service was a priority. In 1972, the company passed $1 billion in annual sales. By 1976, McDonald 's had served 20 billion hamburgers, and system wide sales exceeded $3 billion. The company pioneered breakfast fast food with the introduction of the Egg McMuffin in 1972 when market research indicated that a quick breakfast would be welcomed by consumers. Five years later McDonald 's added a full breakfast line to the menu, and by 1987 one - fourth of all breakfasts eaten out in the United States came from McDonald 's restaurants. In test market locations, such as New York City, McDonald 's added a full breakfast line to its menus in 1975. Kroc was a firm believer in giving "something back into the community where you do business ''. In 1974 McDonald 's acted upon that philosophy in an original way by opening the first Ronald McDonald House, in Philadelphia, to provide a "home away from home '' for the families of children in nearby hospitals. Twelve years after this first house opened, 100 similar Ronald McDonald Houses were in operation across the United States. There was some skepticism in the company 's phenomenal growth internationally. When Wally and Hugh Morris approached the corporation in 1974 to bring McDonald 's into New Zealand, they were firmly shunned by Kroc, citing a visit to the country and saying "There are n't any people... I never met a more dead - than - alive hole in my life. '' Persistence by the brothers eventually led to their request being granted in May 1975. They managed to negotiate a deal with the corporation by selling New Zealand cheese to the US to offset the high costs of importing plant equipment. The first New Zealand restaurant opened in June 1976 at Porirua, near Wellington, to much more success than the corporation predicted. In 1975, McDonald 's opened its first drive - thru window in Sierra Vista, Arizona, following Wendy 's lead. This service gave Americans a fast, convenient way to procure a quick meal. The company 's goal was to provide service in 50 seconds or less. Drive - thru sales eventually accounted for more than half of McDonald 's systemwide sales. Meantime, the Happy Meal, a combo meal for children featuring a toy, was added to the menu in 1979. A period of aggressive advertising campaigns and price slashing in the early 1980s became known as the "burger wars ''. Burger King suggested to customers: "have it your way ''; Wendy 's offered itself as the "fresh alternative '' and launched their "Where 's the beef? '' campaign. McDonald 's sales and market still predominated, however. During the 1980s, a period of substantial expansion, McDonald 's further diversified its menu to suit changing consumer tastes. The company introduced the McChicken in 1980; it proved to be a sales disappointment, and was replaced with Chicken McNuggets a year later (having originally been invented by Rene Arend in 1979). In 1985, ready - to - eat salads were introduced. Efficiency, combined with an expanded menu, continued to draw customers. McDonald 's began to focus on urban centers and introduced new architectural styles. The first McDonald 's Express locations opened in 1991. These are smaller - scale prototypes, usually constructed in prefabricated buildings or urban storefronts, that do not feature certain menu items such as milkshakes and Quarter Pounders. In 1992 Michael R. Quinlan became president of McDonald 's Corporation, and Fred L. Turner became chairman. Quinlan, who took over as CEO in 1987, had started at McDonald 's in the mail room in 1963, and gradually worked his way up. In his first year as CEO, the company opened 600 new restaurants. By 1991, 37 percent of system - wide sales came from restaurants outside the United States. McDonald 's opened its first foreign restaurant in British Columbia, Canada, in 1967. By the early 1990s the company had established itself in 58 foreign countries, and operated more than 3,600 restaurants outside the United States, through wholly owned subsidiaries, joint ventures, and franchise agreements. Its strongest foreign markets were Japan, Canada, Germany, Great Britain, Australia, and France. In the mid-1980s, McDonald 's, like other traditional employers of teenagers, was faced with a shortage of labor in the United States. The company met this challenge by being the first to entice retirees back into the workforce. Focusing on off - site training, it opened its Hamburger University in 1961 to train franchisees and corporate decision - makers. By 1990, more than 40,000 people had received "Bachelor of Hamburgerology '' degrees from the 80 - acre (320,000 m) Oak Brook, Illinois, facility. The corporation opened a Hamburger University in Tokyo in 1971, in Munich in 1975, and in London in 1982. Braille menus were first introduced in 1979, and picture menus in 1988. In March 1992, combination Braille and picture menus were reintroduced to accommodate those with vision, speech, or hearing impairments. Clamshell grills, which cooked both sides of a hamburger simultaneously, were tested. New locations such as hospitals and military bases were tapped as sites for new restaurants. In response to the increase in microwave oven usage, McDonald 's, whose name is the single most advertised brand name in the world, stepped up advertising and promotional expenditures stressing that its taste was superior to quick - packaged foods. The first McDonald 's in Mainland China opened in Dongmen, Shenzhen in October 1990. McRecycle USA began in 1990 and included a commitment to purchase at least $100 million worth of recycled products annually for use in construction, remodeling, and equipping restaurants. Chairs, table bases, table tops, eating counters, table columns, waste receptacles, corrugated cartons, packaging, and washroom tissue were all made from recycled products. McDonald 's worked with the U.S. Environmental Defense Fund to develop a comprehensive solid waste reduction program. Wrapping burgers in paper rather than plastic led to a 90 percent reduction in the wrapping material waste stream. It took McDonald 's 33 years to open its first 10,000 restaurants. The 10,000 th unit opened in April 1988. Incredibly, the company reached the 20,000 - restaurant mark in only eight more years, in mid-1996. By the end of 1997 the total had surpassed 23,000, and by that time McDonald 's was opening 2,000 new restaurants each year, an average of five every day. Much of the growth of the 1990s came outside the US, with international units increasing from about 3,600 in 1991 to more than 11,000 by 1998. The number of countries with McDonald 's outlets nearly doubled from 59 in 1991 to 114 in late 1998. In 1993, a new region was added to the empire when the first McDonald 's in the Middle East opened in Tel Aviv, Israel. As the company entered new markets, it showed increasing flexibility with respect to local food preferences and customs. In Israel, for example, the first kosher McDonald 's opened in a Jerusalem suburb in 1995. In Arab countries the restaurant chain used "Halal '' menus, which complied with Islamic laws for food preparation. In 1996 McDonald 's entered India for the first time, where it offered a Big Mac made with lamb called the Maharaja Mac. That same year the first McSki - Thru opened in Lindvallen, Sweden. Overall, the company derived increasing percentages of its revenue and income from outside the US. In 1992 about two - thirds of systemwide sales came from U.S. McDonald 's, but by 1997 that figure was down to about 51 percent. Similarly, the operating income numbers showed a reduction from about 60 percent of sales derived from the US in 1992 to 42.5 percent in 1997. In the US, the number of units grew from 9,000 in 1991 to 12,500 in 1997, an increase of about 40 percent. Although the additional units increased market share in some markets, a number of franchisees complained that new units were cannibalizing sales from existing ones. Same - store sales for outlets open for more than one year were flat in the mid-1990s, a reflection of both the greater number of units and the mature nature of the U.S. market. The company made several notable blunders in the US in the 1990s which hurt stateside profits. The McLean Deluxe sandwich, which featured a 91 percent fat - free beef patty, was introduced in 1991, never really caught on, and was dropped from the menu in February 1996 to make room for the Arch Deluxe, itself an underperforming product. The "grown - up '' (and pricey) Arch Deluxe sandwich was launched in May 1996 and the Deluxe Line was launched in September 1996 in a $200 million campaign to gain the business of more adults, but were bombs. The following spring brought a 55 - cent Big Mac promotion, which many customers either rejected outright or were confused by because the burgers had to be purchased with full - priced fries and a drink. The promotion embittered still more franchisees, whose complaints led to its withdrawal. In July 1997 McDonald 's fired its main ad agency, Leo Burnett, a 15 - year McDonald 's partner, after the nostalgic "My McDonald 's '' campaign proved a failure. Several other 1990s - debuted menu items, including fried chicken, pasta, fajitas, and pizza failed as well. A seemingly weakened McDonald 's was the object of a Burger King offensive when the rival fast - food maker launched the Big King sandwich, a Big Mac clone. Meanwhile, internal taste tests revealed that customers preferred the fare at Wendy 's and Burger King. In response to these difficulties, McDonald 's drastically cut back on its U.S. expansion. In contrast to the 1,130 units opened in 1995, only about 400 new McDonald 's were built in 1997. Plans to open hundreds of smaller restaurants in Wal - Marts and gasoline stations were abandoned because test sites did not meet targeted goals. Reacting to complaints from franchisees about poor communication with the corporation and excess bureaucracy, the head of McDonald 's U.S.A. (Jack M. Greenberg, who had assumed the position in October 1996) reorganized the unit into five autonomous geographic divisions. The aim was to bring management and decision - making closer to franchisees and customers. On the marketing side, McDonald 's scored big in 1996 and 1997 with a Teenie Beanie Baby promotion in which about 80 million of the toys / collectibles were gobbled up virtually overnight. The chain received some bad publicity, however, when it was discovered that a number of customers purchased Happy Meals just to get the toys and threw the food away. For a similar spring 1998 Teenie Beanie giveaway, the company altered the promotion to allow patrons to buy menu items other than kids ' meals. McDonald 's also began to benefit from a seven years global marketing alliance signed with Disney / Pixar in 1998. Initial Disney / Pixar movies promoted by McDonald 's included A Bug 's Life, Monsters, Inc., Finding Nemo and The Incredibles. Perhaps the most important marketing move came in the later months of 1997 when McDonald 's named DDB Needham as its new lead ad agency. Needham had been the company 's agency in the 1970s and was responsible for the hugely successful "You Deserve a Break Today '' campaign. Late in 1997, McDonald 's launched the Needham - designed "Did Somebody Say McDonald 's? '' campaign, which appeared to be an improvement over its predecessors. Following the difficulties of the early and mid-1990s, several moves in 1998 seemed to indicate a reinvigorated McDonald 's. In February the company for the first time took a stake in another fast - food chain when it purchased a minority interest in the 16 - unit, Colorado - based Chipotle Mexican Grill chain. The following month came the announcement that McDonald 's would improve the taste of several sandwiches and introduce several new menu items. McFlurry desserts, developed by a Canadian franchisee in 1997, proved popular when launched in the United States in the summer of 1998. That same month, McDonald 's said that it would overhaul its food preparation system in every U.S. restaurant. The new just - in - time system, dubbed "Made for You '', was in development for a number of years and aimed to deliver to customers "fresher, hotter food ''; enable patrons to receive special - order sandwiches (a perk long offered by rivals Burger King and Wendy 's); and allow new menu items to be more easily introduced thanks to the system 's enhanced flexibility. The expensive changeover was expected to cost about $25,000 per restaurant, with McDonald 's offering to pay for about half of the cost; the company planned to provide about $190 million in financial assistance to its franchisees before implementation was completed by year - end 1999. In May 1998, Greenberg was named president and CEO of McDonald 's Corporation, with Quinlan remaining chairman; at the same time Alan D. Feldman, who had joined the company only four years earlier from Pizza Hut, replaced Greenberg as president of McDonald 's U.S.A., an unusual move for a company whose executives typically were long - timers. The following month brought another first, McDonald 's first job cuts. The company said it would eliminate 525 employees from its headquarters staff, a cut of about 23 percent. In the second quarter of 1998 McDonald 's took a $160 million charge in relation to the cuts. As a result, the company, for the first time since it went public in 1965, recorded a decrease in net income, from $1.64 billion in 1997 to $1.55 billion in 1998. McDonald 's followed up its investment in Chipotle with several more moves beyond the burger business. In March 1999 the company bought Aroma Café, a UK chain of 23 upscale coffee and sandwich shops. In July of that year McDonald 's added Donatos Pizza, a midwestern chain of 143 pizzerias based in Columbus, Ohio. Donatos had revenues of $120 million in 1997. In 1999, McDonald 's 25,000 th unit opened, Greenberg took on the additional post of chairman, and Jim Cantalupo was named company president. Cantalupo, who had joined the company as controller in 1974 and later became head of McDonald 's International, had been vice-chairman, a position he retained. In May 2000 McDonald 's completed its largest acquisition yet, buying the bankrupt Boston Market chain for $173.5 million in cash and debt. At the time, there were more than 850 Boston Market outlets, which specialized in home - style meals, with rotisserie chicken the lead menu item. Revenue at Boston Market during 1999 totaled $670 million. McDonald 's rounded out its acquisition spree in early 2001 by buying a 33 percent stake in Pret A Manger, an upscale urban - based chain specializing in ready - to - eat sandwiches made on the premises. There were more than 110 Pret shops in the United Kingdom and several more in New York City. Also during 2001, McDonald 's sold off Aroma Café and took its McDonald 's Japan affiliate public, selling a minority stake through an initial public offering. As it was exploring new avenues of growth, even though, McDonald 's core burger chain had become plagued by problems. Most prominently, the Made for You system backfired. Although many franchisees believed that it succeeded in improving the quality of the food, it also increased service times and proved labor - intensive. Some franchisees also complained that the actual cost of implementing the system ran much higher than the corporation had estimated, a charge that McDonald 's contested. In any case, there was no question that Made for You failed to reverse the chain 's sluggish sales. Growth in sales at stores open more than a year (known as same - store sales) fell in both 2000 and 2001. Late in 2001 the company launched a restructuring involving the elimination of about 850 positions, 700 of which were in the US, and several restaurant closings. In 2000, a McDonald 's in Dearborn, Michigan in Greater Detroit was the first one in Michigan and the only one east of the Mississippi River to offer halal food for Muslim customers. There were further black eyes as well. McDonald 's was sued in 2001 after it was revealed that for flavoring purposes a small amount of beef extract was being added to the vegetable oil used to cook the french fries. The company had cooked its fries in beef tallow until 1990, when it began claiming in ads that it used 100 percent vegetable oil. McDonald 's soon apologized for any "confusion '' that had been caused by its use of the beef flavoring, and in mid-2002 it reached a settlement in the litigation, agreeing to donate $10 million to Hindu, vegetarian, and other affected groups. Also in 2001, further embarrassment came when 51 people were charged with conspiring to rig McDonald 's game promotions over the course of several years. It was revealed that $24 million of winning McDonald 's game tickets had been stolen as part of the scam. McDonald 's was not implicated in the scheme, which centered on a worker at an outside company that had administered the promotions. McDonald 's also had to increasingly battle its public image as a purveyor of fatty, unhealthy food. Consumers began filing lawsuits contending that years of eating at McDonald 's had made them overweight. McDonald 's responded by introducing low - calorie menu items and switching to a more healthful cooking oil for its french fries. McDonald 's franchises overseas became a favorite target of people and groups expressing anti-American and / or anti-globalization sentiments. In August 1999 a group of protesters led by farmer José Bové destroyed a half - built McDonald 's restaurant in Millau, France. In 2002 Bové, who gained fame from the incident, served a three - month jail sentence for the act, which he said was in protest against U.S. trade protectionism. McDonald 's was also one of three multinational corporations (along with Starbucks Corporation and Nike, Inc.) whose outlets in Seattle were attacked in late 1999 by some of the more aggressive protesters against a World Trade Organization meeting taking place there. In the early 2000s McDonald 's pulled out of several countries, including Bolivia and two Middle Eastern nations, at least in part because of the negative regard with which the brand was held in some areas. Early in 2002, Cantalupo retired after 28 years of service. Sales remained lackluster that year, and in October the company attempted to revive U.S. sales through the introduction of a low - cost Dollar Menu. In December 2002, after this latest initiative to reignite sales growth failed and also after profits fell in seven of the previous eight quarters, Greenberg announced that he would resign at the end of the year. Cantalupo came out of retirement to become chairman and CEO at the beginning of 2003. Cantalupo started his tenure by announcing a major restructuring that involved the 2002 quarterly loss, which included the closure of more than 700 restaurants (mostly in the United States and Japan), the elimination of 600 jobs, and charges of $853 million. The charges resulted in a fourth - quarter 2002 loss of $343.8 million, the first quarterly loss in McDonald 's 38 years as a public company. The new CEO also shifted away from the company 's traditional reliance on growth through the opening of new units to a focus on gaining more sales from existing units. By 2003, with Ray Kroc 's McDonald 's Corporation nearly 50 and the McDonald 's fast food restaurant concept itself old enough to qualify for AARP membership, the brand had perhaps become too familiar and sales figures stalled. Analysts, management, owners, and customers alike recognized that the aged chain required revivification. The question in need of solution was: How should McDonald 's reinvent itself without losing its core values and maintain relevance in the marketplace? To that end, several new menu items were successfully launched, including entree salads, McGriddles breakfast sandwiches (which used pancakes in place of bread), and white - meat Chicken McNuggets. Some outlets began test - marketing fruits and vegetables as Happy Meal options. It was quickly determined that focus on customer experience was key in reversing the slippage. Then, a new global marketing campaign was adopted which was designed around the notion of the "Rolling Energy '' phase. Launched on September 29, 2003, the campaign began featuring youthful images, hip music, and pop culture celebrities touting the tagline, "I 'm lovin ' it ''. Next, James R. Cantalupo was called back from retirement to head the corporation and its efforts to recapture golden luster. His plan was to keep things simple with a focus on the basics like customer service, clean restrooms, and reliable appealing food (not unlike Ray Kroc 's mantra of QSC and V: Quality, Service, Cleanliness, and Value). In addition to the basics he determined to position the company with a more modern coherent image in order to foster a McDonald 's "experience '' for customers. More than an advertising campaign he and his team approved sweeping new architecture for McDonald 's restaurants, the first major overhaul since 1969 when the now universally recognized signature double mansard roof became standard. In fact, Mr. Cantalupo personally approved abandonment of the ubiquitous and familiar mansard in favor of what became the "Forever Young '' prototype topped with its swish eyebrow. This was the first global campaign in McDonald 's history, as the new slogan was to be used in advertising in more than 100 countries. It also proved to be the first truly successful ad campaign in years; sales began rebounding, helped also by improvements in service. Cantalupo did not live to see the fruits of his labor and he died in 2004 just as his modern vision for McDonald 's was getting underway. Nonetheless he had set things into motion causing a paradigm shift for the company resulting in a refreshed image without a dilution of brand identity. In December 2003, for instance, same - store sales increased 7.3 percent. Same - store sales rose 2.4 percent for the entire year, after falling 2.1 percent in 2002. Also, in that month, McDonald 's announced that it would further its focus on its core hamburger business by downsizing its other ventures. The company said that it would sell Donatos back to that chain 's founder. In addition, it would discontinue development of non-McDonald's brands outside of the United States. This included Boston Market outlets in Canada and Australia and Donatos units in Germany. McDonald 's kept its minority investment in Pret A Manger, but McDonald 's Japan was slated to close its Pret units there. These moves would enable the company to concentrate its international efforts on the McDonald 's chain, while reducing the non-hamburger brands in the United States to Chipotle and Boston Market, both of which were operating in the black. McDonald 's continued to curtail store openings in 2004 and to concentrate on building business at existing restaurants. Much of the more than $1.5 billion budgeted for capital expenditures in 2004 was slated to be used to remodel existing restaurants. McDonald 's also aimed to pay down debt by $400 million to $700 million and to return approximately $1 billion to shareholders through dividends and share repurchases. Cantalupo also set several long - term goals, such as sustaining annual systemwide sales and revenue growth rates of 3 to 5 percent. In a move to both simplify the menu and make its offerings less fattening, McDonald 's announced in March 2004 that it would phase out Super Size french fries and soft drinks by the end of the year. In the 1960s, the 1970s, the 1980s, and the 1990s, "no loitering '' had been McDonald 's motto. Ray Kroc had decreed upon the origins of his version of the chain that pay telephones, jukeboxes, and vending machines of any kind were forbidden at McDonald 's restaurants. The goal had been to quickly serve customers and not force them to stay in the restaurants any longer than it took them to eat a hamburger. Along that line of thinking, dining areas were designed with minimalist hard plastic tables and chairs which were more often than not bolted in place. Thus customers consumed their fast food in scant comfort without dillydally allowing room for the next hurrying customers. With the new "Forever Young '' design (adopted in 2006), the first major redesign since 1969, McDonald 's turned a new page for itself. New and remodeled restaurants feature dining zones with "distinct personalities ''. Most of them offer three sections or zones. A linger zone was designed to accommodate people who were inclined to dawdle and socialize while sitting comfortably on armchairs or sofas using free wifi access. Another zone offers counters and stools for patrons in a hurry who might just grab and go. The third and perhaps most important zone is the one for families or groups where seating arrangements can be reconfigured to meet a variety of needs. Harsh colors and hard plastics have been replaced with custom earth tones and flexible, padded, fabric - covered booth - seating, all in hopes of engaging diners to loiter and perhaps spend more money. In addition to architecture and furnishings, the McDonald 's menu has been tweaked to offer a larger variety of what the corporation refers to as more healthy food. McDonald 's franchises are required to follow the directions of the parent company and perhaps more than a few have complained about the Forever Young changes. First, customers needed to recognize the mansard buildings and identify McDonald 's with them -- a new look may initially generate some degree of confusion. The next objection is cost: as of 2008, a newly built swish - brow store was said to cost upwards of $1 million and renovation of an existing unit to meet the new standards as much as $400,000. With a large percentage of sales from drive - in business, franchises could argue that the expensive interior redesign is unwarranted for their bottom lines. In May 2010, McDonald 's redesigned its US website to a sleeker, HTML 5 friendly interface. Along with those changes, McDonald 's also introduced new advertising material to its website, including the unveiling of new pictures used exclusively for in - restaurant ads, television commercials, print advertising, and online advertising, which consist of more realistic pictures of its products, which are now up close and face the camera instead of facing left or right. In July 2011, McDonald 's announced that their largest restaurant in the world would be built on the 2012 London Olympics site. The restaurant contains over 1,500 seats and is half the length of an American football field. Over 470 staff were employed serving on average (during the 2012 Olympics) 100,000 portions of fries, 50,000 Big Macs and 30,000 Milkshakes. This restaurant will overshadow the current largest McDonald 's in the world in Moscow, Russia. In January 2012, the company announced revenue for 2011 reached an all - time high of $27 billion, and that 2,400 restaurants would be updated and 1,300 new ones opened worldwide. In the middle of the decade, the restaurant began to suffer from declining profits. In response, McDonald 's began to offer its breakfast menu all day starting in 2015. At first, the launch was unpopular with franchisees who claimed that the changes caused service to slow down. However, the plan paid off with CNBC reporting that the company 's fourth quarter earning "easily topped analysts ' forecasts ''. magazine ad appears in Life magazine.

is it law to speak english in canada

Official bilingualism in Canada - wikipedia Provincial and territorial executive councils Constitution The official languages of Canada are English and French, which "have equality of status and equal rights and privileges as to their use in all institutions of the Parliament and Government of Canada, '' according to Canada 's constitution. Official bilingualism is the term used in Canada to collectively describe the policies, constitutional provisions, and laws that ensure legal equality of English and French in the Parliament and courts of Canada, protect the linguistic rights of English and French - speaking minorities in different provinces, and ensure a level of government services in both languages across Canada. In addition to the symbolic designation of English and French as official languages, official bilingualism is generally understood to include any law or other measure that: At the provincial level, New Brunswick officially recognizes the equal status of French and English. While French has equal legal status in Manitoba restored due to a court ruling that struck down seventy - year - old English - only laws in 1985, in practice, French language services are only provided in some regions of the province. Quebec has declared itself officially unilingual (French only). Alberta and Saskatchewan are also considered unilingual (English only). In practice, all provinces, including Quebec, offer some services in both English and French and some publicly funded education in both official languages up to the high school level (English language postsecondary education institutions are also present in Quebec, as are French language postsecondary institutions in other provinces, in particular in Ontario and New Brunswick). English and French are official languages in all three territories. In addition, Inuktitut is also an official language in Nunavut, and nine aboriginal languages have official status in the Northwest Territories. French has been a language of government in the part of Canada that is today Quebec, with limited interruptions, the arrival of the first French settlers in Canada in 1604 (Acadians) and in 1608 in Quebec, and has been entrenched in the Constitution of Canada since 1867. English has been a language of government in each of the provinces since their inception as British colonies. Institutional bilingualism in various forms therefore predates the Canadian Confederation in 1867. However, for many years English occupied a de facto privileged position, and French was not fully equal. The two languages have gradually achieved a greater level of equality in most of the provinces, and full equality at the federal level. In the 1970s French in Quebec became the province 's official language. English and French have had limited constitutional protection since 1867. Section 133 of the Constitution Act, 1867 guarantees that both languages may be used in the Parliament of Canada, in its journals and records, and in court proceedings in any court established by the Parliament of Canada. The section also mandates that all Acts of the Parliament of Canada be printed and published in both languages. Guarantees for the equal status of the two official languages are provided in sections 16 -- 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which became law in 1982. Sections 16 -- 19 guarantee the equal status of both languages in Parliament, in all federal government institutions, and in federal courts. These sections also mandate that all statutes, records and journals of Parliament be published in both languages, with the English and French versions both holding equal status before the courts. Section 20 guarantees the right of the Canadian public to communicate in English and French with any central government office or with regional offices where there is "a significant demand for communication with and services from that office ''. Significant demand is not defined in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. One of the purposes of the Official Languages Act of 1988 was to remedy this omission. The Charter of Rights and Freedoms includes similar constitutional obligations making New Brunswick the only officially bilingual province in Canada. Section 21 ensured that the new Charter of Rights and Freedoms would be read as supplementing, rather than replacing any rights of the English and French languages, which had been constitutionalized prior to 1982. Section 22 ensured that the new Charter of Rights and Freedoms would not be interpreted by the courts as placing any new restrictions on non-official languages. Section 23 provides a limited right to receive publicly funded primary and secondary - schooling in the two official languages when they are "in a minority situation '' -- in other words, to English - language schooling in Quebec, and to French - language schooling in the rest of the country. The right applies asymmetrically because section 59 of the Constitution Act, 1982, provides that not all of the language rights listed in section 23 will apply in Quebec. Specifically: None of these education language rights precludes parents from placing their children in a private school (which they pay for) in the language of their choice; it applies only to subsidized public education. One practical consequence of this asymmetry is that all migrants who arrive in Quebec from foreign countries only have access to French - language public schools for their children. This includes immigrants whose mother tongue is English and immigrants who received their schooling in English. On the other hand, Section 23 provides a nearly universal right to English - language schooling for the children of Canadian - born anglophones living in Quebec. Section 23 also provides, subject only to the "where numbers warrant '' restriction, a right to French - language schooling for the children of all francophones living outside Quebec, including immigrants from French - speaking countries who settle outside Quebec, and who are Canadian citizens. However, admission to French - language schools outside Quebec remains restricted in some ways it is not in Quebec. In particular, rights holder parents who choose to enrol their child in English school may thereby deprive that child 's descendants of the right to attend French school. In Quebec, under article 76.1 of the Charter of the French Language, rights holders do not deprive their descendants of the right to an English - language education by choosing to enroll their children in French school. (This applies if certain administrative steps are taken at each generation. Otherwise, the right may still be transmitted to grandchildren under article 76.) Another element of asymmetry between Quebec and most anglophone provinces is that while Quebec provides public English - language primary and secondary education throughout the province, most other provinces provide French - language education only "where numbers warrant ''. There are some further restrictions on minority - language education rights: The phrase, "where numbers... warrant '' is not defined in Section 23. Education is under provincial jurisdiction, which means that it has not been possible for Parliament to enact a single nationwide definition of the term, as the 1988 Official Languages Act did for the constitutional obligation to provide federal services where "there is a sufficient demand. '' As a result, disputes over the extent of the right to a publicly funded minority - language education have been the source of much litigation. The defining case was Mahe v. Alberta (1990), in which the Supreme Court of Canada declared that section 23 guaranteed a "sliding scale ''. In certain circumstances, the children whose parents could exercise the right might be so few that literally no minority language education may be provided by the government. With a greater number of children, some schools might be required to provide classrooms in which the children could receive minority language education. An even greater number would require the construction of new schools dedicated solely to minority language education. More recent cases, which have significantly extended these rights, include Arsenault - Cameron v. Prince Edward Island (2000) and Doucet - Boudreau v. Nova Scotia (Minister of Education) (2003). Many of the documents in Canada 's Constitution do not have an official French - language version; for legal purposes only the English - language version is official and any French translations are unofficial. In particular, the Constitution Act, 1867 (which created Canada as a legal entity and still contains the most important provisions of governmental powers) has no official French - language version, because it was enacted by the United Kingdom Parliament, which functions in the English language exclusively. Similarly, all other parts of the Constitution that were enacted by the United Kingdom (with the important exception of the Canada Act 1982) have no official French - language version. Sections 55 -- 57 of the Constitution Act, 1982 set out a framework for changing this situation. Section 55 calls for French versions of all parts of the Constitution that exist only in English to be prepared as quickly as possible. Section 56 provided that, following adoption of the French versions, both the English - language and French - language versions would be equally authoritative. To avoid the situation where an inaccurately translated French version would have a weight equal to the English original, Section 55 requires that the French - language versions be approved using the same process under which actual constitutional amendments are adopted. Pursuant to section 55, a French Constitutional Drafting Committee produced French - language versions of all the British North America Acts in the decade following 1982. However, these versions were never ratified under the Constitution 's amendment procedure, and therefore have never been officially adopted. Section 57 states that the "English and French versions of this Act (ie. the Constitution Act, 1982) are equally authoritative. '' The purpose of this provision is to clear up any ambiguity that might have existed about the equal status of the two versions as a result of the novel way in which this part of Canada 's supreme law came into force. Had the Constitution Act, 1982 been enacted as most preceding amendments to Canada 's constitution had been, as a statute of the British parliament, it would, like any other British statute, have been an English - only document. Instead, the British parliament enacted a very concise law, (the Canada Act 1982), written in English only. The operative clauses of the Canada Act, 1982 simply state that an appendix to the Act (the appendix is formally referred to as a "schedule '') is to be integrated into the Canadian constitution. The schedule contains the complete text of the Constitution Act, 1982, in both English and French. Canada adopted its first Official Languages Act in 1969, in response to the recommendations of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism. The current Official Languages Act was adopted in 1988 to improve the 1969 law 's efforts to address two basic policy objectives: (1) to specify the powers, duties and functions of federal institutions relevant to official languages; (2) to support the development of linguistic minority communities. As well, following the adoption in 1982 of the Charter of Rights, it was necessary to create a legislative framework within which the Government of Canada could respect its new constitutional obligations regarding the official languages. In addition to formalizing Charter provisions in Parts I through IV, the Act adopts several specific measures to achieve these objectives. For example, Part V specifies that the work environment in federal institutions in the National Capital Region and other prescribed bilingual regions be conducive to accommodating the use of French and English at work. Part VI mandates that English - speaking Canadians and French - speaking Canadians not be discriminated against based on ethnic origin or first language learned when it comes to employment opportunities and advancement. Finally, the Act establishes a Commissioner of Official Languages and specifies his duties to hear and investigate complaints, make recommendations to Parliament, and delegate authority in matters pertaining to official languages in Canada. Canada 's current Commissioner of Official Languages is Graham Fraser. Section 32 of the Official Languages Act authorizes the Governor in Council (i.e., the federal cabinet) to issue regulations that define the geographic regions where the federal government offers services in the relevant minority language (English in Quebec and French elsewhere). This provides a legal definition for the otherwise vague requirement that services be provided in the minority official languages wherever there is "significant demand. '' The definition used in the regulations is complex, but basically an area of the country is served in both languages if at least 5,000 persons in that area, or 5 % of the local population (whichever is smaller), belongs to that province 's English or French linguistic minority population. Regulations were first promulgated in 1991. Book I Chapter 1. C of the report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, published on 8 October 1967, acknowledges the international influence on Canadian language policy: Compared to other bilingual states - among them Finland, South Africa, and Belgium, which we shall discuss later - Canada is fortunate that her official languages both have international status... In Canada, however, one of the two language groups begins with a considerable advantage. As the national language of the United States, one of the most powerful countries of the world, English has a massive preponderance in North America. Thus the English - language group in this country draws much of its strength from the English - speaking population of our neighbour. The French - language group is, on the other hand, a minority on the North American continent and suffers from its isolation not only from France but from the other French speaking peoples of the world. The introduction to Book I of the report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism published on 8 October 1967, states: "Our terms of reference contain no allusion to Canada 's native populations. They speak of ' two founding races ', namely Canadians of British and French origin, and ' other ethnic groups ', but mention neither the Indians nor the Eskimos. '' Book II Chapter V.E of the same report, published on 23 May 1968, states that the government 's policy with reference to indigenous Canadians is "to integrate these students as completely as possible into the existing provincial school systems ''. This last statement is reinforced by the Honourable Jean Chrétien, Minister of Indian Affairs, in Statement of the Government of Canada on Indian Policy (the White Paper) presented in 1969 when he states that "the Indian culture can be preserved, perpetuated and developed only by the Indian people themselves ''. The Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, Book I, General Introduction, Paragraph 19, states: "Still, as we have pointed out earlier, there is such a thing as a French culture and a British culture. Of course, the differences between them are not as great as they would be if either were compared to one of the many Asian or African cultures. In Canada, the Anglophones and the Francophones wear the same sort of clothing, live in the same sort of houses, and use the same tools. They are very similar in their social behaviour, belong to religions which are not exclusive, and share the same general knowledge. To a greater or lesser extent, they share a North American way of living. '' The issue of proportional hiring and promotion of speakers of both official languages has been an issue in Canadian politics since before Confederation. Members of each linguistic group have complained of injustice when their group have been represented, in public service hiring and promotion, in numbers less than would be justified by their proportion of the national population. For the greater part of Canada 's history, French - speakers were underrepresented, and English - speakers were overrepresented in the ranks of the public service, and the disproportion became more pronounced in the more senior ranks of public servants. However, this trend has reversed itself in recent decades. The first high - profile complaint of preferential hiring took place in 1834. One of the Ninety - Two Resolutions of the Lower Canadian House of Assembly drew attention to the fact that French Canadians, who at the time were 88 % of the colony 's population, held only 30 % of the posts in the 157 - member colonial civil service. Moreover, the resolution stated, French Canadians were, "for the most part, appointed to the inferior and less lucrative offices, and most frequently only obtaining even them, by becoming the dependent of those (British immigrants) who hold the higher and the more lucrative offices... '' With the advent of responsible government in the 1840s, the power to make civil service appointments was transferred to elected politicians, who had a strong incentive to ensure that French Canadian voters did not feel that they were being frozen out of hiring and promotions. Although no formal reform of the hiring and promotion process was ever undertaken, the patronage - driven hiring process seems to have produced a more equitable representation of the two language groups. In the period between 1867 and the turn of the Twentieth Century, French - Canadians made up about one - third of the Canadian population, and seem also to have represented about one - third of civil service appointments at junior levels, although they had only about half that much representation at the most senior level. Polls show that Canadians consistently and strongly support two key aspects of Canadian official languages policy: However, among English - speaking Canadians there is only limited support for broadening the scope of official bilingualism, and reservations exist among Anglophones as to the intrusiveness and / or fairness of the policy. Among Francophones, polls have revealed no such reservations. Among Anglophones, support for providing federal French - language services to French - speakers living outside Quebec has remained consistently high over a quarter - century period -- 79 % in 1977 and 76 % in 2002. Over the same period, support among English - speakers for the "right to French language education outside Quebec where numbers make costs reasonable '' has ranged from 79 % to 91 %. Among French - speaking Canadians, support for these policies was even higher. The national consensus has, at times, broken down when other aspects of official bilingualism are examined. However, a significant shift in anglophone opinion has occurred since the mid-2000s, in favour of bilingualism. According to a review of three decades ' worth of poll results published in 2004 by Andre Turcotte and Andrew Parkin, "Francophones in Quebec are almost unanimous in their support of the official languages policy '' but "there is a much wider variation in opinion among Anglophones... '' This variation can be seen, for example, in responses to the question, "Are you, personally, in favour of bilingualism for all of Canada? '' Between 1988 and 2003, support for this statement among Francophones ranged between 79 % and 91 %, but among Anglophones support was never higher than 48 %, and fell as low as 32 % in the early 1990s. The ebb in support for bilingualism among anglophones can likely be attributed to political developments in the late 1980s and 1990s, including the failure of the Meech Lake Accord, and the 1995 referendum on Quebec independence. By 2006, affirmative responses to the question "Are you personally in favour of bilingualism for all of Canada? '' had increased considerably, with 72 % of Canadians (and 64 % of anglophones) agreeing. 70 % of Canadians, and 64 % of anglophones were "in favour of bilingualism for (their) province ''. Support for bilingualism is thought likely to continue to increase, as young anglophones are more favourable to it than their elders. According to Turcotte and Parkin, other poll data reveal that "in contrast to Francophones, Anglophones, in general, have resisted putting more government effort and resources into promoting bilingualism... What is revealing, however, is that only 11 % of those outside Quebec said they disagreed with bilingualism in any form. Opposition seems to be directed to the actions of the federal government, rather than to bilingualism itself... (T) his distinction is key to understanding public opinion on the issue. '' This helps to explain results that would otherwise seem contradictory, such as a 1994 poll in which 56 % of Canadians outside Quebec indicated that they either strongly or moderately supported official bilingualism, but 50 % agreed with a statement that "the current official bilingualism policy should be scrapped because it 's expensive and inefficient. '' In English Canada, there is some regional variation in attitudes towards federal bilingualism policy, but it is relatively modest when compared to the divergence between the views expressed by Quebecers and those expressed in the rest of the country. For example, in a poll conducted in 2000, only 22 % of Quebecers agreed with the statement, "We have gone too far in pushing bilingualism, '' while positive response rates in English Canada ranged from a low of 50 % in the Atlantic to a high of 65 % in the Prairies. Both French - speaking and English - speaking Canadians tend to regard the capacity to speak the other official language as having cultural and economic value, and both groups have indicated that they regard bilingualism as an integral element of the Canadian national identity. Once again, however, there is a marked divergence between the responses of French - speaking and English - speaking Canadians. In a 2003 poll, 75 % of Francophones indicated that "having two official languages, English and French '' made them proud to be Canadian. Among English - speakers, 55 % said that bilingualism made them proud, but far higher percentages (86 % and 94 %, respectively) indicated that multiculturalism and the Charter of Rights made them feel proud. From time to time, boards or panels are commissioned, either by the federal government or the government of one of the provinces, to conduct hearings into the public 's views on matters of policy. Some of these hearings have dealt largely, or even primarily, with official languages policy, and the responses that they have collected provide snapshots into the state of public opinion at particular points in time. The Advisory Committee on the Official Languages of New Brunswick was commissioned by the provincial legislature as a way of determining the response of the population to the 1982 Poirier - Bastarache Report, which had recommended a considerable expansion of French - language services. Public hearings were conducted in twelve cities and towns across the province in 1985, and a report was submitted by the committee in 1986. The briefs submitted to the Advisory Committee were subsequently summarized in an academic study of the hearings in the following terms: In late 1990, a six - man Citizens ' Forum on Canada 's Future was established by the federal government with a mandate to engage in "a dialogue and discussion with and among Canadians... to discuss the values and characteristics fundamental to the well - being of Canada ''. The Forum, which was headed by former Commissioner of Official Languages Keith Spicer, published a report in June 1991, which included a detailed discussion of Canadians ' reactions to a variety of issues, including federal official languages policy. These comments, which probably represent the most extensive consultation ever with Canadians on the subject of official bilingualism, were compiled statistically by the Spicer Commission, and tend to reinforce the findings of pollsters, that Canadians are favourable towards bilingual services, but frustrated with the implementation of official languages policy. Thus, for example, nearly 80 % of group discussions sponsored by the Commission produced favourable comments from participants on what the Commission 's report refers to as "bilingualism generally '', but nearly 80 % of these discussions produced negative comments on "official languages policy ''. These results prompted Spicer to write, On the other hand, we find that the application of the official languages policy is a major irritant outside Quebec, and not much appreciated inside Quebec... In spite of real and needed progress in linguistic fair play in federal institutions, a sometimes mechanical, overzealous, and unreasonably costly approach to the policy has led to decisions to that have helped bring it into disrepute. Citizens tell us that bilingual bonuses, costly translation of technical manuals of very limited use, public servants ' low use of hard - acquired French - language training, excessive designation of bilingual jobs, and a sometimes narrow, legalistic approach are sapping a principle they would otherwise welcome as part of Canada 's basic identity. A number of groups exist, which, as part of their mandate, seek to promote official bilingualism or to extend the scope of the policy (although advocacy is not always the sole, or even the primary activity, of the groups). Among these groups: A number of groups have existed, since the first Official Languages Act was proclaimed in 1969, which sought to end official bilingualism or to reduce the scope of the policy. Among these groups: In the first decade or so following the 1969 adoption of the Act, opposition to the new policy sometimes took a radical form that has subsequently nearly disappeared. Books such as Jock V. Andrew 's Bilingual Today, French Tomorrow, advocated either the repeal of the Official Languages Act or an end to the policy of official bilingualism. Leonard Jones, the mayor of Moncton, New Brunswick, was an aggressive opponent of bilingualism in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Jones challenged the validity of the Official Languages Act in court, arguing that the subject matter was outside the jurisdiction of the federal government. In 1974, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled against Jones, and found the law constitutional. In 1991, a local resurgence in anti-bilingualism sentiments allowed the Confederation of Regions Party to win 21.2 % of the vote in New Brunswick 's provincial election and to briefly form the official opposition with eight seats in the provincial legislature. Some organizations or individuals within certain movements also propose introducing a more inclusive language policy either via official multilingualism, or an official unilingual language policy in an auxiliary language so as to intrude minimally into the first - language choice of residents. Such ideas are sometimes inspired by Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights relating to discrimination on the basis of language, and Article 26 (3) of the same Declaration so as to give parents the freedom "to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children. '' Others can be inspired by religious or other beliefs. Assembly of First Nations: National First Nations Language Strategy, presented by the Assembly of First Nations on 5 July 2007, inspired by previous statements including the report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples presented in 1996, rejects official bilingualism in favour of linguistic equality for speakers of indigenous languages: "First Nations seek legislated protection via a First Nations Languages Act that would be consistent with First Nations and Government of Canada laws dealing with languages. '' The issues on which Canada 's political parties have most recently shown divergent voting patterns are two private members ' bills. The first, An Act to amend the Official Languages Act (Charter of the French Language) (Bill C - 482), was introduced by Bloc MP Pauline Picard. If adopted, it would have had the effect of amending the Official Languages Act, the Canada Labour Code, and the Canada Business Corporations Act, to cause them to conform to the Charter of the French Language, "effectively making the federal government French - only in the province, '' according to Maclean 's. This bill was defeated on May 2008, with Bloc and NDP MPs voting in favour and Conservative and Liberal MPs opposed. The second private member 's bill is NDP MP Yvon Godin 's Act to amend the Supreme Court Act (understanding the official languages) (Bill C - 232). If adopted, this bill will have the effect of blocking any candidate who is not already sufficiently bilingual to understand oral arguments in both official languages from being appointed to the Supreme Court. This bill was passed at third reading on March 31, with all NDP, Liberal and Bloc members in support and all Conservative MPs opposed. and is currently before the Senate. The Conservative Party of Canada was created in 2003 by the merger of the old Progressive Conservative Party of Canada and the Canadian Alliance. The new party adopted the principles of the old Progressive Conservatives as its founding principles, with only a handful of changes. One of these was the addition of the following founding principle, which is lifted almost verbatim from Section 16 (1) of the Charter of Rights: "A belief that English and French have equality of status, and equal rights and privileges as to their use in all institutions of the Parliament and Government of Canada. '' At its founding convention in 2005, the new party added the following policy to its Policy Declaration (the official compilation of the policies that it had adopted at the convention): Prior to this, in the 1980s and 1990s, the Reform Party of Canada had advocated the policy 's repeal. However, the party 's position moderated with time. By 1999, the Blue Book (the party 's declaration of its then - current policies) stated that "The Reform Party supports official bilingualism in key federal institutions, such as Parliament and the Supreme Court, and in critical federal services in parts of the country where need is sufficient to warrant services on a cost - effective basis. '' By 2002, the policy declaration of the Reform Party 's political successor, the Canadian Alliance, had been moderated further, and stated that it was "the federal government 's responsibility to uphold minority rights '' by providing services in both languages in any "rural township or city neighbourhood where at least ten percent of the local population uses either English or French in its daily life ''. The Liberal Party sees itself as the party of official bilingualism, as it was a Liberal prime minister, Pierre Trudeau, who enacted the first Official Languages Act in 1969 and who entrenched detailed protections for the two official languages in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982. The depth of the party 's commitment to official bilingualism is demonstrated by the fact that the constitution of the Liberal Party contains provisions modelled almost word - for - word on Section 16 (1) of the Charter of Rights: "English and French are the official languages of the Party and have equality of status and equal rights and privileges as to their use in all federal institutions of the Party. In pursuing its fundamental purposes and in all its activities, the Party must preserve and promote the status, rights and privileges of English and French. '' New Democrat MPs voted in favour of the 1969 Official Languages Act, the 1988 Official Languages Act, and the protections for the two official languages contained in the Charter of Rights. More recently, the party has edged towards supporting an asymmetrical version of bilingualism. Early in 2008, the party 's languages critic, Yvon Godin, stated that its MPs would vote in favour of a bill, sponsored by the Bloc Québécois, which would cause federal institutions to operate on a French - preferred or French - only basis in Quebec. Although the main objective of the Bloc Québécois is to assist in the secession of Quebec, the party 's parliamentary caucus has maintained an active interest in issues relating to official languages policy (for example, sending MPs to participate in the standing Commons committee on official languages). The party seeks to alter federal language policy, as it applies within Quebec, so as to eliminate the statutory equality of English that is guaranteed under the Official Languages Act and other federal legislation. In recent years, this has included introducing a private member 's bill (An Act to amend the Official Languages Act (Charter of the French Language) (better known as Bill C - 482), intended to supersede the Official Languages Act with the Charter of the French Language for all federally regulated corporations within Quebec. Canada 's thirteen provinces and territories have adopted widely diverging policies with regard to minority - language services for their respective linguistic minorities. Given the wide range of services, such as policing, health care and education, that fall under provincial jurisdiction, these divergences have considerable importance. Of Canada 's ten provinces, only one (New Brunswick) has voluntarily chosen to become officially bilingual. New Brunswick 's bilingual status is constitutionally entrenched under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Sections 16 -- 20 of the Charter include parallel sections guaranteeing the same rights at the federal level and at the provincial level (New Brunswick only). Manitoba is the only province that was officially bilingual at the time of its establishment. Following the Red River Rebellion led by the Francophone Métis Louis Riel, the Manitoba Act was passed, creating the province and mandating the equal status of English and French in all legislative bodies, legislative records, laws and court proceedings. At this time, Manitoba had a majority Francophone population, but within 20 years mass immigration from Ontario and non-Francophone countries had reduced the Francophone proportion of the population to less than 10 %. In 1890, the provincial government of Thomas Greenway stripped funding from the French school system and revoked the equal status of French, a controversial move that caused tension between French and English speakers throughout Canada. Despite the protests of Franco - Manitobans that the Manitoba Act had been violated, Manitoba remained monolingual in practice until the early 1980s, when legal challenges created a crisis that threatened to invalidate almost all laws passed in Manitoba since 1890, on the grounds that these statutes were not published in French as required by the Manitoba Act. The provincial government under Howard Pawley tried and failed to address the crisis, with the opposition refusing to attend legislative sessions. In 1985 the Supreme Court ruled that the Manitoba Act had been violated and that all provincial legislation must be published in both French and English, restoring the legal equality of the languages that had existed when the province was created. While this restoration of legal equality faced overwhelming public opposition at the time, polls taken in 2003 showed a majority of Manitobans supported provincial bilingualism. Due to Manitoba 's unique history, it has a complex bilingual profile combining that of a province with a "small official - language minority and one with constitutional protection of said minority ''. Currently, the French Language Services Policy guarantees access to provincial government services in French, though in practice French language services are available only in some areas. Public primary and secondary education is provided in both French and English, and parents are free to choose instruction in either language. Post-secondary Francophone education is provided by the Université de Saint - Boniface, the oldest university in Western Canada. French has been the only official language in Quebec since 1974, when the Liberal government of Robert Bourassa enacted The Official Language Act (better - known as "Bill 22 ''). However, the province 's language law does provide for limited services in English. As well, the province is obliged, under Section 133 of the Constitution Act, 1867, to allow the provincial legislature to operate in both French and English, and to allow all Quebec courts to operate in both languages. Section 23 of the Charter applies to Quebec, but to a more limited degree than in other provinces. Quebec is required to provide an education in English to all children whose Canadian citizen parents were educated in English in Canada, while all other provinces are required to provide an education in French to the children of Canadian citizen parents who either received their education in French in Canada or whose native tongue is French. In 1977, the Parti Québécois government of René Lévesque introduced the Charter of the French Language (better known as "Bill 101 '') to promote and preserve the French language in the province, indirectly disputing the federal bilingualism policy. Initially, Bill 101 banned the use of all languages but French on most commercial signs in the province (except for companies with four employees or fewer), but those limitations were later loosened by allowing other languages on signs, as long as the French version is predominant. Bill 101 also requires that children of most immigrants residing in Quebec attend French - language public schools; the children of Canadian citizens who have received their education in Canada in English may attend English - language public schools, which are operated by English - language school boards throughout the province. The controversy over this part of Quebec 's language legislation has lessened in recent years as these laws became more entrenched and the public use of French increased. Quebec 's language laws have been the subject of a number of legal rulings. In 1988, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in the case of Ford v. Quebec (A.G.) that the commercial sign law provisions of Bill 101, which banned the use of the English language on outdoor signs, were unconstitutional. In 1989, the Quebec National Assembly invoked the "Notwithstanding Clause '' of the Charter of Rights to set aside enforcement of the court ruling for five years. A UN appeal of the ' McIntyre Case ' resulted in a condemnation of Quebec 's sign law -- regardless of the legality of the notwithstanding clause under Canadian law. In response, in 1993 Quebec enacted amendments to the sign law, availing itself of the suggestions proposed in the losing 1988 Supreme Court ruling by allowing other languages on commercial signs, subject to French being markedly predominant. On March 31, 2005, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled unanimously that the interpretation made by the provincial administration of the "major part '' criterion in Quebec 's language of instruction provisions violated the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. This criterion allows students who have completed the "major part '' of their primary education in English in Canada to continue their studies in English in Quebec. The Court did not strike down the law but, as it had done in its 1988 ruling on sign laws, presented the province with a set of criteria for interpreting the law in conformity with the Charter of Rights, broadening the interpretation of the phrase "major part ''. Although no Canadian province has officially adopted English as its sole official language, English is the de facto language of government services and internal government operations in Canada 's seven remaining provinces. Service levels in French vary greatly from one province to another (and sometimes within different parts of the same province). For example, under the terms of Ontario 's 1986 French Language Services Act, Francophones in 25 designated areas across the province -- but not in other parts of the province -- are guaranteed access to provincial government services in French. Similarly, since 2005, the City of Ottawa has been officially required under Ontario law, to set a municipal policy on English and French. In Alberta, the Alberta School Act protects the right of French - speaking people to receive school instruction in the French language in the province. French and English are official languages in the Yukon. In addition to English and French, Inuktitut is also an official language in Nunavut. In addition to English and French, the Northwest Territories accords official status to nine aboriginal languages (Chipewyan, Cree, Gwich'in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, South Slavey and Tłįchǫ or Dogrib). NWT residents have the right to use any of the territory 's eleven official languages in a territorial court and in debates and proceedings of the legislature. However, laws are legally binding only in their French and English versions, and the government publishes laws and other documents in the territory 's other official languages only when asked by the legislature. Furthermore, access to services in any language is limited to institutions and circumstances where there is significant demand for that language or where it is reasonable to expect it given the nature of the services requested. In practice, this means that only English language services are universally available, and there is no guarantee that any particular government service will use other languages except the courts. Following a 2006 court ruling, universal French - language services are also mandatory. There is considerable variation across Canada concerning the right to use English and French in legislatures and courts (federal, provincial and territorial). Rights under federal law are consistent throughout Canada, but different provinces and territories have different approaches to language rights. Three provinces (Manitoba, New Brunswick and Quebec) have constitutional guarantees for bilingualism and language rights. Three other provinces (Alberta, Ontario and Saskatchewan) have statutory provisions relating to bilingualism in the legal system, as do each of the three territories (Northwest Territories, Nunavut and Yukon). Four provinces (British Columbia, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island) are unilingual English. Language rights in the legal system are summarized in the following table: Official bilingualism should not be confused with personal bilingualism, which is the capacity of a person to speak two languages. This distinction was articulated in the 1967 report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, which stated: Nonetheless, the promotion of personal bilingualism in English and French is an important objective of official bilingualism in Canada. At least 35 % of Canadians speak more than one language. Moreover, fewer than 2 % of Canadians can not speak at least one of the two official languages. However, of these multilingual Canadians, somewhat less than one fifth of the population (5,448,850 persons, or 17.4 % of the Canadian population) are able to speak both of the official languages. However, in Canada the terms "bilingual '' and "unilingual '' are normally used to refer to bilingualism in English and French. In this sense, nearly 83 % of Canadians are unilingual. Knowledge of the two official languages is largely determined by geography. Nearly 95 % of Quebecers can speak French, but only 40.6 % speak English. In the rest of the country, 97.6 % of the population is capable of speaking English, but only 7.5 % can speak French. Personal bilingualism is most concentrated in southern Quebec and a swath of territory sometimes referred to as the bilingual belt, which stretches east from Quebec through northern and eastern New Brunswick and west through Ottawa and that part of Ontario lying to the east of Ottawa, as well as north - eastern Ontario. There is also a large French - speaking population in Manitoba. In all, 55 % of bilingual Canadians are Quebecers, and a high percentage of the bilingual population in the rest of Canada resides in Ontario and New Brunswick. Canada 's thirteen provincial and territorial education systems place a high priority on boosting the number of bilingual high school graduates. For example, in 2008 New Brunswick 's provincial government reconfirmed its goal of boosting the percentage of bilingualism among graduates from its current rate of 34 % to 70 % rate by 2012. In 2003, the federal government announced a ten - year plan of subsidies to provincial education ministries with the goal of boosting bilingualism among all Canadian graduates from its then - current level of 24 % to 50 % by 2013. Three methods of providing French second - language education (known as "FSL '') exist side - by - side in each of the provinces (including Quebec, where extensive French - language education opportunities are available for the province 's large population of non-Francophone children): Non-Francophone students learn French by taking courses on the French language as part of an education that is otherwise conducted in English. In Quebec and New Brunswick, French classes begin in Grade 1. In the other provinces, French classes typically start in Grade 4 or 5. Students normally receive about 600 hours of French - language classes by the time of graduation. The goal of "Core French '' programs is not to produce fully bilingual graduates, but rather "to provide students with the ability to communicate adequately in the second language, and to provide students with linguistic tools to continue their second - language studies by building on a solid communicative base ''. There are no mandatory core French class in British Columbia, Alberta and Saskatchewan, and second - language courses are mandatory only in BC. One result of this is that comprehension levels are often lower than parents would prefer. A scholar who interviewed a former New Brunswick premier, as well as the province 's deputy ministers of education and health and the chairman of its Board of Management and Official Languages Branch reports: "(A) ll expressed reservations about the effectiveness of the Core program in promoting individual bilingualism and believed the program must be improved if anglophone students are to obtain a level of proficiency in the French language. '' Non-Francophone students with no previous French - language training learn French by being taught all subjects in the French language, rather than by taking courses on the French language as part of an education otherwise conducted in English. In early immersion, students are placed in French - language classes starting in kindergarten or Grade 1. In late immersion, children are placed in French - language classes in a later grade. Currently, 7 % of eligible students outside of Quebec are enrolled in French immersion programs. Some schools in Ontario offer a third method of FSL education: the Extended French program. Students enter into this program as early as Grade 4 -- the starting grade is set by each region 's school board -- and may continue the program through to graduation. The program can also be entered when beginning secondary school; however, as there is a prerequisite number of previous instruction hours, usually only students previously enrolled in the Extended French or French Immersion programs can enter. In this program, at least 25 % of all instruction must be in French. From Grades 4 through 8, this means that at least one course per year other than "French as a Second Language '' must be taught solely in French. From Grades 9 through 12, along with taking the Extended French language course every year, students must complete their mandatory Grade 9 Geography and Grade 10 Canadian History credits in French. Students who complete these required courses and take one extra credit taught in French receive a certificate upon graduation in addition to their diploma. Intensive French is a method of FSL education that originated in Newfoundland. In 2004, Intensive French began in some schools in British Columbia. Intensive French is a choice program (in offering schools) during the grade 6 year. For the first five months of the school year students spend 80 % of their time learning French, with the other 20 % being for math. The rest of the core curriculum (Social Studies, Science, and Language Arts in English) is condensed for the second half of the year, comprising 80 % of the time, with one hour for French. In the grade 7 year students continue to have one hour of core French per day. This results in 600 hours of French instruction over the two years. New Brunswick, being an officially bilingual province, has both anglophone and francophone school districts. Quebec 's educations system provides ESL on a more restricted basis to the children of immigrants and to students who are members of the province 's Francophone majority.

which airport is closer to sugar land tx

Sugar Land, Texas - wikipedia Sugar Land is a city in Fort Bend County, Texas, United States, within the Houston -- The Woodlands -- Sugar Land metropolitan area. Founded as a sugar plantation in the early mid-20th century and incorporated in 1959, Sugar Land is one of the most affluent and fastest - growing cities in Texas, having grown more than 158 percent between 1990 and 2000. In the time period of 2000 -- 2007, Sugar Land also enjoyed a 46.24 % job growth. As of the 2010 census, the city 's population was 78,817. Due to the Greatwood / New Territory annexation on December 12, 2017, the city 's estimate of population is now 117,869, as of January 1, 2018. Sugar Land is home to the headquarters of Imperial Sugar, and the company 's main sugar refinery and distribution center were once located in the city. Recognizing this heritage, the Imperial Sugar crown logo can be seen in the city seal and logo. Sugar Land 's heritage traces its roots back to the original Mexican land grant to Stephen F. Austin. One of the first settlers of the land, Samuel M. Williams, called this land "Oakland Plantation '' because there were many different varieties of oaks on the land, such as willow oak, post oak, water oak, southern red oak, and live oak. Williams ' brother, Nathaniel, purchased the land in 1838. They operated the plantation by growing cotton, corn, and sugarcane. During these early years, the area that is now Sugar Land was the center of social life along the Brazos River. In 1853, Benjamin Terry and William J. Kyle purchased the Oakland Plantation from the Williams family. Terry is known for organizing Terry 's Texas Rangers during the Civil War and for naming the town. Upon the deaths of Terry and Kyle, Colonel E.H. Cunningham bought the 12,500 - acre (5,100 ha) plantation soon after the Civil War, and developed the town around his sugar - refining plant around 1879. In 1906, the Kempner family of Galveston, under the leadership of Isaac H. Kempner, and in partnership with William T. Eldridge, purchased the 5,300 - acre (2,100 ha) Ellis Plantation, one of the few plantations in Fort Bend County to survive the Civil War. The Ellis Plantation had originally been part of the Jesse Cartwright league and in the years after the Civil War had been operated by a system of tenant farming under the management of Will Ellis. In 1908, the partnership acquired the adjoining 12,500 - acre (5,100 ha) Cunningham Plantation, with its raw - sugar mill and cane - sugar refinery. The partnership changed the name to Imperial Sugar Company; Kempner associated the name "Imperial '', which was also the name of a small raw - sugar mill on the Ellis Plantation, with the Imperial Hotel in New York City. Around the turn of the 20th century, most of the sugarcane crops were destroyed by a harsh winter. As part of the Kempner - Eldridge agreement, Eldridge moved to the site to serve as general manager and build the company - owned town of Sugar Land. The trains running through Sugar Land are on the route of the oldest railroad in Texas. They run adjacent to the sugar refinery, west of the town, and through the center of what used to be known as the Imperial State Prison Farm, now redeveloped largely into the suburban planned community of Telfair. As a company town from the 1910s until 1959, Sugar Land was virtually self - contained. Imperial Sugar Company provided housing for the workers, encouraged construction of schools, built a hospital for the workers ' well - being, and provided businesses to meet the workers ' needs. Many of the original homes built by the Imperial Sugar Company remain today in The Hill and Mayfield Park areas of Sugar Land, and have been passed down through generations of family members. During the 1950s, Imperial Sugar wanted to expand the town by building more houses. This led to the creation of a new subdivision, Venetian Estates, which featured waterfront homesites on Oyster Creek and on man - made lakes. As the company town expanded, so did the interest of establishing a municipal government. Voters chose to make Sugar Land a general law city in 1959, with T.E. Harman becoming the first mayor. In the early 1970s, a new subdivision development called Covington Woods was constructed. Later that year, the Imperial Cattle Ranch sold about 1,200 acres (490 ha) to a developer to create what became Sugar Creek in 1968. As a master - planned community, Sugar Creek introduced country club living, with two golf courses and country clubs, swimming pools, and security. Encouraged by the success of Sugar Creek, First Colony, a new master - planned community encompassing 10,000 acres (4,000 ha), was organized. Development began in 1977 by Sugarland Properties Inc., and would continue the next 30 years. The master - planned community offered homebuyers formal landscaping, neighborhoods segmented by price range, extensive green belts, a golf course and country club, lakes and boulevards, neighborhood amenities, and shopping. Around the same time as First Colony, another master - planned community development called Sugar Mill started in the northern portion of Sugar Land, offering traditional, lakefront, and estate lots. Sugar Land began attracting the attention of major corporations throughout the 1980s, and many chose to make the city their home. Fluor Daniel, Schlumberger, Unocal (though never headquartered in Sugar Land), and others located offices and facilities in the city. This resulted in a 40 / 60 ratio of residential to commercial tax base within the city. In 1981, a special city election was held for the purpose of establishing a home - rule municipal government. Voters approved the adoption of a home rule charter. The charter established a mayor - council form of government, with all powers of the city invested in a council composed of a mayor and five councilmen. A special city election was held Aug. 9, 1986, to submit the proposed changes to the electorate for consideration. By a majority of the voters, amendments to the charter were approved which provided for a change in the city 's form of government from that of "mayor - council '' (strong mayor) to that of a "council - manager '' form of government which provides that the city manager be the chief administrative officer of the city. Approval of this amendment provided for the mayor to become a voting member of council, in addition to performing duties as presiding officer of the council. Sugar Land annexed the master - planned Sugar Creek community in 1986, with the community being almost built - out. That same year, the city organized the largest celebration in its history -- the Texas Sesquicentennial Celebration, celebrating 150 years of Texan independence from Mexican rule. An amendment on May 5, 1990, changed the composition of the city council to a mayor and two council members by at - large position. Throughout much of the 1990s, Sugar Land was one of the fastest - growing communities in the nation. The majority of Sugar Landers are white - collar and college - educated, working in Houston 's energy industry. An abundance of commercial growth, with numerous low - rise office buildings, banks and high - class restaurants popping up, can be seen along both Interstate 69 / U.S. Highway 59 and State Highway 6. Sugar Land increased its tax base with the opening of First Colony Mall in 1996. The over one - million - square - foot (100,000 m) mall, the first in Fort Bend County, is located at the busiest intersection of the city: Interstate 69 / U.S. 59 and State Highway 6. The mall was named after the 10,000 - acre (4,000 ha) master - planned community of First Colony. In November 1997, Sugar Land annexed the remaining municipal utility districts (MUDs) of the 10,000 - acre (4,000 ha) First Colony master - planned community, bringing the city 's population to almost 60,000. This was Sugar Land 's largest annexation to date. Sugar Land boasted the highest growth among Texas ' largest cities per the U.S. Census 2000, with a population of 63,328. In 2003, Sugar Land became a "principal '' city as the title changed to Houston -- Sugar Land -- Baytown metropolitan area. Sugar Land replaced Galveston as the second-most important city in the metropolitan area, after Houston. The new millennium saw the need of higher education facility expansion located within the city. In 2002, the University of Houston System at Fort Bend moved to its new 250 - acre (100 ha) campus located off the University Boulevard and Interstate 69 / U.S. 59 intersection. The city helped fund the Albert and Mamie George Building, and as a result, the multi-institution teaching center was renamed the University of Houston Sugar Land. In 2003, the Imperial Sugar Company refinery plant and distribution center was put out of operation, but its effect on the local economy was minimal, since Sugar Land today has much more of a reputation as an affluent Houston suburb than the blue - collar, agriculture - dependent town it was a generation ago. However, the company maintains its headquarters in Sugar Land. The Texas Department of Transportation sold 2,018 acres (817 ha) of prison land in the western portion Sugar Land to Newland Communities, a developer, by bid in 2003. Thereafter, the developer announced to build a new master - planned community called Telfair in this location. In July 2004, Sugar Land annexed all of this land into the city limits to control the quality of development, extending the city limits westward. This was unusual, since Sugar Land only annexed built - out areas in the past, not prior to development. In December 2005 Sugar Land annexed the recently built - out, master - planned community of Avalon and four sections of Brazos Landing subdivision, adding approximately 3,200 residents. The city is currently negotiating with the communities of Greatwood, New Territory, and River Park, along with the subdivisions of Tara Colony and Tara Plantation, to annex in the near future. This annexation will be the largest, surpassing the annexation of First Colony in 1992 and 1997, which would bring the city proper 's population to approximately 120,000. As of 2007, Sugar Land held the title of "Fittest City in Texas '' for the population 50,000 -- 100,000 range, a title it has held for four consecutive years. In 2006 CNN / Money and Money magazine ranked Sugar Land third on its list of the "100 Best Cities to Live in the United States ''. In 2007, CQ Press ranked Sugar Land fifth on its list of "Safest Cities in the United States '' (14th annual "City Crime Rankings: Crime in Metropolitan American ''), and in 2010 it was ranked the twelfth Safest City in the United States, as well as the safest city in Texas. In 2008, Forbes selected Sugar Land along with Bunker Hill Village and Hunters Creek Village as one of the three Houston - area "Top Suburbs to Live Well '', noting its affluence despite its large population. Sugar Land is located in northeast Fort Bend County, 20 miles (32 km) southwest of downtown Houston. It is bordered by Houston to the northeast, and by Stafford, Missouri City, and Meadows Place to the east. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city of Sugar Land has a total area of 34.0 square miles (88.1 km), of which 32.4 square miles (83.9 km) is land and 1.6 square miles (4.2 km), or 4.82 %, is water. The elevation of most of the city is between 70 and 90 feet (21 and 27 m) above sea level. The elevation of Sugar Land Regional Airport is 82 feet (25 m). Sugar Land is located at 29 ° 35 ′ 58 '' N 95 ° 36 ′ 51 '' W  /  29.599580 ° N 95.614089 ° W  / 29.599580; - 95.614089 (29.599580, - 95.614089). Sugar Land has two major waterways running through the city. The Brazos River runs through the southwestern and southern portion of the city and then into Brazoria County. Oyster Creek runs from the northwest to the eastern portion of the city limits and into Missouri City. Sugar Land has many artificial lakes connecting to Oyster Creek or the Brazos River, constructed in connection with the development of the city 's master - planned communities. Underpinning the area 's land surface are unconsolidated clays, clay shales, and poorly - cemented sands extending to depths of several miles. The region 's geology developed from stream deposits from the erosion of the Rocky Mountains. These sediments consist of a series of sands and clays deposited on decaying organic matter that, over time, were transformed into oil and natural gas. Beneath these tiers is a water - deposited layer of halite, a rock salt. The porous layers were compressed over time and forced upward. As it pushed upward, the salt dragged surrounding sediments into dome shapes, often trapping oil and gas that seeped from the surrounding porous sands. The region is earthquake - free. While the neighboring city of Houston contains 86 mapped and historically active surface faults with an aggregate length of 149 miles (240 km), the clay below the surface precludes the buildup of friction that produces ground shaking in earthquakes. These faults move only very gradually in what is termed "fault creep ''. Sugar Land 's climate is classified as being humid subtropical, featuring long, hot and humid summers, and mild to cool winters. The city is located in the gulf coastal plains biome, and the vegetation is classified as a temperate grassland. The average yearly precipitation is 48 inches. Prevailing winds are from the south and southeast during most of the year, bringing heat and moisture from the Gulf of Mexico. In the summer time, daily high temperatures are in the 95 ° F (35 ° C) range throughout much of July and August. The air tends to feel still and the abundant humidity, with dewpoints typically in the low to mid 70s, creates a heat index around 100 each day. Summer thunderstorms are common with 1 / 3 to 1 / 2 of the days hearing thunder. The highest temperature recorded in the area was 109 ° F in September 2000. Winters in the Houston area are cool and temperate. The average winter high / low is 62 ° F / 45 ° F (16 ° C / 7 ° C). The coldest period is usually in January, when north winds bring winter rains. Snow is almost unheard of and typically does not accumulate when it is seen. One such rare snowstorm hit Houston on Christmas Eve 2004. A few inches accumulated, but was all gone by the next afternoon. But the earliest snowfall to occur in any winter did happen on December 4, 2009 and also meant that snow fell for 2 consecutive years for the first time since records were held. Sugar Land was ranked as one of the "Top Cities in Texas '' for business relocation and expansion by both Outlook Magazine and Texas Business. Industries calling Sugar Land home are as diverse as its resident population. Like the rest of the Greater Houston area, there is a large energy industry presence, specifically petroleum exploration and refining. Sugar Land holds the headquarters to Fortune 500 company CVR Energy, Inc. (NYSE: CVI), Western Airways, and NalcoChampion 's Energy Services division. CVR Energy was listed as the city 's only resident 2012 Fortune 500 company and was ranked No. 5 public company, according to the Houston Chronicle. Sugar Land also has a large number of international energy, software, engineering, and product firms. Sugar Land is home to the headquarters of the Imperial Sugar Company. It was once the home of the company 's main (and sole) refinery and distribution center. The refinery and distribution center have been put out of operation since 2003. Schlumberger moved its Houston - area offices from 5000 Gulf Freeway in Houston to a campus in Sugar Land in 1995. This 33 - acre (13 ha) campus is at the northeast corner of U.S. Highway 90A and Gillingham Lane. As of 2015 Schlumberger was the second largest employer in the city. In 2015 Schlumberger announced that it was moving its U.S. corporate headquarters to the Sugar Land facility from a Houston office building. The company plans to build new buildings with a scheduled completion time of late 2017. They include a total of 250,000 square feet (23,000 m) of Class A office space and an "amenities '' building with 100,000 square feet (9,300 m) of space. Minute Maid opened its headquarters in Sugar Land Town Square in First Colony on February 16, 2009; previously it was headquartered in 2000 St. James Place in Houston. In 1989 BMC Software had plans to lease 120,000 square feet (11,000 m) in One Sugar Creek Place in Sugar Land. In 1991 BMC leased about 120,000 square feet (11,000 m) at the Sugar Creek National Bank Building and about 16,000 square feet (1,500 m) in the Fluor Daniel Building, both in Sugar Land. BMC planned to vacate both Sugar Land facilities when its current headquarters, located in Westchase, opened; BMC 's headquarters were scheduled to open in 1993. According to the city 's 2015 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the largest employers in the city are: Sugar Land operates under the Council - Manager form of government. Under this system, Council appoints the city manager, who acts as the chief executive officer of the government. The city manager carries out policy and administers city programs. All department heads, including the city attorney, police chief and fire chief, are ultimately responsible to the city manager. Some of the strengths of the Council - Manager form of government as opposed to a strong mayor form of government include: all councilmembers have equal rights, obligations and opportunities, the power is assigned to the council as a whole, and the city manager must be responsive in providing day - to - day services to citizens. Sugar Land has had three city managers since instituting the Council - Manager form of government in 1986: The average tenure for municipal and county managers is 7.4 years. The City of Sugar Land 's last two city managers have an average tenure of over 13 years. The longevity of Sugar Land 's city managers indicates stability in the Council - Manager form of government. Sugar Land 's composition of the City Council consists of a Mayor, four councilmembers to be elected by single - member districts and two councilmembers by at - large position. All city council positions are officially nonpartisan. The current city hall is a part of the Sugar Land Town Square development in First Colony. Prior to the opening of the current city hall, city hall was located at 10405 Corporate Drive, which currently houses the Sugar Land Fire Department offices. There have been nine mayors of Sugar Land: Politically, Sugar Land is widely seen as one of the most heavily Republican areas in Greater Houston. Sugar Land 's city council is officially non-partisan; all of its current elected officeholders are endorsed Republicans. In the United States House of Representatives, Sugar Land is located in District 22 which is currently represented by Republican Pete Olson, a former chief of staff to U.S. Senator John Cornyn. The district is a notable one, as it was previously held by former House Majority Leader Tom DeLay from 1985 until his 2006 resignation which eventually forced Republicans to run a write - in campaign, and by current congressman (in the adjacent 14th District) and 2008 Republican presidential candidate Ron Paul in 1976 and from 1979 until 1985. In the Texas Legislature, most of Sugar Land is represented in District 17 of the Texas Senate, which is represented by Republican Joan Huffman. Some western segments of the city and its extraterritorial jurisdiction, including the master - planned communities of New Territory, Greatwood, River Park and Telfair, are situated in District 18, represented by Republican Glenn Hegar, a candidate for Texas State Comptroller in the Republican primary election scheduled for March 4, 2014. In the Texas House of Representatives, Sugar Land is located in District 26, which is represented by the conservative Republican Rick Miller, a retired United States Navy officer and Sugar Land businessman. The Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) operates the Jester State Prison Farm complex (Jester I, Vance, Jester III, and Jester IV) in an unincorporated area near Sugar Land. The TDCJ operated the Central Unit in Sugar Land. The Central Unit was the only state prison within the city limits of Sugar Land. The Sugar Land Distribution Center, a TDCJ men 's correctional supply warehouse, was inside the Central Unit compound. In 2011 the TDCJ announced that the prison was closing and would be vacant by the end of August of that year. With the prison 's closing, Sugar Land became the first Texas city to have its state prison close without a replacement facility. The United States Postal Service operates the Sugar Land Post Office at 225 Matlage Way and the First Colony Post Office at 3130 Grants Lake Boulevard. As of the census of 2010, there were 78,817 people, 26,709 households, and 21,882 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,432.6 people per square mile (939.4 / km). There were 27,727 housing units at an average density of 855.8 per square mile (330.5 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 52.0 % White, 7.4 % African American, 0.2 % Native American, 35.3 % Asian, 0.04 % Pacific Islander, 2.3 % other races, and 2.8 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10.6 % of the population. There were 26,709 households out of which 40.7 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 70.0 % were married couples living together, 8.6 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 18.1 % were non-families. 15.6 % of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.3 % were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.90, and the average family size was 3.25. In the city, the population was spread out with 24.6 % under the age of 18, 7.5 % from 18 to 24, 23.4 % from 25 to 44, 34.0 % from 45 to 64, and 10.4 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41.2 years. For every 100 females there were 98.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.6 males. According to the 2014 American Community Survey, the median income for a household in the city was $115,069, and the median income for a family was $132,534. Male full - time workers had a median income of $98,892 versus $60,053 for females. The per capita income for the city was $48,653. About 6.4 % of families and 9.9 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.5 % of those under age 18 and 5.5 % of those age 65 or over. Sugar Land has the highest concentration of Asians in Texas. Altogether, 35.3 % of the city 's population is Asian; 10.7 % is Asian Indian, 11.5 % is Chinese, 4.5 % is Vietnamese and 2 % is Filipino. As of 2013, about one - third of the Asian population was Indian American, according to Harish Jajoo, a city council member of Indian origin. The Sugar Land area has Indian grocery stores, temples, several mosques and an Ismaili Center. Jajoo stated that the quality of the jobs, schools, and parks attracts people of Indian origin to Sugar Land. Catholics account for over 30 % of the city population with 11,998 households registered by St. Laurence, St. Thomas Aquinas, and St. Theresa parishes. Sugar Land has a largely white - collar, university - educated workforce employed in Houston 's energy industry. In 2004, the city was named one of the top 100 places to live, according to HomeRoute, a national real estate marketing company which identifies top American cities each year through its Relocate - America program. Cities are selected based on educational opportunities, crime rates, employment and housing data. The magazine started with statistics on 271 U.S. cities provided by OnBoard LLC, a real estate information company. These cities had the highest median household incomes in the nation and above average population growth. Sugar Land was awarded the title of "Fittest City in Texas '' for the population range 50,000 -- 100,000 in 2004, 2005 (in a tie with Round Rock) and 2006. The "Fittest City in Texas '' program is a part of the Texas Roundup program, a statewide fitness initiative. Local sports are popular both at the recreational and competitive levels. Sugar Land formed its first community swim team, the Sugar Land Sharks, in 1967, and it is still competing as of 2016. Sugar Land is the home of the Sugar Land Skeeters minor - league baseball team, founded in 2010, and their new stadium, Constellation Field. Sugar Land Town Square serves as the primary entertainment district in Sugar Land and Fort Bend County. The district offers an array of restaurants, sidewalk cafes, shopping venues, a Marriott Hotel and conference center, mid-rise offices and homes, a public plaza, and Sugar Land City Hall. Festivals and important events take place in the plaza. The new city hall and public plaza, a cornerstone of Sugar Land Town Square, received the "Best Community Impact '' award from the Houston Business Journal at the fifth annual Landmark Awards ceremony. Next door to the district is First Colony Mall, a major regional shopping mall that recently expanded from its original indoor design to include an outdoor lifestyle component, several parking garages, and new signage that blends in with the surrounding area. The mall is anchored by two Dillard 's stores, Macy 's, JCPenney, and Barnes & Noble, along with over 130 stores. Sugar Land also hosts the Sugar Land Ice and Sports Center (formerly Sugar Land Aerodrome), offers ice skating and hockey lessons. It is open to the public as an ice skating facility. Previously, it served as the practice facility for the Houston Aeros of the American Hockey League. Once a year a music festival called Teenstock is held, which showcases various bands from the area. It is sponsored by the First Colony Association. In May 2016, two sculptures in the Town Square 's public plaza were installed as part of a 10 - piece collection donated by a Sugar Land resident to the city through the Sugar Land Legacy Foundation. One of the statues, which depicts two girls taking a selfie, has received criticism and acclaim from the media and general public. Sugar Land has the most master - planned communities in Fort Bend County, which is home to the largest number of master - planned communities in the nation -- including Greatwood, First Colony, Sugar Creek, River Park, Riverstone, New Territory, Telfair, and many others. Many of the communities feature golf courses, country clubs, and lakes. The first master - planned community to be developed in Sugar Land was Sugar Creek. There are now a total of thirteen master - planned communities located in Sugar Land 's city limits and its extraterritorial jurisdiction combined. The northern portion of Sugar Land, sometimes referred to by residents and government officials as "Old Sugar Land '', comprises all the communities north of U.S. Highway 90A, but it also includes the subdivisions / areas of Venetian Estates, and Belknap / Brookside, which is just south of U.S. 90A. Most of this area was the original city limits of Sugar Land when it was incorporated in 1959. Located in this part of town is the former Imperial Sugar Company refinery and distribution center that was shut down in 2003. The headquarters are still located within the city. To the east of northern Sugar Land is the Sugar Land Business Park. Many of the electronic and energy companies are located here. Sugar Land Business Park is the largest business and industrial area in the city. The largest economic and entertainment activities are in the areas of south and southeastern Sugar Land. Most of the population in the city limits are concentrated here. This area is all master - planned communities and it includes nearly all of First Colony, the largest in Sugar Land encompassing 10,000 acres (40 km). Other master - planned communities in this area are Sugar Creek, Sugar Lakes, Commonwealth, Avalon, Telfair, and Riverstone. This area is the location of First Colony Mall, Sugar Land Town Square, new Sugar Land City Hall, and other major commercial areas. This area boasts a wide range of recreational activities including three golf courses and country clubs. Another recreational facility in the area is the Sugar Land Ice & Sports Center (formerly Sugar Land Aerodrome). Most of the southwestern area of Sugar Land is outside the city limits, within the extraterritorial jurisdiction of the city. This area is sometimes referred to as the "other side of the river '' because it is separated from the rest of Sugar Land 's ETJ and the city itself by the Brazos River. All of this area is in the Lamar Consolidated Independent School District. This area has two master - planned communities, Greatwood and River Park. Other communities in this area are Canyon Gate on the Brazos, still in development, and Tara Colony, an older large subdivision which has a Richmond address but is actually in the extraterritorial jurisdiction of Sugar Land and is up for future annexation. The western portion of Sugar Land is partially in the city limits and partially in the extraterritorial jurisdiction. It is home to the 2,200 - acre (890 ha) master - planned community of New Territory and the upcoming 2,018 - acre (817 ha) development, Telfair. All of the land of what is now the upcoming Telfair community was a prison farm land owned by the Texas Department of Criminal Justice. It was sold in 2003 and annexed to the city limits by Sugar Land in 2004. A new highway, State Highway 99, opened in 1994 as a major arterial in this area. North of this area and north of U.S. Highway 90A is the Sugar Land Regional Airport and the Texas Department of Correction, Central Unit. Lakeview Auditorium, located on the campus of Lakeview Elementary School, is the oldest public building still standing in the area. Originally one of eleven buildings that composed the campus of the old Sugar Land Independent School District, the auditorium was a focal point for a vibrant and growing community. The stately auditorium still stands today and is a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark, as of 2002. In 1912, Imperial Sugar Company built a small building at the corner of Wood Street and Lakeview Drive (then known as Third Street) to serve as a school. The original campus consisted of 11 buildings arranged in a semicircle with the large, airy auditorium in the center. The buildings were connected by a covered walkway supported by large, white columns. There was a circular driveway for buses and automobiles. All the buildings were finished in white stucco on the outside and had large windows that allowed fresh air to circulate and cool the buildings. The auditorium was a hub of community activity. Sugar Land currently does not have a mass transit system. However, this could change as it has been a possible candidate for expansion of Houston 's METRORail system by means of a planned commuter rail along U.S. Highway 90A. Since many of Sugar Land 's residents work in Houston, thus creating routine rush hour traffic along two of the city 's main thoroughfares, U.S. Highways 59 and 90A, there has been large support in the area for such a project. It should be noted, however, that the city is not a participant in the Houston area 's METRO transit authority; Sugar Land 's merchants do not collect the one - cent sales tax that helps support that agency. Fort Bend County Public Transportation provides commuter service from Sugar Land to Houston. Interstate 69 / U.S. Highway 59, the major freeway running diagonally through the city, has undergone a major widening project in recent years to accommodate the region 's daily commuters. The finished portion of the freeway from east of State Highway 6 to just west of State Highway 99 currently has eight main lanes, with two diamond lanes and six continuous frontage road lanes. U.S. Highway 90 Alternate is a major highway running through Sugar Land from west to east and traverses a historic area of the city, known as "Old Sugar Land ''. U.S. Highway 90A is currently widened to an eight - lane highway with a 30 - foot (9.1 m) median between State Highway 6 and Interstate 69 / U.S. Highway 59. State Highway 6 is a major highway running from north to southeast Sugar Land and traverses through the 10,000 acres (40 km) master - planned community of First Colony. There is a freeway section that opened in 2008 from just west of Brooks Street / First Colony Blvd all the way to 3 / 4 miles north of U.S. Highway 90A. A segment of State Highway 99 / Grand Parkway currently traverses the New Territory and River Park master - planned communities. The original highway opened in 1994, with toll lanes added in 2014. Construction will start soon south of its current terminus at Interstate 69 / US 59. Texas F.M. 1876, widely known as Eldridge Road, is a north - south state highway in north Sugar Land. It traverses through many established areas and acts as the western border of the Sugar Land Business Park. Sugar Land Regional Airport (formerly Hull Field, later Sugar Land Municipal Airport) was purchased from a private interest in 1990 by the city of Sugar Land. It is the fourth largest airport within the Houston - Sugar Land - Baytown metropolitan area. The airport handles approximately 250 aircraft operations per day. The airport has an on - field United States Customs office, making this airport attractive to energy companies based in the Houston metropolitan area as this allows flights directly to and from countries wherein overseas operations are located, allowing fliers to avoid the delays inherent in high traffic airports such as George Bush Intercontinental. The airport today serves the area 's general aviation (GA) aircraft serving corporate, governmental, and private clientele. A new 20,000 - square - foot (1,900 m) terminal and a 60 - acre (24 ha) GA complex opened in 2006. Sugar Land Regional briefly handled commercial passenger service during the mid-1990s via a now - defunct Texas carrier known as Conquest Airlines. For scheduled commercial service, Sugar Landers rely on Houston 's two commercial airports, George Bush Intercontinental Airport (IAH), 40 miles (64 km) northeast, and William P. Hobby Airport (HOU), 27 miles (43 km) east. The city of Houston maintains a park that occupies 750 acres (300 ha) of land directly north of the Sugar Land Regional Airport, and developers have built master - planned communities (Telfair, and the future development of TX DOT Tract 3 immediately east of the airport) around the airport, both factors that block airport expansion. China Airlines operated private bus shuttle services from Wel - Farm Super Market / Metro Bank on State Highway 6 in Sugar Land to George Bush Intercontinental Airport to feed the flight from Bush Intercontinental to Taipei, Taiwan. The service ended when China Airlines pulled out of Houston on January 29, 2008. The Wharton County Junior College and branch campus of the University of Houston are both located in Sugar Land. Wharton County Junior College (WCJC) is a comprehensive community college offering a wide range of postsecondary educational programs and services including associate degrees, certificates, and continuing - education courses. The college prepares students interested in transferring to baccalaureate - granting institutions. All public school systems in Texas are administered by the Texas Education Agency (TEA). The Fort Bend Independent School District (FBISD) is the school district that serves almost all of the city of Sugar Land; it formed in 1959 by the consolidation of Missouri City Independent School District and the Sugar Land Independent School District. The southwest portion of Sugar Land 's extraterritorial jurisdiction (ETJ) and some very small areas within the Sugar Land city limits are in the Lamar Consolidated Independent School District (LCISD). LCISD serves the master - planned communities of Greatwood and River Park. Other communities in the ETJ served by Lamar Consolidated include Canyon Gate at the Brazos and Tara Colony. Both John Foster Dulles High School and Clements High School are in Sugar Land and Stephen F. Austin High School is in unincorporated Fort Bend County (and serving Sugar Land). These schools of the Fort Bend ISD have been recognized by Texas Monthly magazine in its list of the top high schools in the state of Texas. Dulles offers college preparatory classes such as Organic Chemistry and Multivariable Calculus to the students who are in their Math and Science academy. Dulles has had 64 National AP Scholars in the past 2 years; with a majority from the academy that started in 2010. In addition, Dulles, Clements and Stephen F. Austin high schools ranked among the top 1000 schools in the United States by Newsweek 's 2009 report. Prior to 1959 Sugar Land High School, which merged into Dulles that year, served the city. At the time FBISD formed, white students attended an elementary school in Sugar Land, a junior high school in Sugar Land, and a high school site in Missouri City. The elementary and junior high campus now houses Lakeview Elementary School and the high school site now houses Missouri City Middle School. Dulles High School became the zoned high school for white students in FBISD. Black students in Sugar Land for grades 1 - 12 were served by M.R. Wood School, one of FBISD 's three schools for black children. Racial desegregation occurred in 1965; Dulles became the only zoned high school for students of all races in FBISD until Willowridge High School opened in 1979. In 2007, Texas won the national Mathcounts championship. The Texas Mathcounts team had two members from First Colony Middle School in Sugar Land, Kevin Chen (who also took the individual national championship) and Bobby Shen (ranked 13th, the highest scoring sixth grader). The coach, Jeffrey Boyd, was also from Sugar Land. They repeated their victory in 2008, with Jeff Boyd as their coach again. Bobby Shen coming in 2nd at final Countdown, and won 1st in Written and Masters Rounds. In 2009, Bobby Shen came 3rd place in Written and won final Countdown and was crowned with 2009 MATHCOUNTS national champion, and the Texas team with Lilly Shen and Coach Boyd, won for the third year in a row. There are many private schools in Sugar Land and the surrounding area of all types: non-sectarian, Catholic, and Protestant. The Texas Education Agency has no authority over private school operations; private schools may or may not be accredited, and achievement tests are not required for private school graduating seniors. Many private schools will obtain accreditation and perform achievement tests as a means of demonstrating that the school is genuinely interested in educational performance. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston - Houston operates St. Theresa Catholic School, a K - 8 private classical Catholic school, and St. Laurence School, a K - 8 private Catholic school, in Sugar Land, and Pope John XXIII High School in unincorporated Harris County east of the neighboring suburb of Katy. The Fort Bend Christian Academy, formerly known as Fort Bend Baptist Academy, is also located in Sugar Land. The Darul Arqam Schools Southwest Campus is located in Houston, near Sugar Land. Residents of Sugar Land are served by the Fort Bend County Libraries system, which has 11 libraries. There are three branches within the city: Sugar Land Branch, First Colony Branch, and University Branch in the University of Houston Campus. A portion of the 1974 movie, The Sugarland Express, takes place in Sugar Land. Many of the movie 's earliest scenes were filmed at the nearby Beauford H. Jester prison pre-release center. Other parts of the set were filmed in and around Sugar Land. The movie 's title parses the name of the city as one word rather than two. It was among Steven Spielberg 's first films before he became famous. The film was the first theatrical feature film directed by Spielberg. In 2010, The Legend of Action Man was filmed in Sugar Land. The film was produced by Dingoman Productions, a sketch comedy group formed by Sugar Land residents Andy Young, Derek Papa & James McEnelly that got their start attending Austin High School together. The story takes place in the Sugar Land area and makes use of many of the landmarks there. Action Man is famous for being one of the least expensive films ever made, made on a budget of $200. Director Andy Young has written about the experience for Moviemaker Magazine. Folk musician Lead Belly 's song "Midnight Special '' discusses his arrest in Houston and his stay at the Sugar Land Prison (now the Beauford H. Jester pre-release Center) in 1925. "If you 're ever down in Houston, Boy, you better walk right. And you better not squabble. And you better not fight. Bason and Brock will arrest you. Payton and Boone will take you down. You can bet your bottom dollar, That you 're Sugar Land bound. '' Country music band Sugarland gets its name from the city. They reference it in their song "Sugarland. '' Bruce Springsteen recorded but did not release a song called "Sugar Land, '' about the economic crisis facing American agriculture in the 1980s. The primary newspaper serving Sugar Land residents is the Houston Chronicle, which is the only major newspaper in the Greater Houston region. On Thursdays, the Houston Chronicle offers a localized segment covering the Sugar Land area under its "Fort Bend '' section. An alternative newspaper, the Houston Press, is also offered in this area. Additionally, Sugar Land residents receive local area news coverage via FortBendNow, which covers local news and political happenings in the Sugar Land area. Residents also are served by three free weekly newspapers, the Fort Bend Independent, the Fort Bend - Southwest Star, and the Sugar Land Sun. The Fort Bend Herald and Texas Coaster, a daily newspaper covering primarily the Richmond - Rosenberg area west of Sugar Land, also covers news stories in Sugar Land. Over-the - air television in Sugar Land is broadcast in the Houston television market, which is the tenth - largest market in the United States according to Nielsen Media Research. The city is also served by a citywide Public - access television cable TV channel 16, which covers city council meetings, planning and zoning meetings, community events, FBISD board meetings, and Fort Bend County Commissioners ' Court meetings. The vast majority of cable subscribers in the Sugar Land area are served by Comcast, which took over from Time Warner. Other cable options include AT&T Home Entertainment, En - Touch Systems (which covers the River Park West and Telfair areas of the city), Phonoscope Cable, TVMAX, and Ygnition (the latter two of which cover cable subscribers in multifamily housing developments). Sugar Land is the setting in the new Lifetime series, The Client List starring Jennifer Love Hewitt. Hewitt 's character lives in Beaumont, but commutes to Sugar Land to work at a scandalous massage parlor. For a complete listing, see list of cities and towns in Houston -- The Woodlands -- Sugar Land MSA

linkin park leave out all the rest release date

Leave Out All the Rest - wikipedia "Leave Out All the Rest '' is a song by the American rock band Linkin Park, which was released as the fifth and final single from their third album Minutes to Midnight. Because of the song 's popularity of digital sales during the release week of the album, it charted in the Billboard Pop 100 for that week. On the album, the song segues into "Bleed It Out ''. The single was released on July 15, 2008. The song 's working titles were "Fear '' and "When My Time Comes '' according to the booklet. While writing, the group went through over thirty lyrical variations before completing the album version. The song combines various synths and samples with raw guitars and drums and powerful vocals. A demo which features Mike Shinoda doing lead vocals can be heard on the Making of Minutes to Midnight documentary, as well as the Linkin Park Underground 9.0 CD where it is entitled "Fear ''. The song starts with a string sample and electric piano intro, followed by the verse. At the end of the song of the album version, a crowd can be heard which leads into "Bleed It Out '', a song that features the background sound of a crowd throughout. In a Kerrang! review / interview of the band, and the album, vocalist Chester Bennington had this to say about the song, "We knew this was going to be a single from the very beginning, so we worked really hard on making sure it had great lyrics. I 'm singing ' Pretending someone else can come and save me from myself ' during it because it 's supposed to feel like an apology letter, as though I 'm moving on but I want people to remember the good things and not the bad things. A lot of the song is about humility. '' Mike Shinoda has also stated that Rick Rubin (producer for Minutes to Midnight) was the first to have said "This sounds like a massive single ''. The intro to the song was featured on an English advert for the US television series Law & Order for Sky One. It was also featured on the original motion picture soundtrack for the 2008 film Twilight. It is played during the end credits. Also, the performance from "Road to Revolution '' is available on the Twilight special edition DVD. "Leave Out All the Rest '' was the title of a CSI episode that aired on November 6, 2008. The band made a deal with CBS to work the song into the episode. It contained several elements of the song throughout, and pieces of the verses, as well as the chorus, were played at the opening and end of the episode. In 2011 the German action - series Alarm für Cobra 11 used a part of the song (the chorus) in an especially sad scene, it was the fifth time that a Linkin Park title was used in the series. In an interview with MTV, Mike said that the video, directed by bandmate Joe Hahn, takes place in a futuristic, science fiction influenced setting, and depicts what the daily life of the band 's members would be like if they lived in outer space. The band lives in a rundown, artificial habitat that is making its way across the galaxy. At first, they are seen passing the time performing mundane tasks, but then gravity is lost on board the vessel, sending the members floating into what looks like the Sun or a star. The video features no performance footage, though Chester Bennington is seen singing during most of his solo scenes. The video has respectively been influenced by the British movie Sunshine, borrowing similar imagery and a similar concept. Hahn said: We 're explorers in space, just like when we go on tour. We 're leaving our home life behind, and I guess it kind of ties into ' Leave Out All the Rest ', in that we have to leave things behind in order to do something better. The video leaked on May 30, 2008, the same day the band released a statement on their widget at MySpace, saying that the premiere for the video would be on June 2, 2008. It featured in the top ten songs of the week on VH1. While playing a show in Germany (München) in June 2008, Shinoda spoke with Warner Bros. Records Germany and they told him that the music video they 've made for "Leave Out All the Rest '' was not going to be released just yet due to the high success for the single "Given Up '' in Germany. He later told this to the fans at the show. The song managed to spend one week on the Billboard Pop 100 without being officially released as a single, at # 98. The song debuted on the US Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks at # 35 and peaked at # 11. It is one of Linkin Park 's lowest charting songs in the UK to date, peaking at # 90, as well as on the Billboard Modern Rock chart, peaking at only # 11. "Leave Out All the Rest '' debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at # 99 and the Billboard Hot Digital Songs at # 72. The single would later peak on the Billboard Hot 100 at # 94. Despite its mediocre chart performance, the single was still certified Gold by the RIAA in 2009, and later reached Platinum in 2017. All tracks written by Linkin Park. All tracks written by Linkin Park. All tracks written by Linkin Park.

who won the us open women's doubles

List of US Open Women 's Doubles champions - wikipedia The following pairings won the US Open tennis championship at Women 's Doubles. US Open other competitions Grand Slam women 's doubles

what was the first song to be played on radio 1

BBC Radio 1 - Wikipedia HTTP Streams HLS Streams MPEG DASH Streams BBC Radio 1 is a British radio station operated by the British Broadcasting Corporation which also broadcasts internationally, specialising in modern and current popular music and chart hits throughout the day. Radio 1 provides alternative genres after 7 pm, including electronic dance, hip hop, rock, indie or interviews. It was launched in 1967 to meet the demand for music generated by pirate radio stations, when the average age of the UK population was 27. Recently, the BBC claimed that it still targets the 15 -- 29 age group, although the average age of its UK audience in 2008 had risen to 33. BBC Radio 1 started 24 - hour broadcasting on 1 May 1991. Radio 1 was established in 1967 (along with the more middle of the road BBC Radio 2) as a successor to the BBC Light Programme, which had broadcast popular music and other entertainment since 1945. Radio 1 was conceived as a direct response to the popularity of offshore pirate radio stations such as Radio Caroline and Radio London, which had been outlawed by Act of Parliament. Radio 1 was launched at 6: 55 am on Saturday 30 September 1967. Broadcasts were on 247 metres (1215 kHz) medium wave, using a network of transmitters which had carried the Light Programme. Most were of comparatively low power, at less than 50 kilowatts, leading to patchy coverage of the country. The first disc jockey to broadcast on the new station was Tony Blackburn, whose cheery style, first heard on Radio Caroline and Radio London, won him the prime slot on what became known as the "Radio 1 Breakfast Show ''. The first words on Radio 1 -- after a countdown by the Controller of Radios 1 and 2, Robin Scott, and a jingle, recorded at PAMS in Dallas, Texas, beginning "The voice of Radio 1 '' -- were: And, good morning everyone. Welcome to the exciting new sound of Radio 1. This was the first use of US - style jingles on BBC radio, but the style was familiar to listeners who were acquainted with Blackburn and other DJs from their days on pirate radio. The reason jingles from PAMS were used was that the Musicians ' Union would not agree to a single fee for the singers and musicians if the jingles were made "in - house '' by the BBC; they wanted repeat fees each time one was played. The first music to be heard on the station was "Theme One '', specially composed for the launch by George Martin. It was followed by an extract from "Beefeaters '' by Johnny Dankworth. The first complete record played on Radio 1 was "Flowers in the Rain '' by The Move. The second single was "Massachusetts '' by The Bee Gees. The breakfast show remains the most prized slot in the Radio 1 schedule, with every change of breakfast show presenter exciting considerable media interest. The initial rota of staff included John Peel and a gaggle of others, some transferred from pirate stations, such as Keith Skues, Ed Stewart, Mike Raven, David Ryder, Jim Fisher, Jimmy Young, Dave Cash, Kenny Everett, Simon Dee, Terry Wogan, Duncan Johnson, Doug Crawford, Tommy Vance, Chris Denning, Emperor Rosko, Pete Murray, and Bob Holness. Many of the most popular pirate radio voices, such as Simon Dee, had only a one - hour slot per week ("Midday Spin. '') Initially, the station was unpopular with some of its target audience who, it is claimed, disliked the fact that much of its airtime was shared with Radio 2 and that it was less unequivocally aimed at a young audience than the offshore stations, with some DJs such as Jimmy Young being in their 40s. The very fact that it was part of an "establishment '' institution such as the BBC was a turn - off for some, and needle time restrictions prevented it from playing as many records as offshore stations had. It also had limited finances (partly because the BBC did not increase its licence fee to fund the new station) and often, as in January 1975, suffered disproportionately when the BBC had to make financial cutbacks, strengthening an impression that it was regarded as a lower priority by senior BBC executives. Despite this, it gained massive audiences, becoming the most listened - to station in the world with audiences of over 10 million claimed for some of its shows (up to 20 million for some of the combined Radio 1 and Radio 2 shows). In the early - mid-1970s Radio 1 presenters were rarely out of the British tabloids, thanks to the Publicity Department 's high - profile work. The touring summer live broadcasts called the Radio 1 Roadshow -- usually as part of the BBC ' Radio Weeks ' promotions that took Radio 1, 2 and 4 shows on the road -- drew some of the largest crowds of the decade. The station undoubtedly played a role in maintaining the high sales of 45 rpm single records although it benefited from a lack of competition, apart from Radio Luxembourg and Manx Radio in the Isle of Man. (Independent Local Radio did not begin until October 1973 and took many years to cover virtually all of the UK). Alan Freeman 's ' Saturday Rock Show ' was voted ' Best Radio Show ' five years running by readers of a national music publication, and was then axed by controller Derek Chinnery. Annie Nightingale, who joined in 1970, was Britain 's first female DJ and is now the longest serving presenter, having constantly evolved her musical tastes with the times. On Thursday 23 November 1978 the station moved to two new medium wave frequencies (275m and 285m) which allowed a major increase in transmitter powers and improved coverage of the UK. 247 metres was passed to Radio 3. The station was on medium wave only until the early 80s, when it took over the Radio 2 FM frequency for a number of hours on weekend afternoons and late weekday evenings. Eventually the BBC set up an FM channel specifically for Radio 1 and after a number of years of parallel broadcasting, relinquished the medium wave frequencies. In his last few months as controller, Johnny Beerling commissioned a handful of new shows that in some ways set the tone for what was to come under Matthew Bannister. One of these "Loud'n'proud '' was the UK 's first national radio series aimed at a gay audience (made in Manchester and was aired from August 1993). Far from being a parting quirk, the show was a surprise hit and led to the network 's first coverage of the large outdoor Gay Pride event in 1994. Bannister took the reins fully in October 1993. His aim was to rid the station of its ' Smashie and Nicey ' image and make it appeal to the under 25s. Although originally launched as a youth station, by the early 1990s, its loyal listeners (and DJs) had aged with the station over its 25 - year history. Many long - standing DJs, such as Simon Bates, Dave Lee Travis, Alan Freeman, Bob Harris, Gary Davies, and later Steve Wright, Bruno Brookes and Johnnie Walker left the station or were sacked, and in January 1995 old music (typically anything recorded before 1990) was banned from the daytime playlist. Many listeners rebelled as the first new DJs to be introduced represented a crossover from other parts of the BBC (notably Bannister and Trevor Dann 's former colleagues at the BBC 's London station, GLR) with Emma Freud and Danny Baker. Another problem was that, at the time, Radio 2 was sticking resolutely to a format which appealed mainly to those who had been listening since the days of the Light Programme, and commercial radio, which was targeting the "Radio 1 and a half '' audience, consequently enjoyed a massive increase in its audience share at the expense of Radio 1. After the departure of Steve Wright, who had been unsuccessfully moved from his long - running afternoon show to the breakfast show in January 1994, Bannister hired Chris Evans to present the prime morning slot in April 1995. Evans was a popular but controversial presenter who was eventually sacked in 1997 after he demanded to present the breakfast show for only four days per week. Evans was replaced from 17 February 1997 by Mark and Lard -- Mark Radcliffe (along with his sidekick Marc Riley), who found the slick, mass - audience style required for a breakfast show did not come naturally to them. They were replaced by Zoë Ball and Kevin Greening eight months later in October 1997, with Greening moving on and leaving Ball as solo presenter. The reinvention of the station happened at a fortuitous time, with the rise of Britpop in the mid-90s -- bands like Oasis, Blur and Pulp were popular and credible at the time and the station 's popularity rose with them. Documentaries like John Peel 's "Lost in Music '' which looked at the influence that the use of drugs have had over popular musicians received critical acclaim but were slated inside Broadcasting House. Later in the 1990s the Britpop boom declined, and manufactured chart pop (boy bands and acts aimed at sub-teenagers) came to dominate the charts. New - genre music occupied the evenings (indie on weekdays and dance at weekends), with a mix of specialist shows and playlist fillers through late nights. The rise of rave culture through the late 1980s and early 1990s gave the station the opportunity to move into a controversial and youth - orientated movement by bringing in club DJ Pete Tong amongst others. There had been a dance music programme on Radio 1 since 1987 and Pete Tong was the second DJ to present an all dance music show. This quickly gave birth to the Essential Mix where underground DJs mix electronic and club based music in a two - hour slot. Dance music has been a permanent feature on Radio 1 since with club DJs such as Judge Jules, Danny Rampling and Seb Fontaine all having shows as well as Radio 1 hosting an annual weekend in Ibiza. Listening numbers continued to decline but the station succeeded in targeting a younger age - group and more cross gender groups. Eventually, this change in content was reflected by a rise in audience that is continuing to this day. Notably, the station has received praise for shows such as The Surgery with Aled, Bobby Friction and Nihal, The Evening Session with Steve Lamacq and its successor Zane Lowe. Its website has also been well received. However, the breakfast show and the UK Top 40 continued to struggle. In 2000, Zoë Ball was replaced in the mornings by friend and fellow ladette Sara Cox, but, despite heavy promotion, listening figures for the breakfast show continued to fall. In 2004 Cox was replaced by Chris Moyles. The newly rebranded breakfast show was known as The Chris Moyles Show and it increased its audience, ahead of The Today Programme on Radio 4 as the second most popular breakfast show (after The Chris Evans Breakfast Show hosted by Chris Evans). Moyles continued to use innovative ways to try to tempt listeners from the ' Wake up with Wogan ' show; in 2006, for example, creating a ' SAY NO TO WOGAN ' campaign live on - air. This angered the BBC hierarchy, though the row simmered down when it was clear that the ' campaign ' had totally failed to alter the listening trends of the time -- Wogan still increased figures at a faster rate than Moyles. The chart show 's ratings fell after the departure of long - time host Mark Goodier, amid falling single sales in the UK. Ratings for the show fell in 2002 whilst Goodier was still presenting the show, meaning that commercial radio 's Network Chart overtook it in the ratings for the first time. However, the BBC denied he was being sacked. Before July 2015, when the chart release day was changed to Friday, the BBC show competed with networked commercial radio 's The Big Top 40 Show which was broadcast at the same time. Many DJs either ousted by Bannister or who left during his tenure (such as Johnnie Walker, Bob Harris and Steve Wright) have joined Radio 2 which has now overtaken Radio 1 as the UK 's most popular radio station, using a style that Radio 1 had until the early 1990s. The success of Moyles ' show has come alongside increased success for the station in general. In 2006, DJs Chris Moyles, Scott Mills and Zane Lowe all won gold Sony Radio Awards, while the station itself came away with the best station award. A new evening schedule was introduced in September 2006, dividing the week by genre. Monday was mainly pop - funkrock - oriented, Tuesday was R&B and hip - hop, Thursdays and Fridays were primarily dance, with specialist R&B and reggae shows. Following the death of John Peel in October 2004, Annie Nightingale is now the longest serving presenter, having worked there since 1970. The licence - fee funding of Radio 1, alongside Radio 2, is often criticised by the commercial sector. In the first quarter of 2011 Radio 1 was part of an efficiency review conducted by John Myers. His role, according to Andrew Harrison, the chief executive of RadioCentre, was "to identify both areas of best practice and possible savings. '' The controller of Radio 1 and sister station 1Xtra changed to Ben Cooper on 28 October 2011, following the departure of Andy Parfitt. Ben Cooper answers to the Director of BBC Audio and Music, Tim Davie. On 7 December 2011, Ben Cooper 's first major changes to the station were announced. Skream & Benga, Toddla T, Charlie Sloth and Friction replaced Judge Jules, Gilles Peterson, Kissy Sell Out and Fabio & Grooverider. A number of shows were shuffled to incorporate the new line - up. On 28 February 2012, further changes were announced. Greg James and Scott Mills swapped shows and Jameela Jamil, Gemma Cairney and Danny Howard joined the station. The new line - up of DJs for In New DJs We Trust was also announced with B. Traits, Mosca, Jordan Suckley and Julio Bashmore hosting shows on a four weekly rotation. This new schedule took effect on Monday, 2 April 2012. In September 2012, Nick Grimshaw replaced Chris Moyles as host of "Radio 1 's Breakfast Show ''. Grimshaw previously hosted Mon - Thurs 10pm - Midnight, Weekend Breakfast and Sunday evenings alongside Annie Mac. Grimshaw was replaced by Phil Taggart and Alice Levine on the 10pm - Midnight show. In November 2012, another series of changes were announced. This included the departure of Reggie Yates and Vernon Kay. Jameela Jamil was announced as the new presenter of The Official Chart. Matt Edmondson moved to weekend mornings with Tom Deacon briefly replacing him on Wednesday nights. Dan Howell and Phil Lester, famous YouTubers and video bloggers, joined the station. The changes took effect in January 2013. Former breakfast presenter Sara Cox hosted her last show on Radio 1 in February 2014 before moving to Radio 2. In March 2014, Gemma Cairney left the weekend breakfast show to host the weekday early breakfast slot, swapping shows with Dev. In September 2014, Radio 1 operated a series of changes to their output which saw many notable presenters leave the station -- including Edith Bowman, Nihal and Rob da Bank. Huw Stephens gained a new show hosting 10 pm -- 1 am Monday -- Wednesday with Alice Levine presenting weekends 1 pm -- 4 pm. Radio 1 's Residency also expanded with Skream joining the rotational line - up on Thursday nights (10 pm -- 1 am). From December 2014 to April 2016, Radio 1 included a weekly late night show presented by a well known Internet personality called The Internet Takeover. Shows have been presented by various YouTubers such as Jim Chapman and Hannah Witton. In January 2015, Clara Amfo replaced Jameela Jamil as host of The Official Chart on Sundays (4 pm -- 7 pm) and in March, Zane Lowe left Radio 1 and was replaced by Annie Mac on the new music evening show. In May 2015, Fearne Cotton left the station after almost 10 years. Her weekday morning show was taken over by Clara Amfo. Adele Roberts also joined the weekday schedule line - up, hosting the Early Breakfast show. In July 2015, The Official Chart moved to a Friday from 4 pm to 5: 45 pm, hosted by Greg James. The move took place in order to take into account the changes to the release dates of music globally. Cel Spellman joined Radio 1 to host Sunday evenings (4 pm -- 7 pm). From inception for over 20 years, Radio 1 broadcast from an adjacent pair of continuity suites (originally Con A and Con B) in the main control room of Broadcasting House. These cons were configured to allow DJs to operate the equipment themselves and play their own records and jingle cartridges (called self - op). This was a departure from traditional BBC practice, where a studio manager would play in discs from the studio control cubicle. Due to needle time restrictions, much of the music was played from tapes of BBC session recordings. The DJs were assisted by one or more technical operators (TOs) who would set up tapes and control sound levels during broadcasts. In 1985, Radio 1 moved across the road from Broadcasting House to Egton House. The station moved to Yalding House in 1996, and Egton House was demolished in 2003 to make way for extension to Broadcasting House. This extension would eventually be renamed the Egton Wing, and then the Peel Wing. Until recently, the studios were located in the basement of Yalding House (near to BBC Broadcasting House) which is on Great Portland Street in central London. They used to broadcast from two main studios in the basement; Y2 and Y3 (there is also a smaller studio, YP1, used mainly for production). These two main studios (Y2 and Y3) are separated by the "Live Lounge '', although it is mainly used as an office; there are rarely live sets recorded from it, as Maida Vale Studios is used instead for larger set - ups. The studios are linked by webcams and windows through the "Live Lounge '', allowing DJs to see each other when changing between shows. Y2 is the studio from where The Chris Moyles Show was broadcast and is also the studio rigged with static cameras for when the station broadcasts on the "Live Cam ''. The station moved there in 1996 from Egton House. In December 2012, Radio 1 moved from Yalding House to new studios on the 8th floor of the new BBC Broadcasting House, Portland Place, just a few metres away from the "Peel Wing '', formerly the "Egton Wing '', which occupies the land on which Egton House previously stood: it was renamed the "Peel Wing '' in 2012 in honour of the long - serving BBC Radio 1 presenter, John Peel, who broadcast on the station from its launch in 1967 up until his death in 2004. Programmes have also regularly been broadcast from other regions, notably The Mark and Lard Show, broadcast every weekday from New Broadcasting House, Oxford Road, Manchester for over a decade (October 1993 -- March 2004) -- the longest regular broadcast on the network from outside the capital. Radio 1 originally broadcast on 1214 kHz medium wave (or 247 metres). On 23 November 1978, the station was moved to 1053 and 1089 kHz (275 and 285 m), but did not broadcast nationally on its own FM frequencies until late 1987. The BBC had been allocated three FM frequency ranges in 1955, for the then Light Programme (now BBC Radio 2), Third Programme (now BBC Radio 3) and Home Service (now BBC Radio 4) stations. Thus when Radio 1 was launched, there was no FM frequency range allocated for the station, the official reason being that there was no space, even though no commercial stations had yet launched on FM. Because of this, from launch until the end of the 1980s Radio 1 was allowed to take over Radio 2 's FM transmitters for a few hours per week. These were Saturday afternoons, Sunday teatime and evening -- most notably for the Top 40 Singles Chart on Sunday afternoons; 10 pm to midnight on weeknights including Sounds of the Seventies until 1975, and thereafter the John Peel show (Mon -- Thurs) and the Friday Rock Show; and most Bank Holiday afternoons, when Radio 2 was broadcasting a Bank Holiday edition of Sport on 2. To coincide with Radio 1 's 20th birthday, the first full - time FM broadcast began in the London area on 31 October 1987, at low power on 104.8 MHz. A year later the FM frequencies became national after the police communication allocation changed, freeing up what is known today as 97 -- 99 FM, which the BBC acquired. The rollout of Radio 1 on FM began on 1 September 1988, starting with Central Scotland, the Midlands and the north of England. A month later, to coincide with an extension of broadcast hours, Radio 1 stopped broadcasting on Radio 2 's FM frequencies on weeknights and on Sunday evenings and by 1990 all usage of Radio 2 's FM frequencies had ended. Radio 1 made great efforts to promote its new FM service, renaming itself on - air initially to ' Radio 1 FM ' and later as ' 1FM ' until 1995. The engineering programme was initially completed in 1995. The Conservative government decided to increase competition on AM and disallowed the simulcasting of services on both AM and FM, affecting both BBC and Independent Local Radio. Radio 1 's medium wave frequencies were reallocated to Independent National Radio. Radio 1 's last broadcast on MW was on 1 July 1994, with Stephen Duffy 's "Kiss Me '' being the last record played on MW just before 9 am. For those who continued to listen, just after 9 am, Radio 1 jingles were played in reverse chronological order ending with its first jingle from 30 September 1967. In the initial months after this closure a pre-recorded message with Mark Goodier was played to warn listeners that Radio 1 was now an "FM - only '' station. Around this time, Radio 1 began broadcasting on spare audio subcarriers on Sky Television 's analogue satellite service, initially in mono (on UK Gold) and later in stereo (on UK Living). The BBC launched its national radio stations on DAB digital radio in 1995, however the technology was expensive at the time and so was not marketed, instead used as a test for future technologies. DAB was "officially '' launched in 2002 as sets became cheaper. Today it can also be heard on UK digital TV services Freeview, Virgin Media, Sky and the Internet as well as FM. In July 2005, Sirius Satellite Radio began simulcasting Radio 1 across the United States as channel 11 on its own service and channel 6011 on Dish Network satellite TV. Sirius Canada began simulcasting Radio 1 when it was launched on 1 December 2005 (also on channel 11). The Sirius simulcasts were time shifted five hours to allow US and Canadian listeners in the Eastern Time Zone to hear Radio 1 at the same time of day as UK listeners. On 12 November 2008, Radio 1 made its debut on XM Satellite Radio in both the US and Canada on channel 29, moving to XM 15 and Sirius 15 on 4 May 2011. Until the full station was removed in August 2011, Radio 1 was able to be heard by approximately 20.6 million listeners in North America on satellite radio alone. BBC Radio 1 can be heard on cable in the Netherlands at 105.10 FM. At midnight on 9 August 2011, Sirius XM ceased carrying BBC Radio 1 programming with no prior warning. On 10 August 2011 the BBC issued the following statement: The BBC 's commercial arm BBC Worldwide has been in partnership with SIRIUS Satellite Radio to broadcast Radio 1 on their main network, since 2005. This agreement has now unfortunately come to an end and BBC Worldwide are in current discussions with the satellite radio station to find ways to continue to bring popular music channel, BBC Radio 1, to the US audience. We will keep you posted. Thousands of angry Sirius XM customers began a campaign on Facebook and other social media to reinstate BBC Radio 1 on Sirius XM Radio. One week later, Sirius and the BBC agreed on a new carriage agreement that saw Radio 1 broadcast on a time - shifted format on the Sirius XM Internet Radio platform only, on channel 815. The channel is still unavailable on the satellite platform of the service. Starting on 15 January 2012, The Official Chart Show began broadcasting on SiriusXM 20on20 channel 3, at 4 pm and 9 pm Eastern Standard Time. On 19 August 2014, SiriusXM again stopped carrying BBC Radio 1 programming with no advanced notice. The stream is no longer available on the Internet Radio platform. From 1999 until 2012, Radio 1 split the home nations for localised programming in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, to allow the broadcast of a showcase programme for regional talent. Most recently, these shows were under the BBC Introducing brand. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland had their own shows, which were broadcast on a 3 - week rotational basis in England. From January 2011 until June 2012, Scotland 's show was presented by Ally McCrae. Previously it was hosted by Vic Galloway (who also presents for BBC Radio Scotland); who had presented the show solo since 2004, after his original co-host Gill Mills departed. Wales 's show was hosted by Jen Long between January 2011 until May 2012. Previously Bethan Elfyn occupied the slot, who had at one time hosted alongside Huw Stephens, until Stephens left to join the national network, although he still broadcasts a show for Wales - a Welsh - language music show on BBC Radio Cymru on Thursday evenings) Phil Taggart presented the Northern Ireland programme between November 2011 and May 2012. The show was formerly presented by Rory McConnell. Before joining the national network, Colin Murray was a presenter on the Session in Northern Ireland, along with Donna Legge; after Murray 's promotion to the network Legge hosted alone for a time, and on her departure McConnell took her place. The regional opt - outs originally went out from 8 pm to 10 pm on Thursdays (the Evening Session 's time slot) and were known as the Session in the Nations (the ' Session ' tag was later dropped due to the demise of the Evening Session); they later moved to run from 7: 30 pm to 9 pm, with the first half - hour of Zane Lowe 's programme going out across the whole of the UK. On 18 October 2007 the regional programmes moved to a Wednesday night / Thursday morning slot from midnight to 2 am under the BBC Introducing banner, allowing Lowe 's Thursday show to be aired across the network; prior to this change Huw Stephens had presented the Wednesday midnight show nationally. In January 2011, BBC Introducing was moved to the new time slot of midnight to 2 am on Monday mornings, and the Scottish and Welsh shows were given new presenters in the form of Ally McCrae and Jen Long. The opt - outs were only available to listeners on the FM frequencies. Because of the way the DAB and digital TV services of Radio 1 are broadcast (a single - frequency network on DAB and a single broadcast feed of Radio 1 on TV platforms), the digital version of the station was not regionalised. The BBC Trust announced in May 2012 that the regional music programmes on Radio 1 would be replaced with a single programme offering a UK - wide platform for new music as part of a series of cost - cutting measures across the BBC. In June 2012, the regional shows ended and were replaced by a single BBC Introducing show presented by Jen Long and Ally McCrae. Because of its youth - orientated nature, Radio 1 plays a mix of current songs, including independent / alternative, rap, hip hop, rock, house, electronica, dance, drum and bass, dubstep and pop. Due to restrictions on the amount of commercial music that could be played on radio in the UK until 1988 (the "needle time '' limitation) the station has recorded many live performances. Studio sessions (recordings of about four tracks made in a single day), also supplemented the live music content, many them finding their way to commercially available LPs and CDs. The sessions recorded for John Peel 's late night programme are particularly renowned. The station also broadcasts documentaries and interviews. Although this type of programming arose from necessity it has given the station diversity. The needletime restrictions meant the station tended to have a higher level of speech by DJs. While the station is often criticised for "waffling '' by presenters, an experimental "more music day '' in 1988 was declared a failure after only a third of callers favoured it. Radio 1 has a public service broadcasting obligation to provide news, which it fulfills through Newsbeat bulletins throughout the day. Shared with 1Xtra, short news summaries are provided roughly hourly on the half - hour during daytime hours with two 15 - minute bulletins at 12: 45 pm and 5: 45 pm on weekdays. The main presenter is Chris Smith, with Tina Daheley presenting during Radio 1 's breakfast hours. In recent years, Radio 1 has aimed to include more of its content online in order to relate to the changing nature of its audience. Its YouTube channel now has over 3 million subscribers and many features and events are streamed on both that and the Radio 1 website. The station also has a heavy presence on social media, with audience interaction now occurring mainly through Facebook and Twitter as well as text messaging. It was announced in 2013 that Radio 1 had submitted plans to launch its own dedicated video channel on the BBC iPlayer where videos of live performances as well as some features and shows would be streamed in a central location. Plans were approved by the BBC Trust in November 2014 and the channel launched on 10 November 2014. Notable presenters include Clara Amfo, B. Traits, Benji B, Daniel P. Carter, Dev, Diplo, Matt Edmondson, Nick Grimshaw, Danny Howard, René LaVice, Annie Mac, Maya Jama, Greg James, Alice Levine, David Rodigan, Scott Mills, Annie Nightingale, Adele Roberts, Charlie Sloth, Cel Spellman, Huw Stephens, Toddla T, Phil Taggart, MistaJam, Katie Thistleton and Pete Tong BBC Radio 1 operates a system that separates all of the DJs between ' Day ' and ' Night ' DJs. The breakfast show has been presented by many famous names over the years. Currently this slot is broadcast between 6: 30 am and 10: 00 am, Monday to Friday and is hosted by Nick Grimshaw. BBC Radio 1 's chart show had aired the UK Singles Chart exclusively on Sunday afternoons since the programme began; but this was moved to Fridays in July 2015. Currently broadcasting from 4: 00 pm until 5: 45 pm, the format, length and starting time have varied over the years. For many years, the show prided itself on playing all 40 singles in the top 40 but this practice ended when Wes Butters took over as presenter in 2003; then only tracks below number 20 to be played were the new entries. The show took its current format on 10 July 2015, being presented by Greg James in his usual drive time slot. Random tracks from 40 - 11 are played and then the top 10 are played in full. Radio 1 provides alternative programming on some Bank Holidays. Programmes have included ' The 10 Hour Takeover ', a request - based special, in which the DJs on air would encourage listeners to select any available track to play, ' One Hit Wonder Day ' and ' The Chart Of The Decade ' where the 150 biggest selling singles in the last 10 years were counted down and played in full. On Sunday 30 September 2007, Radio 1 celebrated its 40th birthday. To mark this anniversary Radio 1 hosted a week of special features, including: On Saturday 30 September 2017, Radio 1 celebrated its 50th birthday. Tony Blackburn recreated the first ever Radio 1 broadcast on Radio 2, simulcast on pop - up station Radio 1 Vintage, followed by The Radio 1 Breakfast Show celebration, tricast on Radio 1, Radio 2 and Radio 1 Vintage, presented by Tony Blackburn and Nick Grimshaw, featuring former presenters Simon Mayo, Sara Cox and Mike Read. Radio 1 regularly supports charities Comic Relief, Sport Relief and Children in Need. On 18 March 2011, BBC 's Radio 1 longest serving breakfast DJ Chris Moyles and sidekick Dave Vitty broadcast for 52 hours as part of a Guinness World Record attempt, in aid of Comic Relief. The pair stayed on air for 52 hours in total setting a new world record for ' Radio DJ Endurance Marathon (Team) ' after already breaking Simon Mayo 's 12 - year record for Radio 1 's Longest Show of 37 hours which he set in 1999, also for Comic Relief. The presenters started on 16 March 2011 and came off air at 10: 30 am on 18 March 2011. During this Fearne Cotton made a bet with DJ Chris Moyles that if they raise over £ 2,000,000 she will appear on the show in a swimsuit. After passing the £ 2,000,000 mark, Cotton appeared on the studio webcam in a stripy monochrome swimsuit. The appearance of Cotton between 10: 10 am and 10: 30 am caused the Radio 1 website to crash due to a high volume of traffic. In total the event raised £ 2,622,421 for Comic Relief. In 1981, Radio 1 broadcast a radio adaptation of the space opera film, Star Wars. The 13 - episode serial was adapted for radio by the author Brian Daley and directed by John Madden, and was a co-production between the BBC and the American Broadcaster NPR. The Radio 1 Roadshow, which usually involved Radio 1 DJs and pop stars travelling around popular UK seaside destinations, began in 1973, hosted by Alan Freeman in Newquay, Cornwall, with the final one held at Heaton Park, Manchester in 1999. Although the Roadshow attracted large crowds and the style changed with the style of the station itself -- such as the introduction of whistlestop audio postcards of each location in 1994 ("2minuteTour '') -- they were still rooted in the older style of the station, and therefore fit for retirement. In March 2000, Radio 1 decided to change the Roadshow format, renaming it One Big Sunday in the process. Several of these Sundays were held in large city - centre parks. In 2003, the event changed again and was rebranded One Big Weekend, with each event occurring biannually and covering two days. Under this name, it visited Derry in Northern Ireland, as part of the Music Lives campaign, and Perry Park in Birmingham. The most recent change occurred in 2005 when the event was yet again renamed and the decision taken to hold only one per year, this time as Radio 1 's Big Weekend. Venues under this title have included Herrington Country Park, Camperdown Country Park, Moor Park -- which was the first Weekend to feature a third stage -- Mote Park, Lydiard Park, Bangor and Carlisle Airport. Tickets for each Big Weekend are given away free of charge, making it the largest free ticketed music festival in Europe. BBC Radio 1 's Big Weekend was replaced by a larger festival in 2012, named ' Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend ', with a crowd capacity of 100,000. The Hackney Weekend took place over the weekend of 23 -- 24 June 2012 in Hackney Marshes, Hackney, London. The event was to celebrate the 2012 Cultural Olympiad in London and had artists such as Rihanna, Jay - Z and Florence and the Machine. In 2013, Radio 1 's Big Weekend returned to Derry as part of the City of Culture 2013 celebrations. So far, Derry is the only city to have hosted the Big Weekend twice. In May 2014, Radio 1 's Big Weekend was held in Glasgow, Scotland. Acts which played at the event included Rita Ora, The 1975, Katy Perry, Jake Bugg and Pharrell Williams. The event was opened on the Friday with a dance set in George Square, featuring Radio 1 Dance DJs such as Danny Howard and Pete Tong, and other well - known acts such as Martin Garrix and Tiesto. In 2015, the event was held in Norwich and featured performances from the likes of Taylor Swift, Muse, David Guetta, Years & Years and others. 2016 saw the event make its way to Exeter. It was headlined by Coldplay who closed the weekend on the Sunday evening. The event was in Hull in 2017 and saw performances by artists such as Zara Larsson, Shawn Mendes, Stormzy, Katy Perry, Little Mix, Sean Paul, Rita Ora, The Chainsmokers, Clean Bandit and Kings Of Leon. Radio 1 has annually held a dance music weekend broadcast live from Ibiza since the 1990s. The weekend is usually the first weekend in August and has performances from world - famous DJs and Radio 1 's own dance music talent such as Pete Tong and Annie Mac. Since 2008 Radio 1 has held an annual event for teenagers aged 14 to 17 years. Originally named BBC Switch Live, the first event was held on 12 October 2008 at the Hammersmith Apollo. The event has been hosted by various Radio 1 DJs and guest co-hosts. In 2010 the event was renamed ' BBC Radio 1 's Teen Awards ', and includes awards given to celebrities and particularly inspirational young people. Now hosted at Wembley Arena, the event has included guests such as One Direction, Tinie Tempah, Fall Out Boy and Jessie J. The 2014 event took place on 19 October and was hosted by Nick Grimshaw and Rita Ora. The 2015 event took place on 8 November and was hosted by Nick Grimshaw and Demi Lovato at Wembley Arena. The 2016 event took place on 23 October and was hosted by Nick Grimshaw and Dua Lipa. The 2017 event took place on 22 October and was hosted by Nick Grimshaw and Rita Ora. Radio 1 often has a presence at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe. Past events have included ' The Fun and Filth Cabaret ' and ' Scott Mills: The Musical '.

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2010 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia The 2010 FIFA World Cup was the 19th FIFA World Cup, the world championship for men 's national association football teams. It took place in South Africa from 11 June to 11 July 2010. The bidding process for hosting the tournament finals was open only to African nations. In 2004, the international football federation, FIFA, selected South Africa over Egypt and Morocco to become the first African nation to host the finals. The matches were played in 10 stadiums in nine host cities around the country, with the opening and final played at the Soccer City stadium in South Africa 's largest city, Johannesburg. Thirty - two teams were selected for participation via a worldwide qualification tournament that began in August 2007. In the first round of the tournament finals, the teams competed in round - robin groups of four teams for points, with the top two teams in each group proceeding. These 16 teams advanced to the knockout stage, where three rounds of play decided which teams would participate in the final. In the final, Spain, the European champions, defeated the Netherlands (third - time losing finalists) 1 -- 0 after extra time, with Andrés Iniesta 's goal in the 116th minute giving Spain their first world title. Spain became the eighth nation to win the tournament and the first European nation to win a World Cup hosted outside its home continent: all previous World Cups held outside Europe had been won by South American nations. As a result of their win, Spain represented the World in the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup. Host nation South Africa, 2006 champions Italy and 2006 runners - up France were all eliminated in the first round of the tournament. It was the first time that the hosts had been eliminated in the first round. New Zealand, with their three draws, were the only undefeated team in the tournament, but they were also eliminated in the first round. Africa was chosen as the host for the 2010 World Cup as part of a short - lived rotation policy, abandoned in 2007, to rotate the event among football confederations. Five African nations placed bids to host the 2010 World Cup: Egypt, Morocco, South Africa and a joint bid from Libya and Tunisia. Following the decision of the FIFA Executive Committee not to allow co-hosted tournaments, Tunisia withdrew from the bidding process. The committee also decided not to consider Libya 's solo bid as it no longer met all the stipulations laid down in the official List of Requirements. The winning bid was announced by FIFA president Sepp Blatter at a media conference on 15 May 2004 in Zürich; in the first round of voting, South Africa received 14 votes, Morocco received 10 votes and Egypt no votes. South Africa, which had narrowly failed to win the right to host the 2006 event, was thus awarded the right to host the tournament. Having successfully campaigned for South Africa to be granted host status, an emotional Nelson Mandela raised the FIFA World Cup Trophy. During 2006 and 2007, rumours circulated in various news sources that the 2010 World Cup could be moved to another country. Franz Beckenbauer, Horst R. Schmidt and, reportedly, some FIFA executives, expressed concern over the planning, organisation, and pace of South Africa 's preparations. FIFA officials repeatedly expressed their confidence in South Africa as host, stating that a contingency plan existed only to cover natural catastrophes, as had been in place at previous FIFA World Cups. On 28 May 2015, media covering the 2015 FIFA corruption case reported that high - ranking officials from the South African bid committee had secured the right to host the World Cup by paying US $10 million in bribes to then - FIFA Vice President Jack Warner and to other FIFA Executive Committee members. On 4 June 2015, FIFA executive Chuck Blazer, having co-operated with the FBI and the Swiss authorities, confirmed that he and the other members of FIFA 's executive committee were bribed in order to promote the South African 1998 and 2010 World Cups. Blazer stated, "I and others on the Fifa executive committee agreed to accept bribes in conjunction with the selection of South Africa as the host nation for the 2010 World Cup. '' On 6 June 2015, The Daily Telegraph reported that Morocco had actually won the vote, but South Africa was awarded the tournament instead. The qualification draw for the 2010 World Cup was held in Durban on 25 November 2007. As the host nation, South Africa qualified automatically for the tournament. As happened in the previous tournament, the defending champions were not given an automatic berth, and Italy had to participate in qualification. With a pool of entrants comprising 204 of the 208 FIFA national teams at the time, the 2010 World Cup shares with the 2008 Summer Olympics the record for most competing nations in a sporting event. Some controversies arose during the qualifications. In the second leg of the play - off between France and the Republic of Ireland, French captain Thierry Henry, unseen by the referee, handled the ball in the lead up to a late goal, which enabled France to qualify ahead of Ireland, sparking widespread comment and debate. FIFA rejected a request from the Football Association of Ireland to replay the match, and Ireland later withdrew a request to be included as an unprecedented 33rd World Cup entrant. As a result, FIFA announced a review into the use of technology or extra officials at the highest level, but decided against the widely expected fast - tracking of goal - line referee 's assistants for the South African tournament. Costa Rica complained over Uruguay 's winning goal in the CONMEBOL -- CONCACAF playoff, while Egypt and Algeria 's November 2009 matches were surrounded by reports of crowd trouble. On the subject of fair play, FIFA President Sepp Blatter said: I appeal to all the players and coaches to observe this fair play. In 2010 we want to prove that football is more than just kicking a ball but has social and cultural value... So we ask the players ' please observe fair play ' so they will be an example to the rest of the world. Slovakia was making its first appearance as an independent nation but had previously been represented as part of the Czechoslovakia team that had last played in the 1990 tournament; North Korea qualified for the first time since 1966; Honduras and New Zealand were both making their first appearances since 1982; and Algeria were at the finals for the first time since the 1986 competition. Teams that failed to qualify for this tournament included Saudi Arabia, which had qualified for the previous four tourmanents; Tunisia and Croatia, both of whom had qualified for the previous three finals; Costa Rica, Ecuador, Poland and Sweden, who had qualified for the previous two editions; 2006 quarter - finalists Ukraine and Euro 2008 semi-finalists Russia and Turkey. As of 2018, this was the last time South Africa, New Zealand, North Korea, Paraguay, Slovakia and Slovenia qualified for a FIFA World Cup finals. The following 32 teams, shown with final pre-tournament rankings, qualified for the final tournament. Five new stadiums were built for the tournament, and five of the existing venues were upgraded. Construction costs were expected to be R 8.4 billion (just over US $1 billion or € 950 million). South Africa also improved its public transport infrastructure within the host cities, including Johannesburg 's Gautrain and other metro systems, and major road networks were improved. In March 2009, Danny Jordaan, the president of the 2010 World Cup organising committee, reported that all stadiums for the tournament were on schedule to be completed within six months. The country implemented special measures to ensure the safety and security of spectators in accordance with standard FIFA requirements, including a temporary restriction of flight operation in the airspace surrounding the stadiums. At a ceremony to mark 100 days before the event, FIFA president Sepp Blatter praised the readiness of the country for the event. On 8 July 2009, 70,000 construction workers who were working on the new stadiums walked off their jobs. The majority of the workers receive R 2500 per month (about £ 192, € 224 or US $313), but the unions alleged that some workers were grossly underpaid. A spokesperson for the National Union of Mineworkers said to the SABC that the "no work no pay '' strike would go on until FIFA assessed penalties on the organisers. Other unions threatened to strike into 2011. The strike was swiftly resolved and workers were back at work within a week of it starting. There were no further strikes and all stadiums and construction projects were completed in time for the kick off. The total prize money on offer for the tournament was confirmed by FIFA as US $420 million (including payments of US $40 million to domestic clubs), a 60 percent increase on the 2006 tournament. Before the tournament, each of the 32 entrants received US $1 million for preparation costs. Once at the tournament, the prize money was distributed as follows: In a first for the World Cup, FIFA made payments to the domestic clubs of the players representing their national teams at the tournament. This saw a total of US $40 million paid to domestic clubs. This was the result of an agreement reached in 2008 between FIFA and European clubs to disband the G - 14 group and drop their claims for compensation dating back to 2005 over the financial cost of injuries sustained to their players while on international duty, such as that from Belgian club Charleroi S.C. for injury to Morocco 's Abdelmajid Oulmers in a friendly game in 2004, and from English club Newcastle United for an injury to England 's Michael Owen in the 2006 World Cup. In 2005, the organisers released a provisional list of 13 venues to be used for the World Cup: Bloemfontein, Cape Town, Durban, Johannesburg (two venues), Kimberley, Klerksdorp, Nelspruit, Orkney, Polokwane, Port Elizabeth, Pretoria, and Rustenburg. This was narrowed down to the ten venues that were officially announced by FIFA on 17 March 2006. The altitude of several venues affected the motion of the ball and player performance, although FIFA 's medical chief downplayed this consideration. Six of the ten venues were over 1200m above sea level, with the two Johannesburg venues -- the FNB Stadium (also known as Soccer City) and Ellis Park Stadium -- the highest at approximately 1750m. The FNB Stadium, the Cape Town Stadium and the Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium in Port Elizabeth were the most - used venues, each hosting eight matches. Ellis Park Stadium and the Moses Mabhida Stadium in Durban hosted seven matches each, while the Loftus Versfeld Stadium in Pretoria, the Free State Stadium in Bloemfontein and the Royal Bafokeng Stadium in Rustenburg hosted six matches each. The Peter Mokaba Stadium in Polokwane and the Mbombela Stadium in Nelspruit hosted four matches each, but did not host any knockout - stage matches. The following stadiums were all upgraded to meet FIFA specifications: The base camps are used by 32 national squads to stay and train before and during the World Cup tournament. In February 2010, FIFA announced the base camps for each participating team. Fifteen teams were in Gauteng Province, while six teams were based in KwaZulu - Natal, four in the Western Cape, three in North West Province and one each in Mpumalanga, the Eastern Cape and the Northern Cape. The FIFA Organising Committee approved the procedure for the final draw on 2 December 2009. The seeding was based on the October 2009 FIFA World Ranking and seven squads joined hosts South Africa as seeded teams for the final draw. No two teams from the same confederation were to be drawn in the same group, except allowing a maximum of two European teams in a group. South Africa Brazil Spain Netherlands Italy Germany Argentina England Australia Japan North Korea South Korea Honduras Mexico United States New Zealand Algeria Cameroon Ghana Ivory Coast Nigeria Chile Paraguay Uruguay Denmark France Greece Portugal Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Switzerland The group draw was staged in Cape Town, South Africa, on 4 December 2009 at the Cape Town International Convention Centre. The ceremony was presented by South African actress Charlize Theron, assisted by FIFA Secretary General Jérôme Valcke. The balls were drawn by English football star David Beckham and African sporting figures Haile Gebrselassie, John Smit, Makhaya Ntini, Matthew Booth and Simphiwe Dludlu. FIFA 's Referees ' Committee selected 29 referees through its Refereeing Assistance Programme to officiate at the World Cup: four from the AFC, three from the CAF, six from CONMEBOL, four from CONCACAF, two from the OFC and ten from UEFA. English referee Howard Webb was chosen to referee the final, making him the first person to referee both the UEFA Champions League final and the World Cup final in the same year. As with the 2006 tournament, each team 's squad for the 2010 World Cup consisted of 23 players. Each participating national association had to confirm their final 23 - player squad by 1 June 2010. Teams were permitted to make late replacements in the event of serious injury, at any time up to 24 hours before their first game. Of the 736 players participating in the tournament, over half played their club football in five European domestic leagues; those in England (117 players), Germany (84), Italy (80), Spain (59) and France (46). The English, German and Italian squads were made up of entirely home based players, while only Nigeria had no players from clubs in their own league. In all, players from 52 national leagues entered the tournament. FC Barcelona of Spain was the club contributing the most players to the tournament, with 13 players of their side travelling, 7 with the Spanish team, while another 7 clubs contributed 10 players or more. In another first for South Africa 2010, one squad included three siblings. Jerry, Johnny and Wilson Palacios made history thanks to their inclusion in Honduras 's 23 - man list. Unusually, the game between Germany and Ghana had two brothers playing for opposite nations, with Jérôme Boateng and Kevin - Prince Boateng playing respectively. The 32 national teams involved in the tournament together played a total of 64 matches starting from the group stage matches and progressing to the knockout stage matches, with teams eliminated through the various progressive stages. Rest days were allocated during the various stages to allow players recovery during the tournament. Preliminary events were also held in celebration of the World Cup event. All times listed in the table below are in South African Standard Time (UTC + 02). In the first round, or group stage, the 32 teams were divided into eight groups of four, with each team playing the other three teams in their group once. Teams were awarded three points for a win, one point for a draw and none for a defeat. The top two teams in each group advanced to the round of 16. The South American teams performed strongly, with all five advancing to the round of 16 (four as group winners), and four further advancing to the quarter - finals. However, only Uruguay advanced to the semi-finals. Of the six African teams, only Ghana advanced to the round of 16. South Africa became the first host nation in World Cup history to be eliminated in the first round, despite beating France and drawing with Mexico, while Ghana and Ivory Coast were the only other African teams to win a match. The overall performance of the African teams, in the first World Cup to be hosted on the continent, was judged as disappointing by observers such as Cameroon great Roger Milla. Only six out of the thirteen UEFA teams advanced to the round of 16, a record low since the introduction of this stage in 1986. Nonetheless, the final was contested by two European teams. In another World Cup first, the two finalists from the preceding tournament, Italy and France, were eliminated at the group stage, with Italy becoming the third defending champions to be eliminated in the first round after Brazil in 1966 and France in 2002. New Zealand, one of the lowest - ranked teams, surprised many by drawing all three of their group matches, ending the tournament as the only undefeated team. Teams were ranked on the following criteria: All times listed are South African Standard Time (UTC + 02) The knockout stage comprised the 16 teams that advanced from the group stage of the tournament. There were four rounds of matches, with each round eliminating half of the teams entering that round. The successive rounds were the round of 16, quarter - finals, semi-finals, and the final. There was also a play - off to decide third and fourth place. For each game in the knockout stage, any draw at 90 minutes was followed by thirty minutes of extra time; if scores were still level, there was a penalty shootout to determine who progressed to the next round. In this round, each group winner (A-H) was paired against the runner - up from another group. The round was marked by some controversial referees ' decisions, including: FIFA President Sepp Blatter took the unusual step of apologising to England and Mexico for the decisions that went against them, saying: "Yesterday I spoke to the two federations directly concerned by referees ' mistakes (...) I apologised to England and Mexico. The English said thank you and accepted that you can win some and you lose some and the Mexicans bowed their head and accepted it. '' Blatter also promised to re-open the discussion regarding devices which monitor possible goals and make that information immediately available to match officials, saying: "We will naturally take on board the discussion on technology and have the first opportunity in July at the business meeting. '' Blatter 's call came less than four months after FIFA general secretary Jérôme Valcke said the door was closed on goal - line technology and video replays after a vote by the IFAB. The three quarter - finals between European and South American teams all resulted in wins for Europeans. Germany had a 4 -- 0 victory over Argentina, and the Netherlands came from behind to beat Brazil 2 -- 1, handing the Brazilians their first loss in a World Cup match held outside Europe (other than in a penalty shootout) since 1950 when Uruguay won the decisive match 2 -- 1. Spain reached the final four for the first time since 1950 after a 1 -- 0 win over Paraguay. Uruguay, the only South American team to reach the semi-finals, overcame Ghana in a penalty shoot - out after a 1 -- 1 draw in which Ghana missed a penalty at the end of extra time after Luis Suárez controversially handled the ball on the line. The Netherlands qualified for the final for the third time with a 3 -- 2 win over Uruguay. Spain reached their first ever final with a 1 -- 0 victory over Germany. As a result, it was the first World Cup final not to feature at least one of Brazil, Italy, Germany or Argentina. Germany defeated Uruguay 3 -- 2 to secure third place. Germany holds the record for most third - place finishes in the World Cup (4), while Uruguay holds the record for most fourth - place finishes (3). The final was held on 11 July 2010 at Soccer City, Johannesburg. Spain defeated the Netherlands 1 -- 0, with an extra time goal from Andrés Iniesta. Iniesta scored the latest winning goal in a FIFA World Cup final (116 '). The win gave Spain their first World Cup title, becoming the eighth team to win it. This made them the first new winner without home advantage since Brazil in 1958, and the first team to win the tournament after having lost their opening game. A large number of fouls were committed in the final match. Referee Howard Webb handed out 14 yellow cards, more than doubling the previous record for this fixture, set when Argentina and West Germany shared six cards in 1986, and John Heitinga of the Netherlands was sent off for receiving a second yellow card. The Netherlands had chances to score, most notably in the 60th minute when Arjen Robben was released by Wesley Sneijder to be one - on - one with Spain 's goalkeeper Iker Casillas, only for Casillas to save the shot with an outstretched leg. For Spain, Sergio Ramos missed a free header from a corner kick when he was unmarked. Iniesta finally broke the deadlock in extra time, scoring a volleyed shot from a pass by Cesc Fàbregas. This result marked the first time that two teams from the same continent had won successive World Cups (following Italy in 2006), and saw Europe reaching 10 World Cup titles, surpassing South America 's nine titles. Spain became the first team since West Germany in 1974 to win the World Cup as European champions. The result also marked the first time that a European nation had won a World Cup Finals that was not hosted on European soil. A closing ceremony was held before the final, featuring singer Shakira. Afterwards, the former South African President Nelson Mandela made a brief appearance on the pitch, wheeled in by a motorcart. South African winger Siphiwe Tshabalala was the first player to score a goal in the competition, in their 1 -- 1 draw against Mexico, the opening game of the tournament. Danish defender Daniel Agger was credited with the first own goal of the tournament, in his side 's 2 -- 0 loss to the Netherlands. Argentine striker Gonzalo Higuaín was the only player to score a hat - trick in the tournament, in Argentina 's 4 -- 1 win over South Korea. It was the 49th World Cup hat - trick in the history of the tournament. Spain set a new record for the fewest goals scored by a World Cup - winning team, with eight. The previous record low was 11, set by Brazil in 1994, England in 1966, and Italy in 1938. Spain had the fewest goalscorers for a champion as well (three -- Villa with five goals, Iniesta with two and Puyol with one). They also had the fewest goals conceded for a champion (2), equal with Italy (2006) and France (1998). Spain 's victory marked the first time that a team won the World Cup without conceding a goal in the knockout stage. The four top scorers in the tournament had five goals each. All of the four top scorers also came from the teams that finished in the top four, Spain, the Netherlands, Germany, and Uruguay. The Golden Boot went to Thomas Müller of Germany who had three assists, compared to one for the three others. The Silver Boot went to David Villa of Spain, who played a total of 635 minutes, and the Bronze Boot to Wesley Sneijder of the Netherlands, who played 652 minutes. Diego Forlán of Uruguay had five goals and one assist in 654 minutes. A further three players scored four goals. Only 145 goals were scored at South Africa 2010, the lowest of any FIFA World Cup since the tournament switched to a 64 - game format. This continued a downward trend since the first 64 - game finals were held 12 years earlier, with 171 goals at France 1998, 161 at Korea / Japan 2002 and 147 at Germany 2006. 28 players were suspended after being shown two consecutive yellow cards (13 players), a single red card (8 players), or a yellow card followed by a red card (7 players). Shortly after the final, FIFA issued a final ranking of every team in the tournament. The ranking was based on progress in the competition, overall results and quality of the opposition. All 32 teams are ranked based on criteria which have been used by FIFA. The final ranking was as follows: For the first time, FIFA did not release an official All - Star Team, but instead published a Dream Team decided by an online public vote. People were invited to select a team (in a 4 -- 4 -- 2 formation) and best coach; voting was open until 23: 59 on 11 July 2010, with entrants going into a draw to win a prize. Six of the eleven players came from the Spanish team, as did the coach. The remainder of the team comprised two players from Germany, and one each from Brazil, the Netherlands and Uruguay. The official mascot for the 2010 World Cup was Zakumi, an anthropomorphised African leopard with green hair, presented on 22 September 2008. His name came from "ZA '' (the international abbreviation for South Africa) and the term kumi, which means "ten '' in various African languages. The mascot 's colours reflected those of the host nation 's playing strip -- yellow and green. The official song of the 2010 World Cup "Waka Waka '' was performed by the Colombian singer Shakira and the band Freshlyground from South Africa, and is sung in both English and Spanish. The song is based on a traditional African soldiers ' song, "Zangalewa ''. Shakira and Freshlyground performed the song at the pre-tournament concert in Soweto on 10 June. It was also sung at the opening ceremony on 11 June and at the closing ceremony on 11 July. The official anthem of the 2010 World Cup was "Sign of a Victory '' by R. Kelly with the Soweto Spiritual Singers, which was also performed at the opening ceremony. The match ball for the 2010 World Cup, manufactured by Adidas, was named the Jabulani, which means "bringing joy to everyone '' in Zulu. It was the eleventh World Cup match ball made by the German sports equipment maker; it featured eleven colours, representing each player of a team on the pitch and the eleven official languages of South Africa. A special match ball with gold panels, called the Jo'bulani, was used at the final in Johannesburg. The ball was constructed using a new design, consisting of eight thermally bonded, three - dimensional panels. These were spherically moulded from ethylene - vinyl acetate (EVA) and thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU). The surface of the ball was textured with grooves, a technology developed by Adidas called GripnGroove that was intended to improve the ball 's aerodynamics. The design received considerable academic input, being developed in partnership with researchers from Loughborough University, United Kingdom. The balls were made in China, using latex bladders made in India, thermoplastic polyurethane - elastomer from Taiwan, ethylene vinyl acetate, isotropic polyester / cotton fabric, and glue and ink from China. Some football stars complained about the new ball, arguing that its movements were difficult to predict. Brazilian goalkeeper Júlio César compared it to a "supermarket '' ball that favored strikers and worked against goalkeepers. Argentinian coach Diego Maradona said: "We wo n't see any long passes in this World Cup because the ball does n't fly straight. '' However, a number of Adidas - sponsored players responded favourably to the ball. The 2010 finals amplified international public awareness of the vuvuzela, a long horn blown by fans throughout matches. Many World Cup competitors complained about the noise caused by the vuvuzela horns, including France 's Patrice Evra, who blamed the horns for the team 's poor performance. Other critics include Lionel Messi, who complained that the sound of the vuvuzelas hampers communication among players on the pitch, and broadcasting companies, which complained that commentators ' voices were being drowned out by the sound. Others watching on television complained that the ambient audio feed from the stadium only contains the sounds of the vuvuzelas and the natural sounds of people in the stands are drowned out. A spokesperson for ESPN and other networks said that they were taking steps to minimise the ambient noise on their broadcasts. The BBC also investigated the possibility of offering broadcasts without vuvuzela noise. The sponsors of the 2010 World Cup are divided into three categories: FIFA Partners, FIFA World Cup Sponsors and National Supporters. Tournament organiser Danny Jordaan dismissed concerns that the attack on the Togo national team which took place in Angola in January 2010, had any relevance to the security arrangements for the World Cup. There were also reports of thefts against visitors to the country for the World Cup. Tourists from China, Portugal, Spain, South Korea, Japan and Colombia had become victims of crime. On 19 June after the match between England and Algeria, a fan was able to break through the FIFA - appointed security staff at Green Point stadium and gain access to the England team dressing room. The breach took place shortly after Prince William and Prince Harry had left the room. The trespasser was then released before he could be handed over to the Police. English FA lodged a formal complaint with FIFA and demanded that security be increased. As with many ' hallmark events ' throughout the world, the 2010 FIFA World Cup has been connected to evictions, which many claim are meant to ' beautify the city ', impress visiting tourists, and hide shackdwellers. On 14 May 2009, the Durban - based shack - dwellers ' movement Abahlali baseMjondolo took the KwaZulu - Natal government to court over their controversial Elimination and Prevention of Re-Emergence of Slums Act, meant to eliminate slums in South Africa and put homeless shackdwellers in transit camps in time for the 2010 World Cup. Another prominent controversy surrounding preparations for the World Cup was the N2 Gateway housing project in Cape Town, which planned to remove over 20,000 residents from the Joe Slovo Informal Settlement along the busy N2 Freeway and build rental flats and bond - houses in its place in time for the 2010 World Cup. NGOs, international human rights organisations, and the Anti-Eviction Campaign have publicly criticised the conditions in Blikkiesdorp and said that the camp has been used to accommodate poor families evicted to make way for the 2010 World Cup. However some have argued that evictions are ordinarily common in South Africa and that in the lead up to the tournament many evictions were erreonously ascribed to the World Cup. Some groups experienced complications in regards to scheduled sporting events, advertising, or broadcasting, as FIFA attempted to maximise control of media rights during the Cup. Affected parties included an international rugby union Test match, a South African airline, and some TV networks, all of whom were involved in various legal struggles with World Cup organisers. During the tournament, group ticket - holders who did not utilise all their allotted tickets led to some early - round matches having as many as 11,000 unoccupied seats. While the event did help to boost the image of South Africa, financially it turned out to be a major disappointment. Construction costs for venues and infrastructure amounted to £ 3 billion (€ 3.6 billion), and the government expected that increased tourism would help to offset these costs to the amount of £ 570 million (€ 680 million). However, only £ 323 million (€ 385 million) were actually taken in as 309,000 foreign fans came to South Africa, well below the expected number of 450,000. Local vendors were prohibited from selling food and merchandise within a 1.5 kilometre radius of any stadium hosting a World Cup match. For a vendor to operate within the radius, a registration fee of R 60,000 (approximately to US $7,888 or € 6,200), had to be paid to FIFA. This fee was out of most local vendors ' reach, as they are simple one - man - operated vendors. This prevented international visitors from experiencing local South African food. Some local vendors felt cheated out of an opportunity for financial gain and spreading South African culture, in favour of multinational corporations. FIFA president Sepp Blatter declared the event "a huge financial success for everybody, for Africa, for South Africa and for FIFA, '' with revenue to FIFA of £ 2.24 billion (€ 2 billion). In a December 2010 Quality Progress, FIFA President Blatter rated South Africa 's organisational efforts a nine out of 10 scale, declaring that South Africa could be considered a plan B for all future competitions. The South African Quality Institute (SAQI) assisted in facility construction, event promotion, and organisations. The main issue listed in the article was lack of sufficient public transportation. The 2010 FIFA World Cup was expected to be the most - watched television event in history. Hundreds of broadcasters, representing about 70 countries, transmitted the Cup to a TV audience that FIFA officials expect to exceed a cumulative 26 billion people, an average of approximately 400 million viewers per match. FIFA estimated that around 700 million viewers would watch the World Cup final. New forms of digital media have also allowed viewers to watch coverage through alternative means. "With games airing live on cell phones and computers, the World Cup will get more online coverage than any major sporting event yet, '' said Jake Coyle of the Associated Press. In the United States, ABC, ESPN and ESPN2 averaged a 2.1 rating, 2,288,000 households and 3,261,000 viewers for the 64 World Cup games. The rating was up 31 percent from a 1.6 in 2006, while households increased 32 percent from 1,735,000 and viewers rose from 2,316,000. The increases had been higher while the US remained in the tournament. Through the first 50 games, the rating was up 48 percent, households increased 54 percent and viewers rose 60 percent. Univision averaged 2,624,000 viewers for the tournament, up 17 percent, and 1,625,000 households, an increase of 11 percent. An executive of the Nielsen Company, a leading audience research firm in the US, described the aggregate numbers for both networks ' coverage of the USA - Ghana match as "phenomenal ''. Live World Cup streaming on ESPN3.com pulled in some of the largest audiences in history, as 7.4 million unique viewers tuned in for matches. In total, ESPN3.com generated 942 million minutes of viewing or more than two hours per unique viewer. All 64 live matches were viewed by an average of 114,000 persons per minute. Most impressive were the numbers for the semi-final between Spain and Germany, which was viewed by 355,000 people per minute, making it ESPN3. com 's largest average audience ever. Sony technology was used to film the tournament. 25 of the matches were captured using 3D cameras. Footage was captured in 3D through Sony 's proprietary multi-image MPE - 200 processors, housed in specially designed 3D outside broadcast trucks. It supplied its flagship HDC - 1500 cameras as well as its new HDC - P1 unit, a compact, point - of - view (POV) - type camera with 3, 2 / 3 - inch CCD sensors. The 3D games were produced for FIFA by Host Broadcast Services. In PlayStation Home, Sony has released a virtual space based on the 2010 FIFA World Cup in the Japanese version of Home on 3 December 2009. This virtual space is called the "FevaArena '' and is a virtual stadium of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, featuring different areas for events, a FIFA mini-game, and a shop with FIFA related content. On 27 April 2010, EA Sports released the official 2010 World Cup video game. FIFA expanded the FIFA Fan Fest, hosting in Sydney, Buenos Aires, Berlin, Paris, Rome, Rio de Janeiro and Mexico City, as well as several venues around South Africa. The Durban Fan Fest was the most popular in South Africa during the tournament followed by the Cape Town Fan Fest.

where does hair for hair transplants come from

Hair transplantation - wikipedia Hair transplantation is a surgical technique that removes hair follicles from one part of the body, called the ' donor site ', to a bald or balding part of the body known as the ' recipient site '. The technique is primarily used to treat male pattern baldness. In this minimally invasive procedure, grafts containing hair follicles that are genetically resistant to balding, (like the back of the head) are transplanted to the bald scalp. Hair transplantation can also be used to restore eyelashes, eyebrows, beard hair, chest hair, pubic hair and to fill in scars caused by accidents or surgery such as face - lifts and previous hair transplants. Hair transplantation differs from skin grafting in that grafts contain almost all of the epidermis and dermis surrounding the hair follicle, and many tiny grafts are transplanted rather than a single strip of skin. Since hair naturally grows in groupings of 1 to 4 hairs, current techniques harvest and transplant hair "follicular units '' in their natural groupings. Thus modern hair transplantation can achieve a natural appearance by mimicking original hair orientation. This hair transplant procedure is called follicular unit transplantation (FUT). Donor hair can be harvested in two different ways: strip harvesting, and follicular unit extraction (FUE). At an initial consultation, the surgeon analyzes the patient 's scalp, discusses their preferences and expectations, and advises them on the best approach (e.g. single vs. multiple sessions) and what results might reasonably be expected. Pre-operative folliscopy will help to know the actual existing density of hair, so that postoperative results of newly transplanted hair grafts can be accurately assessed. Some patients may benefit with preoperative topical minoxidil application and vitamins. For several days prior to surgery the patient refrains from using any medicines which might result in intraoperative bleeding and resultant poor grafting. Alcohol and smoking can contribute to poor graft survival. Post operative antibiotics are commonly prescribed to prevent wound or graft infections. Transplant operations are performed on an outpatient basis, with mild sedation (optional) and injected local anesthesia. The scalp is shampooed and then treated with an antibacterial agent prior to the donor scalp being harvested. There are several different techniques for harvesting hair follicles, each with their own advantages and disadvantages. Regardless of the harvesting technique, proper extraction of the hair follicle is paramount to ensure the viability of the transplanted hair and avoid transection, the cutting of the hair shaft from the hair follicle. Hair follicles grow at a slight angle to the skin 's surface, so transplanted tissue must be removed at a corresponding angle. There are two main ways in which donor grafts are extracted today: strip excision harvesting, and follicular unit extraction. Strip harvesting is the most common technique for removing hair and follicles from a donor site. The surgeon harvests a strip of skin from the posterior scalp, in an area of good hair growth. A single -, double -, or triple - bladed scalpel is used to remove strips of hair - bearing tissue from the donor site. Each incision is planned so that intact hair follicles are removed. The excised strip is about 1 -- 1.5 x 15 -- 30 cm in size. While closing the resulting wound, assistants begin to dissect individual follicular unit grafts, which are small, naturally formed groupings of hair follicles, from the strip. Working with binocular Stereo - microscopes, they carefully remove excess fibrous and fatty tissue while trying to avoid damage to the follicular cells that will be used for grafting. The latest method of closure is called ' Trichophytic closure ' which results in much finer scars at the donor area. The surgeon then uses very small micro blades or fine needles to puncture the sites for receiving the grafts, placing them in a predetermined density and pattern, and angling the wounds in a consistent fashion to promote a realistic hair pattern. The technicians generally do the final part of the procedure, inserting the individual grafts in place. Strip harvesting will leave a thin linear scar in the donor area, which is typically covered by a patient 's hair even at relatively short lengths. The recovery period is around 2 weeks and will require the stitches / staples to be removed by medical personnel or sub cuticular suturing can be done. With Follicular Unit Extraction or FUE harvesting, individual follicular units containing 1 to 4 hairs are removed under local anesthesia; this micro removal typically uses tiny punches of between 0.6 mm and 1.0 mm in diameter. The surgeon then uses very small micro blades or fine needles to puncture the sites for receiving the grafts, placing them in a predetermined density and pattern, and angling the wounds in a consistent fashion to promote a realistic hair pattern. The technicians generally do the final part of the procedure, inserting the individual grafts in place. FUE takes place in a single long session or multiple small sessions. The FUE procedure is more time consuming than strip surgery. An FUE surgery time varies according to the surgeons experience, speed in harvesting and patient characteristics. The procedue can take anywhere from a couple hours to extract 200 grafts for a scar correction to a surgery over two consecutive days for a megasession of 2,500 to 3,000 grafts. With the FUE Hair Transplant procedure there are restrictions on patient candidacy. Clients are selected for FUE based on a fox test, though there is some debate about the usefulness of this in screening clients for FUE. FUE can give very natural results. The advantage over strip harvesting is that FUE harvesting negates the need for large areas of scalp tissue to be harvested, so there is no linear incision on the back of the head and it does n't leave a linear scar. Because individual follicles are removed, only small, punctate scars remain which are virtually not visible and any post-surgical pain and discomfort is minimized. As no suture removal is required, recovery from Micro Grafting FUE is less than 7 days. Disadvantages include increased surgical times and higher cost to the patient. It is challenging for new surgeons because the procedure is physically demanding and the learning curve to acquire the skills necessary is lengthy and tough. Some surgeons note that FUE can lead to a lower ratio of successfully transplanted follicles as compared to strip harvesting. Follicular unit transplant (FUT) is the traditional hair transplant method which involves extracting a linear strip of hair bearing skin from the back or the side of the scalp. The strip is then dissected to separate individual grafts. Robotic hair restoration devices utilize cameras and robotic arms to assist the surgeon with the FUE procedure. In 2009, NeoGraft became the first robotic surgical device FDA approved for hair restoration. The ARTAS System was FDA approved in 2011 for use in harvesting follicular units from brown - haired and black - haired men. Despite the advantages of robotic hair restoration systems, there are still some disadvantages such as the size of the punches being relatively large in comparison to what is used in other methods of FUE, and the high costs associated with the devices. There are a number of applications for hair transplant surgery, including: If donor hair numbers from the back of the head are insufficient, it is possible to perform body hair transplantation (BHT) on appropriate candidates who have available donor hair on the chest, back, shoulders, torso and / or legs. Body hair transplant surgery can only be performed by the FUE harvesting method and, so, requires the skills of an experienced FUE surgeon. However, there are several factors for a potential BHT candidate to consider prior to surgery. These include understanding the natural difference in textural characteristics between body hair and scalp hair, growth rates, and having realistic expectations about the results of BHT surgery. Advances in wound care allow for semi-permeable dressing, which allow seepage of blood and tissue fluid, to be applied and changed at least daily. The vulnerable recipient area must be shielded from the sun, and shampooing is started two days after the surgery. Some surgeons will have the patient shampoo the day after surgery. Shampooing is important to prevent scabs from forming around the hair shaft. Scabs adhere to the hair shaft and increase the risk of losing newly transplanted hair follicles during the first 7 to 10 days post-op. During the first ten days, some of the transplanted hairs, inevitably traumatized by their relocation, may fall out. This is referred to as "shock loss ''. After two to three months new hair will begin to grow from the moved follicles. The patient 's hair will grow normally, and continue to thicken through the next six to nine months. Any subsequent hair loss is likely to be only from untreated areas. Some patients elect to use medications to retard such loss, while others plan a subsequent transplant procedure to deal with this eventuality. Hair thinning, known as "shock loss '', is a common side effect that is usually temporary. Bald patches are also common, as fifty to a hundred hairs can be lost each day. Post-operative hiccups have also been seen in around 5 % of transplant patients. The use of both scalp flaps, in which a band of tissue with its original blood supply is shifted to the continue bald area, and free grafts dates back to the 19th century. In 1897, Menahem Hodara successfully implanted hair taken from the unaffected areas of the scalp on to the scars that were left bald by favus. Modern transplant techniques began in Japan in the 1930s, where surgeons used small grafts, and even "follicular unit grafts '' to replace damaged areas of eyebrows or lashes, but not to treat baldness. Their efforts did not receive worldwide attention at the time, and the traumas of World War II kept their advances isolated for another two decades. The modern era of hair transplantation in the western world was ushered in the late 1950s, when New York dermatologist Norman Orentreich began to experiment with free donor grafts to balding areas in patients with male pattern baldness. Previously it had been thought that transplanted hair would thrive no more than the original hair at the "recipient '' site. Orentreich demonstrated that such grafts were "donor dominant, '' as the new hairs grew and lasted just as they would have at their original home. Advancing the theory of donor dominance, Walter P. Unger, M.D. defined the parameters of the "Safe Donor Zone '' from which the most permanent hair follicles could be extracted for hair transplantation. As transplanted hair will only grow in its new site for as long as it would have in its original one, these parameters continue to serve as the fundamental foundation for hair follicle harvesting, whether by strip method or FUE. For the next twenty years, surgeons worked on transplanting smaller grafts, but results were only minimally successful, with 2 -- 4 mm "plugs '' leading to a doll 's head - like appearance. In the 1980s, strip excisions began to replace the plug technique, and Carlos Uebel in Brazil popularized using large numbers of small grafts, while in the United States William Rassman began using thousands of "micrografts '' in a single session. In the late 1980s, B.L. Limmer introduced the use of the stereo - microscope to dissect a single donor strip into small micrografts. The follicular unit hair transplant procedure has continued to evolve, becoming more refined and minimally invasive as the size of the graft incisions have become smaller. These smaller and less invasive incisions enable surgeons to place a larger number of follicular unit grafts into a given area. With the new "gold standard '' of ultra refined follicular unit hair transplantation, over 50 grafts can be placed per square centimeter, when appropriate for the patient. Surgeons have also devoted more attention to the angle and orientation of the transplanted grafts. The adoption of the "lateral slit '' technique in the early 2000s, enabled hair transplant surgeons to orient 2 to 4 hair follicular unit grafts so that they splay out across the scalp 's surface. This enabled the transplanted hair to lie better on the scalp and provide better coverage to the bald areas. One disadvantage however, is that lateral incisions also tend to disrupt the scalp 's vascularity more than sagittals. Thus sagittal incisions transect less hairs and blood vessels assuming the cutting instruments are of the same size. One of the big advantages of sagittals is that they do a much better job of sliding in and around existing hairs to avoid follicle transection. This certainly makes a strong case for physicians who do not require shaving of the recipient area. The lateral incisions bisect existing hairs perpendicular (horizontal) like a T while sagittal incisions run parallel (vertical) alongside and in between existing hairs. The use of perpendicular (lateral / coronal) slits versus parallel (sagittal) slits, however, has been heavily debated in patient - based hair transplant communities. Many elite hair transplant surgeons typically adopt a combination of both methods based on what is best for the individual patient. Stem cells and dermal papilla cells have been discovered in hair follicles. Research on these follicular cells may lead to successes in treating baldness through hair multiplication (HM), also known as hair cloning. Media related to Hair transplantation at Wikimedia Commons

who led the brewers in home runs in 1982

1982 Milwaukee Brewers season - wikipedia The 1982 Milwaukee Brewers season resulted in the team winning its first and only American League Championship. As a team, the Brewers led Major League Baseball in a number of offensive categories, including at bats (5733), runs scored (891), home runs (216), runs batted in (843), slugging percentage (. 455), on - base plus slugging (. 789), total bases (2606) and extra-base hits (534). (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) Infielders Other batters Coaches Note: Pos = Position; G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts Note: G = Games pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts Anaheim Stadium, Anaheim, California Anaheim Stadium, Anaheim, California Milwaukee County Stadium, Milwaukee, Wisconsin Milwaukee County Stadium, Milwaukee, Wisconsin Milwaukee County Stadium, Milwaukee, Wisconsin Game 5 proved to be the most dramatic of the series. The Angels got a quick 1 - 0 lead in the first on a double by Brian Downing and a single by Fred Lynn. But Milwaukee tied the game in the bottom of the inning when Paul Molitor doubled and eventually came home on a sacrifice fly by Ted Simmons. The Angels made it 2 - 1 in the third on an RBI single from Fred Lynn, and stretched the lead to 3 - 1 in the fourth on a run - scoring single from Bob Boone. Milwaukee cut the lead to 3 - 2 in the bottom of the fourth on Ben Oglivie 's homer. The score remained unchanged until the bottom of the seventh, when disaster struck the Angels. Milwaukee loaded the bases on two singles and a walk. Cecil Cooper then cracked the series - winning hit, a two - run single that put the Brewers ahead 4 - 3. The Milwaukee bullpen kept the Angels off the board in the final two innings, and the Brewers took home the franchise 's first American League pennant. Though the teams had never met, the cities had an existing commercial rivalry in the beer market, as St. Louis is the home of Anheuser Busch while Milwaukee is the home of Miller Brewing. This led to the Series being nicknamed the "Suds Series ''. Paul Molitor set a World Series record with his fifth hit in the 9th inning of Game 1. Robin Yount would set another record in the 7th inning of Game 5 by becoming the first player in Series history to have two four - hit games in one Series. Cardinals catcher Darrell Porter was given the Series MVP award. Brewers pitcher Mike Caldwell, who won two games, would have been a strong candidate, as well as Molitor. Paul Molitor would eventually win the Series MVP Award 11 years later as a member of the Toronto Blue Jays. As it was, the winning team won the MVP. The only player on the losing team to win the MVP was Bobby Richardson of the 1960 New York Yankees. Both participants are currently in the NL Central, due to the transfer of the Brewers from the American League to the National League in 1998. This raises the possibility of the Brewers eventually playing a World Series in two different leagues. October 12, 1982, at Busch Stadium in St. Louis, Missouri October 13, 1982, at Busch Stadium in St. Louis, Missouri October 15, 1982, at Milwaukee County Stadium in Milwaukee, Wisconsin The Brewers bats were initially stymied by Cardinals starter Joaquín Andújar, while rookie Willie McGee shocked everyone with two home runs off Brewers ace Pete Vuckovich, helping give the Cardinals a 5 - 0 lead. In a scary moment, Andújar was knocked out of the game when Cecil Cooper hit a line drive that hit Andújar in the leg, though the injury turned out to not be very serious. With bullpen ace Bruce Sutter pitching in relief, the Brewers attempted a comeback in the 8th inning. With two out, Cecil Cooper hit a 2 - run homer to put Milwaukee on the board. The Brewers then got two base - runners, with Gorman Thomas representing the tying run. Thomas hit a deep fly ball to right - center field, but McGee, becoming the star of the game, made a leaping grab to rob Thomas of a potential game - tying home run. The Cardinals scored an insurance run in the 9th, and Sutter closed out the Brewers for the 6 - 2 Cardinals win and giving St. Louis a 2 - 1 Series lead. October 16, 1982, at Milwaukee County Stadium in Milwaukee, Wisconsin The Cardinals pounced early on Brewers starter Moose Haas, scoring 3 runs in the second and had a 5 - 1 lead going into the seventh inning. From there, the Brewers bats suddenly came alive. Jim Gantner started the scoring with an RBI double. After a Paul Moliter walk, Robin Yount followed with a bases - loaded 2 - run single to put the Brewers within 1 run. Cecil Cooper then scored Moliter with an infield hit to tie the game. 3 batters later, with two outs, Gorman Thomas hit a 2 - run double to give the Brewers the lead. Bob McClure then finished the Cardinals off for the save, giving the Brewers a crucial Game 4 win, tying the Series 2 - 2. October 17, 1982, at Milwaukee County Stadium in Milwaukee, Wisconsin October 19, 1982, at Busch Stadium in St. Louis, Missouri October 20, 1982, at Busch Stadium in St. Louis, Missouri Joaquín Andújar and Pete Vuckovich opposed each other once again. The game was scoreless until the bottom of the fourth when the Cardinals scored first on a Lonnie Smith RBI single. Ben Oglivie tied it for the Brew Crew in the fifth with a solo homer, and they took a 3 - 1 lead in the sixth when Jim Gantner scored on an error and Cecil Cooper hit a sacrifice fly. But, in the bottom of the sixth, Vuckovich began to run into trouble. With one out, Ozzie Smith singled and Lonnie Smith doubled him to third. Brewers manager Harvey Kuenn then pulled Vuckovich in favor of Bob McClure, who intentionally walked pinch - hitter Gene Tenace to load the bases. Keith Hernandez then tied the game with a two - run single. George Hendrick then gave the Cardinals the lead with an RBI single. The Cardinals punctuated the scoring with two runs in the eighth on RBI singles by Series MVP Darrell Porter and Steve Braun. Andújar pitched seven strong innings and Bruce Sutter pitched the eighth and ninth for his second save. 1982 World Series (4 - 3): St. Louis Cardinals (N.L.) over Milwaukee Brewers (A.L.) * = Tied with Reggie Jackson All - Star Game Starters Reserves